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DICTIONARY    OF    DATES, 


AND 


UNIVERSAL  REFERENCE. 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES, 


AND 


UNIVERSAL    REFERENCE, 


r.       r 


i&tlattng  to  all  9gttf  anU  ^atiotitf ;         ^  0  ' 


COMPRBHBHDIIfO  KVSRT    RXMARKABLE    OOCURRKNCS,   AXCIBKT   AMD    MODBEX THC    rOUHDATIOH, 

LAWS,  AND  GOVERMMniTS  OF  COUNTRIES THBIR  PROOMCtS  IN  dTILIZATION,  INDUSTRY, 

AND    SCIENCE THEIR  ACHIETSMENT8   IN   ARMS THE    POLITICAL   AND   SOCIAL 

TRANSACTIONS    OF     THE     BEITISH    EMPIRE — ITS   CITIL,    MILITARY, 

AND      RELIGIOUS     INSTITUTIONS THE     ORIGIN     AND 

ADVANCE   OF 


HUMAN  ARTS  AND  INVENTIONS, 


WITH  COPIOUS  DCTAILS  OP 


ENGLAND,   SCOTLAND,   AND   IRELAND; 


THE  HTHOLE 


COMPREHENDING  A  BODY   OF   INFORMATION,   CLASSICAL,   POLITICAL, 

AND  DOMESTIC, 


FROM  THE  EARLIEST  ACCOUNTS  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 


BY  JOSEPH  HAYDN. 


LONDON  : 
EDWARD    MOXON,  DOVER    STREET. 

MDCOCXTil. 


J 


aX, 


PREFACE. 


The  design  of  the  Author  has  been,  to  attempt  the  compression 
of  the  greatest  body  of  general  information  that  has  ever  appeared 
in  a  single  volume,  and  to  produce  a  Book  of  Reference  whose 
extensive  usefulness  may  render  its  possession  material  to  every 
individual — ^in  the  same  manner  that  a  London  Directory  is  indis- 
pensable, on  business  affairs,  to  a  London  merchant. 

He  grounds  his  hope  of  the  Public  taking  an  interest  in  this 
work  altogether  upon  its  own. intrinsic « utility.  Its  articles  are 
drawn  principally  from  historians  6t  the  first  rank,  and  the  most 
authentic  annalists ;  and  the  Dictionary  of  Dates  will,  in  almost 
every  instance,  save  its  possessor  the  trouble  of  turning  over  volu- 
minous authors  to  refresh  his  memory,  or  to  ascertain  the  date, 
order,  and  features  of  any  particular  occurrence. 

The  volume  contains  upwards  of  Fifteen  Thousand  Articles, 
alphabetically  arranged ;  and  from  the  selection  of  its  materials  it 
must  be  important  to  every  man  in  the  British  Empire,  whether 
he  be  the  resident  of  a  palace  or  a  cottage,  whether  learned  or 
unlearned,  or  whether  connected  with  the  professions  or  engaged 
in  trade. 


VI  PREFACE. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  name  all  the  authors  from  whose  works 
the  Ck)mpiler  of  this  volume  has  copiously  extracted ;  but  he  may 
mention  among  the  classics,  Herodotus,  Livy,  Pliny,  and  Plutarch. 
He  has  chosen  in  general  chronology,  Petavius,  Usher,  Blair, 
Prideaux,  and  the  Abb6  L'Englet  du  Fresnoy.  For  the  events 
embraced  in  Foreign  history,  he  has  relied  upon  Henault,  Voltaire, 
La  Combe,  Rollin,  Melchior  Adam,  the  Nouveau  Dictiormaire^  and 
chief  authors  of  their  respective  countries.  On  subjects  of  general 
literature,  his  authorities  are  Cave's  Historia  Literariay  Moreri, 
Bayle,  Priestley,  and  others  of  equal  repute.  And  English  occur- 
rences are  drawn  from  Camden,  Stowe,  Hall,  Baker,  Holingshed, 
Chamberlayne,  Rapin,  Hume,  Gibbon,  Goldsmith,  &c.  Besides 
these,  the  Compiler  has  freely  used  the  various  abridgments  that 
have  brought  facts  and  dates  more  promin^tly  forward ;  and  he  is 
largely  indebted  to  Chambers,. Aspin,  Beat49on,  Anderson,  Beckmann, 
the  Ct/clopcedias,  Anmial  Register^  Statutes  at  Large^  and  numerous 
other  compilations.  In  almost  every  instance  the  authority  is 
quoted  for  the  extract  made,  and  date  assigned,  though  inadvert- 
ence may  have  prevented,  in  some  few  oases,  a  due  acknowledgment. 

The  leading  events  of  every  country,  whether  ancient  or  modem 
kingdoms,  are  to  be  found  in  the  annals  of  each  respectively,  as 
in  the  cases,  for  instance,  of  Gbeeob,  Rome,  the  Eastern  Empib?, 
England,  France,  and  Germany.  But  independently  of  this  plan 
of  reference,'  when  any  historical  occurrence  claims,  from  its  impor- 
tance, more  specific  mention,  it  is  made  in  a  separate  article, 
according  to  alphabetical  arrangement.  Thus,  in  the  annals  of 
England,  the  dates  are  given  of  the  foundation  of  our  univer* 
fiities,  the  institution  of  honorary  orders,  and  signature  of  Magna 
Charta ;  we  find,  in  those  annals,  the  periods  of  our  civil  wans, 


PREFACE.  ▼" 

and  remaxkable  eras  in  our  history,  set  down  as  they  have 
occurred;  but  if  more  ample  information  be  necessary  to  the 
Reader,  and  if  he  desire  to  know  more  than  the  mere  date  of  any 
fact  or  incident,  the  particulars  are  supplied  under  a  distinct  head. 
In  the  same  way,  the  pages  of  Battles  supply  the  date  of  each,  in 
the  order  of  time ;  yet  in  all  instances  where  the  battle  has  any 
relation  to  our  own  country,  or  if  it  be  memorable  or  momentous, 
the  chief  features  of  it  are  stated  in  another  part  of  the  volume. 

The  Compiler  persuades  himself  that  the  DicrnoNABY*OF  Dates 
will  be  received  as  a  useful  companion  to  all  Biographical  works, 
relating,  as  it  does,  to  things  as  these  do  to  persons^  and  affording 
information  not  included  in  the  range  or  design  of  such  pub- 
lications. 

London^  May,  1841. 


DICTIONARY  OF  DATES. 


ABA 


CO 


ADD 


ABACUS.  The  capital  of  the  Corinthian  order  in  architecture,  had  its  origin  in  a 
simple  incident : — On  the  death  of  a  young  maid  of  Corinth,  her  loyer  gathered  the 
ornaments  she  had  most  valued  when  living,  and  placed  them  in  a  wicker-basket, 
covered  by  a  tile,  upon  her  tomb.  Close  to  her  grave  an  acanthus  had  taken  root, 
and  the  flower  shooting  forth  in  the  spring,  its  leaves  twined  around  the  basket,  and 
convolved  beneath  the  tile  in  the  form  of  volutes.  Attracted  by  this  display,  Callt- 
machus,  the  founder  of  the  Corinthian  order,  made  it  the  model  for  his  capital ;  the 
tile  being  the  abacus,  the  foliage  of  the  acanthus  the  volutes,  and  the  whole  forming 
the  .capital  which  adorns  his  column,  about  540  b.c. — Perault, 

A6ASSIS,  a  coin  of  Persia,  whose  value  is  about  a  British  shilling,  first  coined  by,  and 
named  after  Schah  Abbas  II.,  the  ninth  Sophi  of  Persia,  a.d.  1652. 

ABBEYS  AND  MONASTERIES,  were  first  founded  in  the  third  century,  near  the  close 
of  which  the  sister  of  St  Anthony  is  said  to  have  retired  to  one.  An  abbey  was 
founded  by  St.  Anthony  at  Phaim,  in  Upper  Egypt,  a.d.  305.  The  first  founded 
in  France  was  at  Poitiers,  in  360.  The  first  in  Ireland  was  in  the  fifth  century  : 
see  Clogher,  Elphin^  Doum.  The  first  in  Scotland  was  in  the  sixth  century :  see 
Islet,  And  the  first  in  Britain  was  in  560 :  see  Banger.  The  abbey  of  Mount 
Cassino,  near  Naples,  founded  by  St.  Benet  in  529,  was  esteemed  the  richest  in  the 
world,  and  furnished  many  thousands  of  saints  to  the  church.  1 10  monasteries  and 
priories  were  suppressed  in  England  by  order  in  council,  2  Henry  V.  1414.— ^a/mon. 
The  revenues  of  li^3  abbeys  which  were  dissolved  at  the  Reformation  amounted 
to  2,653,000/.  These  foundations  were  totally  suppressed  throughout  the  realm, 
31  Henry  VIII.  1539.     See  Manasteriet. 

ABBOT :  from  Ab  (father),  a  rank  adopted  by  the  Jewish  doctors,  and  the  heads  of 
primitive  monasteries.  They  are  cardinal  abbots,  bishop  abbots,  mitred  abbots,  and 
crosiered  abbots,  when  holding  their  dignities  from  the  pope.  In  England,  mitred 
abbots  were  lords  of  parliament ;  twenty-seven  abbots  and  two  priors  were  thus  dis- 
tinguished in  the  4th  Edward  III.  1329,  but  the  number  was  reduced  to  twenty-five 
in  the  parliament  20  Richard  II.  1396. — Coke,  The  abbots  of  Reading,  Glastonbury, 
and  St.  John's,  Colchester,  hanged  and  quartered  for  denying  the  king's  supremacy, 
and  not  surrendering  their  abbeys,  1539.     See  Glastonbury, 

ABDICATION  of  KINGS.  They  are  numerous  in  ancient  history.  Those  in  later 
times  of  most  remarkable  character  and  greatest  political  importance,  and  to  which 
reference  may  more  frequently  be  made,  are  the  following : — 


Of  Henry  IV.  of  Germany     .        .        .  1080 
Of  Stephen  11.  of  Hungary,  sumamed 


Of  Albert  of  Saxony 

.     .  1142 

Of  Leetus  V.  of  Poland 

.  12<)0 

Of  Uladislans  HL  of  Poland 

.    .  1206 

Of  Baliol,  of  Scotland    . 

.  1306 

Of  Otho,  of  Hungary 

.    .  1309 

Of  Eric  IX.  of  Denmark 

.  1439 

Of  Eric  Xin.  of  Sweden    . 

.    .  1441 

Of  Charles  Y.  Emperor 

.  1556 

Of  Christina  of  Sweden  .  .  .  .  1654 
Of  John  Casimir  of  Poland  .         .1669 

Of  James  U.  of  England  .  .  .  .  1688 
Of  Frederick  Augustus  n.  of  Poland  .  1704 
Of  Philip  V.  of  Spain  .  .  .  •  1724 
Of  Victor  of  Sardinia  ....  1730 
Of  Charles,  of  Naples        .        .  .  1759 

Of  Stanislaus  of  Poland         .        .         .  1795 
Of  Victor  of  Sardinia         .         .  June  4,  1802 
Of  Francis  IL  of  Germany,  who  becomes 
emperor  of  Austria  only     .     Aug.  11,  1804 


ABD  [  2  ]  ABS 


Of  Napoleon  of  France  .  .  April  5, 1814 
Of  Emanuel  of  Sardinia  .  March  13,  1821 
Of  Pedro  of  Portugal  .  .  May  2,  1826 
Of  Charles  X.  of  France  .  Aug.  2,  1830 
Of  Pedro  of  Brazil  .    April  7,  1*831 

Of  Don  Miguel  of  Portugal  (hy  leaving 

the  kingdom)  .  .  .  May  26,  1834 
Of  WiUiam  I.  of  Holland      .  Oct.  8,  1840 

Of  Christina  of  Spain,  queen  dowager 

and  queen  regent       .         .       Oct  12,  1840 


ABDICATION  of  KINGS,  continwd. 

Of  Charles  IV.  of  Spain,  in  favour  of  his 
son        ...        .      March  19,  18()8 

He  again  abdicates  in  favour  of  the  Buo- 
naparte family.   See /Spain    .    May  1,  1808 

Of  Joseph  Buonaparte  of  Naples,  to  take 
the  crown  of  Spain      .         .     June  1,  1808 

Of  the  same  (by  flying  before  the  British 
from  Madrid)  .         .         July  29, 1808 

Of  Louis  of  Holland         .        .    July  1,  1810 

Of  Jerome  of  Westphalia     .        Oct.  20,  1813 

ABELARD  ano  HELOISE.  Their  amoar,  so  celebrated  for  its  passion  and  misfor- 
tunes, commenced  at  Paris,  a.d.  1118,  when  Heloise  (a  canon's  daughter)  was 
under  seventeen  years  of  age,  Abelard,  after  suffering  an  ignominious  ii^ury, 
became  a  monk  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis,  and  died  at  St.  Marcel,  of  grief  which 
never  left  his  heart,  in  1142.  Heloise  begged  his  body,  and  had  it  buried  in  the 
Paraclete,  of  which  she  was  abbess,  with  the  view  of  reposing  in  death  by  his  side. 
She  was  famous  for  her  Latin  letters,  as  well  as  love,  and  died  in  1 163.  The  ashes 
of  both  were  carried  to  the  Museum  of  French  Monuments  in  1800  ;  and  the  museum 
having  been  subsequently  broken  up,  they  were  finally  removed  to  the  burying-ground 
'  of  P^re  La  Chaise,  in  Nov.  181 7. 

ABERDEEN,  a  seat  of  learning  of  considerable  antiquity,  upon  which  Gregory  the 
Great  conferred  peculiar  privileges  in  a.d.  893.  The  university  was  founded  by 
William  Elphinstone ;  for  which  purpose  he  had  a  bull  from  the  pope,  Alexander  Yl., 
in  1494.  King's  College  was  erecteid  in  1500  ;  and  Mareschal  College  was  founded 
by  George  Keith,  earl  mareschal  of  Scotland,  in  1593. 

ABERDEEN,  Sbe  or.  King  Malcolm  III.  having  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Danes 
in  the  year  1010,  resolved  to  found  a  new  bishopric,  in  token  of  his  gratitude  for  his 
success,  and  pitched  upon  Mortlich  in  fianff-shire,  where  St.  Beanus  was  first 
bishop,  1015.  The  see  was  removed  early  in  the  twelfth  century  to  Aberdeen,  and 
was  discontinued  at  the  Revolution,  1689. 

ABHORRERS,  a  political  court-party  in  England,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. ;  and  so 
called  from  their  address  to  the  king,  expressing  their  abhorrence  of  those  who 
endeavoured  to  encroach  on  the  royal  prerogative,  1681. — Hume, 

ABJURATION  of  particular  doctrines  of  the  church  of  Rome  was  enjoined  by 
statute  25  Charles  II.  1672.  The  oath  of  abjuration  of  the  pope  and  the  pretender, 
denying  the  authority  of  the  one  and  the  claims  of  the  other,  was  first  administered 
by  statute  13  William  III.  1701. 

ABORIGINES,  the  original  inhabitants  of  Italy;  or,  as  others  have  it,  the  nation 
conducted  by  Saturn  into  Latium,  founded  by  Inachus,  1330  b.  c. —  Univ.  Hist. 
Their  posterity  was  called  LcUinit  from  Latinuq,  one  of  their  kings ;  and  Rome  was 
built  in  their  country.  They  were  called  Aborigines,  being  absque  originCf  the  pri- 
mitive planters  here  alter  the  flood. — ^S*^.  Jerome,  The  word  signifies  without  origin, 
or  whose  origin  is  not  knownf  and  is  generally  applied  to  the  original  inhabitants  of 
any  country. 

ABOUKIR,  the  ancient  Canopus,  the  point  of  debarcation  of  the  British  expedition 
to  Egypt  under  general  Abercromby.  Aboukir  surrendered  to  the  British,  after  an 
obstinate  and  sanguinary  conflict  with  the  French,  March  18,  1801.  The  bay  is 
famous  for  the  defeat  of  the  French  fleet  by  Nelson,  August  I,  1798.  See  Nile 
and  Syria. 

ABRAHAM,  Era  of.  Used  by  Eusebius  ;  it  began  October  1,  2016  b.c.  To  reduce 
this  era  to  the  Christian,  subtract  2015  years  and  three  months. 

ABRAHAMITES.  This  sect  adopted  the  errors  of  Paulus ;  but  it  was  suppressed  by 
CyriacttS,  the  patriarch  of  Antioch.  In  the  ninth  century  there  sprung  up  a  sect  of 
monks  under  this  designation,  and  it,  too,  was  suppressed,  or  rather  exterminated, 
for  worshipping  images. 

ABSENTEES.  The  complaint  is  in  Ireland,  that  the  wealthy  of  that  country  retire  to 
England  ;  and  in  England,  that  the  rich  squander  their  fortunes  abroad.  According 
to  late  returns  made  to  the  prefect  of  police  at  Paris,  the  entire  number  of  British 
residents  in  France  was  estimated  at  54,000 ;  but  the  thousands  of  Continental 
tourists  who  pass  annually  through  France  are  not  included  in  this  estimate.    The 


ABS  C  3  ]  ACA 

n amber  of  British  settled  in  the  Netherlands,  France,  Germanr,  Switzerland,  and 
Italy,  is  now  supposed  to  far  exceed  100,000,  drawing  from  the  countrj  not  less  than 
five  millions  annually :  '*  a  sum  so  large,"  observes  Dr.  Southey,  ^*  that  if,  instead  of 
being  scattered  among  strangers,  it  were  spent  in  the  deserted  halls  and  mansions  of 
these  realms,  it  would  materially  alleviate  the  distress  with  which  England  now 
struggles.'' — Quar.  Review. 

ABSENTEE  TAX.  In  Ireland,  a  tax  of  four  shillings  in  the  pound  was  levied  on  profits, 
fees,  emoluments,  and  pensions  of  absentees,  in  1715.  This  tax  ceased  in  1753.  In 
1773,  Mr.  Flood,  the  great  Irish  orator,  proposed  a  tax  of  two  shillings  in  the  pound, 
which  was  lost  by  a  majority  in  the  commons  of  122  to  102.  The  question  was 
renewed  in  the  Irish  parliament  in  1783  by  Mr.  Molyneux,  and  again  lost,  on  a 
division  of  184  to  122. — Statutes  at  large  ;  Pari.  Reports, 

ABSTINENCE.  St.  Anthony  lived  to  the  age  of  105,  on  twelve  ounces  of  bread,  and 
water.  James  the  Hermit  lived  in  the  same  manner  to  the  age  of  104.  St.  Epi- 
phanius  lived  thus  to  115.  Simeon,  the  Stylite,  to  112 ;  and  Kentigem,  commonly 
called  St  Mungo,  lived  by  similar  means  to  185  years  of  Age,—'Spottistffond.  A  man 
may  live  seven,  or  even  eleven,  days  without  meat  or  drink. — Pliny  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  ii. 
Democritus  subsisted  for  forty  days  by  smelling  honey  and  hot  bread,  323  B.C. — 
Diog.  Laert.  A  woman  of  Normandy  lived  for  18  years  without  food. — PetruM  de 
Albano.  Gilbert  Jackson,  of  Carse-grange,  Scotland,  lived  three  years  without 
sustenance  of  any  kind,  1719.  A  religious  fanatic,  who  determined  upon  fasting 
forty  days,  died  on  the  sixteenth.  1789. — Phillips.  A  country  girl,  of  Osnabruck. 
abstained  four  years  from  all  food  and  drink,  17d9. — Huf elands  s  PraoticalJoumal, 
Ann  Moore,  the  fasting  woman  of  Tutbury,  Staflbrdshire,  supposed  to  have  been  an 
impostor,  was  said  to  have  lived  twenty  months  without  food,  Nov.  1808.  At  Swine- 
fonl,  near  Newry,  in  Ireland,  a  man  named  Cavanagh  was  reported  to  have  lived  two 
years  without  meat  or  drink  ;  he  underwent  severe  scrutiny  by  competent  authorities, 
who  credited  the  fact,  Aug.  1840.  See  other  instances  in  Haller^s  Elementa  Physu 
ologits;  Comoro;  Priehers  Surgical  Library,  &c. ;  and  in  this  volume,  see  Fasting » 

ABSTINENT3.  The  abstinents  were  a  sect  that  wholly  abstained  from  wine,  fiesh,  and 
marriage ;  and  were  a  community  of  harmless  and  mild  ascetics.  They  appeared  in 
France  and  Spain  in  the  third  century ;  and  some  authorities  mention  such  a  sect  as 
having  been  numerous  elsewhere  in  a.d.  170. — Bossusi. 

ABYSSINIAN  ERA.  This  era  is  reckoned  from  the  period  of  the  Creation,  which  they 
place  in  the  5493rd  year  before  our  era,  on  the  29th  August,  old  style ;  and  their 
dates  consequently  exceed  onn  by  5492  years  and  125  days.  To  reduce  Abyssinian 
time  to  the  Julian  year,  subtract  5492  years  and  125  days. 

ACADEMIES,  or  societies  of  learned  men  to  promote  literature,  sciences,  and  the  arts, 
are  of  early  date.  Academia  was  a  shady  grove  without  the  walls  of  Athens  . 
(bequeathed  to  Hecademus  for  gymnastic  exercises),  where  Plato  first  taught  philo- 
sophy, and  his  followers  took  the  title  of-  Academics  378  b.  c.'^Stanley*  Ptolemy 
Soter  is  said  to  have  founded  an  academy  at  Alexandria,  about  314  b.  c.  Theodosiua 
the  Younger  and  Charlemagne  are  also  named  as  founders.  Italy  has  been  celebrated 
for  its  academies  ;  and  Jarckius  mentions  550,  of  which  25  were  in  the  city  of  Milan. 
The  first  philosophical  academy  in  France  was  established  by  P^re  Mersenne,  in  1635. 
Academies  were  introduced  into  England  by  Boyle  and  Hobbes  ;  and  the  Royal  Society 
of  London  was  formed  in  1660.    The  following  are  among  the  principal  academies : — 


Anoona,  of  the  Cc^Unoti,  1034. 

Derlin,  Royal  Society,  1700 ;  of  Princes,  1703; 

Architecture,  1799. 
Bologna,  Ecclesiastical,  1<JB7 ;   Mathematics, 

leOO ;  Sciences  and  Arts,  1712. 
Breacia,  of  the  Erranti,  1666 
Brest  and  Toulon,  Military,  1682. 
BruDsela,  Belles  Lettres,  1773- 
Caen,  Belles  LettreSt  17^0. 
Copenhagen,  Polite  Arts,  1742. 
Cortona,  Antiquities,  1726. 
Dublin,  Arts,  1749;  Science  and  Literature, 

1786;  Painting,  Sculpture,  Ac.  1823. 
Erfurt,  Saxony,  Sciences,  1754. 
Faenza,  the  Philoponit  1612. 


Florence,  Belles  Lettres,  1278 ;  Delia  Crusca 
1582 ;  Antiquities,  1807. 

Geneva,  Medical,  1715. 

Oenoa,  Painting,  &o.  1751 ;  Sciences.  1783. 

Germany,  Medical,  1617;  Natural  History, 
1662 ;  MiUtary,  1752. 

Haerlem.  the  Sciences,  1760. 

Lisbon,  History,  1720;  Sciences,  1779. 

London ;  its  various'  Academies  are  described 
through  the  volume. 

Lyons,  Sciences,  1700 ;  had  Physic  and  Ma- 
thematics added,  1758. 

Madrid,  the  Royal  Spanish,  1713 ;  History, 
1730 ;  Faulting  and  the  Arts,  1723. 

Manheim,  Sculpture,  1775. 
b2 


ACA 


CO 


Acn 


Philadelphia,  Arts  and  Sciences,  1749. 

Portsmouth,  Naval.  1722 ;  enlarged,  1806. 

Rome,  Umoritti,  1611 ;  FantascicU  1625 ; 
Infecondi,  1653 ;  Painting,  1665 ;  Arcadi, 
1690 ;  English ,  1752. 

Spain,  Royal,  1713 ;  Military,  1751. 

Stockholm,  of  Science,  1741 ;  Bellet  Zettretf 
1753 ;  Agriculture,  1781. 

Toulon,  MiUtary,  1682. 

Turin,  Sciences,  1759 ;  Fine  Arts,  1778. 

Turkey,  Military  School,  1775. 

Upsal,  Royal  Society,  Sciences,  1720. 

Venice,  Medical,  dec.  1701. 

Verona,  Music,  1543 ;  Sciences,  1780. 

Vienna,  Sculpture  and  the  Arts,  1705 ;  Sur- 
gery, 1783;  Oriental,  1810. 

Warsaw,  Languages  and  History,  1753^ 

Woolwich,  MiUtary,  1741. 


ACADEMIES,  continued. 

Mantua,  the  VHfUantit  Sciences,  1704. 

Marseilles,  BeUe*  Lettrei»  1726. 

Massachusetts,  Arts  and  Sciences,  1780. 

Milan,  Architecture,  1380 ;  Sciences,  1719. 

Munich,  Arts  and  Sciences,  1759. 

Naples,  Rotiana,  1540;  Mathematics,  1560; 
Sciences,  1095;  Herculaneum,  1755. 

New  York,  Literatijre  and  Philosophy,  1814. 

Nismes,  Royal  Academy,  1682. 

Padua,  for  Poetry,  1610 ;  Sciences,  1792. 

Palermo,  Medical,  1645. 

Paris,  Sorbonne,  1256;  Painting,  1391 ;  Music, 
1543;  French,  1635;  Medals.  1663;  Archi- 
tecture, 1671 ;  Surgery,  1731 ;  Military,  1751 ; 
Natural  Philosophy,  1796. 

Parma,  the  Innominatit  1550. 

Perousa,  IntensatU  1561 ;  FUirgiti,  1674. 

Petersburgh,  Sciences,  1725;  Military,  1732; 
the  School  of  Arts,  1764. 

ACAPULCO,  Ship.  This  was  the  celebrated  prize,  a  Spanish  galleon,  from  Acapulco, 
laden  with  gold  and  precious  wares,  and  estimated  by  some  annalists  at  1,000,000/. 
sterling  and  upwards ;  taken  by  Lord  Anson,  who  had  previously  acquired  booty  in 
his  memorable  voyage  amounting  to  600,000/.  Admiral  Anson  arrived  at  Spithead 
in  the  Centurion  with  his  gains,  after  having  circumnavigated  the  globe,  June  15, 1744. 

ACCENTS.   The  most  ancient  manuscripts  are  written  without  accents,  and  without 
any  separation  of  words ;  nor  was  it  until  after  the  ninth  century  that  the  copyists 
.    began  to  leave  spaces  between  the  words.  Michaelis,  after  Wetstein,  ascribes  the  inser- 
tion of  accents  to  Euthalius,  bishop  of  Sulca,  in  Egypt,  a.d.  458  ;  but  his  invention 
was  followed  up  and  improved  upon  by  other  grammarians  in  the  various  languages. 

ACCESSION,  The.  By  this  term  is  usually  understood  the  accession  of  the  house  of 
Hanover  to  the  throne  of  England,  in  the  person  of  George  I.  the  elector  of  Han- 
over, as  the  Protestant  descendant  of  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  James  I. ;  he  being 
the  son  of  Sophia,  who  was  the  daughter  of  that  princess.  He  succeeded  to  the 
crown  August  1st,  1714,  by  virtue  of  an  act  of  parliament  passed  in  the  reign 
of  Anne,  June  12, 1701.    See  article  Hanoverian  Succession. 

ACCUSERS.  By  the  occult  writers,  such  as  Agrippa,  accusers  are  the  eighth  order  of 
devils,  whose  chief  is  called  Asteroth,  or  spy,  and  who,  in  the  Revelation  of  St.  John, 
is  by  way  of  eminence,  called  the  accuser  of  the  brethren.  He  is  an  accuser  who 
charges  another  with  a  crime,  whether  the  charge  be  true  or  false.  False  accusers 
were  hanged  in  England  by  statute  4  Henry  VI.  1446.  They  were  burnt  in  the 
face  with  an  F  by  statute  37  Henry  VIII.  1545. — Stowe's  Chron, 

ACHAIA.  This  country  was  governed  by  a  race  of  kings,  but  even  their  names  are  all 
forgotten.  The  capital,  Achaia,  was  founded  bj  Achaeus,  the  son  of  Xuthus,  1080 
B.C.  The  kingdom  was  united  with  Sicyon  or  subject  to  the  ^tolians  until  about 
284  B.C.  The  Achsei  were  descendants  of  Achseus,  and  originally  inhabited  the 
neighbourhood  of  Argos  ;  but  when  the  Heraclidse  drove  them  thence,  they  retired 
.  among  the  lonians,  expelled  the  natives,  and  seized  their  thirteen  cities,  viz.  Pelene, 
^gira,  .^eum,  Bura,  Tritsea,  Leontium,  Rhypae,  Ceraunia,  Olenos,  Helice,  Patrse, 
Dyms,  and  Pharse. 

The  Achean  league        .  .    s.c.  281 

Fortress  of  Athenaeum  built  .  .  .  228 
Defeat  of  the  Achaeans  by  the  Spartans, 

and  Lysiadee  killed  .  .    .  226 

Battle  of  Sallada 222 

The  Social  war  begun  .        .    .  220 

The  Peloponnesus  ravaged  by  theiBtolians  219 
Aratus  poisoned  at  ^gium  .  .  .  215 
Battle  of  Mantinea ;  Philopoemen  defeats 

the  Spartan  tyrant  Mechanidas  .  .  2^ 
Alliance  with  the  Romans     .         .        .  201 

The  United  States  of  America  seem  to  have  adopted  the  plan  of  the  Achtean  league 
in  forming  their  constitution  ;  and  the  Swiss  cantons  also  had  a  great  resemblance  to 
.  it  in  their  confederacy. 


Philopcemen  defeated  by  Nabis,  in  a  naval 
battle B.C.  194 

Sparta  joined  to  the  league  .    .191 

The  Acheans  overrun  Messenia  with  fire 
and  sword      .        .         .        .        .    . 

The  Romans  enter  Achaia 

Metellus  liters  Greece       .        .        .    . 

The  Achaean  league  dissolved 

Greece  subjected  to  Rome,  and  named 
the  province  of  Achaia 


182 
165 
147 
146 

146 


ACU  E  ^  D  ^^^ 

ACHONRY,  BiSHOPRiCK  of,  founded  by  St.  Finian,  who  erected  the  chorch  of 
Achad,  asnally  called  Achonry,  about  the  year  520.  St.  Finian  haTing  built  this 
churchy  conferred  it  on  his  disciple  Nathy,  named  in  Irish,  Dathy>  or  David,  who 
was  the  first  bishop,  and  a  man  of  great  sanctity.  In  the  ancient  annab  of  Ireland 
the  prelates  of  this  see  are,  for  the  most  part,  called  bishops  of  Luigny,  or  Liny, 
from  the  subdivision  of  the  county  wherein  it  is  situated.  The  see  of  Achonry  has 
been  held  in  commendam  with  Killala  since  1612. — See  Kiiiaku 

ACOUSTICS.  The  doctrine  of  the  different  sounds  of  vibrating  strings,  and  commani- 
cation  of  sounds  to  the  ear  by  the  vibration  of  the  atmosphere,  was  probably  first 
explained  by  Pythagoras,  about  500  b.c.  Mentioned  by  Aristotle,  300  b.c.  The 
speaking-  trumpet  is  said  to  have  been  used  by  Alexander  the  Great,  835  B.C.  The 
discoveries  of  Galileo  were  made  about  a.o.  1600.  The  veloci^  of  sound  was 
investigated  by  Newton  before  1700.  Galileo's  theorem  of  the  harmonic  curve  was 
demonstrated  by  Dr.  Brook  Taylor,  in  1714 ;  and  further  perfected  by  D'Alembert, 
Euler,  Bernoulli,  and  La  Grange,  at  various  periods  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
See  Sound. 

ACRE.  This  measure  was  formerly  of  uncertain  quantity,  and  differed  in  various  parts 
of  the  realm,  until  made  standard  by  statute  31  Edward  I.,  and  fixed  at  40  poles  or 
perches  in  length,  and  4  in  breadth — or  160  square  poles,  containing  4840  square 
yards,  or  43,560  square  feet,  a.d.  1303. — Pardon. 

ACRE,  St.  Jean  d\  Taken  by  Richard  I.  and  other  crusaders  in  1192,  after  a  siege 
of  two  years,  with  the  loss  of  6  archbishops,  12  bishops,  40  earls,  500  barons,  and  300,000 
soldiers.  Retaken  by  the  Saracens,  when  60,000  Christians  perished,  1291.  This 
capture  was  rendered  memorable  by  the  murder  of  the  nuns,  who  had  mangled  their 
faces  to  repress  the  lust  of  the  Infidels.  Acre  was  attacked  by  Bonaparte  in  July 
1798 ;  and  was  relieved  by  sir  Sydney  Smith,  who  gallantly  resisted  twelve  attempts 
during  the  memorable  siege  by  the  French,  between  March  6  and  May  27,  1799, 
when,  baflled  by  the  British  squadron  on  the  water  and  the  Turks  on  shore,  Bona- 
parte relinquished  his  object  and  retreated.  St.  Jean  d'Acre  is  a  pachalic  subject  to 
the  Porte ;  seized  upon  by  Ibrahim  Pacha,  who  had  revolted,  July  2,  1832.  It 
became  a  point  of  the  Syrian  war  in  1840.  Stormed  by  the  British  fieet  under  sir 
Robert  Stopford,  and  taken  after  a  bombardment  of  a  few  hours,  the  Egyptians 
losing  upwards  of  2,000  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  3000  prisoners,  while  the 
British  had  but  12  killed  and  42  wounded,  Nov.  3,  1840.    See  Ssfria  and  Turkey. 

ACROPOLIS  OF  ATHENS.  The  citadel  of  Athens  was  built  on  a  rock,  and  accessible 
only  on  one  side  :  Minerva  had  a  temple  at  the  bottom. — Pa««.  in  Attic,  The  roof 
of  this  vast  pile,  which  had  stood  2000  years,  was  destroyed  in  the  Venetian  siege, 
A.D.  1687. — Aspin,  The  Acropolis  of  Mycenee  was  marked  by  terraces,  and 
defended  by  ponderous  waUs,  on  which  were  high  towers,  each  at  the  distance  of  fifty 
feet. — Euripides. 

ACTIUM,  Battle  of,  between  the  fleets  of  Octavianus  Cssar  on  the  one  side,  and 
of  Marc  Antony  and  Cleopatra  on  the  other,  and  which  decided  the  fate  of  Antony, 
300  of  his  galleys  going  over  to  Cssar;  fought  Sept.  2,  31  b.c.  This  battle  made 
i  Augustus  (the  title  afterwards  conferred  by  the  senate  upon  Cssar)  master  of  the 
world,  and  the  commencement  of  the  Roman  empire  is  commonly  dated  from  this 
year.  In  honour  of  his  victory,  the  conqueror  built  the  city  of  Nicopolis,  and  insti- 
tuted the  Actian  games. — Blair. 

ACTRESSES.  Women  in  the  drama  appear  to  have  been  unknown  to  the  ancients ; 
men  or  eunuchs  performing  the  female  parts.  Charles  II.  is  said  to  have  first 
encouraged  the  public  appearance  of  women  on  the  stage  in  England,  in  1662  ;  but 
the  queen  of  James  I.  had  previously  performed  in  a  theatre  at  court. — Theat.JBiog. 

ACTS  OF  PARLIAMENT.  The  first  promulgated,  16  John,  1215.  See  Parliament. 
For  a  great  period  of  years  the  number  of  acts  passed  has  been  annually  large, 
although  varying  considerably  in  every  session.  Between  the  4th  and  10th  of  George 
IV.  1 1 26  acts  were  wholly  repealed,  and  443  repealed  in  part,  chiefly  arising  out  of  the 
consolidation  of  the  laws  by  Mr.  Peel  (afterwards  sir  Robert)  ;  of  these  acts,  1344 
related  to  the  kingdom  at  large,  and  225  to  Ireland  solely. 

ADAM  AND  EVE,  Era  of,  set  down  by  Christian  writers  as  being  4004  b.c.  There 
have  been  as  many  as  one  hundred  and  forty  opinions  on  the  distance  of  time  between 
the  creation  of  the  world  and  the  birth  of  the  Redeemer  :  some  make  it  3616  years, 
and  some  as  great  as  6484  years.     See  Creation. 


ADA 


[6] 


ADM 


ADAMITES,  a  sect  that  imitated  Adam's  nakedness  before  the  fall,  arose  a.d.  130. 
Thej  assembled  quite  naked  in  their  places  of  worship,  asserting  that  if  Adam  had 
not  sinned,  there  woald  have  been  no  marriages.  Their  chief  was  named  Prodicus ; 
they  deified  the  elements,  rejected  prayer,  and  said  it  was  not  necessary  to  confess 
Christ. — Eusebius.  This  sect,  with  an  addition  of  many  blasphemies,  and  teaching 
from  the  text  **  increase  and  multiply,"  was  renewed  at  Antwerp  in  the  thirteenth 
centary,  under  a  chief  named  Tandeme,  who,  being  followed  by  3000  soldiersi 
fiolated  females  of  every  age,  calling  their  crimes  by  spiritual  names.  A  Flandrian, 
named  Picard,  again  revived  this  sect  in  Bohemia,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  whence 
they  spread  into  Poland  and  existed  some  time. — Bayh  ;  Pardon, 

ADMINISTRATIONS  op  ENGLAND,  and  of  GREAT  BRITAIN,  from  the  acces- 
sion of  Henry  VIII.  The  following  were  the  prime  ministers,  or  favourites,  or  chiefs 
of  administrations,  in  the  respective  reigns,  viz. : — 


KINO  UBNRY  VIII. 

Bishop  Fisher  and  eaxl  of  Surrey  .  .  1609 
Cardinal  Thomas  Wolaey  .    .  1513 

Sir  Thomas  More  and  Cranmer  .  .  l''>29 
Lord  Audley,  chancellors    archbishop 

Cranmer 1532 

And  lord  Cromwell  (earl  of  Essex)  .  .  1534 
Duke  of  Norfolk,  earl  of  Surrey,  and 

bishop  Oardiner 1540 

Lord  Wrlothesley,  earl  of  lleriford        .  1544 

KINO  KDWARD  VI. 

The  earl  of  Hertford,  continued 

John,  duke  of  Northumberland  .    .  1552 


QUBEN  MARY. 


.    .  1553 


Bishop  Gardiner 

OUKBN  BLIZABJSTH. 

Sir  Nioholas  Baoou 1658 

Sir  William  Cecil,  aflerutardt  lord  Bur- 
leigh ;  chief  minister  during  almost  the 
whole  of  this  long  reign 
Earl  of  Leicester,  a  favourite        .         .  1564 

Earl  of  Essex 1533 

Lord  Backhurst 1601 

KINO  JAMBS  t. 

Lord  Buckhurst  (earl  of  Dorset) 

Earls  of  Salisbury,  Suffolk,  and  North- 
ampton              .  1608 

Sir  R.  Carr,  created  viscount  Rochester, 
afUrvoards  earl  of  Somerset   .         .    .  1612 

Sir  OeorgeVilliers,  created  earl,  marquis, 
and  duke  of  Buckingham       .        .    .  1615 

KINO  CUARLBS  I. 

Duke  of  Buckingham  continued 

Earl  of  Portland,  archbishop  Laud    .    .  1628 

Archbishop  Laud,  earl  of  Straffbrd,  lord 

Cottington 1640 

Earl  of  Essex 1640 

Lord  vis.  Falkland,  lord  Digby  .  .  .  1641 
[The  civil  war  commenced,  and  all  went 

into  confusion.] 

KIN<3  CHARLES  II. 

Edward,  earl  of  Clarendon  .  .  .  1660 
Dukes  of  Buckingham  and  Lauderdale  .  1667 
Lord  Ashley,  lord  Arlington,  sir  T.  Clif-^ 

ford,  afterwards  lord  Clifford     .         .'  1667 
Lord  Arlington,   lord  Ashley,  created 
earl    Shaftesbury,   and    sir   Thomas 

Osborne 1673 

Sir  Thomas  Osborne  .    .  1674 

Earl  of  Essex,  duke  of  Ormond,  earl 
c^fterwarde  marquess  of  Halifax,  sir 
William  Temple        .        .  1677 

Duke  of  York,  and  his  friends  .        .    .  1682 


KINO  JAMBS  II. 

Earls  of  Sunderland  and  Tyroonnell, 
sir  George  afterwards  lord  Jeffries     .  1685 

Lord  Jeffries,  earl  of  Tyroonnell,  lord 
Bellasis,  lord  Arundel,  earl  of  Middle- 
ton,  visct  Preston     ....  1687 

KINO  WILLIAM  IIL  AND  QUBBN  MARY  II. 

Sir  John,  afterwards  lord  Somers,  lord 
Godolphin,  earl  of  Danby,  i\flerwards 

duke  of  Leeds,  dec 16B8 

The  earl  of  Sunderland,  dkc.      .         .    .  1695 
Charles  Montagu,   afterwards  earl  of 
Halifax,  earl  of  Pembroke,  viscount 
Lonsdale,  earl  of  Oxford,  &c.     .         .  1697 

<2UBBN  ANNS. 

Lord'  Godolphin,  R.  Harley,  esq.,  lord 

Pembroke,  duke  of  Buckingham 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  &c.     .         .         .  1705 
Earl  Godolphin,  lord  Cowper,  dukes  of 

Marlborough  and  Newcastle  .  .  1707 
R.  Harley,  afterwards  earl  of  Oxford  .  1710 
Earl  of  Rochester,  lord  Dartmouth,  and 

Henry  St.  John,  esq.  afterwards  visot. 

Bolingbroke ;  lord  Harcourt      .        .171 
Charles,  duke  of  Shrewsbury,  dkc.      .      1714 

KINO  OBOROB  I. 

Lord  Cowper,  duke  of  Shrewsbury,  mar- 
quess of  Wharton,  earl  of  Orford,  duke 
of  Marlborough,  visot.  Townshend,  &c.  1714 

Robert  Walpole,  esq 1715 

James,  c^fterwards  earl  Stanhope      .    .  1717 
Charles,  earl  of  Sunderland,  &c.    .        .  1718 
Robert  Walpole,  esq.,   afterwards  sir 
Robert  and  earl  of  Orford  .  .  1721 

KfNO  OBOROB  II. 

Lord  Carteret,  lord  Wilmington,  lord 

Bath,  Mr.  Sandys,  &c.  .  .  .  1742 
Hon.  Henry  Pelham,  lord  Carteret,  earl 

of  Hsrrington,  duke  of  Newcastle  .  1743 
Mr.  Pelham,  earl  of  Chesterfield,  duke 

of  Bedford,  &c.  ....  1746 

Duke  of  Newcastle,  sir  Thomas*Robin- 

son,  Henry  Fox,  Aa,  lord  Anson  .  1754 
Duke  of  Devonshire,  Mr.  William  Pitt, 

earl  Temple,  Hon.  H.  B.  Legge  .         .  1756 
[Dismissed  in  April,  1757.    Restored  in 
"  June,  same  year.] 
William  Pitt,  Mr.  Legge,  earl  Temple. 

duke  of  Newcastle,  &c.       .        .        .  1767 

KINO  OBOROB  III. 

Earl  of  Bute,  earl  of  Egremont,  duke  of 
Bedford 176I 

Earl  of  Bute.  hon.  George  Grenville,  sir 
Francis  Dash  wood,  Ac      .  .  1762 


AD3I 


[7] 


ADM 


ADMINISTRATIONS  of  ENGLAND  and 

Rt  hon.  O.  OrenyiUe,  earls  of  WnHfa-r 
and  Sandwich;  duke  of  Bedford,  ftc.  .  1763 

Marquess  of  Rocldngbam,  duke  of  Graf- 
ton, earl  of  Shelbume,  ftc.  July  1765 

Duke  of  Grafton,  hon.  Chas.  Townsbend, 
earl  of  Chatham,  ftc.  .      Aug.  1766 

Duke  of  Grafton,  Lord  North,  fto.   Deo.  1767 

Lord  North,  lord  Halifaz.  ftc.  .  1770 

Lord  North,  lord  Dartmouth,  lord  Btor- 
mont,  lord  Hillsborough,  lord  St.  Ger> 
main,  ftc. 1779 

Marquess  of  Rockingham,  right  bonble. 
Charles  James  Fox,  ftc.     .     Afar.  30,  178S 

Earl  of  Shelbume,  William  Pitt,  lord 
Grantham,  fto.        .         .         July  10,  1782 

Duke  of  Portland,  lord  North,  Mr.  Fox, 
ftc.  (The  CoalUion  Ministry.  Bee 
Coalition.)       ...  April  5,  1783 

Rt  hon.  William  Pitt,  lord  Gower,  lords 
Sidney,  Carmarthen,  and  Thurlovr, 
right  hon.  W.  W.  Grenville,  Henry 
Dimdas,  lord  Mulgrare,  duke  of  Rich- 
mond, ftc.        .        .        .       Deo.  27i  1783 

Mr.  Pitt,  lord  Camden,  marq.  (rf  Stafford, 
lord  Hawkesbury,  ftc.  .        .  1786 

Mr.  Pitt,  lord  Grenville.  d.  of  Leeds,  fto.  179U 

Mr. Pitt,  lord  Grenville,  earl  of  Chatham, 
lord  Loughborough,  ftc.     . 

Mr.  Pitt,  duke  of  Portland,  lord  Gren« 
Tille,  Mr.  Dundas,  ftc. 

Mr.  Pitt,  earl  of  Westmoreland*  earl  of 
Chatham,  lord  Grenville,  &c.     . 

Right  hon.  Henry  Addington,  duke  of 
Portland,  lord  Hawkesbury,  lord  Ho- 
hart,  lord  Eldon,  die.       .       Mar.  17,  1801 

Mr.  Pitt,  lord  Melville,  Rt  hon.  George 
Canning,  lord  Harrowby,  lord  West- 
morland, duke  of  Portland,  Mr.  Dun- 
das, &o.  ...  May  12,  1804 

Lord  Grenville,  lord  Henry  Petty,  earl 
Spencer,  Rt  hon.  William  Windham, 
Mr.  Fox,  lord  Erskine,  Rthon.  Charles 
Grey,  lord  Sidmouth,  fto.  (All  the 
Talents.)         .  .         Feb.  ff,  1806 

Duke  of  Portland,  Mr.  Canning,  lord 

Hawkesbury,  earl  Camden,  right  hon. 

Spencer  Perceval,  ftc.        .      Mar.  85,  1807 

Duke  of  Portland,  earl  Bathurst,  visot 

Castlereogh,  lord  Granville  Gower,  ftc.  1808 
Mr.  Perceval,  earl  of  Liverpool,  mar- 
quess Wellesley,  viscount  Palmerston, 
Mr.  Ryder,  ftc*       .  Oct  1809 

Earl  of  Liverpool,  earl  Bathurst,  vlsct. 
Sidmouth,  viscount  Castlereagh,  Mr. 
Ryder,  earl  of  Harrowby,  right  hon. 
Nich.  Yanbittart,  ftc.        .        June  8,  1812 


1793 
1795 
1798 


OF  GREAT  BRITAIN,  continued. 
xnro  osoRos  nr. 

Earl  of  Liverpool,  &G.  continued 

Right  hon.  George  Canning,  Mr.  Btorgw 
Bourne,  l<»tl  Goderiob,  lord  Lynd- 
hurst,  ftc.  .  .  April  10^  1827 

Yisct.  Goderioh,  duke  of  Portland,  Mr. 
Huakisson,  Mr.  Herrles,  &c.     .    Aug.  1827 

DuV^  of  WeUington.  Mr.  Perl,  Mr.  Goul- 
bum,earl  of  Dudl«y,viflcount  Melville, 
ftc.  Jan.  25,  1828 

Duke  of  Wellington,  earl  of  Aberdeen, 
sir  G.  Murray,  lord  Lowtfaer,  Aec.  (Mr. 
Huskisson,  earl  of  Dodl^,  Mr.  Grant, 
fta  retiring)  May  30,  1828 


KING  WILUAM  tV. 

Duke  of  WeUington,  dco.  e&ntinued 

Earl  Grey,  lord  Brougham  ;  visconnts 
Althorp,  Melbourne,  and  Palmerston ; 
marquess  of  Lansdowne,  lord  Durham, 
lord  Holland,  right  hon.  Chas.  Grant, 
&o Nov.  22,  1830 

[Earl  Grey  resigns  May  9 ;  but  resumes 
office  May  18, 1832.] 

Viscount  Melboume,  viscount  Althorp, 
marquess  of  Lanedowne,  lord  John 
Russell,  visots.  Palmerston  and  Dun- 
cannon,  lord  Brougham,  sir  John  Cam 
Hubhouse,  lord  Howick,Rt  hon.  Chas. 
Grant,  Mr.  Spring  Rice,  Mr.  Pdulett 
Thomson,  &c.  .        July  14,  1834 

Ylnount  Mdboumet  administration 
dissolved:  the  duke  of  Wellington 
takes  the  helm  of  state  provisionally, 
waiting  the  return  of  sir  Robert  Peel 
from  Italy  ....  Nov.  14,  1894 

Sir  Robert  Peel,  duke  of  WeUington, 
lord  Lyndhurst,  earl  of  Aberdeen,  lord 
EUenborough,  lord  Rosslyn,  lord 
Whamdiffe,  sir  George  Murray,  Mr. 
A.  Baring,  Mr.  Henries,  Mr.  Goulbum, 
ftc.        ...        .         Dea  15,  1834 

Yisconnt  Melboume  and  his  colleagues 
return  to  office  .        .        .  April  18,  18M5 


QITBXN  TTCTOltU. 

Yisct  Melboume  and  the  same  cabinet, 
continued 

Yiscount  Melboume  resigns         May7t  1B39 

Sir  Robert  Peel  receives  the  queen's 
commands  to  form  a  new  adminlstrar 
tion.  May  & 

This  oommand  is  withdrawn,  and  lord 
Melboume  and  his  friends  are  rein- 
stated ....  May  10«  1830 

ADMIRAL.    The  first  so  called  in  England  was  Richard  de  Lucy,  appointed  by 

.  Henry  III.  1223.    Alfred,  Athelstan,  £dgar,  Harold,  and  other  kings,  had  been 

prerionsly  the  commanders  of  their  own  fleets.    The  first  was  appointed  in  France, 

in  1284.     The  rank  of  admiral  of  the  English  seas  was  one  of  great  distinction,  and 

was  first  given  to  WiUiam  de  Ley  bourne  by  Edward  I.  in  l297*Spelinan;  Rpmer, 

ADMIRAL,  LORD  HIGH,  of  ENGLAND.  The  first  officer  of  this  rank  was  created 
by  Richard  II.  in  December  1385  :  there  had  been  previously  high  admirals  of  </m- 
Irictt — the  north,  west,  and  south.  This  office  has  seldom  been  entrusted  to  single 
hands,  and  was  uninterruptedly  executed  by  lords  commissioners  from  1709  until 
1827,  when  the  duke  of  Clarencoi  afterwards  William  IV.,  was  appointed,-  on  the 


ADM []  8  ] ADU 

secession  of  lord  Melville  from  the  Admiralty.  The  dake  resigned  the  rank  12th  Aug. 
1828,  and  it  was  again  vested  in  a  commission.  A  similar  dignity  existed  in  Scot- 
land from  the  reign  of  Robert  III. :  in  1673,  the  king  bestowed  it  upon  his  natunu 
son,  Charles  Lennox,  afterwards  duke  of  Richmond  and  Lennox,  then  an  infant ;  he 
resigned  the  office  to  the  crown  in  1703,  and  after  the  Union  it  was  discontinued.  The 
dignity  of  lord  high  admiral  of  Ireland  was  conferred  upon  James  Butler,  in  May 
1534.    See  Navy, 

ADMIRALTY,  Court  of,  erected  by  Edward  III.  in  1357.  This  is  a  civil  court 
for  the  trial  of  causes  relating  to  maritime  affairs.  In  criminal  matters,  which  com- 
monly relate  to  piracy,  the  proceedings  were  formerly  by  accusation  and  information ; 
but  this  being  found  inconvenient,  it  was  enacted,  by  two  statutes  made  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  Till.,  that  criminal  causes  should  be  tried  by  witnesses  and  a  jury,  some 
of  the  judges  at  Westminster  (or,  as  now,  at  the  Old  Bailey,)  assisting.  The  judge- 
ship of  the  Admiralty  was  established  in  1640,  and  was  filled  by  two  or  more 
functionaries  until  the  Revolution,  when  it  was  restricted  to  one. — Beatton.  There 
are  appeals  from  the  decisions  of  this  court  to  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy 
council,  by  statutes  11  George  IV.  and  1  William  IV.  1830  and  1831. 

ADRIAN'S  WALL.  The  wall  of  Adrian  and  Severus,  which  was  built  .to  prevent  the 
irruptions  of  the  Scots  and  Picts,  extended  from  the  Tyne  to  Solway  Frith,  and  was 
eighty  miles  long,  twelve  feet  high,  and  eight  in  thickness,  with  watch-towers  :  it  was 
built  A.D.  121. 

ADRIANISTS.  These  were  the  disciples  of  Simon  Magus,  who  flourished  about  a.d. 
34. — Theodoret.  Another  sect  of  the  same  name,  Uie  followers  of  Adrian  Hamp- 
stead,  appeared  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

ADRIANOPLE,  Battle  of,  which  got  Constantine  the  empire,  was  fought  July  3,  a.d. 
323.  Adrianople  was  taken  by  the  Ottomans  from  the  Greeks  in  1360  ;  and  it  con- 
tinued to  be  the  seat  of  the  Turkish  empire  till  the  capture  of  Constantinople  in  1453. 
Mahomet  II.,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  sultans,  and  the  one  who  took 
Constantinople,  was  bom  here,  in  1430. — Priestley.  Adrianople  was  taken  by  the 
Russians,  Aug.  20,  1829 ;  but  was  restored  to  the  sultan  at  the  close  of  the  war, 
Sept.  14,  same  year.     See  Turkey, 

ADRIATIC.  The  ceremony  of  the  doge  of  Venice  wedding  the  Adriatic  Sea  was 
instituted  in  a.  d.  1173.  Annually,  upon  Ascension-day,  the  doge  married  the 
Adriaticum  Mare,  by  dropping  a  ring  into  it  from  his  bucentaur,  or  state  barge, 
and  was  attended  on  these  occasions  by  all  the  nobility  of  the  state,  and  foreign 
ambassadors,  in  gondolas.  This  ceremony  was  intermitted  for  the  first  time  for 
centuries  in  1797. 

ADULTERY,  ancient  laws  against  it.  Punished  by  the  law  of  Moses  with  the 
death  of  both  the  guilty  man  and  woman. — Lernticus  xx.  10.  This  law  was  repealed, 
first,  because  the  crime  had  become  common ;  and  secondly,  because  God's  name 
should  not  be  liable  to  be  too  often  erased  by  the  ordeal  of  the  waters  of  bitterness. 
Leo,  of  Modena,  says  that  the  husband  was  obliged  to  dismiss  his  wife  for  ever, 
whether  he  willed  it  or  not. — Calmet,  Lycurgus  punished  the  offender  as  he  did  a 
parricide,  and  the  Locrians  and  Spartans  tore  out  the  offenders-  eyes.  The  Romans 
had  no  formal  law  against  adultery  ;  the  emperor  Augustus  was  the  first  to  introduce 
a  positive  law  to  punish  it,  and  he  had  the  mbtfortune  to  see  it  executed  in  the 
persons  of  his  own  children. — Lenglei.  Socrates  relates  that  women  who  were  guilty 
of  adultery  were  punished  by  the  horrible  sentence  of  public  constupration.  An 
instance  of  Roman  treatment  of  it,  is  the  following  :  Septimius  Acindynus,  a  Roman 
consul,  and  governor  of  Antioch,  having  sentenced  a  man  to  death,  unless  a  debt  due 
by  him  to  the  public  treasury  were  paid  on  a  certain  day,  a  rich  citizen  offered  to 
discharge  the  claim  for  him,  provided  he  might  enjoy  his  wife.  The  unhappy  woman, 
with  her  husband's  consent,  submitted,  when  the  citizen,  instead  of  money,  gave  her 
a  bag  of  earth.  This  piece  of  treachery  being  reported  to  Acindynus,  he  repented 
the  severity  which  had  caused  it,  condemned  the  citizen  to  pay  the  sum  due  from 
the  husband,  and  gave  the  land  from  whence  the  earth  was  taken  to  the  wife. — 
August,  de  Sermone  Domini  in  Mont, 

ADULTERY,  English  Laws  against  it.  The  early  Saxons  burnt  the  adultress, 
and  erected  a  gibbet  over  her  ashes,  whereon  they  hanged  the  adulterer. — Pardon, 
King  Edmund  punished  the  crime  as  homicide.     It  was  punished  by  cutting  off  the 


ADV  C  9  ]  -^KR 

hair,  stripping  the  female  offender  naked,  and  whipping  her  through  the  itreets,  if 
the  hnsbimd  so  demanded  it  to  be  done,  without  distinction  of  rank,  daring  the 
Saxon  Heptarchj,  a.d.  457  to  828. — Slawe.  The  ears  and  nose  were  cut  off  under 
Canute,  1031.  Ordained  to  be  panbhed  capitally,  together  with  incest,  under 
Cromwell,  May  14,  1650  ;  but  there  is  no  record  of  this  Uw  taking  effect.  In  New 
England  a  law  was  ordained  whereby  adultery  was  made  capital  to  both  parties,  even 
though  the  man  were  unmarried,  and  several  suffered  under  it,  1662. — Hardie,  At 
present  this  offence  is  more  favourably  viewed ;  to  divorce  and  strip  the  adoltress  of 
her  dower,  is  all  her  punishment  among  us  ;  but  in  Romish  countries  they  usually 
shut  up  the  adultress  in  a  nunnery. — A»he. 

ADVENT.  In  the  calendar  it  signifies,  properly,  the  approach  of  the  feast  of  the 
Nativity ;  it  includes  four  Sundays,  the  first  of  which  is  always  the  nearest  Sunday  to 
Saint  Andrew  (the  30th  November),  before  or  after.  Advent  was  instituted  by  the 
council  of  Tours,  in  the  siztb  century. 

ADVENTURE  BAY.  Captain  Fomeaux  visited  this  bay,  which  lies  at  the  south-east 
end  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  in  his  first  voyage  to  the  Pacific,  and  called  it  Adventure 
Bay  from  the  ship  Adventure  in  which  he  sailed,  1778.  It  was  visited  by  captain 
Bligh  in  1788. 

ADVENTURERS,  MERCHANT,  a  celebrated  and  enterprising  company  of  merchants, 
was  originally  formed  for  the  discovery  of  territories,  extension  of  commerce,  and 
promotion  of  trade,  by  John  duke  of  Brabant,  in  1296.  This  ancient  company 
was  afterwards  translated  into  England,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  111.,  and  queen 
Elizabeth  formed  it  into  an  English  corporation  in  1564.— Anderson. 

ADVERTISEMENTS  in  NEWSPAPERS.  As  now  published,  they  were  not  general 
in  England  until  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  A  penalty  of  5U/.  was 
inflicted  on  persons  advertising  a  reward  with  **  No  questions  to  be  asked"  for  the 
return  of  things  stolen,  and  on  the  printer,  25  Geo.  II.  1754. — Statutes*  The 
advertisement  duty  was  formerly  chai^^  according  to  the  number  of  lines  ;  it  was 
afterwards  fixed,  in  England  at  3«.  6d.,  and  in  Ireland  at  2t.  M.  each  advertisement. 
The  duty  was  further  reduced,  in  England  to  Is.  M,,  and  in  Ireland  to  1«.  each,  by 
statute  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  1833. 

ADVOCATE,  Tbb  KING'S.  This  office  was  instituted  about  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century  ;  and  the  advocate  was  empowered  to  prosecute  at  bis  own  instance 
certain  crimes,  1597. — Statutes,  Lord  Adtocatb,  in  Scotland,  is  the  same  as  the 
attorney-general  is  in  England.  It  was  decided  in  the  parliament  of  Paris,  in  1685, 
that  the  king's  advocate  of  France  might  at  the  same  time  be  a  judge ;  and  so  in 
like  manner  it  was  allowed  in  Scotland,  where  sir  Jobn  Nisbet  and  sir  William 
Oliphant  were  lord  advocates  and  lords  of  session  at  the  same  time. — Beatson. 

^DILES,  magistrates  of  Rome,  firat  created  492  B.C.  There  were  three  degrees  of 
these  officers,  and  the  functions  of  the  principal  were  similar  to  our  justices  of  the 
peace.  The  plebeian  sediles  presided  over  the  more  minute  affairs  of  the  state,  good 
order,  and  the  reparation  of  the  streets.  Thej  procured  all  the  provisions  of  the 
city,  and  executed  the  decrees  of  the  people. —  Varro, 

ENIGMA.  The  origin  of  the  senigma  is  doubtful :  Gale  thinks  that  the  Jews  borrowed 
their  enigmatical  forms  of  speech  from  the  Egyptians.  The  philosophy  of  the 
Druids  was  altogether  eenigmatical.  In  Nero's  time,  the  Romans  were  often  obliged 
to  have  recourse  to  this  method  of  concealing  truth  under  obscure  language.  The 
following  epitaph  on  Fair  Rosamond  is  an  elegant  specimen  of  the  senigma : — 

Hio  Jaoet  Roea  munda,  non  Roaa  mundi  ; 
Non  redolet,  sed  olet,  qum  redolere  aolet. 

jEOLIAN  harp.  The  invention  of  this  instrument  is  ascribed  to  Kircher,  1653  ; 
but  Richardson  proves  it  to  have  been  known  at  an  earlier  period  than  his  time. — 
Dissertation  on  the  Customs  of  the  East.  There  is  a  Rabbinical  story  of  the  aerial 
harmony  of  the  harp  of  David,  which,  when  hung  up  at  night,  was  played  upon  by 
the  north  wind. — Baruoh, 

AERONAUTICS.  To  lord  Bacon,  the  prophet  of  art,  as  Walpole  calls  him,  has  been 
attributed  the  first  suggestion  of  the  true  theory  of  balloons.  The  ancient  specula- 
tions about  artificial  wings,  whereby  a  man  might  fly  as  well  as  a  bird,  refuted  by 
Borelli,  1670.  Mr.  Henry  Cavendish  ascertained  that  inflammable  air  is  at  least 
seven  times  lighter  than  common  air,  1766.  The  true  doctrine  of  aeronautics 
announced  in  France  by  the  two  brothers  Montgolfier,  1782. — See  Balloon, 


ThermA,  Xenia,  Cyphara,  and  other 
cities,  and  destroy  with  fire  all  the 
country  they  inyade  .  .  .  b.c.  801 
They  next  invite  the  kings  of  Maoedon, 
Syria  and  Sparta,  to  coalesce  with  them 
BgainM  the  Romans  ....  195 
They  seize  Calchis,  Sparta,  and  I>eme- 

trias,  in  Thessaly  ....  194 
Theh'  defeat  near  Thermopylft  .  .  .  193 
They  lose  Lamia  and  Amphissa  .  .  192 
Made  a  provinoe  of  Rome  .  .    .  146 


^ES []  10  ] APR 

^SOP'S  FABLES.  Written  by  the  celebrated  fabulist,  the  supposed  inventor  of  this 
species  of  entertainment  and  instruction,  about  540  b.c.  ^sop's  Fables  are,  no 
doubt,  a  compilation  of  all  the  fables  and  apologues  of  wits  both  before  and  after  his 
own  time,  conjointly  with  his  own. — Plutarch. 

^ETHIOPIA.     The  inhabitants  were   little  known  to  the  ancients,  though  Homer  has 
,  styled  them  the  justest  of  men,  and  the  favourites  of  the  deities.     They  were  the 
first  inhabitants  of  the  earth. — Diod.    And  first  to  worship  the  gods ;  on  which 
account,  some  say^  their  country  had  never  been  invaded. 

JSTOLIA.  l*his  country  was  named  after  i£tolas  of  Elis^  who,  having  accidentally 
killed  a  son  of  Phoroneus,  king  of  Argos,  left  the  Peloponnesus,  and  settled  here. 
The  inhabitants  were  very  little  known  to  the  rest  of  Greece,  till  after  the  ruin  of 
Athens  and  Sparta,  when  they  assumed  a  consequence  in  the  country  as  the  opposers 
and  rivals  of  the  Acheeans,  to  whom  they  made  themselves  formidable  as  the  allies 
of  Rome.  They  afterwards  quarrelled  with  the  Romans^  and  were  conquered  by 
Fulvius. 

The  iEtolians  b^;ln  to  ravage  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus     B.C.  S82 

They  dispute  the  passage  of  the  Macedo- 
nians at  Thermopylae  .        .        .        .223 
Acarnania  ceded  to  Philip  as  the  price  of 

peace 218 

Battle  of  Lamia;   the  iBtolIans,  com- 
manded  by  Pyrrhus,  are  defeated  by 
Philip  of  Macedon      .         .         .         .214 
With  the  assistance  of  allies,  they  seize 

Oreum,  Opus,  Tribon,  and  Dryne         .  212 
They  put  to  the  sword  the  people  of 

AFFINITY,  Degrees  of.  Marriage  within  certain  degrees  of  kindred  was  prohibited 
by  the  laws  of  almost  all  nations,  and  in  almost  every  age.  Several  degrees  were 
prohibited  in  scriptural  law,  as  may  be  seen  in  LeviticuSf  chap,  xviii.  In  England,  a 
table  restricting  marriage  within  certain  near  degrees  was  set  forth  by  authority,  a.d. 
1563.  Prohibited  marriages  were  adjudged  to  be  incestuous  and  unlawful  by  the 
ninety-ninth  Canon,  in  1603.     See  Statutes  18  and  25  Henri/  VIII.,  jfc. 

AFFIRMATION  of  the  QUAKERS.  This  was  first  legally  accepted  as  an  oath 
A.D.  1696.  The  affirmation  was  altered  in  1702,  and  again  altered  and  modified 
December  1721.  Quakers  were  relieved  from  oaths  when  elected  to  municipal 
offices,  by  an  act  which  extended  relief,  generally,  to  all  conscientious  Christians  not 
of  the  Established  Church,  9  Geo.  IV.  1828.  Declaration  to  be  made  by  Quakers, 
statute  of  1  Victoria,  1837  :  extension  of  this  act  to  persons  who  were  formerly 
Quakers,  but  who  have  seceded  from  that  sect,  2  Vict.  1838. 

AFFIRMATION  of  theTRUTH.  "Truth  being  of  universal  obligation  on  the  followers 
of  Jesus,  it  follows  that,  with  true  Christians,  a  deliberate,  yet  simple  affirmation  or 
negation  possesses  a  force  perfect  in  its  kind,  and  incapable  of  any  real  augmentation : 
hence  there  arises  a  plain  moral  obligation,  in  conformity  with  the  precept  of  the 
apostle  James,  that  our  yea  should  be  yea,  and  our  nay,  nay :  for  if  a  man  swear  in 
addition  to  his  yea  and  nay,  in  order  to  render  them  more  convincing,  their  force 
becomes  comparatively  weak  at  other  times,  when  they  receive  no  such  confirmation. 
Countenance  is  thereby  given  to  the  notion,  that  the  oath  of  a  Christian  is  more 
binding  upon  his  conscience,  and  therefore  more  credible,  than  his  deliberate  word ; 
and  thus  he  lowers  the  standard  of  the  law  of  truth." — Gumey*s  Peculiaritiet  of  the 
Friends,  1824. 

AFRICA,  called  Libya  by  the  Greeks,  one  of  the  three  parts  of  the  ancient  world,  and 
the  greatest  peninsula  of  the  universe,  first  peopled  by  Ham.  It  was  conquered  by 
Belisarius  in  a.d.  553  el  seq.  In  the  seventh  century,  about  637,  the  Mahometan 
Arabs  subdued  the  north  of  Africa  ;  and  their  descendants,  under  the  name  of  Moors, 
constitute  a  great  part  of  the  present  population.  See  the  several  countries  of  Africa 
through  the  volume.  Among  the  late  distinguished  travellers  in  this  quarter  of 
the  world,  may  be  mentioned  Bruce,  who  commenced  his  travels  in  1768;  Mnngo 
Park,  who  made  his  first  voyage  to  Africa,  May  22,  1795  ;  and  his  second  voyage, 
January  30,  1804,  but  from  which  he  never  returned.  SeeParA.  Richard  Lander 
died  of  shot-wounds  (which  he  had  received  when  ascending  the  river  Nunn)  at 
Fernando  Po,  Jan.  31, 1834.  The  new  African  expedition  under  the  auspices  of 
government,  for  which  parliament  voted  61,000/.,  sailed  from  England  in  1841. 


AFRICAN  COMPANY,  a  siociety  of  merchants  trading  to  Africa.  An  aBsodation  in 
Exeter,  which  was  formed  in  1588,  ga^e  rise  to  this  company.  A  charter  was 
granted  to  a  joint  stock  company  in  1618  :  a  third  company  was  created  in  1631  ;  a 
fourth  corporation  in  1662;  and  another  formed  by  letters  patent  in  1672,  and 
remodelled  in  1695.    The  rights  ?ested  in  the  present  company,  23  Geo.  II.  1749. 

AFRICAN  INSTITUTION,  foonded  in  London  in  1807,  with  a  view  to  the  ciTili- 
zation  of  Africa,  and  to  afford  moral  and  social  instrnctlon  to  its  people— an  immense 
but  laadable  undertaking.  Many  schools  have  been  established,  particularly  at 
Sierra  Leone,  where  the  number  of  scholars,  male  and  female,  is  said  to  approach 
2000.  The  schools  are  usually  well  attended,  and  both  males  and  females  appear 
zealous  to  reap  the  advantages  of  instruction. — Leigh, 

AGE.  Historians  and  chronologers  have,  commonly,  divided  the  time  that  elapsed 
between  the  Creation  and  the  birth  of  Christ  into  six  periods,  called  ages.  The 
first  age  was  from  the  Creation  to  the  Deluge,  and  comprehended  1656  years ;  the 
second  age  was  from  the  Deluge  to  the  coming  of  Abraham  into  the  land  of  promise, 
and  comprehended  426  years,  terminating  in  the  year  of  the  world  2082  ;  the  third 
age,  from  Abraham  to  Moses  quitting  Egypt,  comprising  430  years,  and  ending  in 
the  year  of  the  world  2513  ;  the  fourth  age,  from  the  going  out  of  Egypt  to  the 
foundation  of  the  temple  of  Solomon,  being  479  years,  and  ending  in  the  year  of  the 
world  2992 ;  the  fifth  age,  from  the  bulling  of  the  temple  to  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  424  years,  ending  in  the  year  of  the  world  3416 ;  and  the  sixth  age, 
from  the  Babylonish  captivity  to  the  birth  of  the  Redekmir,  584  years,  ending  in 
the  year  of  the  world^4000,  and  fourth  year  before  the  vulgar  era,  or  4004.  See 
next  article, 

AGE  :  Golden  Aoe,  Middle  Age,  &c.  Among  the  ancient  poets,  an  age  was  the 
space  of  thirty  years,  in  which  sense  age  amounts  to  much  the  same  as  generation. 
The  interval  since  the  first  formation  of  man  has  been  divided  into  four  ages, 
distinguished  as  the  golden,  silver,  brazen,  and  iron  ages ;  but  a  late  author, 
reflecting  on  the  barbarism  of  the  first  ages,  will  have  the  order  assigned  by  the  poets 
inverted — the  first,  being  a  time  of  ignorance,  would  be  more  properly  denominated 
an  iron,  rather  than  a  golden  age.  Various  divisions  of  the  duration  of  the  world 
have  been  made  by  historians :  by  some  the  space  of  time  commencing  from  Con- 
stantine,  and  ending  with  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  is  called  the  middle  age  ;  the  middle  is  also  styled  the  barbarous  age.  The 
ages  of  the  world  may  be  reduced  to  three  grand  epochs,  viz.,  the  age  of  the  law  of 
nature,  from  Adam  to  Moses ;  the  age  of  the  Jewish  law,  from  Moses  to  Christ ; 
and  the  age  of  grace,  from  Christ  to  the  present  year. 

AGE,  OF.  In  England  the  minority  of  a  male  terminates  at  twenty-one,  and  of  a 
female  in  some  cases,  as  that  of  a  queen,  at  eighteen.  In  1547,  the  majority  of 
Edward  YI.  was,  by  the  will  of  his  &ther,  fixed  at  eighteen  years ;  previously  to 
completing  which  age,  Henry  YIII.  had  himself  assumed  the  reins  of  government, 
in  1509.  A  male  of  twelve  may  take  the  oath  of  allegiance ;  at  fourteen  he  may 
consent  to  a  marriage,  or  choose  a  guardian,  or  make  a  will;  at  seventeen 
he  may  be  an  executor,  and  at  twenty-one  he  is  of  age.  A  female  at  twelve  may 
consent  to  a  marriage  $  at  fourteen  she  may  choose  a  guardian,  and  at  twenty-one 
she  is  of  age. 

AGINCOURT,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  and  English  armies,  gained  by  Henry 
V. — one  of  the  most  glorious  of  our  victories.  Of  the  French,  there  were  10,000 
killed,  and  14,000  were  taken  prisoners,  the  English  losing  only  100  men.  Among 
the  prisoners  were  the  dukes  of  Orleans  and  Bourbon,  and  7000  barons,  knights, 
and  gentlemen,  and  men  more  numerous  than  the  British  themselves.  Among 
the  slain  were  the  dukes  of  Alen9on,  Brabant  and  Bar,  the  archbishop  of  Sen?, 
one  marshal,  thirteen  earls,  ninety-two  barons,  and  1500  knights,  Oct.  25,  1415. 
— Goldsmith. 

AGITATORS,  in  English  history,  officers  appointed  by  the  army  to  take  care  of  its 
interests :  each  troop  or  company  had  two,  instituted  by  Cromwell,  1647.  The 
Protector  himself  was,  however,  obliged  to  repress  the  power  and  influence  of 
the  agitators,  owing  to  the  sedition  they  excited.  At  a  review  he  seized  the 
ringleaders  of  a  mutiny,  shot  one  instantly,  in  the  presence  of  his  companions 
and  the  forces  on  the  ground,  and  thus,  by  a  bold  act,  restored  the  discipline  of 
the  army. — Hume. 


AGR 


[123 


AGR 


AGRA,  Fortress  of,  termed  the  key  of  Hindoetan,  surrendered,  in  the  war  with  the 
Mahrattas,  to  the  British  forces,  Oct  17,  1803.  This  was  once  the  most  splendid 
of  all  the  Indian  cities,  and  now  exhibits  the  most  ma^ificent  ruins.  In  the  17th 
century  the  great  mogul  frequently  resided  here  ;  his  palaces,  and  those  of  the 
Omrahs,  were  very  numerous ;  Agra  then  contained  above  60  caravanserais,  800 
baths,  and  700  mosques. — See  Mausoleums, 

AGRARIAN  LAW,  Agraria  Lex,  This  was  an  equal  division  among  the  Roman 
people  of  all  the  lands  which  they  acquired  by  conquest,  limiting  the  acres  which 
each  person  should  enjoy,  first  proposed  by  Sp.  Cassius,  to  gain  the  favour  of  the 
citizens,  486  b.c.  It  was  enacted  under  the  tribune  Tiberius  Gracchus,  132  b.c.  ; 
but  this  law  at  last  proved  fetal  to  the  freedom  of  Rome  under  Julius  Cssar. — 
Livy ;    Vossius, 

AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES.  The  first  society  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture 
in  the  British  Isles,  of  whose  history  we  have  any  account,  was  the  Society  of 
Improvers  of  Agriculture  in  Scotland,  instituted  in  1723.  The  establishment  of  the 
Dublin  Agricultural  Society ,  in  1749,  gave  a  stimulus  to  agriculture  in  Ireland  ;  but 
the  origin  of  this  society  may  be  traced  as  early  as  1731,  when  Mr.  Prior,  of  Rath- 
downey.  Queen's  County,  and  a  number  of  gentlemen,  associated  themselves  for  the 
improvement  of  husbandry.  Miss  Plumptre  considers  this  the  first  association  of  the 
kind  formed  within  the  British  dominions ;  but  she  errs  :  societies  for  the  promotion 
of  agriculture  multiplied  in  every  direction  during  the  eighteenth  century ;  among 
them  the  highest  rank  may  be  claimed  for  the  Bath  and  West  of  England  Society, 
in  1777,  and  the  Highland  Society  of  Scotland,  in  1793.  The  London  Board  of 
Agriculture  was  established,  by  act  of  parliament,  same  year.  The  good  and 
illustrious  Francis,  duke  of  Bedford,  who  died  March  2,  1802,  was  a  great  promoter 
and  patron  of  agriculture ;  and  the  fine  statue  to  his  memory  by  Westmacott,  in 
Russell-square,  London,  represents  him  grasping  corn  with  one  hand,  and  resting  the 
other  on  a  plough. 

AGRICULTURE.  The  science  of  agriculture  may  be  traced  to  the  period  immediately 
succeeding  the  Deluge.  In  China  and  the  eastern  countries  it  was,  perhaps,  coeval 
with  their  early  plantation  and  government.  Of  the  agriculture  of  the  ancients 
little  is  known.  Brought  into  England  by  the  Romans,  as  a  science,  about  a.d.  27. 
The  following  presents  an  official  account  of  the  cultivated,  uncultivated,  and  unpro- 
fitable land  of  the  United  Kingdom,  from  the  Third  Report  of  the  Emigration 
Committee : — 


Countriea. 

Galtivated. 

Waitea 

capable  of 

Improvement. 

Unprofitable. 

TotaL 

England  .... 

Wales 

Scotland  .... 
Ireland    .... 
British  Tnlands    . 

ACRBa. 

25,632,000 
3,117,000 
6,266,(^00 

12.125,280 
383,690 

ACRXS. 

3,454.000 

530,000 

5,950.000 

4,900,000 

166,000 

ACRBa. 

3,256.400 
1,105,000 
8,523,930 
2,416.664 
569,469 

ACRSa, 

32,342.400 

4,752,000 

19,738,930 

19,441,944 

1.119,159 

46,622,970 

16,000,000 

15,871,463 

77,394,433 

These  numbers  are  considerably  below  some  former  computations,  but  the  quantities 
may  perhaps  be  correct  in  relation  to  each  other.  Much  of  the  waste  land  of  the 
three  countries  has  been  brought  into  cultivation  in  the  few  years  that  have  elapsed 
since  the  above  report  was  made.  At  that  period  it  was  computed  that  the  soil  of 
the  United  Kingdom  was  annually  cropped  in  the  following  proportions : — 


ACRAS. 

ACRK8. 

Wheat 

7,000,000 

Brought  forward    .         .  21,210,000 

Barley  and  rye          .        .         .    . 

1,960,000 

Nursery-grounds       .        .        .    .        90,000 

Potatoes,  oats,  and  beans 

6,500,000 

Inclosed  fruit,  flower,  kitchen,  and 

Turnips,  cabbages,  and  other  vege- 

other gardens    ....       110,000 

tables        

1.160,000 

Pleasure-grounds     .        .         .    .       100,000 

Clover,  rye-grass,  &c. 

1,750,000 

Land  depastured  by  cattle    .        .  21,000,000 

Fallow 

2,800,000 

Hedge-rows,  copses,  and  woods     .    2,000,000 

llop-grounds 

60,000 

Ways)  water,  &o.                   .        .    2,100.000 

21,210,000 

Cultivated  land     .         .  46,540,000 

AOY  C  13  ]  ALB 

It  is  computed  by  the  Agricaltoral  Committee,  that  the  coltiTation  of  waste  lands 
would  yield  to  the  nation  an  income  of  above  20,000,000/.  a-year.  In  the  Report 
on  the  inquiry  into  the  state  of  the  Irish  poor,  the  commissioners  remark,  that  while 
in  Great  Britain  the  agricultaral  families  constitate  little  more  than  a  fourth,  in 
Ireland  they  constitute  about  two-thirds  of  the  whole  population ;  that  there  were, 
in  1831,  1,055,982  agricultural  labourers  in  Great  Britain,  and  in  Ireland  1,131,715; 
while  the  cultiTated  Und  of  Great  Britain  amounts  to  about  34,250,000  acres,  and 
that  of  Ireland  only  to  about  14,000,000.  There  are  in  Ireland,  therefore,  about 
five  agricultural  labourers  for  every  two  that  there  are  for  the  same  quantity  of  land 
in  Great  Britain.     See  Wheat. 

AGYNNIANS.  This  sect  arose  about  a.d.  694,  and  alleged  that  God  foibade  the 
eating  of  flesh,  assuming  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  to  be  the  authority  upon  which 
the  doctrine  was  founded.  A  revi^  of  this  ancient  sect  now  flourishes  at  Man* 
cheater  and  other  towns  of  England,  and  has  been  public  there  since  1814. 

AILESBURY,  reduced  by  the  West  Saxons  in  571.  St.  O'Syth,  beheaded  by  the 
Pagans  in  Essex,  was  buried  here,  a.d.  600.  William  the  Conqueror  invested  his 
favourites  with  some  of  its  lands,  under  the  tenure  of  providing  '*  straw  for  his  bed- 
chamber ;  three  eels  for  his  use  in  winter ;  and  in  summer,  straw,  rushes,  and  two 
green  ^eesCy  thrice  every  year."     Incorporated  by  charter  in  1553. 

AIR.  Anaximenes  of  Miletus  declared  air  to  be  a  self-existent  deity,  and  the  first  cause 
of  everything  created,  530  b.c.  The  pressure  of  air  was  discovered  by  Torricelli, 
A.D.  1645.  It  was  found  to  vary  with  the  height  by  Pascal,  in  1647.  Halley, 
Newton,  and  others,  up  to  the  present  time,  have  illustrated  the  agency  and  influences 
of  this  great  power  by  various  experiments,  and  numerous  inventions  have  followed 
from  them ;  among  others,  the  air-gun  by  Guter  of  Nuremberg  in  1656;  the  air- 
pump,  invented  by  Otho  Guericke  at  Magdeburg  in  1650,  and  improved  by  the 
illustrious  Boyle  in  1657  ;  and  the  air-pipe,  invented  by  Mr.  Sutton,  a  brewer  of 
London,  about  1 756.     See  Balloon, 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE,  Peace  of.  The  first  treaty  of  peace  signed  here,  was  between 
France  and  Spain,  when  France  yielded  Franche-Comt^,  but  retained  her  conquests 
in  the  Netherlands,  May  2,  1668.  The  second,  or  celebrated  treaty,  was  between 
Great  Britain,  France,  Holland,  Hungary,  Spain,  and  Genoa.  By  this  memorable 
peace  the  treaties  of  Westphalia  in  1648,  of  Nimeguen  in  1678  and  1679,  of  Ryswick 
in  1697,  of  Utrecht  in  1713,  of  Baden  in  1714,  of  the  Triple  Alliance  1717,  of  the 
Quadruple  Alliance  in  1718,  and  of  Vienna  in  1738,  were  renewed  and  confirmed. 
Signed  on  the  part  of  England  by  John  Earl  of  Sandwich,  and  Sir  Thomas 
Robinson,  Oct.  7,  1748.  A  congress  of  the  sovereigns  of  Austria,  Russia,  and 
Prassia,  assisted  by  ministers  from  England  and  France,  was  held  at  Aix-huChapelle, 
and  a  convention  signed,  Oct.  9,  1818.  The  sum  then  due  from  France  to  the 
allies,  was  settled  at  265,000,000  of  francs. 

ALBA.  Founded  by  Ascanius,  1152  b.c,  and  called  Longa,  because  the  city  extended 
along  the  hill  Albantu,  This  kingdom  lasted  487  years,  and  was^  governed  by  a  race 
of  kings,  the  descendants  of  ^neas,  in  the  order  following ;  but  little  of  their  history 
is  known  : — 

Ascanius,  son  of  .fineas  .    b.c.  HAS 

Sylvius  Posthumus 1143 

JEneas  Sylvius 1114 


stream,  is  drowned,  and  hence  this 
river  is  now  called  the  TWer    .        b.c.  885 

Agrippa 

Romulus 864 

Aventinus 845 

Procas       808 

Numitor 795 

Amulius,  the  brother  of  Numitor,  seizes 

the  throne 794 

He  is  restored  by  his  grandson,  Romulus, 

who  puts  Amulius  to  death  .  754 

The  kingdom  is  conquered  by  Tullius 
HostiliuB,  who  incorporates  it  with  his 
Roman  dominions       ....  665 

When  Amulius  dethroned  his  brother,  he  condemned  Ilia,  the  daughter  of  Numitor,  to 
a  life  of  celibacy,  by  obliging  her  to  take  the  vows  and  oflSce  of  a  vestal,  thereby  to 
assure  his  safety  in  the  usurpation.  His  object  was,  however,  frustrated ;  violence 
was  offered  to  lUa,  and  she  became  the  mother  of  twins,  for  which  Amulius  ordered 


Reign  of  Latinus  ....  1043 

Alba  reigns 1038 

Atys,  or  Capetus           ....  1002 
Reign  of  Capya 976 

*  *  * 

Calpetus 916 

Reign  of  Tiberinus 903 

Being  defeated  in  battle  near  the  river 
AWula,  he  throws  himself  into  the 


ALB 


[   J4  ]  ALC 


her  to  be  buried  alive,  and  her  offspring  to  be  thrown  into  the  Tiber,  770  b.c.  fiat 
the  little  bark  in  which  the  infants  were  sent  adrift  stopped  near  Mount  Aventine,  and 
was  brought  ashore  by  Fanstulus,  the  king's  chief  shepherd,  who  reared  the  children 
as  his  own,  and  called  them  Romulus  and  Remus.  His  wife,  Acca-Lanrentia,  was 
sumamed  Lupa  ;  whence  arose  the  fable  that  Romulus  and  his  brother  were  suckled 
by  a  she-wolf.  At  sixteen  yedrs  of  age,  Romulus  avenged  the  wrongs  of  Ilia  and 
Numitor,  754  b.c,  and  the  next  year  founded  Rome. —  Varro, 

ALBAN'S,  ST.  The  name  of  this  town  was  anciently  Yerulam  ;  it  was  once  the 
capital  of  Britain,  and  previously  to  the  invasion  of  Julius  Ceesarwas  the  residence  of 
British  princes.  It  takes  its  present  name  from  St.  Alban,  who  was  bom  here,  and 
who  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  person  who  suffered  martyrdom  for  Christianity  in 
Britain.  He  is  hence  commonly  styled  the  proto-martyr  of  this  country,  and  was  de- 
capitated during  the  persecution  raised  by  Diocletian,  June  23,  a.d.  303.  A  stately 
monastery  was  erected  here  to  his  memory  by  Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  in  793.  St. 
Alban's  was  incorporated  by  Edward  VI.  1552. 

ALBAN'S,  ST.,  Battles  of.  The  first,  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  in 
which  Richard  duke  of  York  obtained  a  victory  over  Henry  VI.,  of  whose  army 
5000  were  slain,  while  that  of  the  duke  of  York  suffered  no  material  loss,  fought 
May  22,  1455.  The  second,  between  the  Yorkists  under  the  earl  of  Warwick, 
and  the  Lancastrians,  commanded  by  queen  Margaret  of  Anjou,  who  conquered  : 
in  this  battle  2500  of  the  defeated  army  perished  ;  fought  on  Shrove  Tuesday, 
February  2,  1461. 

ALBIGENSES.  This  sect  had  its  origin  about  a.d.  UGO,  at  Albigeois,  in  Languedoc, 
and  at  Toulouse  ;  they  opposed  the  disciples  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  professed 
a  hatred  of  all  tiie  corruptions  of  that  religion.  Simon  de  Montfort  commanded 
against  them,  and  at  Bezieres  he  and  the  pope's  legate  put  friends  and  foes  to  the 
sword.  At  Minerba,  he  burnt  150  of  the  Aibigenses  alive  ;  and  at  La  Vaur,  he 
hanged  the  governor,  and  beheaded  the  chief  people,  drowning  the  governor's  wife, 
and  murdering  other  women.  They  next  defeated  the  count  of  Toulouse,  with  the  loss 
of  17,000  men.     Simon  de  Montfort  afterwards  came  to  England.  ■  See  Waldenses. 

ALBION.  The  island  of  Great  Britain  is  said  to  have  been  first  so  called  by  Julius 
Csesar,  on  account  of  the  chalky  cliffs  upon  its  coast,  on  his  invasion  of  the  country, 
54  B.C.  The  Romans  conquered  it,  and  held  possession  about  400  years.  On  their 
quitting  it,  it  was  successively  invaded  by  the  Scots,  Picts,  and  Saxons,  who  drove 
the  original  inhabitants  from  the  plain  country,  to  seek  refuge  in  the  steeps  and 
wilds  of  Cornwall  and  Wales ;  the  Danes  and  Normans  also  settled  at  various 
times  in  England:  and  from  a  mixture  of  these  nations,  the  present  race  of 
Englishmen  is  derived.  See  Britain. — New  Albion,  district  of  California,  was 
taken  possession  of  by  sir  Francis  Drake,  and  so  named  by  him,  in  1578  ;  explored 
by  Vancouver  in  1792. 

ALBUERA,  Battle  of,  between  the  French,  commanded  by  marshal  Soult,  and 
the  British  and  Anglo-Spanish  army,  commanded  by  marshal,  now  lord  Beresford, 
May  16,  1811.  After  an  obstinate  and  sanguinary  engagement,  the  allies  obtained 
the  victory,  justly  esteemed  one  of  the  most  brilliant  achievements  of  the  Penin. 
sular  war.    The  French  loss  exceeded  9000  men  previously  to  their  retreat. 

ALCHEMY.  This  was  a  pretended  branch  of  chemistry,  which  effected  the  transmu- 
tation of  metals  into  gold,  an  alkahest,  or  universal  menstruum,  a  universal  ferment, 
and  other  things  equally  ridiculous.  If  regard  may  be  had  to  legend  and  tradition, 
alchemy  must  be  as  old  as  the  Flood :  yet  few  philosophers,  poets,  or  physicians, 
from  Homer  till  400  years  after  Christ,  mention  any  such  thing.  Pliny  says,  the 
emperor  Caligula  was  the  first  who  prepared  natural  arsenic,  in  order  to  make  gold 
of  it,  but  left  it  off  because  the  charge  exceeded  the  profit.  Others  say,  the  Egyptians 
had  this  mystery  ;  which  if  true,  how  could  it  have  been  lost  ?  The  Arabians  are 
said  to  have  invented  this  mysterious  art,  wherein  they  were  followed  by  Ramond 
Lullius,  Paracelsus,  and  others,  who  never  found  anything  else  but  ashes  in  their 
furnaces.  Another  author  on  tke  subject  is  Zosimus,  about  a.d.  410. — Fab.  Bib, 
GrcBC.  A  licence  for  practising  alchemy  with  all  kinds  of  metals  and  minerals  granted 
to  one  Richard  Carter,  147C. — Rymer^s  Feed,  Doctor  Price,  of  Guildford,  published 
an  account  of  his  experiments  in  this  way,  and  pretended  to  success  :  he  brought  his 
specimens  of  gold  to  the  king,  affirming  that  they  were  made  by  means  of  a  red  and 


AhC  C  ^^  D  ^^^^ 

white  powder ;  but  being  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  be  waa  required,  upon  pain 
of  ezpnlsion,  to  repeat  his  experiments  before  Messrs.  Kirwan  and  Woulfe ;  but 
after  some  equivocation,  he  took  poison  and  died,  August  1783. 

ALCORAN.  The  book  which  contains  the  reTclation  and  eredenda  of  Mahomet :  it  is 
confessedly  the  standard  of  the  Arabic  tongue,  and  as  the  Mahometans  believe, 
inimitable  by  any  human  pen ;  hence  they  assume  its  divine  origin.  It  is  the  com- 
mon opinion  of  writers,  that  Mahomet  was  assisted  by  Batiras,  a  Jacobin,  Sergius,  a 
Nestorian  monk,  and  by  a  learned  Jew,  in  composing  this  book,  most  of  whose  prin- 
ciples are  the  same  with  those  of  Arius,  Nestorius,  Sabelliui,  and  other  heresiarchs. 
The  Mahometans  say,  that  God  sent  it  to  their  prophet  by  the  angel  Gabriel :  it 
was  written  about  a.d.  604.— .See  Mahometigm,  Meeca,  &c. 

ALDERMEN.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Saxon  Ealdorman,  a  senior,  and  among 
the  Saxons  the  rank  was  conferred  upon  elderly  and  sage,  as  well  as  distinguished 
persons,  on  account  of  the  experience  their  age  had  given  them.  At  the  time  of 
the  Heptarchy,  aldermen  were  the  governors  of  provinces  or  districts,  and  are  so 
mentioned  up  to  a.  d.  882.  After  the  Danes  were  settled  in  England,  the  title 
was  changed  to  that  of  earl,  and  the  Normans  introduced  that  of  couni,  which 
though  different  in  its  original  signification,  yet  meant  the  same  thing.  Henry  III. 
may  be  said  to  have  given  its  basis  to  this  city  distinction.  In  modem  British  polity, 
an  alderman  is  a  magistrate  next  in  dignity  to  the  mayor.  Appointed  in  London, 
where  there  are  twenty.six,  in  1242  ;  and  in  Dublin,  where  there  are  twenty-four, 
in  1323.  Chosen  for  life,  instead  of  annually,  17  Richard  II.  1394.  Present  mode 
of  election  established  11  George  I.  1725.  Aldermen  made  justices  of  the  peace 
15  George  II.  1741. 

ALDERNEY,  Race  op.  Through  this  strait  the  French  made  their  escape  after 
their  defeat  at  the  battle  of  La  Hogue,  by  admiral  Rooke,  in  1692.  It  is  celebrated 
for  two  memorable  and  fatal  occurrences  :  Henry  of  Normandy,  son  of  Henry  I.  of 
England,  with  a  vast  crowd  of  young  nobility,  (as  many  as  140  youths  of  the  prin* 
cipal  families  of  France  and  Britain,)  was  overtaken  by  a  storm,  and  all  were  lost, 
in  1119.  The  British  man-of-war  Victory,  of  110  guns  and  1100  men,  was 
also  wrecked  here,  October  8,  1744,  when  the  admiral,  sir  John  Balchan,  and  all 
his  crew,  perished  on  the  rocks. 

ALE  AND  WINE.  They  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Bacchus ;  the  former 
where  the  soil,  owing  to  its  quality,  would  not  grow  grapes. — Tooke't  Pantheon, 
Ale  was  known  as  a  beverage  at  least  404  b.c.  Herodotus  ascribes  the  first  discovery 
of  the  art  of  brewing  barley-wine  to  Isis,  the  wife  of  Asyris.  The  Romans  and 
Germans  very  early  learned  the  process  of  preparing  a  liquor  from  com  by  means  of 
fermentation,  from  the  Egyptians. — Tacitut,  Alehouses  are  made  mention  of  in 
the  laws  of  Ina,  king  of  Wessex.  Booths  were  set  up  in  England  a.d.  728,  when 
laws  were  passed  for  their  regulation.  Ale-houses  were  licensed  1621 ;  and  excise 
duty  on  ale  and  beer  was  imposed  on  a  system  nearly  similar  to  the  present,  13 
Charles  II.,  1660.     See  Beer,  Porter. 

ALEMANNI,  or  All  Men,  (t.  e,  men  of  all  nations,)  a  body  of  Suevi,  defeated  by 
Caracalla,  a.d.  214.  On  one  occasion  300,000  of  this  warlike  people  are  said  to  have 
been  vanquished,  in  a  battle  near  Milan,  by  Gallienus,  at  the  head  of  10,000  Romans. 
Their  battles  were  numerous  with  the  Romans  and  Gauls.  They  ultimately  sub- 
mitted to  the  Franks. — Gibbon. 

ALESSANDRIA,  Battle  of,  between  the  Austro-Russian  army  under  Suwarrow, 
and  the  French  under  Moreau,  when  the  latter  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  4000 
men.  The  French  had  possessed  themselves  of  Alessandria  the  year  before,  but 
they  were  now  driven  out,  May  17,  1799.  It  was  again  delivered  up  to  them  after 
the  battle  of  Marengo,  in  1800. 

ALEXANDER,  Era  of,  dated  from  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  November  12, 
324  B.C.  In  the  computation  of  this  era,  the  period  of  the  creation  was  con- 
sidered to  be  5502  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and,  in  consequence,  the  year 
1  A.D.  was  equal  to  5503.  This  computation  continued  to  the  year  284  a.d.,  which 
was  called  5786.  In  the  next  year  (285  a.d.),  which  should  have  been  5787,  ten 
years  were  discarded,  and  the  date  became  5777.  This  is  still  used  in  the  Abys- 
sinian era,  which  tee.  The  date  is  reduced  to  the  Christian  era  by  subtracting 
5502  until  the  year  5786,  and  after  that  time  by  subtracting  5492« 


ALE Q  16  "]   - ALI 

ALEXANDRIA,  in  Egypt,  the  walls  whereof  were  six  miles  in  circuit,  built  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  332  b.c.  ;  taken  by  Csesar,  47  B.C.,  and  the  library  of  the  Ptolemies, 
containing  400,000  valuable  works  in  MS.,  burnt.  Conquered  by  the  Saracens,  when 
the  second  library,  consisting  of  700,000  volumes,  was  totally  destroyed  by  the 
victors,  who  heated  the  water  for  their  baths  for  six  months  by  burning  books 
instead  of  wood,  by  command  of  the  caliph  Omar,  a.d.  642.  This  was  formerly  a 
place  of  great  trade,  all  the  treasures  of  the  East  being  deposited  here  before  the 
discovery  of  the  route  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Taken  by  the  French  under 
Bonaparte,  when  a  massacre  ensued,  July  5,  1798;  and  from  them  by  the  British 
in  the  memorable  battle  mentioned  in  next  article,  in  1801.  Alexandria  was  again 
taken  by  the  British,  under  general  Frazer,  March  21,  1807  ;  but  was  evacuated 
by  them,  Sept.  23,  same  year.     For  late  events,  see  Syria  and  Turkey, 

ALEXANDRIA,  Battlb  or,  between  the  French,  under  Menou,  who  made  the 
attack,  and  the  British  army,  under  sir  Ralph  Abercrombie,  amounting  to  about 
15,000  men,  which  had  but  recently  debarked,  fought  March  21, 1801.  The  British 
were  victorious,  but  sir  Ralph  Abercrombie  was  mortally  wounded ;  and  after  the 
retreat  of  Menou,  he  was  carried  to  the  admiral's  ship,  and  died  on  the  28th.  The 
command  devolved  on  major-general  Hutchinson,  who  baffled  all  the  schemes  of 
Menou,  and  obliged  him  to  surrender,  Sept.  2  following,  the  victor  guaranteeing 
the  conveyance  of  the  French  (whose  number  exceeded  10,000)  to  a  French  port  in 
the  Mediterranean. 

ALEXANDRINE  VERSE.  Verse  of  twelve  feet,  or  syllables,  first  written  by 
Alexander  of  Paris,  and  since  called,  after  him,  Alexandrines,  about  a>d.  1164. — 
Nouv,  Diet,  Pope,  in  his  Essay  on  Criticism^  has  the  following  well-known  couplet, 
in  which  an  Alexandrine  is  happily  exemplified : — 

'*  A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song. 
That,  like  a  wound-ed  snake,  drags  its  slow  length  a-long." 

ALFORD,  Battle  of.  General  Baillie  with  a  large  body  of  Covenanters  defeated 
by  the  marquess  of  Montrose,  July  2,  1645.  There  was  discovered  some  years 
since,  in  one  of  the  mosses  near  this  place,  a  man  in  armour  on  horseback,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  drowned  in  attempting  to  escape  from  this  battle. 

ALGEBRA.  Where  algebra  was  first  used,  and  by  whom,  is  not  precisely  known. 
Diophantus  first  wrote  upon  it,  probably  about  a.d.  170 ;  he  is  said  to  be  the 
inventor.  Brought  into  Spain  by  the  Saracens,  about  900 ;  and  into  Italy  by 
Leonardo  of  Pisa,  in  1202.  The  first  writer  who  used  algebraical  signs  was  Stifelius 
of  Nuremberg,  in  1544.  The  introduction  of  symbols  for  quantities  was  by  Francis 
Vieta,  in  1590,  when  algebra  came  into  general  use. — Moreri,  The  binomial  theorem 
of  Newton,  the  basis  of  the  doctrine  of  fluxions,  and  the  new  analysis,  1668. 

ALGIERS.  The  ancient  kingdom  of  Numidia,  reduced  to  a  Roman  province,  44  b.c. 
It  afterwards  became  independent,  till,  dreading  the  power  of  the  Spaniards,  the 
nation  invited  Barbarossa,  the  pirate,  to  assist  it,  and  he  seized  the  government, 
A.D.  1516  ;  but  it  afterwards  fell  to  the  lot  of  Turkey. — Priestley,  The  Algerines 
for  ages  braved  the  resentment  of  the  most  powerful  states  in  Christendom,  and  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  Ipst  a  fine  fleet  and  army  in  an  unsuccessful  expedition 
against  them,  in  1541.  Algiers  was  reduced  by  admiral  Blake,  in  1653,  and  terri- 
fied into  pacific  measures  with  England;  but  it  repulsed  the  vigorous  attacks  of  other 
European  powers,  particularly  those  of  France,  in  1688,  and  1761  ;  and  of  Spain, 
in  1775,  1783,  and  1784.  It  was  bombarded  by  the  British  fleet,  under  lord  Ex- 
mouth,  Aug.  27,  1816,  when  a  new  treaty  followed,  and  Christian  slavery  was  abo- 
lished. Algiers  surrendered  to  a  French  armament,  under  Bourmont  and  Duperr^, 
after  some  severe  conflicts,  July  5, 1830,  when  the  dey  was  deposed,  and  the  bar- 
barian government  wholly  overthrown.  The  French  ministry  announcedtheir  inten- 
tion to  retain  Algiers,  permanently,  May  20,  1834.  Marshal  Clausel  defeated  the 
Arabs  in  two  engagements  (in  one  of  which  the  duke  of  Orleans  was  wounded),  and 
entered  Mascara,  Dec.  8,  1836.  General  Damremont  attacked  Constantina  {which 
see\  Oct.  13,  1837  ;  since  when  various  other  engagements  between  the  French  and 
the  natives,  who  are  not  yet  wholly  subdued,  have  taken  place. 

ALI,  Sect  of.  Founded  by  a  famous  Mahometan  chief,  the  son-in-law  of  Mahomet, 
(who  married  his  daughter  Fatima,)  about  a.  d.  632.  Ali  was  called  by  the  Prophet, 
•*  the  Lion  of  God,  always  victorious ;  "  and  the  Persians  follow  the  interpretation  of 


ALI [I  17  ]  ALM 

the  Alcoran  according  to  Ali,  while  other  Mahometans  adhere  to  that  of  Ababeker 
and  Omar.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  first  four  saccessors  of  Mahomet — 
Abubeker,  Omar,  Othman,  and  Ali,  whom  he  had  employed  as  his  chief  agents  in 
establishing  his  religion,  and  extirpating  nnbelieWrs,  and  whom  on  that  accoant  he 
styled  the  **  cutting  swords  of  God,"  all  died  violent  deaths  ;  and  that  this  bloody  im- 
postor*s  family  was  wholly  extirpated  within  thirty  years  after  his  own  decease.  Ali 
was  assassinated  in  660. 

ALIENS.  In  England,  aliens  were  grievonsly  coerced  np  to  a.d.  1377.  When  they 
were  to  be  tried  criminally,  the  juries  were  to  be  half  foreigners,  if  they  so  desired, 
1430.  They  were  restrained  from  exercising  any  trade  or  fauandicraft  by  retail,  1483. 
The  celebrated  Alien  Bill  passed,  January  1793.  Act  to  Register  Aliens,  1795. 
Bill  to  Abolish  their  Naturalization  by  the  holding  of  Stock  in  the  Banks  of  Scot- 
land, June,  1820.  New  Registration  Act,  7  George  IV.  1826.  This  last  act  was 
repealed,  and  another  statute  passed,  6  William  IV.  1836.  The  celebrated  baron 
Geramb,  a  conspicuous  and  fashionable  foreigner^  known  at  court,  was  ordered  oat  of 
England,  April  6, 1812. , 

ALL  SAINTS.  The  festival  instituted  a.  d.  625.  All  SainU,  or  All  Hallows,  in  the 
Protestant  church,  is  a  day  of  general  commemoration  of  all  those  saints  and  martyrs 
in  honour  of  whom,  individually,  no  particular  day  is  assigned.  The  church  of  Rome 
and  the  Greek  church  have  saints  for  every  day  in  the  year.  The  reformers  of  the 
English  church  provided  offices  only  for  very  remarkable  commemorations,  and  struck 
out  of  their  calendar  altogether  a  great  number  of  anniversaries,  leaving  only  those  which 
at  their  time  were  connected  with  popular  feeling  or  tradition.  "  Our  reformers,'*  says 
Nicholls,  in  his  Paraphrase  on  the  Common  Prayer,  **  having  laid  aside  the  cele- 
bration of  a  great  many  martyrs'  days,  which  had  grown  too  numerous  and  cumber- 
some to  the  church,  thought  fit  to  retain  this  day  (All  Saints')  wherein,  by  a  general 
commemoration,  our  church  gives  thanks  for  them  all." 

"ALL  THE  TALENTS"  ADMINISTRATION.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Pitt, 
(Jan.  23, 1806)  Lord  Grenville  succeeded  to  the  ministry,  and  united  with  Mr.  Fox, 
and  his  friends.  This  administration  consisted  of  lord  Grenville,  lord  Henry  Petty, 
earl  Fitzwilliam,  viscount  Sidmouth  (late  Mr.  Addington),  Mr.  Fox,  earl  Spencer, 
Mr.  Windham,  lord  Erskine,  lord  EUenborough,  lord  Minto,  right  hon.  Charles 
Grey  (afterwards  earl  Grey),  right  hon.  Richard  Fitzpatrick,  lord  Moira,as  master 
of  the  ordnance ;  and  Mr.  Sheridan,  as  treasurer  of  the  navy.  The  friends  of  this 
ministry  gave  it  the  appellation  of  **  All  the  Talents,"  which,  being  echoed  in  derision 
by  the  opposition,  becaime  fixed  upon  it  ever  after,  Feb.  5,  1806. 

ALLEGIANCE.  The  oath  of  allegiance,  as  administered  in  England  for  600  years, 
contained  a  promise  "  to  be  true  and  faithful  to  the  king  and  his  heirs,  and  truth  and 
faith  to  bear  of  life  and  limb  and  terrene  honour ;  and  not  to  know  or  hear  of  any 
ill  or  damage  intended  him,  without  defending  him  therefrom."  A  new  oath  of 
allegiance  was  administered  in  1605,  which  was  altered  by  the  convention  par- 
liament in  1688. 

ALLEGORY.  Of  very  ancient  composition.  The  Bible  abounds  in  the  finest  instances, 
of  which  Blair  gives  Psalm  Ixxx.  ver.  8,  16,  as  a  specimen.  Spenser's  Faerie 
Queene  is  an  allegory  throughout ;  Addison,  in  his  Spectator ^  abounds  in  allegories ; 
and  the  Pilgrim^ a  Progrete  of  Bunyan,  1663,  is  perfect  in  this  way. 

ALLIANCES,  Treaties  of,  between  the  high  European  Powers  ;  The  following  are 
the  principal  treaties  distinguished  by  this  name,  and  which  are  most  commonly 
referred  to.     See  Coalition,  Treaties ^  &c. 


Alliance  of  Leipsio  .  .  April  9,  1631 

Alliance  of  Vienna  .      May  27.  1657 

AlUance,  the  Triple  .        .  Jan.  28, 1668 

AUianoe  of  Warsaw  .        .  March  31,  1683 

Alliance,  the  Grand  .        .  May  12, 1689 

Alliance,  the  Hague  .                 Jan.  4, 1717 
Alliance,  the  Qoadmple .        .    Aug.  2, 1718 

AUianoe  of  Vienna  .    March  16, 1731 

ALMANACKS.  The  Egyptians  computed  time  by  instruments.  Log  calendars  were 
anciently  in  use.  Al-mon-aght,  is  of  Saxon  origin.  In  the  British  Museum  and 
universities  are  curious  specimens  of  early  almanacks.  Michael  Nostrodamus  wrote 
an  almanack  in  the  style  of  Merlin,  1566. — Dufresnoy, 

c 


AUianoe  of  Versailles  .         .     May  1,1756 

Germanic  Alliance       .  July  23,  1785 

AUianoe  of  Paris    .  .         .    May  16, 1795 

AUianoe  of  Petersburg  April  8,  1805 

Austrian  Alliance  .  March  14, 1812 

Alliance  of  Sweden  .     March  24,  1812 

AlUance  of  ToplitK  .     Sept.  9. 1813 

Alliance,  the  Holy     .  Sept.  26, 1815 


Poor  Robin's  Almanack   .         .        .    .  1652 

Lady's  Diary 1706 

Moore's  Almanack 1713 

Season  on  the  Seasons    ....  1735 
Gentleman's  Diary  .         .         .    .  1741 

Nautical  Almanack     ....  1767 


ALM C  18  ] ALP 

ALMANACKS,  continued. 

John  Somer'sCalendar.written  in  Oxford  I3d0 
One  in  Lambeth  palace,  written  in        .  1460 
First  printed  one,  published  at  Buda     .  1472 
First  printed  in  England,  by  Richard 
Fynson     ......  1497 

Tybault's  Prognostications        .         .    .  1533 
Lilly's  Ephemeris         ....  1644 

Of  Moore's,  at  one  period,  upwards  of  500,000  copies  were  annually  sold.  The  Sta- 
tioners' companj  claimed  the  exclusive  right  of  publishing,  until  1790,  in  virtue  of 
letters  patent  from  James  I.,  granting  the  privilege  to  this  company,  and  the  two 
universities.     The  stamp  duty  on  almanacks  was  abolished  in  August,  1834. 

ALMANZA,  Battle  of,  between  the  confederate  forces  under  the  earl  of  Galway,  and 
the  French  and  Spanish  commanded  by  the  duke  of  Berwick  (the  illegitimate  son  of 
James  II.),  when  most  of  the  English  were  killed  or  made  prisoners  of  war,  having 
been  abandoned  by  the  Portuguese  at  the  first  charge,  April  14,  1707. 

ALMEIDA,  Battlb  of,  between  the  British  and  Anglo-Spanish  army,  commanded 
by  lord  Wellington,  and  the  French  army  under  Massena,  who  was  defeated  with 
considerable  loss*  August  5,.  1811.  Wellington  compelled  Massena  to  evacuate 
Portugal,  and  to  retreat  rapidly  before  him ;  but  the  route  of  the  French  was  tracked 
by  the  most  horrid  desolation. 

ALMONER.  The  precise  date  of  this  office  is  not  certain ;  but  we  read  of  a  lord 
almoner  in  various  reigns,  and  in  various  countries.  The  rank  was  anciently  allotted 
to  a  dignified  clergyman,  who  had  the  privilege  of  giving  the  first  dish  from  the 
royal  table  to  the  poor ;  or  instead  thereof,  an  alms  in  money.  By  the  ancient 
canons,  all  monasteries  were  to  spend  at  least  a  tenth  part  of  their  income  in  alms  to 
the  poor.  By  an  ancient  canon  all  bishops  were  required  to  keep  almoners.  The 
grand  almoner  of  France  (le  grand  aumonier)  was  the  highest  ecclesiastical  dignity 
in  that  kingdom  before  the  revolution,  1789. 

ALNEY,  Battle  of,  or  rather  single  combat,  between  Edmund  Ironside  and  Canute 
the  Great,  in  sight  of  their  armies ;  the  latter  was  wounded,  when  he  proposed 
a  division  of  the  kingdom,  the  soufii  part  falling  to  Edmund,  a.  d.  1016 ;  but 
this  prince  having  been  murdered  at  Oxford,  shortly  after  the  treaty,  according  to 
some,  by  the  treachery  of  ^dric  Streon,  Canute  was  left  in  the  peaceable  possession 
of  the  whole  kingdom  in  1017. — Goldsmith, 

ALPHABET.  Athotes,  son  of  Menes,  was  the  author  of  hieroglyphics,  and  wrote  thus 
the  history  of  the  Egyptians,  2122  b.  c. — Blair,  But  Josephus  affirms  that  he  had 
seen  inscriptions  by  Seth,  the  son  of  Adam  ;  though,  this  is  doubted,  and  deemed  a 
mistake,  or  fabulous.  The  first  letter  of  the  Phoenician  and  Hebrew  alphabet  was 
alephf  called  by  the  Greeks  alpha,  and  abbreviated  by  the  moderns  to  A.  The 
Hebrew  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Phoenician.  Cadmus,  the  founder  of 
Cadmea,  1493  b.  c,  brought  the  Phoenician  letters  (fifteen  in  number)  into  Greece  ; 
they  were  the  following : — 

A,  B,  r.  A,  I,  K,  A,  M,  N.  O,  n,  P,  2,  T,  T. 
These  letters  were  originally  either  Hebrew,  Phoenician,  or  Assyrian  characters^  and 
changed  gradually  in  form  till  they  became  the  ground  of  the  Roman  letters,  now 
used  all  over  Europe.  Palamedes  of  Argos  invented  the  double  characters,  e,  X,  ^,  B, 
about  1224  b.  c.  ;  and  Simonides  added  Z,  Y,  H,  n,  about  489  b.  c. — Arundelian 
Marbles,  When  the  E  was  introduced  is  not  precisely  known.  The  Greek  alphabet 
consisted  of  sixteen  letters  till  399  b.  c,  when  the  Ionic,  of  24  characters,  was  intro- 
duced. The  small  letters  are  of  late  invention,  for  the  convenience  of  writing.  The 
alphabets  of  the  different  nations  contain  the  following  number  of  letters : — 


English 

.26 

German 

.26 

Greek  . 

.  24 

Turkish 

.  33 

French    . 

.    .  83 

Sclavonic 

.    .27 

Hebrew   . 

.    .  22 

Sandacrit. 

.    .  50 

Italian 

.  20 

Russian 

.  41 

Arabic 

.  28 

and 

Spanish    . 

.    .27 

Latin 

.    .  22 

Persian    . 

.    .  32 

Chinese  . 

.     214 

1 


ALPHONSINE  TABLES :  Celebrated  astronomical  tables,  composed  by  command,  and 
under  the  direction  of,  Alphonsus  X.  of  Castile,  sumamed  the  Wise.  This  learned 
prince  is  said  to  have  expended  upwards  of  400,000  crowns  in  completing  the  work, 
whose  value  was  enhanced  by  a  prefiioe,  written  by  his  own  hand  :  he  commenced 
his  reign  in  1252. 


ALT []  19  ] AMB 

ALT-RANSTADT,  Pe acb  op.  This  celebrated  treaty  of  peace  between  Charles  XI 1. 
of  Sweden,  and  Frederick  Augustas  of  Poland,  was  signed  September  24 »  1706. 
Frederick  Angnstus,  who  was  deposed  in  1704,  was  afterwards  restored  to  his  throne. 

ALTARS,  were  first  raised  to  Jupiter,  in  Greece,  by  Cecrops,  who  also  instituted  and 
regulated  marriages,  1556  b.  c.  He  introduced  among  the  Greeks  the  worship  of 
those  deities  which  were  held  in  adoration  in  Egypt. — Herodotus.  Christian  altars  in 
churches  were  instituted  by  pope  Sixtus  I.  in  135  ;  and  they  were  first  consecrated 
by  pope  Sylvester.  The  first  Christian  altar  in  Britain  was  in  634. — Stowe,  The 
Church  of  England,  and  all  the  reformed  churches,  discontinue  the  name,  and  have 
abolished  the  doctrine  that  supported  their  use. 

ALUM,  is  said  to  have  been  first  discovered  at  Rocha,  in  Syria,  about  a.  d.  1300  ;  it 
was  found  in  Tuscany,  in  1460 ;  was  brought  to  perfection  in  England,  in  1608  : 
was  discovered  in  Ireland  in  1757  ;  and  in  Anglesey,  in  1790.  Alum  is  a  salt  used 
as  a  mordant  in  tanning :  it  is  used  also  to  harden  tallow,  and  to  whiten  bread.  ^  It 
may  be  made  of  pure  day  exposed  to  vapours  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  sulphate'  of 
potash  added  to  the  ley  ;  but  it  is  usually  obtained  by  means  of  ore  called  alum  slate. 

AMAZONIA,  discovered  by  Francisco  Orellana,  in  1580.  Coming  from  Peru,  Orel- 
lana  suled  down  the  river  Amazon  to  the  Atlantic,  and  observing  companies  of 
women  in  arms  on  its  banks,  he  called  the  country  Amazonia,  and  gave  the  name  of 
Amazon  to  the  river,  which  had  previously  been  called  Maranon. 

AMAZONS.  Their  origin  is  fabulous.  They  are  said  to  have  been  the  descendants  of 
Scythians  inhabiting  Cappadocia,  where  their  husbands  having  made  incursions, 
were  all  slain,  being  surprised  in  ambuscades  by  their  enemies.  Their  widows, 
reflecting  on  the  alarms  or  sorrows  they  underwent  on  account  of  ihe  fate  of  their 
husbands,  resolved  to  form  a  female  state,  and  having  firmly  established  themselves, 
they  decreed  that  matrimony  was  a  shameful  servitude  ;  but,  to  perpetuate  their  race, 
they,  at  stated  times,  admitted  the  embraces  of  their  male  neighbours. — QuintUM 
Curiitu.  They  were  conquered  by  Theseus,  about  1231  b.  c.  The  Amazons  were 
constantly  employed  in  wars;  and  that  they  might  throw  the  javelin  with  more 
force,  their  right  breasts  were  burned  off,  whence  their  name  from  the  Greek, 
non  and  mamma.  Their  queen,  Thalestris,  visited  Alexander  the  Great,  while 
he  was  pursuing  his  conquests  in  Asia,  and  cohabited  with  him,  in  the  hope 
of  having  issue  by  so  illustrious  a  warrior ;  three  hundred  females  were  in  her 
train. — Herodotut, 

AMBASSADORS,  accredited  agents  and  representatives  from  one  court  to  another, 
are  referred  to  early  ages,  and  to  almost  all  nations.  In  most  countries  they  have 
great  and  peculiar  privileges  ;  and  in  England,  among  others,  they  and  their  servants 
are  secured  against  arrest.  The  Portuguese  ambassador  was  imprisoned  for  debt,  in 
1653  ;  and  the  Russian,  by  a  lace-merchant,  in  1709,  when  a  law,  the  statute  of 
8  Anne,  passed  for  their  protection.  Two  men  were  convicted  of  arresting  the  servant 
of  an  ambassador.  They  were  sentenced  to  be  conducted  to  the  house  of  the  ambas- 
sador, with  a  label  on  their  breasts,  to  ask  his  pardon,  and  then  one  of  them  to  be 
imprisoned  three  months  and  the  other  fined,  May  12,  1780.—- PAi//tjM. 

AMBASSADORS,  Interchangb  of.  England  has  about  thirty  ambassadors,  envoys, 
.  or  other  high  diplomatic  residents  at  foreign  courts,  exclusively  of  inferior  agents ; 
and  the  ambassadors  and  other  high  agents  from  abroad  exceed  that  number  in  Lon- 
don. Among  recent  memorable  instances  of  interchange  may  be  recorded,  that  the 
first  ambassador  from  the  United  States  of  America  to  England  was  John  Adams, 
presented  to  the  king,  June  2,  1785  ;  and  the  first  from  Great  Britain  to  America^ 
was  Mr.  Hammond,  in  1791. 

AMBER.  Of  great  repute  in  the  world  from  the  earliest  time  ;  esteemed  as  a  medicine 
before  the  Christian  era :  Theophrastus  wrote  upon  it,  300  b.o.  Upwards  of  150 
.  tons  of  amber  have  been  found  in  one  year  on  the  sands  of  the  shore  near  Pillau. — 
Phillips.  Mndi  diversity  of  opinion  still  prevails  among  naturalists  and  chemists, 
respecting  the  origin  of  amber,  some  referring  it  to  the  vegetable,  others  to  the 
mineral,  and  some  to  the  animal  kingdom ;  its  natural  history  and  its  chemical  ana- 
lysis affording  something  in  favour  of  each  opinion. 

AMBOYNA.  Memorable  massacre  of  the  English  factors  at  this  settlement  by  the 
Dutch :  they  were  crueUy  tortured  and  put  to  death  on  an  accusation  of  a  conspiracy 
to  expel  the  Dutch  firom  the  island,  where  the  two  nations  resided  and  jointly  shared 

C2 


AUB 


C20.] 


AME 


in  the  pepper  trade  of  Java»  February  17,  1623.  Amboyna  was  seized  by  the  En- 
glish, February  16,  1796,  but  was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens  in  1802.  It  was 
again  seized  by  the  British,  Feb.  17,  1810  ;  and  was  restored  at  the  peace  of  1814. 

AMEN.  This  word  is  as  old  as  the  Hebrew  itself.  In  that  language  it  means  true, 
faithful f  certain.  Employed  in  devotions,  at  the  end  of  a  prayer,  it  implies,  so  be  it  ; 
at  the  termination  of  a  creed,  so  it  is.  It  has  been  generally  used,  both  in  the  Jewish 
and  Christian  churches,  at  the  conclusion  of  prayer. 

AMENDE  Honorable,  originated  in  France  in  the  ninth  century.  It  was  first  an 
infamous  punishment  inflicted  on  traitors  and  sacrilegious  persons :  the  offender  was 
delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  hangman ;  his  shirt  was  stripped  off,  a  rope  put 
about  his  neck,  and  a  taper  in  his  hand  ;  he  was  then  led  into  court,  and  was  obliged 
to  pray  pardon  of  God,  the  king,  and  the  country.  Death  or  banishment  sometimes 
followed.  Amende  honorable  is  now  a  term  used  for  making  recantation  in  open 
court,  or  in  the  presence  of  the  injured  party. 

AMERCEMENT,  in  Law.  A  fine  assessed  for  an  offence  done,  or  pecuniary  punish- 
ment at  the  mercy  of  the  court.  By  magna  charta  a  freeman  cannot  be  amerced  for 
a  small  fault,  but  in  proportion  to  the  offence  he  has  committed,  9  Henry  III.  1224. 

AMERICA :  See  United  States.  Discovered  by  Christopher  Colombo,  a  Genoese, 
better  known  as  Christopher  Columbus,  a.d.  1492,  on  the  11th  of  October,  on  which 
day  he  came  in  sight  of  St  Salvador.  See  Bahama  Islands.  This  great  navigator 
found  the  continent  of  America  in  1497,  and  the  eastern  coasts  were  found  by 
Amerigo  Vespucci  (Americus  Yespucius).  in  1498  ;  and  from  this  latter  discoverer 
the  whole  of  America  is  named. 

The  memorable  American  Stamp  Act 
passed    ....     March  22,  1765 

The  obnoxious  duty  on  tea,  paper, 
painted  glass,  &c.        .         .       June,  1767 

The  populace  destroy  the  tea  from  ships 
newly  arrived  from  England,  at  Bos- 
ton, and  become  boldly  discon- 
tented       ....         Nov.  1773 

The  Boston  Port  Bill,  by  which  that 
port  was  to  be  shut  up  until  satis- 
faction should  be  -made  to  the  East 
India  Company  for  the  tea  destroyed, 
passed  .         .         March  25,  1774 

The  first  general  congress  met  at  Phila-, 
delphia      .         .         .         .*     Sept.  5,*  1774 

The  revolution  commenced ;  first  action 
between  the  Americans  and  king's 
troops  see  (Lexir^ton)  April  19 

The  colonies  agree  on  articles  of  confede- 
ration and  perpetual  union.  May  20, 

Gen.  George  Washington  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  American  ar- 
mies       ....      June  16, 

Thirteen  colonies  declare  themselves 
independent     .         .         .        July  4,  1776 

[For  the  several  actions  fought  during 
the  war,  see  them  severally.] 

The  independence  of  the  colonies  is  ac- 
knowledged by  France,  and  Franklin 
and  others  are  received  there  as  am- 
bassadors      .         .         .       I^Iarch  21,  1778 

American  independence  is  recognised  by 
Holland        .         .  April  19,  1782 

And  by  England,  in  provisional  articles 
of  peace,  signed  at  Paris    .     Nov.  30,  1782 

Definitive  treaty  signed  at  Paris,  Sept.  3,  17H3 

And  ratified  by  congress        .       Jan.  4,  1784 

John  Adams  was  received  as  ambassador 
from  America  by  George  III.   June  2, 

And  Mr.  Hammond  was  first  ambassador 
from  Great  Britain  to  the  United 
States,  in  .        .         ■        .        . 

[For  other  occurrences,  see  United 
States.'] 


Newfoundland,  the  first  British  colony 
in  this  quarter  of  the  world,  discovered 
by  Cabot,  and  by  him  called  Prima 
Vista 

Virginia,  the  first  English  settlement  on 
the  main  land  .... 

New  England,  the  second,  by  the  Ply- 
.mouth  Qompany 

New  York,  settled  by  the  Dutch        .    . 

A  large  body  of  dissenters,  who  fled  from 
church  tyranny  in  England,  built  New 
Plymouth 

Nova  Scotia  settled,  under  Sir  William 
Alexander,  by  the  Scotch 

Delaware,  by  the  Dutch   .        .        .    . 

Massachusetts,  by  Sir  H.  Roswell . 

Maryland,  by  Lord  Baltimore  .         .    . 

Connecticut  granted  to  Lord  Warwick 
in  1630;  but  no  English  settlement 
was  made  here  till     . 

Rhode  Island  settled  by  Roger  Williams 
and  his  brethren        .... 

New  Jersey,  grant  to  Lord  Berkeley 

New  York  settled,  first  by  the  Dutch, 
but  the  English  dispossessed  them  and 
the  Swedes        ..... 

Carolina,  by  the  English  .        .        .    . 

Pennsylvania,  settled  by  William  Penn, 
the  celebrated  Quaker 

Greorgia  settled  by  general  Oglethorpe,  in  1732 

Kentucky  settled  ....  1754 

Canada  attempted  to  be  settled  by  the 
French  in  1534 ;  they  built  Quebec  in 
1608;  but  the  whole  country  was  con- 
quered by  the  English 

Louisiana  discovered  by  Ferdinand  de 
Sota,  in  1541 ;  settled  by  the  French 
in  171 8;  but  eastward  of  the  Missis- 
sippi was  ceded  to  England,  in  . 

Florida  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in 
1497;  re-discovered  by  Ponce  de  Leon  in 
1 5  i  2 ;  it  belonged'altemately  to  France 
and  Spain ;  ceded  by  the  latter  to  the 
English  in 1763 


1497 

1606 

1614 
1614 


1620 

1622 
1623 
1627 
1632 


1633 

1635 
1644 


1664 
1667 

1680 


1759 


1763 


1775 
1775 


1776 


1785 


1791 


ami:  Q'21  ]  AM"? 

AMERICA,  SOUTH.  The  Spaniards,  as  being  the  first  discoverers  of  this  vast 
portion  of  the  Western  world,  had  the  largest  and  richest  share  of  it.  When  they 
landed  in  Pern,  a.d.  1530,  they  found  it  governed  by  sovereigns  called  Incas,  who 
were  revered  by  their  subjects  as  divinities,  but  they  were  soon  subdued  by  their  in- 
vaders  under  the  command  of  Francis  Pizarro.  The  cruelties  practised  by  the  new 
adventurers  wherever  they  appeared,  will  be  a  reproach  to  Spain  for  ever*.  Span- 
ish America  has  successfully  asserted  its  freedom  within  the  present  century  :  it  first 
declared  its  independence  in  1810 ;  and  the  provinces  assembled,  and  proclaimed  the 
sovereignty  of  the  people  in  July,  1814  ;  since  when,  although  the  wars  of  rival  and 
contending  chiefs  have  been  afflicting  the  country,  it  has  released  itself  from  the 
yoke  of  Spain  for  ever.  Its  independence  was  recognised  by  England,  in  sending 
consuls  to  the  several  new  states,  Oct.  30,  1823,  et  teq. ;  and  by  France,  Sept.  30, 
1830.     See  Brazily  ColufiUfia,  Lima,  Peru^  &c. 

AMETHYSTS.  When  this  stone  was  first  prized  is  not  known  ;  it  was  the  ninth  in 
place  upon  the  breastplate  of  the  Jewish  high  priests,  and  the  name  Ittachar  was 
engraved  upon  it  It  is  of  a  rich  violet  colour,  and  according  to  Plutarch,  takes  its 
name  from  its  colour,  resembling  wine  mixed  with  water.  One  worth  200  ru-dollara 
having  been  rendered  colourless,  equalled  a  diamond  in  lustre  valued  at  18,000  gold 
crowns. — De  Boot  HUt,  Gemmarum,  Amethysts  were  discovered  at  Kerry,  in  Ire- 
land, in  1755. — Burns, 

AMIENS,  Peacb  of,  between  Great  Britain,  Holland,  France  and  Spain ;  the  pre- 
liminary articles,  fifteen  in  number,  were  signed  by  lord  Hawkesbury  and  M.  Otto, 
on  the  part  of  England  and  France,  Oct.  1,  1801 ;  and  the  definitive  treaty  was 
subscribed  on  March  27,  1802,  by  the  marquis  Comwallis  for  England,  Joseph 
Bonaparte  for  France,  Azara  for  Spain,  and  Schimmelpeoninck  for  Holland. 

AMMONITES.  Descended  from  Ammon,  the  son  of  Lot ;  they  invaded  the  land  of 
Canaan  and  made  the  Israelites  tributaries,  but  they  were  defeated  by  Jephthah, 
1188  B.C.  They  again  invaded  Canaan  in  the  reign  of  Saul  with  an  intention  to  put 
out  the  right  eye  of  all  those  they  subdued,  but  Saul  overthrew  them,  1093  B.C. 
They  were  afterwards  many  times  vanquished  ;  and  Antiochus  the  Great  took  Rab- 
boath  their  capital,  and  destroyed  all  the  walls,  198  b.c. — Jotephui, 

AMNESTY.  The  word  as  well  as  the  practice  was  introduced  into  Greece  by  Thrasy- 
bulus,  the  Athenian  general  and  patriot,  who  commenced  the  expulsion  of  the 
thirty  tyrants  with  the  assistance  of  only  thirty  of  his  friends  :  having  succeeded,  the 
only  reward  he  would  accept  was  a  crown  made  with  two  branches  of  olive.  409 
B.C. — Hume's  Essays. 

AMPHICTYONIC  COUNCIL  :  Established  at  Thermopylae  by  Amphictyon,  for  the 
management  of  all  affairs  relative  to  Greece.  X|iis  celebrated  council,  which  was 
composed  of  the  wisest  and  most  virtuous  men  of  some  cities  of  Greece,  consisted  of 
twelve  delegates,  1498  b.c.  Other  cities  in  process  of  time  sent  also  some  of  their 
citizens  to  the  council  of  the  Amphictyons,  and  in  the  age  of  Antoninus  Pius,  they 
were  increased  to  the  number  of  thirty. — Suidas, 

AMPHION.  British  frigate,  of  38  guns,  blown  up  while  riding  at  anchor  in  Plymouth 
Sound,  and  the  whole  of  her  crew  then  on  board,  consisting  of  more  than  two 
hundred  and  fifty  persons,  officers  and  men,  perished.  Sept  22,  1796. — Butler, 

AMPHITHEATRES.  They  may  be  said  to  be  the  invention  of  Julius  Caesar  and 
Curio :  the  latter  was  the  celebrated  orator,  who  called  the  former  in  full  senate 
'*  Omnium  mulierum  virum,  et  omnium  virorum  mulierem,"  In  the  Roman 
amphitheatres,  which  were  vast  round  and  oval  buildings,  the  people  assembled  to 
see  the  combats  of  gladiators,  of  wild  beasts,  and  other  exhibitions  ;  they  were 
generally  built  of  wood,  but  Statilius  Taurus  made  one  of  stone,  under  Augustus 
Csesar.  The  amphitheatre  of  Vespasian  was  built  a.d.  79  ;  and  is  said  to  have  been 
a  regular  fortress  in  1312.  The  amphitheatre  of  Verona  was  next  in  size,  and  then 
that  of  Nismes. 

*  Las  Casas,  in  describing  the  barbarity  of  the  Spaniards  while  pursuing  their  conquests,  records 
many  instances  of  it  that  fill  the  mind  with  horror.  In  Jamaica,  he  says,  they  hanged  the  unresist- 
ing natives  by  thirteen  at  a  time,  in  honour  of  the  thirteen  apostles !  and  he  has  beheld  them  throw 
the  Indian  infants  to  their  dogs  for  food  1  **  I  have  heard  them,"  says  Las  Casas,  **  borrow  the  limb 
of  a  human  being  to  feed  their  dogs,  and  have  seen  them  the  next  day  return  a  quarter  of  another 
victim  to  the  lender ! " 


AMP  C  22  ]  ANA 

AMPHITRITE,  the  ship.  This  vessel,  conveying  convicts  to  New  South  Wales,  and 
having  on  board  103  female  convicts,  vrith  twelve  children,  and  a  crew  of  sixteen  men, 
was  driven  on  the  Boulogne  sands,  in  a  heavy  gale.  Those  on  board  might  proba- 
bly have  been  saved  before  the  return  of  the  tide,  but,  apparently  through  the  cap- 
taints  doubt  as  to  his  authority  to  allow  the  convicts  to  escape  to  the  shore,  and  the 
uncompromising  dignity  of  a  lady  passenger,  all,  except  three  of  the  crew,  were 
drowned,  Aug.  30,  1833. 

AMSTERDAM.  This  noble  city  was  the  castle  of  Amstel  in  a.d.  1100  ;  and  its  build- 
ing, as  a  city,  was  commenced  about  1203.  Its  famous  exchange  was  built  in  1634 ; 
and  the  stadthouse,  one  of  the  noblest  palaces  in  the  world,  in  1648 ;  this  latter 
cost  three  millions  of  guilders,  a  prodigious  sum  at  that  time.  It  is  built  upon 
13,659  piles,  and  the  magnificence  of  the  structure  is,  for  its  size,  both  in  external 
and  internal  grandeur,  perhaps  without  a  parallel  in  Europe.  Amsterdam  sur- 
rendered to  the  king  of  Prussia,  when  that  prince  invaded  Holland  in  favor  of  the 
stadtholder,  in  1787.  The  French  were  admitted  without  resistance,  Jan.  18,  1795. 
The  ancient  government  was  restored  in  November,  1813.     See  Holland. 

AMULETS,  OR  CHARMS.  All  nations  have  been  fond  of  amulets.  The  Egyptians 
had  a  great  variety ;  so  had  the  Jews,  Chaldeans,  and  Persians.  Among  the 
Greeks,  they  were  much  used  in  exciting  or  conquering  the  passion  of  love.  They 
were  also  in  estimation  among  the  Romans. — Pliny.  Ovid,  Among  the  Christians 
of  early  ages,  amulets  were  made  of  the  wood  of  the  true  cross,  about  a.d.  328.  They 
have  been  sanctioned  by  religion  and  astrology,  and  even  in  modem  times  by  medi- 
cal and  other  sciences — ^witness  the  anodyne  necklace,  &c.  The  pope  and  Catholic 
clergy  make  and  sell  amulets  and  charms  even  to  this  day. — Ashe. 

ANABAPTISTS.  This  sect  arose  about  a.d.  1525,  and  was  known  in  England  before 
1549.  John  of  Leyden,  Muncer,  Storck,  and  other  German  enthusiasts,  about  the 
time  of  the  reformation,  spread  its  doctrines.  The  anabaptists  of  Munster  (who  are, 
of  course,  properly  distinguished  from  the  existing  mild  sect  of  this  name  in  Eng- 
land) taught  tiiat  infant  baptism  was  a  contrivance  of  the  devil,  that  there  is  no 
original  sin,  that  men  have  a  free  will  in  spiritual  things,  and  otlier  doctrines  still 
more  wild  and  absurd.  Munster  they  called  Mount  Zion,  and  one  Mathias,  a  baker, 
was  declared  to  be  the  king  of  Zion.  Their  enthusiasm  led  them  to  the  maddest 
practices,  and  they,  at  length,  rose  in  arms  under  pretence  of  gospel  liberty. 
Munster  was  taken  about  fifteen  months  afterwards,  and  they  were  all  put  to  death. 
The  anabaptists  of  England  differ  from  other  Protestants  in  little  more  than  the  not 
baptizing  children,  as  appears  by  a  confession  of  faith,  published  by  the  representa- 
tives of  above  one  hundred  of  their  congregations,  in  1689. 

ANACREONTIC  VERSE.  Commonly  of  the  jovial  or  Bacchanalian  stram,  named 
after  Anacreon,  of  Teos,  the  Greek  lyric  poet,  about  510  b.c.  The  odes  of  Anacreon 
are  much  prized ;  their  author  lived  in  a  constant  round  of  drunkenness  and 
debauchery,  and  was  choked  by  a  grape  stone  in  his  eighty-fifth  year. — Stanley* 9 
Lives  of  the  Poets, 

ANAGRAM,  a  transposition  of  the  letters  of  a  name  or  sentence ;  as  from  Mary^  the 
name  of  the  Virgin,  is  made  army.  On  the  question  put  by  Pilate  to  our  Saviour, 
*<  Quid  est  Veritas  $**  we  have  tMs  admirable  anagram,  **  Est  vir  qui  adest,"  The 
French  are  said  to  have  introduced  the  art,  as  now  practised,  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  IX.,  about  the  year  1560. — Renault, 

ANATHEMAS.  The  word  had  four  significations  among  the  Jews  :  the  anathema,  or 
curse,  was  the  devoting  some  person  or  thing  to  destruction.  We  have  a  remarkable 
instance  of  it  in  the  city  of  Jericho  (see  Joshua  vi.  17).  Anathemas  were  used  by 
the  primitive  churches,  a.d.  387.  Such  ecclesiastical  denunciations  caused  great 
terror  in  England  up  to  the  close  of  Elizabeth's  reign. — Rapin.  The  church  ana- 
thema, or  curse,  with  excommunication,  and  other  severities  of  the  Romish  religion, 
are  still  practised  in  catholic  countries  to  this  day. — Ashe, 

ANATOMY.  The  structure  of  the  human  body  was  made  part  of  the  philosophical 
investigations  of  Plato  and  Xenophon ;  and  it  became  a  branch  of  medical  art  under 
Hippocrates,  about  420  b.c.  But  Erasistratus  and  Herophilus  may  be  regarded  as 
being  the  fathers  of  anatomy :  they  were  the  first  to  dissect  the  human  form,  as 
anatomical  research  had  been  confined  to  brutes  only :  it  is  ml^tioned  that  they 
practised  upon  the  bodies  of  living  criminals,  about  300  and  293  B.C.     In  England, 


ANA  C  23  ]  ANO 

the  schools  were  supplied  with  subjects  unlawfully  exhumed  from  greves ;  and,  until 
lately,  the  bodies  of  executed  criminals  were  ordered  for  dissection.  See  next  article. 
The  first  anatomical  plates  were  designed  by  Yesalius,  about  a.d.  1538.  The 
discoveries  of  Harvey  were  made  in  1616.  The  anatomy  of  plants  was  discovered  in 
1 680 FreiruVs  History  of  Physie. 

ANATOMY  LAWS.  The  first  law  regulating  the  science  was  enacted  in  1540 ;  and 
laws  relating  to  it,  and  encouraging  schools,  have  been  framed,  altered,  and  amended 
in  almost  every  reign  to  the  present  time.  A  new  statute  was  enacted,  regulating 
schools  of  anatomy,  3  William  IV.  1832.  This  act  repealed  so  much  of  the  9th  of 
George  IV.  as  stiU  empowered  the  judges  to  direct  the  body  of  a  murderer,  after 
execution,  to  be  dissected ;  **  but  the  court  may  direct  that  such  criminal  be  buried 
within  the  precincts  of  the  jail." — Statutes  at  large, 

ANCHORITES.  Paul,  Anthony,  and  Hilarion,  were  the  first  anchorites.  Many  of  the 
early  anchorites  lived  in  caves  and  deserts,  and  practised  great  austerities.  Some 
were  analogous  to  the  fakeers,  who  impose  voluntary  puni^ments  upon  tbemselvet 
as  atonement  for  their  sins,  and  as  being  acceptable  to  God  ;  and  their  modes  of  tor- 
ture were  often  extravagant  and  criminid.    The  order  first  arose  in  the  fourth  century. 

ANCHORS  FOR  SHIPS,  are  of  aneient  use,  and  the  invention  belongs  to  the  Tuscans. 
— Pliriy.  The  second  tooth,  or  flake,  was  added  by  Anacharsis,  the  Scythian. — 
Strabo,  Anchors  were  first  forged  in  England  a.d.  578.  The  anchors  of  a  first-rate 
ship  of  war  (of  which  such  a  ship  has  four)  will  weigh  90  cwt.  each,  and  each  of  them 
wiU  cost  £450.^/>At//tjM. 

ANCIENT  HISTORY  and  MUSIC.  Ancient  history  oommenoed  in  the  obscurity  of 
tradition,  about  1800  b.c.,  and  is  considered  as  ending  with  the  destruction  of  the 
Roman  empire  in  Italy,  a.d  .  476.  Modem  history  began  with  Mahomet  or 
Charlemagne,  and  has  lasted  about  1200  or  1000  years,  commencing  in  almost  as 
great  obscurity  as  ancient  history,  owing  to  the  ignorance  of  those  times,  a.d.  600 
and  800.  Ancient  Music  refers  to  such  mnsi^  compositions  as  appeared  from 
the  time  of  Falestrini  to  that  of  Bach ;  that  is,  from  the  year  1529  to  1684.  See 
History, — Music, 

ANDRE',  MAJOR,  his  EXECUTION.  This  gallant  and  lamented  soldier  was  an 
adjutant-general  in  the  British  army,  and  was  taken  on  his  return  from  a  secret 
expedition  to  the  American  general  Arnold^  in  disguise,  Sept  23^  1780.  He  was 
sentenced  to  execution  by  a  court  of  general  Washington's  officers,  at  Tappan,  New 
York,  and  suffered  death  Oct.  2,  following.  Andre's  remains  were  disinterred  at 
Tappan  for  removal  to  England  in  a  sarcophagus,  Aug.  10,  1821,  and  are  now 
interred  in  Westminster  abbey. 

ANDREW,  ST.,  martyred  by  crucifixion,  Nov.  30,  a.d.  69,  at  Patre,  in  Achaia.  The 
festival  was  instituted  about  359.  Andrew  is  the  titular  saint  of  Scotland,  owing  to 
HunguB,  the  Pictish  prince,  having  dreamed  that  the  saint  was  to  be  his  friend  in  a 
pending  battle  with  the  Northumbrians ;  and  accordingly  a  St.  Andrew's  X  appeared 
in  the  air  during  the  fight,  and  Hungus  conquered.  The  collar  of  an  order  of  knight- 
hood, founded  on  this  legend,  is  formed  of  thistles  (not  to  be  touched),  and  of  rue  (an 
antidote  against  poison) ;  the  motto  is  Nemo  me  impune  lacessit.  It  was  instituted 
by  Achaius  in  the  year  809,  and  was  revived  by  king  James  V.  in  1540.     See  Thistle. 

ANEMOMETER,  to  measure  the  strength  and  velocity  of  the  wind,  was  invented  by 
Wolfius,  in  1709.  The  extreme  velocity  was  found  by  Dr.  Lind  to  be  93  miles 
per  hour.     See  article  Winds, 

ANGELIC  KNIGHTS  of  ST.  GEORGE.  Instituted  in  Greece,  a.d.  456.  The  Ange- 
lid  were  instituted  by  Angelus  Comnenus,  emperor  of  Constantinople,  1191*  The 
Angelica^  an  order  of  nuns,  was  founded  at  Milan  by  Louisa  Torelli,  a.d.  1534. 

ANGELS.  Authors  are  divided  as  to  the  time  of  the  creation  of  angels.  Some  will  have 
it  to  have  been  at  the  same  time  with  our  world ;  others,  before  all  agpes,  that  is,  from 
eternity.  This  latter  is  Origen's  opinion. — Cavers  Hist,  Literal,  The  Jews  had  ten 
orders  of  angels  ;  and  the  popes  have  recognised  nine  choirs  and  three  hierarchies. 

ANGELS>  IN  COMMERCE.  An  angel  was  an  ancient  gold  coin,  weighing  four  penny- 
weights, and  was  valued  at  6«.  9d.  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  and  at  10«.  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  1562.  The  angelot  was  an  ancient  gold  coin,  value  half  an  angel,  struck 
at  Paris  when  that  capital  was  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI., 
1413.— FToocf. 


ANG 


C21] 


ANI 


ANGERSTEIN  GALLERY,  the  foandation  of  the  National  Gallery  in  London,  was  a 
small  collection  of  about  forty  pictures,  the  most  exquisite  of  the  art ;  purchased  by 
the  British  government  for  the  public  service,  for  j^60,000,  of  the  executors  of  Mr. 
John  Julius  Angerstein,  in  Jan.  1822.  The  exhibition  of  these  pictures  was  opened 
in  Pall  Mall,  in -May,  1824.     See  National  Gallery. 

ANGLESEY,  or  England's  Island  (ey,  in  Saxon,  being  island),  the  celebrated  seat 
of  the  Druids,  was  snbdued  by  the  Romans,  a.d.  78 ;  and  by  the  English  in  1282. 
The  fortress  of  Beaumaris  was  built  by  Edward  I.  to  overawe  the  Welch,  1295.  The 
spot  in  Anglesey  where  Suetonius  Paulinus  and  his  barbarous  legions  butchered  the 
unoffending  Druids,  in  a.d.  59,  is  still  shown  at  a  ferry  called  Porthamel,  across  the 
Menai  Straits. — Phillips, 

ANGLING.  The  origin  of  this  art  is  involved  in  obscurity  ;  allusion  is  made  to  it  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  in  the  most  ancient  books  of  the  Bible,  as  Amos.  It 
came  into  general  repute  in  England  about  the  period  of  the  Reformation.  Wynkin 
de  Worde*s  Treatyse  of  FyssHinge,  the  first  book  printed  on  angling,  appeared  in 
1496.     Isaac  Walton's  book  was  printed  in  1653. 

ANGLO-SAXONS,  or  ANGLES.  The  name  of  England  is  derived  from  a  village  near 
Sleswick,  called  Anglen,  whose  population  joined  Uie  first  Saxon  freebooters.  Egbert 
called  his  kingdom  Anglesland.  Anglia  East  was  a  kingdom  of  the  heptarchy, 
founded  by  the  Angles,  one  of  whose  chiefs,  UUa,  assumed  the  title  of  king :  the 
kingdom  ceased  in  a.d.  792. 

ANGRIA.  This  famous  plrate*s  fort,  on  the  coast  of  Malabar,  was  invested  by  admiral 
Watson,  and  destroyed.  The  pirate,  his  wife,  and  family,  were  made  prisoners  ;  and 
great  quantities  of  stores  which  were  found  in  the  fort,  and  several  ships  in  the 
harbour,  which  he  had  taken  from  the  East  India  Company,  were  adzed,  1756. 

ANHALT,  House  of,  in  Germany,  is  very  ancient  and  distinguished  :  the  best  genea- 
logists deduce  its  origin  from  Berenthobaldus,  who  made  war  upon  the  Thuringians 
in  the  sixth  century.  In  1586,  the  principality  was  divided  among  the  five  sons  of 
Joachim  Ernest,  and  hence  the  five  branches  of  this  house. — Beatson, 

ANHOLT.  Memorable  repulse  here  by  the  British  of  a  Danish  force,  which  exceeded 
4000  men,  while  the  British  did  not  amount  to  more  than  150,  and  yet  triumphed  in 
a  close  and  desperate  engagement,  March  14, 1811. 

ANIMAL  LIFE.  The  body  of  man  was  designed  for  ninety  years,  but  the  average 
duration  of  human  life  falls  infinitely  short  of  that  patriarchal  age.  'Without 
referring  to  ante-  or  post-diluvians,  or  to  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures,  many 
extraordinary  instances  of  length  of  human  life  will  be  found  under  article  Longevity. 
The  following  is  the  duration  of  life  in  the  lower  animals  : — 


The  Horse 
Ox  . 
Cow 
Ass 
Mule 
Sheep  . 


YEARS. 

from  8  to  32 
.  20 
.  83 

.  .  33 
.  18 

.    .  10 


Ram 
Dog     . 
Swine 
Goat    . 
Cat 
Pigeon 


TSAR8. 

.  15 
from  14  to  25 

.  25 
.  .    •    o 

.  10 
•  •      .     o 


Turtle  Dove 
Goose 
Parrots  . 
Raven 
Turtles    )    , 
Tortoises  ) 


TXABS. 

.    85 

.     .    SB 

.  from  30  to  100 

.    .  100 

from  50  to  800 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  This  deception  was  introduced  by  father  Hehl,  at  Vienna, 
about  1774 ;  and  had  wonderful  success  in  France,  in  1788.  It  had  its  dupes  in 
England  also,  in  1789  ;  but  it  exploded  a  few  years  afterwards.  It  was  a  pretended 
mode  of  curing  all  manner  of  diseases  by  means  of  sympaihetio  affection  between  the 
sick  person  and  the  operator.  The  e£fect  on  the  patient  was  supposed  to  depend  on 
certain  motions  of  the  fingers  and  features  of  the  operator,  he  placing  himself  imme- 
diately before  the  patient,  whose  eyes  were  to  be  fixed  on  his.  After  playing  in  this 
manner  on  the  imagination  and  enfeebled  mind  of  the  sick,  and  performing  a  number 
of  distortions  and  grimaces,  the  cure  was  said  to  be  completed. 

ANIMALCULiE,  in  the  semen  of  animals,  first  discovered  by  Leuwenhoek,  1677 
In  the  milt  of  the  cod-fish  are  contained,  he  says,  more  living  animalcules  than  there 
are  people  on  the  whole  earth.  A  mite  was  anciently  thought  the  limit  of  littleness ; 
but  there  are  animals  27,000,000  of  times  smaller  than  a  mite.  A  thousand  millions 
of  animalcula,  discovered  in  common  water,  are  not  altogether  larger  than  a  grain  of 
sand. — Experiments  of  Leuwenhoek,  1677. 


ANI  C  25  ]  ANT 

[IMA.LS,  Crueltt  to.  Several  laws  have  been  enacted  for  the  prevention  of  cmelty 
to  animals.  The  late  Mr.  Martin,  M.P.,  zealously  laboured  as  a  senator  to  repress 
,^  this  odioQS  offence  ;  and  a  society,  in  London,  which  was  established  in  1824,  effects 
much  good  in  this  way.  See  Cruelty  to  Animals*  Society.  Mr.  Martin's  act  passed 
3  Geo.  IV.,  1822.  See  statute  7  &  R  Geo.  IV.,  June,  1727  ;  statute  5  &  6  Wil.  lY., 
Sept.  1835  ;  statute  for  Ireland,  1  Vic,  July,  1837. 

ANJOU,  BATTJ.E  OF,  fought  between  the  English  and  French  armies;  the  latter 
commanded  by  the  dauphin  of  France,  who  defeated  the  English,  on  whose  side  the 
dake  of  Clarence  and  1500  men  perished  on  the  field,  April  3,  1421.  The  university 
of  Anjou,  so  celebrated  for  learning,  was  founded  in  1349. 

ANNATES,  oa  First  Fruits.  They  were  first  exacted  by  Antonius,  bishop  of  Ephesus ; 
but  the  exaction  was  condemned  by  the  council  of  Ephesus,  a.d.  400.  Clement  V. 
was  the  first  pope  who  imposed  annates  on  England,  1306.     See  First  Fruits. 

ANNIHILATION.  The  doctrine  of  annihilation  was  unknown  to  the  Hebrews,  Greeks, 
and  Latins :  the  ancient  philosophers  denied  annihilation  ;  the  first  notions  of  which 
are  said  to  have  arisen  from  the  Christian  theology.—  Dr.  Burnet. 

ANNO  DOMINI ;  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  ;  used  by  the  Christian  world,  and  abbre- 
viated A.D.  This  is  the  computation  of  time  from  the  incarnation  of  our  Saviour 
and  is  called  the  vulgar  era ;  first  adopted  in  the  year  525.  See  Era.  Charles  III. 
of  Germany  was  the  first  sovereign  who  added  **  in  the  year  of  our  Lord"  to  his 
reign,  in  879. 

ANNUITIES,  OR  Pensions,  were  first  granted  in  1512,  when  £20  were  given  to  a 
lady  of  the  court  for  services  done  ;  and  jt6.  I3«.  id.  for  the  maintenance  of  a  gentle- 
man, 1536.  The  sum  of  ^13.  6«.  Sd.  was  deemed  competent  to  support  a  gentleman 
in  the  study  of  the  law,  1554.  An  act  was  passed  empowering  the  government  to 
borrow  one  million  sterling  upon  an  annuity  of  fourteen  per  eent.^  4  &  6  William  and 
Mary,  1691-3.  This  mode  of  borrowing  soon  afterwards  became  general  among 
civilised  governments.  An  annuity  of  2«.  lle^.  per  annum^  accumulating  at  10  fer 
cent.j  amounts  in  100  years  to  £20,000. 

ANNUNCIATION  of  the  Virgin  Mart.  This  festival  commemorates  the  Virgin's 
miraculous  conception,  denoting  the  tidings  brought  her  by  the  angel  Gabriel :  its 
origin  is  referred  variously  by  ecclesiastical  writers  to  the  fourth  and  seventh  century. 
The  day,  the  25th  of  March,  is  also  called  Lady-day,  which  see.  In  England,  before 
the  alteration  of  the  style,  Sept.  3,  1752,  our  year  began  on  the  25th  of  March,  a 
reckoning  which  we  still  preserve  in  certain  ecclesiastical  computations.  The  religious 
order  of  the  Annunciation  was  instituted  in  1232  ;  and  the  military  order,  in  Savoy, 
by  Amadeus,  count  of  Savoy,  in  memory  of  Amadeus  I.,  who  had  bravely  defended 
Rhodes  against  the  Turks,  1355. 

ANOINTING.  The  ceremony  observed  at  the  inauguration  of  kings,  bishops,  and  other 
eminent  personages,  and  a  very  ancient  custom.  It  was  first  used  at  coronations  in 
England  on  Alfred  the  Great,  in  872  ;  and  in  Scotland,  on  Edgar,  in  1098.  The 
religious  rite  is  referred  to  a  very  early  date  in  the  Christian  church ;  by  some 
authors,  to  550,  when  it  was  practised  with  consecrated  oil  as  extreme  unction  (one 
of  the  sacraments  of  the  Catholic  church)  on  dying  persons,  and  persons  in  extreme 
danger  of  death,  and  is  so  done  to  the  present  day. 

ANONYMOUS  LETTERS.  The  sendmg  of  letters  denouncing  persons,  or  demanding 
money,  or  using  threats,  made  felony  by  the  Black  Act,  9  Geo.  I.,  1722. — Statutes 
at  large.  Several  persons  have  been  executed  in  England  for  sending  anonymous 
letters,  imputing  crimes  and  making  exposures  ;  and  the  present  laws  against  these 
practices  are  still  very  severe,  but  not  more  so  than  just. 

ANTARCTIC.  The  south  pole  is  so  called,  because  it  is  opposite  to  the  north  or  arctic 
pole.  A  continent  of  1700  miles  of  coast  from  east  to  west,  and  64  to  66  degrees 
south,  was  discovered  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean  by  French  and  American  navigators 
on  the  same  day,  Jan.  9,  1840 ;  a  coincidence  the  more  singular,  as  the  discoverers 
were  at  a  distance  from  each  other  of  720  miles.  Mr.  Briscow,  of  the  navy,  fell  in 
with  land,  which  he  coasted  for  300  miles  in  lat.  67,  long.  50,  in  the  year  1830. 

ANTEDILUVIANS.  According  to  the  tables  of  Mr.  Whiston,  the  number  of  people 
in  the  ancient  world,  or  world  as  it  existed  previous  to  the  Flood,  reached  to  the 
enormous  amount  of  549,755  millions,  in  the  year  of  the  world  1482.      Burnet  ha» 


ANT  C  26  ]  ANT 

supposed  that  the  first  human  pair  might  have  left,  at  the  end  of  the  iirst  century,  ten 
married  couples  ;  and  from  these,  allowing  them  to  multiply  in  the  same  decuple 
proportion  as  the  first  pair  did,  would  rise,  in  1500  years,  a  greater  number  of  persons 
than  the  earth  was  capable  of  holding.  He  therefore  suggests  a  quadruple  multipli- 
cation  only ;  and  then  exhibits  the  following  table  of  increase  during  the  first  sixteen 
centuries  that  preceded  the  Flood : — 


I. 

.    10 

V. 

.      2,560 

IX.    . 

.       655,360 

xra. 

.       167,142,160 

II.. 

.    .    40 

VI.    . 

.    .    10,240 

X. 

.    .    2,621,440 

XIV. 

.       671,088,640 

III.    . 

.  160 

vn. 

.    40.960 

XL   . 

.  10,485,760 

XV. 

.    2,684,354,460 

IV. 

.    .  640 

vm. 

.    .  163,840 

xn. 

.    .  41,943,040 

XVI. 

.  10,737,418,240 

This  calculation^  although  the  most  moderate  made,  exceeds,  it  will  be  seen,  by  at 
least  ten  times,  the  present  number  of  mankind,  whichi  at  the  highest  estimate, 
amounts  to  only  a  thousand  millions. 

ANTHEMS,  OR  HYMNS.  Hikry,  bishop  of  Poitiers,  and  St.  Ambrose,  were  the 
first  who  composed  them,  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century. — Lenplet,  They 
were  introduced  into  the  church  service  in  386. — Baker,  Ignatius  is  said  to  have 
introduced  them  into  the  Greek,  and  St.  Ambrose  into  the  Western  church.  They 
were  introduced  into  the  reformed  churches  in  queen  Elizabeth's  reign,  about  1565. 

ANTHROPOPHAGI.  Eaters  of  human  flesh  have  existed  in  all  ages  of  the  world. 
The  Cyclops  and  Lestrygones  are  represented  as  man-eaters,  by  Homer ;  and  the 
Essedonian  Scythians  were  so,  according  to  Herodotus.  Diogenes  asserted  that  we 
might  as  well  eat  the  flesh  of  men,  as  that  of  other  animals  ;  and  the  practice  still 
exists  in  Africa,  the  South  Sea  Islands,  &c.  In  order  to  make  trial  whether  there 
was  any  repugnance  in  nature  to  the  feeding  of  an  animal  on  its  own  species, 
Leonardus  Floroventius  fed  a  hog  with  hog*s  flesh,  and  a  dog  with  that  of  a  dog, 
when  he  found  the  bristles  of  the  hog  to  fall  off,  and  the  dog  to  become  full  of  ulcers. 
The  annals  of  Milan  furnish  an  extraordinary  instance  of  anthropophagy  :  a  Milanese 
woman,  named  Elizabeth,  from  a  depraved  appetite,  had  an  invincible  Inclination  to 
human  flesh ;  she  enticed  children  to  her  house,  and  killed  and  salted  them  ;  and  on 
a  discovery  being  made,  she  was  broken  on  the  wheel  and  burnt,  in  1519.  Various 
more  recent  instances  of  this  kind  have  occurred. — See  Cannibalism, 

ANTICHRIST  :  The  name  given  by  way  of  eminence  by  St.  Paul  to  the  Man  of  Sin 
who,  at  the  latter  end  of  the  world,  is  to  appear  very  remarkably  in  opposition  to 
Christianity.  His  reign,  it  is  supposed,  will  continue  three  years  and  a  half, 
during  which  time  there  will  be  a  terrible  persecution.  This  is  the  opinion  of  the 
,  Catholics  ;  but  the  Protestants,  as  they  differ  from  them,  so  they  differ  from  them- 
selves. Grotius  and  Dr.  Hammond  suppose  the  time  past,  and  the  characters  to  be 
finished  in  the  persons  of  Caligula,  Simon  Magus,  and  the  Giiostics  ;  but  the  more 
general  opinion  is,  that  the  pope  is  the  true  anticlunst,  and  accordingly,  at  a  council 
held  at  Gap  in  1603,  they  inserted  in  their  confessions  of  faith,  an  article  whereby 
the  pope  is  declared  to  be  antichrist. — Bossuet, — Brown, 

ANTIMONY.  This  mineral  was  very  early  known,  and  applied  by  the  ancients  to 
various  purposes.  It  was  used  as  paint  to  blacken  both  men's  and  women's  eyes,  as 
appears  from  2  Kings  ix.  30,  and  Jeremiah  iv.  30,  and  in  eastern  countries  is  thus 
used  to  this  day.  When  mixed  with  lead,  it  makes  types  for  printing ;  and  in 
physic  its  uses  are  so  various  that,  according  to  its  preparation,  alone,  or  in 
company  with  one  or  two  associates,  it  is  sufficient  to  answer  all  a  physician  desires 
in  an  apothecary's  shop. — Boyle.  We  are  indebted  to  Basil  Valentine  for  the 
earliest  account  of  various  processes,  about  1410. — Priestley, 

ANTINOMIANS,  the  name  first  applied  by  Luther  to  John  Agricola,  in  1538.  The 
Antinomians  trust  in  the  gospel,  and  not  in  their  deeds  ;  and  hold  that  crimes  are 
not  crimes  when  committed  by  them,  that  their  own  good  works  are  of  no  effect ;  that 
no  man  should  be  troubled  in  conscience  for  sin,  and  other  equally  absurd  doctrines. 

ANTIOCH,  built  by  Seleucus,  after  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  301  b.c.  In  one  day,  100,000 
of  its  people  were  slain  by  the  Jews,  145  b.c.  In  this  city,  once  the  capital  of  Syria, 
the  disciples  of  the  Redeemer  were  first  called  Christians.  The  Era  of  Antioch  is  much 
used  by  the  early  Christian  writers  attached  to  the  churches  of  Antioch  and 
Alexandria :  it  placed  the  creation  5492  years  b.c. 

ANTIPODES.  Plato  is  said  to  be  the  first  who  thought  it  possible  that  antipodes 
existed,  about  368  b.c.    Boniface,  archbishop  of  Mentz,  legate  of  pope  Zachary,  Is 


ANT []  27  3 APO 

said  to  have  denounced  a  bishop  as  a  heretic  for  maintaining  tiiia  doctrine,  a.d.  741 . 
The  antipodes  of  England  lie  to  the  south-east  of  New  Zealand ;  and  near  the  spot 
is  a  small  island,  called  Antipodes  Island. — Brookea, 

ANTIQUARIES,  and  ANTIQUE.  The  term  antique  is  applied  to  the  prodactions 
of  the  arts  from  the  age  of  Alexander  to  the  time  of  the  irruption  of  the  Goths  into 
Italy,  in  a.d.  400.  A  college  of  antiquaries  is  said  to  have  existed  in  Ireland  700 
years  B.C. ;  but  this  has  very  little  pretensions  to  credit.  A  society  was  founded  by 
archbishop  Parker,  Camden,  Stowe,  and  others,  in  1572. — Spelman,  Application 
was  made  in  1589  to  Elizabeth  for  a  charter,  but  her  death  ensaed,  and  her  snccessor, 
James  I.,  was  far  from  favouring  the  design.  In  1717  this  society  was  revived,  and 
in  1751  it  received  its  charter  of  incorporation  from  George  II.  It  began  to  publish 
its  discoveries  &c.,  under  the  title  of  Archmologia,  in  1770.  The  Society  of 
Antiquaries  of  Edinburgh  was  founded  in  1780. 

ANTI-TRINITARIANS.  Theodotus  of  Byzantium  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first 
who  advocated  the  simple  humanity  of  Jesus,  at  the  close  of  the  second  century. 
This  doctrine  spread  widely  after  the  reformation,  when  it  was  adopted  by  Laelius 
and  Faustus  Socinus. — Bayle»     See  Ariantt  Sociniantf  and  Unitarians. 

ANTOIGN,  £attle  of,  between  the  central  army  of  the  Frencb  and  the  allies,  in 
which  4,500  Austrians  and  Prussians  were  killed,  3,500  taken  prisoners,  and  600 
emigrants  shut  up  in  Longwy  ;  900  French  were  killed  in  the  action ;  thirty  pieces  of 
battering-cannon  and  howitzers,  with  all  the  baggage  of  the  combined  army,  were 
captured^  August  13,  1792. 

ANTWERP.  First  mentioned  in  history  in  a.d.  517.  Its  fine  exchange  built  in  1531. 
Taken  after  a  long  and  memorable  siege  by  the  prince  of  Parma,  in  1585.  It  was 
then  the  chief  mart  of  Flemish  commerce,  but  the  civil  wars  caused  by  the  tyranny 
of  Philip  II.  drove  the  trade  to  Amsterdam.  The  remarkable  crucifix  of  bronze, 
thirty-three  feet  high,  in  the  principal  street,  was  formed  from  the  demolished  statue 
of  the  cruel  duke  of  Alva,  which  he  had  himself  set  up  in  the  citadel.  Antwerp  was 
the  seat  of  the  civil  war  between  the  Belgians  and  the  house  of  Orange,  1830-31. 
In  the  late  revolution,  the  Belgian  troops  having  entered  Antwerp,  were  opposed  by 
the  Dutch  garrison,  who,  after  a  dreadful  conflict,  being  driven  into  the  citadel, 
cannonaded  Uie  town  with  red  hot-balls  and  shells,  doing  immense  mischief,  Oct  27, 
1830.  General  Chasse  surrendered  the  citadel  to  the  French  after  a  destructive 
bombardment,  Nov.  24,  1832. — See  Belgium, 

APOCALYPSE,  the  Revelation  of  St.  John,  written  in  the  Isle  of  Patmos,  about  a.d. 
95. — Irenaus.  Some  ascribe  the  authorship  to  Cerinthus,  the  heretic,  and  others 
to  John,  the  presbyter,  of  Ephesus.  In  the  first  centuries  many  churches  disowned 
it,  and  in  the  fourth  century  it  was  excluded  from  the  sacred  canon  by  the  council 
of  Laodicea,  but  was  again  received  by  other  councils,  and  confirmed  by  that  of 
Trent,  held  1545,  et  geq.  Rejected  by  Luther,  Michaelis,  and  others,  and  its 
authority  questioned  in  all  ages  from  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr,  who  wrote  his  first 
Apology  for  the  Christians  in  a.d.  139. 

APOCRYPHA.  In  the  preface  to  the  Apocrypha  it  is  said,  **  These  books  are  neyther 
found  in  the  Hebrue  nor  in  the  Chtlde,'*— Bible,  1539.  The  history  of  the 
Apocrypha  ends  135  b.c.  The  books  were  not  in  the  Jewish  canon,  but  they  were 
received  as  canonical  by  the  Catholic  church,  and  so  adjudged  by  the  coundi  of 
Trent,  held  in  1545,  et  seq,, — Ashe, 

APOLLINARIANS,  the  followers  of  Apollinarius,  bishop  of  Laodicea,  who  taught 
that  the  divinity  of  Christ  was  instead  of  a  soul  to  him ;  that  his  flesh  was  pre- 
existent  to  his  appearance  upon  earth,  and  that  it  was  sent  down  from  heaven,  and 
conveyed  through  the  Virgin,  as  through  a  channel';  that  there  were  two  sons, 
one  bom  of  God,  the  other  of  the  Virgin,  &c.  ApoUinarius  was  deposed  for  his 
opinions  in  a.d.  378.    . 

APOLLO  Frigate,  one  of  the  finest  of  the  British  navy,  with  about  forty  sail  of 
the  outward-bound  West  India  fleet,  of  which  she  was  convoy,  lost  in  a  heavy  gale 
on  the  coast  of  Portugal,  three  leagues  north  of  Cape  Mondego,  and  with  her 
perished  sixty-one  of  her  crew,  including  captain  Dixon,  the  commander,  besides  an 
immense  amount  of  life  and  property  in  the  merchant  vessels,  April  2,  1804. 

APOLLO,  Temples  of.  Apollo,  the  god  of  aU  the  fine  arts,  of  medicine,  music, 
poetry,  and  eloquence,  had  temples  and  statues  erected  to  him  in  almost  every 


-^ — ' —  -  -  -  -  —    — ^^  - 

APO  C  28  ]  APP 

country,  particolarly  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Italy.  His  most  splendid  temple  was  at 
Delphi,  built  1263  B.C. — See  Delphi.  His  temple  at  Daphnse,  built  434  b.c. 
during  a  period  in  which  pestilence  raged,  was  burnt  in  a.d.  362,  and  the  Christians 
accused  of  the  crime. — Lenglet. 

APOLLON,  an  instrument  of  the  lute  species,  Invented  by  Mons.  Prompt,  1678.  The 
Apollonicon,  the  celebrated  organ  of  Flight  and  Robson,  invented  recently. 

APOLLYON,  the  same  in  Greek  as  Abaddon  is  in  Hebrew,  both  signifying  "  the 
destroyer."  St.  John,  Rev,  iz.  11,  says,  ''And  they  had  a  king  over  them,  which 
is  the  angel  of  the  bottomless  pit,  whose  name  in  the  Hebrew  tongue  is  Abaddon^ 
but  in  the  Greek  tongue  hath  his  name  Apollton.''     a.d.  95. 

APOSTACY.  The  forsaking  the  Christian  faith  was  anciently  punishable  in  England 
by  burning,  and  tearing  to  pieces  by  horses.  A  law  was  enacted  against  it,  9 
William  III.  1697.  In  Catholic  countries  for  a  succession  of  ages  apostacy  from  the 
Christian  faith  was  punished  by  torture  and  death.     See  Inquisition, 

APOSTLES'  CREED.  The  summary  of  belief  of  the  Christian  faith,  called  the 
Apostles'  Creed,  is  generally  believed  to  have  been  composed  a  great  while  after  their 
time. — Pardon.  The  repeating  of  this  creed  in  public  worship  was  ordained  in  the 
Greek  church  at  Antioch,  and  was  instituted  in  the  Roman  church  in  the  eleventh 
century  ;  whence  it  passed  to  the  church  of  England  at  the  period  of  the  reformation, 
in  1534. 

APOSTOLICI.  The  first  sect  of  Apostolici  arose  in  the  third  century  ;  the  second 
sect  was  founded  by  Sagarelli,  who  was  burned  alive  at  Parma,  a.d.  300.  They 
wandered  about,  clothed  in  white,  with  long  beards,  dishevelled  hair,  and  bare  heads, 
accompanied  by  women  whom  they  called  their  spiritual  sisters,  preaching  against  the 
growing  corruption  of  the  church  of  Rome,  and  predicting  its  downfall. 

APOTHECARY,  the  King's.  The  first  mention  of  one  attending  the  king's  person 
in  England,  was  on  Edward  III.  1344  ;  when  he  settled  a  pension  of  three-pence  per 
diem  for  life  on  Coursus  de  Gangeland,  for  taking  care  of  him  during  his  illness  in 
Scotland. — Rymer*8  Foedera,  Apothecaries  were  exempted  from  serving  on  juries 
or  other  civil  ofiices,  10  Anne,  1712.  The  Apothecaries'  Company  was  incorporated 
in  London,  1617.  The  Botanical  garden  at  Chelsea  was  left  by  sir  Hans  Sloaue  to 
the  company  of  Apothecaries,  Jan.  1753,  on  condition  of  their  introducing  every 
year  fifty  new  plants,  until  their  number  should  amount  to  2,000.  The  Dubhn  guild 
was  incorporated,  1745. 

APOTHEOSIS.  A  ceremony  of  the  ancient  nations  of  the  world,  by  which  they  raised 
their  kings  and  heroes  to  the  rank  of  deities.  The  nations  of  the  East  were  the  first  who 
paid  divine  honours  to  their  great  men,  and  the  Romans  followed  their  example,  and 
not  only  deified  the  most  prudent  and  humane  of  their  emperors,  but  also  the  most 
cruel  and  profligate. — Herodian,  This  honour  of  deifying  the  deceased  emperor 
was  begun  at  Rome  by  Augustus,  in  favour  of  Julius  Ceesar,  b.c.  13. —  Tillemont, 

APPEAL  OF  MURDER.  By  the  late  law  of  England,  a  man  in  an  appeal  of  murder 
might  fight  with  the  appellant,  thereby  to  make  proof  of  his  guilt  or  innocence.  In 
1817,  a  young  maid,  Mary  Ashford,  was  believed  to  have  been  violated  and  murdered 
by  Abraham  Thornton,  who,  in  an  appeal,  claimed  his  right  to  his  wager  of  battle, 
which  the  court  allowed ;  but  the  appellant  (the  brother  of  the  maid)  refused  the 
challenge,  and  the  criminal  escaped,  April  16,  1818.  This  law  was  immediately 
afterwards  struck  from  off  the  statute  book,  59  George  III.,  1819. 

APPEALS.  For  ages  previously  to  a.d.  1533,  appeals  to  the  pope  were  frequent  upon 
ecclesiastical,  judicial,  and  even  private  matters,  but  they  were  thereafter  forbidden. 
Appeals  from  English  tribunals  to  the  pope  were  first  introduced  19  Stephen,  1154. 
Abolished  by  act  24  Henry  VIII. —  Finer* s  Statutes,  Appeals  in  cases  of  murder, 
treason,  felony,  &c.  were  abolished  June  1819.  See  preceding  article.  Courts  of 
appeal  at  the  Exchequer  Chamber,  in  error  from  the  judgments  of  the  King's  Bench, 
Common  Pleas,  and  Exchequer,  were  regulated  by  statutes  11  Geo.  IV.  and  1 
WiUiam  IV.,  1830  and  1831. 

APPRAISERS.  The  rating  and  valuation  of  goods  for  another  was  an  early  business  in 
EngUnd  ;  and  so  early  as  11  Edward  I.,  it  was  a  law,  that  if  they  valued  the  goods 
of  parties  too  high,  the  appraisers  should  take  them  at  the  price  appraised.  1282. 


APP  C  29  ]  ARB 

APPRENTICES.  Those  of  London,  obliged  to  wear  bine  cloaks  in  summer,  and  blue 
gowns  in  winter,  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  1558.  Ten  pounds  then  a  great 
apprentice  fee.  From  twenty  to  one  hundred  pounds  were  given  in  the  reign  of 
James  I. — Stowe^a  Survey,    The  apprentice  tax  enacted  43  George  III.  1802. 

APPROPRIATIONS,  in  thk  Church,  were  introduced  in  the  time  of  William  I.  ; 
the  parochial  clergy  being  then  commonly  Saxons,  and  the  bishops  and  temporal 
clergy  Normans.  'These  made  no  scruple  to  impoverish  the  inferior  clergy  to  enrich 
monasteries,  which  were  generally  possessed  by  the  Conqueror's  friends.  Where 
the  churches  and  tithes  were  so  appropriated,  the  vicar  had  only  sach  a  competency 
as  the  bishop  or  superior  thought  fit  to  allow.  This  humour  prevailed  so  far,  that 
pope  Alexander  IV.  complained  of  it,  as  the  bane  of  religion,  the  destruction  of  the 
church,  and  as  a  poison  that  had  infected  the  whole  nation. — Pardon. 

APRICOTS.  Prunus  Armeniaca.  They  were  first  planted  in  England  in  a.d.  1540. 
They  originally  came  fromEpirus ;  the  gardener  of  Henry  VIII.  introduced  them  into 
this  country,  and  some  say  they  excel  here  their  pristine  flavour  and  other  qualities. 

APRIL.  The  fourth  month  of  the  year  according  to  the  vulgar  computation,  but  the 
second  according  to  the  ancient  Romans,  Numa  Pompilius  having  introduced 
Januarius  and  Februariut  before  it  713  b.c. — Peaeham. 

APRIL  FOOL.  The  origin  of  the  jokes  played  under  this  name  is  conjectured  to  rest 
with  the  French,  who  term  the  object  of  their  mockery  un  poitson  d*Avril,  a  name 
they  also  give  to  mackerel,  a  silly  fish  easily  caught  in  great  quantity  at  this  season. 
The  French  antiquaries  have  vainly  endeavoured  to  trace  this  custom  to  its  source. 
It  is  said  that  we  have  borrowed  the  practice  from  our  neighbours,  changing  Uie 
appellation  from  fish  to  fool ;  but,  in  England  it  is  of  no  very  great  antiquitv,  as 
none  of  our  old  plays,  nor  any  writer  so  old  as  the  time  of  queen  Elizabeth,  have 
any  allusion  to  it.     In  Scotland  it  is  termed  hunting  the  gowk  (cuckoo). — Butler, 

AQUARIANS.  A  sect  in  the  primitive  church,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Tatian  in 
the  second  century,  and  who  forbore  the  use  of  wine  even  in  the  sacrament,  and 
used  nothing  but  water.  The  original  occasion  was  the  persecution  the  Christians 
were  under,  for  which  reason  they  met  secretly  and  in  the  night,  and  for  fear  of 
discovery  used  water  instead  of  wine,  when  they  received  the  sacrament,  which 
precaution  became  so  fixed  a  custom,  that  when  they  could  use  it  with  safety,  they 
rejected  wine  as  unlawful. 

AQUEDUCTS.  Appius  Claudius  advised  and  constructed  the  first  aqueduct,  which 
was  therefore  called  the  Appian-way^  about  453  B.C.  Aqueducts  of  every  kind  were 
among  the  wonders  of  Rome. — Livy,  There  are  now  some  remarkable  aqueducts 
in  Europe  :  that  at  Lisbon  is  of  great  extent  and  beauty;  that  at  Segovia  has  129 
arches ;  and  that  at  Versailles  is  three  miles  long,  and  of  immense  height,  with  242 
arches  in  three  stories.  The  stupendous  aqueduct  on  the  Ellesmere  canal,  in 
England,  is  1007  feet  in  length,  and  126  feet  high  ;  it  was  opened  Dec.  26,  1805. 

AQUITAINE,  formerly  belonged  (together  with  Normandy)  to  the  kings  of  England, 
as  descendants  of  William  the  Conqueror.  It  was  erected  into  a  principality  in  1362, 
and  was  annexed  to  France  in  1370.  The  title  of  duke  of  Aquitaioe  was  taken  by 
the  crown  of  England  on  the  conquest  of  this  duchy  by  Henry  V.  in  1418  ;  but  was 
lost  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI. 

ARABIA.  This  country  is  said  never  to  have  been  conquered;  the  Arabians  made  no 
figure  in  history  till  a.d.  622,  when,  under  the  new  name  of  Saracens,  they  followed 
Mahomet  (a  native  of  Arabia)  as  their  general  and  prophet,  and  made  consider- 
able conquests. — Priestley, 

ARABICI.  A  sect  which  sprung  up  in  Arabia,  whose  distinguishing  tenet  was,  that  the 
soul  died  with  the  body,  and  also  rose  again  with  it,  a.d.  207.  There  have  been  some 
revivals  of  this  sect,  but  they  were  confined  to  the  middle  ages,  and  have  not  been 
known  in  civilised  Europe. — Bossuet, 

ARBELA,  Battle  of.  The  third  and  decisive  battle  between  Alexander  the  Great  and 
Darius  Codomanus,  which  decided  the  fate  of  Persia,  331  b.c.  The  army  of  Darius 
consisted  of  1 ,000,000  of  foot  and  40,000  horse  ;  the  Macedonian  army  amounted 
to  only  40,000  foot  and  7,000  horse. — Arrian,  The  gold  and  silver  found  in  the 
cities  of  Susa,  Fersepolis,  and  Babylon,  which  fell  to  Alexander  from  this  victory, 
amounted  to  thirty  millions  sterling;  and  the  jewels  and  other  precious  spoil, 
belonging  to  Darius,  sufficed  to  load  20,000  mules  and  5,000  camels. — Plutarch, 


ARB  C  ^^  D  ^^^ 

ARBITRATION.  Sabmissions  to  arbitration  may  be  a  rule  of  any  of  the  courts  of 
record,  and  are  equivalent  in  force  to  the  decision  of  a  jury,  9  and  13  William  III. 
These  statutes  are,  however,  frequently  unavailing,  owing  to  barristers  being  often 
made  arbitrators,  whereby  a  decision  according  to  law,  and  not  according  to  equity, 
is  enforced. — Gazdey.    See  article  Ouzel  Galley. 

ARBUTUS.  The  Arbutus  Andrachne^  oriental  strawberry-tree,  was  brought  to  England 
from  the  Levant,  about  1724.  Although  this  tree  was  not  much  known  in  London 
until  1770,  yet  the  arbutus  is  found  in  great  plenty  and  perfection  in  the  islands 
which  beautify  the  lakes  of  Killamey  in  Ireland,  where  it  was  probably  introduced 
by  the  monks  who  inhabited  that  part  of  the  country  at  a  very  early  period. 

ARCADES,  OR  Walks  arched  over.  Some  fine  public  marts  of  this  kind  have 
recently  been  built  in  these  countries.  The  principal  in  London  are  the  Burlington 
arcade,  opened  in  March  1819  ;  and  the  Lowther  arcade.  Strand,  was  opened  at  the 
period  of  the  Strand  improvements.  See  Strand,  liie  Royal  arcade,  Dublin, 
opened  June  1820,  was  burnt  to  the  ground,  April  25,  1837. 

ARCADIA.  The  people  of  this  country  were  very  ancient,  and  reckoned  themselves  of 
longer  standing  than  the  moon ;  they  were  more  rude  in  their  manners  than  any  of 
the  Greeks,  from  whom  they  were  shut  up  in  a  valley,  surrounded  with  mountains. 
Pelasgus  taught  them  to  feed  on  acorns,  as  being  more  nutritious  than  herbs,  their 
former  food ;  and  for  this  discovery  they  honoured  him  as  a  god,  1521  b.c. 


Agapenor,  grandson  of  Lycurgns,  ap- 
pears at  the  head  of  the  Arcadians  at 
the  siege  of  Troy       .        .        .    b.c.  1194 

Reign  of  Epitus 1174 

Orestes,  king  of  Mycenae,  arrives  at  Tree- 
Z6ne>  to  be  purified  of  the  murder  of 
his  mother  and  her  paramour    .         .1169 

The  Lacedemonians  Invade  Arcadia,  and 
are  beaten  by  the  women  of  the  coun- 
try, in  the  absence  of  their  husbands  .  11U3 

Aristocrates  I.  is  put  to  death  for  offering 
violence  to  the  priestess  of  Diana        .    715 

Aristocrates  XL  stoned  to  death,  and 
Arcadia  made  a  republic    .        •        .681 


Pelasgus  b^ins  his  reign  .    B.C.  1521 

Lycaon  institutes  the  Lui>ercalia,  in 

honour  of  Jupiter      .         .         .         .  1514 

Reign  of  Nyctimus ^t  i^L 

Of  Areas,  from  whom  the  kingdom  re- 
ceives the  name  of  Arcadia  .  >  «  4c 
He  teaches  his  subjects  agriculture  and 

the  art  of  spinning  wool ;  and  after  his 

death  is  made  a  constellation,  with 

his  mother. — Patuanias    .  •  «  i|e 

The  Lycean  games  instituted,  in  honour 

of  Pan 1320 

Reign  of  Aleus,  celebrated  for  his  skill 

in  building  temples.— Pau#anta«        .  ^c  ^ 

Arcadia  had  twenty-five  kings,  whose  history  is  altogether  fabulous.  The  Arcadians 
were  fond  of  military  glory,  although  shepherds  ;  and  frequently  hired  themselves  to 
fight  the  battles  of  other  states. — Eustathius,  A  colony  of  Arcadians  was  conducted 
by  (Enotrus  into  Italy,  1710  b.c.,  and  the  country  in  which  it  settled  was  afterwards 
called  Magna  Grascia.  Another  colony  under  Evander  emigrated  to  Italy  1244 
B.C. — Idem, 

ARCHANGEL.  The  passage  to  Archangel  was  discovered  by  the  English  in  1553,  and 
it  was  the  only  seaport  of  Russia  till  the  formation  of  the  docks  at  Cronstadt,  and 
foundation  of  St.  Petersburgh,  in  1703.  The  dreadful  fire  here,  by  which  the 
cathedral  and  upwards  of  3000  houses  were  destroyed,  occurred  in  June  1793. 

ARCHBISHOP.  This  dignity  was  known  in  the  East  about  a.d.  320.  Athanasins 
conferred  it  on  his  successor.  In  these  realms  the  dignity  is  nearly  coeval  with 
the  establishment  of  Christianity.  Before  the  Saxons  came  into  England  there  were 
three  sees,  London,  York,  and  Caerleon-upon-Usk ;  but  soon  after  the  arrival  of 
St.  Austin,  he  settled  the  metropolitan  see  at  Canterbury,  a.d.  596.  York 
continued  archiepiscopal ;  but  London  and  Caerleon  lost  the  dignity.  Caerleon 
was  found,  previously,  to  be  too  near  the  dominions  of  the  Saxons  ;  and  in  the  time 
of  king  Arthur,  the  archbishopric  was  transferred  to  St.  David's,  of  which  St. 
Sampson  was  the  26th  and  last  Welch  archbishop.  See  St,  David*s.  The 
bishoprics  in  Scotland  were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  archbishop  of  York  until 
the  erection  of  the  archiepiscopal  sees  of  St.  Andrew's  and  Glasgow,  in  1470  and 
1491 ;  these  last  were  discontinued  at  the  Revolution.  See  Glasgow  and  Si.  Andrew* s. 

ARCHBISHOPS  of  Ireland.  The  rank  of  archbishop  was  of  early  institution 'in 
Ireland. — See  Ferns.  Four  archbishoprics  were  constituted  in  a.  d.  1151,  namely, 
Armagh,  Cashel,  Dublin,  and  Tuam  ;  until  then  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  had 
jurisdiction  over  the  Irish  as  well  as  English  bishops,  in  like  manner  as  the  archbishop 
of  York  had  jurisdiction  over  those  of  Scotland. — See  preceding  article.    Of  the 


ARC [  31  ] ARC 

four  archbishoprics  of  Ireland  two  have  lately  been  reduced  to  bishoprics,  namely, 
Caahel  and  Tuam,  conformably  with  the  statute  3  and  4  W.  lY.  1833,  whereby  the 
number  of  sees  in  Ireland  is  to  be  reduced  (as  the  incumbents  of  ten  of  them,  respec- 
tively, die)  from  twenty-two  to  twelve. — See  Bishops^  Cathel,  Tuam,  Paliium,  &c. 

ARCH-CHAMBERLAIN,  an  officer  of  the  German  empire,  and  the  same  with  our  great 
chamberlain  of  England.  The  elector  of  Brandenburgh  was  appointed  the  hereditary 
arch-chamberlain  of  the  empire  by  the  golden  bull  of  Charles  IV.  in  1356,  and  in 
that  quality  he  bore  the  sceptre  before  the  emperor. 

ARCH-CHANCELLORS.  They  were  appointed  under  the  two  first  races  of  the  kings 
of  France ;  and  when  their  territories  were  divided,  the  archbishops  of  Mentz,  Co- 
logne, and  Treves,  became  arch-chancellors  of  Germany,  Italy,  and  Aries. 

ARCHDEACONS.  There  are  sixty  church  officers  of  this  rank  in  England,  and  thirty- 
four  in  Ireland.  The  name  was  given  to  the  first  or  eldest  deacon,  who  attended 
on  the  bishop,  without  any  power  ;  but  since  the  council  of  Nice,  his  function  is 
become  a  dignity,  and  set  above  that  of  priest,  though  anciently  it  was  quite  other- 
wise. The  appointment  in  these  countries  is  referred  to  a.  d.  1075.  The  arch- 
deacon's court  is  the  lowest  in  ecclesiastical  polity  :  an  appeal  lies  from  it  to  the 
consistorial  court,  stat.  24  Henry  YIII.  1532. 

ARCHERY.  It  originated,  according  to  the  fanciful  opinion  of  the  poet  Clandian,  from  the 
porcupine  being  observed  to  cast  its  quills  whenever  it  was  offended.  PUto  ascribes 
the  invention  to  Apollo,  by  whom  it  was  communicated  to  the  Cretans.  The  eastern 
nations  were  expert  in  archery  in  the  earliest  ages,  and  the  precision  of  the  ancient 
archer  is  scarcely  exceeded  by  our  skill  in  modem  arms.  Astor  of  Amphipolis,  upon 
being  slighted  by  Philip,  king  of  Macedonia,  aimed  an  arrow  at  him.  The  arrow,  on 
which  was  written  *'  Aimed  at  Philip's  right  eye,"  struck  it,  and  put  it  out ;  and 
«  Philip  threw  back  the  arrow  with  these  words  :  *'  If  Philip  .take  the  town,  Aster 
shall  be  hanged."    The  conqueror  kept  his  word. 

ARCHERY  IN  England.  It  was  introduced  previously  to  a.  d.  440,  and  Harold 
and  his  t«vo  brothers  were  killed  by  arrows  shot  from  Uie  cross-bows  of  the  Norman 
soldiers  at  the  battle  of  Hastings,  in  1066  ;  that  which  killed  the  king  pierced  him 
in  the  brain.  Richard  I.  revived  archery  in  England  in  1190,  and  was  himself  killed 
by  an  arrow  in  1199.  The  victories  of  Crecy,  Poitiers,  and  Agincourt,  were  won 
chiefly  by  archers.  The  usual  range  of  the  long-bow  was  from  3000  to  4000  yards. 
Robin  Hood  and  Little  John^  it  is  said,  shot  twice  that  distance.  Four  thousand 
archers  surrounded  the  houses  of  Parliament,  ready  to  shoot  the  king  and  the  members, 
21  Richard  II.  1397. — Slowe.  The  citizens  of  London  were  formed  into  companies 
of  archers  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III. :  they  were  formed  into  a  corporate  body  by 
the  style  of  *<  The  Fraternity  of  St.  George,"  29  Henry  YIII.  ISiS.-^Northouk't 
History  of  London, 

ARCHES  are  traced  to  the  era  of  the  Macedonian  conquest  by  the  best  writers.  The 
triumphal  arches  of  the  Romans  form  a  leading  feature  in  their  architecture.  Those 
of  Trajan  (erected  a.  d.  114)  and  Constantine  were  magnificent.  The  arches  in  our 
parks  in  London  (that  of  Buckingham  Palace  was  modelled  from  the  arch  of  Con- 
stantine) were  erected  about  1828. 

ARCHES  OF  STONE.  In  bridge  architecture  they  were  not  in  use  in  England  until 
the  close  of  the  eleventh  century.  The  Chinese  bridges,  which  are  very  ancient,  are 
of  great  magnitude,  and  are  built  with  stone  arches  similar  to  those  that  have  been 
considered  as  a  Roman  invention.  Bow  bridge  was  built  in  1087.  One  of  the  largest 
stone  arches  hitherto  built  in  England,  is  that  of  the  new  bridge  of  Chester,  whose 
span  is  200  feet ;  it  was  commenced  in  1829.  The  central  arch  of  London  bridge 
is  152  feet ;  and  the  three  cast-iron  arches  of  Southwark  bridge,  which  rest  on  mas- 
sive stone  piers  and  abutments,  are,  the  two  side  ones  210  feet  each,  and  the  centre 
240  feet ;  thus  the  centre  arch  is  the  largest  in  the  world,  as  it  exceeds  the  admired 
bridge  of  Sunderland  by  four  feet  in  the  span^  and  the  long-famed  Rialto  at  Yenice, 
by  167  feet. 

ARCHES,  Court  of,  chiefly  a  court  of  appeal  from  the  inferior  jurisdictions  within 
the  province  of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury ;  it  is  the  most  ancient  consistory 
court,  and  derives  its  name  from  the  church  of  St.  Mary-le-Bow,  London  {de 
Arcubus),  where  it  was  held  ;  and  whose  top  is  raised  of  stone  pillars  built  arch- 
wise.—  Cowell,  Appeals  from  this  court  lie  to  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy 
council,  by  statute  11  George  lY.  and  1  Will.  lY.  1830. 


ARC [I  32  ]  ARG 

ARCHITECTURE  was  cultivated  by  the  Tynans,  about  1100  b.c.  Their  king, 
Hiram,  supplied  Solomon  with  cedar,  gold,  silver,  and  other  materials  for  the  Tem- 
ple, in  the  building  of  which  he  assisted,  1015  b.c.  The  art  passed  to  Greece,  and 
from  Greece  to  Rome.  The  style  called  Grothic  came  into  vogue  in  the  ninth  century  ; 
The  Saracens  of  Spain,  being  engaged  duriug  peace  to  build  mosques,  introduced 
grotesque  carvings,  &c.,  and  the  ponderous  sublimity  of  bad  taste;  which  species 
is  known  by  elliptic  arches  and  buttresses.  The  circular  arch  distinguishes  the 
Norman-Gothic  from  the  Saracenic,  and  came  in  with  Henry  I.  The  true  Grecian 
style  did  not  fully  revive  till  about  the  reign  of  James  I.  1603. 

ARCHONS.  When  royalty  was  abolished  at  Athens,  the  executive  government  was 
vested  in  elective  magistrates  called  archons,  whose  office  continues  for  life.  Medon, 
eldest  son  of  Codrus,  is  the  first  who  obtained  this  dignity,  1070  b.c. 

ARCOLA,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  under  general  Buonaparte,  and  the  Austrians 
under  field-marshal  Alvinzy,  fought  November  19,  1796.  The  result  of  this  bloody 
conflict,  which  was  fought  for  eight  successive  days,  was  the  loss  on  the  part  of 
the  Austrians  of  12,060  men,  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  four  flags,  and 
eighteen  guns. 

ARCOT,  East  Indies,  established  in  1716:  it  was  taken  by  Colonel  Clive,in  1751  ; 
and  retaken,  but  again  surrendered  to  the  British  under  Colonel  Coote,  in  1 760. 
Besieged  by  Hyder  Ali,  when  the  British,  under  Colonel  BaUlie,  suffered  a  severe 
defeat,  Sept.  10,  and  Oct.  31,  1780.     See  India, 

ARCTIC  EXPEDITIONS.  Several  have  been  undertaken  by  England,  and  some  by 
Russia  and  other  countries.  Sir  Martin  Frobisher  was  the  first  Englishman  who 
attempted  to  find  a  north-west  passage  to  China,  a.d.  1576.  Davis's  expedition  to 
the  Arctic  regions  was  undertaken  in  1585.  After  a  number  of  similar  adventurous 
voyages,  Baffin,  an  Englishman,  attempted  to  find  a  north-west  passage,  in  1616. 
See  Baffin* 8  Bay,  For  the  subsequent  and  late  expeditions  of  this  kind,  including 
among  the  latter  those  of  Buchan,  Franklin,  Ross,  Parry,  Liddon,  Lyon,  Back,  &c., 
see  North'  West  Passage, 

ARDAGH,  an  ancient  prelacy,  founded  by  St.  Patrick,  who  made  his  nephew  the  first 
bishop,  previously  to  a.d.  454.  This  prelacy  was  formerly  held  with  Kilmore ;  but 
since  1742,  it  has  been  held  in  commendam  with  Tuam  (which  see), 

ARDFERT  and  AGHADOE,  bishoprics  in  Ireland,  long  united ;  the  former  was 
called  .the  bishopric  of  Kerry;  Ert  presided  in  the  fifth  century.  William  Fuller, 
appointed  in  1663,  became  bishop  of  Limerick  in  1667,  since  when  Ardfert  and  Agha- 
doe  have  been  united  to  that  prelacy.  Near  the  cathedral,  an.  anchorite  tower,  120 
feet  high,  the  loftiest  and  finest  in  the  kingdom,  suddenly  fell,  1770. 

AREOPAGITiE.  A  famous  council  said  to  have  heard  causes  in  the  dark,  because  the 
judges  were  blind  to  ail  but  facts,  instituted  at  Athens,  1507  b.c. — Arund,  Marbles. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek  Areos  pagos,  the  Hill  of  Mars,  because  Mars 
was  the  first  who  was  tried  there  for  the  murder  of  Hallirhotius,  who  had  violated 
his  daughter  Alcippa.  Whatever  causes  were  pleaded  before  them,  were  to  be 
divested  of  all  oratory  and  fine  speaking,  lest  eloquence  should  charm  their  ears,  and 
corrupt  their  judgment     Hence  arose  the  most  just  and  impartial  decisions. 

ARGENT  ARIA,  Battle  of.  One  of  the  most  renowned  in  its  times,  fought  in  Alsace, 
between  the  Allemanni  and  the  Romans,  the  former  being  defeated  by  the  latter  with 
the  loss  of  more  than  35,000  out  of  40,000  men,  a.d.  378. — Dufresnoy, 

ARGONAUTIC  EXPEDITION,  undertaken  by  Jason  to  avenge  the  death  of  Phryxus, 
and  recover  his  treasures  seized  by  the  king  of  Colchis.  The  ship  in  which  Phryxus 
had  sailed  to  Colchis  having  been  adorned  with  the  figure  of  a  ram,  it  induced  the 
poets  to  pretend  that  the  journey  of  Jason  was  for  the  recovery  of  the  golden  fleece. 
This  is  the  first  naval  expedition  on  record  ;  it  made  a  great  noise  in  Greece,  and 
many  kings  and  the  first  heroes  of  the  age  accompanied  Jason,  whose  ship  was  called 
ArgOy  from  its  builder,  1263  b.c Dufresnoy, 

ARGOS.  This  kingdom  was  founded  by  Inachus,  1856  B.C.,  or  1080  years  before  the 
first  Olympiad. — Blair.  The  nine  kings  from  the  founder  were  called  Jnachida,  of 
whom  the  fourth  was  Argus,  and  he  gave  his  name  to  the  country.  When  the 
Heraclidse  took  possession  of  Peloponnesus,  b.c.  1102,  Temenns  seized  Argos  and 
its  dependencies.  Argos  was  afterwards  a  republic,  and  distinguished  itself  in  all 
the  wars  of  Greece. — Euripides,   . 


ARG C33] ARM 

ARGOS,  continued. 


Hypeminestra,  who  saved  her  hiu- 
band,  while  her  forty-nine  sisters  sa- 
crifloed  theirs— (See  Flambeaux)  b.c.  14S5 
Lynoeos,  son  of  Egyptus,  whose  life  had 
been  preserved  by  his  wife,  dethrones 
Danaus     ...•.•  '*** 

Heign  of  Abas 1384 

Reign  of  Prcetus,  twin-brother  of  Aori- 

sius 1*' 

Bellemphon  comes  to  Argos;  the  paasion 

for  him  of  Bthenobaa  •  1361 

RdKllion  of  Acrislus  .    .  1344 

Perseus  leaves  Argos,  and  foonds  My- 
oen«  (which  set)        ....  I31S 


Inachnsfomids  the  kingdom  •    b.c.  1856 

Phoronens  reigns  sixty  years  .  .  •  1807 
Apis  reigns  thirty-five  years  .  .  •1747 
The  city  of  Argos  built  by  Aigaa,  son  of 

Niobe 1711 

Criasus,   son   of  Argus,   suooeeds    his 

father,  and  reigns  ....  1641 
Reign  of  Triopas;  Polycaon  seises  part 

of  the  kingdom,  and  calls  it  after  his 

wife,  Metsenia IMS 

Reign  of  Crotopns     .         .         .         .    .  1M6 

Stheneius  reigns k486 

Gelanor  is  deposed  by  Danaus  .  .  .  1474 
Feast  of  the  Flambeaux*  in  honour  of 

Argos,  in  modem  hidtoiy,  was  taken  from  the  Venetians,  a.d.  1686.  It  was  lost  to 
the  Turks  in  1716,  since  when  it  continaed  in  their  hands  until  1826.  Argos  be- 
came united  in  the  sovereignty  of  Greece  under  Otho,  the  present  and  first  king, 
January  25,  1833.  See  Greece. 

ARGYLE,  Bishopric  or,  founded  a.d.  1200,  Evaldus  being  the  first  bishop;  the 
diocese  was  previously  part  of  the  see  of  Dunkeld  ;  but  was  disjoined  by  pope 
Innocent  111. ;  and  it  ended,  with  the  abolition  of  episcopacy  in  Scotland,  1688. 

ARIANS.  The  followers  of  Arius,  a  numerous  sect  of  Christians,  who  deny  the  divinity 
of  Chbist  ;  they  arose  about  ad.  315.  The  Arians  were  condemned  by  the 
council  of  Nice,  in  325  ;  but  their  doctrine  became  for  a  time  the  reigning  religion 
in  the  East.  It  was  favoured  by  Constantine,  319.  Carried  into  Africa  under  the 
Vandals,  in  the  fifth  century,  and  into  Asia  under  the  Goths.  Servetus  published 
his  treatise  against  the  Trinity,  1531,  and  hence  arose  the  modem  system  of 
Arianism  in  Geneva,*  Arius  died  in  336.  Servetus  was  burnt,  1553.^  Fart/Zo^, 
Hist,  de  rmrStie. 

ARITHMETIC.  Where  first  invented  is  not  known,  at  least  with  certainty.  It  was 
brought  from  Egypt  into  Greece  by  Thales,  about  600  B.C.  The  oldest  trestiRe 
upon  arithmetic  is  bj  Euclid  (7tii,  8th,  and  9th  books  of  his  Elements),  about  300 
B.C.  The  sexagesimal  arithmetic  of  Ptolemy  was  used  a.d.  130.  Diojphantus  of 
Alexandria,  was  the  author  of  thirteen  books  of  Arithmetical  questions  (of  which  six 
are  extant)  in  156.  Notation  by  nine  digits  and  zero,  known  at  least  as  early  as 
the  sixth  century  in  Hindostan — introduced  from  thence  into  Arabia,  about  900 — 
into  Spain,  1050 — ^into  England,  1253.  The  date  in  Caxton's  M%rr<mr  of  the 
World,  Arabic  characters,  is  1480.  Arithmetic  of  decimals  invented,  1482.  First 
work  printed  in  England  on  arithmetic  (de  Arte  Supputandi)  was  by  Tonstall, 
bishop  of  Durham,  1522.  The  theory  of  decimal  fractions  was  perfected  by  lord 
Napier  in  his  Rabdologia,  in  1617. 

ARK.  Mount  Ararat  is  venerated  by  the  Armenians,  from  a  belief  of  its  being  the 
place  on  which  Noah's  ark  rested,  after  the  universal  Deluge,  2347  b.c.  But  Apa- 
mea,  in  Phrygia,  claims  to  be  the  spot ;  and  medals  have  been  struck  there  with  a 
chest  on  the  waters,  and  the  letters  NOE,  and  two  doves  :  this  place  is  300  miles 
west  of  Ararat  The  ark  was  300  cubits  in  length,  fifty  in  breadth,  and  thirty  high ; 
but  most  interpreters  suppose  this  cubit  to  be  about  a  foot  and  a  half,  and  not  the 
geometrical  one  of  six.  Tliere  were,  we  are  told,  three  floors — the  first  for  beasts, 
the  second  for  provisions,  'and  the  third  for  birds,  and  Noah's  family.  It  was  not 
made  like  a  ship,  but  came  near  the  figure  of  a  square,  growing  gradually  narrower 
to  the  top.     There  was  a  door  in  the  first  floor,  and  a  great  window  in  the  third. 

ARKLOW,  Battle  of,  between  the  insurgent  Irish,  amounting  te  31,000,  and  a  small 
regular  force  of  British,  which  signally  defeated  them,  June  10,  1798.  The  tow^ 
was  nearly  destroyed  by  the  insurgents  in  May  previous.  Native  gold  was  discovered 
in  Arklow  in  Sept  1795.— PW/.  Trans,  vol.  86. 

ARMADA,  Thb  Intinciblb.  The  famous  Spanish  armament  so  called  consisted  of 
150  ships,  2650  great  guns,  20,000  soldiers,  8000  sailors,  and  2000  volunteers, 
under  the  duke  of  Medina  Sidonia.  It  arrived  in  the  Channel,  July  19,  1588,  and 
was  defeated  the  next  day  by  Drake  and  Howard.  Ten  fire-ships  having  been  sent 
into  the  enemies'  fleet,  Uiey  cut  their  cables,  put  to  sea  and  endeavoured  to  returi^ 

d 


ARM  C  34  ]  -A^RM 

to  their  rendezvous  between  Calais  and  Gravelines  :  the  English  fell  upon  them,  took 
many  ships,  and  admiral  Howard  maintained  a  rubning  fight  from  the  2l8t  July  to 
the  27th,  obliging  the  shattered  fleet  to  bear  away  for  Scotland  and  Ireland,  where  a 
storm  dispersed  them,  and  the  remainder  of  the  armament  returned  by  the  North 
Sea  to  Spain.  The  Spaniards  lost  fifteen  capital  ships  in  the  engagement,  and  5000 
men  ;  seventeen  ships  were  lost  or  taken  on  the  coast  of  Ireland,  and  upwards  of  5000 
'  men  were  drowned,  killed,  or  taken  prisoners.  The  English  lost  but  one  ship. — 
Rapin,  Carte  ^  Hume. 

ARMAGH,  Battle  of,  fought  against  Edward  Bruce,  who  was  defeated,  taken,  and 
beheaded  at  Dundalk;  and  with  him  6200  Scots  lost  their  lives,  a.d.  1318. — 
Buchanan,  This  city  is  most  ancient.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes  on  Easter- 
day,  A.D.  852. — Burns* 

ARMAGH,  See  of,  the  first  ecclesiastical  dignity  in  Ireland,  was  founded  by  St. 
Patrick,  its  first  bishop,  in  444.  One  Daire^  a  man  of  great  reputation  among  his 
own  people,  and  of  considerable  wealth,  granted  the  site  whereon  the  church  was 
erected,  near  the  river  Callan.  The  first  name  of  this  place  was  Druim  Saileg  ; 
but  from  its  situation  on  a  rising  ground,  was  afterwards  called  Arhmach  or 
Ardmaoh  ;  that  is,  editus  campus^  a  high  field.  Six  saints  have  been  bishops  of 
this  see.  In  the  king's  books,  by  an  extent  taken  fifteen  James  I.  it  is  valued  at 
j^400  sterling  a  year ;  but  it  is  now  estimated  at  j^l5,000  per  annum.  The  see  was 
re-constituted  (see  Pallium)  in  1151. — Beaison, 

ARMED  NEUTRALITY.  The  confederacy,  so  called,  of  the  northern  powers 
against  England,  was  commenced  by  the  empress  of  Russia  in  1780  ;  but  its  objects 
were  defeated  in  1781.  The  pretension  was  renewed,  and  a  treaty  ratified  in  order 
to  cause  their  flags  to  be  respected  by  the  belligerent  powers,  December  16,  1800. 
The  principle  that  neutral  flags  protect  neutral  bottoms  being  contrary  to  the  mari- 
time system  of  England,  the  British  cabinet  remonstrated,  and  Nelson  and  Parker 
destroyed  the  fleet  of  Denmark  before  Copenhagen,  April  2,  1801.  That  power,  in 
consequence,  was  obliged  to  secede  from  the  alliance,  and  acknowledge  the  claim  of 
England  to  the  empire  of  the  sea  ;  and  the  Armed  Neutrality  was  soon  after  dissolved. 

ARMENIA.  Here  Noah  and  his  people  resided  when  they  left  the  ark,  2347  b.c. 
After  being  subject  successively  to  the  three  great  monarchies,  Armenia  fell  to  the 
kings  of  Syria.  The  Armenians  were  the  original  worshippers  of  fire :  they  also 
paid  great  veneration  to  Venus  Anaitis,  to  whose  priests  even  the  highest  classes  of 
the  people  prostituted  their  daughters,  prior  to  marriage. — Martin's  M^moires 
sur  L'Arm^ie, 


City  of  Artaxarta  built  .  .  .  b.c.  186 
Tigranes  the  Oreat  reigns  .  .  .  .  93 
He  is  called  to  the  throne  of  S3rTia,  assumes 

the  fastidious  title  of  **  King  of  Kings/' 

and  is  served  by  tributary  princes  .  83 
Tigranes  defeated  by  Lucullus  .  .  69 
Again  defeated,  and  lays  his  crown  at  the 

feetofPompey 66 

His  son,  Artavasdes,  reigns  .  .  .  54 
Artavasdes  assists  Pompey  against  Julius 

Caesar         ......    48 

Artavasdes  assists  the  Parthians  against 

Marc  Antony 36 

Antony  subdues,  and  sends  him  loaded 

with  silver  chains  to  Egypt,  to  grace  his 

triumph 34 

The  Armenian  soldiers  crown  his  son, 

Artazias 33 

Artaxias  is  deposed 30 

ARMENIAN  ERA  commenced  on  the  9th  of  July,  a.d.  552  :  the  Ecclesiastical  year 
on  the  11th  August.  To  reduce  this  last  to  our  time,  add  551  years  and  221  days  ; 
and  in  leap  years  subtract  one  day  from  March  1  to  August  10.  The  Armenians 
use  the  old  Julian  style  and  months  in  their  correspondence  with  Europeans. 

ARMILLARY  SPHERE.  Commonly  made  of  brass,  and  disposed  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  greater  and  lesser  circles  of  the  sphere  are  seen  in  their  natural  position 
and  motion,  the  whole  being  comprised  in  a  frame.  It  is  said  to  have  been  invented 
by  Eratosthenes,  about  255  b.c. 


He  is  restored  to  his  throne,  and  dies. 

—Blair       ....  b.c.        1 

Reign  of  Venones  .  •    a.d.      16 

Zenon  reigns 18 

Tigranes  IV.  reigns  ....  96 
He  is  cited  to  Rome,  and  deposed  .  •  37 
Tiridates  dethroned,  and  Roman  power 

paramount  in  Armenia  ...  62 
Armoiia  reduced  to  a  Persian  province 

under  Sapor 365 

Subdued  by  the  Saracens  *.  .  .  .  687 
Irruption  of  the  Turks         .  .    'i^ 

Again  made  a  Persian  province,  under 

UffanCassanes 1472 

Subdued  by  Selim  n 1522 

Ovemm  by  the  Russians      .        .        .  1828 

Surrender  of  Erzeroum     .  July,  1829 

(SeCiSyria.) 


ARM  E  3^  3  ^^^ 

ARMINIANS  (the)  chiefly  contend  for  the  doctrine  of  iiniTeraal  redemption,  and 
generally  espouse  the  principles  of  the  Church  of  England  ;  especially  asserting  the 
subordination  of  the  Christian  church  to  the  civil  powers.  They^also  contend  for  the 
effictwy  of  good  works,  as  well  as  their  neeetsiiy,  in  securing  man's  salvation.  James 
I.  and  Charles  I.  favoured  the  doctrines  of  the  Arminians ;  and  the  principles  of  the 
sect  prevail  generally  in  Holland  and  elsewhere,  though  condemned  at  the  synod  of 
Dort  (see  Dort)  in  1618.  Arminius,  who  was  a  divinity  professor  at  Leyden,  died 
in  1609, -^Brandt. 

ARMORIAL  BEARINGS  became  herediUry  in  families  at  the  dose  of  the  twelfth 
century.  They  took  their  rise  from  the  kuights  painting  their  banners  with  different 
figures,  and  were  introduced  by  the  Crusaders,  in  order  at  first  to  distinguish 
noblemen  in  battle  a.d.  1100.  The  lines  to  denote  colours  in  arms,  by  their  direc- 
tion or  intersection,  were  invented  by  Columbiere  in  1639.  Armorial  bearings  were 
taxed  in  1798— and  again  in  1808. 

ARMOUR.  The  warlike  Europeans  at  first  despised  any  other  defence  than  the 
shield.     Skins  and  padded  hides  were  first  used  ;    and  brass  and  iron  armour,  in 

Slates  or  scales,  followed.  The  first  body-armour  of  the  Britons  was  skins  of  wild 
easts,  exchanged,  after  the  Roman  conquest,  for  the  well-tanned  leathern  cuirass. 
— Taciius,  This  latter  continued  till  the  Anglo-Saxon  era.  Hengist  is  said  to 
have  had  scale  armour,  a.d.  449.  The  Norman  armour  formed  both  breeches  and 
jacket,  1066.  The  hauberk  had  its  hood  of  the  same  piece,  1100.  John  wore  a 
surtout  over  a  hauberk  of  rings  set  edgeways,  1199.  The  heavy  cavalry  were 
covered  with  a  coat  of  mail,  Henry  III,  1216.  Some  horsemen  had  visors,  and 
scull  caps,  same  reign.  Armour  became  exceedingly  splendid  about  1350.  The 
armour  of  plate  commenced,  1407.  Black  armour,  used,  not  only  for  battle,  but  for 
mourning,  Henry  Y.  1413.  The  armour  of  Henry  VII.  consisted  of  a  cuirass  of 
steel,  in  the  form  of  a  pair  of  stays,  about  1500.  Armour  ceased  to  reach  below 
the  knees,  Charles  I.  1625.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  officers  wore  no  other 
armour  than  a  large  gorget,  which  is  commemorated  in  the  diminutive  ornament 
known  at  the  present  day. — Meyrick. 

ARMS.  The  club  was  the  first  offensive  weapon ;  then  followed  the  mace,  battle-axe, 
pike,  spear,  javelin,  sword,  and  dagger.  Among  ancient  missiles  were  bows  and 
arrows.  Pliny  ascribes  the  invention  of  the  sling  to  the  Phoenicians.  See  the 
various  weapotis  through  the  volume, 

ARMS.  See  Armorial  Bearings  and  Heraldry.  Those  of  England,  at  first  simple, 
varied  with  the  conquests  which  she  made,  and  included  the  insignia  of  Wales,  Ire- 
land, Scotland,  France,  and  Hanover,  as  these  countries  successively  fell  to  her 
sovereignty.  The  arms  of  England  and  France  were  claimed  and  quartered  by 
Edward  III.  a.d.  1330.  They  were  discontinued  by  the  English  kings  on  the  union 
with  Ireland,  and  a  new  Imperial  standard  was  hoisted,  Jan.  1, 1801.  The  escutcheon 
of  Hanover  was  discontinued  on  its  separation  from  England  by  the  death  of  William 
IV.  in  1837. 

ARMS'  BILL,  Ireland.  A  celebrated  bill,  whose  object  was  the  repression  of  crime 
and  insurrection,  was  passed  Oct.  15,  1831.  It  was  a  revival  of  the  expired  statutes 
of  George  III.  The  guns  registered  under  this  act  throughout  the  kingdom  at  the 
close  of  the  first  year  scarcely  amounted  to  3000,  and  the  number  was  equally  small 
of  all  other  kinds  of  arms. 

ARMY.  Ninus  and  Semiramis  had  armies  amounting  to  nearly  two  millions  of  fighting 
men,  2017  b.c.  The  first  guards  and  regular  troops  as  a  standing  army  were  formed 
by  Saul,  1093  B.C. — Eusebius,  One  of  the  first  standing  armies  of  which  we  have 
any  account,  is  that  of  Philip  of  Macedon.  The  first  standing  army,  existing  as  such, 
in  modem  times,  was  maintained  in  France  by  Charles  VII.  in  1445.  Standing 
armies  were  introduced  by  Charles  I.  in  1638  ;  they  were  declared  illegal  in  England, 
31  Charles  II.  1679.  The  chief  European  nations  have  had  in  their  service  the 
following  armies :  Spain  150,000  men  ;  Great  Britain,  310,000  ;  Prussia,  350,000  ; 
Turkey,  450,000  ;  Austria,  500,000  ;  Russia,  560,000  ;  and  France,  680,000. 

ARMY,  BRITISH.  Statement  of  the  effective  military  strength  of  the  United  King- 
dom  at  the  decennial  periods  respectively  mentioned,  and  of  the  sums  voted  for 
military  expenditure,  drawn  from  parliamentary  and  other  official  records  : 

D  2 


A8C 

.     r.^e  II.  1736.    This 

.  t^  vast  Dambera  of  oar 

•  ouiitries,  and  thai  create 

'ly  Schwartz,  a  German  oor* 

1  >p'L     Artillery  waa  uied,  it  is 

.f  of  1341  ;  it  waa  used,  accord* 

'.  1.1  Kt,  when  Edward  III.  had  fear 

We  had  artillery  at  the  siege 

1  artillery  against  the  Genoese  at  sea, 

..'  r  with  moriara  for  bomb-shells,  by 

<  i  n  iU'ra»     Made  of  braas,  1635  ;  improve- 

'  V  ;  instituted  for  weekly  military  exercises  in 

.1    I'ilO.     This  ground  was  at  first  (in  149H)  a 

..  liilon  archers.    The  Artillery  Company  consi»ted 

.  .13  a  uursery  of  officers  for  the  City  militta. — Nor* 

•  f'\'j:\ith  century,  the  whole  circle  of  sciences  was  com- 

.  ti  t<.  namely — grammar,  rhetoric,  logic,  arithmetic,  music, 

. . — Harris,    The  Royal  Society  of  England  (which  see) 

...  2,  lCt>3.     The  Society  of  Arts,  to  promote  the  polite  arts, 

.  >.  and  mechanics,  was  instituted  in  1764  ;  it  originated  in  the 

.  ..  Miipley,  and  of  its  first  president,  lord  Polkstone.     The  first 

\  ttic  artists  of  the  British  metropolis  took  place  in  1760,  at  the 

\  ty.  and  was  repeated  there  for  several  years,  till,  in  process  uf 

\   Ai-ademy  was  founded.      See  RoycU  Academy,    The  Society  of 

>   was  instituted  May  21,  1823;  and  their  first  exhibition  was  opened 

- 1 .  — See  Britufh  Museum  ;  BrUish  IrutUution  ;  National  GaiUrp,  j-c. 

I  ASTLE,  built  by  the  Saxons,  about  800.  The  duke  of  Norfolk  enjoys 
.111  of  Arundel,  as  a  feudal  honour,  by  inheritance  and  possession  of  the 
:;liout  any  other  creation.    Philip  Howard,  son  of  the  attainted  duke  of 

was  made  earl  of  Arundel,  by  summons,  as  possessor  of  this  castle,  1580. 

^KLIAN  MARBLES ;  containing  the  chronology  of  ancient  history  from  1582 

>'>  B.C.,  and  said  to  have  been  sculptured  264  ii.c.     They  consist  of  37  statues, 

•  i  busts,  and  250  inscriptions,  and  were  found  in  the  Isle  of  Paros,  in  the  reign  of 

•'UPS  I.,  about  1610.    They  were  purchased  by  lord  Arundel,  and  given  to  the  nni- 

vtrsity  of  Oxford,  1627.    Tlie  characters  are  Greek,  of  which  there  are  two  transla- 

ions:  by  Selden,  1628;  by  Prideaux,  1676.— See  Kidd^M   Tracts f  and  Parson* s 

Treatise,  1789. 

-  ^-  A  Roman  weight  and  coin  :  when  considered  as  a  weight,  it  was  a  pound  ;  when  a 
<^oiQ,  it  had  different  weights,  but  always  the  same  value.  In  the  reign  of  Servius, 
the  as  weighed  a  pound  of  brass  ;  in  the  first  Punic  war,  it  weighed  two  ounces,  264 
B.C.  ;  ia  the  second  Punic  war,  one  ounce,  218  B.C. ;  and  afterwards,  half  an  ounce : 
its  Talue  was  about  three  farthings  sterling. 

ASBESTOS,  a  native  fossil  stone,  which  may  be  split  into  threads  and  filaments,  and 
which  is  endued  with  the  property  of  remaining  nnconsomed  in  the  fire. — Chamb, 
Cloth  was  made  of  it  by  the  Egyptians. — Herodotus.  Naplcins  made  ci  it  in  the 
time  of  Pliny,  a.d.  74  ;  paper  made  of  it  by  the  ancients ;  the  spinning  of  asbestos 
known  at  Venice,  about  a.d.  1500. — Baptista  Porta, 

ASCALON,  Battle  of  ;  in  which  Richard  I.  of  England,  commanding  the  Christian 
forces,  defeated  the  sultan  Saladin's  army  of  300,0(>0  Saracens  and  other  infidels. 
No  less  than  40,000  of  the  enemy  were  left  dead  on  the  field  of  battle ;  and  the  victo- 
rious Richard  marched  to  Jerusalem,  a.o.  1192  — Rymer. 

ASCENSION  DAY.    This  day,  also  called  Holy  Thursday,  is  that  on  which  the  church 
celebrates  the  ascension  of  our  Saviour,  the  fortieth  day  after  his  resurrection  ' 
the  dead,  May  14,  a.d.  33;  first  commemorated  a.d.  68.    Some  Christian  ' 
affirm  that  Christ  left  the  print  of  his  feet  on  that  part  of  mooat  Ohvet  wber 
stood ;  and  St,  Jerome  says  that  it  was  vinble  in  lus  time. 


h.. 


ARM C  36  ]  ART 

ARMY,  BRITISH,  eonHnfied. 

1780.  Time  of  war :  troops  of  the  line .         .  amount  1 10,000  men  .  .  sum  voted  X7>847,000 

1790,  Time  of  peace ditto  39,(XH)  men  .  .  ditto  2^5fiW 

1800,  War ditto  168,000  men  .  .  ditto  17,973,000 

1810.  War :  army,  inclading  foreign  troops     ditto  300,000  men  .  .  ditto  26,748.000 

1815.  Last  year  of  the  war           .         .         .     ditto  300,000  men  .  .  ditto  39,150,000 

1820,  Time  of  peaoe;  war  incumbrances     .    ditto  88,100  men.  .  ditto  18,253.000 

1830,  Peaoe '  ditto  -89,300  men  .  .  ditto  6,991,000 

1840,  Peace ditto  93,471  mon  .  .  ditto  7,277,000 

The  militia,  yolunteer,  and  other  auxiliary  forces,  were  of  immense  amount  at  some 
perioids  daring  the  late  war.  The  strength  of  the  volunteer  corps  was  greatest 
between  the  years  1798  and  1804,  in  which  latter  year  this  species  of  force  amounted 
to  410,000  men,  of  whom  70,000  were  Irish;  and  the  militia  had  increased  to  130,000 
men  previously  to  the  regular  regiments  being  recruited  from  its  ranks  in  1809. 

ARMY  OF  OCCUPATION.  The  army  distinguished  by  this  name,  was  that  of  the 
allied  powers  of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  which  occupied  the  northern  frontier 
towns  of  France  by  the  treaty  which  established  the  boundaries  of  France,  and  stipu- 
lated for  the  occupation  of  certain  fortresses  by  foreign  troops  for  three  years, 
signed  Nov.  20,  1815. 

AROMATICS.  Acron  of  Agrigentum,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  caused  gpreat 
fires  to  be  made,  and  aromatics  to  be  thrown  into  them,  to  purify  the  air,  by  which 
means  he  put  a  stop  to  the  plague  at  Athens,  473  b.c. — Nouv,  Diet. 

ARRAGON.  Inigo  was  its  first  sovereign  (united  with  Navarre)  a.d.  830.  The  kingdom 
commenced  under  Ramirez  I.  1035.  Ferdinard  II.  of  Arragon  married  Isabella  of 
Castile,  by  which  marriage  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Christian  dominions  in  Spain 
were  formed  into  one  independent  monarchy,  1471. — Ludovico  Vives. 

ARRAIGNMENT  consists  in  reading  the  indictment  by  the  officer  of  the  court,  and 
the  calling  upon  the  prisoner  to  say  whether  he  is  guilty,  or  not  guilty.  Formerly, 
persons  who  refused  to  plead  in  cases  of  felony  were  pressed  to  death  by  large  iron 
weights  being  placed  upon  the  breast.  A  person  standing  mute  is,  by  the  existing 
law,  convicted,  12  George  III.  1771.     See  article  Mute, 

ARRAS,  Treaty  of,  between  France  and  Burgundy,  often  quoted,  was  concluded, 
1435.  Another  treaty  was  concluded  by  Maximilian  of  Austria  with  Louis  XI.  of 
France,  whereby  the  countries  of  Burgundy  and  Artois  were  given  to  the  Dauphin  as 
a  marriage  portion  ;  this  latter  was  entered  into,  in  1482. — L*Ahh4  Velly» 

ARREST  FOR  DEBT.  The  persons  of  peers,  members  of  parliament,  &c.,  protected. 
See  remarkable  case  of  Ferrars'  Arrest,  Clergymen  performing  divine  service  pri- 
vileged from  arrest,  50  Edw.  III.  1375.  Seamen  privileged  for  debts  under  £20,  by 
act  30  Geo.  II.  1756.  Barristers  are  privileged  from  arrest  whUe  going  to,  attend- 
ing upon,  and  returning  from,  court,  on  the  business  of  their  clients.  By  statute  29 
Charles  II.  no  arrest  can  be  made,  nor  process  served,  upon  a  Sunday.  This  law  was 
extended  by  William  III.  Vexatious  arrests  prevented  by  act.  May  1733.  Prohibited 
for  less  than  £10,  on  process,  1779;  and  for  less  than  £20,  July,  1827.  Arrests  for 
less  than  ;^20  were  prohibited  on  mesne  process  in  Ireland,  in  June,  1829.  Statute 
abolishing  arrest  for  debt  on  mesne  process,  except  in  cases  wherein  there  is  ground 
to  show  that  the  defendant  designs  to  leave  the  country,  2  Vict.  Aug.  1838.  No 
person  can  be  arrested  at  a  fair,  except  for  debts  contracted  there. — Statutes  at  larg^. 

ARSON.  This  felony  has  always  been  deemed  capital,  and  been  punished  with  death  : 
it  continued  to  be  so  punished,  on  a  consolidation  of  the  laws  by  statute  7  &  8 
George  IV.  1827.  If  any  house  be  fired,  and  persons  be  therein,  or  if  any  vessel  be 
fired,  with  a  view  to  murder  or  plunder,  it  shall  be  death,  statute  1  Vict.  July,  1837. 
See  Incendiaries. 

ARTICLES  OF  RELIGION.  SU  were  published  by  Henry  VIII.  1539 ;  and  42  were  pub- 
lished without  the  consent  of  parliament,  in  1552.  These  42  were  reduced  to  39  in 
Jan.  1563;  and  they  received  the  royal  authority,  and  that  of  parliament,  in  1571  :  104 
were  drawn  up  for  Ireland  by  archbishop  Usher,  in  1614,  and  were  established  in  1634. 
On  the  union  of  the  churches,  the  Irish  adopted  the  English  articles. 

ARTIFICERS  and  MANUFACTURERS  were  prohibited  from  leaving  England, 
and  those  abroad  were  outlawed,  if  they  did  not  return  within  six  months  after  the 
notice  given  them  ;  and  a  fine  of  ji^lOO,  together  with  imprisonment  for  three  months, 


ART  E  37  ]  A8C 

made  the  penalties  for  seducing  them  from  these  reahns,  9  George  II.  1 736.    This 
and  subsequent  statutes  have,  howerer,  failed  in  their  object,  as  yast  numbers  of  our 
•  scientific  and  experienced  artificers  are  lured  to  foreign  countries,  and  thus  create 
rival  manufactures  to  the  prejudice  of  England. 

ARTILLERY.  The  first  piece  was  a  small  one,  contrived  by  Schwartz,  a  German  cor- 
delier, soon  after  the  invention  of  gunpowder,  in  1330.  Artillery  was  used,  it  is 
said,  by  the  Moors  at  Algesiras,  in  Spain,  in  the  siege  of  1341  ;  it  was  used,  accord- 
ing to  our  historians,  at  the  battle  of  Cressy,  in  1346,  when  Edward  III.  had  four 
pieces  of  cannon,  which  gained  him  the  battle.  We  had  artillery  at  the  siege 
of  Calais,  1347.  The  Venetians  first  employed  artillery  against  the  Genoese  at  sea, 
1377. —  Voltaire.  Cast  in  England,  together  with  moriars  for  bomb-shells,  by 
Flemish  artists,  in  Sussex,  1 543. — Rymer's  Fcedera,  Made  of  brass,  1635  ;  improve- 
ments by  Browne,  1728.     See  Iron, 

ARTILLERY  COMPANY  of  LONDON  ;  instituted  for  weekly  military  exercises  in 
the  Artillery-Ground,  Finsbury,  in  1610.  This  groand  was  at  first  (in  1498)  a 
spacious  field  for  the  use  of  the  London  archers.  The  Artillery  Company  consisted 
of  about  300  men,  and  served  as  a  nursery  of  officers  for  the  City  militia. — Nor- 
thouck's  Hist,  of  LoAdon, 

ARTS.  See  Literature,  In  the  eighth  century,  the  whole  circle  of  sciences  was  com- 
posed of  these  seven  liberal  arts,  namely — grammar,  rhetoric,  logic,  arithmetic,  music, 
geometry,  and  astronomy. — Harris,  The  Royal  Society  of  England  (which  see) 
obtained  its  charter  April  2,  1663.  The  Society  of  Arts,  to  promote  the  polite  arts, 
commerce,  manufactures,  and  mechanics,  was  instituted  in  1 754  ;  it  originated  in  the 
patriotic  zeal  of  Mr.  Shipley,  and  of  its  first  president,  lord  Folkstone.  The  first 
public  exhibition  by  the  artists  of  the  British  metropolis  took  place  in  1760,  at  the 
rooms  of  this  society,  and  was  repeated  there  for  several  years,  till,  in  process  of 
time,  the  Royal  Academy  was  founded.  See  Royal  Academy,  The  Society  of 
British  Artists  was  instituted  May  2 1 ,  1823 ;  and  their  first  exhibition  wss  opened 
April  19,  1824. — ^et  British  Museum ;  British  Institution;  National  Gallery ^^c. 

ARUNDEL  CASTLE,  built  by  the  Saxons,  about  BOO.  The  duke  of  Norfolk  enjoys 
the  earldom  of  Arundel,  as  a  feudal  honour,  by  inheritance  and  possession  of  the 
castle,  without  any  other  creation.  Philip  Howard,  son  of  the  attainted  duke  of 
Norfolk,  was  made  earl  of  Arundel,  by  summons,  as  possessor  of  this  castle,  1580. 

ARUNDELIAN  MARBLES ;  containing  the  chronology  of  ancient  history  from  1582 
to  355  B.C.,  and  said  to  have  been  sculptured  264  b.c.  They  consist  of  37  statues, 
128  busts,  and  250  inscriptions,  and  were  found  in  the  Isle  of  Paros,  in  the  reign  of 
James  I.,  about  1610.  They  were  purchased  by  lord  Arundel,  and  given  to  the  uni- 
versity of  Oxford,  1627.  The  characters  are  Greek,  of  which  there  are  two  transla- 
tions :  by  Selden,  1628;  by  Prideaux^  1676. — See  KieUTs  Tracts;  and  PorsoiCs 
Treatise,  1789. 

AS.  A  Roman  weight  and  coin  :  when  considered  as  a  weight,  it  was  a  pound  ;  when  a 
coin,  it  had  different  weights,  but  always  the  same  value.  In  the  reign  of  Servius, 
the  as  weighed  a  pound  of  brass  ;  in  the  first  Punic  war,  it  weighed  two  ounces,  264 
B.C.  ;  in  the  second  Punic  war,  one  ounce,  218  b.c.  ;  and  afterwards,  half  an  ounce  : 
its  value  was  about  three  farthings  sterling. 

ASBESTOS,  a  native  fossil  stone,  which  may  be  split  into  threads  and  filaments,  and 
which  is  endued  with  the  property  of  remaining  nnconsumed  in  the  fire. — Chamb, 
Cloth  was  made  of  it  by  the  Egyptians. — Herodotus,  Napkins  made  of  it  in  the 
time  of  Pliny,  a.d.  74  ;  paper  made  of  it  by  the  ancients ;  the  spinning  of  asbestos 
known  at  Venice,  about  a.d.  1500. — Baptista  Porta, 

ASCALON,  Battle  of  ;  in  which  Richard  1.  of  England,  commanding  the  Christian 
forces,  defeated  the  sultan  Saladin's  army  of  300,000  Saracens  and  other  infidels. 
No  less  than  40,000  of  the  enemy  were  left  dead  on  the  field  of  battle;  and  the  victo- 
rious Richard  marched  to  Jerusalem,  a.d.  1192. — Rymer, 

ASCENSION  DAY.  This  day,  also  called  Holy  Thursday,  is  that  on  which  the  church 
celebrates  the  ascension  of  our  Saviour,  the  fortieth  day  after  his  resurrection  from 
the  dead.  May  14,  a.d.  33 ;  first  commemorated  a.d.  68.  Some  Christian  writers 
affirm  that  Christ  left  the  print  of  his  feet  on  that  part  of  mount  Olivet  where  he  last 
stood  ;  and  St,  Jerome  says  that  it  was  visible  in  his  time. 


ASH  C  38  1  '^SS 

ASH-WEDNESDAY.  The  primitiTe  Christians  did  not  commence  their  Lent  until 
the  Sunday,  now  called  the  first  in  Lent.  Pope  Felix  III.,  in  a.d.  487,  first  added 
the  four  days  preceding  the  old  Lent  Sanday,  to  complete  the  number  of  fasting  days 
to  forty ;  Gregory  the  Great  introduced  the  sprinkling  of  ashes  on  the  first  of  the 
four  additional  days,  and  hence  the  name  oiDies  Cinernm,  or  Ash.Wednesday :  at  the 
Reformation  this  practice  was  abolished ,  "  as  being  a  mere  shadow,  or  yain  show." 

ASHMOLE  LIBRARY.  His  manuscripts,  library,  coins,  and  other  rarities,  were  pre- 
sented by  Elias  Ashmole,  the  celebrated  herald  and  antiquary,  to  the  university  of 
Oxford,  about  1683.     Mr.  Ashmole  died  at  Lambeth,  in  1692. 

ASIA ;  so  called  by  the  Greeks,  from  the  nymph  Asia,  the  daughter  of  Oceanos  and 

Tethys,  and  wife  of  Japhet.     Asia  was  the  first  quarter  of  the  world  peopled  ;   here 

the  law  of  God  was  first  promulgated  ;  here  many  of  the  greatest  monarchies  of  the 

'earth  had  their  rise;  and  from  hence  most  of  the  arts  and  sciences  have   been 

derived . — Pardon, 

ASPERNE,  Battle  of,  between  the  Austrian  army  under  the  archduke  Charles,  and 
the  French,  fought  on  the  21st  May,  1809,  and  two  following  days.  In  this  most 
sanguinary  fight,  the  loss  of  the  former  army  exceeded  20^000  men,  and  the  loss  of 
the  French  was  more  than  30,000  :  it  ended  in  the  defeat  of  Bonaparte,  who  com- 
manded in  person,  and  was  the  severest  check  that  he  had  yet  received.  The  bridge 
of  the  Danube  was  destroyed,  and  his  retreat  endangered  ;  but  the  success  of  the  Aus- 
trians  had  no  beneficial  effect  on  the  subsequent  prosecution  of  the  war. 

ASSAM,  AND  ASSAM  TEA.  Assam  came  under  British  dominion  in  1825 ;  and  the 
right  to  the  principality  was  renounced  by  the  king  of  Ava  in  1826.  The  tea-plant 
was  discovered  by  Mr.  Bruce  in  1823.  A  superintendant  of  the  tea  forests  was 
appointed  in  1836,  the  cultivation  of  the  plant  having  been  recommended  by  lord 
William  Bentinck.  The  Assam  Tea  committee  was  formed  same  year;  and  the 
Assam  Tea  Company  established  in  1839.  The  tea  was  much  in  use  in  England,  in 
1841 . — Account  of  Assam. 

ASSASSINATION  PLOT.  A  conspiracy  so  called,  formed  by  the  earl  of  Aylesbury 
and  others  to  assassinate  king  William  III.,  near  Richmond,  Surrey,  as  he  came  from 
hunting.  The  object  of  the  conspiracy  was  to  have  been  consummated  February  15, 
1695-6,  but  for  its  timely  discovery  by  Prendergast. — Hist,  England. 

ASSASSINS.  A  tribe  in  Syria,  a  famous  heretical  sect  among  the  Mahometans,  settled 
in  Persia,  in  a.d.  1090.  In  Syria,  they  possessed  a  large  tract  of  land  among  the 
mountains  of  Lebanon.  They  murdered  the  marquis  of  Montferrat  in  1192 ;  they 
assassinated  Lewis  of  Bavaria  in  1213  ;  the  khan  of  Tartary  was  murdered  in  1254. 
They  were  conquered  by  the  Tartars  in  1257  ;  and  were  extirpated  in  1272.  The 
chief  of  the  corps  assumed  the  title  of  **  Ancient  of  the  Mountain.** 

ASSAY  OF  GOLD  and  SILVER,  originated  with  the  bishop  of  Salisbury,  a  royal  trea- 
surer, in  the  reign  of  Henry  I. — Du  Cange.  But  certainly  some  species  of  assay  was 
practised  as  early  as  the  Roman  conquest.  Assay  was  formally  established  in 
England,  1354;  regulated,  13  William  III.  1700,  and  4  Anne,  1705.  Assay  masters 
appointed  at  Sheffield  and  Birmingham,  1773.  The  alloy  of  gold  is  silver  and  copper, 
and  the  alloy  of  silver  is  copper.  Standard  gold  is  2  carats  of  alloy  to  22  of  fine  gold. 
Standard  silver  is  18  dwts.  of  copper  to  11  ozs.  2  dwts.  of  fine  silver.  See  Gold' 
smiths*  Company. 

ASSAYE,  Battle  of.  The  British  army,  under  general  Arthur  Wellesley,  enters  the 
Mahratta  States  on  the  south;  takes  the  fort  of  Ahmednugger,  Aug.  12;  and  defeats 
Scindia  and  the  rajah  of  Berar  at  Assaye,  Sept.  23,  1803. 

ASSESSED  TAXES.  The  date  of  their  introduction  has  been  as  variously  stated  as 
the  taxes  coming  under  this  head  have  been  defined — all  things  having  been  assessed, 
from  lands  and  houses  to  dogs  and  hair-powder.  By  some,  the  date  is  referred  to 
the  reign  of  Ethdbert,  in  991  ;  by  others,  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  1522  ;  and  by 
more,  to  the  reign  of  William  III.  1689,  when  a  land-tax  was  imposed.  See  Land 
Tax.  The  assessed  taxes  yielded,  in  1815  (the  last  year  of  the  war),  exclusively  of 
the  land-tax,  £6,524,766,  their  highest  amount.  These  imposts  have  varied  in  their 
nature  and  amount,  according  to  the  exigencies  of  the  state  and  the  contingencies  of 
war  and  peace.  They  were  considerably  advanced  in  1797  ;  and  again  in  1801, 
et  seq. :  considerably  reduced  in  1816,  and  in  subsequent  years ;  and  altogether  abo- 
lished in  Ireland.    See  tt^em  severally. 


ASS  [  39  D  ^BB 

ASSIENTO.  A  contract  between  the  king  of  Spain  and  other  powers,  for  fdmiahing 
the  Spanish  dominions  in  America  with  negro  slaves. — Burke,  It  began  in  1689, 
and  was  vested  in  the  South  Sea  Company  in  1713.  By  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  it  was 
transferred  to  the  English,  who  were  to  famish  4800  negroes  annually  to  Spanish 
America.    This  contract  was  given  up  to  Spain  at  the  peace  in  1748.    See  Guinea, 

ASSI6NATS.  Paper  carrency,  to  support  the  credit  of  the  republic  during  the  revo> 
Intion,  ordered  by  the  National  Assembly  of  France,  April  1 790.  At  one  period 
the  enormous  amount  of  eight  milliards,  or  nearly  350  millions  of  pounds  sterling,  of 
this  paper  were  in  circulation  in  France  and  its  dependencies. — Alison, 

ASSIZE  OP  BREAD.  The  first  sUtute  for  it  was  in  the  third  year  of  John,  1202,  when 
the  regulations  thereof  were  ordered  to  be  observed  upon  pain  of  the  pillory.  Tlie 
chief  justiciary,  and  a  baker  commissioned  by  the  king,  had  the  inspection  of  the 
assize. — Matheuj  Paris,  The  assise  was  abolished  in  England,  and  the  sale  of 
bread  regulated  as  at  present,  in  August  1815.  The  sale  in  Ireland  was  regulated 
by  statute,  2  William  IV.,  May  1832 ;  Bread  Act,  7  William  IV.  1836  ;  Bread  Act, 
Ireland,  placing  its  sale  on  the  same  footing  as  in  England,  1  Vict  1838.  See  Bread, 

ASSIZE  COURTS.  They  are  of  very  ancient  institution  in  England,  and  in  ancient 
law  jbooks  are  defined  to  be  an  assembly  of  knights  and  other  substantial  men, 
with  the  justice,  to  meet  at  a  certain  time  and  place  :  regulated  by  Magna  Charta, 
A.D.  1215.  The  present  justices  of  assize  and  Nisi  Priusaxe  derived  from  the 
statute  of  Westminster,  13  Edw.  I.  1284.— CoAre;  Blaekstone,  "The  king  doth 
will  that  no  lord,  or  other  of  the  country,  shall  sit  upon  the  bench  with  the  justices 
to  take  assize  in  their  sessions  in  the  counties  of  England,  upon  great  forfeiture  to 
the  king,"  20  Richard  II.,  1396. — Statutes,  Various  regulations  respecting  assise 
courts  have  been  made  from  time  to  time.  Assizes  are  general  or  special :  thej  are 
general  when  the  judges  go  their  circuits,  and  special  when  a  commission  is  issued  to 
take  cognisance  of  one  or  more  causes. 

ASSUMPTION.  A  festival  observed  by  the  church  of  Rome  in  honour  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  who,  as  the  Catholics  believe,  was  taken  up  to  heaven  in  her  corporeal  form, 
body  and  spirit,  on  August  15,  a.d.  45.  Mary  is  reported  to  have  been  in  her  75th 
year.     The  festival  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  in  813. 

ASSURANCE.  See  Insurance,  The  practice  is  of  great  antiquity.  Suetonius 
ascribes  the  contrivance  to  Claudius  Caesar,  a.d.  43.  It  is  certain  that  assurance  of 
ships  was  practised  in  the  year  45.  The  first  regulations  concerning  it  are  in  the 
Lex  Oleron,  by  which  it  appears  to  have  been  known  in  Europe  very  generally  in 
1194.  The  custom  of  Lombard-street  was  made  a  precedent  for  sil  policies  at 
Antwerp,  and  in  the  Low  Countries ;  but  the  first  statute  to  prevent  frauds  from 
private  assurers  was  made  43  Elizabeth,  1601. — Molineaux^s  Lex  Mercatoria, 

ASSYRIAN  EMPIRE.  This  is  the  earliest  recorded  empire— that  of  Bacchus 
wanting  records.  It  commenced  under  Ninus,  who  was  the  Jupiter  of  thb  Assyrians, 
and  the  Hercules  of  the  Chaldeans,  2059  b.c.  It  arose  out  of  the  union  of  two 
powerful  kingdoms,  Babylon  and  Assyria,  or  Nineveh,  the  latter  founded  by  Ashur, 
and  ending  with  Sardanapalus,  820  b.c.  When  this  last-named  prince  was  con- 
quered by  Arbaces,  he  shut  himself  up  in  his  palace,  with  his  concubines  and 
eunuchs,  and  causing  it  to  be  set  on  fire,  they  all  perished  in  the  flames.  On  the 
ruins  of  the  empire  were  formed  the  Assyrians  of  Babylon,  Nineveh,  and  the  Median 
kingdom. — Lenglet. 

The  tower  of  Babel  built.— G^n^f^  x.  6 ; 

zi.  \,^Blair      .  .         .    B.C.  2247 

The  kingdom  of  Babylon  begins         .    .  2245 


Astronomical  observations  begun  by  the 
Chaldeans 2234 

Belus  reigns  55  years.— £7«A«r    .         .    .  2124 

Ninns,  son  of  Belus,  reigns  in  As^ria, 
and  names  his  capital  after  himself    .  2069 

Babylon  taken  by  Nintts,  who  having 
subdaed  the  Armenians,  PerslaDs, 
Bactrians,  and  all  Asia  Minor,  estab- 
lishes what  is  properly  the  Aseyrian 
monarchy,  of  which  Nineveh  was  the 
seat  of  empir&— jB/air  .  2059 

Bemiramis    enlarges  and   embellishes 


Babylon,  and  makes  it  the  seat  of  her 
dominion..— Lenglet    .         .         .    b.c.  2017 

Seuiiramis  invades  Libya,  Ethiopia,  and 
India.*— Zenp/«< 1975 

The  Arabs  seize  Nineveh  .  .    .  1937 

Belochus,  the  last  king  of  the  race  of 
Ninus.— Btotr 1446 

He  makes  hisdaughter  Atossa,sumamed 
Bemiramis  II.,  his  associate  on  the 
throne 1433 

Belatores  reigns 1481 

*  *  * 

The  prophet  Jonah  appears  in  the  streets 

of  Nineveh.— S/at>    .         .         .         .840 
Nineveh  taken  by  Arbaces        .        .    .    820 


A8V  C  *J  1  ATU 

The  distance  of  the  fixed  stars  is  sapposed  to  be  400,0C0  times  greater  Iroai  as  tfaaa 
we  are  from  the  snn.  that  is  to  saj,  38  miUions  of  millioos  of  miles ;  so  that  a 
cannon-ball  would  take  near  nine  millions  of  years  to  reach  one  of  them,  supposing 
there  were  nothing  to  hinder  it  from  porsning  its  course  thither.  As  light  takes  about 
eight  minutes  and  a  quarter  to  reach  us  from  the  sun,  it  would  be  above  six  jears  in 
coining  from  one  of  those  stars ;  but  the  calculations  oi-  later  astronomers  prove 
some  stars  to  be  so  distant,  that  their  light  must  take  centuries  before  it  can  reach 
us ;  and  that  every  particle  of  light  which  enters  our  eyes  left  the  star  it  comes  from 
three  or  four  hundred  years  ago. — Objects  of  Science. 

ASYLUMS,  OR  Privileged  Places  in  London,  in  which  persons  were  seewre  from 
arrest.  These  places  were  the  Minories,  Silisbory-court,  Whitefriars,  Fnlwood's- 
rents.  Mitre-court,  Baldwin's-gardens,  the  Savoy,  Clink,  Deadmao's- place,  Montague* 
dose,  and  the  Mint.  This  security  was  ab<  limbed  a.d.  1696  ;  but  the  last  was  not 
wholly  suppressed  until  the  reign  of  George  I. — See  Sanclmaries. 

ATHANASIAN  CREED  and  CONTROVERSY.  The  great  controversy  regarding 
the  divinity  of  Christ,  arose  and  extended  between  a.d.  333  and  351.  Athanasius 
encountered  great  persecution  at  the  hands  of  the  Arians  for  his  religious  doctrines, 
and  was  exiled  for  them  again  and  again.  The  creed  which  goes  by  his  name  is 
supposed  by  most  authorities  to  have  been  written  about  the  ^tsx  3IU ;  but  it  is 
affirmed  by  other  writers  to  be  the  compilation  of  an  African  bishop  in  the  fifth 
century. — Du  Pin. 

ATHEISM.  This  absurd  doctrine  has  had  its  votaries  and  its  martyrs.  Spinosa,  a 
foreigner,  was  its  noted  defender  in  the  17th  century.  Locilio  Vanini  publicly 
taught  atheism  in  France,  and  was  condemned  to  be  burnt  at  Toulouse  in  1619. 
Mathias  Knutzen,  of  Uolstein,  openly  professed  atheism,  and  had  upwards  of  a 
thousand  disciples  in  Crermany  about  1674  ;  he  travelled  to  make  proselytes,  and  his 
followers  were  called  Congcieneiaries,  because  they  held  that  there  is  no  other  deity 
than  conscience.  '*  Though  a  small  draught  of  philosophy  may  lead  a  asan  into 
atheism,  a  deep  draught  will  certainly  bring  him  back  again  to  the  belief  of  a  God.'' 
— LiOrd  Bacon. 

ATHENE  A.  These  were  great  festivals  celebrated  at  Athens  in  honour  of  Minerva. 
One  of  them  was  called  Pauathensa,  and  the  other  Chakea ;  they  were  first  iostitutf^ 
by  Erectheus  or  Orpheus,  1397  b.c.  ;  and  Theseus  afterwards  renewed  them,  and 
caused  them  to  be  observed  by  all  the  people  of  Athens,  the  first  every  fifth  year, 
1234  Bu; Plutarch. 

ATHENJBUM.  A  place  at  Athens,  sacred  to  Minerva,  where  the  poets  and  philosophers 
declaimed  and  recited  their  compositions.  The  most  celebrsted  Athenca  were  at 
Athens,  Rome,  and  Lyons :  that  at  Rome  was  of  great  beauty  in  its  baildiog,  and 
was  erected  by  the  emperor  Adrian,  a.d.  125. — TiUemotWB  lAfe  of  Adrian,  The 
Athenaeum  Club  of  London  was  formed  in  1824,  for  the  association  of  persons  of 
scientific  and  literary  attainments,  artists,  and  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  patrons 
of  learning,  &c. ;  the  club-house  was  erected  in  1 829,  on  the  site  of  the  late  Cariton- 
palace  ;  it  is  of  Grecian  architecture,  and  the  friexe  is  an  exact  copy  of  the  Pana- 
theneic  procession  which  formed  the  friexe  of  the  Parthenon.  The  Liverpool 
Athenaeum  was  opened  January  1,  1799. 

ATHENRY,  Battle  of,  in  Ireland,  between  the  English  army  and  the  Irish.  The 
latter  had  put  all  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword,  a  slaughter  which  is  described  as  the 
most  merciless  and  indiscriminate  that  occurred  in  these  barbarous  times.  The 
Irish  were  defeated  in  the  battle,  1599. 

ATHENS.  The  once  celebrated  capital  of  ancient  Attica,  whose  magnificent  ruins  yet 
attest  its  former  grandeur — the  seat  of  science  and  theatre  of  valour.  The  first 
sovereign  of  whom  we  have  any  knowledge  is  Ogyges,  who  reigned  in  Bceotia,  and 
was  master  of  Attica,  then  called  Ionia.  In  his  reign  a  deluge  took  place  (by  some 
supposed  to  be  no  other  than  the  universal  deluge,  or  Noah's  flood)  that  laid  waste 
the  country,  in  which  state  it  remained  two  hundred  years,  until  the  arrival  of  the 
Egyptian  Cecrops  and  a  colony,  by  whom  the  land  was  repeoplcd,  and  twelve  cities 
founded,  1556  B.C. 

Arrival  of  Cecrope  .    b.c.  1556    The  Panatfican  Games    .  ax 

The  Areopagus  established  .    .  \hifj  \  Ericthoniu*  teaches  husbandry 

Deucalion  arrives  in  Attica  .  .  15(S  |  Ceres  arrives  in  Attica 


ATH 


C42] 


ATT 


ATH£NS,  continued. 

The  EleaaJnian  mysteries  .  .  b.c.  1356 
.£geu8  invades  Attica  .  .  .  .  1283 
Seizure  of  Helen  by  Theseus  .         .1228 

The  Prianepsae  instituted  .  .  .  .  1178 
Godrus,  last  king  of  Athens  .         .         .  1070 

Athens  governed  by  archons      .         .    . 

Alcmeon,  last  perpetual  archon  .    7^4 

Hippomenes  exposes  his  daughter  to  be 

devoured  by  horses  ....  713 
Draco  publishes  his  laws  .  .  .  .  623 
Solon  supersedes  them  by  his  code  .  578 
The  first  tragedy  acted  .        .    535 

First  public  library  at  Athens  .  .  .  526 
The  law  of  Ostracism    ....    510 

Lacedtemonian  war 505 

Miltiades  takes  Lemnos         .  .    .•— 

The  Athenians  destroy  Sardis  .  .  .  503 
Themistocles  builds  Pyrea     .         .         .    491 

Battle  of  Marathon 490 

Aristides  (the  Just)  banished  .  .  487 
Athens  taken  by  the  Persians  .  .  .  480 
Burnt  to  the  ground  by  Mardonius  .  479 
Athens  rebuilt  and  fortified  .  .  .  478 
Cymon  overruns  all  Thrace    .        .     *      469 

The  first  sacred  war 448 

The  defeat  at  Chaeronea  .        .         .447 


The  thirty  years'  truce  .  .  b.c.  446 
Comedies  forbidden  at  Athens  .         .  440 

The  Peloponnesian  war  begins  .  .  .  431 
Five  years'  awful  pestilence  .  .  .  430 
The  Decelian  war  begins     .  .    .  414 

Battle  of  Cyzicum  ....  406 

Athenian  fleet  of  180  ships  defeated  by 

Lysander  in  the  Hellespont  .  .  .  405 
Lysander  besieges  Athens  .  .  .  404 
End  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  .  .  .  •— 
Kule  of  the  thirty  tyrants  .  .  .  403 
Socrates  put  to  death  .         .         .    .  400 

The  sea  fight  of  Nazus  ....  377 

The  defeat  by  PhiUp 360 

Second  sacred  war  begins  .  .  .  357 
The  sacred  war  ended  ....  348 
The  battle  of  Cheronea  .  .  .  .  328 
Demosthenes  put  to  death  .  .  .  322 
Demetrius  takes  Athens  .  .  .  .  296 
The  revolt  from  Demetrius  .  .  .  287 
Athens  restored  to  liberty  .  .  .  .  25ti 
Athens  besieged  by  Sylla  .  .  .87 
Surrenders  the  following  year  .  .  .  86 
The  Athenians  desert  Pompey  to  follow 

the  interests  of  Ctesar .         .  .47 

.    .    21 


They  are  subjected  to  Rome        .        • 

Attica  was  governed  by  twenty-seven  kings,  of  whom  Codrus  was  the  last :  he  had 
consulted  the  oracle  respecting  the  war  against  the  Heraclidse,  and  was  answered 
that  that  army  would  be  victorious  whose  chief  should  perish.  Codrus,  therefore, 
threw  himself,  with  a  chosen  few,  into  the  thickest  of  the  fight,  and  though  he  lost 
his  life,  he  turned  the  fortune  of  the  day,  1070  b.c.  The  Venetians  got  possession 
of  Athens,  a.d.  1204,  and  the  Turks  in  1687. — Priestley. 

ATH  LONE.  Once  a  place  of  great  strength  and  beauty  ;  the  castle  was  founded  by 
king  John.  The  town  was  destroyed  by  fire  during  the  fury  of  the  war  in  1641. 
The  English  army  under  general  Ginckel  stormed  Athlone,  which  was  then  a  town 
of  prodigious  strength,  crossing  the  Shannon  in  the  face  of  the  Irish  army,  yet  not 
losing  more  than  fifty  men.  This  bold  and  successful  enterprise  procured  for 
Ginckel  the  title  of  earl  of  Athlone,  1691. — Burn's  Annals. 

ATMOSPHERE.  Posidonius  first  calculated  the  height  of  the  atmosphere,  stating  it 
to  be  800  stadia,  nearly  agreeing  with  our  modem  ideas,  about  79  b.c.  Its  weight 
was  determined  by  Galileo  and  Torricellius,  about  1630;  its  density  and  elasticity  by 
Boyle ;  and  its  relation  to  light  and  sound  by  Hooke,  Newton,  and  Derham.  The 
composition  of  the  atmosphere  was  ascertained  by  Hales,  Black,  Priestley,  Scheele, 
Lavoisier,  and  Cavendish ;  and  its  laws  of  refraction  were  investigated  by  Dr. 
Bradley,  1737. 

ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAY.  Experiments  were  made  on  a  line  of  rail,  laid  down 
between  Shepherd's-bush  and  the  Great  Western  rail-road  across  Wormwood  Scrubs, 
London,  by  which  to  test  the  efficacy  of  atmospheric  tubes,  the  working  of  the  air- 
pump,  and  speed  of  carriages  upon  this  new  principle  of  rail-roads;  and  its  superiority 
has  been  demonstrated,  so  that  it  may  by-and-by  supersede  the  engine  now  in  use, 
June  30,  1840. 

ATTAINDER,  Acts  of,  have  been  passed  in  numerous  reigns  :  two  witnesses  in  cases 
of  high  treason  are  necessary  where  corruption  of  blood  is  incurred,  unless  the  party 
accused  shall  confess,  or  stand  mute,  7  and  8  William  III.  1694-5. — Blackstone, 
The  attainder  of  Lord  Russell,  who  was  beheaded  in  Lincoln's-inn- Fields,  July  21, 
1683,  was  reversed  under  William  in  1689.  The  rolls  and  records  of  the  acts  of 
attainder  passed  in  the  reign  of  king  James  II.  were  cancelled  and  publicly  burnt, 
Oct.  2,  1695.  Several  acts  were  reversed  in  subsequent  reigns.  Among  the  last  acts 
so  reversed,  not  the  least  interesting  was  the  attaint  of  the  children  of  lord  Edward 
Fitzgerald  (who  was  implicated  in  the  rebellion  in  Ireland  of  1798),  July  1,  1819. 

ATTILA,  surnamed  the  "  Scourge  of  God,**  and  thus  distinguished  for  his  conquests 
and  his  crimes,  ravaged  all  Europe,  a.d.  447.     He  invaded  the  Roman  empire  with 


ATT 


C«3 


AUC 


an  army  of  500,000  Huni,  and  laid  waste  all  the  proTinces.  He  died  of  an  aneommon 
effusion  of  blood  on  the  night  of  his  nuptials  with  a  beantifiil  Tirgin  named  Ildico, 
having  retired  late  to  bed,  oppressed  with  wine,  aboat  a.d.  453. — Goldtmiih, 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL.  A  great  oflScer  of  the  crown,  appointed  by  letters  patent. 
It  is  among  his  duties  to  exhibit  informations  and  prosecute  for  the  king  in  matters 
criminal ;  and  to  file  bills  in  Exchequer,  for  any  claims  concerning  the  crown,  in 
inheritance  or  profit ;  and  others  may  bring  bills  against  the  king's  attorney.  The 
first  Attoroey-Greneral  was  William  de  GrisiUiam,  7  Edward  I.  1278. — Beatton, 


ATTORNEY-OXNERALS  SllTCX  THB  BBflTORATIOlf . 


JeflTery  Palmer 1660 

Sir  Heneage  Finch,   ctfierward*   lord 

Finch 1070 

Sir  Francifl  North,  knt.,  aJUrvtard*  lord 

Guildford 1673 

Sir  William  Jones 1674 

Sir  CresTel  Levinc,  Imt.  .  1679 

Sir  Robert  Sayer,  knt 1680 

Sir  Thomas  Fowls,  knt.        .        .         .  1687 

Hemy  PoUezfen,  esq 1688 

Sir  George  Treby.  knt.  .        .         .1689 

Sir  John  Somers,  kni.,  aflerwardi  lord 

Somers 1697 

Edward  Ward,  esq.   .  ...  lflB3 

Sir  Thomas  Trevor,  knight,  a/Urwardt 

lord  Trevor 1695 

Edward  Norths,  esq.  .    .  1701 

Sir  Simon  Haroourt,  knt,  o/Urwardt 

lord  Harcourt 1707 

Sir  James  Montagu,  knt.  .  .    .  17O8 

Sir  Simon  Harcourt,  again    .         *        .  1710 
Sir  Edward  Northey,  knt.,  again 
Nicholas   Lechmere,   esq.,   in/lerwardi 

lord  Lechmere 1717 

Sir  Robert  Raymond,  knt.,  t^fUrwardt 

lord  Raymond 1720 

Sir  Philip  Yorke,  knt.,  a/terufardt  earl 

of  Hardwicke 17S3 

Sir  John  WiUes,  knt  .    .  1733 

Sir  Dudley  Ryder,  knt  .         .1736 

Hon.  William  Murray,  a/Urwardi  earl 

of  Mansfield 1754 

Sir  Robert  Henley,  knt,  (\ftertcards  earl 

of  Northington 1756 

Sir  Charles  Pratt,  knt,  aflerwardt  lord 

Camden    .*....  1757 
Hon.  Charles  Yorke     .        .        .        .1763 


1763 


Sir  Fletcher  Norton,  knt,  afterwards 

lord  Grantley         • 
Hon.  Charles  Yorke,  o/teruiardi  lord 

Morden 176A 

William  de  Grey,  esq.,  ajleneardt  lord 

Walningham 1766 

Edward  Thurlow,  esq.,  e^fUrwardi  lord 

Thurlow  .... 
Alexandor  Wedderbume,  esq 

wards  lord  Loughborough . 
James  Wallace,  esq. 
Lloyd  Kenyon,  esq. 
James  Wallace,  esq. 
John  Lee,  esq.       . 
Lloyd  Kenyon,  esq.  . 
Sir  Richard  Pepper  Arden    . 
Sir  Archibald  Maodonald . 
Sir  John  Scott,  a/leneardi  lord  Eldon 


t^/Ur- 


1771 

1778 
17H0 
1782 
1783 
1783 
17»3 
1784 
1788 
1793 

Sir  J.  Mitford,  c/Urvardt  lord  Redesdale  1799 
Sir  Edward  Law,  a/Uneard*  lord  Ellen- 
borough  1801 

Hon.  Spencer  Perceval   (murdered  bp 
Bellingham,  May  11, 1812)  .  1802 

Sir  Arthur  Pigott 1806 

Sir  Vickery  Gibbs         .         .  .1807 

Sir  Thomas  Plumer 1812 

Sir  William  Garrow  ....  1813 
Sir  Samuel  Shepherd    .  .  I817 

Sir  Robert  Gifford 1819 

Sir  John  Singleton  Copley     .  .1823 

Sir  Charles  Wetherell  .         .    .  1827 

Sir  James  Scarlett  ....  1830 
Sir  Thonuts  Denman  .    .  1 330 

Sir  William  Home  ....  1832 
Sir  John  Campbell  .  .  •  .  .  1834 
Sir  Frederick  Pollock  ....  1834 
Sir  John  Campbell,  again  ..  163ft 


ATTORNEYS.  The  number  practising  in  Edward  III.'s  reign  was  under  400  for  the 
whole  kingdom.  In  the  32d  of  Henry  VI.  1454,  a  law  reduced  the  practitioners  in 
Norfolk,  Norwich,  and  Suffolk,  from  eighty  to  fourteen,  and  restricted  their  increase. 
The  number  of  attorneys  now  practising  in  England,  or  registered,  or  retired,  is  about 
13,000.    The  number  sworn,  and  practising  or  retired  in  Ireland,  is  stated  at  2000. 

ATTRACTION.  Copernicus  described  attraction  as  an  appetence  or  appetite  which 
the  Creator  impressed  upon  all  parts  of  matter,  about  1520.  It  was  described  by 
Kepler  to  be  a  corporeal  affection  tending  to  union,  1605.  In  the  Newtonian  phi- 
losophy,  it  is  an  original  power  which  restores  lost  motion ;  a  principle  whereby  all 
bodies  mutually  tend  to  each  other. — See  Astronomy. 

AUBURN.  The  scene  of  Goldsmith's  exquisite  poem  of  The  Deserted  VUlaget  is 
assumed  by  some  to  be  a  village  of  this  name  in  Ireland,  in  the  county  of  Westmeath, 
about  five  miles  from  Athlone  :  and  by  others,  to  be  Auburn,  in  Wiltshire.  Two- 
thirds  of  this  latter  town  were  burnt  iu  Sept.  1766  ;  and  another  fire  consumed  a 
vast  number  of  houses  in  1777. 

AUCTION,  a  kind  of  sale  known  to  the  Romans.  The  first  in  Britain  was  about  1700, 
by  Elisha  Yale,  a  governor  of  Fort  George,  in  the  East  Indies,  of  the  goods  he  had 
brought  home  with  him.    Auction  and  sales'  tax  began,  1779. 


AUE  C  *^  II  ^^^ 

AUERSTADT,  Battle  of.  In  this  most  sanguinary  conflict  between  the  French  and 
Prassian  armies,  they  were  commanded  by  their  respective  sovereigns,  and  Napoleon 
obtained  a  decisive  victory.  The  Prussians  were  routed  on  every  side,  and  lost  '200 
pieces  of  cannon,  thirty  standards,  and  28,000  prisoners,  leaving  50,000  slain  upon 
the  field,  Oct  14,  1806.  The  French  emperor  immediately  afterwards  entered 
Berlin,  from  whence  he  issued  his  memorable  Berlin  decree. — See  Berlin  Decree. 

AUG H RIM,  Battle  of,  in  Ireland,  between  the  Irish,  headed  by  the  French  general, 
St.  Ruth,  and  the  English,  under  general  Ginckel,  when  the  former  lost  7000  men,  the 
latter  only  600  killed,  and  960  wounded;  fought  July  12,  1691. 

AUGMENTATION  of  POOR  LIVINGS'  Office  was  established  3  Anne  1704. 
As  many  as  5597  poor  clerical  livings  of  under  £10,  and  not  exceeding  j^50  per 
annum^  were  found  by  the  commisioners  under  the  act  of  Anne  capable  of  augmenta- 
tion, by  means  of  the  bounty  then  established  by  parliament  for  the  benefit  of  the 
poorer  clergy. — Chalmers. 

AUGMENTATION  COURT.  At  the  suppression  of  the  monastic  institutions  of 
England,  Henry  YIIl.  erected  this  court,  whose  business  it  was  to  increase  the  royal 
revenues  by  adding  those  of  the  various  monasteries  thereto,  1534. — Pardon. 

AUGSBURG,  Battle  of,  between  the  Imperialists  and  the  French  army,  the  latter 
commanded  by  Moreau,  who  obtained  a  victory  bo  decisive  in  its  consequences,  that 
Augsburg  and  Munich  were  opened  to  him  ;  fought  August  24,  1 796. 

AUGSBURG  CONFESSION  of  FAITH.  TJie  confession  or  articles  of  faith  drawn 
up  at  Augsburg  by  Melancthon,  and  by  him  and  Luther  presented  to  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  in  1530.  It  was  divided  into  two  parts,  the  first  consisting  of  twenty- 
one  articles,  and  the  second  of  seven,  directly  opposed  to  the  abuses  that  had  crept 
into  the  Church  of  Rome.  The  elector  of  Saxony,  his  son,  and  several  other  princes 
of  Germany,  signed  this  confes9ion,  which  was  delivered  to  the  emperor  in  the  palace 
of  the  bishop  of  Augsburg,  and  hence  it  is  called  the  Confession  of  Augsburg. 

AUGSBURG,  League  of.  A  memorable  treaty  concluded  between  Holland  and  other 
European  powers,  which  had  for  its  object  the  causing  the  treaties  of  Munster  and 
Nimeguen  to  be  respected,  1636. — See  Munster  and  Niwegtien, 

AUGURY.  Husbandry  was  in  part  regulated  by  the  coming  or  going  of  birds,  long 
before  the  time  of  Hesiod.  Augurs  instituted  at  Rome,  with  vestals  and  several 
orders  of  the  priesthood,  by  Numa,  710  b.c.  There  was  a  community  of 
them,  appointed  to  foretell  events  by  the  flight  of  birds,  and  other  circumstances. 
The  king  Car,  from  whom  Caria  in  Asia  Minor  is  named,  was  the  inventor  of  augury 
by  birds. —  Vossitis.  The  augurs  of  Rome  drew  omens  from  the  phenomena  of  the 
heavens,  the  chirping  and  flight  of  birds,  and  various  strange  casualties. — Livy. 

AUGUST.  The  eighth  month  of  the  year.  It  was  dedicated  to  the  honour  of  Augustus 
Caesar,  from  whom  it  was  named  in  the  year  8  b.c.  ,  because  in  this  month  he  was 
bom,  was  created  consul,  or  chief  magistrate,  thrice  triumphed  in  Rome,  subdued 
Egypt  to  the  Roman  empire,  and  made  an  end  of  the  civil  wars.  It  was  previously 
cedled  Sextilis^  or  the  sixth  from  March. 

AULIC  COUNCIL.  A  sovereign  court  in  Germany,  established  by  the  emperor 
Maximilian  I.,  in  1506,  being  one  of  two  courts,  the  first  called  the  Imperial  Chamber, 
formerly  held  at  Spires,  and  afterwards  at  Wetzlar,  and  the  other  the  Aulic  Council, 
at  Vienna.  These  courts  having  concurrent  jurisdiction,  were  instituted  for  appeals 
in  particular  cases  from  the  courts  of  the  Germanic  states. 

AURIFLAMMA,  or  ORIFLAMME.  The  national  banner  so  often  mentioned  in 
French  history :  it  was  a  costly  standard  that  belonged  to  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis,  and 
which  was  suspended  over  the  tomb  of  that  saint,  a.d.  1140.  See  Banner, 

AURORA  BOREALIS,  or  Northern  Lights.  This  sublime  phenomenon,  though 
rarely  seen  in  the  middle  of  Europe,  is  almost  constant  in  the  arctic  and  antarctic 
regions,  covering  the  whole  heavens,  and  eclipsing  by  its  splendour  the  stars  and 
planets.  Memorable  appearance  of  the  Aurora  Borealis,  when  it  extended  from 
the  west  of  Ireland  to  the  confines  of  Russia,  March  1716.  It  overspread  the  whole 
horizon  in  the  lat.  of  57°  N.  in  one  continued  fixed  haze  of  a  dismal  red  during  the 
whole  night,  by  which  many  people  were  much  terrified,  Nov.  1765.  The  electricity 
of  the  aurora  borealis  was  discovered  at  Jena  in  1769.  Mr.  Forster,  the  companion 
of  Captain  Cook,  saw  the  aurora  borealis  in  58^  S.  lat. ;  it  had  been  previously 
matter  of  doubt  whether  it  ever  appeared  in  the  southern  hemisphere. — Butler, 


AUR 


C45] 


AFT 


AURORA  Frigats.  On  board  of  this  ship  there  sailed  a  number  of  persons, 
many  of  them  of  great  consideration  and  wealth,  proceeding  from  England 
and  Ireland  to  the  East  Indies ;  but  alter  leaving  the  British  shore  they  were  never 
heard  of,  1771. 

AUSTERLITZ,  Battlv  of,  between  the  French  and  Anstrian  armies,  gained  by  the 
former.  Three  emperors  commanded  at  this  battle,  Alexander  of  Rassia,  Francis  of 
Austria,  and  Napoleon  of  France.  The  killed  and  wounded  exceeded  40,000  on  the 
side  of  the  allies,  who  lost,  besides,  forty  standards,  150  pieces  of  cannon,  and  many 
thousands  of  prisoners.  This  decisive  victory  of  the  French  led  to  the  treaty  of 
Presburg,  which  was  signed  Dec  26,  same  year.  The  battle  was  fought  Dec.  2, 
1805.     See  Presburg. 

AUSTRALASIA,  includes  New  Holland,  Van  Diemen's  Land,  New  Guinea,  New 
Britain,  New  Zealand,  &c.,  mostly  discovered  within  two  centuries.  Of  a  popu- 
lation of  twenty-two  millions,  the  native  iahabitants  are  not  supposed  to  exceed  one 
hundred  thousand.  Several  settlements  from  Europe  have  been  made  since  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century.  Act  to  provide  for  the  government  of 
Western  Australia,  1 0  George  lY.  1829.  Act  to  erect  South  Australia  into  a  British 
province,  4  and  5  WiUiam  IV.  1834.  New  act,  6  and  6  William  IV.  1835.  Se- 
veral companies  and  institutions  connected  with  Australia  have  lately  been  formed 
in  London. 

AUSTRIA,  anciently  the  Belgic  Gaul  of  the  Romans.  It  was  taken  from  Hungary  and 
annexed  to  Germany,  when  it  received  its  present  name,  about  a.d.  1040.  This 
was  after  Charlemagne  had  re-established  the  Western  Empire,  Austria  being  a  part 
of  what  was  called  Eastern  France,  which  its  name  in  the  German  language  implies. 


Rodolph,  count  of  Hapsbui^,  seises 
Austria  trtan.  Bohemia,  and  makes 
himself  arch -duke      ....  1273 

Revolt  of  Switzerland  from  the  house  of 
Austria,  in  the  ruig:n  of  Albert  I.        .1307 

Albert  n.,  duke  of  Austria,  succeeds  to 
three  crowns,— the  imperial .  and  those 
of  Hungary  and  Bohemia ;  his  family 
still  possess  the  empire      .         .        .  1438 

Burgundy  accrues  to  Austria  by  the 
marriage  of  Maximilian  with  the  heir> 
ess  of  that  prorince  ....  1477 

Also  Spain,  by  the  marriage  of  Philip  I. 
of  Austria  with  the  heiress  of  Aragon 
and  Castile 1496 

Charles  Y.,  reigning  over  Germany, 
Austria,  Bohemia,  Hungary,  Spain, 
the  Netherlands,  and  their  dependen- 
cies, abdicates,  and  retires  from  the 
world,  leaving  his  German  dominions 
to  his  brother  Ferdinand,  and  Spain 
and  the  Netherlands  to  his  son,  Philip 
II.— See  Spain 1A67 

The  Protestant  princes  of  Germany, 
being  oppressed  bythe  house  of  Austria, 
call  in  the  aid  of  Gustavus  Adolphus 
of  Sweden,  and  this  leads  to  the  treaty 
of  Westphalia 1648 

Leopold  I.  reigns.— (See  Oermany)     .    .1658 

Accession  of  Francis,  duke  of  Lorraine, 


1745 
1765 
1776 
1789 
1790 


1804 
1805 
18«5 


who  marries  the  celebrated  queen  of 
Hungary,  Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of 
the  deceased  emperor,  Charles  VL 

Reign  of  Joseph  II 

Religious  toleration  granted 
The  emperor  controls  the  pope . 
Reign  of  Leopold  II.      *        .        . 

Reign  of  Francis  U I7M 

Austria  becomes  a  distinct  empire,  and 
Francis  IL  of  Germany  takes  the  title 
of  I.  of  Austria  .  Aug.  9, 

The  emperor  issues  his  declaration 
against  France  .        .  Aug.  5, 

Napoleon,  after  many  victories,  enters 
Vienna  ....  Nov.  14, 
Vienna  evacuated  by  the  French,  Jan.  12,  1 8U6 
They  again  capture  it  .  .  May  13,  1^09 
But  restore  it  at  the  peace  Oct  24,  1 8U9 

Napoleon  marries  the  arch-duchess  Ma- 
ria Louisa,  the  daughter  of  the  em- 
peror        ....      April  I,  1810 
Congress  at  Vienna  .        .         .    Oct.  2,  1814 
Treaty  of  Vienna  .  Feb.  85.  1815 

Death  of  Francis  I.,  and  accession  of 

Ferdinand         .  .    March  2,  1835 

New  treaty  of  commerce  with  England 

July  3,  1838 
Ferdinand  is  crowned  with  great  ^len- 
dour  at  Milan         .  Sept.  6,  1838 

(See  Oermany t  Vienna,  Stc.) 


Before  the  establishment  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  in  1 806,  Francis  ceased 
to  be  emperor  of  Germany,  and  became  hereditary  emperor  of  Austria,  under  the 
title  of  Francis  I.  Upon  the  formation  of  the  Germanic  Confederation  in  1815, 
the  emperor  of  Austria  was  declared  hereditary  head  of  that  body. 

AUTHORS.     For  the  laws  securing  copyright,  see  Copyright  and  Literary  Property. 

AUTO  DA  FE.  See  Inquisition,  The  punishment,  often  by  burning  alive,  of  a  heretic. 
This  is  called  an  act  of  faith,  and  is  coeval  with  the  Inquisition  ;  and  since  its  first 
practice  in  a.d.  1203,  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  victims  have  been  sacrificed 


AUT  C  4^  ]  ^^^ 

by  the  sentence  of  the  Inquisitions  of  Roman  Catholic  countries  on  the  burning  pile. 
One  of  the  last  executions  of  this  kind  was  at  Goa,  where,  for  the  glory  of  the 
Christian  religion  (!)  and  in  yindication  of  the  Catholic  faith,  twenty  sufferers  perished 
in  the  flames,  1787.     These  horrible  sacrifices  have  ceased  in  Spain. — Ashe. 

AUTOMATON  FIGURES,  or  ANDROIDES.  They  are  made  to  perform  human 
actions,  and  are  of  early  invention.  Archytas*  flying  dove  was  formed  about  400  b.c. 
Friar  Bacon  made  a  brazen  head  that  could  speak,  a.d.  1264.  Albertus  Magnus 
spent  thirty  years  in  making  another.  A  coach  and  two  horses,  with  a  footman,  a 
page,  and  lady  inside,  were  made  by  Camus,  for  Louis  XIV.  when  a  child ;  the 
horses  and  figures  moved  naturally,  variously,  and  perfectly,  1649.  Yaucanson 
made  an  artificial  duck,  which  performed  every  function  of  a  real  one,  even  an  im- 
perfect digestion,  eating,  drinking,  and  quacking.  Yaucanson  also  made  a  flute- 
player,  1738.  The  writing  androides,  exhibited  in  1769,  was  a  pentograph  worked 
by  a  confederate  out  of  sight ;  so  were  also  the  automaton  chess-player,  exhibited 
the  same  year,  and  **  the  invisible  girl,"  exhibited  in  1800. 

*'  AVE  MARIA  !  "  the  salutation  of  the  angel  Gabriel  to  the  Yirgin.— /.tiAre  i.  26, 
27,  28.  A  formula  of  devotion  in  the  Roman  church,  ordered  by  pope  John  XXII, 
in  the  fourteenth  century. — Butler.  This  prayer  to  the  Virgin  is  repeated  in 
Catholic  countries  daily  at  the  ringing  of  the  matin  and  the  vesper  bell. — Ashe. 
Although  of  universal  use  in  the  Catholic  church,  it  can  be  traced  no  higher  than  the 
beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  Vicentius  Ferrerius  used  it  before  his 
discourses . — Bingham. 

AVIGNON,  ceded  by  Philip  III.  of  France  to  the  pope,  in  1273.  The  papal  seat  was 
removed  for  seventy  years  to  Avignon,  in  1308.  It  was  seized  several  times  by  the 
French,  by  whom  it  was  taken  from  the  pope  in  1769,  but  was  restored  on  the 
suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  1773.  Declared  to  belong  to  France  by  the  National 
Assembly,  1 791.  Horrible  massacres  in  October  of  that  year.  Continued  to  France 
by  the  congress  of  sovereigns,  in  1815. 

AXE,  WEDGE,  WIMBLE,  &c.  These  instruments,  with  the  lever,  and  various 
others  of  a  coarse  construction,  and  still  in  common  use,  are  said  to  have  been 
invented  by  Deedalus,  an  artificer  of  Athens,  to  whom  also  is  ascribed  the  invention 
of  masts  and  sails  for  ships,  1240  b.c. 

AZORES,  OR  WESTERN  ISLES,  supposed  to  be  the  site  of  the  ancient  Atalantis  : 
they  were  discovered  by  Yandenburg,  a.d.  1439  ;  and  were  settled  by  the  Portuguese, 
in  1448.  Martin  Behem  found  one  of  them  covered  with  beech-trees,  and  he 
called  it  therefore  Fayal ;  another  abounding  in  sweet  flowers,  and  he  therefore 
called  it  Flores  ;  and  all  full  of  hawks,  and  he  therefore  named  them  the  Azores. 
A  violent  concussion  of  the  earth  took  place  here  for  twelve  days,  in  1591.  A 
devastating  earthquake,  in  1757.  Here  are  fountains  of  boiling  water.  A  volcano 
at  St.  George's  destroyed  the  town  of  Ursulina,  May,  1808  ;  and  in  1811,  a  volcano 
appeared  near  St.  Michael's  in  the  sea,  where  the  water  was  eighty  fathoms  deep. 
An  island  called  Sabrina  gradually  disappeared,  Dec.  1812. 

B. 
BABEL,  THE  Tower  of,  built  by  Noah's  posterity,  2247  e.g.  The  temple  of  Belus, 
originally  this  celebrated  tower,  was  the  most  magnificent  in  the  world ;  it  had  lofty 
spires,  and  was  enriched  with  many  statues  of  gold,  one  of  them  forty  feet  high. 
In  the  upper  part  of  this  temple  was  the  tomb  of  the  founder,  Belus  (the  Nimrod  of 
the  sacred  scriptures),  who  was  deified  after  death  ;  and  in  an  adjoining  apartment 
was  a  magnificent  bed,  whither  the  priests  daily  conducted  a  female,  who,  as  they 
pretended,  was  there  honoured  with  the  company  of  the  god. — Blair, 

BABINGTON'S  CONSPIRACY,  formed  in  the  cause  of  Mary  against  Elizabeth,  for 
which  the  chief  conspirator,  with  thirteen  others,  suffered  death.  Babington  was  a 
gentleman  of  Derbyshire,  and  he  associated  with  persons  of  his  own  persuasion  (the 
Roman  Catholic),  with  a  design  to  assassinate  the  queen,  and  deliver  Mary.  He  seems 
to  have  been  principally  induced  to  this  rash  conspiracy  by  a  romantic  hope  that 
Mary,  in  gratitude,  would  accept  of  him  as  a  hiisband.  1586. 

BABYLON,  Empire  of,  founded  by  Belus,  supposed  to  be  the  Nimrod  of  holy  writ, 
the  son  of  Chus,  and  grandson  of  Ham,  2245  b.c. — Lenglet.  Ninus  of  Assyria 
seized  on   Babylon,  and  established  what  was  properly  the  Assyrian  empire,  by 


J 


Nineveh.— Lenglet 

B.C 

8069 

Babylon  taken  by  Niniu  . 

•       ♦ 

»iAfl 

The  Assyrian  empire  ends 

82(1 

Belesis  goyems  in  Babjrion 

•       • 

766 

Babylon  taken  by  Esar-baddon 

6»0 

Nebuchadnezzar  reigns     . 

•       • 

604 

He  takes  Jerusalem. — Lenglet 

587 

He  is  driven  from  among  men  . 

•       • 

069 

Babylon  taken  by  the  Medes  and  Per- 

sians, under  Cyrus     . 

■ 

538 

Taken  by  Darius.— l/^tAfr 

•       • 

511 

BAB  C  *7  ]  BAD 

uniting  the  two  sovereignties »  2059  b.c.  According  to  Easebius  this  empire  existed 
1240  years  ;  according  to  Jostin,  1300  years  ;  according  to  Herodotos,  500  or  600 
years.  Of  these  opinions  Blair  has  adopted  the  first,  which  calcnlates  from  the 
foundation  of  the  empire  by  Ninna,  b.c.  2059,  to  the  dose  of  the  reign  of  Sardanapalos, 
who  was  dethroned  by  his  generals,  and  his  kingdom  divided  into  the  A8syrian» 
Babylonian,  and  Median  kingdoms,  820  B.C. — See  Aatyria. 

The  tower  of  Babel  built  .    b.c.  2247       and  names  his  capital  alter  himself, 

The  kingdom  of  Babylon  begins         .    .  2245 

Ashur  builds  a  city,  afterwards  called 
Nineveh 2245 

The  astronomical  observations  are  begun 
at  Babylon  by  the  Chaldeans. — Blair; 
Lenglet 2234 

Belus,  king  of  Assyria,  extends  his  em- 
pire over  the  neighbouring  states,  de- 
feats the  Babylonians,  and  makes 
them  tributary.— Cr«Aer     .  .  2124 

NinuB,  son  of  Belus,  reigns  in  Assyria, 

The  city  of  Babylon  was,  anciently,  the  most  magnificent  in  the  world ;  and  in  later 
times  famons  for  the  empire  established  uoder  the  Selencidse.  Its  greatness  was  so 
reduced  in  succeeding  ages,  that  Fliny  says,  in  his  time  it  was  but  a  desolate 
wilderness ;  and  at  present  the  place  where  it  stood  is  scarcely  known  to  tra?ellers. 
— Rollin's  Ancient  Hist. 

BABYLON,  Hanging  Gardens  of.  They  were  of  a  square  form,  and  in  terraces 
one  above  another  until  they  rose  as  high  as  the  walls  of  the  city,  the  ascent  being 
from  terrace  to  terrace  by  steps.  The  whole  pile  was  sustained  by  vast  arches 
raised  on  other  arches ;  and  on  the  top  were  flat  stones  closely  cemented  together 
with  plaster  of  bitumen,  and  that  covered  with  sheets  of  lead,  upon  which  lay  the 
mould  of  the  garden,  where  there  were  large  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers,  with  yarious 
sorts  of  vegetables.  There  were  five  of  these  gardens,  each  containing  about  four 
English  acres,  and  disposed  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre. — Strabo ;  DiodoruM. 

BACCHANALIA,  games  celebrated  in  honour  of  Bacchus.  They  arose  in  Egypt,  and 
were  brought  into  Greece  by  Melampus,  and  were  there  called  Dtonyjta,  about  1415 
B.C. — Diodorus.    They  were  celebrated  in  Rome  under  the  name  o{  Bacchanalia. 

BACHELORS.  The  Roman  censors  frequently  imposed  fines  on  unmarried  men ;  and 
men  of  full  age  were  obliged  to  marry.  The  Spartan  women  at  certain  games  laid 
hold  of  old  bachelors,  dragged  them  round  their  altars,  and  inflicted  on  them  various 
marks  of  infamy  and  disgrace. —  Vossitu,  After  twenty-five  years  of  age,  a  tax  was 
laid  upon  bachelors  in  England,  12/.  10«.  for  a  duke,  and  for  a  common  person,  one 
shilling,  7  William  III.  1695.  Bachelors  were  subjected  to  a  double  tax  on  their 
male  and  female  servants,  in  1 785. 

BACKGAiMMON.  Palamedes  of  Greece  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  this  game 
(decidedly  one  of  the  oldest  known  to  our  times),  about  1224  b.c.  It  is  stated  by 
some  to  have  been  invented  in  Wales  in  the  period  preceding  the  Conquest. — Henry . 

BAD  A  J  OS,  Siege  of.  This  important  barrier  fortress  had  surrendered  to  the  French, 
March,  11,  1811,  and  was  invested  by  the  British  under  lord  Wellington  on  March 
18,  1812,  and  stormed  and  taken  on  April  6,  following.  This  victory  was  not  only 
a  glorious  military  achievement  in  itself,  but  it  obliged  the  French,  who  had  entered 
Portugal  for  the  purpose  of  plunder,  to  commence  a  precipitate  retreat  from  that 
kingdom. 

BADEN,  House  of,  descended  from  Herman,  son  of  Berthold  I.  duke  of  Zahringen, 
who  died  a.d.  1074.  From  Christopher,  who  united  the  branches  of  Hochberg  and 
Baden,  and  died  in  1527,  proceed  the  branches  of  Baden-Baden,  and  Baden- 
Dourlach.  This  family  makes  a  most  conspicuous  figure  in  the  annals  of  Germany, 
and  is  allied  to  all  the  principal  families  in  the  empire. 

BADEN,  Treaty  of,  between  France  and  the  emperor,  when  Landau  was  ceded  to 
the  former,  Sept.  7,  1714.  Baden  was  formerly  a  margravate ;  it  was  erected  into  a 
grand  duchy,  as  a  member  of  the  Rhenish  Confederation,  in  1806.  Its  territorial 
acquisitions  by  its  alliances  with  France,  were  guaranteed  by  the  congress  at  Vienna, 
in  1815. 


BAP  [^  48  ] BAL 

BAFFIN'S-BAY,  discovered  by  William  Baffin,  an  Englishman,  in  1616.  The  nature 
and  extent  of  this  discovery  were  mach  doubted  untU  the  expeditions  of  Ross  and 
Parry  proved  that  Baffin  was  substantially  accurate  in  his  statement.  These  voyagers 
returned  home  in  1818.     See  article  North  West  Passage, 

BAGDAD,  built  by  Almansor,  and  made  the  seat  of  the  Saracen  empire,  a.d.  762 — 
taken  by  the  Tartars,  and  a  period  pnt  to  the  Saracen  rule,1258.  It  has  since  been 
often  tdken  by  the  Persians,  and  from  them  again  by  the  Turks. — BLair. 

BAGPIPE.  This  instrument  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  peculiar  to  Ireland  and  Scotland  ; 
but  it  must  have  been  known  to  the  Greeks,  as,  on  a  piece  of  Grecian  sculpture  of 
the  highest  antiquity,  now  in  Rome,  is  represented  a  bagpiper  dressed  like  a  modem 
highlander.     Nero  is  said  to  have  played  upon  a  bagpipe,  a.d.  51. 

BAHAMA  ISLES.  These  were  the  first  points  of  discovery  by  Columbus.  San  Salvador 
was  seen  by  this  great  navigator  on  the  night  of  the  11th  October,  1492. — ^The 
Bahamas  were  not  known  to  the  English  till  1667.  Seized  for  the  crown  of 
England,  1718,  when  the  pirates  who  inhabited  them  surrendered  to  Captain 
Rogers. 

BAIL.  By  ancient  common  law,  before  and  since  the  Conquest,  all  felonies  were 
bailable,  till  murder  was  excepted  by  statute  ;  and  by  the  3d  Edward  I.  the  power 
of  bailing  in  treason,  and  in  divers  instances  of  felony,  was  taken  away»  1274. 
Bail  was  farther  regulated,  23  Henry  VI. ;  2  Philip  and  Mary,  and  in  later  reigns. 

BAILIFFS,  OR  SHERIFFS  are  said  to  be  of  Saxon  origin.  London  had  its  «Atre-r«rtf 
prior  to  the  Conquest,  and  this  officer  was  generally  appointed  for  counties  in 
England  in  1079.  Sheriffs  were  appointed  in  Dublin  under  the  name  of  bailiffs,  in 
1308 ;  and  the  name  was  changed  to  sheriff,  1548.  There  are  still  some  places 
where  the  chief-magistrate  is  called  bailiff,  as  the  high  bailiff  of  Westminster.  The 
term  Bum-bailiff  is  a  corruption  of  bound-bailiff,  every  bailiff  being  obliged  to  enter 
into  bonds  of  security  for  his  good  behaviour. — Biackstone. 

BAIZE.  This  species  of  woollen  manufacture  was  brought  into  England  by  some 
Fleming  or  Dutch  emigrants  who  settled  at  Colchester,  in  Essex,  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  IL,  about  the  year  1660. — Anderson. 

BALANCE  OF  POWER,  to  assure  the  .independency  and  integrity  of  states,  and 
control  ambition  ;  the  principle  is  said  to  be  a  discovery  of  the  Italian  politicians 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  on  the  invasion  of  Charles  VIII.  of  France. — Robertson, 
By  the  treaty  of  Munster,  the  principle  of  a  balance  of  power  was  first  recognised 
by  treaty  October  24,  1648. 

BALKAN,  Passaob  of  the.  This  adventurous  experiment  was  deemed  impracticable 
by  a  hostile  army,  until  effected  by  the  Russian  army  under  Diebitsch,  whose  march 
through  the  Balkan  mountains  is  a  memorable  achievement  of  the  Russian  and 
Turkish  war  :  the  passage  was  completed  July  26,  1829. 

BALLADS.  They  may  be  traced  in  British  history  to  the  Anglo-Saxons. — Turner. 
Andhelme,  who  died  a.d.  709,  is  mentioned  as  the  first  who  introduced  ballads  into 
England.  **  The  harp  was  sent  round,  that  those  might  sing  who  could.'' — Bede. 
Alfred  sung  ballads. — Malmsbury.  Canute  composed  one. — Turner.  Minstrels 
were  protected  by  a  charter  of  Edward  IV. ;  but  by  a  statute  of  Elizabeth  they  were 
made  punishable  among  rogues,  vagabonds,  and  sturdy  beggars. —  Viner. 

BALLADS,  NATIONAL.  '*  Give  me  the  writing  of  the  ballads,  and  you  may  make  the 
laws'' — Fletcher  ofSaltoun.  A  British  statesman  has  said,  *'  Give  me  the  writing  of 
the  ballads  of  the  carntry,  and  while  I  place  at  your  command  every  other  species  of 
composition,  I  will  fix  public  opinion,  and  rule  public  feeling,  and  sway  the  popular 
sentiment,  more  powerfnlly  than  aU  your  writers,  political  and  moral,  can  do  by  any 
other  agency  or  influence."  The  beautiful  and  frequently  touching  ballads  of 
Dibdin,  particularly  those  of  the  sea,  inspired  many  a  brave  defender  of  his  country 
in  the  late  war ;  Dibdin  died  Jan.  20,  1 833. 

BALLETS.  They  arose  in  the  meretricious  taste  of  the  Italian  courts.  One  performed 
at  the  interview  between  our  Henry  VIII.  and  Francis  I.  of  France,  in  the  field  of 
the  Cloth  of  Gold,  1520. — Guicciardini.  In  the  next  century,  they  reached  the 
summit  of  their  glory  in  the  splendid  pomps  of  the  courts  of  Tuscany  and  Lorraine ; 
and  their  most  zealous  patron,  Louis  XIV.  bore  a  part  in  one,  1664. 


BAL [[  49  ] BAN 

BALLOON.  Galien  of  Avignon  wrote  on  aerostation,  in  1755.  Dr.  Black  gave  tbe 
hint  as  to  hydrogen,  in  1767.  A  balloon  was  constructed  in  France  by  MM. 
Montgolfier,  in  1783,  when  Rozier  and  the  marquis  d'Arlandes  ascended  at  Paris. 
Pil&tre  Desrozier  and  M.  Romain  perished  in  an  attempted  Toyage  from  Boulogne  to 
England,  the  balloon  having  taken  fire,  June  14,  1785.  At  the  battle  of  Flenms, 
the  French  made  use  of  a  balloon  to  reconnoitre  the  enemy's  army,  and  convey  the 
observations  by  telegraph,  Jane  17,  1794.  Gamerin  ascended  in  a  balloon  to 
the  height  of  4,000  feet,  and  descended  by  a  parachute,  Sept  21,  1802.  Gay. 
Lussac  ascended  at  Paris  to  the  height  of  23,000  feet,  Sept.  6,  1804.  Madame 
Blanchard  ascended  from  Tivoli  at  night,  and  the  balloon,  being  surrounded  by 
fire-works,  took  fire,  and  she  was  precipitated  to  the  ground,  and  killed,  July  6, 1819. 

BALLOON,  IN  England.  The  first  attempt  to  navigate  the  atmosphere  in  England 
in  a  balloon  was  by  Signor  Lunardi,  who  ascended  from  Moorfieldsy  Sept.  15,  1 784. 
Blanchard  and  Jeffries  passed  from  Dover  to  Cdais,  in  1785.  Mr.  Arnold  went  up 
lix>m  St  George's-Fields,  and  fell  into  the  Thames ;  and  major  Money  ascended 
from  Norwich,  and  fell  into  the  North  Sc«,  but  was  saved  by  a  revenue  cutter. 
The  first  ascent  from  Ireland,  was  from  Ranelagh-gardens,  Dublin,  in  1785. 
Sadler,  who  made  many  previous  expeditions  in  England,  fell  into  the  sea  near 
Holyhead,  but  was  taken  up,  Oct  9, 1812.  Saddler,  jun.,  was  killed,  falling  from  a 
balloon,  in  1825.  Mr.  Cocking  ascended  from  Vauihall;  the  parachute  in  its 
descent  from  the  balloon,  collapsed,  and  he  was  thrown  out  and  killed,  July  24, 1837. 
Green  and  others  have  made  repeated  ascents. 

BALLOON,  Thb  Nassau.  The  great  Nassau  balloon,  of  immense  dimensions,  and 
which  had  for  some  time  previously  been  exhibited  to  the  inhabitants  of  London 
in  repeated  ascents  from  Vauxhall  gardens,  started  from  that  place  on  an  ex))erimental 
voyage,  having  three  individuals  in  the  car,  and,  after  having  been  eighteen  hours 
in  the  air,  descended  at  Wielburg,  in  the  duchy  of  Nassau,  Not.  7,  1836. 

BALLINAHINCH,  Battlb  of,  a  sanguinary  engagement  on  the  estate  of  the  earl 
of  Moira,  between  a  large  body  of  the  insurgent  Irish  and  the  firitish  troops,  June 
13,  1798.  In  this  battle  a  large  part  of  the  town  was  destroyed,  and  the  royal  army 
suffered  very  severely. 

BALTIC  EXPEDITION.  This  was  also  called  the  Copenhagen  expedition,  the 
Danish  expedition,  &c.  There  were  two :  in  the  first  expedition,  under  lord  Nelson 
and  admiral  Parker,  Copenhagen  was  bombarded,  and  twenty-eight  sail  of  the  Danish 
fleet  were  taken  or  destroyed,  April  2,  1801. — See  Armed  Neutrality*  In  the 
second  expedition,  under  admiral  Gambler  and  lord  Cathcart,  eighteen  sail  of  the 
line,  fifteen  frigates,  and  thirty-one  brigs  and  gunboats  surrendered  to  the  British, 
July  26,  1807. 

BALTIMORE,  Battlb  of,  between  the  British  army  under  general  Ross  and  the 
Americans ;  the  British  in  making  an  attack  upon  the  town  were  unsuccessful,  and 
after  a  desperate  engagement  were  repulsed  with  great  loss  ;  the  gallant  general  who 
led  the  enterprise  was  killed,  Sept.  12,  1814. 

BAND  OF  GENTLEMEN  PENSIONERS,  a  court  retinue  instituted  by  Henry  VI IL 
1509.    Hie  earl  of  Essex  was  appointed  their  first  captain. — Salmon, 

BANDON,  founded  by  the  first  earl  of  Cork,  in  1610.     The  walls  having  been 
demolished  by  the  Irish  then  in  arms,  the  Catholics  were  forbidden  to  enter  the 
to?ni ;  and  the  following  words,  which  were  set  up  in  1689,  by  the  inhabitants— 
"  A  Turk,  a  Jew,  or  atheist— may  enter  hexe,  but  not  a  papist,** 

are  memorable  as  an  interdict  long  blazoned  on  its  gates. — Annalt  of  Munster, 
The  catholics  in  derision  and  humour  added,  in  chalk,  &e  following  couplet : 

**  Whosoe'er  wrote  these  words,  he  wrote  them  well ; 
The  same  are  written  on  the  gates  of  helL"— Bum's  Annals. 

BANGALORE,  Siege  of,  commenced  by  the  British  under  lord  Cornwallis,  March  6, 
and  the  town  taken  by  storm,  March  21,  1791.  Bangalore  was  restored  to  Tippoo 
in  1792,  when  he  destroyed  the  strong  fort,  deemed  the  bulwark  of  Mysore. 

BANGOR..  Here  was  one  of  the  earliest  monastic  institutions  in  Britain,  and  its 

monks  were  merdlessly  murdered  by  the  Danes ;  its  bishopric  is  of  great  antiquity, 

but  its  founder  is  unknown  ;  the  church  is  dedicated  to  St.  Daniel,  who  was  bishop 

^anno  516.     Owen  Glendower  greaUy  defaced  the   cathedral;  but  a  more  cruel 


BAN 


[50] 


BAN 


ravager  than  he,  the  bishop  Bulkely,  alienated  many  of  the  lands,  and  even  sold  the 
bells  of  the  church,  1553.  The  see  is  yalued  in  the  king's  books  at  131/.  16«.  4cL 
An  order  in  council  directing  that  the  sees  of  Bangor  and  St.  Asaph  be  united  on 
the  next  yacancy  in  either,  was  issued,  Oct.  1838. 

BANK.  The  first  established  was  in  Italy,  a.d.  808,  by  the  Lombard  Jews,  of  whom 
some  settled  in  Lombard-street,  London,  where  many  bankers  still  reside.  The 
name  bank  is  derived  from  banco,  a  bench,  which  was  erected  in  the  market- 
place for  the  exchange  of  money,  llie  mint  in  the  tower  of  London  was  anciently 
the  depositary  for  merchants'  cash,  until  Charles  L  laid  his  hands  upon  the  money,  and 
destroyed  the  credit  of  the  mint,  in  1 640.  The  traders  were  thus  driven  to  some 
other  place  of  security  for  their  gold,  which,  when  kept  at  home,  their  apprentices 
frequently  absconded  with  to  the  army.  In  ]  645,  therefore,  they  consented  to  lodge 
it  with  the  goldsmiths  in  Lombard-street,  who  were  provided  with  strong  chests  for 
their  own  valuable  wares  ;  and  this  became  the  origin  of  banking  in  England. — 
Anderson, 


Bank  of  Venice  formed 

.  1167 

Bank  of  Scotland 

.    .  1695 

Bank  of  Geneva 

.     .  1345 

Bank  of  Copenhagen    . 

.  1736 

Bank  of  Barcelona 

.  1401 

Bank  of  Berlin 

.    .  1765 

Bank  of  Genoa 

.    .  1407 

Caisse  D'Escompte,  France   . 

.  1776 

Bank  of  Amsterdam 

.  1607 

Bank  of  Ireland 

.    .  1783 

Bank  of  Hamburgh  .         . 

.    .  1619 

Bank  of  Petersburgh    . 

.  1786 

Bank  of  Rotterdam 

.  1635 

In  the  East  Indies    . 

.    .  1787 

Bank  of  Stockholm  . 

.    .  1688 

And  one  in  America     .         .         . 

.  1791 

Bank  of  England 

.  1694 

Branch  banks  in  these  realms  . 

.    .  1828 

BANK  OF  ENGLAND,  (See  preceding  article,)  originally  projected  by  a  merchant 
named  Patterson.  It  was  incorporated  by  William  IIL  in  1694,  in  consideration  of 
1,200,000/.,  the  then  amount  of  its  capital,  being  lent  to  .govemment.  The  capital 
has  gone  on  increasing  from  one  period  to  another  up  to  the  present  time,  as  the 
discretion  of  parliament  allowed  ;  and  the  same  authority  has  also  at  different  intervals 
prolonged  the  privileges  of  the  bank,  and  renewed  its  charter.  When  first  established 
the  notes  of  the  bank  were  at  20  per  cent,  disconnt ;  and  so  late  as  1745,  they 
were  under  par.  Bank  bills  were  paid  in  silver,  1745.  The  first  bank  post-billa 
were  issued  1754  ;  small  notes  were  issued  1759;  cash  payments  were  discontinued 
February  25,  1797,  when  notes  of  one  and  ttno  pounds  wei%  put  into  circulation. 
Silver  tokens  appeared  in  January,  1798  ;  and  afterwards  Spanish  dollars,  with  the 
head  of  George  111.  stamped  on  the  neck  of  Charies  IV.,  were  made  current  Cash 
payments  were  resumed  partially,  September  ^2,  1817,  and  the  restriction  had 
altogether  ceased  in  1821.  For  a  number  of  years  the  financial  measures  of  the 
crown  have  been  largely  aided  by  loans  from  this  great  reservoir  of  wealth.  The 
average  amount  of  the  Bank  of  England  notes  in  circulation  is  as  follows  : — 

In  1718  (earliest  account)       .        .  Xl,829,930 

1778 7,030,680 

1790 10,217,000 

1800 15.450,000 

1810 23,904.000 

To  secure  the  credit  of  the  Bank  it  was  enacted,  **  that  no  other  banking  company 
should  consist  of  more  than  six  persons,''  6  Anne  1707.  There  are  brandi  banks  of 
the  Bank  of  England  in  many  of  the  chief  towns  ^f  the  kingdom  ;  as  Birmingham* 
Bristol,  Exeter,  Gloucester,  Hull,  Leeds,  Liverpool,  Manchester,  Newcastle,  Nor- 
wich, Swansea,  &c.  all  formed  since  1828.     See  Funds, 

BANK  OF  IRELAND.  Established  by  act  of  parliament,  and  opened  at  Mary's- 
Abbey,  Dublin,  June  25,  1783.  The  business  removed  to  the  late  houses  of 
parliament  in  College-green,  in  May  1808.  Branch  banks  of  this  establishment 
have  been  formed  in  most  of  the  provincial  towns  in  Ireland  ;  as  Armagh,  Belfast, 
Clonmel,  Cork,  Galway,  Limerick,  Newry,  Sligo,  Waterford,  Westport,  Wexford, 
&c.,  all  since  1828. 

BANK  OF  SCOTLAND.  The  old  bank  was  set. up  in  1695,  and  was  the  second 
institution  of  the  kind  in  these  kingdoms.  The  Royal  Bank  was  instituted  in  1727. 
The  first  stone  of  the  present  bank  of  Scotland  was  laid  June  3,  1801. 

BANK  OF  SAVINGS.  Jeremy  Bentham  suggested  a  Frugality  Bank  in  1797. — 
Young's  Annals  of  Agriculture,    The  first  bank  actually  instituted  for  the  benefit 


In  1815 £26,803,520 

1820 27,174.000 

1830 20,620,000 

1835 18,215,220 

1840 17,231,000 


.  38 

1800 

.  416 

1810. 

.439 

1820 

.  £20 

1825. 

iai9 

1830 

• 

• 

.  1487 

2000 

1835. 

• 

» 

.  .  954 

13£8 

and 

Sff83 

1840 

•       • 

a 

.  13U8 

BAN  C  SI  ]  BAN 

of  the  poor,  and  established  at  Tottenham  by  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Wakefield  in  1803. 
The  first  bank  for  savings  in  Edinbnigh  was  founded  in  1814.  Several  were 
established  in  England  in  1816,  having  been  brought  under  parliamentary  r^ulation 
by  the  efforts  of  the  Right  Hon.  George  Rose;  since  which  period,  savings'  banks  have 
been  very  generally  opened  throughout  the  United  Kingdom. — See  Savingt*  Bankt, 

BANKS,  Joint  Stock.  A  vast  number  of  banks  under  this  denomination  have  been 
established  in  England  since  the  act  of  the  7th  George  IV.  1826  ;  they  have  been 
instituted  in  almost  every  large  town  in  the  kingdom.  In  1840^  the  amount  of 
paper  currency  issued  by  joint  stock  banks  amounted  to  4,138,618/. ;  the  amount  in 
circulation  by  private  banks,  same  year,  was  6,973,613/. — the  total  amount  eiceediog 
eleven  millions.  In  Ireland  there  have  been  many  similar  banks  instituted,  the  first 
being  the  Hibernian  bank,  established  by  a  special  act  in  1825. 

BANKRUPTS,  in  England,  first  law  enacted  regarding  them,  35  Henry  VIIT.  1543. 
Again,  3  of  Elizabeth,  1560;  again,  1  James  I.  1602;  agaia,  1706  ;  and  more 
recently.  It  was  determined  by  die  King's  Bench  that  a  bankrupt  may  be  ar- 
rested except  in  going  to  and  coming  from  any  examination  before  the  commis- 
sioners. May  13,  1780.  The  lord  chancellor  (Thurlow)  refused  a  bankrupt  his 
certificate  because  he  had  lost  five  pounds  at  one  time  in  gaming,  July  17,1788. 
^Enacted  that  members  of  the  house  of  commons  becoming  bankrupts,  and  not 
paying  their  debts  in  full,  shall  vacate  their  seats,  1812.  The  new  bankrupt  bill, 
constituting  a  new  bankrupt  court,  passed  October  1831. — Statutes  at  large, 

MUMBBR  or  BANKRUPTB  IS  ORSAT  BBITAIH  AT  DirPBRINT  PBAIOOa. 

1700 

1725  . 
1750 
1775  . 

According  to  a  return  to  parliament  made  at  the  close  of  February  1 826,  there  had 
become  faNUikrupt  in  the  Jour  months  preceding,  59  banking-houses,  comprising  144 
partners  ;  and  20  other  banking  establishments  had  been  declared  insolvent.  Every 
succeeding  week  continued  to  add  from  seventy  to  a  hundred  merchants,  traders, 
and  manufacturers  to  the  bankrupt  list.  This  was,  however,  the  period  of  bubble 
speculation,  and  of  unprecedented  commercial  embarrassment  and  ruin. 

BANKRUPTCY  COURT.  Act  empowering  his  majesty  to  erect  and  establish  a  court 
of  judicature  to  be  called  the 'Court  of  Bankruptcy,  and  to  appoint  a  judge  thereto, 
2  William  IV.  October  1831.  Bankruptcy  act,  Ireland,  consolidating  all  the 
statutes  relating  to  bankruptcy,  and  founding  a  complete  system  of  administering 
bankrupts'  estates,  6  William  IV.  May  1836. 

BANKSIA.  A  conservatory  plant :  the  heath-leaved  came  from  New  Holland,  1788  ; 
then  followed  six  other  species,  the  verticillate,  great  flowered,  &c.  1 794. 

BANNER.  Almost  every  nation  had  its  banner  to  distinguish  it  in  battle,  and  under 
which  it  fought,  inspired  with  superstitious  confidence  of  success.  The  standard 
of  Constantine  bore  the  inscription  In  hoc  signo  vinoes^in.  this  sign  thou  shalt  con- 
quer, under  the  figure  of  the  cross.-^See  Cross.  The  banner  was  early  in  use  in 
England  :  the  famous  magical  banner  of  the  Danes  was  taken  by  Alfred,  a.d.  879. — 
Spelman,  St.  Martin's  cap,  and  afterwards  the  celebrated  auriflamma,  or  oriflamme, 
were  the  standards  of  France,  about  1100. — See  Auriflamma,  Standards^  &c. 

BANNERET.  Some  trace  the  origin  of  bannerets  to  France,  others  to  Brittany,  and 
more  to  England.  These  last  attribute  the  institution  of  this  order  to  Conan, 
lieutenant  of  Maximus,  who  commanded  the  Roman  legions  in  England,  a.d.  383. 
Banneret  is  an  almost  obsolete  title  of  nobility,  conferred  by  the  king  himself, 
under  the  royal  standard.  The  knights  led  their  vassals  to  battle  under  their  own 
banner,  but  knights-bachelors  were  commanded  by  a  superior.  The  dignity  lies 
between  baron  and  knight.— JS^a/^on.  Created  in  England,  1360 ;  renewed  by 
Henry  VII.,  1485.  It  was  disused  from  the  reign  of  Charles  1.,  but  was  revived  by 
George  III.  in  the  person  of  sir  William  Erskine  in  1764. 

BANNOCKBURN,  Battle  of,  between  king  Robert  Bruce,  of  Scotland,  and  Edward 
II.  of  England;  the  army  of  Bruce  consisted  of  30,000  Scots,  and  that  of  Edward  of 
100,000  English,  of  whom  52,000  were  archers.  The  English  crossed  a  rivulet  to 
the  attack,  and  Bruce  having  dug  pits,  which  he  had  covered,  they  fell  into  them,  and 
were  thrown  into  confusion.  The  rout  was  complete,  the  king  narrowly  escaping, 
and  50,000  English  were  killed  or  taken  prisoners,  June  25,  1314. — Barbour. 

E  2 


BAN [  Sa  ] BAR 

BANNS.  In  the  feudal  law,  banns  were  a  solemn  proclamation  of  anything^,  and 
hence  arose  the  custom  of  asking  banns,  or  giving  notice  before  marriage.  The  use 
of  matrimonial  banns  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  the  Gallican  church, 
about  A.D.  1210 ;  and  banns  of  marriage  are  proclaimed  in  the  church  of  England 
to  this  day. 

BANTAM.  The  celebrated  rich  British  factory  here  was  first  established  by  Captain 
Liancaster  in  1 603.  The  English  and  Danes  were  driven  from  their  factories  by  the 
Dutch  in  1683.  Bantam  surrendered  to  the  British  in  1811,  but  was  restored  to  the 
Dutch  at  the  peaee  in  1814. 

BANTRY  BAY.  A  French  fleet,  with  succours  of  arms,  ammunition,  and  money,  to 
the  adherents  of  James  II.  attacked  in  this  bay  by  admiral  Herbert,  May,  1689.  A 
French  squadron  of  seven  sail  of  the  line  and  two  frigates,  armed  en  flute ^  and  seven- 
teen transports,  anchored  here  for  a  few  days,  December,  1796.  Mutiny  of  the 
Bantry  Bay  squadron  under  admiral  Mitchell  in  Dec.  1801,  and  Jan.  1802.  Twenty- 
two  of  the  mutineers  were  tried  on  board  the  Gladiator,  at  Portsmouth,  when  seven- 
teen were  condemned  to  death,  of  whom  eleven  were  executed ;  the  others  were 
sentenced  to  receive  each  200  lashes ;  the  executions  took  place  on  board  the 
Majestic f  Centaur,  Formidable ^  Timiraire,  and  L'Achille,  Jan.  8  to  18,  1802. 

BAPTISM.  The  sacrament  of  admission  instituted  by  Christ,  and  practised  by  all 
sects  professing  Christianity,  except  Quakers.  St.  John,  the  forerunner  of  our 
Saviour,  is  emincDtly  called  the  Baptist,  as  being  the  first  that  publicly  baptized  with 
a  spiritual  intention.  Christ  came  from  Galilee  to  Jordan,  and  was  baptized  by 
John,  A.D.  30.  Originally  the  people  were  baptized  in  rivers ;  but  in  the  reign  of 
Constantine,  a.d.  319,  in  great  cities  they  built  chapels,  or  places  specially  to  bap- 
tize in,  which  in  the  eastern  countries  was  by  dipping  the  person  all  over.  Now,  in 
the  western  and  colder  parts,  they  use  sprinkling,  finding  an  inconvenience  to  arise 
by  the  other  method  ;  at  first  every  church  had  not  a  baptistery  belonging  to  it ;  our 
fonts  answer  the  same  end. — Pardon, 

BAPTISTS,  OR  Anabaptists,  a  sect  distinguished  from  other  Christians  by  their 
opinions  respecting  baptism,  began  their  doctrine  about  a.d.  1525,  but  much  earlier 
dates  are  mentioned.  They  suffered  much  persecution  in  England  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  Rhode  Island,  America,  was  settled  by  Baptists  in  1635.  Of  Baptist 
missions,  it  may  be  said,  that  the  Moravian  brethren  led  the  way  to  their  benevolent 
enterprises,  about  1732. — See  Anabaptists. 

BARBADOES,  the  first  English  settlement  in  the  West  Indies.  This  mother  planta- 
tion gave  rise  to  the  sugar  trade  in  England  about  1605  ;  and  was,  with  other 
Caribbee  islands,  settled  by  charter  granted  to  the  earl  of  Marlborough,  2  Charles  I. 
1627.  Barbadoes  has  suffered  severely  from  elemental  visitations  :  in  a  dreadful 
hurricane  in  1780,  more  than  4000  of  the  inhabitants  lost  their  lives.  A  large  plan- 
tation with  all  its  buildings  was  destroyed,  by  the  land  removing  from  its  original 
site  to  another,  and  covering  everything  in  its  peregrination,  Oct.  1784.  An  inun- 
dation, Nov.  1795  ;  and  two  great  fires.  May  and  Dec.  1796.  Awful  devastation,  with 
the  loss  of  thousands  of  lives,  and  of  immense  property,  by  a  harricane,  August  10, 
1831.  The  history  of  Inkle  and  Yarico,  which  Addison,  in  his  Spectator,  has 
recorded  for  the  detestation  of  mankind,  took  its  rise  in  this  island. 

BARBER.  This  trade  was  practised  at  Rome  in  the  third  century  b.c.  In  England, 
barbers  formerly  exhibited  a  head,  or  po^,at  their  doors;  and  the  barber's po^ until 
lately  used  by  them  was  a  burlesque  imitation  of  the  former  sign. 

BARBER.SURGEONS,  incorporated  by  Edward  IV.  Formerly  the  business  of  a 
surgeon  was  united  to  that  of  barber,  and  he  was  denominated  a  barber-surgeon. 
This  union  of  profession  was  dissolved  by  a  statute  of  Hen.  VIII. — See  18  (jeo.  II. 

BARCLAY,  CAPTAIN :  his  celebrated  walking  wager,  to  walk  1000  miles  in  1000  succes- 
sive hours,  each  mile  within  each  hour,  and  upon  which  hundreds  of  thousands  of  pounds 
depended,  accomplished  July  10, 1809.  This  feat  occupied,  vrithoutintermission,  every 
hour  (less  eight)  of  forty-two  days  and  nights.  A  wager  was  won  by  a  young  lady, 
at  Newmarket,  who  had  undertaken  to  ride  1000  miles  in  1000  hours,  which  she 
performed  in  littie  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  time,  May  3,  1758. — Butler, 

BARDS.  The  profession  of  bard  appeared  with  great  lustre  in  Gaul,  Britain,  and 
Ireland.  Demodocus  is  mentioned  as  a  bard  by  Homer ;  Alexander  the  Great  had 
a  bard  named  Cherylus ;  and  we  find  bards,  according  to  Strabo,  among  the  Romans 


BAB  [  ^3  ]  B^^ 

before  the  age  of  Aagutoi.  The  dnddi  among  the  English  were  phOoaophen  and 
priests,  and  the  bards  were  their  poets.  They  were  the  recorders  of  heroic  actions, 
in  Ireland  and  Scotland,  almost  down  to  our  own  times.  Ossisn  flourished  in  the 
third  centory,  Merlin  in  the  fifth.  The  former  speaks  of  a  prince  who  kept  a  hnn* 
dred  bards.  Irish  sonnets  are  the  chief  foundations  of  the  ancient  history  of  Ire- 
land.— See  Balladt. 

BARFLEUR,  taken  and  destroyed  by  the  English  in  the  same  campaign  in  which  they 
fought  and  won  the  battle  of  Cressy,  a.d.  1346.  Destruction  of  &e  French  nary 
near  this  cape  by  admiral  Rnsselli  ifter  the  victory  of  La  Hogue  in  1692. 

BARK,  Ths  Jic8UIts%  its  medicinal  rirtues  first  discoTcred  by  the  Indians  in  1500 — 
brought  into  Europe  by  some  Jesuits,  from  whom  it  took  its  common  name,  1649. 
Bark  was  first  brought  into  medical  practice  in  England  by  Sir  Hans  Sloane. 

BARM,  OR  Yeast,  said  to  hsTe  been  first  used  by  the  Celts  in  the  composition  of 
bread.  Eggs,  milk^  and  honey,  were  the  ingredients  used  in  making  bread  till  the 
knowledge  of  brewing  acquainted  the  Celts  with  this  mode  to  render  it  lighter. 

BARNET,  Battle  of,  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  when  Edward  IV. 
gained  a  decisive  and  memorable  victory  pver  the  earl  of  Warwick,  Easter-day, 
April  14, 1471.  The  earl  of  Warwick,  his  brother  the  marquis  of  Montacute,  and 
ten  thousand  of  his  army  were  slain.  At  the  moment  Warwick  fell,  he  was  leading 
a  chosen  body  of  troops  into  the  thickest  of  the  slaughter,  and  his  body  was  covered 
with  wounds. — Goldsmiih.  A  column  commemorative  of  this  battle  has  been  erected 
at  the  meeting  of  the  St.  Alban's  and  Hatfield  roads.— BrooAs. 

BAROMETERS.  Torricelli,  a  Florentine,[having  discovered  that  no  principle  of  suction 
existed,  and  that  water  did  not  rise  in  a  pump  owing  to  nature's  abhorrence  of  a 
yacuum,  imitated  the  action  of  a  pump  with  mercury,  and  made  the  first  barometer, 
in  1643,  and  Descartes  explained  the  phenomena.  Wheel  barometers  were  con- 
tri?ed  in  1668 ;  pendant  barometers  in  1695 ;  marine  in  1700 ;  and  phosphoric 
some  years  previously. 

BARONS.  The  dignity  of  baron  is  extremely  ancient :  Its  original  name  in  England 
was  Favasour,  which,  by  the  Saxons  was  changed  into  Thane f  and  by  the  Normans 
into  Baron,  Many  of  this  rank  are  named  in  the  history  of  England,  and  undoubt- 
edly had  assisted  in,  or  had  been  summoned  to  parliament ;  but  such  is  the  deficiency 
of  public  records,  that  the  first  precept  to  be  found  is  of  no  higher  date  than  the 
49th  Henry  III.,  1265.  The  first  who  was  raised  to  this  dignity  by  patent  was  John 
de  Beauchamp,  created  baron  of  Kidderminster,  by  Richard  II.,  1387.  Barons  first 
summoned  to  parliament,  1205.  Took  arms  against  king  John,  and  compelled  him 
to  sign  the  great  charter  of  our  liberties,  and  the  charter  of  the  forests,  at  Runny- 
mede,  near  Windsor,  June,  1215.  Charles  II .  granted  a  coronet  to  barons  on 
his  restoration :  they  attended  parliament  in  complete  armour  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  JII. — Beatton. 

BARONETS,  the  first  among  the  gentry,  and  the  only  knighthood  that  is  hereditary  : 
instituted  by  James  I.,  1611.  The  baronets  of  Ireland  were  created  in  1619.  The 
rebellion  in  Ulster  seems  to  have  given  rise  to  this  order,  it  having  been  required  of  a 
baronet,  on'  his  creation,  to  pay  into  the  exchequer  as  much  as  would  maintain 
**  thirty  soldiers  three  years  at  eightpence  a  day  in  the  province  of  Ulster  in  Ireland." 
It  was  further  required  that  a  baronet  should  be  a  gentleman  bom,  and  have  a  clear 
estate  of  £1000  per  annum.  The  first  baronet  was  sir  Nicholas  Bacon  (whose  suc- 
cessor is  therefore  styled  Primui  BaroMtiorum  Angliw),  May  22,  1611.  The  first 
Irish  baronet  was  sir  Francis  Blundell.  Baronets  of  Nova  Scotia  were  created,  1625. 
Sir  Robert  Gordon  was  the  first  baronet.  All  baronets  created  since  the  Irish 
union  in  1801,  are  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

BARRACKS.  The  word  is  not  to  be  found  in  our  early  lexicographers  ;  it  comes 
to  us  from  the  French,  and  in  the  Diet,  de  I'Acad.  is  thus  defined  :  "Baraqtte — 
Hutte  qui  font  les  soldats  en  campagne  pour  se  mettre  k  couvert." — Barracks  were 
not  numerous  in  these  countries  until  about  1789.  A  superintendant-general  board 
was  appointed  in  1793,  since  when  commodious  barracks  have  been  built  in  the 
various  garrison  towns  and  central  points  of  the  empire. 

BARRIER  TREATY.  By  this  celebrated  treaty,  the  Low  Countries  were  ceded  to 
the  emperor  Charles  YI.  It  was  signed  by  the  British,  Imperial,  and  Dutch  minis^ 
ters,  on  the  part  of  their  respective  sovereigns,  Nov.  15,  1715. 


BAR  C  ^^  D  ^^^ 

BARRISTERS.  They  are  said  to  have  been  first  appointed  by  Edward  I.  about  1291 ; 
but  there  is  earlier  mention  of  professional  advocates  in  England,  lliere  ave  yarions 
ranks  of  barristers,  as  King's  Counsel,  Sergeants,  &c.,  tiohich  see.  Students  for  the 
bar  must  keep  a  certain  number  of  terms  at  the  Inns  of  Court,  previously  to  being 
called ;  and  Irish  students  also  must  keep  eight  terms  in  England.  The  original 
intention  of  the  statute  as  respected  Ireland,  was  the  expected  cultivation  of 
English  habits  and  associations,  and  attention  to  the  working  of  the  law  courts 
at  Westminster. 

BARROSA,  Battle  of,  between  the  British  army,  commanded  by  general,  afterwards 
lord  Graham,  and  the  French  under  marshal  Victor.  After  a  long  and  sanguinary 
conflict,  the  British  achieved  one  of  the  most  glorious  triumphs  of  the  Peninsular 
war ;  although  they  fought  to  great  disadvantage  they  compelled  the  enemy  to 
retreat,  leaving  nearly  three  thousand  dead,  six  pieces  of  cannon,  and  an  eagle,  the 
first  that  the  British  had  taken,  March  6, 1811. 

BARROWS,  the  circular  mounds  found  in  Britain  and  other  countries  to  record  a 
burial  on  the  spot.  They  were  the  most  ancient  sepulchres  ;  but  lest  the  relics 
of  the  dead  should  be  violated  by  enemies,  the  custom  of  burning  the  dead  was  com- 
menced by  Sylla,  and  it  was  not  in^isuse  until  the  time  of  Macrobius.  Sir  Richard 
Hoare  caused  several  barrows  near  Stonehenge  to  be  opened  ;  in  them  were  found 
a  number  of  curious  remains  of  Celtic  ornaments,  such  as  beads,  buckles  and 
brooches,  in  amber,  wood,  and  gold,  Nov.  1808. 

BARROW'S  STRAITS.  Discovered  by  Parry,  who  penetrated  as  far  as  Melville 
Island,  in  lat.  74o  26'  N.,  and  long.  113<>  47^  W.  The  strait  was  entered  on  the 
2d  August,  1819.  The  lowest  state  of  the  thermometer  was  55°  below  zero  of 
Fahrenheit. 

BARTHOLOMEW,  ST.,  martyred,  August  24,  a.d.  71.  The  festival  instituted  1130. 
Monastery  of  St.  Bartholomew  (Austin  friars)  founded  by  Rahere,  1100.  On  its 
dissolution,  the  existing  hospital  of  that  name  in  London  was  incorporated  in  the 
last  year  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  1546.  It  was  rebuilt  by  subscription  in  1729. 
The  charter  for  the  fair  was  granted  by  Henry  II. ;  and  it  is  held  on  the  ground 
which  was  the  former  scene  of  tournaments  and  martyrdoms.  The  spot  where  the 
latter  took  place  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  pens,  where  the  gas-lamp  now 
stands. — Here  Wat  Tyler  was  killed  by  the  lord  mayor  Walworth  in  1381,  and  in 
consequence  of  which  the  dagger  was  added  to  the  city  arms. 

BARTHOLOMEW,  Massacre  of  St.  This  dreadful  massacre  in  France,  commenced 
at  Paris  on  the  night  of  the  festival  of  St.  Bartholomew,  August  24,  1572.  More 
than  seventy  thousand  Hugonots,  or  French  Protestants,  were  murdered  throughout 
the  kingdom,  by  secret  orders  from  Charles  IX.,  at  the  instigation  of  the  queen- 
dowager,  Catherine  de  Medicis,  his  mother.  The  massacre  was  attended  with  cir- 
cumstances of  demoniacal  cruelty,  even  as  regarded  the  female  and  the  infant. 

BARTHOLOMITES.  A  religious  order  founded,  a.d.  1307,  at  Genoa,  where  is  pre- 
served, in  the  Bartholomite  church,  the  image,  which,  it  is  said,  Christ  sent  to  king 
Abgarus.    The  order  suppressed  by  pope  Innocent  X.,  1650* 

BASILIAN  MONKS.  The  order  of  St.  Basil,  of  which,  in  the  saint's  time,  there 
were  ninety  thousand  monks  ;  this  order  was  reformed  by  pope  Gregory,  in  1569. 
The  Basilics  were  a  collection  of  laws  which  the  emperor  Basilius  I.  commenced 
A.D.  867. 

BASKET-MAKING.  The  art  was  very  early  known  in  Britain,  and  it  is  recorded 
that  our  ancestors  made  baskets  which  were  celebrated  for  their  workmanship  at 
Home.  '*  Failing  in  that  new  pursuit,  I  returned  to  my  old  trade  of  basket-making,*' 
was  a  well-known  common-place  in  England. — Rogers, 

BASQUE  ROADS.  Heroic  achievement  in  these  roads  by  the  British  ;  four  French 
ships  of  the  line  while  riding  at  anchor  were  attacked  by  lord  Gambler,  and  with 
much  shipping  were  destroyed,  April  14,  1809. 

BASS'S  STRAITS.  Mr.  Bass,  surgeon  of  the  Reliance,  penetrated  in  1797  as  far  as 
Western  Port,  in  an  open  boat,  from  Port  Jackson,  and  affirmed  that  a  Strait  existed 
between  New  South  Wales  and  Van  Diemen's  Land.  Lieutenant  Flinders  circum- 
navigated Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  named  the  Strait  after  Mr.  Bass,  1799. 

BASSET,  or  Bassette,  or  Pour  et  Contre,  a  game  at  cards,  invented  by  a  noble  Vene- 
tian, and  for  which  he  was  banished  ;  introduced  into  France,  1674. 


BA8  Q  55  ] BAT 

BASTARD  CHILDREN.  An  attempt  was  made  in  England  in  1272,  to  make  bastard 
children  legitimate  by  the  subsequent  marriage  of  the  parents,  but  it  failed,  and  led 
to  the  memorable  answer  of  the  barons  assembled  in  the  parliament  of  Mertoo, 
Nolumtu  leges  Anglue  tnutare — the  laws  of  England  we  will  not  to  be  changed. 
Women  concealing  their  children's  birth,  deemed  guilty  of  murder,  21  James  I.i  1624. 
Viner*a  Siatuies.  In  Scotland,  bastard  children  had  not  the  power  of  disposing  of 
their  moveable  estates  by  will,  until  the  6th  William  IV.  1836. 

BASTILE  OF  PARIS.  A  royal  castle,  built  by  Charles  V.  king  of  France,  in  1369, 
et  seq,  for  the  defence  of  Paris  against  the  English,  completed  in  1383.  It  was 
afterwards  used  as  a  state  prison,  like  the  Tower  of  London,  and  became  the  scene 
of  the  most  deplorable  suffering  and  frightful  crimes.  It  was  of  such  strength  that 
Henry  IV.  and  his  veteran  army  assailed  it  in  vain  in  the  siege  of  Paris,  during  the 
intestine  war  that  desolated  France  between  the  years  1587  and  1594  ;  yet  it  was 
pulled  down  by  the  infuriated  populace,  July  14,  1789,  and  thus  was  commenced 
the  French  revolution.  On  the  capture  of  this  great  monument  of  slavery,  the 
governor,  and  other  officers  were  seized,  and  conducted  to  the  Place  de  Grdve,  and 
having  had  their  hands  cut  off,  they  were  then  beheaded.  The  furious  citizens  hav- 
ing fixed  their  heads  on  pikes  carried  them  in  triumph  through  the  streets.  "  The 
man  with  the  iron  mask,"  the  most  mysterious  prisoner  ever  known,  died  here,  Nor. 
19,  1703.— See  Iron  Mask, 

BATAVIA.  The  capital  of  Java,  and  of  all  the  Dutch  settlements  in  the  East  Indies, 
fortified  by  that  people,  1618.  Twelve  thousand  Chinese  massacred  here  in  one 
day,  1740.  Taken  by  the  English,  January,  1782.  Again,  by  the  British,  under 
general  sir  Samuel  Auchmuty,  to  whom  the  garrison  surrendered,  Aug.  8,  1811. 

BATH.  This  city  was  very  early  a  favourite  station  of  the  Romans,  and  it  was  remark- 
able even  in  their  time  for  its  springs.  Coel,  a  British  king,  is  said  to  have  given 
this  city  a  charter,  and  the  Saxon  king  Edgar  was  crowned  here,  a.d.  973.  Bath 
was  plundered  and  burnt  in  the  reign  of  William  Rufus,  and  again  in  1137.  The 
Abbey  church  was  commenced  in  1495,  and  was  finished  in  1532  ;  the  Assembly- 
rooms  were  built  in  1791  ;  the  Pump-room,  in  1797  ;  the  Theatre,  Beaufort-square, 
was  opened  in  1805.    The  Bath  Philosophical  Society  was  formed  in  1817. 

BATH  AND  WELLS,  Bishopric  of,  an  ancient  see,  whose  cathedral  church  was  built 
by  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  in  704  ;  it  was  erected  into  a  bishopric,  5  Edward 
the  Elder,  905.  John  de  Villula,  the  sixteenth  bishop,  having  purchased  the  city  of 
Bath  for  500  marks  of  Henry  I.,  transferred  his  seat  to  Bath  from  Wells,  in  1088 ; 
and  from  this,  disputes  arose  be(pireen  the  monks  of  Bath  and  the  canons  of  Wells, 
about  the  election  of  a  bishop ;  but  they  were  compromised  in  1 136,  when  it  was 
decreed,  that  from  henceforward  the  bishop  should  be  styled  from  both  places,  and 
that  the  precedency  should  be  given  to  Bath.  This  see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books 
at  j^531  Is,  3d.  per  annum, 

BATH,  Order  of  the.  The  origin  of  this  order  is  ascribed  to  the  ancient  Franks, 
with  whom  it  is  probable  the  Saxons  who  invaded  England  had  the  same  common 
descent,  and  who,  with  other  customs,  upon  their  settling  here,  introduced  the  same 
method  of  knighthood.  These  ancient  Franks,  when  they  conferred  knighthood, 
bathed  before  they  performed  their  vigils,  and  from  this  ablution  came  the  title  of 
knights  of  the  Bath.  Henry  IV.  instituted  a  degree  of  knighthood  of  the  Bath,  and 
on  his  coronation  in  the  Tower  he  conferred  the  order  upon  forty-six  esquires,  who 

,  had  watched  the  night  before,  and  had  bathed.  After  the  coronation  of  Charles  II. 
the  order  was  neglected  until  1725,  when  it  was  revived  by  George  I.  who  fixed  the 
number  of  knights  at  37.  In  1815,  the  prince  regent  enlarged  the  order,  forming 
the  present  classes  of  knights  grand  crosses  (72),  and  knights  commanders  (180), 
with  an  unlimited  number  of  companions.     See  Knighthood, 

BATHS,  long  used  in  Greece,  and  introduced  by  Maecenas  into  Rome.  The  thermae  of 
the  Romans  and*  gymnasia  of  the  Greeks  were  sumptuous.  The  marble  Laocoon  was 
found  in  the  baths  of  Titus,  and  the  Famese  Hercules  in  those  of  Caracalla. — Slraho, 

BATHS  IN  ENGLAND.  The  baths  of  Somersetshire  are  said  to  have  been  in  use  eight 
centuries  before  Christ.  In  London,  St.  Agnes  Le  Clere,  in  Old-street-road,  is  a 
spriog  of  great  antiquity,  and  was  well  known  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  St. 
Chad's  well,  Gray's-inn-road,  derived  its  name  from  St.  Chad,  the  fifth  bishop  of 


BAT 


[66] 


BAT 


Ldchfield,  in  667.     Old  Bath-honse,  Coldbath-sqaare,  was  in  use  in  1697.     Ba^e- 
court  ia  laid  to  have  contained  the  first  bath  established  in  England  for  hot  bathing. 

BATON,  OR  Trunchkon,  borne  by  generals  in  the  French  army.  Henry  III.  before 
he  ascended  the  throne,  was  made  generalissimo  of  the  army  of  his  brother,  Charles 
IX.,  and  received  the  baton  as  the  mark  of  his  high  command,  1569. — Henault. 

BATTEL-ABBEY.  Founded  by  William  the  Conqueror  on  the  plain  where  the  battle 
of  Hastings  was  fonght*  October  14, 1066.  It  was  built  in  atonement  for  the  many 
Uiousands  who  were  slain  in  that  memorable  battle.  This  monastery  was  dedicated 
to  St.  Martin,  and  was  given  to  Benedictine  monks,  who  were  to  pray  for  the  souls 
of  the  slain.    The  original  name  of  the  plain  was  Heathfield. — See  Hastings. 

BATTEL  ROLL.  After  the  battle  of  Hastings,  which  decided  the  fate  of  England, 
and  subjected  it  to  the  Norman  yoke,  a  list  was  taken  of  William's  chiefs,  amountiug 
to  629,  and  called  the  Battel-roll ;  and  among  these  chiefs  the  lands  and  distinctions 
of  the  followers  of  the  defeated  Harold  were  distributed,  1066. 

BATTEL,  Wager  of.  A  trial  by  combat,  formerly  allowed  by  our  laws,  where  the 
defendant  in  an  appeal  of  murder  might  fight  with  the  appellant,  and  make  proof 
thereby  of  his  guilt  or  innocence.  In  a  late  case  of  appeal  of  murder,  Ashford  r. 
Thornton^  before  the  King's  Bench  in  London,  April  1818,  the  court  allowed  that 
the  law  gave  the  defendant  a  right  to  his  wager  of  battle ;  but  the  appellant,  the 
brother  of  a  lovely  girl,  whom  Thornton  had  first  violated  and  then  murdered,  not 
accepting  the  challenge,  the  murderer  was  discharged.  A  statute  was  immediately 
passed,  putting  an  end  to  this  mode  of  trial,  59  George  III.  1819. — Statutes  at  large. 

BATTERIES.  Were  introduced  immediately  after  the  use  of  cannon  by  the  English 
along  the  coasts.  The  famous  floating  batteries  with  which  Gibraltar  was  attacked 
in  the  memorable  siege  of  that  fortress  were  the  scheme  of  D'Arcon,  a  French 
engineer.  There  were  ten  of  them,  and  they  resisted  the  heaviest  shells  and 
32-ponnd  shot,  but  ultimately  yielded  to  red-hot  shot,  Sept.  13, 1782. — See  Gibraltar. 

BATTERING-RAM.  Testudo  Arietaria^  with  other  military  implements,  some  of 
which  are  still  in  use,  invented  by  Artemones,  about  441  b.c.  These  ponderoos 
engines  by  their  own  weight  exceeded  the  utmost  effects  of  our  battering  cannon.-^ 
Desaguliers.  Sir  Christopher  Wren  employed  a  battering-ram  in  demolishing  the 
old  walls  of  St.  Paul's  church,  previously,  to  rebuilding  the  new  edifice  in  1675. 

BATTLE-AXE.  A  weapon  of  the  Celts.  The  Irish  went  constantly  armed  with  an 
axe. — Burns,  At  the  battle  of  Bannockburn  king  Robert  Bruce  clave  an  EngUsh 
champion  down  to  the  chine  at  one  blow  with  a  battle-axe,  1314. — Hume,  The 
battle-axe  guards,  or  beaufetiers,  who  are  vulgarly  called  beef-eaters,  and  whose 
arms  are  a  sword  and  lance,  were  first  raised  by  Henry  VII.  in  1485.  They  were 
originally  attendants  upon  the  king's  buffet.     See  Yeomen  of  the  Guard, 

BATTLEFIELD,  Battle  of.  Near  Shrewsbury,  between  king  Henry  IV.  and 
Percy,  sumamed  Hotspur ;  the  victory  was  gained  by  Henry,  whose  usurpation  of 
the  throne  had  laid  the  foundation  of  the  factions  of  the  houses  of  York  and 
Lancaster,  and  the  civil  wars  that  ensued,  1402. 

BATTLES.  Palamedes  of  Argos  was  the  first  who  ranged  an  army  in  a  regular  line  of 
battle,  and  placed  sentinels  round  a  camp,  and  excited  the  soldier's  vigilance  by 
giving  him  a  watch- word.— Z«en^/«/.  The  following  are  the  principal  and  most 
memorable  battles  mentioned  in  general  history,  and  in  British  annals,  and  are  those 
also  that  are  most  commonly  referred  to  :  they  are  set  down  according  to  the  dates 
of  their  occurrence  : — 


B£FORS  CHRIST. 

♦The  Trojan  war  commenced        .  .1193 

4iTroy  taken  and  destroyed        .         .  .  1184 

xiSpartaDs  and  Argives          .  .    735 

Ithome 730 

Assyrians  and  Jews    .        .         .  710 

aliHoratii  and  Guriatii  .    '    .         .  .669 

Corcyra  (Sea'^ht^  first  on  record)  \  .    664 

Rages  (Medes  and  Astprians)          .  .    625 


*HBlyB  (Eclipse  qf  the  Sun)  ,        .  585 

Sybaris,  in  Magna  Graecia  .    •  SCrS 

'^'Marathon  .....  490 

^Tbermopyle  (Leonidas)  ,        .    .  480 

*Salamis 480 

*^yQale  fSeaJight)  479 

*Fl&tasti  (Mardonius  slain)  .  479 

'I'Euryniedon 470 

Mycale  (Cimon)         ....  450 


[The  battles  which  are  thus  (*)  marked  will  be  found  described  in  their  aljphabetical  order  through 
the  volume,  for  more  particular  referenca] 


BAT 


Cw] 


BAT 


BATTLES,  eantinwid, 

Sacaredwar     .... 
^Chaeronea  (Toimidas) 

Torone  (Cleon) 
^Cjrzicmn    .... 

JEgospotamoB 
^Retreat  of  the  GraekB 
.  Cnidoa  (Lytander  MUed) 

Allkk  (Brennus) 

Naxus  (Se€k-Jight} 
*Leuctra     .... 
^Mantinea  (Epaminondoi  slain) 

Sacred  war  (second)    . 
*Chcronea  (PhUip) 
^Graniciu    .... 
*l88a8  (110,000  Persians  slain) 
*Arbela  (FaU  qf  Persia) 
^OranoB,  in  Thessaly 
^Ipeas  (SeUueus) 

Benea  (Pyrrhus)    . 

'PjrthnB  and  Rofmana 

Romans  and  Pyrrhns 
*Punic  wars  b^in 

Sellasia,  in  Laconia 
*Raphia  (Antioehus'd^eated) 
^Cannae  (  Victory  of  Hannibal) 

I  Marias  and  Hannibal 

Nero  and  Aadrubal 
*Zama  (Ssipio  and  Hannibat) 

Oynooepbidiia  .        . 

Scarpbia  (Tkessaly)    . 

Aquae  Sextiae 
*Cimbri  and  Romans    . 
*Cba!ronta  ^i^fla;   . 
^Pbarsalia  .... 
*Z&\sk  (Casar  i  Venividivici) 

Mimda,  in  Spain 
*PbiUppi  (Roman  Republic  ends) 

Ootavius  and  Pompey  the  Younger 
^Aotimn  (empire  eor\firmed  to  Augustus) 

▲inio  Doamn. 

*Sfan>pflhiie  (Caraetacus  taken)    . 

Boadicea  and  Romans     .                 .    . 
♦Jerusalem 

Antoninus  and  the  Moors  .    . 

Issus  (Niger  slain)      .... 

Oandius  and  Goths  000,000  slain) 
*'*Inhoc8lgno  vinces.**    .         .         .    . 
*Adrianople  ^Con«ton<{n«>    . 
♦Argentaria,  in  Alsace 

Aquileia  (Maximus  slain) 

Aquileia  (Eugenius  slain)       .        .    . 

Mountains  of  Fesula 

Ravenna 
^Stamford  (Brit4ms  and  Baxons) 

Ch&lons-gurOIame  .        .         .    . 

Ebro  (Suevi  and  Goths) 

Crayford,  Kent 

Ipswich  (Britons  and  Saxon* )    . 

Bath 

Banbury         

Bedford 

♦Hatfield  (Canwallen  and  Edwin)    .    . 
^Oswestry  (Penda  and  Oswald)    . 

Leeds     

Hdlston  (Danes  and  Egbert) 

[The  batfifle  whloih  are  thus  (••')  marked  will  be 
the  Tolume,  for  more  particular  reference.] 


448 
447 

4S2 
406 
405 
401 
aM 
300 
377 
371 
363 
343 
338 
334 
333 
331 
322 
301 
994 
279 
27* 
26S 
2S2 
217 
216 
209 
203 
202 
197 
147 
102 
101 
86 
48 
47 
46 
41 
36 
31 


31 
61 

70 

145 
194 

269 
312 
323 
378 
388 
394 
405 
425 
449 
451 
456 
457 
466 
520 
542 

571 
633 
641 
665 
834 


840 
858 
864 
871 
871 
878 


90S 


Baamey  (Stketwolf  and  Danes) 
Ganterboxy  (Danes)    . 
*Thanet  (Danes  now  settle  here) 
Moton  (Danes) 
Assendon  (Danes) 
Waton  (Danes) 
Fftmham  (Danes)  , 

Bury  (Edward  and  BikeiwaUn    . 

Maiden  (Danes) 9i8 

Stamford,  Linoolnshlre  .923 

Widendane 938 

Brombridge         .....    998 

♦Semincas,  Spain 938 

[The  Sairoas  and  Danes  fon^t  with  dif- 
ferent snooess  from  998  to  1016  ] 
Asbdea  {CanuU  and  Edmund)    .        .  1016 
Crossford  (with  the  IFe/db)  .    .  1088 

*Clontarf.  Ireland         ....  1039 
♦Dnnsinane  .    ,  1064 

♦Hastings  (ITWIam)     .         .    '    .        .  |066 

Alnwick 1099 

♦Crusades  begin i096 


Roaen,  in  Normandy 

BrenneviUe,  Normandy      . 

Cardigan,  in  Wales 

Northallerton,  or  the  Standard 
♦Lino(»ln         .... 

Alnwick    .... 
♦Asoalon  (Richard  L) 
♦Gisors  (Dieu  H  mon  Droit) 

Black  Mountains  (Alphonsus) 
♦BoTines  {Fren(A  and.Oermans) 
♦Lincoln 


.    .  1117 

.  1119 

.    .  1136 

.  1137 

Feb.  2,  1141 

Feb.  2,  1198 

Feb.  2,  1198 

.  1196 

.    .  1212 

.  1214 

Bfaj  19,  1217 


Tholosa 1220 

♦Lewes 1264 

♦ETSsham 1263 

Chesterfield  {King  qfSeoU  taken)    .    .  1296 

♦Dunbar is96 

♦Falkirk  (40,000  &oto#fafn)      .         .    .  1298 

Courtrsy,  in  Flanders  .  1308 

♦Bannockbum         .  June  26,  1314 

♦Bonmghbridge 1322 

♦Halldon-Wll.  Berwick     .  .    .  1333 

♦Cresqr  {Ich  Dien)  August  26,  1346 

♦Durham,  NevU's  Cross  .  ...  1346 
♦Poitiers  .    September  19,  1356 

♦Berwick 1378 

♦Rosbacfa 1382 

♦Sempaoh  ....  July  9,  1386 
♦Otterbum  {(Htevy  Chase)      .  .1388 

Nicopolis  (TMrk*  and  Cftr<*«tefM)  .  .1396 
♦Nisbet  ....  May  7.  1402 
♦Battlefield:  Shrewsbury  .    .  1403 

Monmouth 1405 

*Aghicourt  .  October  25,  1416 
♦Nicopolis  (#ecofid)  .  .  .1420 
♦Anjou,  or  Beagoe 1421 

Temeuil 1424 

^Patay  {Joan  (if  Arc  and  the  English)      1429 

Basil 1444 

♦Castillon,  in  Guienne  .  .  .  1463 
♦St.  Alban's  ( Tork  and  Lancaster)  .  1466 
♦Belgrade 1455 

Bloreheath         •        .         .        .         .  1459 

Northampton  July  19,  1460 

♦Wakefield  .  Deo.  31,  1460 

found  described  in  their  alphabetical  order  through 


BAT 


C58: 


BAT 


BATTLES,  eoniinued. 

A.D. 

♦Towton 

March  29, 

1461 

*8t.  All>aii*B  f  second)    . 

•                  • 

1461 

.Mortimer's  Cross    . 

•                  •        • 

146] 

TTAvhnni  (J^ff^mUmHt/fMiMti 

. 

1464 

Banbury 

•    . 

1469 

^Stamford  .... 

March  13, 

1470 

*Bamet  (Edward  IF.)     . 

AprU  14. 

1471 

♦Tewkesbury 

May  4. 

1471 

♦Bosworth 

Aug.  22, 

USA 

Stoke  (Lamberi  Simnei  taken)     .        .  1487 
St.  Auban,  in  France       .        .         .    .  1488 

Knocktow,  Ireland 1491 

♦Blackheath  {Cornish  rebels  d^eated)   .  1497 

Pavia         ....      Feb.  24,  1500 

♦Flodden         ....   Sept.  9,  IfilS 

♦Marignan,  Italy  ....  1515 

Pavia 1524 

*3fohatz  ....  Aug.  29,  1526 
#8oIway  Moss  .  .  Nov.  25,  1542 
♦Pinkney 1547 


Aug.  10,  1557 

.  1558 

.    .  1.^62 

May  13, 1568 

March  13,  1569 

1589 

1597 

1600 

1620 

1632 

1640 


Sept.  13, 
.  Oct.  23 


St  Quentin    . 

Oravelines,  in  Flanders 

Drenz,  in  France    . 
♦Langside    . 
^Jamac  .... 

Arqnes  {Huguenots  victorious) 

Blackwater,  Ireland 

Nieuport,  Flanders     . 

♦Prague 

♦Lutzingen  (Oustavus  slain) 

Arras,  in  France    . 

CIVIL  WAH. 

♦Worcester 
♦Edgehill  fight 

Liscarrol,  Ireland 

Kllrush 

Ballintobber 

Barham  Mochr        .        .       March  29; 

Ross.  Ireland     . 

Lansdowne  {MtumHtte  beaten) 

Round-away-down  .  .  July  13, 
^Newbury  (lord  Falkland  killed) 
♦Stratton  (poe<  Waller)  .  .  May  16, 
t  Alderton  Moor  . 

Cropedy-bridge 
♦Marston  Moor  .         .       July  3 

♦Newark 

♦Newbury  {second  battle)  .  Oct  10 
♦Naseby  ....  June  14 
♦Alford 

Boiburb,  Ireland    .... 

Kingston,  Surrey 
♦Dungan-hill    .         .         •  July  10, 

Knockoness        .... 

Maidstone 

♦Rathmines,  Ireland    . 

♦Drogheda  (taken  by  storm) 

♦Dunbar Sept  3 

Knocknaclashy  . 
♦Worcester  (C*ar/« //.)  . 

[This  battle,  and  defeat  of  Charles,  put 
a  period  to  the  civil  war  in  England.] 

Galway  (surrendered) 

Bothwell,  Scotland  .  .    . 

Vienna    . 

♦Sedgemoor 


1642 
1642 
1642 
1642 
1642 
1643 
1643 
1643 
1643 
1643 
1643 
1643 
1644 
1644 
1644 
1644 
1644 
1644 
1646 
1647 
1647 
1647 
1648 
1649 
1649 
1650 
1651 
1651 


1652 
1679 
1683 
1685 


AJD. 

♦Mohatz,  Hungary       ....  1687 
Walcourt 1689 

XBA  OP  THB  RBVOLUTIOir. 

Newton-Butler,  Ir^and  .  1689 

♦Charleroi 1690 

Cavan  ....  Feb.  7>  1690 
♦Boyne,  Ireland  .        .July  1,1690 

♦FleuruB,  in  Flanders  ....  1690 
♦Aughrim,  Ireland  .         .  July  12,  1691 

♦Zeuta,  Hungary  .         .         .         .  1697 

*ffaxrtL  (CharUs  XII.  0/ Sweden)       .    .  1700 

♦Vittoria.  Spain 1702 

Pultusk 1703 

Blenheim  (Marlborough)    .       Aug.  2,  1704 

Mittau ,1705 

Tirlemont '1705 

♦Ramilies 1706 

♦Almanza,  in  Spain  April  14,  1707 

Winnendale 1706 

♦Oudenard  (Marlborough)         .         .    .  1708 

♦Pultowa  (Charles  XII.)       .         .         .  1709 

♦JVfalplaquet  (Marlborough)      .         .    .  1709 

Almanza  ....     July  16,  I710 

Elsinburg 1710 

Saragossa  ....     Aug.  20,  1710 

Arleux  .......  171] 

iBouchain  (Marlborough)    .        .        .1711 
Friburg 1713 

SCOTS  IUBBKU.I0N.— «KO.   I. 

Preston  ....  Nov.  12,  1715 
♦Dumblain  ;  Sheriff-muir  Nov.  12,  1715 

[These  were  the  principal  actions^  but 
the  rebellion  yet  endured.] 

Peterwarden 1716 

♦Belgrade 1717 

♦Parma  and  Guastalla  .         .        .  1734 

♦Molwitz         ....    April,  1741 

Williamstadt      .         .         .  July,  I741 

Brenau 1743 

Campo  Santo 1743 

*J>etti\igetx  (George  II.)  .  .  .  .1743 
♦Fontenoy  ....  April  30,  1745 
♦Friedberg      ....      June,  1745 

SCOTS  RBBKLUON.— ^?E0.  11. 

♦Preston  Pans  .  Sept  21,  1745 

♦Falkirk.  ScotUmd  .  .  Jan.  18,  1746 
♦Culloden  .         .         April  16,  1746 

St  Lasaro  .  May  31,  1746 

Placentia       .         .         .  June  15,  1746 

♦Bergen-op-Zoom  (taken)  .  .  .  1747 
♦Laffeldt  (Cumberland)     .  .    .  1747 

^  Fort  du  Quesne .  .  .  July  9,  1755 
♦Lake  of  St.  George .        .        .  Sept.  8,  1755 

♦Lowoschutz 1756 

♦Calcutta,  India      .         .         .     June,  1756 

♦Prague       ....      ]IIay22,  1757 

Plassey,  India— (See  Indto)      June  20,  1757 

Reichenberg 1757 

Jagersdorff  ....  Aug.  1757 
♦Rosbach  ....  Nov.  5,  1767 
♦Breslaw  ....      Nov.  1757 

♦Lissa  ....       Deo.  5,  1757 

♦Crevelt  ....  June  23,  1758 

Zomdorff  ....     Aug.  25,  1758 

Olmutz 1758 

Hochkirchen      .  *     .         .      Oct  14,  1758 


[The  battles  which  are  thus  (*)  marked  will  be  found  described  in  their  alphabetical  order  through 
the  volume,  for  more  particular  reference.] 


BAT 

C 

59] 

BAT 

BATTLES,  continfted. 

A.D. 

A.P. 

^Bergen 

April  13, 

1759 

Bt  Amand . 

• 

.      May  10,  1793 

Niagara,  North  America       .    July  24, 

1759 

♦Yalenciennes  . 

• 

May  23.  1793 

*3finden   .         . 

Aug.    1, 

1759 

♦Manheim   .         . 

• 

.      May  30,  17B3 

Warbaig 

.    Aug.   6, 17»! 

♦Fumes  . 

• 

June  21,  1793 

^Cimnersdorf  . 

Aug,  12, 

1759 

TilHers       . 

• 

.     July  18,  I7B3 

*Montmorenci 

.    Aug.  10. 

1759 

Ckmbxay.  or  Caaar's 

Camp 

.  Aug  9,  1793 

Peterswalde 

i 

1759 

♦Lincelles 

• 

.     Aug.  18,  I7B3 

^Quebec,  or  the  Plains  of  Abraham, 

♦Dunkirk 

• 

.  Sept  7,  1793 

Sept.  13^  11B9 

♦Quesnoy     . 

• 

.     Sept.  11.  1793 

Wandewaah,  East  Indies,    .      Jan.  iO, 

1760 

Menin    *         •         • 

• 

Sept  15,  1793 

Landshut,  Silesia    . 

.     June, 

1760 

♦Toulon 

0 

Oct  1,  1793 

^Before  Quebec    . 

.    April  28.  1760 

Maubeuge;  Boufleura 

.  Oct  16,  1793 

*PfaffMidorf     . 

Aug.  15, 

1760 

Orchies 

m 

.       Oct  20.  1793 

♦Torgau 

.     Noy.  11, 

1760 

Weisenau 

V 

.  Oct.  25.  1793 

Plains  of  Rillnry 

. .       «         •    . 

1760 

Landau 

B 

Nor.  29,  1793 

Warbonrg  . 

•         .         •         • 

1760 

Toulon  . 

• 

Nor.  19, 1793 

Toplitz  (AuHriant  and  Pruuiaiu)  .    . 

1762 

Lebach 

• 

Nov.  27.  1793 

Homburg    . 

•         .         •        • 

1762 

Mens 

• 

.  Dm.  4,  1793 

Johannesburg         . 

•         •         •    . 

1762 

RousiUon  . 

• 

.     Deo.  11.  1793 

*Schweidnitz 

.    Aug.  16, 

1762 

Perpignan 

» 

Dec.  20.  1793 

Errore,  India  . 

•         •         .    • 

1763 

Oppenheim 

• 

Jan.  8,  1794 

Buxard,  India.'^-See /tidja  . 

1764 

♦Waterloo 

• 

.  Jan.  23.  1794 

Choczim 

.         •         .    • 

1769 

Bayonne 

• 

March  19,  1794 

♦Braillow     . 

•         «         •         • 

1770 

♦Cateau  (Cobourg) 

•                      • 

March  28,  1794 

Silistria 

•         •         •    . 

1773 

Cracow 

« 

.  April  4,  1794 

AWnUCAN  WAR. 

Piedmont 

•                      • 

April  6,  1794 

*Lexbigton{JlrttbattU)        .    April  19, 

1775 

Warsaw 

• 

.  April  21,  1794 

Bnnker'8-Hill 

June  17, 

1775 

♦Landrecy  {taken) 

•                      • 

April  24,  1794 

*Long  Island 

,     Aug.  27, 

1776 

Courtray 

• 

.  April  29.  1794 

*  White  Plains  . 

Not.  30, 

1776 

Ostend 

•                      • 

May  10,  1794 

Of  the  Lakes 

.       July  5, 

1777 

Toumay 

* 

.    May  18,  1794 

Skraiesborough      ^. 

.  July  7. 

1777 

♦Espierres 

•                       • 

May  22,  1794 

Albany 

Aug.  16. 

1777 

Barcelona    . 

• 

.  June  14,  1794 

*Brandywine    . 

Sept.  11, 

1777 

*Charleroi ;  Fleuras 

June  17.  1794 

^Saratoga     . 

.      Oct.  17. 

1777 

Aost 

• 

.   June  26, 1794 

'('Oermanstown 

.  Oct  4. 

1777 

*Mannheim 

•                      • 

July  12,  1794 

St.  Lude    . 

.         •         •         • 

1778 

Fontarabia 

• 

.      Aug.  2,  1794 

Rhode  Island  . 

•         •         •    • 

1778 

Bellegarde 

*                      • 

Aug.  26.  1794 

♦Briar's  Creek      . 

•         *         •         • 

1779 

*Bois-le-Duo 

• 

.    Sept  14.  1794 

♦Camdoi 

Aug- 16, 

1780 

♦Boxtel     . 

•                      • 

Sept  17.  1794 

Broad  River 

.  Feb.  1781 

Maestrioht . 

• 

.    Sept  18,  1794 

♦Guilford 

March  16, 

1781 

Clermont 

Sept  20.  1794 

♦Camden     . 

.     April  25, 

1781 

♦Warsaw      . 

• 

.      Oct  10,  1794 

Hobkirk'shfll 

•         •         .    • 

1781 

Nimeguen 

Nov.  4,  1794 

Eutaw  Springs    . 

•         •         •         • 

1781 

♦Warsaw     . 

• 

Nov.  8,  1794 

♦York  Town     . 

.  Oct  29, 

1781 

Navarre 

Nov.  25,  1794 

[Other,  but  inferior  actions,  took  place 

Ments         . 

■ 

Deo.  1.  1794 

with  yarious  success  during  this  war.] 

Nantes  (CAoiiatw)    . 

Jan.  18,  1795 

Porto  Novo,  India 

•                 •                  •                 • 

1781 

Piedmont   . 

• 

June  24,  17M 

♦Bednore,  India 

•                a                ■       • 

1783 

♦Quiberon  {Emigrants)    . 

July  21,  1795 

Lassmere  . 

Aug.  28, 

1789 

♦Mannheim 

.     Sept  23,  1795 

Ismail  {taken  by  Horm)  . 

1790 

Wormes 

Nov.  8,  1795 

♦Seringapatam 

a                    •                   .                   • 

1791 

Moselle 

.     Nov.  22,  1795 

*Afflin  (Tippoo  reduced)  . 

1792 

Deux  Fonts  . 

Nov.  28,  1795 

FlUINCH  RSyOLUTTON. 

♦Lodi 

May  10,  1796 

♦Antoign 

Aug.  13, 

1792 

Mantua 

May  29,  1796 

Conde 

Oct  2, 

1792 

Edengen    . 

July  1,  1796 

Hanau    . 

Oct.  27, 

1792 

♦Castiglipne     . 

July  2,  1796 

♦Jemappe    . 

Nov.  5, 

1792 

♦Augsburg  . 

.      Aug.  24,  1796 

Tirlemont 

Nov.  17, 

1792 

Roveredo 

Sept  4,  1796 

Varonx 

.     Nov.  27, 

1792 

Cavella      . 

Sept.  6,  1796 

Alx-la-Chapelle 

Jan.  15, 

1793 

Munich 

Sept  11,  1796 

Louvain 

.  March  22, 

1793 

♦Areola 

Nov.  19.  1796 

CoUentz 

.April  I, 

1793 

Mantua 

Jan.  31,  1797 

Cassel 

.      April  7, 

1793 

IRISH  RBBKLLTON. 

♦Tpumay 

.  May  8, 

1793 

♦Kilcullen  . 

• 

May  23,  1798 

[The  battles  which-are  thus  (♦)  marked  will  be  found  described  in  their  alphabetical  order  through 
the  Tolume,  for  more  particular  reference.] 


BAT 

[  60  ]                                    BAT 

BATTLES,  continued. 

A.D. 

A.1I. 

^Naas     .... 

May  24,  179S 

♦Pnltusk 

.  Deo.  26,  1806 

Btratford-npon-Slaney 

May  25,  1798 

♦Eylau      .... 

Feb.  8.  1807 

Dunlaven 

May  25,  1796 

♦Friedland    . 

.  June  14,  1807 

4Taragh      .... 

May  2G,  1798 

♦Buenos-Ayres  ( WhitOoi^) 

July  6.  1807 

Carlow 

May  27.  1798 

Baylen  {Spaniards) 

July  20.  1808 

MonasteroTen    .        •        • 

May  27,  1798 

[Most  of  the  preceding  battles  were  of 

*0tt1art  .... 

May  27.  1798 

a  sanguinary  and  decisive  character.] 

Kildare      .... 

May  27,  1798 

PBNIlfBULAR  CAMPAlBJtB  BEOHT. 

4(NewtownlMirry 

June  1,  1798 

*VimBixak (Wellington)  . 

.   Aug.  21,  1808 

♦Gorey         .... 

June  4,  1798 

Tudela     .... 

Nov.  23,  1808 

XcNewRoaB 

June  4,  1798 

♦Corunna  {Moore) 

.    Jan.  16,  1809 

Antrim     .... 

Junes,  1798 

Braga  {Portuguese) 

Maitsh  19,  1809 

Arklow 

June  9,  1798 

Landshut  {Austrians)  . 

.  April  21,  1809 

Ballynahinch 

June  13,  1798 

♦Eohmuhl 

April  22,  1809 

Oviotstown    .        . 

June  19.  1798 

♦Oporto         ... 

.    May  11,  1809 

Ballynaruah 

June  20,  1798 

♦Aspeme  \         .        .        . 
♦Essling  f    .        .        . 

May  22.  1809 

«Vinegar-hiU  . 

June  21,  1798 

.    May  22,  1809 

't^Hacketotown 

June  25,  1798 

tRaab        .... 

June  14,  1800 

Clonard 

July  11,  1798 

♦Wagram 

.     July  5,  1809 

[In  most  of  these,  and  othor  actions. 

♦Talavera  de  la  Reyna 

July  27.  1809 

the  insiu^ents  were  defeated.] 

Ocana  {Spaniards) 

.    Nov.  19,  1809 

"((Castlebar  (French)      . 

Aug.  28,  1798 

♦Giudad  Rodrigo  {invested) 

June  11,  1810 

Colooney  {French) 

Sept.  5,  1798 

♦Busaco     .... 

Sept.  27, 1810 

Balllnamuck  {French) 

Sept.  8,  1798 

Palma          .         . 

March  2,  1811 

«Killala  .... 

Sept  23,  1798 

♦Banosa  .... 

March  6,  1811 

Verona       .... 

March  5,  1799 

♦Badi^os 

March  11,  1811 

*Aore  {»i^€  commenced) 

March  18,  1799 

♦Aibuera  .        •        .         . 

May  16,  1811 

♦Milan        .... 

April  27,  1799 

♦Almeida 

.     Aug.  5.  1811 

«Seringapatam  {Tippoo  kiUed)  .  May  4,  1799 

♦Giudad  Rodrigo  {stormed) 

Jan.  19,  1812 

♦Alessandria   . 

May  17.  1799 

♦Tarragona 

Jan.  24,  1812 

Bank  of  the  Adda 

May  22,  1799 

♦Villa  Franca 

April  10,  1812 

Aore  {Sir  Sydney  Smith) 

May  27,  1799 

♦Salamanca      -« 

July  22,  1812 

♦Zurich      .... 

June  4,  1799 

Mohilow 

.   July  23,  1812 

Trebia 

.  Jime  19,  1799 

Ostrovno          .        .        • 

July  25,  1812 

^^'arma  {Suwarrow)    . 

July  12,  1799 

Polotsk 

.   July  30,  1812 

Aboukir  {Turks)  . 

.  July  26,  1799 

♦Smolensko 

Aug.  27.  1812 

♦Novi  {Suwarrow) 

Aug.  16,  1799 

♦Moskwa   1   . 
♦Borodina) 

.     Sept  7.  1812 

♦Bergen  and  Alkmaer 

Sept.  19,  1799 

Sept.  7,  1812 

♦Zurich      .... 

Sept  24,  1799 

♦Moscow  {burnt)    . 

.    Sept.  4,  1812 

♦Bergen         .          Sept.  19, 

and  Oct  2.  1799 

♦Queenstown  (Americans)  . 

Oct  13,  181S 

♦Alkmaer  {tee  Bergen)    . 

.     Oct  6,  1799 

Polotsk 

.    Oct.  20,  1812 

Mondevi   .... 

Nov.  6,  1799 

♦Moscow  (retaken) 

Oct.  22,  1812 

PhUipsburgh 

.     Dec.  3,  1799 

Witepsk       . 

.  Nov.  14,  1812 

*Soyri(tecond  battle)  . 

Jan.  8,  1800 

♦Krasnoi   .... 

Nov.  16,  1812 

Savona,  in  Italy    . 

.   April  8,  1800 

[Ney's  corps,  of  which  10,000  men  laid 

Stookaoh 

May  1,  1800 

down  their  arms,  defeated  by  the 

Montebello    . 

.    June  9,  1800 

Russians,  Nov.  17, 1812.] 

Bronni,  in  Italy 

June  10,  1800 

Borissou  .... 

Nov.  27.  1812 

♦Marengo 

.  June  14,  1800 

♦Beresina 

.  Nov.  27,  1812 

♦Ulm         .... 

June  21,  1800 

Wilna      .... 

Dec  11,  1812 

♦Hohenlindoi 

.    Nov.  3,  1800 

♦Kowno 

.  Deo.  14,  1812 

Mincio     .... 

Deo.  25,  1800 

♦Frrach  Town,  Canada 

Jan.  22,  1813 

♦Alexandria  (Abercromfne) 

March  21,  1801 

Miami  {Americans) 

.   Jan.  22,  1813 

r  Seindiah  and  the  British  . 

Aug.  11,  1803 

Kalitch  (Saseons) 

.    Feb.  1813 

♦Assaye  ( WeUesley) 

.  Sept  23,  1803 

Bcgar,  Spain 

.   Feb.  20,  1813 

Fernickabad,  India  . 

Nov.  17,  1804 

♦Castella   .... 

April  13,  1813 

♦Bhurtpore  (HoUcar) 

.   April  2,  1805 

♦Mockem 

April,  1813 

♦Ulm  {iurrendered)    . 

Oct  19,  1805 

♦Lutzen    .... 

May  2,  1813 

Hoelk 

Nov.  10,  1805 

♦Bautzen 

.    May  20,  1813 

♦Austerlitz 

Dec.  2,  1805 

♦Wurtzchen 

May  21,  1813 

♦Buenos-Ayres  {Popham) 

.  Jnne2i,  1806 

Fort  George,  Niagara    . 

.    May  27,  1813 

♦Maida,  in  Sicily 

July  4,  1806 

♦Burlington  Heights  . 

June  6,  1813 

♦Castel  Nuovo 

Sept  29,  1806 

♦Vittoria 

.   Jane  21,  1813 

♦Auerstadt)      . 
♦Jena    .      j 

Oct.  14,  1806 

♦VaUeyofBastan 

July  24, 1813 

.    Oct  14,  1806 

♦Pyrenees 

.  July  28.  1813 

Halle  {Bemadotte)    . 

Oct  17,  1808 

♦San  Maicial  (£f|Mintard«)  . 

Aug.  4,  1813 

[The  battles  which  are  thus  (•)  marked  will  be  found  described  in  th^  alphabetical  order  through 
the  volume,  for  more  particular  reference.] 


BAT 


[61] 


BAT 


BATTLES,  continued. 

^Dresden 

4«Toplitz  . 
Dennewitc 
Elster  (Blucher) 

*HaBxaiWrede)  . 
*BL  Jean  de  Liu 


A.D. 

Aug.  96,  S7,  1813 

Aug.  30,  1813 

Sept.  6,  1813 

Oct.  1813 

0«t  14.  1813 

Oct.  16  and  18,  1813 

Oct.  29,  1813 

Not.  10,  1813 


[Paasage  of  the  Neve;  Mreral  engage- 
ments between  the  AUiee  and  French, 
Dec  16  to  13, 1813.] 

Ohxietler'B  Point,  Canada 

Black-rock,  Amerioa 
4c8t.  Duder,  France 
^'Brienne  .         .         • 

3KLa  RothUre 
Whamp  Aubert 

JanvilUers . 


Jtepontainebleaa 
Monter^n  . 

^BOrthea    . 

^Bergen-op-Zoom 

'I^Laon  • 

Rheims 

«Tarbe9  . 

4^ere  Champenoiae 


Nor.  11,  1813 

.  Deo.  3,  1813 

.     Jan.  87.  1814 

.  Feb.  S,  1814 

Feb.  1,  1814 

Feb.  10  and  12,  1814 

Feb.  14,  1814 

.  Feb.  17,  1814 

Feb.  25,  1814 

.Feb.  27.  1814 

.    Blarch  8,  1814 

March  9,  1814 

.  Bfarch  13,  1814 

March  20,  1814 

.  March  25, 1814 

March  30,  1814 


^Seights  of  Fontenoy 

'[Battle  of  the  Barriera— Mannont  eva. 

coatee  Farie,  and  the  allied  armies 

enter  that  capital,  March  31.] 
^Toulouse    ....    Aprfl  10,  1814 
«Chipawa  {Amerieat^)     July  A  and  25,  1814 


^I^Erle,  Fort  (Amerieant) 

Bladensburg  (Atnerieans) 
'(KBeUair  {Americans)    . 
itcBaltimore  {Americans) 
4Wew  Orleans  {Americans) 
^Ligny    . 
^uatre  Bras 
^Waterloo 
^Algiers  [Exm&utk) 

Larissa  {Greeks) 

Thermopyle  {Oredu) . 

Cadiz  (Trocadero)  . 

Prome  {Burmese)        . 

Malloon  {Buirmese) 

Anatolia  (Oreefcf) 


Aug.  15,  1814 

Aug.  24,  1814 

Aug.  30,  1814 

Sept.  12,  1814 

Jan.  8.  1815 

Jane  16,  1815 

Jane  16, 1815 

June  18,  1815 

Aug.  27,  1816 

.   July  8i  1822 

July  13,  1822 

Aug.  31,  1822 

Dec.  2,  1825 

.'Jan.  20,  1826 


Brohilow  (AttMtoiw)   . 

Akhabdo 

Ba4Jaaet     . 

Caoroi    .... 
4(Yama  {surrenders)     • 
*Morea  {Castle  surrenders) 

Lepanto  {Oredu) 

Kalertscha,  nearScbumla 

Bilistria  (n<rr«fkf«r«)  . 
^Balkan  {Passage  ^the) 
^Adrianople  {entered)  . 
^(Algiers  {French) 


♦Paris  {Days  tifJulp)    .  Jaly  27,  28.  29,  1830 


♦Brussels  {Dutch) 
♦Antwerp     .         .         . 

Orochow.— See  Warsaw 

Wawa  {Poles) 
♦Beldlea  {Poles) 
♦Zelieho  {Poles)    . 
♦Ostrolenka  (Po<««)   . 
♦Wihia  (Poles) 

Minsk  {Poles)  . 
♦Warsaw  (talcoi)  . 

Vallonga  {Ihm  Pedro) 

Oporto 
♦Mount  CaTello 

Lelria  {Portupai) 

Santarem 
♦St.  Sebastian 
♦St.  Sebastian 
♦Bilboa  {BritUh  LeffUm) 

Hemani      ... 
♦Iron  {British  Legion) 

Valentia 
♦Herera  ( Don  Carlos) 
♦Constantina  {Algiers)  . 
♦St.  Eustace  {Canada) 

Psnnecerrada  (<S!paln)  . 

Altura  {Spain) 
♦Prescott  {Canada) 
♦Ohiany  {India) 
♦FaUofMoreUa   . 

Capture  of  Sidon. 
♦Fall  of  Beyrout  . 

Stoimlng  of  Acre 


AD. 

June  19,  1828 

Aug.  24,  1828 

Sept  9^  1828 

Sept.  26,  1828 

OoL  11,  1828 

Oct.  30,  1828 

May  9,  1829 

June  11,  1829 

June  18,  1829 

July  26,  1829 

Aug.  20,  1829 

Joly  4.  1830 


Bee  Jf aval  Battles. 


Sept.  21, 1830 

Oct.  27,  1830 

Feb.  20,  1831 

March  31,  1831 

AprU  10,  1831 

April  10,  1831 

May  26,  1831 

June  12,  1831 

Joly  14,  1831 

Sept.  8,  1831 

July  23^  1832 

Sept  19,  1839 

AprU  19,  1833 

Feb.  14,  1834 

Feb.  18,  1834 

.    May  5,  1836 

Oct  1,  1838 

Deo  24,  1836 

May  15,  1837 

May  17.  1837 

July  15,  1837 

Aug.  24,  1837 

Oct.  13,  1837 

Deo.  14,  1837 

June  22,  1838 

June  25,  1838 

Oct.  17,  1838 

July  23,  1839 

.     May  31,  1840 

Sifria  Sept  27,  1840 

.     Oct  10,  1840 

Not.  3,  1840 


.     May  23,  1828 

[The  battles  which  are  thus  (♦)  marked  will  be  fbund  described  in  their  alphabeCioal  order  through 
the^TOlume,  for  more  particular  reference.] 

BAUTZEN,  Battle  or.  Between  the  allied  army  under  the  emperor  of  Rotsia  and 
king  of  Prauia,  and  the  French  commanded  by  Napoleon  in  person ;  the  allies  were 
signally  defeated,  and  this  battle  followed  by  that  of  Wnrtzchen,  compelled  them  to 

Sass  the  Oder,  and  led  to  an  armistice,  whidi,  howefer.  did  not  prodaoe  peace, 
lay  2(H  1813. 

BAVARIA,  House  of.  The  dukedom  was  founded  in  the  elerenth  century :  this 
house  has  the  same  origin  as  that  of  Saxony,  and  is  a  branch  of  the  Guelphian 
family ;  Henry  Guelph  was  made  duke  of  Bavaria  by  Conrad  II.,  emperor  of 
Germany,  who  reigned  in  1024.  Otho,  count  Wittelpatdij  was  made  duke  in  1179  ; 
Maximilian  I.  was  made  elector  in  1623.  Bavaria  was  erected  into  a  kingdom  by 
Buonaparte  in  December  1805  ;  and  obtained  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg  the  incor- 
poration of  the  whole  of  the  Italian  and  German  Tyrol,  the  bishopric  of  Anspach, 
and  lordships  in  Grermany.  This  kingdom  joined  the  coalition  against  France  in 
October  1813. 

B  AYEUX  TAPESTRY.  This  important  historical  document  was  wrought  by  Matilda, 
the  queen  of  William  I.,  and  represents  the  facts  of  the  Conquest,  from  the  signature 
of  the  will  of  the  Confessor  d9wn  to  the  crowning  of  William,  1066. — Rapin,    This 


BAY  C  ^2  ]  BEC 

curious  monumeiit  of  antiquity  embroidered  by  Matilda,  is  19  iuches  wide,  214  feet 
long,  and  is  divided  into  compartments  showing  the  train  of  events,  commencing 
with  the  visit  of  Harold  to  the  Norman  court/and  ending  with  his  death  at  Hastings; 
it  is  now  preserved  in  the  town-house  of  Rouen. — Agnes  Strickland. 

BAYONNE.  Charles  IV.  of  Spain  abdicated  here  in  favour  of  '<  his  friend  and  ally'' 
the  emperor  of  the  French  ;  and  Ferdinand,  prince  of  Asturias,  and  don  Carlos  and 
don  Antonio  renounced  their  rights  to  the  Spanish  throne,  May  1 ,  1808.  Napoleon 
issued  a  decree  commanding  the  Spanish  notables  to  meet  him  here,  May  25,  same 
year.  Bayonne,  the  strongest  citadel  in  France,  was  invested  by  the  British  in 
January  1814,  daring  which  the  French  made  a  sally,  and  attacked  the  English  with 
success,  but  were  at  length  driven  back.  The  loss  of  the  British,  in  this  adOTair,  was 
considerable,  and  their  commander  wounded  and  taken  prisoner. 

BAYONETS.  Invented  at  Bayonne  (whence  their  name)  in  1670.  The  use  of  them 
in  battles  was  introduced  by  the  French  with  great  success,  1693. — Lenglet, 

BAZAAR,  OK  Covered  Market.  The  word  is  of  Arabic  origin.  The  bazaar  of 
Ispahan  is  magnificent,  yet  is  excelled  by  that  of  Tauris,  which  has  several  times 
held  30,000  men  in  order  of  battle.  Places  of  this  name  have  opened  recently  in 
these  countries.  In  London,  the  Soho-square  bazaar  was  opened  by  Mr.  Trotter  in 
1815.  The  Queen's  bazaar,  Oxford -street,  a  very  extensive  one,  was  (with  the 
Diorama)  burnt  down,  and  the  loss  estimated  at  50,000iL,  May  27,  1829  :  a  new  one 
has  since  been  erected.  The  St.  James'  bazaar  was  built  by  Mr.  Crockford  in  1832. 
There  are  also  the  Pantheon,  the  Western  Exchange,  &c. 

BEADS.  The  ancient  Druids  appear  to  have  used  beads.  They  were  early  used  by 
Dervises  and  other  holy  men  in  the  East.  They  were  generally  used  in  Catholic 
devotions,  a.d.  1213. 

BEANS,  Black  and  White.  Used  by  the  ancients  in  gathering  the  votes  of  the 
people,  and  for  the  election  of  magistrates.  A  white  bean  signified  absolution,  and 
a  black  one  condemnation.  The  precept  of  Pythagoras  to  abstain  from  beans, 
abttine  a  fabis,  has  been  variously  interpreted.  ^'  Beans  do  not  favour  mental 
tranquillity." — Cicero.  - 

BEARDS.  Various  have  been  the  customs  of  most  nations  respecting  them.  The 
Tartars,  out  of  a  religious  principle,  waged  a  long  and  bloody  war  with  the  Persians 
declaring  them  infidels,  because  they  would  not  cut  their  beards  after  the  rites  of 
Tartary.  The  Greeks  wore  their  beards  till  the  time  of  Alexander,  who  ordered 
the  Macedonians  to  be  shaved,  lest  the  beard  should  give  a  handle  to  their  enemies, 
330  B.C.  Beards  were  worn  by  the  Romans,  297  B.C.  In  England,  they  were  not 
fashionable  after  the  Conquest,  a.d.  1066,- until  the  thirteenth  century,  and  were 
discontinued  at  the  Restoration.  The  Russians,  even  of  rank,  did  not  cut  their 
beards  until  within  these  few  years;  and  Peter  the  Great,  notwithstanding  his  enjoin- 
ing them  to  shave,  was  obliged  to  keep  officers  on  foot  to  cut  off  the  beard  by  force. 

BEARDS  ON  WOMEN.  A  bearded  woman  taken  by  the  Prussians  at  the  battle  of 
Pultowa,  and  presented  to  the  Czar,  Peter  I.  1724  :  her  beard  measured  1-^  yards. 
A  woman  seen  at  Paris  with  a  bushy  beard,  and  her  whole  body  covered  with  hair. — 
Diet,  de  Tr^voux.  The  great  Margaret,  governess  of  the  Netherlands,  had  a  very  long 
stiff  beard.     In  Bavaria,  in  the  time  of  Wolfius,  a  virgin  had  a  long  black  beard. 

BEAULIEU,  Abbey  of.  Founded  by  king  John,  1244 — 46,  in  the  New  Forest, 
Hampshire :  here  Margaret  of  Anjou  sought  refuge  after  the  defeat  and  death  of 
the  earl  of  Warwick  at  the  battle  of  Bamet,  which  was  gained  by  king  Edward  IV. 
April  14,  1471.     See  Barnet,  Battle  of. 

BEAUVAIS,  Heroines  of.  On  the  town  of  Beauvais  being  besieged  by  the  duke  of 
Burg^dy  at  the  head  of  80,000  men,  the  women  under  the  conduct  of  Jeanne  de  la 
Hachette,  or  Laine,  particularly  distinguished  themselves,  and  the  duke  was  obliged 
to  raise  the  siege,  July  10, 1472.  In  memory  of  their  noble  exploits  the  females  of 
Beauvais  walk  first  in  a  procession  on  the  anniversary  of  their  deliverance. — jffenault. 

BECKET'S  MURDER.  Thomas,  archbishop  of  Canterbury^  was  murdered  at  the 
altar,  December  29, 1171.  Four  barons  hearing  Henry  II.  say,  in  a  moment  of 
exasperation,  **  What  au  unhappy  prince  am  I,  who  have  not  about  me  one  man  of 
spirit  enough  to  rid  me  of  this  insolent  prelate,''  resolved  upon  Becket's  assassination; 
and  rushing  with  drawn  swords  into  the  cathedral  of  Canterbury,  where  he  was  at 
vespers,  they  announced  their  design,  when  he  cried  out,  "I  charge  you,  in  the 


BED  [  ^3  3  ^^^^ 

name  of  the  Almighty,  not  to  hurt  any  other  person  here,  for  none  of  them  have 
been  concerned  in  the  late  transactions."  The  confederates  then  strove  to  drag  him 
from  the  church  ;  bat  not  being  able  to  do  so,  on  accoont  of  his  resolute  deportment, 
they  killed  him  on  the  spot  with  repeated  wonnds,  all  which  he  endured  without  a 
g^oan.  The  bones  of  Becket  were  enshrined  in  gold  and  set  with  jewels,  in  1220  ; 
and  were  taken  up  and  burned  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  ib2Q.-^Slawe. 

BED.  The  practice  universal  in  the  first  ages,  for  mankind  to  sleep  upon  the  skins  of 
beasts. — Whiitaker.  This  was  the  custom  of  the  early  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  of 
the  Britons,  before  the  Roman  invasion.  They  were  afterwards  changed  for  loose 
rushes  and  heather.  Straw  followed,  and  was  used  in  the  royal  chambers  of  England 
so  late  as  the  dose  of  the  15th  century.  The  Romans  were  the  first  who  used  feathers. 

BEER.  See  Ale,  A  beverage  of  this  sort  is  made  mention  of  by  Xenophon,  in  his 
famous  retreat,  401  B.C.  Beer  was  drunk  generally  in  England  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  By  a  law  of  James  I.,  when  there  was  a  kind  of  duty  paid  on  **  ale 
called  here/*  one  quart  of  the  best  thereof  was  to  be  sold  for  a  penny.  Subjected  to 
excise  in  ]  660.  There  have  been  various  statutes  passed  from  time  to  time  regulating 
the  sale  of  beer.  In  England  the  number  of  retailers  under  the  late  acts  of  1  William 
IV.,  and  4  William  IV.  1834,  amount  to  about  60,000.     See  Brewert;  Porter. 

BEES.  Mount  Hybla,  on  account  of  its  odoriferous  flowers,  thyme,  and  abundance  of 
honey,  has  been  poetically  called  the  "  empire  of  bees."  Hymettus,  in  Attica,  is 
also  famous  for  its  bees  and  honey.  The  economy  of  bees  was  admired  in  the  earliest 
ages  ;  and  Eumelus,  of  Corinth,  wrote  a  poem  on  bees,  741  B.C.  There  are  292 
species  of  the  bee,  or  apU  genus,  and  111  in  England.  Strange  to  say,  bees  were 
not  originally  natives  of  New  England :  they  were  introduced  into  Boston  by  the 
English,  in  1670,  and  have  since  spread  over  the  whole  continent ;  the  first  planters 
never  saw  any. — Hardie*a  America. 

BEET-ROOT.  It  is  of  recent  cultivation  in  England.  Margraff  first  produced 
sugar  from  the  white  beet-root,  in  1747.  M.  Achard  produced  excellent  sugar  from 
it  in  1799  ;  the  chemists  of  France  at  the  instance  of  Buonaparte,  largely  eitracted 
sngar  from  the  beet-root  in  1800.  A  refinery  of  sugar  from  beet-root  was  lately 
erected  at  the  Thames-bank,  Chelsea. 

BEGUINES.  *Nuns,  first  established  at  Liege,  and  afterwards  at  Nivelle,  in  1207. 
The  ^  Grand  Beguinage "  of  Bruges  is  the  most  extensive  of  modem  times.— 
Some  of  these  nuns  once  fell  into  the  extravagant  error  that  they  conld,  in  this  life, 
arrive  at  the  highest  moral  perfection,  even  to  impeccability,  llie  council  of  Vienne 
condemned  this  error,  and  abolished  a  branch  of  the  order  in  1311. 

BEHEADING — or  Deeollatio  of  the  Romans,  introduced  into  England  from  Nor- 
mandy, (as  a  less  ignominious  mode  of  putting  high  criminals  to  death)  by  William 
the  Conqueror,  1074,  when  Waltheof,  earl  of  Huntingdon,  Northampton,  and 
Northumberland,  was  first  so  executed. — Salmon^t  Chron,  Our  English  history  is 
filled  with  instances  of  this  mode  of  execution,  particularly  in  the  reigns  of  Henry 
VIII.,  and  Mary,  when  even  women  of  the  noblest  blood,  greatest  virtues,  and  most 
innocent  lives,  thus  suffered  death*. 

BEHRING'S  STRAIT.  Explored  by  a  Danish  navigator  in  the  service  of  Russia 
whose  name  it  bears.  Behring  thus  established  that  the  continents  of  Asia  and 
America  are  not  united,  but  are  distant  from  each  other  about  thirty-nine  miles,  1728. 

BELFAST.  First  mentioned  about  a.d.  1315.  Its  castle  is  supposed  to  have  been 
built  by  John  de  Courcy,  then  destroyed  by  the  Scots,  under  Edward  Bruce.  Belfast 
was  granted  by  James  I.  to  Sir  Arthur  Chichester,  then  lord  deputy,  1612.  It  was 
erected  into  a  corporation,  1613.  The  long  bridge,  2,000  feet  in  length,  and  of  21 
arches,  was  commenced  in  1682.  William  III.  resided  here  severtd  days,  June, 
1690.     Here  was  printed  the  first  edition  of  the  Bible  published  in  Ireland,  1704. 

*  Among  other  instances  (besides  queens  of  England),  may  be  mentioned  the  lady  Jane  Grey, 
beheaded  Feb.  12, 1554 ;  and  the  venerable  countess  of  Sali8bary,-«the  latter  remarkable  for  her 
resistance  of  the  executioner.  When  he  directed  her  to  lay  her  head  on  the  block,  she  refused  to  do  it ; 
telling  him,  that  she  knew  of  no  guilt,  and  would  not  submit  to  die  like  a  criminaL  He  pur- 
sued her  round  and  round  the  scaffold,  aiming  at  her  hoary  head,  and  at  length  took  it  off,  after 
mangling  the  neck  and  shoulders  of  the  illustrious  victim  in  a  horrifying  manner.  She  was  daughter 
of  Geoxge,  duke  of  Clarence,  and  last  of  tlio  royal  line  of  Flantagenet.    May  27, 15ih—Hume. 


BEL 


16*2 


BEL 


The  castle  was  burnt,  April,  1708.  The  bank  built  1787.  The  mechanics'  institute 
established  1825.  The  merchants  of  Belfast  are  the  only  commercial  men  in 
Ireland  who  have  uniformly  used  their  own  vessels  as  the  carriers  of  their  own  trade. 
— Hardy* 9  Tour* 

BELGIUM.  Late  the  southern  portion  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  and 
anciently  the  territory  of  the  Belgse,  who  were  conquered  by  Julius  Csesar,  47  B.C. 
Under  the  dominion  of  France  so  late  as  a.d.  1369  ;  formed  into  a  kingdom  in  1831* 


Became  an  acquisition  of  the  house  of 

Austria 

Charles  V.  annexed  the  Netherlands  to 

the  crown  of  Spain     .... 
Seven  provinoes,  under  William,  prince 

of  Orange,  revolt,  owing  to  the  tyranny 

of  Philip  IL  ;  freed    .... 
The  ten  remaining  provinoes  are  given 

to  the  archduke         .... 
These  again  fall  to  Spain  . 
Seven  again  ceded  to  Germany 
And  three  to  France  .  .    . 

Austrians  expelled ;  hut  their  rule  after* 

wards  restored  ..... 
The  French  entered  Belgium     .  Nov.  1,  iT^i 
United  to  France  .     Sept  90,  1795 

Placed  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  house 

of  Orange 1814 

The  revolution  commences  at  Brussels, 

Aug.  85,  1830 
The  Provisional  Government  declares 

Belgium  independent         .        Oct.  4,  1830 
The  Belgian  troops  take  Antwerp  ;  the 

Dutch  are  driven  to  the  citadel,  from 

whence  they  cannonade  the  town, 

Oct.  27,  1830 


1477 
1556 


1579 

1598 
1648 
1714 
1748 

1789 


the  Allied  Powers,  announced  by  Van 
der  Weyer         .        .        .     Bee.  26,  1830 

Duke  de  Nemours  elected  king ;  hut  his 
father,  the  king  of  France,  refhses  hia 
consent     ....       Feb.  3,  1831 

M.  Surlet  de  Chokier  Is  elected  regent 
of  Belgium    .  .  Feb.  24,  1831 

Leopold,  prince  of  Cobouxg,  is  elected 
king  ....      July  12,  1831 

He  enters  Brussels    .        .  July  19,  1331 

The  king  of  the  Netherlands  reoom- 
moiceethewar     .        .         .  Aug.  3,  1831 

[France  sends  50,000  troops  to  asdst  Bel- 
gium, and  an  armistice  ensues.] 

A  conference  of  the  ministers  of  the  five 
great  powers  is  held  in  London,  which 
terminates  in  the  acceptance  of  the  24 
articles  of  pacification    .         Nov.  15,  1831 

Leopold  marries  Louise,  eldest  daughter 
of  Louis  Philippe  .         .         .  Aug.  9,  1832 

The  French  army  returns  to  France, 

Dec.  27,  1832 

Riot  at  Brussels  (see  Bru$tdi)\  much 
mischief  ensues     .        •        .  April  6,  1834 

Treaty  between  Holland  and  Belgium 
signed  in  Londcm  .  April  19,  1839 


Belgian  independence  acknowledged  by 

This  last  treaty  arose  out  of  the  conference  held  in  London  on  the  Belgian  question  ; 
by  the  decision  of  which,  the  treaty  of  November  15,  1831,  was  maintained,  and  the 
pecuniary  compensation  of  sixty  millions  of  francs,  offered  by  Belgium  for  the  terri- 
tories adjudged  to  Holland^  was  declared  inadmissible. 

BELGRADE,  Battlb  of,  between  the  German  and  Turkish  armies,  in  which  the  latter 
was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  40,000  men,  fought  1456.  Belgrade  was  taken  by 
Solyman,  1522 ;  and  re-taken  by  the  Imperialists  in  1688,  from  whom  it  again  reverted 
to  the  Turks  in  1690.  Taken  by  prince  Eugene  in  1717  (see  next  article),  and  kept 
till  1739,  when  it  was  ceded  to  the  Turks.  It  was  again  taken  in  1789,  and  restored 
at  the  peace  of  Reichenbach,  in  1790. 

BELGRADE,  Siege  of.  The  memorable  siege,  so  often  quoted,  was  undertaken  in 
May,  1717,  under  prince  Eugene.  On  August  5,  of  that  year,  the  Turkish  army,  of 
200,000,  approached  to  relieve  it,  and  a  battle  was  fought,  in  which  the  Turks  lost 
20,000  men ;  after  which  Belgrade  surrendered.  Be^rade  has  been  freqaentlj 
besieged.    See  Sieges. 

BELL,  BOOK,  and  CANDLE ;  an  ecclesiastical  ceremony  of  the  Romish  church,  used 
in  excommunication,  which  see,  and  also  Interdict,  The  bell  is  rung,  the  book  dosed, 
and  candle  extinguished ;  the  effect  being  to  exclude  the  excommunicated  from  the 
society  of  the  faithful,  depriving  them  of  the  benefits  of  divine  service  and  the  sacra- 
ments.— Pardon,  Swearing  by  bell,  book,  and  candle,  is  said  to  have  originated  in 
the  manner  of  the  pope's  blessing  the  world  yearly  from  the  balcony  of  St.  Peter's, 
at  Rome. 

BELLrROCK  Lioht-housb  ;  justly  esteemed  as  one  of  the  finest  structures  of  the  kind 
in  Great  Britain.  It  is  nearly  in  front  of  the  Frith  of  Tay,  and  is  115  feet  high  ; 
built  upon  a  rock  that  measures  427  feet  in  length  and  200  in  breadth,  and  is 
about  12  feet  under  water.  Upon  this  rock,  tradition  says,  the  abbots  of  the  ancient 
monastery  of  Aberbrothock  succeeded  in  fixing  a  bell  in  such  a  manner  that  it  was  rung 
by  the  impulse  of  the  sea,  so  as  to  warn  mariners  of  their  impending  danger.  Tradition 
also  tells  us,  that  this  apparatus  was  carried  away  by  a  Dutchman,  who,  to  complete 


BEL 


C65] 


BEN 


the  story,  wu  afterwards  lost  upon  the  rock,  with  his  ship  and  crew.  The  present 
lighthouse  was  commenced  in  1806 ;  it  is  provided  with  two  bells,  for  haxy  weather, 
and  hence  its  name. 

BELLAIR,  Battle  of,  in  America.  The  town  was  attacked  by  the  British  forces 
under  command  of  sir  Peter  Parker ;  but,  after  an  obstinate  engagement,  they 
were  repulsed  with  considerable  loss,  and  their  gallant  commander  was  killed, 
Aug.  30,  1814. 

BELLEISLE ;  erected  into  a  duchy  in  favour  of  marshal  Belleisle,  in  1742,  in  reward 
of  his  brilliant  military  and  diplomatic  serYioes,  by  Louis  XV.  Belleisle  was  taken 
by  the  British  forces  under  commodore  Keppel  and  general  Hodgson,  after  a  despe- 
rate resistance,  June  7,  1761 ;  but  it  was  restored  to  France  in  1763. 

BELLES-LETTRES,  or  Politk  Lbabnino.  We  owe  the  revival  of  the  belleft-lettres 
in  Europe,  after  the  darkness  of  previous  ages,  to  Brunetto,  Latini,  and  other  learned 
men  in  different  countries,  about  a.d.  1272. — Gen.  Hist.  Learning  greatly  pro- 
moted by  the  Medici  family  in  Italy,  about  1550. — Fontana,  Literature  began  to 
flourish  in  France,  Germany,  and  England,  about  this  time.  The  belles-lettres 
commenced  with  us  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  flourished  in  that  of  Anne. 

BELLMEN,  first  appointed  in  England  about  a.d.  1556.  The  bellman  was  to  ring  his 
bell  at  night,  and  cry,  "  Take  care  of  your  fire  and  candle,  be  charitable  to  the  poor, 
and  pray  for  the  dead." — Norihouck's  History  of  London. 

BBLLOWS.  Anacharsis,  the  Scythian,  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  them, 
about  569  b.c.  To  him  is  also  ascribed  the  invention  of  tinder,  the  potter's  wheel, 
anchors  for  ships,  &c.  Bellows  were  not  used  in  the  furnaces  of  the  Romans. 
See  Iron, 

BELLS.  Used  among  the  Jews,  Greeks,  Roman  Catholics,  and  heathens.  The 
responses  of  the  Dodonsean  oracle  were  in  part  conveyed  by  bells. — Strabo.  The 
monument  of  Porsenna  was  decorated  by  pinnacles,  each  surmounted  by  bells. — 
Pliny.  Introduced  by  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Nola,  in  Campagna,  about  a.d.  400. 
First  known  in  France  in  550.  The  army  of  Clothair  II.,  king  of  France,  was 
frighted  from  the  siege  of  Sens  by  the  ringing  of  the  bells  of  St.  Stephen's  church. 
The  second  Excerption  of  our  Egbert,  in  750,  commands  every  priest,  at  the  proper 
hours,  to  sound  the  bells  of  his  church.  Bells  were  used  in  churches  by  order  of  pope 
John  IX.,  as  a  defence^  by  ringing  them^  against  thunder  and  lightning^  about  900. 
First  cast  in  England  by  Turkeytel,  chancellor  of  England,  under  Edmund  I.  His 
successor  improved  the  invention,  and  caused  the  first  tuneable  set  to  be  put  up  at 
Croyland  abbey,  960. — Stowe. 


Great  Bell  of  St.  Paul's,  weighs 
Great  Tom  of  Lincoln  . 

Great  Tom  of  Oxford . 
Bell  of  the  Palazxo,  Florenoe  . 


lbs. 


MOO 

9,894 

17,000 

17,000 


St  Peter's,  at  Rome  . 
Great  BeU  at  Erfurth    . 
St.  Ivan's  Bell,  Moscow 
BeU  of  the  Kremlin 


lbs.    18.607 

.    .    28.284 

.  127,836 

.    .  443,772 


The  last  is  the  great  unsuspended  bell,  the  wonder  of  travellers.  Its  metal  alone  is 
valued,  at  a  very  low  calculation,  at  j£66,565  sterling.  In  its  fusion  great  quantities 
of  gold  and  silver  were  thrown  in  as  votive  offerings  by  the  people. 

BELLS,  Bapttsm  of.  They  were  early  anointed  and  baptised  in  churches. — Du  Fres- 
noy.  The  bells  of  the  priory  of  Little  Dunmow,  in  Essex,  were  baptised  by  the 
names  of  St.  Michael,  St.  John,  Virgin  Mary,  Holy  Trinity,  &c.,  in  1501. —  Weever. 
The  great  bell  of  Notre  Dame,  in  Paris,  was  baptised  by  the  name  of  Duke  of  Angou- 
leme,  in  1816.  On  the  Continent,  in  Catholic  states,  they  baptise  beUs  as  we  do 
ships,  but  with  religious  solemnity. — Ashe, 

BELLS,  Ringing  of,  in  changes  or  regular  peals,  is  almost  peculiar  to  England ;  and 
the  English  boast  of  having  brought  the  practice  to  an  art.  There  were  formerly 
societies  of  ringers  in  Ijondon.  ^  Holden.  A  sixth  bell  was  added  to  the  peal  of  five, 
in  the  church  of  St.  Michael,  H30,-^Slotee*8  Survey.  Nell  Gwynne  left  the  ringers 
of  the  church  bells  of  St.  Martin's-in-the-Fields,  where  there  is  a  peal  of  twelve  bells, 
a  sum  of  money  for  a  weekly  entertainment,  1687. 

BENARES,  a  holy  city  of  the  Hindoos,  abounding  in  temples.  It  was  ceded  by  the  nabob 
of  Oude,  Asoph  ud  Dowlah,  to  the  English,  in  1 775.  An  insurrection  took  place 
here,  which  had  nearly  proved  fatal  to  the  British  interests  in  Hindostan,  1781 .    The 


BEN  [  ^^  3  B£^ 

rajab,  Cheyt  Sing,  was  deposed  in  consequence  of  it,  in  1783.    Mr.  Cherry,  capt.  Con« 
way,  and  others,  were  basely  assassinated  here  by  visier  Aly,  Jan.  1 4, 1 799.---See  India. 

BENCOOLEN.  The  English  East  India  Company  made  a  settlement  here,  which  pre- 
served to  them  the  pepper  trade  after  the  Dutch  had  dispossessed  them  of  Bantam, 
1682. — Anderson.  York  Fort  was  erected  by  the  East  India  Company,  1690.  la 
1693,  a  dreadful  mortality  raged  here,  occasioned  by  the  town  being  built  on  a  pes- 
tilent morass  :  among  those  who  perished  were  the  governor  and  council.  Marlbo- 
rough fort  built,  1714.  The  French,  under  count  D'Estaign,  destroyed  the  English 
settlement,  1760.  Bencoolen  was  reduced  to  a  residency  under  the  government  of 
Bengal,  in  1801.    See  India. 

BENDER,  memorable  as  the  asylum  of  Charles  XII.  after  his  defeat  at  Pultowa, 
July  8,  1709.  Peace  of  Bender  concluded  in  1711.  Bender  was  taken  by  storm,  by 
the  Russians,  in  1770;  and  was  again  taken  in  1789.  Restored  at  the  peace  of 
Jassy  ;  but  retained  at  the  peace  of  1812. 

BENEDICTINES.  An  order  of  monks  founded  by  Benedict,  who  was  the  first  that  intro- 
duced the  monastic  life  into  the  western  part  of  Europe,  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixth 
century.  No  religious  order  has  been  so  remarkable  for  extent,  wealth,  and  men  of 
note,  as  the  Benedictine.  It  spread  over  a  large  portion  of  Europe,  but  was  super- 
seded in  the  vast  influence  it  possessed  by  other  religious  communities,  about  a.d. 
1100.  The  Benedictines  appeared  early  in  England  ;  and  William  I.  built  them  an 
abbey  on  the  plain  where  the  battle  of  Hastings  was  fought,  1 066.  See  Battel  Abbey. 
William  de  Warrenne,  earl  of  Warren,  built  them  a  convent  at  Lewes,  in  Essex,  in 
1077.  At  Hammersmith  is  a  nunnery,  whose  inmates  are  denominated  Benedictine 
dames. — Leigh.  Of  this  order,  it  is  reckoned,  that  there  have  been  40  popes,  200 
cardinals,  50  patriarchs,  116  archbishops,  4600  bishops,  4  emperors,  12  empresses, 
46  kings,  41  queens,  and  3600  saints.     Their  founder  was  canonised. — Baronius. 

BENEFICES.  Clerical  benefices  originated  in  the  twelfth  century ;  till  then  the 
priests  were  supported  by  alms  and  oblations  at  mass.  All  that  should  become 
vacant  in  the  space  of  six  months  were  given  by  pope  Clement  VII.  to  his  nephew, 
in  1534.— iNTo/t/ta  Monastioa.  The  number  of  benefices  in  England,  according  to 
parliamentary  returns,  is  10,533,  and  the  number  of  glebe-houses  5,527  ;  these  are 
exclusive  of  bishoprics,  deaneries,  canonries,  prebendaries,  priest-vicars,  lay-vicars, 
secondaries,  and  similar  church  preferments.  The  number  of  parishes  is  11,077, 
and  of  churches  and  chapels  about  12,000.  The  number  of  benefices  in  Ireland 
is  1456,  to  which  there  are  not  more  than  about  900  glebe-houses  attached,  the  rest 
having  no  glebe-houses. — See  Church  of  England. 

BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY.  A  privilege  first  enjoyed  only  by  clergymen,  but  afterwards 
extended  to  lettered  laymen,  relating  to  divers  crimes,  and  particularly  manslaughter. 
The  ordinary  gave  the  prisoner  at  the  bar  a  Latin  book,  in  a  black  Gothic 
character,  from  which  to  read  a  verse  or  two  ;  and  if  the  ordinary  said  ** Legit  ut 
clericus,"  the  offender  was  only  burnt  in  the  hand,  otherwise  he  suffered  death,  3 
Edward  I.,  1274.  This  privilege  was  abolished  with  respect  to  murderers  and  other 
great  criminals,  as  also  the  claim  of  sanctuary,  by  Henry  VII  I.,  1513.-— iS'/otc«. 
Benefit  of  clergy  was  wholly  repealed  by  statute  7  and  8  George  IV.,  June  1827. — 
See  Clergy t  Benefit  of. 

BENEFIT  SOCIETIES.  These  institutions  originated  among  the  humble  and 
industrious  classes  in  England.  An  act  was  passed  for  the  regulation  of  them  in 
1795,  since  when  various  statutes  for  their  protection  and  encouragement  have 
served  to  raise  them  into  great  usefulness  and  importance.  Building  societies  and 
Friendly  societies  have  also  been  promoted  by  the  protection  afforded  to  them  by  the 
legislature.  The  Benefit  and  other  societies  having  accumulated  large  amounts  of 
money,  a  plan  was  adopted  to  identify  their  funds  with  the  public  debt  of  the 
country. — See  Savings  Banks, 

BENEVENTO.  Near  here  was  erected  the  triumphal  arch  of  Trajan,  a.d.  114. 
Benevento  was  formed  into  a  duchy  by  the  Lombards,  a.d.  571.  The  castle  built 
1323  ;  the  town  nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  1688 — again,  1703.  Seized  by 
the  king  of  Naples,  but  restored  to  the  pope  on  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  1773. 

BENGAL.  Of  the  existence  of  Bengal  as  a  separate  kingdom,  there  is  no  record. 
It  was  ruled  by  governors  delegated  by  the  sovereigns  of  Delhi  in  1340,  when  it 
became  independent,  until  1560.    It  afterwards  fell  to  the  Mogul  empire. — See  India. 


BEW  C  67  3  BER 


BENGAL,  continued. 


the  dreadful  affair  of  the  Black-bole 
{which  ue)         ....   A.D.  1756 
Retaken  by  Colonel  Clive  .  .    .  17.'>7 

New  fort  at  Caloutta  cctminenced   .        .  17S8 
Imperial  grant  resting  the  revenues  of 
Bengal  in  the  Company,  by  which  the 
virtual  sovereignty  of  the  country  was 
obtained  Aug.  12,  1765 

Celebrated  India-bill ;  Bengal  made  the 

chief  presidency     .        .         June  16,  1773 
Supreme  court  established     .    June  16,  1773 
Courts  of  Judicature  erected   for  civil 
causes   ....  Feb.  11,  17S3 

See  India. 


The   English  were  first  permitted  to 
trade  to  Bengal  .   A.n.  15M 

First  regular  despatch  received  by  the 
Company  at  home      ....  1642 

Oppression  of  the  natives — tbib  Com- 
pany's factories  withdrawn         .        .  1656 

Factories  of  the  French  and  Danes         .  ICjGA 

Bengal  made  a  distinct  agency  .         .    .  1680 

First  factory  at  Calcutta        .         .         .  1690 

The  Settlements  firbt  placed  in  a  state  of    ■ 
defence 1694 

Calcutta  bought,  and  fortified    .         .    .  1700 

Its  garrison  consisted  of  only  129  soldiers, 
of  whom  but  66  were  Europeans  .  1706 

Calcutta  taken  by  Surajah  Dowla ;  and 

BERBICE,  in  Guiana,  surrendered  to  the  British  hj  the  Dutch,  April  23,  1796,  and 
again  Sept.  22,  1803.  It  was  placed  in  the  same  relation  as  to  trade  with  the 
British  West  India  Islands  in  1816,  and  is  now  a  British  colony. — See  Cohnies, 

BE  RESIN  A,  Battle  op.  Total  defeat  of  the  French  main  army  by  the  Russians  on 
the  banks  of  the  Beresina,  followed  by  their  disastrous  passage  of  it  when  escaping  out 
of  Russia.  The  French  lost  20,000  men  in  the  hattle,  and  in  their  retreat  the 
career  of  their  glory  was  closed,  Nov.  28,  1812. 

BERGEN,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  and  allies,  the  latter  defeated,  April  14, 
1759.  The  allies  again  defeated  by  the  French  with  great  loss,  Sept.  19,  1799. 
In  another  battle,  fought  Oct.  2,  same  year,  the  allies  lost  4,000  men  ;  and  on  the 
6th,  they  were  again  defeated  before  Alkmaer,  losing  5,000  men.  On  the  20th,  the 
duke  of  York  entered  into  a  convention  by  which  he  exchanged  his  army  for  6,000 
French  and  Dutch  prisoners  in  England. 

BERGEN-OP- ZOOM,  whose  works  were  deemed  impregnable,  taken  by  the  French, 
Sept.  16,  1747,  and  again  in  1794.  Here,  a  gallant  attempt  was  made  by  the 
British,  under  Graham,  to  carry  the  fortress  by  storm,  but  it  was  defeated  ;  after 
forcing  an  entrance  their  retreat  was  cut  off,  and  a  dreadful  slaughter  ensued ; 
nearly  all  were  cut  to  pieces  or  made  prisoners,  March  8,  1814. 

BERKELEY  CASTLE,  begun  by  Henry  I.  in  1108,  and  finished  in  the  next  reign. 
Here  Edward  IL  was  traitorously  and  cruelly  murdered  by  the  contrivance  of  his 
queen  Isabella  (a  princess  of  France),  and  her  favourite  and  paramour,  Mortimer, 
earl  of  March.  This  wicked  woman  first  deserted,  next  invaded,  then  dethroned, 
and  lastly  caused  her  unhappy  king  and  husband  to  be  inhumanly  deprived  of  life 
by  the  most  frightful  means,  in  Berkeley  castle,  Sept.  21,  1327.  Mortimer  was 
hanged  on  a  gibbet  at  the  Elms,  near  London,  Nov.  29, 1330;  and  Edward  III.  (confined 
his  guilty  mother  in  her  own  house  at  Castle  Rising,  near  Lynn,  in  Norfolk,  till 
her  death. 

BERLIN.  Founded  by  the  margrave  Albert,  surnamed  the  Bear,  in  1163.  Its  five 
districts  were  united  under  one  magistracy,  in  1714  ;  and  it  was  subsequently  made 
the  capital  of  Prussia.  This  city  was  taken  by  an  army  of  Russians,  Austrians,  and 
Saxons,  in  1760,  but  they  were  obliged  to  retire  in  a  few  days.  On  Oct.  27,  1806, 
thirteen  days  after  the  battle  of  Jena,  the  French  entered  Berlin,  and  from  its  palace 
Napoleon  issued  his  famous  Berlin  decree. — See  next  article. 

BERLIN  DECREE,  a  memorable  interdict  against  the  commerce  of  England.  It 
declared  the  British  islands  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  all  Englishmen  found 
in  countries  occupied  by  French  troops  were  to  be  treated  as  prisoners  of  war ; 
the  whole  world,  in  fact,  was  to  cease  from  any  communication  with  Great  Britain  ; 
issued  by  Buonaparte  from  the  court  of  the  Prussian  king,  shortly  after  the  battle  of 
Jena  (which,  for  the  time,  decided  the  fate  of  Prussia),  Nov.  21,1806. — See  Jena, 

BERLIN,  Convention  of,  entered  into  with  Prussia  by  Buonaparte,  Nov.  5,  1808. 
By  this  treaty,  the  French  emperor  remitted  to  Prussia  the  sum  due  on  the  war-debt, 
and  withdrew  his  troops  from  many  of  the  fortresses  in  order  to  reinforce  his 
armies  in  Spain* 

BERMUDAS,  or  SOMMERS'  ISLES,  discovered  by  Joao  Bermudas,  a  Spaniard,  in 
1527  ;  but  they  were  not  inhabited  until  1609,  when  sir  George  Sommers  was  cast 

F  2 


BER  C  ^8  ]  BIB 

away  upon  them.  They  were  settled  by  a  statute  of  9  James  I.  1612.  Awful  and 
memorable  hurricane  here,  Oct  31,  1780.  Another,  by  which  a  third  of  the  houses 
was  destroyed,  and  all  the  shipping  driven  ashore,  Jaly  20,  1813. 

BERNARD  ,  MOUNT  St.  Hannibal,  it  is  said,  conducted  the  Carthaginian  army  by 
this  pass  into  Italy ;  and  it  was  by  the  same  route  that  Buonaparte  led  his  troops  to 
the  plains  of  Lombardy,  before  the  battle  of  Marengo,  fought  June  14,  1800. 

BERNARDIN  MONKS.  Thb  order  was  founded  by  Robert,  abbot  of  Moleme,  in 
the  twelfth  century.  On  the  summit  of  Great  St.  Bernard  is  a  large  community  of 
monks  who  entertain  in  their  convent  all  travellers  gratis  for  three  days. — Brooke. 

BERWICK.  This  town  was  the  theatre  of  many  bloody  contests  between  the  English 
and  Soots ;  and  while  England  and  Scotland  remained  two  kingdoms,  was  always 
claimed  by  the  Scots  as  belonging  to  them,  because  it  stood  on  their  side  of  the  river. 
Berwick  was  burned  in  1173,  and  again  in  1216.  It  was  taken  from  the  Scots,  and 
annexed  to  England,  in  1333  ;  and  after  having  been  taken  and  retaken  many  times, 
was  finally  ceded  to  England  in  1502.  The  town  surrendered  to  Cromwell  in  1648, 
and  afterwards  to  general  Monk.  Since  the  union  of  the  crowns  (James  I.  1603), 
the  fortifications,  which  were  formerly  very  ftrong,  have  been  much  neglected. 

BESSY  BELL  and  MARY  GRAY,  the  subjects  of  the  popuU&r  song,  so  dear  to  Scot- 
land. They  were  the  beautiful  daughters  of  the  lairds  of  Kinvaid  and  Lednock ;  and 
being  neighlx)urs,  an  affectionate  intimacy  subsisted  between  them.  A  plague  broke 
out,  and,  to  avoid  it,  they  retired  to  a  romantic  spot,  called  Bum  Braes,  where  they 
lived  some  time,  but  afterwards  caught  the  infection  from  a  young  gentleman,  an 
admirer  of  both,  who  came  to  visit  them  in  their  solitude  ;  and  here  they  died,  and 
were  buried  at  some  distance  from  their  bower,  near  a  beautiful  bank  of  the  river 
Almond,  in  1645. — Greig. 

BETHLEHEM,  the  birth-place  of  Christ.  The  Bethlehemite  monks,  who  had  an 
order  in  England  in  1257,  are  named  from  this  once  distinguished  city.  It  now  con- 
tains a  church,  erected  by  the  famous  St.  Helena,  in  the  form  of  a  cross ;  also 
a  chapel,  called  the  Chapel  of  the  Nativity,  where  they  pretend  to  show  the  manger 
in  which  Christ  was  laid ;  another,  called  the  Chapel  of  Joseph  ;  and  a  third,  of  the 
Holy  Innocents.    Bethlehem  is  much  visited  by  pilgrims. — Ashe. 

BETHLEHEM  HOSPITAL,  so  cnUed  from  having  been  originally  the  hospital  of 
St.  Mary  of  Bethlehem.  A  royal  foundation  for  the  reception  of  lunatics,  incorpo- 
rated by  Henry  VIII.  in  1546.  The  old  Bethlehem  Hospital,  which  was  erected  in 
1675,  on  the  east  side  of  Moorfields,  was  pulled  down  in  1814.    The  latter  was  built 

I  in  imitation  of  the  Tuileries  at  Paris ;  and  this  copy  of  his  palace  gave  so  much 
offence  to  Louis  XIV.,  that  he  ordered  a  plan  of  St.  James's  palace  to  be  taken  for 
offices  of  a  very  inferior  nature.  The  present  hospital  was  commenced  April  20^ 
lSl2,—Leiffh, 

BEYROUT.  This  city,  which  was  colonised  from  Sidon,  was  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake, A.D.  566.    It  was  rebuilt,  and  was  alternately  possessed  by  the  Christians  and 

,  Saracens  ;  and  after  a  frequent  change  of  masters,  fell  into  the  power  of  Amurath  IV., 
aince  when  it  remained  with  the  Ottoman  empire  up  to  the  revolt  of  Ibraham  Pacha, 

^  in  1832.  Total  defeat  of  the  Egyptian  army  by  the  allied  British,  Turkish,  and 
Austrian  forces,  and  evacuation  of  Beyrout,  the  Egyptians  losing  7000  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  prisoners,  and  20  pieces  of  cannon,  Oct.  10, 1840. 

BHURTPORE,  India,  besieged  by  the  British,  Jan.  3,  1805,  and  attecked  five  times, 
up  to  March  21,  without  success.  The  fortress  was  taken  by  general  Lake,  after  a 
desperate  engagement  with  Holkar,  April  2,  1805.  The  defeat  of  Holkar  led  to  a 
treaty,  by  which  the  rajah  of  Bhurtpore  agreed  to  pay  twenty  lacs  of  rupees,  and 
ceded  the  territories  that  had  been  granted  to  him  by  a  former  treaty,  delivering  up 
his  son  as  hostage,  April  10,  1805.  Bhurtpore  was  taken  by  storm,  by  lord  Comber- 
mere,  Jan.  18,  1826.     See  India, 

BIARCHY.  When  Aristodemus,  king  of  Sparta,  died,  he  left  two  sons,  twins,  Enry. 
sthenes  and  Procles  ;  and  the  people  not  knowing  to  whom  precedence  should  be 
given,  placed  them  both  upon  the  throne,  and  thus  established  tiie  first  biarchy,  1102 
B.C.    The  descendants  of  each  reigned  alternately  for  800  years. — Herodotus, 

BIBLE.  The  first  translation  from  the  Hebrew  into  the  Greek  was  made  by  seventy- 
two  interpreters,  by  order  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  ;  it  is  thence  called  the  Septna- 


BIB [  fl9  ] BIO 

^t  Teraion,  and  was  completed  in  seventy-two  daya,  at  Aleiandrky  277  b.c. — 
Jotepkus,  It  was  commenced  284  b.c. — LengleL  In  283. — BUaW.  The  Jewiah 
sanhedrim  consisted  of  seventy  or  seventy-two  members ;  and  hence,  probably,  the 
seventy  or  seventy-two  translators  of  Josephns. — Hewlett.  The  seventy-two  were 
shnt  np  in  thirty-siz  cells,  and  each  pair  translated  the  whole ;  and  on  snbseqnent 
comparison,  it  was  found  that  the  thirty-six  copies  did  not  vary  by  a  wonl  or 
a  letter.— ^tM/tn  Martyr. 

BIBLE,  Ancient  copiks  of  the.  The  oldest  version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
belonging  to  the  Christians,  is  that  in  the  Vatican,  which  was  written  in  the  fourth 
or  fif&  century,  and  published  in  1587.  The  next  in  sge  is  the  Alexandrian  MS., 
in  the  British  Museum,  presented  by  the  Greek  patriarch  to  Charles  I*,  and  said  to 
have  been  copied  nearly  about  the  same  time.  The  most  ancient  copy  of  the  Jewish 
Scriptures  existed  at  Toledo,  about  a.d.  1000  ;  and  the  copy  of  Ben  Asher,  of  Jeru- 
salem, was  made  about  1100. 

BIBLE,  Bishops'.  Bishop  Alley  prepared  the  Pentateuch  ;  buhops  Davis  and  Sandya» 
the  Historical  Books ;  bishop  Bentham,  the  Psalms,  &c. ;  bishop  Home,  the  Pro- 
phets ;  bishop  Grindal,  the  Minor  Prophets ;  bishops  Parkhurst  and  Barlow»  the 
Apocrypha  ;  bishop  Cox,  the  Gospels  and  Acts ;  and  archbishop  Parker,  the  remain- 
der.   Printed  a.d.  1558. 

BIBLE,  Division  of  the.  The  Bible  was  divided  into  twenty-two  books  by  the  Jews, 
the  number  of  letters  in  the  alphabet.  The  Christians  divided  the  Bible  into  thirty- 
nine  books.  The  Hebrew  division  into  chapters  was  made  by  the  rabbi  Nathan, 
about  1445.  Our  Bible  was  divided  into  chapters,  and  a  part  into  verses,  by  arch- 
bishop Langton,  who  died  in  1228 ;  and  this  division  was  perfected  by  Robert 
Stephens,  about  1534. 

BIBLE,  Editions  of  the.  The  vulgate  edition,  in  Latin,  was  made  by  St.  Jerome, 
A.D.  405  ;  and  is  that  acknowledge  by  the  Catholic  church  to  be  authentic :  it  was 
first  printed  in  1462. — Blair,  The  first  perfect  edition  in  English  was  finished, 
as  appears  from  the  colophon,  by  Tindal  and  Coverdale,  Oct.  4,  1535.  A  revision 
of  this  edition  was  made,  1538-9.  This  last  was  ordered  to  be  read  in  churches^ 
1549.  In  1604,  at  the  conference  at  Hampton-court  (see  Conference) t  a  new  trans- 
lation was  resolved  upon,  which  was  executed  1607-11,  and  is  that  now  generally 
nsed  in  Great  Britain.  The  Bible  was  first  printed  in  Ireland,  at  Belfast^  in  1704. 
Permitted  by  the  pope  to  be  translated  into  the  language  of  the  Catholic  states, 
1759.    The  Bible  was  printed  in 


Spanish 

.  1478 

Russian 

.  1581 

Manks 

.177 

German   . 

.    .  162S 

Hungarian 

.    .  1589 

.   .177« 

English 

.  1534 

PoUsh  . 

.  1596 

Bengalee 

.  1801 

French     . 

.    .  1535 

Modem  Greek . 

.    .  IftiS 

Tartar 

.    .  1813 

Swedish 

.  1541 

Turkish 

.  1666 

Persian 

.  18l« 

Danish     . 

.    .  1550 

Irish 

.    .  1685 

African    . 

.    .  1816 

Dutch  . 

.  1500 

Portugueae  • 

.  1748 

Chinese 

.  18S0 

Editions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  separately,  appeared  in  several  instances  at 
earlier  dates,  particularly  in  European  languages.  The  Polyglot  Bible,  edited  by 
Walton,  bishpp  of  Chester,  in  the  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Chaldee,  Samaritan,  Arabic,  Ethi- 
opic,  Persic,  Greek,  and  Latin  languages,  1657. —  Wood**  Fasti  Oxon, 

BIBLE  SOCIETIES.  Among  the  principal  and  oldest  societies  which  have  made  the 
dissemination  of  the  Scriptures  a  collateral  or  an  exclusive  object,  are  the  following  : 
— ^The  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  was  formed  1698  ;  Society  for 
Propagating  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  1701 ;  Society,  in  Scotland,  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge,  1709  ;  Society  for  Promoting  Religious  Knowledge  among  the 
Poor,  1750  ;  Naval  and  Military  Bible  Society,  1780;  Sunday  School  Society,  1785 ; 
French  Bible  Society,  1792 ;  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  1801 ;  Hibernian 
Bible  Society,  1806;  City  of  London  Auxiliary  Bible  Society,  1812.  A  bull  from 
the  pope  against  Bible  Societies  appeared  in  1817. 

BIDASSOA,  Passage  of  the.  The  allied  army,  under  Lord  Wellington,  effected  the 
passage  of  this  river,  Oct.  17,  1813;  and  the  illustrious  British  chieftain,  having 
thus  completed  his  glorious  career  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  now  pursued  his  conquered 
and  flying  enemy  into  France. 

BIGAMY.  The  Romans  branded  the  guilty  parties  with  an  infamous  mark :  with  us, 
the  punishment  of  this  offence,  formerly,  was  death.     The  first  act  respecting  it  was 


BIL  C  70  ]  BIR 

passed  5  Edward  I.  1276. — Viner's  Staiuies.  Declared  to  be  felony,  without  benefit 
of  clergy,  1  James  I.  1602.  Subjected  to  the  same  punishments  as  grand  or  petit 
laroeny,  35  George  III.  17 94, ^Staiuies  at  large. 

BILBOA,  Battle  of.  This  place,  which  had  been  invested  by  the  Carlists  under  Vil- 
lareal,  and  was  in  considerable  danger,  was  delivered,  by  the  defeat  of  the  besiegers 
by  Espartero,  assisted  by  British  naval  co-operation.  Espartero  entered  Bilboa  in 
triumph  next  day — Christmas* day,  Dec.  25,  1836. 

BILL  OF  EXCEPTION.  The  right  of  tendering  to  a  judge  upon  a  trial  between  par- 
ties a  bill  of  exceptions  to  his  charge,  his  definition  of  the  law,  or  to  remedy  other 
eiTors  of  the  court,  was  provided  by  the  2d  statute  of  Westminster,  13  Edward  I. 
1284.     Such  bills  are  tendered  to  this  day. 

BILL  OF  RIGHTS.  One  of  the  great  foundations  of  the  British  constitution,  was 
obtained  from  Charles  I.  by  parliament.  1628.  This  bill  recognised  all  the  legal 
privileges  of  the  subject ;  and  notwithstanding  the  employment  of  all  manner  of  arts 
and  expedients  to  avoid  it,  Charles  was  constrained  to  pass  it  into  a  law.  The  Bill 
of  Rights,  declaratory  of  the  rights  of  British  subjects,  passed  1  William  and  Mary, 
February  1689.  This  is  the  only  written  law  respecting  the  liberties  of  the  people, 
except  Magna  Chaita. — Viner*9  Statutes. 

BILLS  OF  EXCHANGE.  Invented  by  the  Jews,  as  a  means  of  removing  their  pro> 
perty  from  nations  where  they  were  persecuted,  a.d.  1160.< — Anderson.  Bills  were 
used  in  England,  1307. — The  only  legal  mode  of  sending  money  from  England,  4th 
Richard  II.,  1381.  Regulated,  1698— first  stamped,  1782— duty  advanced,  1797 — 
again,  June  1801  ;  and  since.  It  was  made  capital  to  counterfeit  bills  of  exchange 
in  1734.  In  1825,  the  year  of  disastrous  speculations  in  bubbles,  it  was  com- 
puted that  there  were  400  millions  of  pounds  sterling  represented  by  bills  of  exchange 
and  promissory  notes.  The  present  amount  is  not  supposed  to  exceed  50  millions. 
The  many  statutes  regarding  bills  of  exchange  were  consolidated  by  act  9  George  IV. 
1828.    A  new  act  regulating  bills  of  exchange,  passed  3  Victoria,  July  1839. 

BILLS  or  MORTALITY  for  London.  These  bills  were  first  compiled  about 
A.D.  1536,  but  in  a  more  formal  and  recognised  manner  in  1593,  after  the  great 
plague  of  that  year;  and  however  imperfect  they  still  are,  they  yet  afford  valuable 
materials  for  computation  on  the  duration  of  life ;  no  complete  series  of  them  has 
been  preserved.  The  following  are  returns,  showing  the  numbers  at  decennial  dis- 
tances, within  the  last  sixty  years  : — 


In  the  year  1780,  Christenings    . 

.    16.634 

In  the  year  1780,  Burials  . 

.    20.507 

1790,  ChriBtenings 

.    .    18,980 

1790.  Barials 

.    .     18,038 

1800,  Christenings    . 

.    19,176 

1800,  Burials  . 

.    23.068 

1810,  Christenings 

.    .    19,930 

1810,  Burials 

.     .    19,892 

1820,  ChriBtenings    . 

.    26.158 

1820,  Burials  . 

.    19.3i8 

1830,  ChriBtenings 

.    .    27,028 

1830,  Burials 

.     .    23,524 

1840,  Christenings    . 

.    30,387 

1840,  Burials   . 

.    26.774 

See  Mortality. 

BILLIARDS.  Invented  by  the  French,  by  whom,  and  by  the  Germans,  Dutch,  and 
Italians,  they  were  brought  into  general  vogue  throughout  Europe. — Nouv.  Diet. 
Slate  billiard- tables  were  introduced  in  England  in  1827. 

BILLINGSGATE,  the  celebrated  market-place  for  fish,  in  London,  is  said  to  have 
derived  its  name  from  Belinus  Magnus,  a  British  prince,  the  father  of  king  Lud. — 
Mortimer.  It  was  the  old  port  of  London,  and  the  customs  were  paid  there  under 
Ethelred  II.  a.d.  979. — Stowe.  Billingsgate  was  made  a  free  market,  1669. — 
Chamberlain. 

BINARY  ARITHMETIC,  that  which  counts  by  twos,  for  expeditiously  ascertaining 
the  property  of  numbers,  and  constructing  tables,  was  invented  by  Leibnitz,  baron 
of  Leipsic,  the  celebrated  statesman,  philosopher,  and  poet,  a.d.  1694 — Moreri. 

BINOMIAL  ROOT,  in  algebra,  composed  of  only  two  parts  connected  with  the  signs 
plus  or  minus;  the  term  was  first  used  by  Records,  about  a.d.  1550,  when  he  pub* 
fished  his  Algebra.  The  binomial  theorem,  the  celebrated  theorem  of  Newton,  was 
invented  in  1688. 

BIRCH  TREE,  the  Black  {Betula  nigra),  brought  from  North  America,  1736.  The 
birch  tree  known  as  the  Betula  pumila,  introduced  into  Kew-gardens,  England, 
by  Mr.  James  Gordon,  from  North  America,  1762. 


BIR ^  71  ] B18 

BIRDS.  Divided  by  Linnaeus  into  six  ordecs;  by  Blamenbach  into  eight;  and  by 
Cuvier  into  six.  Man  is  specially  enjoined  not  to  harm  the  nest  of  the  bird : 
"  If  a  bird's  nest  chance  to  be  before  thee  in  the  way  in  any  tree,  or  on  the  ground, 
tohelher  they  be  yoang  ones  or  eggs,  and  the  dam  sitting  upon  the  young,  or  upon 
the  eggs,  thou  shalt  not  take  the  dam  with  the  young." — Deuteronomy,  xxii.  6. 

BIRMINGHAM.  This  town  existed  in  the  reign  of  Alfred,  a.d.  872 ;  but  its  im- 
portance as  a  manufacturing  town  commenced  in  the  reign  of  William  III.  Bir- 
mingham was  besieged  and  taken  by  prince  Rupert  in  1643.  The  great  works  of 
Soho  were  established  by  the  illustrious  engineer,  Matthew  Boulton,  in  1764.  The 
Birmingham  canal  was  originated  by  act  of  parliament,  1 768.  The  memorable  riots 
commenced  here,  July  14,  1791,  on  some  persons  commemorating  the  French  revo- 
lution. The  theatre  was  destroyed  by  fire,  August  17,  1792.  More  commotions, 
Nov.  1800.  The  theatre  again  burnt  iu  1817 ;  and  again,  Jan.  7,  1820.  The  Bir- 
mingham Political  Union  was  formed  in  1831  ;  it  dissolved  itself  May  10, 1B34.  The 
town-hall  was  built  in  1833.  The  Birmingham  and  Liverpool  railway  was  opened 
as  the  Grand  Junction,  July  4,  1837.  The  London  and  Birmingham  railway  was 
opened  its  entire  length,  Sept.  17,  1838.  Great  political  riot,  firing  of  houses,  and 
other  outrages  committed  by  the  chartists,  July  15,  1839.  The  Birmingham  police 
act  passed,  3  Victoria,  1839. 

BIRTHS.  Parish  registers  of  them,  and  of  marriages  and  burials,  were  instituted  by 
Cromwell,  earl  of  Essex,  28  Henry  VIII.  1536.  The  births  of  children  were  taxed 
in  England,  viz.  :  birth  of  a  duke,  30/.—- of  a  common  person,  2«. — 7  Wm.  III.  1695. 
Taxed  again,  1783.  The  instances  of  four  children  at  a  birth  Are  numerous;  but 
the  most  extraordinary  delivery  recorded  in  modem  times  is  that  of  a  woman  of 
Konigsberg,  who  had  five  children  at  a  birth,  September  3,  1 783. — Phillips,  The 
wife  of  a  man  named  Nelson,  a  journeyman  tailor,  of  Oxford-market,  London,  had 
five  children  at  a  birth,  in  October  1800. — Annals  of  London^, 

BISHOPS.  The  name  was  given  by  the  Athenians  to  those  who  had  the  inspection  of 
the  city.  The  Jews  and  Romans  had  also  a  like  officer ;  but  now  it  means  only 
that  person  who  has  the  government  of  church  sfTairs  in  a  certain  district.  In  Eng- 
land, the  dignity  is  coeval  with  Christianity.  St.  Peter,  the  first  bishop  of  Rome, 
was  martyred  a.d.  33.  The  bishops  of  Rome  assumed  the  title  of  pope  in  13d. 
The  rank  was  anciently  assumed  by  all  bishops  ;  but  it  was  afterwards  ordained  that 
the  title  of  pope  should  belong  only  to  the  occupant  of  St.  Peter's  chair. —  Warner, 

BISHOPS  OF  ENGLAND.  See  them  severally.  The  first  was  appointed  in  a.d.  180. 
See  Yorkf  London,  They  were  made  barons,  1072.  The  Cong/  d'£lire  of  the 
king  to  choose  a  bishop  originated  in  an  arrangement  of  king  John  with  the  clergy. 
Bishops  were  elected  by  the  king's  Con^^</'^/tre,  26  Henry  VIII.  1535.  Seven 
were  deprived  for  being  married,  1554.  Several  suffered  martyrdom  under  queen 
Mary,  1555-6.  See  Cranmer,  Bishops  were  excluded  from  voting  in  the  house  of 
peers  on  temporal  concerns,  16  Charles  I.  1640.  Twelve  were  committed  for  high 
treason,  in  protesting  against  the  legality  of  all  acts  of  parliament  passed  while  they 
remained  deprived  of  their  yotes,  1641.  Regained  their  seats,  Nov.  1661.  Seven 
were  sent  to  the  Tower  for  not  reading  the  king's  declaration  for  liberty  of  con- 
science, contrived  to  bring  the  Catholics  into  ecclesiastical  and  civil  power,  and  were 
tried,  and  acquitted,  June  29-30,  1688.  The  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (Dr.  San- 
croft)  and  five  bishops  were  suspended  for  refusing  to  take  the  oaths  to  William  and 
Mary,  1689,  and  were  deprived  1690. —  fVarner^s  Eecles,  Hist,  The  sees  of 
Bristol  and  Gloucester  were  united,  and  that  of  Ripon  created,  in  1836 ;  and  by  an 
order  in  council  issued  in  October  1838,  the  sees  of  Bangor  and  St.  Asaph  are  to  be 
united  on  the  next  vacancy  in  either,  and  Manchester,  a  new  see,  is  to  be  created 
thereupon See  MancJieiter. 

BISHOPS  OF  IRELAND.  See  them  severally.  Bishops  are  said  to  have  been  con- 
secrated  in  this  country  as  early  as  the  second  century.  The^ishopric  of  Ossory,  first 
planted  at  Saiger,  was  founded  a.d.  402,  thirty  years  before  the  arrival  of  St.  Patrick. 
The  bishopric  of  Trim  has  been  named  as  the  first  by  some  writers,  although  not 
erected  before  anno  432.  Prelacies  were  constituted,  and  divisions  of  the  bishoprics 
in  Ireland  made,  by  cardinal  Paparo,  legate  from  pope  Eugene  III.  a.d.  1151. 
Several  prelates  were  deprived  by  queen  Mary,  1554.  One  suffered  death  ignomini- 
ously,  1640.     Two  were  deprived  for  not  taking  the  oaths  to  William  and  Mary, 


BIS C  7^  ] ^}^ 

1691.  One  was  deprived  (Clogher)  ia  1822.  The  Ohurch  Temporalities  Act,  for 
reducing  the  number  of  bishops  in  Ireland,  3  and  4  William  IV.  August  1833.  By 
this  statute,  of  the  four  archbishoprics,  of  Armagh,  Dublin,  Tuam,  and  Cashel,  the 
last  two  were  abolished  on  the  decease  of  the  then  archprelates,  which  has  since 
occurred  ;  and  it  was  enacted  that  eight  of  the  then  eighteen  bishoprics  should, 
as  they  became  void,  be  thenceforth  united  to  other  sees,  viz. : 

Bishoprics  token  and  as  void  to  he  uniUd  to       Archbishoprics  and  bishopries  to  %ehidk 
other  archbishoprics  or  bishoprics :  those  becoming  void  are  to  be  united : 

1.  Dromore  .  .        .         .  to  be  united  to  .  Down  and  Ck)nnor. 

2.  Raphoe  .         .         .    .  to  be  united  to  .  Deny. 

3.  Clogher     .  .         •         .  to  be  united  to  .  Armagh. 

4.  Elphin  .         .         .    .  to  be  united  to  .  Kilmore. 

0.  Killala  and  Achonry  .        .  to  be  united  to  .  Tuam,  now  a  bishopric  only. 

6.  Clonfert  and  Kilmacduagh  to  be  united  to  .  Killaloe  and  Kilfenora. 

7>  Kildare     .         .         .         .  to  be  united-  to  .  Dublin  and  Glandelagh. 

8.  OsBory to  be  united  to  .  Ferns  and  Leighlin. 

9.  Waterford  and  Lismore      .  to  be  united  to  .  Cashel  and  Emly,  now  a  bishopric  only. 
10.  Cork  and  Ross  .        .        .  to  be  united  to  .  Cloyne. 

Since  the  passing  of  the  above  act,  six  bishoprics  have  fallen  in,  and  have  been 
united  to  the  respective  sees,  in  compliance  with  it— namely,  Raphoe,  Clonfert, 
Killala,  Ossory,  Waterford,  and  Cloyne — up  to  1841. 

BISHOPS  OF  SCOTLAND.  They  were  constituted  in  the  fourth  century.  The  see  of 
St.  Andrew's  was  founded  by  Hergustus,  king  of  the  Picts,  who,  according  to  a 
legendary  tale  of  this  prelacy,  encouraged  the  mission  of  Regulus,  a  Greek  monk  of 
Patrse,  about  a.d.  370.  The  bishops  were  deprived  of  their  sees,  and  episcopacy 
abolished  in  Scotland  at  the  period  of  the  revolution,  1688-9.   Warner* s  Eccles.  Hist, 

BISHOPS,  Precedency  of,  was  settled  by  statute  31  Henry  VIII.  to  be  next  to 
viscounts,  they  being  barons  of  the  realm,  1540  ;  and  they  have  the  title  of  Lord, 
and  Right  Rev,  Father  in  God.  The  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  York,  taking 
place  of  all  dukes,  have 'the  title  of  Grace.  The  bishops  of  London,  Durham, 
and  Winchester  have  precedence  of  all  bishops ;  the  others  rank  according  to  the 
seniority  of  consecration.  A  late  contest  in  Ireland  between  the  bishops  of  Meath 
and  Kildare  for  precedency  was  decided  in  favour  of  the  former,  who  now  ranks  after 
the  archbishop  of  Dublin.    The  others  rank  according  to  consecration. 

BISHOPS  IN  AMERICA.  The  first  was  the  Right  Rev.  Doctor  Samuel  Seabury,  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Connecticut  by  four  nonjuring  prelates,  at  Aberdeen,  in  Scotland, 
November  14,  1784.  The  bishops  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  were  consecrated 
in  London,  by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Feb.  4,  1787  ;  and  the  bishop  of  Vir- 
ginia in  1790.  The  first  Catholic  bishop  of  the  United  States,  was  Dr.  Carroll  of 
Maryland,  in  1789.     In  Canada,  1793. 

BISSEXTILE  OR  LEAP  YEAR.  An  intercalary  day  was  thrown  into  every  fourth 
year  to  adjust  the  calendar,  and  make  it  agree  with  the  sun's  course.  It  originated 
with  Julius  Csesar,  who  ordered  a  day  to  be  counted  before  the  24th  of  February, 
which  among  the  Romans  was  the  6th  of  the  calends,  and  which  was  therefore 
reckoned  twice,  and  called  bisaextile :  this  added  day  we  name  the  29th  of  Febmary 
every  fourth  year,  45  B.C. — See  Calendar  and  Leap  Year, 

BITHYNIA.  Conquered  by  Croesus,  about  560  B.C. ;  and  again  by  Alexander,  332  b.c. 
It  afterwards  recovered  its  liberty  ;  but  its  last  king  bequeathed  it  to  the  Romans, 
40  B.C.  In  modern  history  Bithynia  makes  no  figure,  except  that  from  its  ruins 
rose  the  Othman  Turks,  who,  in  a.d.  1327,  took  Prusa,  its  capital,  and  made  it  the 
seat  of  their  empire  before  they  possessed  Constantinople. 

BLACK  ACT.     The  celebrated  statute  so  called  was  enacted  10  George  I.  1723. 

BLACK  BOOK,  a  book  kept  in  the  English  monasteries,  wherein  details  of  the  scan- 
dalous enormities  practised  in  religious  houses  were  entered  for  the  inspection  of 
visitors,  under  Henry  VIII.,  1535,  in  order  to  blacken  them  and  hasten  their  dissolu- 
tion; hence  the  vulgar  phrase  **  I'll  set  you  down  in  the  black  book.  " 

BLACK-HOLE  at  CALCUTTA.  Here,  146  British  gentlemen,  merchants,  and 
others,  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company,  were  seized  by  order  of  the  nabob, 
Surajah  Dowlah,  and  thrust  into  a  dungeon  called  the  **  Black-hole,''  in  the  fort,  by 
his  soldiers.    These  latter  saw  that  the  place  was  too  small  for  such  a  number^  but 


BLA  E  73  3  ^^^ 

they  were  afndd  to  awaken  the  nabob,  then  asleep,  for  fiirther  orden.  One  hundred 
and  twenty-three  of  the  niifererB  died  before  morning,  hanng  been  suffocated  by  the 
heat,  cmshing,  and  stench  of  a  dungeon  only  eighteen  fset  square^  June  20,  1756. 
Calcutta  was  retaken  next  year,  and  the  nabob  was  deposed  and  put  to  death  by  his 
saccessor. — HolwelVi  India  Traois. 

BLACK  MONDAY.  In  England,  this  was  a  memorable  £!aster  Monday,  which  in 
the  34th  of  Edward  III.  **  happened  to  be  full  dark  of  mist  and  hail,  and  so  cold, 
that  many  men  died  on  their  horses'  backs  with  the  cold,"  1360. — Siawe,  In 
Ireland  it  was  the  day  on  which  a  number  of  the  English  were  slaughtered  at  a 
Tillage  near  Dublin,  in  1209.    See  CuUen*a  Wood, 

BLACK  ROD.  The  usher  belonging  to  the  order  of  the  Garter  is  so  called  from  the 
black-rod  he  carries  in  his  hand. — Cotoel.  It  has  a  gold  lion  at  the  top  and  is 
carried  by  the  king's  chief  gentleman  usher,  instead  of  a  mace,  at  the  feast  of  St. 
George  at  Windsor,  instituted  a.d.  1349-50.  He  also  keeps  the  chapter-house  door 
when  a  chapter  of  the  order  is  sitting,  and  during  the  sessions  of  parliament  attends 
the  house  of  lords. 

BLACKFRIARS-BRIDGE,  London.  The  first  stone  of  this  bridge  was  laid  October 
31, 1760  ;  and  it  was  completed  by  Mylne,  in  1770,  though  for  some  time  prcTiously 
made  passable.  It  was  the  first  work  of  the  kind  executed  in  England  in  which 
arches  approaching  to  the  form  of  an  ellipsis  were  substituted  for  semicircles.  It  is 
about  a  thousand  feet  in  length  and  forty-five  wide.  Repaired  in  1831.  The 
thorough  repair  of  its  arches  and  piers  (which  had  suffered  from  the  combined 
exciting  action  of  wind  and  water,  and  the  vicissitudes  of  temperature)  was  commenced 
in  1837 ;  the  carriage-way  was  closed  for  the  purpose  of  levelling  the  centre,  and 
reducing  the  ascent,  July  22,  1840 ;  and  the  bridge  was  again  opened,  with  im- 
proved approaches,  October  1,  following. 

BLACKGUARD.  The  name  was  originally  given  to  the  scullions  and  coal*carriers  to 
great  houses,  and  mean  dependants  who  were  employed  in  the  lowest  offices.^ 
Stanihurst.     In  modern  nomenclature  its  import  has  undergone  considerable  change. 

BLACKHEATH.  On  this  plain  the  celebrated  Walter,  the  Tiler,  assembled  his 
100,000  men  :  his  rebellion  arose  out  of  the  brutal  rudeness  of  a  tax-collector  to  his 
daughter.  The  indignant  plebeian  having  killed  the  collector  in  his  rage,  raised 
this  multitude  of  followers  to  oppose  a  grievous  impost  called  the  poll-tax,  June 
12,  1381.  Subsequently,  in  an  interriew  with  the  king  (Richard  II.),  in  Smithfield, 
Tyler  having  frequently  raised  his  sword  in  a  menacing  manner,  William  of  Walworth, 
then  lord  mayor  of  London,  struck  him  down  with  the  mace,  and  one  of  the  king's 
knights  despatched  him.  His  awed  followers,  on  being  promised  a  charter  by  Richard, 
submitted  and  dispersed ;  but  the  grant  of  it  was  afterwards  revoked  by  parliament. 
Here,  also,  Jack  Cade  and  his  20,000  Kentish  men  encamped,  1451.  See  Cade. 
Battle  of  Blackheath,  in  which  the  Cornish  rebels  were  defeated  and  Flannoc's 
insurrection  quelled,  June  22,  1497.  The  cavern,  on  the  ascent  to  Blackheath, 
supposed  to  have  been  the  retreat  of  Cade,  and  the  haunt  of  banditti  in  the  time 
of  Cromwell,  was  rediscovered  in  1780. 

BLACKWALL.  In  this  neighbourhood  are  erected  the  finest  commercial  docks  and 
warehouses  in  the  world.  The  West  India  docks  were  commenced  Feb.  3,  1800, 
and  opened  Aug.  27,  1802.  The  East  India  docks  were  commenced  under  an  act 
passed  July  27,  1803,  and  opened  Aug.  4,  1806.  The  Blackwall  railway  was 
opened  to  fhe  public  July  4,  1840 ;  the  eastern  terminus  being  at  Blackwall  wharf, 
and  the  western  in  the  Minories. 

BLACKWELL-HALL.  Purchased  by  the  mayor  and  commonalty  of  London,  to  serve 
the  purposes  of  a  market-hall  for  the  sale  of  woollen  manufactures,  then  daily 
increasing,  though  in  their  infancy,  20  Richard  II.  1397. — Stoiee. 

BLANC  COURSIER  HERALD.  Created  by  patent,  on  the  revival  of  the  order  of  the 
Bath,  to  attend  on  the  first  companion  of  the  order,  12  George  I.  1725. 

BLANDFORD  ASSIZES.  Memorable  for  the  death  of  the  judge,  the  jury,  the  sheriff, 
and  many  others,  who  caught  an  infection  from  the  prisoners,  called  the  jail-fever, 
1730.  Blandford  was  burned  down  by  accident  in  queen  Elizabeth's  reign  ;  and  it 
was  again  reduced  to  ashes,  300  houses,  and  its  church  and  public  buildmgs,  being 
consumed,  June  4,  1731. 


BLA  C  74  ]  BLO 

BLA.NK  VERSE.  See  the  Bible,  Milion,  Btair,  &c.  Introduced  among  the  modems 
by  the  celebrated  Trissino,  the  Italian  poet,  about  1515. —  Voasius,  Dr.  Johnson 
names  The  Grave,  by  Blair,  as  the  finest  specimen  of  blank  verse  in  the  English 
languagei  next  to  Uiat  of  Milton. 

BLASPHEMY.  This  crime  is  recognised  both  by  the  civil  and  canon  law  of  England. 
Justinian  adjudged  it  the  punishment  of  death.  In  Scotland,  the  tongue  was  ampu- 
tated. Visited  by  fine  and  imprisonment,  9  &  10  William  III.  1696-7. — Statutes  at 
large.  In  England  this  offence  has  been  subjected,  on  some  late  occasions,  to  the 
visitation  of  the  laws.  Daniel  Isaac  Eaton  was  tried  and  convicted  in  London  of 
blasphemy,  13th  March,  1812.  A  protestant  clergyman,  named  Robert  Taylor,  was 
tried  in  London  twice  for  the  same  crime,  and  as  often  convicted.  Taylor  was  last 
brought  to  the  bar,  and  sentenced  to  two  years'  imprisonment,  and  largely  fined,  for 
(among  other  things)  reviling  the  Redeemer  in  his  discourses,  July,  1831.  Even  as 
late  as  in  Dec.  1 840,  two  prosecutions  against  publishers  of  blasphemous  writings, 
subjected  the  offenders  to  the  sentence  of  the  court  of  Queen's  Bench. 

BLAZONRY.  The  bearing  coats-of-arms  was  introduced,  and  became  hereditary  in 
families  in  France  and  England,  about  a.d.  1192,  owing  to  the  knights  painting  their 
banners  with  different  figures,  thereby  to  distinguish  them  in  the  crusades. — Dugdale. 

BLEACHING.  This  art  was  known  early  in  Egypt,  Syria,  and  India.  Known  in  ancient 
Gaul. — Pliny,    The  chemical  process  of  Berthollet,  1795. — Blanchiment  des  Toiles. 

BLENHEIM,  Battle  of;  between  the  English  and  confederates,  commanded  by  the 
duke  of  Marlborough,  and  the  French  and  Bavarians,  under  marshal  Tallard  and  the 
elector  of  Bavaria,  whom  Marlborough  signally  defeated  with  the  loss  of  27,000  in 
killed,  and  13,000  prisoners,  Tallard  being  among  the  latter:  the  electorate  of 
Bavaria  became  the  prize  of  the  conquerors.  The  nation  testified  its  gratitude  to  the 
duke  by  the  gifts  of  the  honour  of  Woodstock  and  hundred  of  Wotton,  and  erected 
for  him  one  of  the  finest  seats  in  the  kingdom ,  known  as  the  domain  and  house  of 
Blenheim.    Fought  Aug.  2,  1704. — Hume, 

BLINDING,  by  consuming  the  eyeballs  with  lime  or  scalding  vinegar,  a  punishment 
inflicted  anciently  on  adulterers,  perjurers,  and  thieves.  In  the  middle  ages  they 
changed  the  penalty  of  total  blindness  to  a  diminution  of  sight.  Blinding  the  con- 
quered was  a  practice  in  barbarous  states  ;  and  a  whole  army  was  deprived  of  their 
eyes  by  Basilius,  in  the  eleventh  century.  See  Bulgarians.  Several  of  the  Eastern 
emperors  had  their  eyes  torn  from  their  heads.    See  article  Eastern  Empire, 

■BLISTERS.  They  were  first  made,  it  is  said,  of  cantharides. — Freind.  Blisters  are 
said  to  have  been  first  introduced  into  medical  practice  by  Aretaeus,  a  physician  of 
Cappadocia,  about  50  B.C. — Le  Clerc's  Hist,  of  Physic. 

BLOOD,  Circulation  of  the,  through  the  lungs,  first  made  public  by  Michael  Ser- 
vetus,  a  Spanish  physician,  in  1553.  Cisalpinus  published  an  account  of  the  general 
circulation,  of  which  he  had  some  confused  ideas ;  improved  afterwards  by  experi- 
ments, 1569.  Paul  of  Venice,  commonly  called  Father  Paolo,  whose  real  name 
was  Peter  Sarpi,  certainly  discovered  the  valves  which  serve  for  the  circulation ; 
but  the  honour  of  the  positive  discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  belongs  to 
our  immortal  countryman,  Harvey,  by  whom  it  was  fully  confirmed,  1628. — FreincTs 
Hist,  of  Physic. 

BLOOD,  Drinking  of.  Anciently  a  mode  was  tried  of  giving  vigour  to  the  system  by 
administering  blood  as  a  draught.  Louis  XI.,  in  his  last  illness,  drank  the  warm 
blood  of  infants,  in  the  vain  hope  of  restoring  his  decayed  strength,  1438. — Henault. 
Eating  blood  was  prohibited  to  Noah,  Gen.  iz. ;  and  to  the  Jews,  Lev.  zvii.  The 
prohibition  repeated  by  the  apostles  at  the  council  of  Jerusalem,  Acts  zv. 

BLOOD,  Transfusion  of.  In  the  fifteenth  century  an  opinion  prevailed  that  the 
declining  strength  and  vigour  of  old  people  might  be  repaired  by  transfusing  the  blood 
of  young  persons,  drawn  from  their  veins,  into  those  of  the  infirm  and  aged.  It  was 
countenanced  in  France  by  the  physicians,  and  prevailed  for  many  years,  till  the  most 
fatal  effects  ensued  from  the  operation.  Some  of  the  principal  nobility  having  died, 
and  others  turned  raving  mad,  it  was  suppressed  by  an  edict.  Attempted  in  France 
in  1797.  Practised  more  recently  there,  in  a  few  cases,  with  success ;  and  in  England 
(but  the  instances  are  rare)  since  1823. — Med.  Jour.  **  One  English  physician, 
named  Louver,  or  Lower,  practised  in  this  way  ;  he  died  in  1691." — Freind's  Hist. 
of  Physic. 


BLO  C  75  ]  B<E 

BLOOD'S  CONSPIRACY.  Blood,  a  discarded  officer  of  Oliver  Cromwell's  hotuehold, 
and  his  confederates,  seized  the  dake  of  Ormond  in  his  coach,  and  had  got  him  to 
Tyburn,  intending  to  hang  him,  when  he  was  rescued  by  his  friends.  Blood  after- 
wards, in  the  disguise  of  a  clergyman,  stole  the  regal  crown  from  the  Jewel-office  in 
the  Tower :  yet,  notwithstanding  these  and  other  offences,  he  was  not  only  pardoned, 
but  had  a  pension  of  j^500  per  annum  settled  on  him  by  Charles  IL  1673. 

BLOOMSBURY  GANG.  An  old  political  knot,  that  ruled  the  councils  of  the  king  for 
many  years,  was  known  by  this  designation,  in  consequence  of  the  then  duke  of  Bed- 
ford being  at  its  head :  of  this  knot  was  the  marquis  of  Stafford,  and  other  conspicuous 
men  of  the  reign  of  George  III.  The  marquis  of  Stafford,  the  last  survivor  of  the 
Bloomsbnry  gang,  died  Oct.  26,  1803. 

BLOWING  MACHINES.  The  first  cylinders  of  magnitude,  used  in  blowing  machines, 
erected  by  Mr.  Smeaton  at  the  Carron  iron-works,  1760.  One  equal  to  the  supply 
of  air  for  forty  forge  fires  lately  erected  at  the  king's  dock-yard,  Woolwich.  By 
means  of  the  Blow-pipe  the  alkalies  are  melted,  and  even  volatilised,  in  a  few 
minutes ;  rock  crystal  and  quartz  are  converted  into  glass ;  opal  and  flint  into 
enamel ;  blue  sapphire,  talc,  emerald,  and  lapis  lazuli,  are  converted  into  glass ;  gold 
and  diamond  are  volatilised  ;  platina  and  brass  wire  bum  with  a  green  flame ;  copper 
melts  without  burning ;  but  iron  bums  with  brilliant  light.^i'At//t/>«. 

BLUE  STOCKING.  This  term  is  applied  to  literary  ladies,  and  was  originally  conferred 
on  a  society  of  literary  persons  of  both  sexes.  One  of  the  most  active  promoters  of 
the  society  was  Benjamin  Stillingfleet,  the  distinguished  naturalist  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  who  always  wore  blue  worsted  stockings,  and  hence  the  name :  the  society  existed 
in  1760,  et  seq. — Anec.  o/Bowyer,  The  beautiful  and  fascinating  Mrs.  Jeraingham 
is  said  to  have  worn  blue  stockings  at  the  conversaziones  of  lady  Montague  ;  and  this 
peculiarity  also  fastened  the  name  upon  accomplished  women. 

BOADICEA  TRANSPORT,  with  a  large  body  of  military  on  board,  stranded  in  a  vio- 
lent gale  near  Kinsale,  Ireland,  when  upwards  of  200  of  the  82nd  regiment  perished : 
this  calamity  was  made  more  deplorable  by  many  attendant  circumstances  and  affecting 
incidents,  which  produced  universal  sympathy,  Jan.  31,  1816. 

BOARD  OF  CONTROL.  Mr.  Pitt's  celebrated  bill,  establishing  this  board  for  the 
purpose  of  aiding  and  controlling  the  executive  government  of  India,  and  of  superin- 
tending the  territorial  concerns  of  the  company,  was  passed  24  George  III.  Aug.  1784. 
This  act  was  amended  1786  ;  and  the  board  remodelled  in  1793. — See  India, 

BOARD  OF  TRADE  and  PLANTATIONS.  Charles  IL,  on  his  restoration,  esta- 
blished a  council  of  trade  for  keeping  a  control  over  the  whole  commerce  of  the 
nation,  1660 ;  he  afterwards  instituted  a  board  of  trade  and  plantations,  which  was 
remodelled  by  William  III.  This  board  of  superinspection  was  abolished  in  1782  ; 
and  a  new  council  for  the  affairs  of  trade  was  appointed,  Sept.  2, 1786. 

BOARD  WAGES  first  granted  to  the  lower  officers  and  servants  of  the  crown,  owing  to 
the  necessities  and  consequent  retrenchments  of  Charles  I.  1629. 

BOATS.  Their  invention  was  so  early,  and  their  use  so  general,  the  art  cannot  be  traced 
to  any  age  or  country.  Flat-bottomed  boats  were  made  in  England  in  the  reign  of 
the  Conqueror :  the  flat-bottomed  boat  was  again  brought  into  use  by  Barker,  a 
Dutchman,  about  1690.  The  life-boat  was  first  suggested  at  South  Shields ;  and  one 
was  built  by  Mr.  Greathead,  the  inventor,  and  was  first  put  to  sea,  Jan.  30,  1790. — 
See  Life-Boat, 

BOCCACCIO'S  BOOK,  II  Decamerone,  a  collection  of  a  hundred  stories  or  novels, 
not  of  moral  tendency  ;  feigned  to  have  been  related  in  ten  days,  and,  according  to 
Petrarch,  possessing  many  charmiL  A  copy  of  the  first  edition  (that  of  Yaldafer, 
in  1471)  was  knocked  down,  at  the  duke  of  Roxburgh's  sale,  to  the  duke  of 
Marlborough,  for  ^2260,  June  17,  1812.  This  copy  was  afterwards  sold  for  875 
guineas,  June  5,  1819. 

BCEOTIA,  the  country  of  which  Thebes  was  the  capital.  Thebes  was  equally  celebrated 
for  its  antiquity,  its  grandeur,  and  the  exploits  and  misfortunes  of  its  kings  and  heroes. 
The  country  was  known  successively  as  Aonia,  Messapia,  Hyantis,  Ogygia.  Cadmeis, 
and  Boeotia  ;  and  it  gave  birth  to  Pindar,  Hesiod,  Plutarch,  Democritus,.£paminon- 
das,  and  the  accomplished  and  beautiful  Corinna. 


BGB 


C76] 


BOI 


BCEOTIA,  continued, 

Anival  of  Cadmiuf,  the  founder  of  Cad- 
mea b.c.  1498 


Reign  of  Folydoare 

LabdaciiB  ascends  the  throne 

Amphion  and  Zethus  besiege  Thebes, 
and  dethrone  LaTus    .... 

(Edipus,  not  knowing  his  father  Lalns, 
kills  him  in  an  affray,  confirming  the 
oracle  as  to  his  death  by  the  hands  of 
his  son      ...... 

(Edipus  encounters  the  Sphinx,  and  re- 
solves her  enigmas     .         .        .         . 

War  of  the  Seven  Captains         .        .    . 

Thebes  besieged  and  taken    . 


1450 
1430 

1388 


1876 

1266 
1225 
1216 


Thersander  reigns  in  Thebes .        .    bx.  1215 
The  Thebans  abolish  royalty,  and  ages 
of  obscurity  follow     .        .        .         .1128 
♦  «  * 

Battle  of  Chsronea,  in  which  the  The- 
bans defeat  the  Athenians  .        .         •447 

Haliartus,  son  of  Thersander,  builds  the 
city  80  called *  * 

Epamlnondas  defeats  the  Lacedemonians 
at  Leuctra,  restores  his  country  to  in- 
dependence, and  puts  it  in  a  condition 
to  dictate  to  the  rest  of  Greece    . 

Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  defeats  the 
Thebans  and  Athenians,  near  Chaeitmea 


371 


338 


Here  the  greatness  of  this  conntry  ends.  Alexander  destroyed  Thebes,  the  capital, 
335  B.c.y  when  the  house  of  Pindar  alone  was  left  standing,  and  all  the  inhabitants 
were  either  killed  or  sold  as  slaves  .—<S^/ra6o. 

BOGS.  Commonly  the  remains  of  fallen  forests,  covered  with  peat  and  loose  soil. 
Moving  bogs  are  slips  of  land  carried  to  lower  levels  by  accumulated  water.  Acts 
relating  to  Ireland,  for  their  drainage,  passed,  March,  1830.  The  bog-land  of  Ireland 
has  been  estimated  at  3,000,000  acres  ;  that  of  ScoUand,  at  upwards  of  2,000,000 ; 
and  that  of  England,  at  near  1,000,000  of  acres. 

BOH,  a  fierce  barbarian  general,  son  of  Odin,  lived  60  b.  c.  The  exclamation  of  his  name 
petrified  his  enemies,  and  is  yet  used  to  frighten  children. 

BOHEMIA.  This  country  was  originally  governed  b^  dukes :  the  title  of  king  was 
obtained  from  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  The  kings  at  first  held  their  territory  of  the 
Empire,  but  they  at  length  threw  off  the  yoke  :  the  crown  was  elective  till  it  came  into 
the  house  of  Austria,  in  which  it  is  now  hereditary. — See  Germany. 


560 
7»5 
894 


1041 


The  Sclavonians,  seizing  Bohemia,  are 
ruled  by  dukes  .         .         .         .    a.d. 

City  of  Prague  founded      .        .        .    . 

Introduction  of  Christianity . 

Bohemia  conquered  by  the  emperor 
Henry  III.,  who  spreads  devastation 
through  the  country  .... 

The  regal  title  is  conferred  on  Uratislas. 
the  first  king 1061 

The  regal  title  is  farther  confirmed  to 
Ottoacrel. 1199 

Reign  of  Ottoacre  n.,  who  carries  his 
arms  into  Prussia       .... 

Ottoacre,  refusing  to  do  homage  to  the 
onperor  Rodolphus,  is  by  him  van- 
quished, and  deprived  of  Austria,  Sty- 
ria,  and  Camiola        .... 

In  the  reign  of  Winceslas  III.  mines  of 
silver  are  first  discovered,  and  agri- 
culture is  encouraged  and  improved 
(et  seq.) 1284 

Winceslas  lY.  becoming  odious  for  his 
vices,  is  assassinated  ....  1305 

John,  count  of  Luxemburgh,  is  chosen 
to  succeed 1310 

Silesia  is  made  a  province  of  Bohemia    .  1342 

King  John  slain  at  the  battle  of  Crecy, 
fought  with  the  English      .         .         .  1346 


1258 


1282 


John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  two  of 
the  first  Reformers,  are  burnt  for  he- 
resy, which  occasions  an  insurrection ; 
when  Sigismund,  who  betrayed  them, 
is  deposed,  and  the  Imperialists  are 
driven  from  the  kingdom   .     1415  and  1416 

Albert,  duke  of  Austria,  marries  the 
daughter  of  the  late  emperor  and  king, 
and  receives  the  crowns  of  Bohemia 
and  Hungary 1437 

The  succession  infringed  by  Ladialas, 
son  of  the  king  of  Poland,  and  Qeorge 
Podiebrad,  aprotestant  chief  .  1440  to  1458 

Ladislas  YI.,  king  of  Poland,  elected  king 
of  Bohemia,  on  the  death  of  Ppdiebrad  1471 

The  emperor  Ferdinand  I.  marries  Anne, 
sister  of  Louis  the  late  king,  and  ob- 
tains the  crown 15S7 

The  elector  palatine  Frederick  is  driven 
from  Bohemia 1618 

The  crown  secured  to  the  Austrian  fa- 


mily by  the  treaty  of 
Silesia  and  Glatz  ceded  to  Prussia 
Prague  taken  by  the  Prussians 
The  memorable  siege  of  Prague . 
Revolt  of  the  peasantry 
The  French  occupy  Prague 
•  See  Germany. 


1648 
1742 
1744 
1757 
1775 
180J 


BOILING  OF  LIQUIDS.  Liquids  first  ascertained  by  Dr.  Hooke  not  to  be  increased 
in  heat  after  they  have  once  begun  to  boil ;  and  that  a  fire,  if  made  fiercer,  can  only 
make  them  boil  more  rapidly,  bnt  without  adding  a  degree  to  their  heat,  a.d.  1683. 
The  following  have  been  ascertained  to  be  the  boiUng  points  of  certain  liquids : — 

Oil  of  turpentine  560 
Sulphur  .  .  570 
Linseed  oil  .  .  600 
Mercury    •        .  660 


Ether 

.    98  degrees. 

Muriate  of  lime  .  230  degrees. 

Ammonia 

.    .  140 

Nitric  acid     .    .  248 

Alcohol 

.  176 

Sulphuric  acid   .  500 

Water   . 

.    .  212 

Phosphorus    .    .  554 

li 


•i 


Si 


BOI  C  77  ]  BOO 

BOILING  TO  DEATH.  A  capital  punisliment  in  England,  by  itatate  23  Henry  Till. 
1532.  This  act  was  occasioned  by  seventeen  persons  having  been  poisoned  by  Roase, 
the  bishop  of  Rochester's  cook,  when  the  offence  of  poisoning  was  made  treason,  and 
it  was  enacted  to  be  punished  by  boiling  the  criminal  to  death  !  Margaret  Davie,  a 
young  woman,  suffered  in  the  same  manner  for  a  similar  crime,  in  1541. 

BOIS-LE-DUC,  Battle  or,  between  the  British  and  the  French  republican  army,  in 
which  the  British  were  defeated,  forced  to  abandon  their  position,  and  to  retreat  to 
Schyndel,  Sept.  14,  1794.  This  place  was  captured  by  the  French  Oct.  6  following : 
it  surrendered  to  the  Prussian  army,  under  Bulow,  in  1814. 

BOLOGNA.  Distinguished  for  its  many  rare  and  magnificent  specimens  of  architecture. 
Its  ancient  and  celebrated  university  was  founded  by  Theodosius,  a.d.  433.  Pope 
Julius  II.,  after  besieging  and  taking  Bologna,  made  his  triumphal  entry  into  it  with 
a  pomp  and  magnificence  by  no  means  fitting  (as  Erasmus  observes)  for  the  vice- 
gerent of  the  meek  Redeemer,  Nov.  10,  1506.  Here,  in  the  church  of  St.  Patronius, 
which  is  remarkable  for  its  pavement,  Cassini  drew  his  meridian  line,  at  the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  Taken  by  the  French,  1796  ;  by  the  Austrians,  1799  ;  again 
by  the  French,  after  the  battle  of  Marengo,  in  1800 ;  restored  to  the  pope  in  1815. 

BOMBAY,  India.  Given  as  part  of  the  marriage-portion  of  the  princess  Catherine  of 
Portugal,  on  her  marriage  with  Charles  II.  1661.  Granted  by  William  III.  to  our 
East  India  Company  in  1688, 'and  it  now  forms  one  of  the  three  presidencies.  An 
awfiil  fire  raged  here,  and  a  number  of  lives  were  lost,  Feb.  27,  1803. — See  India, 

BOMBS,  invented  at  Yenlo,  in  1495,  but  according  to  some  authorities  near  a  century 
after.  They  came  into  general  use  in  1634,  having  been  previously  used  only  in  the 
Dutch  and  Spanish  armies.  Bomb. vessels  were  invented  in  France,  in  168 1.«- 
VoUaire.  The  Shrapnel  shell  is  a  bomb  filled  with  balls,  and  a  lighted  fuse  to  make 
it  explode  before  it  reaches  the  enemy  ;  a  thirteen-inch  bomb-shell  weighs  198  lbs.— 
PhUlips. 

BONDAGE,  OR  VILLANAGE,  was  enforced  under  William  I.  A  villain  in  ancient 
times  meant  a  peasant  enslaved  by  his  lord.  A  release  from  this  species  of  servitude 
was  ordered  on  the  manors  of  Elizabeth,  in  1574.     See  Villanage. 

BONE.  "  Give  him  a  bone  to  pick,"  took  its  rise  from  a  custom  at  marriage  feasts, 
among  the  poor  in  Sicily,  when  the  bride's  father,  at  supper,  gave  the  bridegroom  a 
bone,  saying,  **Pick  this  bonet  for  you  Jiave  undertaken  to  pick  one  more  difficult,** 
To  bone  him  is  a  vulgar  phrase  for  seize  or  arrest.  To  make  no  bones  is  to  make 
no  scruple. — Bishop  Hall, 

BONE.  SETTING.  This  branch  of  the  art  of  surgery  cannot  be  said  to  have  been 
practised  scientifically  until  1620,  until  when  it  was  rather  imperfectly  understood. 
--Bell. 

BONES.  The  art  of  softening  bones  was  discovered  about  a.d.  1688,  and  they  were 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  cutlery,  and  for  various  other  purposes  immediately 
afterwards.  The  declared  value  of  the  bones  of  cattle  and  of  other  animals,  and  of 
fish  (exclusive  of  whale-fins)  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  from  Russia, 
Prussia,  Holland,  Denmark,  &c.,  amounts  annually  to  nearly  200,000/. 

BONHOMMES.  These  were  hermits  of  simple  and  gentle  lives  who  made  their  appear- 
ance  in  France  about'the  year  1257  ;  and  they  came  to  England  in  1283.  The  prior  of 
the  order  was  called  Le  bon  homme,  by  Louis  VI.,  and  hence  they  derived  their 
name. — Du  Fresnoy. 

BOOKS.  Ancient  books  were  originally  boards,  or  the  inner  bark  of  trees  ;  and  bark 
is  still  used  by  some  nations,  as  are  also  skins,  for  which  latter  parchment  was 
substituted.  Papyrus,  an  Egyptian  plant,  was  adopted  in  that  country.  Books  whose 
leaves  were  vellum,  were  invented  by  Attains,  king  of  Pergamus,  about  198  b.c.,  at 
which  time  books  were  in  volumes  or  rolls.  The  MSS.  in  Herculanenm  consist  of 
papyrus,  rolled  and  charred,  and  matted  together  by  the  fire,  and  are  about  nine 
mches  long,  and  one,  two,  or  three  inches  in*  diameter,  each  being  a  separate  treatise. 
The  Pentateuch  of  Moses,  and  the  history  of  Job,  are  the  most  ancient  in  the  world; 
and  in  profane  literature,  the  poems  of  Homer,  though  the  names  of  others  still 
more  ancient  are  preserved. 

BOOKS,  Prices  of.  Jerome  states  that  he  had  ruined  himself  by  buying  a  copy  of 
the  works  of  Origen.    A  large  estate  was  given  for  one  on  cosmography,  by  Alfred, 


BOO C  78  ] BOR 

about  A.D.  872.  The  Raman  de  la  Rose  was  sold  for  above  30/. ;  and  a  Homily 
was  exchanged  for  200  sheep  and  five  qnarters  of  wheat ;  and  they  usually  fetched 
doable  or  treble  their  weight  in  gold.  They  sold  at  prices  varying  from  10/.  to  40/. 
each,  in  1400.  In  our  own  times,  the  value  of  some  volumes  is  very  great.  A 
copy  of  MaekHn*s  Rible,  ornamented  by  Mr.  Tomkins,  has  been  declared  worth 
500  guineas. — Rutler,  A  ^et  more  superb  copy  is  at  present  insured  in  a  London 
office  for  3,000/. — Timet,  II  Decamerone  of  Boccaccio,  edition  of  147 1  y  was 
bought  at  the  duke  of  Roxburgh's  sale  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough  for  2260/.,  June 
17, 1812.—PAt//tjM. 

BOOKS,  Printed.  The  first  printed  books  were  trifling  hymns  and  psalters,  and 
being  printed  only  on  one  side,  the  leaves  were  pasted  back  to  back.  The  first 
printing  was,  as  a  book,  the  Rook  of  Psalms,  by  Faust  and  Schsffer,  his  son-in-law, 
August  14,  1457.  Several  works  were  printed  many  years  before ;  but  as  the 
inventors  kept  the  secret  to  themselves,  they  sold  their  first  printed  works  as 
manuscripts.  Tliis  gave  rise  to  an  adventure  that  brought  calamity  on  Faust ;  he 
began  in  1450  an  edition  of  the  Bible,  which  was  finished  in  1460.  See  article 
Devil  and  Dr,  Fausius.  The  second  printed  was  Cicero  de  Officiis^  1466. — Rlair. 
The  first  book  printed  in  England  was  The  Game  and  Play  of  the  Chesse^  by  Caxton, 
1474.  The  first  in  Dublin  was  the  Liturgy ^  in  1550.  The  first  classical  work  printed  in 
Russia  was  Com.  Nepotis  Vil(By  in  1762.  Lucian*s  Dialogues  was  the  first  Greek 
book  printed  in  America  (at  Philadelphia),  1 789.  Books  of  astronomy  and  geometry 
were  ail  destroyed  in  England  as  being  infected  with  magic,  6  Edward  YI.  1552. 
— Stowe*8  Chronicles. 

BOOK-BINDING.  The  book  of  St.  Cuthbert,  the  earliest  ornamented  book ,  is  supposed 
to  have  been  bound  about  a.d.  650.  A  Latin  Psalter  in  oak  boards  was  bound  in 
the  ninth  century.  A  MS.  copy  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  the  book  on  which  our 
kings  from  Henry  I.  to  Edward  YI.  took  their  coronation  oath,  was  bound  in  oaken 
boards,  nearly  an  inch  thick,  a.d.  1 100.  Yelvet  was  the  covering  in  the  fourteenth 
century  ;  and  silk  soon  after.  Yellum  was  introduced  early  in  the  fifteenth  century ; 
it  was  stamped  and  ornamented  about  1510.  Leather  came  into  use  about  the  same 
time. 

BOOK-KEEPING.  The  system  by  double-entry,  called  originally  Italian  book-keeping, 
was  taken  from  the  course  of  algebra  which  was  published  by  Burgo,  at  Yenice, 
then  a  gpreat  commercial  state,  in  the  fifteenth  century.  It  was  made  known  in 
England  by  James  Peele,  who  published  his  work  upon  the  subject  in  1569. — 
Anderson. 

BOOTS.  They  are  said  to  have  been  the  invention  of  the  Carians,  and  were  made  of 
iron,  brass,  or  leather;  of  the  last  material  some  time  after  their  invention,  boots 
were  known  to  the  Greeks,  for  Homer  mentions  them  about  907  b.c. 

BORAX.  Known  to  the  ancients.  It  is  used  in  soldering,  brazing,  and  casting  gold 
and  other  metals,  and  was  called  chrysocolla.  It  is  also  used  in  medicine,  and  in 
composing /t<c7i«,  or  a  wash  or  paint  for  the  ladies. — Pardon.  Borax  is  naturally 
produced  in  the  mountains  of  Thibet ;  and  was  brought  to  Europe  from  India  about 
1713.     It  has  lately  been  found  in  Saxony. 

BORODINO  OR  MOSKWA,  Battle  of,  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  in  the  records 
of  the  world,  fought  Sept.  7,  1812,  between  the  French  and  Russians;  commanded 
on  the  one  side  by  Napoleon,  and  on  the  other  by  Kutusoff,  240,000  men  being 
engaged.  Each  party  claimed  the  victory,  because  the  loss  of  the  other  was  so 
immense ;  but  it  was  rather  in  favour  of  Napoleon,  for  the  Russians  subsequently 
retreated,  leaving  Moscow  to  its  fate.  The  road  being  thus  left  open,  the  French 
entered  Moscow,  Sept.  14,  with  little  opposition.  But  a  signal  reverse  of  fortime  now 
took  place,  which  preserved  the  Russian  empire  from  ruin,  and  paved  the  way  to  the 
downfall  of  the  French  military  power  over  Europe.     See  Moscow. 

BOROUGH.  Anciently  a  company  of  ten  families  living  together.  The  term  has  been 
applied  to  such  towns  as  send  members  to  parliament,  since  the  election  of  burgesses 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  1265.  Burgesses  were  first  admitted  into  the  Scottish 
parliament  by  Robert  Bruce,  1326 — and  into  the  Irish,  1365. 

BOROUGH  ENGLISH.  This  was  an  ancient  tenure  by  which  the  younger  son 
inherits.  Its  origin  is  thus  explained  :  in  feudal  times  the  lord  is  said  to  have  claimed 
the  privilege  of  spending  the  first  night  with  the  vassal's  bride,  and  on  such  occasions 


BOR  [  79  ]  BOT 

the  land  was  made  to  descend  to  the  next  son,  in  consequence  of  the  supposed 
illegitimacy  of  the  elder.  This  kind  of  tennre  is  mentioned  as  occurring  a.d.  834. 
It  existed  in  Scotland,  but  was  abolished  by  Malcolm  III.  in  lU(i2. 

BOROUGH-BRIDGE,  Battle  of,  between  the  earls  of  Hertford  and  fvancaster  and 
Edward  II.  The  latter,  at  the  head  of  30,000  men,  prressed  Lancaster  so  closely, 
that  he  had  not  time  to  collect  his  troops  together  in  sufficient  force,  and  being 
defeated  and  made  prisoner,  was  led,  mounted  on  a  lean  horse,  to  an  eminence  near 
Pontefract  or  Pomfret,  with  great  indignity,  and  beheaded  by  a  Londoner,  1322. — 
Gokkmith, 

BOSCOBEL.  Here  Charles  II.  concealed  himself  in  the  renowned  oak,  after  the  battle 
of  Worcester,  in  which  Cromwell  defeated  the  Scots  army  that  had  marched  into 
England  to  reinstate  him  on  the  throne,  Sept.  3,  1651.  The  streets  were  strewed 
witi^  the  dead ;  the  whole  Scots  army  was  either  killed  or  taken  prisoners,  and  Charles 
escaped  with  great  difficulty  into  France. —  GoUUmith, 

BOSPHORUS,  now  called  Circassia,  The  history  of  this  kingdom  is  inToWed  in 
obscurity,  though  it  continued  for  530  years.  It  was  named  Cimmerian,  from  the 
Cimmerif  who  dwelt  on  its  borders.  The  descendants  of  Archeanactes  of  Mytilene 
settled  in  this  country,  but  they  were  dispossessed  by  Spartacus,  in  438  B.C. 


of  the  kings  who  were  tributary  to  the  con* 
qucrors,  are  unrecorded  and  tmknown-] 

****** 

Mithrldates  conquers  Bodphonia  a.n.  80 
An  awful  earthquake  lays  numerous  cities 

and  towns  in  ruins  .        .    09 

Battle  of  Zela,  gained  by  Julius  Cesar 

overPhamacea  .47 

Cesar  makes  Mltbrldates  of  Pcrgamua 

king  of  Bosphorus  .    .    47 

Asander  usurps  the  crown  .46 

Poleinon  conquers  Bosphoms,  and  fiaTOur* 

ed  by  Agrippa,  reigns  .  .14 

****** 

Polemon  killed  by  barbarians  of  the  Palus 

Maeotls a.d.  33 

Polemon  II.  reigns 33 

Mithridates  IL  reigns  .    .  40 


The  Arcbeanactide  rule  here  B.c  480 

They  are  succeeded  by  Spartacus  .  .  438 
Eumelus,  aiming  to  dethrone  his  brother, 

SatyruB  11.  is  defeated ;  but  Batyrus  is 

wounded,  and  dies  ....  310 
Pritanis,  his  next  brother,  ascends  the 

throne.    He  is  soon  after  murdered  in 

his  palace  by  Eumelua  .         .    .  309 

Eumelus,  to  secure  his  usurpation,  puts 

to  death  all  his    relations,    and  the 

friends  of  his  brothers,  and  their  wivea 

and  children 309 

His  subjects,  disgusted  at  his  cruelties, 

call  him  to  an  account ;  but  he  remits 

their  taxea^  and  is  now  adored  for  his 

virtues !  309 

Eumelus  is  killed  .         .         .304 

The  Scythians  invade  Bospboms  .  .  285 
[During  their  rule  of  204  years,  even  the  names 

Mithridates  is  conducted  a  prisoner  to  Rome,  by  order  of  the  emperor  Claudius,  and 
his  kingdom  is  soon  afterwards  made  a  province  of  the  empire.  The  strait  of  the 
Bosphorus  was  closed  by  the  Turks,  Sept.  8,  1828.  It  was  blockaded  by  the  Russian 
squadron  under  admiral  Greig,  Dec.  31,  same  year.    See  Dardanelles, 

BOSTON,  America.  Here  originated  that  resistance  to  the  British  authorities  which 
led  to  American  independence.  The  act  of  parliament  laying  duties  on  tea,  paper, 
colours,  &c.  passed  June  1767,  and  it  so  excited  the  indignation  of  the  citizens  of 
Boston,  that  they  destroyed  several  hundreds  of  chests  of  tea,  Nov.  1773.  Boston 
was  proscribed  in  consequence,  and  the  port  shut  by  the  English  parliament,  until 
restitution  should  be  made  to  the  East  India  company  for  the  tea  that  had  been 
lost,  March  25, 1774.  The  town  was  besieged  by  the  British  next  year,  and  400 
houses  were  destroyed.  Battle  between  the  royalists  and  independent  troops,  in 
which  the  latter  were  defeated  in  June  1775.  The  city  was  evacuated  by  the 
king's  troops,  April,  177G. 

BOSWORTH  FIELD,  Battle  of,  the  thirteenth  and  last  between  the  houses  of 
York  and  Lancaster,  in  which  Richard  III.  was  defeated  by  the  earl  of  Richmond, 
afterwards  Henry  VII.,  the  former  being  slain,  Aug.  22,  1485.  The  crown  of 
Richard  was  found  in  a  hawthorn  bush,  on  the  plain  where  the  battle  was  fought, 
and  Henry  was  so  impatient  to  be  crowned,  that  he  had  the  ceremony  performed  on 
the  spot  with  that  very  crown.  In  the  civil  contests  between  the  "  Roses,''  many  of 
the  most  ancient  families  in  the  kingdom  were  entirely  extinguished,  and  no  less  than 
100,000  human  beings  lost  their  lives. 

BOTANY.  Aristotle  is  considered  the  founder  of  the  philosophy  of  botany.  The 
Historia  Plan/arum  of  Theophrastus,  written  about  320  b.c.  Authors  on  botany 
are  numerous  from  the  earlier  ages  of  the  world,  to  the  close  of  the  15th  century, 


BOT  C  80  ]  BOU 

when  the  science  became  better  nnderstood.  The  study  was  advanced  by  Fachsins, 
Bock,  Baubin,  Csesalpinos,  and  others,  between  1535  and  1600. — Melchior  Adam, 
The  system  and  arrangement  of  Linnaeus,  the  first  botanist  of  modern  times,  made 
known  about  1750.  Jussieu's system,  in  1 758.  At  the  time  of  Linnsens's  death,  a.d. 
1778,  the  species  of  plants  actually  described  amounted  in  number  to  11,800.  The 
number  of  species  of  all  denominations  now  recorded  cannot  fall  short  of  100,000. 

BOTANY  BAY,  originally  fixed  on  for  a  colony  of  convicts  from  Great  Britain.  The 
first  governor,  Phillips,  who  sailed  from  England  in  May,  1 787,  arrived  at  the 
settlement  in  Jan.  1788.  I'he  bay  had  been  discovered  by  captain  Cook  in  1770, 
and  the  place  took  its  name  from  the  great  variety  of  herbs  which  abounded  on  the 
shore.  The  colony  was  fixed  at  Port  Jackson,  about  thirteen  miles  to  the  north  of 
the  bay.     See  Neto  South  Wales  and  Transportation, 

BOTTLE-CONJUROR.  The  famous  imposition  of  this  charlatan  occurred  at  the  old 
Haymarket  theatre,  Jan.  16,  1748 ;  he  had  announced  that  he  would  jump  into  a 
quart  bottle,  and  so  imposed  upon  the  credulous  multitude,  that  the  theatre  was 
besieged  by  10,000  persons,  anxious  to  gain  admittance  and  witness  the  feat.  The 
object  of  filling  the  house  was  accomplished  ;  but  the  duped  crowd  (who  really 
expected  to  see  the  man  enter  the  quart  bottle),  in  the  storm  of  their  indignation, 
nearly  pulled  the  whole  edifice  down. 

BOTTLES,  of  glass,  were  first  made  in  England,  about  1558 — See  Glass,  The  art  of 
making  glass  bottles  and  drinking  glasses  was  known  to  the  Romans  at  least  before 
79  A.D.,  for  these  articles  and  other  vessels  have  been  found  in  the  ruins  of  Pom- 
peii. A  bottle  which  contained  two  hogsheads  was  blown,  we  are  told,  at  Leith,  in 
Scotland,  in  January,  1747-8. 

BOULOGNE,  France.  Taken  by  the  British  in  1542,  but  restored  to  France  upon 
the  peace,  1550.  Lord  Nelson  attacked  Boulogne,  disabling  ten  vessels,  and  sinking 
five,  Aug.  3,  1801.  In  another  attempt  he  was  repulsed  with  great  loss,  and  captain 
Parker  of  the  Medusa  and  two- thirds  of  his  crew  were  killed,  Aug.  15  following. 
Again,  in  Oct.  3,  1804,  when  the  catamaran  project  for  destroying  the  flotilla  failed, 
Congreve-rockets  were  used  in  another  attack,  and  they  set  the  town  on  fire,  Oct. 
8,  1806.  Prince  Louis  Napoleon  made  a  descent  here  with  about  fifty  followers, 
Aug.  6,  1840. — See  next  article,  and  Franoe, 

BOULOGNE  FLOTILLA.  This  celebrated  armament  against  England  excited  much 
attention  for  some  years,  but  the  grand  demonstration  was  made  in  1804.  In  that 
year,  Buonaparte  had  assembled  160,000  men  and  10,000  horses,  and  a  flotilla  of 
1300  vessels  and  17,000  sailors  to  invade  England.  The  coasts  of  Kent  and  Sussex 
were  covered  with  martello  towers  and  lines  of  defence ;  and  nearly  half  the  adult 
population  of  Britain  was  formed  into  volunteer  corps.  It  is  supposed  that  this 
French  armament  served  merely  for  a  demonstration,  and  that  Buonaparte  never 
seriously  intended  the  invasion. — See  Flotilla. 

BOUNTIES.  They  were  first  granted  on  the  exportation  of  British  commodities — a 
new  principle  introduced  into  commerce  by  the  British  parliament.  The  first  boun- 
ties granted  on  corn,  were  in  1688.  First  legally  granted  in  England  for  raising 
naval  stores  in  America,  1703.  Bounties  have  been  granted  on  sail-cloth,  linen,  and 
other  goods. — Elements  of  Commerce, 

BOUNTY,  MUTINEERS  of  the  Ship.  Memorable  mutmy  on  board  the  Bounty, 
armed  ship  returning  from  Otaheite,  with  bread-fruit.  The  mutineers  put  their  cap- 
tain, Blighy  and  nineteen  men  into  an  open  boat,  near  Annamooka,  one  of  the  Friendly 
Islands,  April  28,  1789,  and  they  reached  the  Island  of  Timor,  south  .of  the  Mo- 
luccas, in  June,  after  a  perilous  voyage  of  nearly  4000  miles,  in  which  their  pre- 
servation was  next  to  miraculous.  The  mutineers  were  tried  Sept.  15,  1792,  when 
six  were  condemned,  of  whom  three  were  executed.     See  Piieaim's  Island, 

BOURBON,  HOUSE  of.  Anthony  de  Bourbon  was  the  chief  of  the  branch  of  Bour- 
bon, so  called  from  a  fief  of  that  name  which  fell  to  them  by  marriage  with  the 
heiress  of  the  estate.  Henry  IV.  of  France  and  Navarre,  justly  styled  the  Great, 
was  son  of  Anthony,  and  came  to  the  throne  in  1589.  The  crown  of  Spain  was 
settled  on  a  younger  branch  of  this  family,  and  guaranteed  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht, 
1713. — Rapin,  The  Bourbon  Family  Compact  took  place,  1761.  The  Bourbons 
were  expelled  France,  1791,  and  were  restored^  1814.     Re-expelled,  and  again 


BOT C  81  ] BOY 

restored,  1815.  The  elder  branch  was  expelled  once  more,  in  the  persons  of 
Charles  X.  and  his  family  in  1830,  a  consequence  of  the  rerolutionof  the  memorable 
days  of  July  in  that  year. — See  Franee, 

BOURBON,  ISLE  OF,  discovered  by  die  Portuguese,  in  1545.  The  French  first 
settled  here  in  167*2.  The  island  surrendered  to  the  British,  July  2,  1810.  It  is 
near  the  Isle  of  France,  and  the  two  are  styled  the  Mauritius.  There  occurred  sn 
awful  hurricane  here  in  February  1829,  by  which  immense  mischief  was  done  to  the 
shipping,  and  throughout  the  island. 

BOURDEAUX (or  Bordeaux)  was  united  to  the  dominions  of  Henryll.  of  Englsnd,  by 
his  marriage  with  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine.  Edward  the  Black  Prince  brought  his  roy^ 
captive,  John,  king  of  France,  to  this  city  after  die  battle  of  Poitiers,  in  1356,  and 
here  held  his  court  during  eleven  years  :  his  son,  our  Richard  11.,  was  bom  at  Bonr- 
deaux,  1362.  The  fine  equestrian  statue  of  Louis  XV.  was  erected  in  1743.  Bour- 
deaux  was  entered  by  the  victorious  British  army,  after  the  battle  of  Orthes,  fought 
Feb.  25,  1814. 

BOURIGNONISTS,  a  sect  founded  by  Antoinette  Bouriffnian,  a  prophetess.  She 
dressed  like  a  hermit ;  and  travelled  to  France,  Holland,  England,  and  Scotland :  in 
the  last  she  made  a  strong  party,  and  some  thousands  of  sectarists,  about  1670. 

BOYDELL'S  LOTTERY.  This  was  a  lottery  of  a  gsUery  of  paintings,  got  up  at 
vast  expense  by  the  eminent  alderman  Boydell,  a  great  encourager  of  the  arts.  Ths 
collection  was  called  the  Shakspeare  Gallery,  and  every  ticket  was  sold  at  the  time 
the  alderman  died,  Dec.  12,  1804.     He  was  lord  mayor  of  London  in  1791. 

BOWLS,  OB  BOWLING,  an  English  game,  played  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century, 
and  once  in  great  repute  among  the  higher  ranks.  Charles  I.  played  at  it  It 
formed  a  daily  share  in  the  diversions  of  Charles  II.  at  Tunbridge. — Minunree  de 
Grammont, 

BOWS  AND  ARROWS.  See  Archery,  The  invention  of  them  is  ascribed  to  Apollo. 
Known  in  England  previous  to  a.d.  450.  The  use  of  them  was  again  introduced 
into  England  by  the  Conqueror,  1066  ;  and  greatly  encouraged  by  Richard  I.,  1190. 
•  — Baker's  Chronicle.  The  usual  range  of  the  long-bow  was  from  300  to  400 
yards ;  the  length  of  the  bow  was  six  feet,  and  the  arrow  three.  Cross-bows  were 
fixed  to  a  stock  of  iron  or  wood,  and  were  discharged  by  a  trigger. 

BOX-THORN  ( Lycmm  6ar6ar?4f»)  was  brought  to  these  realms  before  1696.  The 
Minorca  Box  {Biunu  balearica)  came  from  the  Balearic  Isles  before  1780. 

BOXING,  on  PRIZE-FIGHTING,  the  pugilattu  of  the  Romans,  and  a  favourite 
sport  with  the  British,  who  possess  an  extraordinary  strength  in  the  arm,  an 
advantage  which  gives  the  British  soldier  great  superiority  in  battles  decided  by  the 
bayonet.  A  century  ago,  boxing  formed  a  regular  exhibition,  and  a  theatre  was 
erected  for  it  in  Tottenham-court — Broughton's  amphitheatre  behind  Oxford-road, 
built  1742.  Schools  were  opened  in  England  to  teach  boxing  as  a  science  in  1790. 
Mendoza  opened  the  Lyceum  in  the  Strand  in  1791.  Owing  to  the  dishonest 
practices  in  the  **  ring,''  selling  the  victory,  and  one  combatant  allowing  the  other 
to  beat  him,  &c.,  the  fights  have  been  fewer  of  late,  and  the  numbers  of  Uie  patrons 
of  boxing  have  declined. 

BOXTEL,  Battlb  of,  between  the  British  and  allied  army,  commanded  by  the  duke 
of  York  and  the  army  of  the  French  republic.  The  latter  attacked  the  allies  and 
obtained  the  victory  after  an  obstinate  engagement,  taking  2,000  prisoners  and 
eight  pieess  of  cannon,  and  the  duke  retreated  across  the  Meuse,  Sept.  17,  1794. 

BOYLE  LECTURES.  Instituted  by  Robert  Boyle  (son  of  the  great  earl  of  Cork), 
an  exceedingly  good  man  and  philosopher,  distinguished  by  his  genius,  virtues, 
and  unbounded  benevolence.  He  instituted  eight  lectures  in  vindication  of  the 
Christian  religion,  which  are  delivered  at  St.  Mary-le-Bow  church,  on  the  first 
Monday  in  each  month,  from  January  to  May,  and  September  to  November- 
endowed  1691. 

BOYNE,  Battle  of,  between  king  William  III.  and  his  father-in-law,  James  II., 
fought  July  1,  1690.  The  latter  was  signally  defeated,  his  adherents  losing  1500 
men,  and  the  Protestant  army  about  a  third  of  that  number.  James  immediately 
afterwards  fled  to  Dublin,  thence  to  Waterford,  and  escaped  to  France.  The  duke 
of  Schomberg  was  killed  in  the  battle,  having  been  shot  by  mistake  as  he  was  crossing 

o 


BOY  C  ^'-^  ]  ^^^ 

the  river  Boyne,  by  the  soldiers  of  his  own  regiment.  Near  Drogheda  is  a  splendid 
obelisk,  150  feet  in  height,  erected  in  1736  by  the  Protestants  of  the  empire,  in 
commemoration  of  this  victory. 

BOYNE,  Man  of  War,  of  98  ^uns.  This  magnificent  ship  was  destroyed  by  fire  at 
Portsmouth,  when  great  mischief  was  occasioned  by  the  explosion  of  the  magazine, 
and  numbers  perished.  May  4,  1795.  Large  portions  of  the  Boyne  have  been 
recovered  from  time  to  time,  and  explosions,  with  the  view  of  clearing  the  harbour 
of  the  wreck,  were  successfully  commenced  in  June  1840. 

BRABANT.  It  was  erected  into  a  duchy  a«d.  620,  and  devolved  upon  Lambert  I., 
count  of  Louvain,  in  1005,  and  fromr  him  descended  to  Philip  II.  of  Burgundy,  and 
in  regular  succession  to  the  emperor  Charles  Y.  In  the  seventeenth  century  it  was 
held  by  Holland  and  Austria,  as  Dutch  Brabant,  and  Walloon.  These  provinces 
underwent  many  changes  in  most  of  the  great  wars  of  Europe.  .  The  Austrian 
division  was  taken  by  the  French  1746 — again  in  1794  by  their  Republic;  and  it 
now  forms  the  chief  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Belgium,  under  Leopold,  1831.  See 
Belgium. 

BRACELETS.  They  were  early  worn  and  prized  among  the  ancients ;  we  read  of 
them  in  almost  all  nations ;  those  that  were  called  armillts  were  usually  distributed 
as  rewards  for  valour  among  the  Roman  legions. — Nouv»  Diet. 

BRAGANZA,  House  of,  owes  its  elevation  to  royalty  to  a  remarkable  and  bloodless 
revolution  in  Portugal,  a.d.  1640,  when  the  nation,  throwing  off  the  Spanish  yoke, 
which  had  become  intolerable,  advanced  John,  duke  of  Braganza,  to  the  throne,  on 
which  this  family  continues  to  reign. — Abbe  Vertot, 

BRAHMIN3,  a  sect  of  Indian  philosophers,  reputed  to  be  so  ancient  that  Pythagoras 
is  thought  to  have  learned  from  them  his  doctrine  of  the  Metempsychosis  ;  and  it  is 
affirmed  that  some  of  the  Greek  philosophers  went  to  India  on  purpose  to  converse 
with  them.  The  modern  Brahmins  derive  their  name  from  Brahme,  one  of  three  beings 
whom  God,  according  to  their  theology,  created,  and  with  whose  assistance  he  formed 
the  world.  They  never  eat  flesh,  and  abstain  from  the  use  of  wine  and  all  carnal 
enjoyments. — Strabo.  The  modern  Indian  priests  are  still  considered  as  the 
depositaries  of  the  whole  learning  of  India. — Holwell, 

BRANDENBURGH,  Family  of,  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  some  historians  say  it 
was  founded  by  the  Sclavonians,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Banber,  which  signifies 
Guard  of  the  Forests,  Henry  I.,  surnamed  the  Fowler,  fortified  Brandenburgh, 
A.D.  923,  to  serve  as  a  rampart  against  the  Huns.  He  bestowed  the  government  on 
Sifroi,  count  of  Ringelheim,  with  the  title  of  Margrave,  which  signifies  protector  of 
the  marches  or  frontiers,  in  927.  The  emperor  Sigismund  gave  perpetual  investiture 
to  Frederick  IV.  of  Nuremberg,  who  was  made  elector  in  1417.     See  Prussia. 

BRANDENBURGH-HOUSE,  Hammersmith,  celebrated  as  the  residence  of  Caroline, 
the  unfortunate  consort  of  George  IV.  The  queen  took  possession  of  it  August  3, 
1820,  and  here  received  the  various  addresses  and  deputations  of  the  British  people, 
consequent  upon  her  majesty's  trial  in  the  House  of  Lords,  under  a  bill  of  pains 
and  penalties,  that  year.  She  expired  at  Brandenburgh-bouse,  Aug.  7,  1821  ;  and 
the  house  was  demoUshed  in  1623.     See  Queen  Caroline. 

BRANDYWINE,  Battle  of,  between  the  British  royalist  forces  and  the  revolted 
Americans,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeated  with  great  loss,  and  Philadelphia  fell 
to  the  possession  of  the  victors,  September  11,  1777. 

BRASS.  Its  formation  was  prior  to  the  Flood,  and  it  was  discovered  in  the  seventh 
generation  from  Adam. — Bible.  Brass  was  known  among  all  the  early  nations. — 
Usher.  The  Britons  from  the  remotest  period  were  acquainted  with  its  use, — 
Whiitaker.  When  Lucius  Mumonius  burnt  Corinth  to  tlie  ground,  146  B.C.,  the 
riches  he  found  were  immense,  and  during  the  conflagration,  it  is  said,  all  the  metals 
in  the  city  melted,  and  running  together,  formed  the  valuable  composition  since 
known  under  the  name  of  Corinthian  brass.  This,  however,  may  well  be  doubted, 
for  the  Corinthian  artists  had  long  before  obtained  great  credit  for  their  method  of 
combining  gold  and  silver  with  copper ;  and  the  Syriac  translation  of  the  Bible  says, 
that  Hiram  made  the  vessels  for  Solomon's  temple  of  Corinthian  brass.  Artides 
made  of  this  brilliant  composition,  though  in  themselves  trivial  and  insignificant,  were 
yet  highly  valued. — Du  Fresnoy. 


BRA  C  ^3  D  ^"^ 

6RAURONIA,  festivals  in  Attica,  at  Brauron,  where  Diana  had  a  temple.  The 
most  remarkable  that  attended  these  festiFala  were  yonng  Tirgini  in  yellow  gowns 
dedicated  to  Diana.  They  were  about  ten  years  of  age,  and  not  under  five,  and 
therefore  their  consecration  was  called  *'  dekaieneinj**  from  *'  deka,"  decern  f 
660  B.C. 

BRAYi  THE  VicAB  OF.  Bray,  in  Berks,  is  famous  in  national  song  for  its  Vicar, 
the  Rev.  Symon  Symonds,  who  was  twice  a  papist  and  twice  a  protestant  in  four 
successive  reigns — those  of  Henry  VIIL,  EdinutI  YL,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth.  Upon 
being  called  a  turncoat,  he  said  he  kept  to  his  principle,  that  of  *'  living  and  dying 
the  vicar  of  Bray,''  between  the  years  1533  and  1558.  The  story  was  first  published 
by  Fuller  in  his  Church  History, 

BRAZEN  BULL.  Perillus,  a  brass-founder  at  Athens,  knowing  the  cruel  disposition 
of  Phalaris  of  Agrigentum,  contrived  a  new  species  of  punishment  for  him  to  inflict 
upon  his  oppress^  subjects.  He  cast  a  brazen  boU,  larger  than  life,  with  an 
opening  in  the  side  to  admit  the  victims.  Upon  their  being  shut  up  in  this  engine 
of  torture,  a  fire  was  kindled  underneath  to  roast  them  to  death ;  and  the  throat  was 
so  contrived  that  their  dying  groans  resembled  the  roaring  of  a  bull.  He  brought  it 
to  the  tyrant,  and  expected  a  large  reward.  Phalaris  admired  the  invention  and  work- 
manship, but  said  it  was  reasonable  the  artist  should  make  the  first  experiment  upon 
his  Qwn  work,  and  ordered  his  execution.  Ovid  mentions  that  the  Agrigentes, 
maddened  by  the  tyrant's  cruelties,  revolted,  seized  him,  cut  his  tongue  out,  and 
then  roasted  him  in  the  brazen  bull,  by  which  he  had  put  to  death  so  great  a  number 
of  their  fellow-citizens,  561  b.c. —  Vita  Phalaridis, 

BRAZIL.  It  was  discovered  by  Alvarez  de  Cabral,  a  Portuguese,  who  was  driven  upon 
its  coasts  by  a  tempest  in  1500.  He  called  it  the  Land  of  the  Holy  Cross ;  but  it 
was  subsequently  called  Brazil  on  account  of  its  red  wood,  and  was  carefully  ex- 
plored by  Amerigo  Vespucci,  about  1504.  The  gold  mines  were  first  opened  in 
1684  ;  and  the  diamond  mines  were  discovered  1730  (see  Diamonds).  The  French 
having  seized  on  Portugal  in  1807,  the  royal  family  and  most  of  the  nobles  embarked 
for  Brazil.  A  revolution  took  place  here  in  1821.  Brazil  was  erected  into  an 
empire,  when  Don  Pedro  assumed  the  titlp  of  emperor,  in  November  1825.  He 
abdicated  the  throne  of  Portugal,  May  2,  1826  ;  and  that  of  Brazil,  in  favour  of  his 
infant  son,  now  emperor,  April  7,  1831,  and  returned  to  Portugal,  where  a  civil  war 
ensued. — See  Portugai. 

BREAD.  Ching-NouDg,  the  successor  of  Fohi,  is  reputed  to  have  been  the  first  who 
taught  men  (the  Chinese)  the  art  of  husbandry,  and  the  method  of  making  bread 
from  wheat,  and  wine  from  rice,  1998  b.c. — Univ.  Hist.  Baking  of  bread  was 
known  in  the  patriarchal  ages  ;  see  Exodus  xii.  15.  Baking  bread  became  a  pro- 
fession at  Rome,  170  b.c.  During  the  siege  of  Paris  by  Henry  lY.,  owing  to  the 
famine  which  then  raged,  bread,  which  had  been  sold  whilst  any  remained  for  a 
crown  a  pound,  was  at  last  made  from  the  bones  of  the  charnel-house  of  the  Holy 
Innocents,  a.d.  1594. — Henavlt,  In  the  time  of  Jataes  I.  the  usual  bread  of  the 
poor  was  made  of  barley ;  and  now  in  Iceland,  cod-fish,  beaten  to  powder,  is  made 
into  bread  ;  and  the  poor  use  potato-bread  in  many  parts  of  Ireland.  Earth  has 
been  eaten  as  bread  in  some  parts  of  the  worla :  near  Moscow  is  a  portion  of 
land  whose  clay  will  ferment  when  mixed  with  flour.  The  Indians  of  Louisiana 
eat  a  white  earth  with  salt ;  and  the  Indians  of  the  Oronooko  eat  a  white  unctuous 
earth. — Greig;  Phillips, 

BREAD,  HOUSEHOLD.  There  was  an  assize  of  bread  in  England  in  1202.  The 
London  Bakers'  Company  was  incorporated  in  1307.  Bread-street  in  London  was 
once  the  market  for  bread  in  that  city,  and  hence  its  name.  Until  the  year  1302, 
the  London  bakers  were  not  allowed  to  sell  any  in  their  shops. — Stowe.  Bread  was 
made  with  yeast  by  the  English  bakers  in  1634.  For  the  recent  statutes  relating  to 
bread,  see  Assize  of  Bread, 

BREAD-FRUIT  TREE.  It  is  mentioned  by  several  voyagers, — by  Dampier,  Anson, 
and  Wallis,  among  others.  A  vessel  under  the  command  of  captain  Bligh  was  fitted 
out  to  convey  these  trees  to  various  parts  of  the  British  colonies  in  1791.  The 
number  taken  on  board  at  Otaheite  was  1151.  Of  these,  some  were  left  at  St. 
Helena,  352  at  Jamaica,  and  five  were  reserved  for  Kew  Gardens,  1793.  The  Bread- 
fruit tree  was  successfully  cultivated  in  French  Guiana,  in.  1802.    In  the  West  Indies, 

62 


BRE C  84  ] BRB 

the  negroes  prefer  their  own  preparations  of  the  plaintain  fruit  to  bread ;  and  hence 
the  bread-fmit  tree,  transported  at  such  an  expense  from  the  South  Sea  Islands,  has 
been  attended  with  no  success  in  the  colonies. 
BREAKWATER  at  PLYMOUTH.  The  first  stone  of  this  stupendous  work  was  laid 
with  great  solemnity,  being  lowered  in  the  presence  of  the  assembled  army  and  narj, 
and  multitudes  of  the  great,  August  12,  1812.  It  was  designed  to  break  the  sw^ 
at  Plymouth,  and  stretches  5100  feet  across  the  Sound  ;  it  is  aboye  thirty  feet  at  the 
top,  and  employed  nearly  two  millions  of  tons  of  stones,  from  one  to  five  tons  each, 
and  cost  one  and  a  half  millions  sterling,  employing  nearly  1000  men  for  scTeral 
years,  and  has  completely  answered  its  purpose. 

BREAST- PLATES.  The  invention  of  them  is  ascribed  to  Jason,  937  b.c.  The  breast- 
plate formerly  covered  the  whole  body,  but  it  at  length  dwindled  in  the  lapse  of  ages 
to  the  diminutive  gorget  of  modern  times«     See  Armour. 

BRECHIN,  SiBGE  or.  This  siege  was  sustained  against  the  army  of  Edward  III. 
1333.  The  battle  of  Brechin  was  fought  in  1452.  The  see  of  Brechin  was  founded 
by  David  I.  in  1150.  One  of  its  bishops,  Alexander  Campbell,  was  made  a  prelate 
when  but  a  boy,  in  1556.  The  bishopric  was  discontinued  immediately  after  the 
revolution  in  1688. 

BREDA.  This  city  was  taken  by  prince  Maurice  of  Nassau  in  1590  ;  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1625  ;  and  again  by  the  Dutch  in  1637.  Our  Charles  II.  resided  here  at  the 
time  of  the  Restoration,  1660.  See  Restoration.  Breda  was  taken  by  the  French 
in  1793,  and  retaken  by  the  Dutch  the  same  year.  The  French  garrison  was  shut 
out  by  the  burgesses  in  1813,  when  the  power  of  France  ceased  here. 

BREECHES^  Among  the  Greeks,  this  garment  indicated  slavery.  It  was  worn  by 
the  Dacians,  Parthians,  and  other  northern  nations  ;  and  in  Italy,  it  is  said,  it  was 
worn  in  the  time  of  Augustus  Cesar.  In  the  reign  of  Honorius,  about  a.d.  394,  the 
braccarit  or  breeches-makers,  were  expelled  from  Rome ;  but  soon  afterwards  the 
use  of  breeches  was  adopted  in  other  countries,  and  at  length  it  became  general. 

BREHONS.  These  were  ancient  judges  in  Ireland.  It  was  enacted  by  the  statute  of 
Kilkenny,  that  no  English  subject  should  submit  to  the  Brehon  law,  40  Edward  III. 
1365.  This  law,  however,  was  not  finally  abolished  or  disused  until  some  time  after. 

BREMEN,  a  venerable  Hanse  town,  and  duchy,  sold  to  George  I.  as  elector  of  Han- 
over, in  1716.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1757  ;  they  were  driven  out  by  the 
Hanoverians  in  1758  ;  and  it  was  again  seized  in  1806.  Bremen  was  annexed  by 
Napoleon  to  the  French  empire  in  1810  ;  but  its  independence  was  restored  in  1813. 
See  Haiue  Towns. 

BRESLAU,  Battle  of,  between  the  Austrians  and  Prussians,  the  latter  under  prince 
Bevem,  who  was  defeated,  but  the  engagement  was  most  bloody  on  both  sides, 
Nov.  ^2,  1757,  when  Breslau  was  taken :  but  was  regained  the  same  year.  This 
city  was  for  some  time  besieged  by  the  French,  and  surrendered  to  them  January  5, 
1807,  and  again  in  1813.     . 

BREST.  It  was  besieged  by  Julius  Caesar,  54  b.c. — ^possessed  by  the  English,  a.d. 
1378 — given  up  to  the  Duke  of  Brittany,  1391.  Lord  Berkeley  and  a  British  fleet 
and  army  were  repulsed  here  with  dreadful  loss  in  1694.  The  msgazine  burnt,  to 
the  value  of  some  millions  of  pounds  sterling,  1744.  The  marine  hospitals,  with 
fifty  galley-slaves,  burnt,  1766.  The  magazine  again  destroyed  by  a  fire,  July  10, 
1 784.  From  this  great  depot  of  the  French  navy,  numerous  squadrons  were  equipped 
against  England  during  the  late  war. 

BRETHREN  in  INIQUITY.  The  designation  arose  from  persons  covenanting 
formerly  to  share  each  other's  fortune,  in  any  expedition  to  invade  a  country,  as  did 
Robert  de  Oily  and  Robert  de  Ivery,  in  William  l.'s  invasion  of  England,  1066. 

BRETIGNY,  Peace  of,  concluded  with  France  at  Bretigny,  and  by  which  England 
retained  Gascony  and  Guienne,  acquired  Saintonge,  Agenois,  Perigord,  limousiD, 
Bigorre,  Angoumois,  and  Rovergne,  and  renounced  her  pretensions  to  Maine,  Anjoa, 
Touraine,  and  Normandy  ;  England  was  also  to  receive  3,000,000  crowns,  and  to  re- 
lease king  John,  who  had  been  long  prisoner  in  London,  May  8,  1360. 

BREVIARIES.  The  breviary  is  a  book  of  mass  and  prayer  used  by  the  church  of 
Rome.  It  was  first  called  the  custos^  and  afterwards  the  breviary ;  and  both  the 
clergy  and  laity  use  it  publicly  and  at  home.     It  was  in  use  among  the  ecdeaias- 


BRE  E  8^  !]  ^^I 

tical  orders  about  a.d.  1080  ;  and  was  reformed  by  the  councils  of  Trent  and  Cologne, 
and  by  Pius  V.,  Urban  VIII.,  and  other  popes.  The  quality  of  type  in  which  the 
breviary  was  first  printed  gave  the  nante  to  the  type  called  brevier  at  the  present  day. 

BREWERS.  The  first  are  traced  to  Egypt.  Brewing  was  known  to  oar  Anglo-Saion 
ancestors. — Tindal,  **  One  William  Murle,  a  rich  manltman  or  bruer,  of  Dunstable, 
had  two  horses  all  traped  with  gold,  1414."< — Slowe.  There  are  about  1700  public 
brewers  in  England,  about  200  in  Scotland,  and  250  in  Ireland :  these  are  exclusively 
of  retail  and  intermediate  brewers,  of  which  there  are  in  England  about  1400 ; 
there  are,  besides,  28,000  victuallers,  &c.  who  brew  their  own  ale.  In  London,  there 
are  about  100  wholesale  brewers,  many  of  them  in  immense  trade.  Various  statutes 
relating  to  brewers  and  the  sale  of  beer  have  been  enacted  from  time  to  time. 
See  Beer,  Porter. 

BRIAR*S  CREEK,  Battle  of,  when  the  revolted  Americans,  under  the  command  of 
their  general,  Ashe,  were  totally  defeated  by  the  English  army,  March  16,  1779. 

BRIBERY.  In  England  an  indictable  offence  to  bribe  persons  in  the  administration  of 
public  justice.  Thomas  de  Weyland^  a  judge,  was  banished  the  land  for  bribery, 
in  1288  ;  he  was  chief  justice  of  the  Common  Pleas.  William  de  Thorpe,  chief 
justice  of  the  King's  Bench,  was  hanged  for  bribery  in  1351.  Another  judge  was 
fined  20,000/.  for  the  like  offence,  1616.  Mr.  Walpole,  secretary-at-war,  was  sent 
to  the  Tower  for  bribery  in  1712.  Lord  Strangford  was  suspended  from  voting  in 
the  Irish  House  of  Lords,  for  soliciting  a  bribe,  January  1784. 

BRIBERY  AT  ELECTIONS,  as  in  the  preceding  cases,  made  an  irdictable  offence. 
Messrs.  Sykes  and  Rumbold  fined  and  imprisoned  for  bribery  at  an  election,  March 
14,  1776.  An  elector  of  Durham  convicted,  July  1803.  Messrs.  Davidson,  Parsons, 
and  Hopping  convicted  and  imprisoned  for  bribery  at  Ilchester,  April  28,  1804. 
Mr.  Swan,  M.P.  for  Penryn,  fined  and  imprisoned,  and  sir  Manasseh  Lopez  sentenced 
to  a  fine  of  10,000/.  and  to  two  years'  imprisonment  for  bribery  at  Grampound,  Oct. 
1819.  Of  late  years  several  elections  have  been  made  void,  and  boroughs  dis- 
franchised, on  account  of  bribery :  among  others,  the  members  for  Liverpool  and 
Dublin  were  unseated,  in  1831,  and  new  elections  proceeded.  The  friends  of  Mr. 
Knight,  candidate  for  Cambridge,  were  convicted  of  bribery,  Feb.  20,  1835  ;  and 
the  elections  for  Ludlow  and  Cambridge  were  made  void  in  1840. 

BRICKS,  for  building,  were  used  in  the  earliest  times  in  Babylon,  Egypt,  Greece,  and 
Rome.  Used  in  England  by  the  Romans,  abont  a.d.  44.  Made  under  the  direction 
of  Alfred  the  Great,  about  886. — Saxon  Chron.  The  size  regulated  by  order  of  Charles 
L  1625.  Taxed,  1784.  The  number  of  bricks  which  paid  duty  in  England  in  1820 
was  949,000,000  ;  in  1830,  the  number  exceeded  1,100,000,000 ;  and  in  1840  it 
amounted  to  14,000,000,000.     See  Building. 

BRIDAL  CEREMONIES..  Among  the  more  rational  ceremonies  observed  by  the 
ancients,  was  the  practice  of  conducting  the  bride  to  the  house  of  her  spouse  on  a 
chariot,  which  was  afterwards  burned  ;  it  originated  with  the  Thebans,  and  was 
intended  as  a  symbol  of  the  bride's  future  dependence  on  her  husband,  from  whom 
■there  was  no  chariot  to  convey  her  back  to  her  parents ;  it  is  first  mentioned  880  B.C. 

BRIDEWELL.  Originally  the  name  of  a  royal  palace  of  king  John,  near  Fleet-ditch, 
London  ;  it  was  built  anew  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1522,  and  was  given  to  the  city  by 
Edward  YI.  in  1553.  There  are  several  prisons  of  this  name  throughout  the 
kingdom  ;  among  others  is  a  new  house  of  correction  for  Westminster  so  called, 
and  for  which  an  act  was  passed  in  1826.  There  is  a  new  Bridewell  in  Southwark, 
as  also  various  houses  of  correction.  The  new  Bridewell  prison  was  erected  in  1829, 
and  that  of  Tothill-fields  was  rebuilt  in  1831.  The  first  London  Bridewell  was  in  a 
locality  near  to  Bride's  well ;  but  this  is  no  reason,  as  is  justly  observed,  why  similar 
prisons,  not  in  a  similar  locality,  should  have  this  name. 

BRIDGES.  So  early  and  general,  and  the  expedients  for  their  construction  so  various, 
their  origin  cannot  be  traced ;  they  were  first  of  wood.  The  ancient  bridges  in  China 
are  of  great  magnitude,  and  were  built  of  stone.  Abydos  is  famous  for  the  bridge  of 
boats  which  Xerxes  built  across  the  Hellespont.  Trajan's  magnificent  stone  bridge 
over  the  Danube,  4770  feet  in  length,  was  built  in  a.d.  103.  The  Devil's  Bridge  in 
the  canton  of  Uri,  so  called  from  its  frightful  situation,  was  built  resting  on  two  high 
rocks,  so  that  it  could  scarcely  be  conceived  how  it  was  erected,  and  many  fabulous 
stories  were  invented  to  account  for  It.    At  Schaffliausen  an  extraordinary  bridge 


BRI  C  86  ]  BRI 

was  built  over  the  Rhine,  which  is  there  400  feet  wide :  there  was  a  pier  in  the 
middle  of  the  river,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  bridge  rested  upon  it :  a  man  of 
the  lightest  weight  felt  the  bridge  totter  under  him,  yet  waggons  heavily  laden  passed 
over  without  danger.    This  bridge  was  destroyed  by  the  French  in  1799. 

BRIDGES  IN  ENGLAND.  The  ancient  bridges  in  England  were  of  wood,  and  were 
fortified  with  planks  and  merlined  ;  the  first  bridge  of  stone  was  built  at  Bow,  near 
Stratford,  a.d.  1087.  Westminster  bridge,  then  the  finest  erected  in  these  realms,  and 
not  surpassed  by  any  in  the  world,  except  in  China,  was  completed  in  twelve  years, 
1750.  The  first  iron  bridge,  on  a  large  scale,  was  erected  over  the  Severn,  in 
Shropshire,  1779.  The  finest  chain  suspension  bridge  is  that  of  the  Menai  Strait, 
completed  in  1825.  See  Arches,  Blachfriars,  London^  Menai  Strait,  and  other  bridges. 

BRIDGETINS,  an  order  of  nuns,  whose  founder  was  St.  Bridget.  Several  commu- 
nities of  Bridgetins  obtained  in  Catholic  countries  in  a.d.  1344,  et  seq,  Henry  V. 
of  England  built  the  English  order  a  nunnery  near  Richmond  in  1415. 

BRID6EWATER,  incorporated  by  king  John,  and  made  a  distinct  county  by  Henry 
VII.  In  the  wars  between  Charles  I.  and  the  parliament,  the  forces  of  the  latter 
reduced  great  part  of  the  town  to  ashes.  The  canal,  the  first  great  work  of  the  kind 
in  England,  was  begun  by  the  duke  of  Bridgewater,  styled  the  father  of  canal 
navigation  in  this  country,  in  1758 :  Mr.  Brindley  was  the  architect.  The  canal 
commences  at  Worsley,  seven  miles  from  Manchester ;  and  at  Barton-bridge  is  an 
aqueduct  which,  for  upwards  of  200  yards,  conveys  the  canal  across  the  navigable 
river  Irwell ;  its  length  is  twenty-nine  miles. 

BRIDLE.  That  of  a  horse  is  of  the  highest  antiquity.  Pausanias  attributes  the 
invention  of  it  to  Minerva.    The  snaffle,  fillet,  rings,  &c.  are  all  modem. 

BRIEF.  A  written  instrument  in  the  Catholic  church,  of  early  but  uncertain  date. 
Briefs  are  the  letters  of  the  pope  despatched  to  princes  and  odiers  on  public  affairs, 
and  are  usually  written  short,  and  hence  the  name,  and  are  without  preface  or 
preamble,  and  on  paper ;  in  which  particulars  they  are  distinguished  from  bulls. 
The  latter  are  ample,  and  always  written  on  parchment ;  a  brief  is  sealed  with  red 
wax,  the  seal  of  the  fisherman,  or  St.  Peter  in  a  boat,  and  always  in  the  presence  of 
the  pope ;  they  are  now  fuller  than  formerly,  and  used  for  graces  and  dispensations,  as 
well  as  business. — Pardon, 

BRIENNE,  Battle  of,  between  the  allied  armies  of  Russia  and  Prussia,  and  the 
French,  fought  on  the  1st,  and  resumed  on  the  2d  February,  1814.  The  allies  were 
defeated  with  great  loss ;  this  was  one  of  the  last  battles  in  which  the  French  achieved 
victory,  previously  to  the  fall  of  Napoleon. 

BRIGHTON.  Now  a  place  of  most  fashionable  resort,  though  formerly  inhabited  chiefly 
by  fishermen.  From  here  Charles  II.  embarked  for.  France,  after  the  disastrous 
battle  of  Worcester,  in  1651.  The  prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  George  IV.,  built  a 
fanciful  yet  magnificent  marine  palace  at  Brighton,  formerly  known  as  the  Pavilion, 
1784.  It  was  afterwards  greatly  enlarged,  and  is  still  distinguished  as  a  royal  palace. 
The  Block-house  was  swept  away,  March  26,  1786.  Part  of  the  cliff  fell,  doing 
considerable  damage,  Nov.  16,  1807. 

BRISTOL.  This  city,  one  of  the  principal  in  England,  was  built  by  Brennus,  a 
prince  of  the  Britons,  380  b.c.  It  was  granted  a  charter  and  became  a  distinct 
county  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  Taken  by  the  earl  of  Gloucester,  in  his  defence 
of  his  sister  Maude,  the  empress,  against  king  Stephen,  1138.  St.  Mary's  church 
was  built  1292.  A  new  charter  was  obtained  in  1581.  Bristol  was  attacked  with 
great  fury  by  the  forces  of  Cromwell,  1655.  An  act  was  passed  for  a  new  exchange 
in  1723,  but  it  was  not  erected  until  1741.  The  bridge  was  built  by  act.  May  1760. 
The  memorable  attempt  to  set  the  shipping  on  fire  was  made  Jan.  22, 1777.  See 
rhext  article. 

BRISTOL  RIOTS.  Riot  at  Bristol  on  account  of  a  toll,  when  the  troops  fired  on  the 
populace,  and  many  were  wounded,  Oct.  25,  1793.  Riot  on  the  entrance  of  sir 
Charles  Wetherell,  the  recorder,  into  the  city,  attended  by  a  large  police  and  special 
force,  to  open  the  sessions.  He  being  politically  obnoxious  to  the  lower  order  of  the 
citizens,  a  riot  ensued,  which  was  of  several  days'  continuance,  and  which  did  not 
terminate  until  the  mansion-house,  the  bishop's  palace,  several  merchants'  stores, 
some  of  the  prisons  (the  inmates  liberated),  and  nearly  100  houses  were  burned,  and 


BRI 


[87] 


BKI 


many  lives  lost,  Oct  29, 1831.  Trial  of  the  rioters,  Jan.  2, 1832 ;  four  were  executed, 
and  twenty-two  transported.  Suicide  of  col.  Brereton  daring  his  trial  by  court- 
martial,  Jan.  9,  same  year. 

BRISTOL,  See  of,  one  of  the  six  bishoprics  erected  by  Henry  VIII.  out  of  the 
spoils  of  the  monasteries  and  religious  houses  which  that  monarch  had  dissolved.  The 
cathedral  was  the  church  of  the  abbey  of  St  Austin,  founded  here  by  Robert  Fits- 
Harding,  son  to  a  king  of  Denmark,  and  a  citizen  of  Bristol,  a.d.  1148.  It  is 
valued  in  the  king's  books  at  338/.  8s.  4d,  Paul  Bushe,  provincial  of  the  Bons-hommes, 
was  the  first  bishop,  in  1542 — deprived  for  being  married,  1554.  The  see  of  Bristol 
was  united  by  an  order  in  council  with  that  of  Gloucester,  in  1836,  and  they  now 
form  one  see  under  the  name  of  Bristol  and  Gloucester. 

BRITAIN.  The  earliest  records  of  the  history  of  this  island  are  the  manuscripts  and 
poetry  of  the  Cambrians.  The  Celts  were  the  ancestors  of  the  Britons  and  modem 
Welsh,  and  were  the  first  inhabitants  of  Britain.  Britain,  including  England, 
Scotland,  and  Wales,  was  anciently  called  Albion,  the  name  of  Britain  being  applied 
to  all  the  islands  collectively — Albion  to  only  one. — Pliny,  The  Romans  first 
invaded  Britain  under  Julius  Cesar,  55  B.C.,  but  they  made  no  conquests.  The 
emperor  Claudius,  and  his  generals,  Plautius,  Vespasian,  and  Titus,  subdued  several 
provinces  after  thirty  pitched  battles  with  the  natives,  a.d.  43  and  44.  The  conquest 
was  completed  by  Agricola,  in  the  reigpi  of  Domitian,  a.d.  85. 


First  invasion  of  Britain  by  the  Romans, 

under  Julius  Caesar  b.c.  6ft 

Cymbeline,  king  of  Britain     .  .4 

Expedition  of  Claudius  into  Britain  .  a.i>.  40 
London  founded  by  the  Romans  .  .  49 
Caractacus  carried  in  chains  to  Rome  .  ftl 
The    Romans    defeated    by  Boadioea; 

70,000  slain,  and  London  burnt    .        .    61 
A  vast  army  of  Britons  is  defeated  by 

Suetonius,  and  80,000  slain  .    .    61 

Reign  of  Lucius,  the  first  Christian  king 

of  Britain,  and  in  the  world  .  179 

Severus  keeps  his  court  at  York,  then 
called  Eboracum         ....  207 

He  dies  at  York 211 

Carausius,  a  tyrant,  usurps  the  throne  of 

Britain  286 

He  is  killed  by  Alectus,  who  continues  the 

usuriMition 293 

Constantius  recovers  Britain  by  the  de- 
feat of  Alectus 296 


Constantitts,  emperor  of  Rome,  dies  at 

York A.D.  306 

The  Roman  forces  are  withdrawn  from 

Britoin  

The  Saxons  and  Angles  are  called  in  to 

aid  the  natives  against  their  northern 

neighbours  the  Picts  and  Soots 
Having  expelled  these,  the  Anglo-Saxons 

attack  the  natives  themselves,  driving 

them  into  Wales 
Many  of  the  natives  settle  In  Armorica, 

since  called  Brittany 
The  Saxon  Heptarchy ;  Britain  divided 

into  seven  kingdoms  .... 
Reign  of  the  renowned  Arthur  .  .  . 
Arrival  of  St.  Augustin  (or  Austin),  and 

esUbllshraent  of  Christianity       .         .  fi9G 
Cadwallader,  last  king  of  the  Britons,  be- 
gan his  reign  67H 

The  Saxon  Heptarchy  ends  .  828 

See  England, 


426 


4ft0 


4U 

4ft7 

457 
fi06 


KINGS  OF  BRITAIN. 


FROM  JULriTS  C.SSAR  TO    CONSTANTINK. 

[In  the  following  list,  where  the  dates  are  not 
mentioned,  it  has  been  found  impossible  to 
reconcile  the  conflicting  authorities  for 
them  ;  and  in  the  same  way  the  orthogra- 
phy of  names  is  so  various,  that  a  like  dif- 
ficulty occurs  in  their  choice.] 

BSFORS  CHaiST. 

*  Cassibelan. 

*■  Theomantius. 

4  Cymbeline. 

^  Guiderius. 

AFTSa  CHRIST. 

45.  Arviragus. 
73.  Marius. 

125.  Coilus  L 

179.  St.  Lucius. 

[The  first  christened  king  of  Britain, 
and  in  the  world.  Dying  without  chil- 
dren, he  left  the  Roman  emperors  his 
heirs.] 

207  Severus,   emperor  of    Rome.     Died  at 
York  In  211. 


296. 


{ 


*  *^^Ba88ianua 

*  Asclepiodoms,  duke  of  Cornwall. 

*  Coilus  IL 

286.  Carausius,  tyrant  of  Britain. 
293.  Alectus,  sent  from  Rome  by  the  senate. 
St.  Helena. 

Constantius,  emperor  of  Rome. 
310.  Constantine,  son  of  the  two  former,  who 
added  Britain  to  the  Roman  empire,  and 
was   the    first   Christian    emperor   of 
Rome,  in  306. 

FROM  THB  naPARTURK  OF  TMX  ROMANS  TO  TUB 
SBTTLIirO  OF  THB  SAXONS. 

329.  Octavius,  duke  of  Cornwall.^ 

383.  Maximinianus. 

391.  Gratian,  a  Briton. 

431.  Constantine. 

44a  Constantius. 

446.  Yortigem,  earl  of  the  Gevlses,  who  called 

in  the  Saxons. 
464.  Vortimer. 
471.  Yortigem,  again. 
481.  Aurelius  Ambrosius. 


BRI 


[88] 


BRI 


BRITAIN,  eonHnued. 

500.  Uther  PendragoB. 

fi06.  Arthur. 

542.  Constantine  IL  oonam  to  Arthur. 

546.  Conan. 

57&  Vortipor. 

580  Malgo  CoranuB. 

586.  GaretlcuB. 

613L  Cadwao  YI.  prince  of  North  Walea. 

615.  Cadwallan. 

678.  Cadwallader,  after  whoee  death  the 
Bazons  conquered  all  the  country  east 
of  the  Sevexn.  and  diyided  it  The  Bri- 
tish princes  lost  the  name  of  Slings  of 
Britain,  and  were  called  Princes  of 
Wales. 

Kxitos  or  Kxirr. 
457.  Hengist. 
488.  Eske,  or  Osea. 
512.  Octa,  or  Otha. 
562.  Irmerick. 
592.  St  Ethelbert. 
617.  Edbald. 
641.  Ercombert. 
665.  Egbert 
674.  Lotharius. 
686.  Edrick. 

693.  Wightred. 
726.  Egbert  U. 
749.  Ethelbert  U. 
760.  Alricus. 

794.  Ethelbert  m. 

797*  Guthred.' 

805-  Baldred,  who,  in  the  year  627>  lost  both 

his  life  and  dominions  to  Egbert,  king 

of  the  West  Saxons. 

KINGS  OF  THS  WK8T  SAXONS. 

519.  Cerdicus. 
535.  Koiricuf . 
562.  Celingus, 
592.  Celricus. 
598.  Ceowulf. 
612.  KingiL 
643.  Kenewalchin. 

674.  Sigebertus. 

675.  Escwin. 
677*  Centwin. 
686.  St  Cedwalla. 

690.  Ina,  who  first  gave  Peter's  pence  to  the 

church  of  Rome. 
725.  Ethelard. 
739.  Cuthbert. 

755.  Sigebertn. 

756.  Kinulphus. 
787.  Bithrick. 

800.  Egbert,  of  whom  more  among  the  Saxon 
monarchs. 

KIVOS  OF  THE   SAflT  SAXONS. 

527.  Erchenwyn. 

587.  Sledda. 
C95.  St  Sebert. 

617.  Seward  and  Sigebert 

623.  Sigebert  the  Little. 

648.  Sigebert  III. 

661.  Swithelme. 

664.  Sighere  and  St.  Sibba. 

694.  Sighred  and  Ceofride. 
701.  Offa. 

709.  Selred. 


746.  Suithred. 

799.  Sigered,  subdued  by  Egbert. 

KINGS  OF  MKRCIA. 

542.  Cridda. 

593.  Wibba. 

614.  Cheorl. 

626.  Penda. 

656.  Peada. 

659.  Wulfhere. 

675.  Ethelred,  reigned  thirty  years,  and  then 

became  a  monk. 
704.  Kenrod,  became  a  monk. 
709.  Cbelred. 
71&  Ethelbald. 
758.  Offa. 

796.  Egfrido. 

797.  Kenwolfe. 

819.  St.  Kenelm,  a  martyr. 

820.  Ceolwolf. 

821.  Bemulf. 
824.  Ludican. 
826.  Withlafe. 
839.  Berthulf. 

852.  Burdred,  after  whose  death  the  kingdom 
suffered  much  by  the  battle  of  Bnrford, 
and  it  was  subdued  by  Egbert 

KINGS  OF  TBa  SA8T  ANOLX8. 

575.  Uffa. 
582.  Titullus. 
593.  Redwald. 
624.  Erpenwald. 
636.  St  Sigebert 
644.  Egric  and  Anna. 
654.  Ethelbert 
656.  Edelwald. 
664.  Adwulf. 
683.  Alswald. 
714.  Beoma. 
749.  Ethelbert 
761.  Ethelred. 
79a  Ethelbert 

KINGS  OF  SOUTH  SAXONS. 

491.  Ella. 
514.  Cissa. 
590.  Cheveline. 

592.  Ceolwic. 
597'  Ceolupb. 

611.  Cinegsil  and  Qnlcelm. 

643.  Canowalch. 

649.  Adelwach. 

691.  Borthun  and  Authun,  brothers,  both 
Jointly  reigning,  and  both  vanquished 
by  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons. 

KINGS  OF  NORTHUMBSBLAim. 

547.  Ella,  or  Ida. 
559.  Adda. 
566.  Clappea. 

572.  Theodwald. 

573.  Prldulph. 
579.  Theodoric. 
586.  Athelric. 

593.  Athelfrid. 
624.  Edwin,  killed* 

633.  Osric  L 

634.  Oswald,  killed. 
643.  Oswy. 

653.  Etfaelward. 
670.  Egfride. 


BRI 


C89] 


BRO 


BRITAIN,  continued, 
685.  StAliride. 
705.  Oared. 
716.  Kenred. 
718.  Osric  n. 
730.  Ceolxmlph. 
737.  Egbert,  became  a  monk. 

758.  Oflwnlph. 

759.  Ediwald. 
765.  Alored. 


774.  BCheldnd. 

770>  AlBwald. 

788.  Ovedn. 

790.  Etheldred  restored. 

796.  Osbald. 

797.  Ardulph. 
807.  Alfwald  II. 
810.  Andred. 


The  Saxons,  thongh  they  were  divided  into  seven  different  kingdoms,  yet  were  for 
the  most  part  subject  to  one  alone,  who  was  entitled  Res  geniis  Anglorumf  or 
King  of  the  English  nation ;  those  which  were  stronger  than  Uie  rest  giving  the  law 
to  them  in  their  several  tarns,  till,  in  the  end,  they  all  became  incorporated  in  the 
empire  of  the  West  Saxons.    The  following  also  were  kings  daring  the  Heptarchy  : — 


KINGS  {or  OCTARCBS)  OV  THS  KHOUSH  SAXONS. 

455.  Hengist,  king  of  Kent. 
491.  Ella,  king  of  the  South  Saxons. 
5ia  Cerdic,  king  of  the  West  Saxons. 
535.  Henric,  ditto. 

561.  Celingns,  ditto. 

562.  St.  Ethelbert,  ditto  and  Kent. 
616.  Redwald,  king  of  East  Angles. 
617>  Edwin,  king  of  Northumberland. 
634.  Oswald,  ditto,  slain. 

643.  Oswy.  ditto. 

659.  Wolfhere,  king  of  Mercia. 


675.  Ethelred,kIngofMeroia,becam«aiMnik. 

704.  Kenred,  king  of  Merola. 

709.  Chelxtid,  ditto,  killed  in  battle. 

716.  Etbelbald,  ditto,  slain. 

758.  Offa,  ditto. 

794.  Egfride,  ditto. 

796.  Kenwolf,  ditto. 

800.  Egbert,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  the  first 
and  absolute  monarch  of  the  whole 
Heptarchy,  who  vanquished  all  or  most 
of  the  Saxon  kings,  and  added  their 
dominions  to  his  own. 


That  Britain  formerly  joined  the  Continent,  has  been  inferred  from  the  similar  cliffs 
of  the  opposite  coasts  of  the  English  Channel,  and  from  the  constant  encroachments 
of  the  sea  in  still  widening  the  channel.  For  instance,  a  large  part  of  the  cliffs  of 
Dover  fell,  estimated  at  six  acres,  Nov.  27,  1810. — PhUlipJt's  Annals, 

BRITISH  INSTITUTION,  Pall  Mall,  foanded  in  1805,  and  opened    Jan.  18, 
1806,  on  a  plan  formed  by  sir  Thomas  Bernard,  for  the  encoaragement  of  British 
artists.    The  gallery  that  was  purchased  for  this  institution  was  erected  by  Alder- 
man Boydell,  to  exhibit  the  paintings  that  had  been  executed  for  his  edition  of 
'  Shakspeare. — Leigh, 

BRITISH  MUSEUM.  The  origin  of  this  great  national  institution  was  the  grant  by 
parliament  of  20,000/.  to  the  daoghters  of  sir  Hans  Sloane,  in  payment  for  his  fine 
library,  and  vast  collection  of  the  productions  of  natare  and  art,  which  had  cost  him 
50,000/.  The  library  contained  50,000  volumes  and  valuable  MSS.,  and  69,352 
articles  of  verth  were  enumerated  in  the  catalogue  of  cariosities.  The  act  was  passed 
April  5,  1753 ;  and  in  the  same  year  Montagu-house  was  obtained  by  government 
as  a  place  for  the  reception  of  these  treasures.  The  museum  has  since  been  gradu- 
ally increased  to  an  immense  extent  by  gifts,  bequests*  the  purchase  of  every  species 
of  curiosity,  MSS.,  sculpture  and  work  of  art,  and  by  the  transference  to  its  rooms 
of  the  Cottonian,  Harleian,  and  other  libraries,  the  Elgin  marbles,  &c.  George  IV. 
presented  to  the  museum  the  library  collected  at  Buckingham-house  by  George  III. 
See  Cottonian  Library ,  and  other  collections, 

BRIXHAM.  The  landing  here  of  William  prince  of  Orange,  afterwards  William  III. 
of  England,  to  effect  the  memorable  revolution,  called  by  Voltaire,  the  '*  era  of 
English  liberty,"  on  the  anniversary  of  the  Gunpowder  treason,  Nov.  5, 1688. 

BROAD,  OR  GREAT  SEAL  of  ENGLAND,  first  made  and  affixed  to  patents  and 
other  grants  of  the  crown,  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  a.d.  1048. — Baker* s  Chron, 
The  great  seal  was  altered  in  1603  and  1714.  It  was  stolen  from  the  house  of  the 
lord  chancellor  Tburlow  by  some  thieves  who  had  broken  into  it,  March  24,  1784. 
A  new  one  was  brought  into  use  upon  the  union  of  Ireland  with  Great  Britain, 
Jan.  1,  1801. 

BROCADE.  A  silken  stuff  variegated  with  gold  or  silver,  and  raised  and  enriched 
with  flowers  and  various  sorts  of  figures,  originally  made  by  the  Chinese. — Johnson. 
The  trade  in  this  article  was  carried  on  by  the  Venetians. — Anderson.  Its  manu- 
fiu;ture  was  established  with  great  success  at  Lyons,  in  1757. 


BRo C  9Q  ] 55^^ 

BROCOLI :  an  Italian  plant. — Pardon.  The  white  and  purple,  both  of  which  are 
varieties  of  the  cauliflower,  were  brought  to  England  from  the  Isle  of  Cyprus,  in 
the  seventeenth  century. — Anderson.  About  1603. — Burns.  The  cultivation  of 
this  vegetable  was  greatly  improved  in  the  gardens  of  England  and  came  into  great 
abundance  about  1680. — Anderson. 

BROKERS.  Those  both  of  money  and  merchandise  were  known  early  in  England. 
See  Appraisers.  Their  dealings  were  regulated  by  law,  and  it  was  enacted  that 
they  should  be  licensed  before  transacting  business,  8  and  9  WiUiam  III.  1695-6. 
The  dealings  of  stock -brokers  were  regulated  by  act  6  George  1. 17l-9>  and  10  George 
II.  1736. — Statutes  at  large. — ^See  Pawnbrokers. 

BRONZE,  known  to  the  ancients,  some  of  whose  statues,  vessels,  and  various  other 
articles,  made  of  bronze,  are  in  the  British  Museum.  The  equestrian  statue  of  Louis 
XIV.,  1699,  in  the  Place  Venddme  at  Paris,  (demolished  Aug.  lOth,  1792,)  was  the 
most  colossal  ever  made ;  it  contained  60,000  lbs.  weight  of  bronze.  Bronze  is  two 
parts  brass  and  one  copper^  and  the  Greeks  added  one  fifteenth  of  lead  and  silver. 

BROOM,  THE  Spanish.  The  shrub  so  called,  Spartiumjunceum,  was  brought  from  the 
south  of  Europe,  before  1548.  The  Butcher's  Broom  was  brought  from  Hungary,  1596. 

BROTHELS,  were  formerly  allowed  in  London,  and  considered  a  necessary  evil,  under 
the  regidation  of  a  good  police.  They  were  all  situated  on  the  Bankside,  Southwark, 
and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  of  Winchester  ;  and  they  were  visited 
weekly  by  the  sheriff's  officers,  the  severest  penalties  being  enacted  against  keeping 
infected  or  married  women,  8  Henry  II.  11S2. --^Survey  of  l^ondon.  Brothels  tole- 
rated in  France,  1280.  Pope  Sixtus  lY.  licensed  one  at  Rome,  and  the  prostitutes 
paid  him  a  weekly  tax,  which  amounted  to  20,000  ducats  a  year,  1471. — /to/.  Chron. 

BROWNISTS,  a  sect  founded  by  a  schoolmaster  in  Southwark,  named  Robert 
Brown,  about  1615.  It  condemned  all  ceremonies  and  ecclesiastical  distinctions,  and 
affirmed  that  there  was  an  admixture  of  corruptions  in  aU  other  communions.  But 
the  founder  subsequently  recanted  his  doctrines  for  a  benefice  in  the  church  of 
England. — Collinses  Eccles,  Hist. 

BRUCE'S  TRAVELS,  undertaken  to  discover  the  source  of  the  Nile.  •  The  illustrious 
Bruce,  the  '*  Abyssinian  Traveller,*'  set  out  in  June  1768,  and  proceeding  first  to 
Cairo,  he  navigated  the  Nile  to  Syene,  thence  crossed  the  desert  to  the  Red  Sea,  and, 
arriving  at  Jidda,  passed  some  months  in  Arabia  Felix,  and  after  various  detentions, 
reached  Gondar,  &e  capital  of  Abyssinia,  in  Feb.  1770.  On  Nov.  14th,  1770,  he 
obtained  the  great  object  of  his  wishes — a  sight  of  the  sources  of  the  Nile.  Bruce 
returned  to  England  in  1773,  and  died  in  1794. 

BRUNSWICK,  House  ov.  This  house  owes  its  origin  to  Azo,  of  the  family  of 
Este.  Azo  died  in  1055,  and  left,  by  his  wife  Cunegonde  (the  heiress  of  Guelph  III., 
duke  of  Bavaria),  a  son  who  was  Guelph  lY.,  the  great-grandfather  of  Henry  the 
Lion.  This  last  married  Maude,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  England,  and  is  always 
looked  upon  as  being  the  founder  of  the  Brunswick  family.  The  dominions  of 
Henry  the  Lion  were  the  most  extensive  of  any  prince  of  his  time  ;  but  having 
refused  to  assist  the  emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa  in  a  war  against  pope  Alexander 
III.,  he  drew  the  emperor's  resentment  on  him,  and  in  the  diet  of  Wurtzburg,  in 
1 1 79,  he  was  proscribed.  The  duchy  of  Bavaria  was  given  to  Otho,  from  whom  is 
descended  the  family  of  Bavaria  ;  the  duchy  of  Saxony,  to  Bernard  Ascanius,  founder 
of  the  house  of  Anhalt ;  and  his  other  territories  to  different  persons.  On  this,  he 
retired  to  England  ;  but  on  Henry's  intercession,  Brunswick  and  Lunenburg  were 
restored  to  him.  The  house  of  Brunswick  has  divided  into  several  branches.  The 
present  duke  of  Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel  is  sprung  from  the  eldest ;  the  duke  of 
Brunswick-Zell  was  from  the  second ;  and  from  this  last  sprang  the  royal  family  of 
England.  A  revolution  took  place  at  Brunswick,  when  the  ducal  palace  was 
burnt,  and  the  reigning  prince  obliged  to  retire  and  seek  shelter  in  England, 
Sept.  8,  1830. 

BRUNSWICK-CLUBS,  first  formed  in  England  at  a  meeting  held  at  Maidstone,  in 
Sept.  1828.  The  first  general  meeting  for  the  formation  of  Brunswick  dubs  in 
Ireland  was  held  at  the  Rotunda  in  Dublin,  Nov.  4,  same  year. 

BRUSSELS,  founded  by  St.  Gery  of  Cambray,  in  the  seventh  century.  The 'memor- 
able bombardment  of  this  city  by  Marshal  Yilleroy,  when  14  churches  and  4000 
houses  were  destroyed,  1695.    Taken  by  the  French,  1746 — again,  by  Dumoorier, 


BUB Q  91  ] BUI 

1792.  The  rerolntion  of  1830  commenoed  here,  Aug.  25. — See  Belgium,  This 
town  is  celebrated  for  its  fine  lace,  caadets,  and  tapestrj.  There  is  here  a  noble 
bmlding,  called  the  H6tel  de  Ville,  whose  turret  is  364  feet  in  height ;  and  on  its  top 
is  a  copper  figure  of  St.  Michael,  17  feet  high,  which  turns  with  Uie  wind.  Riot  in 
Brussels,  in  which  the  costly  furniture  of  16  principal  houses  was  demolished,  in 
consequence  of  a  display  of  attachment  to  the  house  of  Orange  which  had  been 
made  by  the  owners,  6th  Aprils  1834. 

SUBBLE  COMPANIES,  in  commerce,  a  name  given  to  projects  for  raising  money 
upon  false  and  imaginary  grounds,  much  practised,  often  with  disastrous  conse- 
quences, in  France  and  England,  in  1719  and  1721.  Many  such  projects  were 
formed  in  England  and  Ireland  in  1825.     See  Companies,  and  Law's  Bubble, 

BUCCANEERS.  These  piratical  adventurers,  chiefly  French,  English,  and  Dutch,  com- 
menced  their  depredations  on  the  Spaniards  of  America,  soon  after  the  latter  had 
taken  possession  of  that  continent  and  the  West  Indies.  The  principal  commanders 
of  the  first  expeditions  were,  Montbar,  Lolonois,  fiasco,  and  Morgan,  who  murdered 
thousands,  and  plundered  millions.  The  expedition  of  Van  Horn,  of  Ostend,  was 
xmdertaken  in  1603  ;  that  of  Gramont,  in  1685  ;  and  that  of  Pointis,  in  1697. 

BUCHANITES.  Hundreds  of  deluded  feinatics.  followers  of  Margaret  finchan,  who 
promised  to  conduct  them  to  the  New  Jerusalem,  appeared  in  Scotland  about  1784. 

BUCHAREST,  Treaty  of.  The  preliminaries  of  peace  ratified  at  this  place  between 
Russia  and  Turkey,  it  being  stipulated  that  the  Pruth  should  be  the  frontier  limit  of 
those  empires,  signed  May  28,  1812.  The  subsequent  war  between  those  powers 
altered  many  of  the  provisions  of  this  treaty. 

BUCKINGHAM  PALACE,  London.  The  original  edifice,  called  Buckingham-house, 
was  built  on  the  site  known  as  Mulberry-gardens,  by  John  Sheffield,  duke  of  Buck- 
ingham, in  1703.  In  1761,  it  became  the  property  of  the  late  queen  Charlotte,  who 
made  it  her  town  residence ;  and  here  all  her  children,  with  the  exception  of  the 
eldest,  were  born.  Here  likewise  several  royal  marriages  have  taken  place :  the  late 
duke  of  York  and  princess  Frederica  of  Prussia,  in  1791 ;  duke  of  Gloucester  and 
princess  Mary,  1816;  prince  of  Hesse-Homburg  and  princess  Elisabeth,  1818 ;  and  the 
duke  of  Cambridge  and  princess  of  Hesse,  in  the  same  year.  Bnckingham>honse  was 
pulled  down  in  1825,  and  the  new  palace  commenced  on  its  site ;  and  after  an  expen- 
diture which  must  have  approached  a  million  sterling,  it  was  completed,  and  was 
taken  possession  of  by  queen  Victoria,  July  13,  1837. 

BUCKLERS.  Those  used  in  single  combat  were  invented  by  Proetns  and  Acrisins,  of 
Argos,  about  1370  B.C.  When  Lucius  Papirius  defeated  the  Samnites,  he  took  from 
them  their  bucklers,  which  were  of  gold  and  silver,  309  B.C.    See  article  Armour, 

BUCKLES.  The  wearing  of  buckles  commenced  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  ;  but  people 
of  inferior  rank,  and  such  as  affected  plainness  in  their  garb,  wore  strings  in  their 
shoes  some  years  after  that  period :  these  last  were,  however,  ridiculed  for  their  sin- 
gularity in  using  them. 

BUDA ;  once  called  the  Key  of  Christendom.  It  was  taken  by  Solyman  II.  at  the 
memorable  battle  of  Mobatz,  when  the  Hungarian  king,  Louis,  was  killed,  and 
200,000  of  his  subjects  were  carried  away  captives,  1526.  Buda  was  sacked  a  second 
time,  when  the  inhabitants  were  put  to  the  sword,  and  Hungary  was  annexed  to  the 
Ottoman  empire,  1540.  Re-taken  by  the  Imperialists,  and  the  Mahometans  delivered 
up  to  the  fury  of  the  soldiers,  1686.     See  Hungary. 

BUENOS  AYRES.  The  capital  was  founded  by  Pedro  Mendoza,  in  1535.  It  was  taken 
by  the  British  under  sir  Home  Popham,  June  21,  1806;  and  was  re-taken,  after  an 
attack  of  three  days,  Aug.  12,  the  same  year.  The  British  suffered  a  great  repulse 
here  under  general  Whitelocke,  who  was  disgraced,  July  6,  1807.  Declaration  of 
independence  of  this  province,  July  19,  1816  :  .the  treaty  was  signed  in  Feb.  1822. 

BUFFOONS.  These  were  originally  mountebanks  in  the  Roman  theatres.  The  shows 
of  the  buffoons  were  discouraged  by  Domitian,  and  were  finally  abolished  by  Trajan, 
A.D.  98.  Our  ancient  kings  had  jesters^  who  are  described  as  being,  at  first,  practi- 
tioners of  indecent  raillery  and  antic  postures;  they  were  employed  under  the  Tudors. 
Some  writers  state  that  James  I.  converted  the  jesters  into  poet-laureates ;  but  poet- 
laureates  existed  long  before  ;  Selden  traces  the  latter  to  1251. —  War  ton. 

BUILDING.    The  first  structures  were  of  wood  and  clay,  then  of  rough  stone,  and  in 


BUI  [  92  ]  BUO 

the  end  the  art  advanced  to  polished  marble.  Building  with  stone  was  early  among 
the  Tynans ;  and  as  ornaments  and  taste  arose,  erery  nation  parsned  a  different 
system.  The  art  of  building  with  stone  may  be  referred  in  England  to  Benedict,  or 
Benet,  a  monk,  about  a.d.  670.  The  first  bridge  of  this  material  in  England  was 
at  Bow,  in  1 087.  In  Ireland,  a  castle  was  built  of  stone  at  Tuam  by  the  king  of  Con- 
naught,  in  1161 ;  and  it  was  "  so  new  and  uncommon  as  to  be  called  the  Wonderful 
Castle.**  Building  with  brick  was  introduced  by  the  Romans  into  their  provinces. 
Alfred  encouraged  it  in  England,  in  886.  Brick-building  was  generally  introduced  by 
the  earl  of  Arundel,  about  1598,  London  being  then  almost  built  of  wood.  The 
increase  of  building  in  London  was  prohibited  within  three  miles  of  the  city -gates  by 
Elizabeth,  who  ordered  that  one  family  only  should  dwell  in  one  house,  1580.  The 
buildings  from  High  Holbom,  north  and  south,  and  Great  Queen-street  (built  on  the 
ground  where  stood  the  Elms,  or  the  ancient  Tyburn,  in  Edward  III.'s  reign),  were 
erected  between  1607  and  1631. — Strype, 

BUILDING  ACTS.  The  early  and  principal  statutes  relating  to  building  were  passed, 
viz.,  5,  23,  and  35,  reign  of  Elizabeth ;  19  and  22  of  Charles  II. ;  and  6  and  7  of 
Anne.  The  principal  statutes  since  were,  33  George  II.  and  6  George  III.,  followed 
by  enactments  in  1770,  1772,  and  1783.    The  recent  acts  are  very  numerous. 

BULGARIANS.  They  defeat  Justinian,  a.d.  687  ;  and  are  subdued  by  the  emperor 
Basilius,  in  1019.  On  one  occasion,  this  emperor  having  taken  15,000  Bulgarians 
prisoners,  he  caused  their  eyes  to  be  put  out,  leaving  one  eye  only  to  every  hundredth 
man,  to  enable  him  to  conduct  his  countrymen  home.  Bulgaria  was  governed  by 
Roman  dukes  till  1186  ;  subdued  by  Bajazet,  1396. — Univ.  Hist,  vol.  xvii. 

BULL,  OR  EDICT  or  thb  POPE.  This  is  an  apostolical  rescript,  of  ancient  use,  and 
generally  written  on  parchment.  The  bull  is,  properly,  the  seal,  deriving  its  name 
from  bullat  and  has  been  made  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  wax.  On  one  side  are  the 
heads  of  Peter  and  Paul ;  and  on  the  other,  the  name  of  the  pope,  and  year  of  his 
pontificate.  The  celebrated  golden  bull  of  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  was  so  called 
because  of  its  golden  seal ;  and  was  made  the  fundamental  law  of  the  German  empire, 
at  the  diet  of  Nuremburg,  a.d.  1356.  Bulls  denouncing  queen  Elizabeth  and  her 
abettors,  and  consigning  them  to  hell-fire,  accompanied  the  Spanish  Armada,  1588. 

BULL-BAITING,  or  BULL-FIGHTING.  This  atrociously  criminal  sport  of  Spain 
and  Portugal  is  somewhat  equivalent  in  those  countries  to  the  fights  of  the  gladiators 
among  the  Romans.  It  is  recorded  tas  being  an  amusement  at  Stamford  so  early  as 
the  reign  of  John,  1209.  Bull-running  was  a  sport  at  Tutbury  in  1374.  In  the 
Sports  of  England,  we  read  of  the  "  Easter  fierce  hunts,  when  foaming  boars  fought 
for  their  heads,  and  lusty  bulls  and  huge  bears  were  baited  with  dogs  %**  and  near  the 
Clink,  London,  was  the  Paris,  or  Bear  Garden,  so  celebrated  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth 
for  the  exhibition  of  bear-baiting,  then  a  fashionable  amusement.  A  bill  to  abolish 
bull-baiting  was  thrown  out  in  the  Commons,  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  the  late 
Mr.  Windham,  who  made  a  singular  speech  in  favour  of  the  custom,  May  24,  1802. 
'^Butler.  It  has  since  been  declared  illegal.  See  Cruelty  to  Animals.  BuU-fights 
were  introduced  into  Spain  about  1260  :  abolished  there,  *'  except  for  pious  and 
patriotic  purposes,'^  in  1 784.  There  was  a  bull-fight  at  Lisbon,  at  Campo  de  Santa 
Anna,  attended  by  10,000  spectators,  on  Sunday,  June  14,  1840. 

BULLETS.  Those  of  stone  were  in  use  a.d.  1514  ;  and  iron  ones  are  first  mentioned 
in  the  Fcedera,  1550.  Leaden  bullets  were  made  before  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  continue  to  be  those  in  use  in  all  nations  for  musketry.  The  cannon- 
ball  in' some  Eastern  countries  is  still  of  stone,  instead  of  iron. — Ashe. 

BUMPER.  A  corruption  of  the  words  hon  pere,  good  father ;  meaning  the  pope,  whose 
health  was  always  drunk  by  the  monks,  after  dinner,  in  a  full  glass  of  wine. 

BUNKER'S  HILL,  Battle  of,  fought  between  the  British  forces  and  the  revolted 
Americans,  who  made  a  formidable  stand  against  the  royal  troops,  but  were  ulti- 
mately  defeated  with  considerable  loss — the  Americans  were  nearly  2000,  and  the 
British  near  3000  men.  It  was  one  of  the  earliest  actions  of  the  provincials  with 
the  mother  country,  June  17,  1775. 

BUONAPARTE'S  EMPIRE  of  FRANCE.  Napoleon  Buonaparte,  the  most  extra- 
ordinary man  of  modem  times,  ruled  over  France,  and  subdued  most  of  the  nations 
of  the  Continent,  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century.  See  his  various  military 
and  other  achievements  under  their  respective  heads  : — 


BUO 


C93  3 


BUR 


BUONAPARTE'S  EMPIRE  of  FRANCE, 

Napoleon  bom  at  AJaccio,   in  Italy, 

Ang.  15,  1769 
He  firat  distingaishes  himself  in  the  com- 
mand of  the  artillery  at  Toulon  .        .   1793 
He  embarks  for  Egypt  May  10,  1796 

Is  repulsed  before  Acre  .        .    May  87,  1799 
He  returns  from  Egypt  Aug.  23,  1799 

Deposes  the  French  directory,  and  be- 
comes first  consul     .        .        Nov.  9,  1799 
Sends  oyertures  of  peace  to  the  king  of 

England  .  Jan.  1,  1800 

His  life  attempted  by  an  '*  infernal  ma- 
chine **....    Dec.  24,  1800 
Elected  president  of  the  Italian,  late 

Cisalpine  republic  .  .  Jan.2S,  1802 
Elected oonsnlfor  10  years  .  May  8, 1802 

Made  first  consul  for  life  Aug.  2,  1802 

Accepts  the  title  of  emperor  from  the 

senate  in  name  of  the  people  .  May  18, 1804 
Crowned  emperor  by  the  pope  .  Dec.  2,  1804 
Crowned  king  of  Italy  May26,  I80S 

Divorced  from  the  empress  Josephine 

Defr  16>  1809 
Marries  Maria  Louisa  •  .  April  7*  1810 
A  son,  the  fruit  of  this  marriage,  bom, 

and  styled  king  of  Rome   .   March  20,  1811 
His  overtures  of  peace  to  England  re- 
jected   ....        April  14,  1812 
[The  reverses  of  Buonaparte  now  follow 

in  quick  succession.] 
He  renounces  the  thrones  of  France  and 
Italy,  and  accepts  of  the  Isle  of  Elba 
for  his  retreat      .         .         .    April  5,  1814 
Embarks  at  Fr^ns    .  April  28,  1814 

Arrives  at  Elba  May  3,  1814 

Agato  appears  in  France ;  he  quits  Elba 
and  lands  at  Cannes  .        .    March  I,  1816 


March  25,  1815 

March  29,  1815 

Jane  12,  1815 

June  18,  1815 

June  20,  1815 

his  infant 


continued. 

Enters  Lyons  Mardi  10,  1815 

Arrives  at  Fontainebleau    .    March  20,  I8I5 
Joined  by  all  the  army     .       March  22,  1815 
The  allies  sign  a  treaty  for  his  extermi- 
nation 
He  abolishes  the  slave-trade 
Leaves  Puis  for  the  anny    . 
Is  defeated  at  Waterloo   . 
Returns  to  PWris 
And  abdicates  in  favour  of 

son Juno  22,  1815 

Intending  to  embark  for  America,  he 

arrives  at  Rochefort  July  3,  1815 

He  surrenders  to  Capt  BCaitland,  of  the 

BeWtrophon  .    July  15,  1815 

Transferred  at  Torbay  to  the  Ifortkum' 

berland,  and  sails  for  St  Helena  Aug.  8»  1815 
Arrives  at  St.  Helena  (where  it  is  decreed 
by  the  allied  sovereigns  he  shall  re- 
main for  life)  .        .        Oct  15, 
TThe  family  of  Buonaparte  exduded  for 
ever  from  France  1^  the  law  of  am* 
nesty      ....        Jan.  12, 
Death  of  Buonaparte  May  5,  1821 
His  will  registered  in  England    .     Aug.  1824 
His  son,  ex -king  of  Rome,  dies  .  July  22, 1832 
The  French  chambers  decree,  with  the 
consent  of  England,  that  the  ashes  of 
Napoleon  be  removed  from  St  Helena, 
and  brought  to  France  .        .  May  12,  1840 
They  are  exhumed                       Oct  16»  1840 
The  BclU  PouU,  French  frigate,  arrives 
at  Cherbourg  with  the  remains  of  Nar 
poleon,  in  the  care  of  the  prince  de 
Joinvllle                                   Nov.  30,  1840 
They  are  interred  with  great  solemnity 
in  the  Hdtel  det  Invalides    .    Deo.  15»  1840 


1815 


1819 


BURGESS,  from  the  French  Bourgeois,  a  distiiictioa  coeval  in  England  with  its 
corporations.  Burgesses  were  called  to  parliament  in  England  a.d.  1265 ;  in 
Scotland,  in  1326;  and  in  Ireland,  about  13C5.  Burgesses  to  be  resident  in  the 
places  which  they  are  elected  to  represent  in  psrliament,  1  Henry  V.  1413. — Ftn^r't 
Statutes,     See  Borough, 

BURGHER  SECEDERS,  dissenters  from  the  church  of  Scotland.  Their  separation 
from  the  associate  presbytery  arose  in  a  difference  of  sentiment  regarding  the 
lawfulness  of  taking  the  burgess  oath,  1739. 

BURGLARY.  Until  the  reign  of  George  IV.  this  crime  was  punished  with  death. 
Formerly,  to  encourage  the  prosecution  of  oifenders,  he  who  convicted  a  burglar  was 
exempted  from  parish  offices,  10  and  11  William  III.  1699.  Statute  of  lUwards, 
5  Anne,  1706^  and  6  George  I.  1720.  Receivers  of  stolen  plate  and  other  goods  to 
be  transported,  10  George  III.  1770.  Persons  having  upon  them  picklock  keys, 
&a  to  be  deemed  rogues  and  vagabonds,  13  Gieorge  III.  1772-3.  The  laws  with 
respect  to  burglary  were  amended  by  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Robert)  Peel's  acts, 
between  4  and  10  George  lY.  1823  and  1829. 

BURGOS,  Siege  of.  Lord  Wellington  entered  Burgos  after  the  battle  of  Salamanca, 
which  was  fought  July  22,1812,  and  the  castle  was  besieged  by  the  British  and 
allied  army,  and  several  attempts  were  made  to  carry  it  by  assault,  but  the  siege 
was  abandoned  in  October,  same  year.  The  castle  and  fortifications  were  blown  up 
by  the  French  in  June  1813. 

BURGUNDY.  This  kingdom  begins  in  Alsace,  a.d.  413.  Conrad  II.  of  Germany 
being  declared  heir  to  the  kingdom,  is  opposed  in  his  attempt  to  annex  it  to  the 
empire,  when  it  is  dismembered,  and  on  its  ruins  are  formed  the  four  provinces 
of  Burgundy,  Provence,  Viennes,  and  Savoy,  1034.  Burgundy  becomes  a  circle 
of  the  German  empire^  1521.    It  falls  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  whose  tyranny  and 


BUB Q94  ] BUR 

religious  persecotioiu  cRUse  a  rerolt  in  the  Batavian  provinces,  1566.    After  yarions 
cbangesy  Burgundy  annexed  to  France,  and  formed  into  departments  of  that  kingdom. 

BURIAL.  The  earliest  and  most  rational  mode  of  restoring  the  body  to  earth.  The 
first  idea  of  it  was  formed  by  Adam,  on  his  observing  a  live  bird  covering  a  dead  one 
with  leaves.  Barrows  were  the  most  ancient  graves.  See  Barrows.  Places  of 
burial  were  consecrated  under  pope  Calixtus  I.  in  210. — Eusthius,  The  first 
Christian  burial-place  was  instituted  in  596  ;  burial  in  cities,  742 ;  in  consecrated 
places,  750 ;  in  chnrch^yards,  758.  Vaults  were  erected  in  chancels  first  at 
Canterbury,  1075.  Woollen  shrouds  used  in  England,  1666.  Linen  scarfs  intro- 
duced at  funerals  in  Ireland,  1729  ;  and  wooUen  shrouds  used,  1733.  Burials  were 
taxed,  1695— again,  1783.     See  Cemeteries, 

BURIALS.  Parochial  registers  of  them,  and  of  births  and  marriages,  were  instituted 
in  England  by  Cromwell,  Lord  Essex,  about  1536. — Stotoe,  A  tax  was  exacted  on 
burials  in  England — for  the  burial  of  a  duke,  50/.,  and  for  that  of  a  common  person 
4«.,  under  WiUiam  III.  1695,  and  Geo.  III.  1 7  Q3.— Statutes.   See  Bills  of  Mortality. 

BURKING.  A  new  and  horrible  species  of  murder  committed  in  England.  Jt  was 
thus  named  from  the  first  known  criminal  by  whom  the  deed  was  perpetrated  being 
called  Burke.  His  victims  were  strangled,  or  made  lifeless  by  pressure,  or  other 
modes  of  suffocation,  and  the  bodies,  which  exhibited  no  marks  of  violence,  were 
afterwards  sold  to  the  surgeons  for  the  purpose  of  dissection.  Burke  was  executed 
at  Edinburgh  in  February  1 829.  The  crime  has  been  more  recently  perpetrated  by 
a  gang  of  murderers  in  London.  The  monster  named  Bishop  was  apprehended 
in  November  1831,  and  executed  with  fVilliamSf  one  of  his  accomplices,  for  the 
murder  of  a  poor  Italian  boy  named  Carlo  Ferrari,  a  friendless  wanderer,  and 
therefore  selected  as  being  less  likely  to  be  sought  after  (they  confessing  to  this  and 
other  similar  murders),  December  5,  same  year. 

BURLINGTON  HEIGHTS,  Battle  of,  between  the  British  and  the  United  States 
American  forces,  an  obstinate  and  memorable  engagement,  contested  with  great 
valour  on  both  sides.  The  Americans  were  routed,  and  the  British  carried  the 
heights,  June  6,  1813. 

BURMESE  EMPIRE.  Founded  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  by  Alompra,  the 
first  sovereign  of  the  present  dynasty.  Our  first  dispute  with  this  formidable  power 
occurred  in  1795,  but  it  was  amicably  adjusted  by  general  Erskine.  liostilities 
were  commenced  by  the  British  in  1824,  when  they  took  Rangoon.  The  fort  and 
pagoda  of  Syriam  taken,  1825.  After  a  short  armistice,  hostilities  were  renewed, 
December  1,  same  year,  and  pursued  until  the  successive  victories  of  the  British 
led  to  the  cession  of  Arracan,  and  to  the  signature  of  peace  on  the  3d  January,  1826. 
— See  India, 

BURNING  ALIVE.  This  punishment  was  inflicted  among  the  Romans,  Jews,  and 
other  nations,  on  the  betrayers  of  councils,  incendiaries,  and  for  incest  in  the 
ascending  and  descending  degrees.  The  Jews  had  two  ways  of  burning  alive :  one 
with  wood  and  faggots  to  bum  the  body,  the  other,  by  pouring  scalding -lead  down 
the  throat  of  the  criminal,  combustio  anitiKB^  to  bum  the  soul. — See  Suttees, 

BURNING  ALIVE,  in  England.  Even  in  England  (see  preceding  article)  burning 
alive  was  a  punishment  upon  the  statute-book.  The  Britons  punished  heinous 
crimes  by  burning  alive  in  wicker  baskets.  See  Slonehenge,  This  punishment  was 
countenanced  by  bulls  of  the  pope ;  and  witches  suffered  in  this  manner. — See 
Witches,  Many  persons  have  been  burned  alive  on  account  of  religious  principles. 
The  first  sufferer  was  sir  WiUiam  Sawtree,  parish  priest  of  St.  Osith,  London, 
3  Henry  IV.,  Febraary  9,  1401.  In  the  reign  of  the  crael  Mary  numbers  were 
burned,  among  others,  Ridley,  bishop  of  London,  Latimer,  bishop  of  Rochester, 
and  Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  were  burned  at  Oxford  in  1555  and 
1556.    Numerous  others  suffered  this  dreadful  death  in  Mary's  reign*. 

'I^  It  is  computed,  that  during  the  three  years  of  Mary's  reign  in  which  these  diocking  violences 
and  barharities  were  carried  on,  there  were  277  persons  brought  to  the  stake ;  besides  those  who  were 
punished  by  imprisonment,  fines,  and  confiscations.  Among  those  who  suffered  by  fire  were  5  bishops, 
21  clergymen,  8  lay  gentlemen,  84  tradesmen,  100  husbandmen,  servants,  and  labourers,  55  women, 
and  4  children.  The  unprincipled  agents  of  this  merciless  queen  were  the  bishops  Gardiner  and 
Bonner.  The  latter  eq[>eclally  was  a  man  of  brutal  character,  who  seemed  to  derive  a  savage  plea- 
sure in  witnessing  the  torture  of  the  sulTerers. 


BUB  [^  95  ] BUS 

BURNING  THE  DEAD.  The  antiquity  of  this  enstom  rises  as  high  as  the  Theban 
war  ;  it  was  practised  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the  poet  Homer  abounds 
with  descriptions  of  such  faneral  obsequies.  The  practice  was  rery  general  about 
1225  B.C.,  and  was  revived  by  Sylla,  lest  the  relics  of  the  dead  in  graves  should  be 
violated ;  and  to  this  day  the  burning  of  the  dead  is  practised  in  many  parts  of  the 
East  and  West  Indies.    See  Barrows. 

BURNING-GLASS  and  CONCAVE  MIRRORS.  Their  power  was  not  unknown  to 
Archimedes,  but  the  powers  of  these  instruments  are  rendered  wonderful  by  the 
modem  improvements  of  Settalla :  of  Tchimhausen,  1680 ;  of  Buffbn,  1747  ;  and  of 
Parker  and  others,  more  recently.  The  following  are  eiperiments  of  the  fusion  of 
substances  made  with  Mr.  Parker's  lens,  or  burning  mirror : 


8ubttaneet/u9ed. 

Weight. 

Time. 

Subttanees/uied. 

Weight 

Time. 

Pore  gold   . 

.  20  grains 

4  seconds. 

A  topaa 

.    3  grains 

4fi  seconds. 

Silver     . 

*   .  SO  grains 

3  seconds. 

An  emerald 

.    .    2  grains 

25  seconds. 

Ck>pper 

.  33  grains 

20  seconds. 

A  crystal  pebble . 

.    7grains 

6  seconds. 

Platina   . 

.    .  10  grains 

3  seconds. 

Flint       . 

.    .  10  grains 

30  seconds. 

Cast  iron     . 

.  10  grains 

3  seconds. 

Cornelian   . 

.  10  grains 

7S  sec<inds. 

Steel 

.    .  10  grains 

12  seconds. 

Pumice  stone  . 

.    .  10  grains 

24  seconds. 

Green  wood  takes  fire  instantaneously ;  water  boils  immediately;  bones  are  calcined; 
and  things,  not  capable  of  melting,  at  once  become  red-hot  like  iron. 

BURWELL  FIRE.  A  number  of  persons  assembled  to  see  a  puppet-show  at  Bnrwell, 
near  Newmarket,  in  the  evening  of  September  8,  1727.  The  entertainment  was  in 
a  barn,  and  a  candle  having  been  placed  too  near  a  heap  of  straw,  a  fire  was 
occasioned,  which  was  one  of  the  most  fatal  on  record.  Seventy-six  individuals 
perished  in  the  fire,  and  others  died  of  their  wounds.  Among  the  sufferers  were 
several  young  ladies  of  fortune  and  many  children.  The  bodies  were  reduced  to  a 
mass  of  mangled  carcases  half  consumed,  and  wholly  undistinguishable,  and  were 
promiscuously  buried  in  two  pits,  dug  for  the  purpose  in  the  church-yard. 

BURY  ST.  EDMUNDS.  Took  its  name  from  St.  Edmund,  Beria  (Saxon^  Edvardi,  a 
wide  open  plain.  —  Truster.  At  this  town  the  barons  met,  and  entered  into  a  league 
against  king  John ;  and  here  Henry  VI.  summoned  a  parliament  in  1446,  when 
Humphry,  duke  of  Gloucester,  was  imprisoned,  and  died  here,  it  is  supposed  by 
poison.    An  awful  plague  raged  at  Bury  St.  Edmund's  in  1636. 

BURYING  ALIVE.  A  mode  of  death  adopted  in  Boeotia,  where  Creon  ordered 
Antigone,  the  sister  of  Polynices,  to  be  buried  alive,  1225  b.c.  The  Roman  vestals 
were  subjected  to  this  horrible  kind  of  execution  for  any  levity  in  dress  or  conduct 
that  could  excite  a  suspicion  of  their  virtue.  The  vestal  Minutia  was  buried  alive  on 
a  charge  of  incontinence,  337  B.C.  The  vestal  Sextilia  was  buried  alive  274  b.c. 
The  vestal  Cornelia  a.d.  92.  Lord  Bacon  gives  instances  of  the  resurrection  of 
persons  who  had  been  buried  alive  ;  the  famous  Duns  Scotus  is  of  the  number.  The 
assassins  of  Capo  d'Istria,  President  of  Greece,  were  (two  of  them)  sentenced  to  be 
immured  in  brick  walls  built  around  them  up  to  their  chins,  and  to  be  supplied  with 
food  in  this  species  of  torture  until  they  died,  October  1831. — See  Greece. 

BUSACO,  OR  BUZACCO,  Battle  of,  between  the  British  under  Lord  Wellington 
and  the  French  army,  commanded  by  Massena.  The  latter  were  repulsed  with 
great  slaughter.  The  British  subsequently  retreated  to  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras, 
which  were  too  strong  for  Massena  to  attempt  to  force,  and  the  two  armies  remained 
in  sight  of  each  other  to  the  end  of  the  year :  fought  September  27,  1810. 

BUSHEL.  This  measure  was  ordered  to  contain  eight  gallons  of  wheat,  12  Henry 
yill.  1520 ;  the  legal  Winchester  bushel  was  regulated  9  William  III.  1697  ;  the 
imperial  corn  bushel  of  2218192  cubic  inches,  is  to  the  Winchester  of  2150*42,  as 
32  to  31.  Regulated  by  act  5  George  IV.  June  1824,  which  act  came  into  operation 
January  1,  1826. — Statutes. 

BUSHES  OF  EVERGREEN,  such  as  ivy,  cypress,  &c.  were  anciently  signs  where 
wine  was  sold ;  and  hence  the  proverb,  "  Good  wine  needs  no  bush,** 

BUSTS.  This  mode  of  preserving  the  remembrance  of  the  human  features  is  the  same 
with  the  hertncB  of  the  Greeks.  Lysistratus,  the  statuary,  was  the  inventor  of  moulds 
A'om  which  he  cast  wax  figures,  328  b.c. — Pliny.  Busts  from  the  face  in  plaster 
of  Paris  were  first  taken  by  Andrea  Yerrochi,  about  a.d.  1466. — Vasari. 


BUT  C  9^  ]  ^^^ 

BUTCHERS.  Among  the  Romans  there  were  three  classes :  the  Suarii  provided  hogs, 
the  Boarii  oxen,  and  the  Lanii,  whose  office  was  to  kill.  The  butchers'  trade  is 
▼ery  ancient  in  England ;  so  is  their  company  in  London,  although  it  was  not 
incorporated  until  the  second  year  of  James  I.  1604. — Annals  of  London. 

BUTTER.  It  was  late  before  the  Greeks  had  any  notion  of  butter,  and  by  the  early 
Romans  it  was  used  only  as  a  medicine — never  as  food.  The  ChristianB  of  Egypt 
burnt  butter  in  their  lamps  instead  of  oil,  in  the  third  century.  Batter  forming  an 
important  article  of  commerce  as  well  as  food  in  these  countries,  various  statutes 
have  passed  respecting  its  package,  weight,  and  sale ;  the  principal  of  which  are  the 
36th  and  38th  George  III.  and  10  George  IV.  1629.  In  1675,  there  fell  in  Ireland, 
during  the  winter  time*  a  thick  yellow  dew,  which  had  all  the  medicinal  properties 
of  butter.  In  Africa,  vegetable  butter  is  made  from  the  fruit  of  the  shea  tree,  and  is 
of  richer  taste,  at  Kebba,  than  any  butter  made  from  cow's  milk. — Mungo  Park, 

BUTTONS,  of  early  manufacture  in  England  ;  those  covered  with  cloth  were  prohibited 
by  a  statute,  thereby  to  encourage  the  manufacture  of  metal  buttons,  8  George  I. 
1721.  The  manufacture  owes  nothing  to  encouragement  from  any  quarter  of  late 
years,  although  it  has,  notwithstanding,  much  improved. — Phillips, 

BYNG.  Hon.  Admiral  JOHN,  shot  on  board  the  Monarch  ship  of  war  at  Spithead, 
March  14,  1757.  This  brave  officer,  so  distinguished  by  his  services,  and  who  had 
given  so  many  signal  proofs  of  his  courage  as  a  commander,  was  charged  with 
neglect  of  duty  in  an  engagement  with  the  enemy  off  Minorca  on  the  20th  of  May 
preceding.  As  his  conduct  could  not  merit  the  accusation  of  cowardice,  and  as  he 
was  too  British  for  that  of  disaffection  to  be  hazarded  against  him,  he  was  condemned 
for  an  error  of  judgment ,  and  suffered  death.  The  following  bold  inscription  was 
cut  upon  his  tomb,  at  South- hi  11,  Bedfordshire :— 

TO  THK  PXRPKTUAL  DrSORACB  OP  PUBLIC  JUBTICX, 

TBS   BONOUIUBLK  JOHN   BVNO  FILL  A   MARTVB  TO 

FOLITICAJL  PBRSBCUTION,  MARCB  14,  1757  ; 

WBXN  BRAVERY  AND  LOYALTY  WSRB  IN8UPFICIBNT  8BCURITIB8 

FOR  TBB  LIFE  AND  RONOUR  OF 

A  NAVAL  OFPiCXR. 

BYRON'S  VOYAGE. .  Commodore  Byron  left  England  on  his  voyage  round  the  globe, 
June  21, 1764,  and  returned  May  9,  1766.  In  his  voyage  he  discovered  the  populous 
island  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  which  bears  his  name,  August  1 6,  1 765.  Though  brave 
and  intrepid,  such  was  his  general  ill  fortune  at  sea,  that  he  was  called  by  the 
sailors  of  the  fleet  **  Foul- weather  Jack.'' — Bellehambers, 

BYZANTIUM.  Now  Constantinople,  founded  by  a  colony  of  Athenians,  715  B.C.— 
Eusehius.  It  was  taken  by  the  Romans  a.d.  73,  and  was  laid  in  ruins  by  Sevems 
in  196.  Byzantium  was  rebuilt  by  Coustantine  in  338  ;  and  after  him  it  received 
the  name  of  Constantinople.    See  Constantinople, 


C. 

CABAL.  A  Hebrew  word,  used  in  various  senses.  The  rabbins  were  cabalists,  and 
the  Christians  so  called  those  who  pretended  to  magic.  In  English  history,  the 
Cabal  was  a  council  which  consisted  of  five  lords  in  administration,  supposed  to  be 
pensioners  of  France,  and  distinguished  by  the  appellation  of  the  Cabals  from  the 
initials  of  their  names  :  Sir  Thomas  Clifford,  the  lord  Ashley,  the  duke  of  Bueking* 
ham,  lord  Arlington,  and  the  duke  of  Lauderdale,  22  Charles  II.  1670.— ^titne. 

CABBAGES.  Three  varieties  were  brought  to  these  realms  from  Holland,  a.d.  1510. 
To  Sir  Arthur  Ashley  of  Dorset,  the  first  planting  them  in  England  is  ascribed.  This 
vegetable  was  previously  imported  from  the  Continent.  It  was  introduced  into 
Scotland  by  the  soldiers  of  Cromwell's  army.    See  Gardening, 

CABINET  COUNCIL.  There  were  councUs  in  England  so  eariy  as  the  reign  of 
Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  a.d.  690 ;  Offa,  king  of  the  Mercians,  758,  and  in 
other  reigns  of  the  Heptarchy.  The  cabinet  council  in  which  secret  deliberatioDS 
were  held  by  the  king  and  a  few  of  his  chosen  friends,  and  the  great  officers  of  state, 
to  be  afterwards  laid  before  the  second  council,  now  styled  the  privy  council,  was 


CAB C  97  ] CM 

instituted  by  Alfred  the  Great  aboat  a.d.  896. — Spelman,  The  modem  cabinet 
coancil,  as  at  present  constituted,  was  reconstructed  in  1670,  and  usually  consists  of 
the  following  tweWe  members* : 


Home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries  of  state. 

President  of  the  board  of  control. 

Presidoit  of  the  board  of  trade. 

Master  of  the  mint. 

First  lord  of  the  admiralty. 


Lord  president. 

Iiord  chancellor. 

Lord  privy  seaL 

First  lord  of  the  treasury. 

Chancellor  of  the  exeheqner. 

In  1841  the  number  was  14,  and  included  the  Secretary  at  War,  the  Woods  and 
Forests,  and  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland,  the  Mint  and  Board  of  Trade  being 
united  in  right  hen.  H.  Labonchere.  The  cabinet  ministers  of  the  rarious  reigns 
will  be  found  under  the  head  Administrations  of  England, 

CABLES.  Their  use  was  known  in  the  earliest  times :  a  machine  for  making  the 
largest,  by  which  human  labour  was  reduced  nine^tenths,  was  inrented  in  1 792.  This 
machine  was  set  in  motion  by  sixteen  horses,  when  making  cables  for  ships  of  lai|^e 
size.     Chain  cables  were  introduced  into  the  British  navy  in  1812. 

CADDEE,  OR  League  of  God's  House.  The  celebrated  league  of  independence  in 
Switzerland,  formed  by  the  Grisons  to  resist  domestic  tyranny,  a.d.  1400  to  1419. 
A  second  league  of  the  Grisons  was  called  the  Grise  or  Gray  league,  1424. 

CADE'S  INSURRECTION.  Jack  Cade,  an  Irishmsn,  a  fugitive  from  his  country 
on  account  of  his  crimes,  assumed  the  name  of  Mortimer,  and  headed  20,000 
Kentish  men,  who  armed  **  to  punish  evil  ministers,  and  procure  a  redress  of 
grievances."  Cade  entered  London  in  triumph,  and  for  some  time  bore  down  all 
opposition,  and  beheaded  the  lord  treasurer,  LK)rd  Saye,  and  several  other  persons  of 
consequence.  The  insurgents  at  length  losing  ground,  a  general  pardon  was 
proclaimed  ;  and  Cade,  finding  himself  deserted  by  his  followers,  fled  :  but  a  reward 
being  offered  for  his  apprehension,  he  was  discovered,  and  refusing  to  surrender, 
was  slain  by  Alexander  Iden,  sheriff  of  Kent,  1451. 

CADIZ,  formerly  Gades,  was  built  by  the  Carthaginians  530  b.c. — Priestley,  One 
hundred  vessels  of  the  armament  preparing,  as  the  Spanish  Armada,  against  England, 
were  destroyed  in  the  port  by  sir  Francis  Drake,  1587.  Cadiz  was  taken  by  the 
English,  under  the  earl  of  Essex*  and  plundered,  September  15,  1596.  It  was 
attempted  by  sir  George  Rooke  in  1702,  but  he  failed.  Bombarded  by  the  British 
in  1797,  and  blockaded  by  their  fleet,  under  lord  St.  Vincent,  for  two  years, 
ending  in  1799.  Again  bombarded  by  the  British,  on  board  whose  fleet  were  18,000 
land  forces,  October  1800.  Besieged  by  the  French,  but  the  siege  raised  after  the 
battle  of  Salamanca  in  1H12.     Massacre  of  the  inhabitants  by  the  soldiery,  March 

•  6,  1812.     Cadiz  was  declared  a  free  port  in  1829. 

CADMIUM.  A  new  metal,  first  discovered  in  Hanover  by  Mr.  Stromeyer  in  1817  : 
it  is  of  a  greyish  colour,  found  in  union  with  zinc,  and  possesses  a  specific  gravity  of 
8*604. — Mechan,  Mag. 

CiESARIAN  OPERATION.  The  Casarian  section,  it  is  ssid,  first  gave  the  name 
of  Ceesar  to  the  Roman  family :  it  is  performed  by  cutting  the  child  out  of  the 
womb,  when  it  cannot  be  otherwise  delivered.  Of  twenty-two  cases  operated  on  in 
these  islands,  twenty-one  of  the.  mothers  died,  and  ten  of  their  children  were  born 
dead.  Of  twelve  extracted  alive,  four  survived  only  a  few  days.  The  case  of  Alice 
O'Neil,  an  Irishwoman,  who  survived  the  section,  which  was  performed  by  a  female, 
is  authenticated  by  Dr.  Gabriel  King,  of  Armagh,  and  surgeon  Duncan  Stewart, 
of  Dungannon.  On  the  Continent  the  operation  has  been  abundantly  successful.— ~ 
M,  Baudelocque, 

C^SARS,  ERA  OF  the  ;  or  Spanish  Era,  is  reckoned  from  the  first  of  January 
38  B.C.,  being  the  year  following  the  conquest  of  Spain  by  Augustas.  It  was 
much  used  in  Africa,  Spain,  and  the  south  of  France ;    but  by  a  synod  held  in 

*  The  terra  cabinet  council  is  of  compaxAtively  modem  date,  and  originated  thus:  The  affairs  of 
state  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  were  principally  managed  by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the  earl 
of  Strafford,  and  the  lord  Cottington ;  to  these  were  added  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  for  ornament  t 
the  bishop  of  London  for  his  place,  being  lord  treasurer ;  the  two  secretaries.  Vane  and  Windebank, 
for  service  and  intelligence ;  only  the  marquis  of  Hamilton,  by  his  skill  and  interest,  meddled  Just  so 
far,  and  no  further,  than  he  had  a  mind.  These  persons  made  up  the  committee  of  state,  reproach- 
fully called  the  Junto,  and  afterwards,  enviously,  the  cabinet  council.^— Lokd  Clarbnooiv, 

H 


CAI []  98  ] CAL 

1180  it8  use  was  abolished  in  all  the  churches  dependent  on  Barcelona.  Pedro  IV. 
of  Arragon  abolished  the  use  of  it  in  his  dominions  in  1350.  John  of  Castile  did  the 
same  in  1382 ;  it  continued  to  be  used  in  Portugal  till  1455.  The  months  and  days 
of  this  era  are  identical  with  the  Julian  calendar,  and  to  turn  the  time  into  that  of 
our  era  subtract  thirty-eight  from  the  year ;  if  before  the  Christian  era  subtract 
thirty>nine. 

CAI-FONG,  in  China.  This  city  being  besieged  by  100,000  rebels,  the  commander  of 
the  forces  who  was  sent  to  its  relief,  in  order  to  drown  the  enemy,  broke  down  its 
embankments  :  his  stratagem  succeeded,  and  every  man  of  the  besiegers  perished ; 
but  the  city  was  at  the  same  time  oveHlowed  by  the  waters,  and  300,000  of  the 
citizens  were  drowned  in  the  overwhelming  flood,  a.d,  1642. 

CAIRO,  OB  GRAND  CAIRO.  The  modem  capital  of  Egypt,  remarkable  for  the 
minarets  of  its  mosques,  and  the  splendid  sepulchres  of  its  caliphs  in  what  is  called 
the  city  of  the  dead  :  it  was  built  by  the  Saracens,  in  a.d.  969.  Burnt  to  prevent 
its  occupation  by  the  Christian  invaders,  called  Crusaders,  in  1220.  Taken  by  the 
Turks  from  the  Egyptian  sultans,  and  their  empire  subdued,  1517.  Ruined  by  an 
earthquake  and  a  great  fire,  June,  1754,.  when  40,000  persons  perished.  Set  on  fire 
by  a  lady  of  the  beglerbeg,  Dec,  1755.  Taken  by  the  French  under  Napoleon 
Buonaparte,  July  23,  1798.  Taken  by  the  British  and  Turks,  when  6000  French 
capitulated,  June  27,  1801. 

CALAIS.  Taken  by  Edward  III.  after  a  year's  siege,  August  4,  1347,  and  held  by 
England  210  years.  It  was  retaken  in  the  reign  of  Mary,  Jan.  7,  1558,  and  the  loss 
of  Calais  so  deeply  touched  the  queen's  heart,  historians  say  it  occasioned  her  death, 
which  occurred  soon  afterwards.  Calais  was  bombarded  by  the  English,  1694.  Here 
Louis  XVIII.  landed  after  his  long  exile  from  France,  April  24,  1814.   See  France. 

CALCUTTA.  The  first  settlement  of  the  English  here  was  made  in  1689.  It  was 
purchased  as  a  Zemindary,  and  Port  William  built  in  1698.  Calcutta  was  attacked 
by  a  large  army  of  70,000  horse  and  foot,  and  400  elephants,  in  June,  17«'>6. 
On  the  capture  of  the  fort,  146  of  the  British  were  crammed  into  the  Black-hole 
prison,  a  dungeon  about  eighteen  feet  square,  from  whence  twenty-three  only  came 
forth  the  next  morning  alive.  See  JBlack-hole.  Calcutta  was  retaken  the  following 
year,  and  the  inhuman  Soubah  put  to  death.  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature  established 
1773.     College  founded  here,  1801. — See  Bengal  and  India, 

CALEDONIA.  See  Scotland,  The  name  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  derived  from  Gael 
or  Gaelmen,  or  Gadel-doine,  corrupted  by  the  Romans.  Tacitus,  who  died  a.d.  99, 
distinguishes  this  portion  of  Britain  by  the  appellation  of  Caledonia  ;  but  the  etymo- 
logy of  the  word  seems  undetermined.  Venerable  Bede  says,  that  it  retained  this 
name  until  a.d.  258,  when  it  was  invaded  by  a  tribe  from  Ireland,  and  called  Scotia, 
The  ancient  inhabitants  appear  to  have  been  the  Caledonians  and  Picts,  tribes  of  the 
Celts,  who  passed  over  from  the  opposite  coasts  of  Gaul.  About  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  they  were  invaded  by  the  Scuyths  or  Scythians 
(since  called  Scots),  who,  having  driven  the'Picts  into  the  north,  settled  in  the  Low- 
lands,  and  gave  their  name  to  the  whole  country.  Hence  the  origin  of  that  distinction 
of  language,  habits,  customs,  and  persons,  which  is  still  so  remarkable  between  the 
Highlanders  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  borders. 

Caledonian  monarchy,  said  to  have  been  The  country  is  invaded  by  the  Scaytha, 

founded  by  Fergus  I.,  about  .    B.C.  330        or  Scots,  from  Bcythia,  and  the  govern- 

The  Picta  from  the  north  of  England  settle  ment  is  overthrown,  about  .         .   a.d.  306 

in  the  southern  borders  .140     The  Caledonian  monarchy  is  revived  by 

Agricola  carries  the  Roman  arms  into 

Caledonia,  with  little  success,  in  the 

reign  of  Oaldus,  otherwise  called  Cor- 

bredn .    A.i>.    79 

He  is  signally  defeated  by  the  forces  of 

Curbred      ......    80 

Christianity  is  introduced  into  Caledonia 

in  the  reign  of  Donald  I.      .  .801 

CALEDONIAN  CANAL.  The  act  for  this  stupendous  undertaking — a  canal  from  the 
North  Sea  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean — received  the  royal  assent,  July  27,  1803  ;  and  the 
works  were  commenced  same  year.  By  means  of  this  magnificent  canal,  the  nautical 
interooorse  between  the  western  ports  of  Great  Britain,  and  those  also  of  Ireland  to 


Fergus  IL 404 

After  many  sanguinary  wars  between  the 
Caledonians,  Picts,  and  Scots,  Kenneth 
II.  obtains  a  glorious  victory,  unites  the 
whole  country  imder  one  monarchy, 
and  gives  it  the  name  of  Scotland, 
tehich  Me        ...        .    838  to  849 


the  North  Sea  and  Baltic,  is  shortened  in  some  instances  800,  and  in  others,  1000 
miles.  A  som  vastly  exceeding  a  million  sterling  was  granted  by  parliament  from 
time  to  time  ;  and  this  safe  navigation  for  ships  of  nearly  every  tonnage  was  com- 
pleted, and  opened  in  1824. 

CALENDAR.  The  Roman  calendar,  which  has  in  great  part  been  adopted  by  almost 
all  nations,  was  introduced  by  Romulus,  who  divided  the  year  into  ten  months, 
comprising  304  days,  a.d.  738  B.C.  The  year  of  Remains  was  of  fifty  days  less 
duration  than  the  lunar  year,  and  of  sixty-one  less  thau  the  solar  year,  and  its 
commencement  did  not,  of  course,  correspond  with  any  fixed  season.  Nnma 
Pompilins,  713  b.c.  corrected  this  calendar,  by  adding  two  months  ;  and  Julias  Cesar, 
desirous  to  make  it  more  correct,  fixed  the  solar  year  as  being  365  days  and  six  hoars, 
45  B.C.  This  almost  perfect  arrangement  was  denominated  the  Julian  style,  and 
prerailed  generally  throughout  the  Christian  world  till  the  time  of  pope  Gregory  XIII. 
The  calendar  of  Julias  Csesar  was  defective  in  this  particular,  that  the  solar  year 
consisted  of  365  days,  five  hours,  and  forty-nine  minutes :  and  not  of  365  days,  six 
hours.  This  difference,  at  the  tame  of  Grregory  XTII.  had  amonnted  to  ten  entire 
days,  the  vernal  equinox  falling  on  the  11th,  instead  of  the  21st  of  March.  To 
obviate  this  error,  Gregory  ordained,  in  1582,  that  that  year  should  consist  of  363 
days  only ;  and  to  prevent  further  irregularity,  it  was  determined  that  a  year  beginning 
a  century  should  not  be  bissextile,  with  the  exception  of  that  beginning  each  fourth 
century  :  thus,  1700  and  1800  have  not  been  bissextile,  nor  will  1900  be  so ;  but  the 
year  2000  will  be  a  leap  year.  In  this  manner  three  days  are  retrenched  in  400  years, 
because  the  lapse  of  eleven  minutes  makes  three  days  in  about  that  period.  The 
year  of  the  calendar  is  thus  made  as  nearly  as  possible  to  correspond  with  the  trne 
solar  year ;  and  future  errors  of  chronology  are  avoided.    See  New  Style, 

CALENDER.  This  machine,  which  is  used  in  glasing  various  kinds  of  cloth,  was 
introduced  into  England  by  the  Huguenots,  who  were  driven  by  persecution  from 
France,  Holland,  and  the  Netherlands,  to  these  ooantries,  about  1685. — Aftderton, 

CALICO.  The  well-known  cotton  cloth,  is  named  from  Calicut,  a  city  of  India,  which  was 
discovered  by  the  Portugese,  in  1498.  Calico  was  first  brought  to  England  by  the 
East  India  company,  in  1631.  Calico  printing,  and  the  Dutch  loom  engine,  were 
first  used  in  1676. — AnderMcn,  Calicoes  were  prohibited  to  be  printed  or  worn,  in 
1700  ;  and  again,  in  1721.  They  were  first  made  a  branch  of  manufectare  in 
Lancashire,  in  1771.    See  Cotton, 

CALIFORNIA.  Discovered  by  Cortes,  in  1535.  Taken  possession  of  by  sir  Francis 
Drake,  who  had  his  right  to  it  confirmed  by  the  king  of  the  country,  in  1578.  The 
Jesuits  made  their  settlements  here,  about  1690 ;  but  they  were  subsequently 
expelled  by  the  Spaniards.     Ceded  by  Spain  to  Russia,  in  1820. 

CALIPER  COMPASS.  An  instrument  whereby  founders  and  gunners  measure  the 
bore  or  diameter  of  cannon,  mortars,  and  other  pieces  of  ordnance,  and  also  of  small 
arms,  and  the  diameter  of  shot,  invented  at  Nuremberg,  in  1540. 

CALIPH.  In  Arabic,  vicar,  or  apostle  ;  the  title  assumed  by  the  Sophi  of  Persia,  in 
the  succession  of  Ali,  and  by  the  Grand  Seigniors  as  the  successors  of  Mahomet 
The  caliphat  was  adopted  by  Abubeker,  the  father  of  the  Prophet's  second  wife,  in 
whose  arms  he  died,  a.d.  631.  In  process  of  time  the  soldans  or  sultans  engrossed 
all  the  civil  power,  and  little  but  the  title  was  left  to  the  caliphs,  and  that  chiefly  in 
matters  of  religion. — Sir  T.  Herbert. 

CALIPPIC  PERIOD.  Invented  by  Calippus,  the  first  observer  of  the  revolution  of 
eclipses — a  series  of  seventy-six  years,  at  the  expiration  of  which  he  imagined  the 
new  and  full  moons  returned  to  the  same  day  of  the  solar  year,  which  is  a  mistake ; 
for  in  553  years  they  come  too  late  by  one  whole  day ;  this  period  was  begun  about 
the  end  of  June,  in  the  third  year  of  112th  Olympiad,  in  the  year  of  &me  424, 
and  329  b.c. — Pardon, 

CALIXTINS.  A  sect  derived  from  the  Hussites,  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  oentnry. 
They  asserted  the  use  of  the  cup  as  essential  to  the  Eucharist  Among  the  Lutherans 
they  are  those  following  the  sentiments  of  Calixtus,  who  died  1656. 

CALIYU6  ERA,  or  Era  of  China,  dates  from  3101  b.c.  and  begins  with  the  entrance 
of  the  sun  into  the  Hindoo  sign  Aswin,  which  is  now  on  the  11th  April,  N.S.  In 
the  year  1600,  the  year  began  on  the  7th  of  April,  N.S.  from  which  it  has  now 

h2 


CAL  [   100  ]  CAM 

advanced  four  days,  and,  from  the  procession  of  the  equinoxes,  is  still  advancing  at 
the  rate  of  a  day  in  sixty  years.  The  number  produced  by  subtracting  3102  from 
any  given  year  of  the  Caliyug  era,  will  be  the  Christian  year  in  which  the  given  year 
begins. 

CALLIGRAPHY.  Beautiful  writing,  in  a  small  compass,  invented  by  Callicrates,  who 
is  said  to  have  written  an  elegant  distich  on  a  sesamum  seed,  472  b.c.  The  modem 
specimens  of  this  art  are,  many  of  them,  astonishing  and  beautiful.  In  the  sixteenth 
century,  Peter  Bales  wrote  the  Lord's  Prayer,  creed,  decalogue,  two  short  Latin 
prayers,  his  own  name,  motto,  day  of  the  month,  year  of  our  Lord,  and  of  the  reign 
of  queen  Elizabeth,  to  whom  he  presented  it  at  Hampton-court,  all  within  the  circle 
of  a  silver  penny,  enchased  in  a  ring  and  border  of  gold,  and  covered  with  crystal,  so 
accurately  done  as  to  be  plainly  legible,  to  the  great  admiration  of  her  majesty,  the 
whole  of  the  privy  council,  and  several  ambassadors  then  at  court,  1574. — Holinthed, 

CALLAO,  IN  Peru.  Here,  after  an  earthquake,  the  sea  retired  from  the  shore,  and 
returned  in  mountainous  waves,  which  destroyed  the  city,  a.d.  1687.  The  same 
phenomenon  took  place  in  1746,  when  all  the  inhabitants  perished,  with  the  exception 
of  one  man,  who  was  standing  on  an  eminence,  and  to  whose  succour  a  wave  providen- 
tially threw  a  boat. 

CALOMEL.  The  mercurial  compound  termed  calomel  is  first  mentioned  by  Crollius, 
early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  but  must  have  been  previously  known.  The  first 
directions  given  for  its  preparation  were  those  announced  by  Begain,  in  1608.  It  is 
said  that  corrosive  sublimate  was  known  some  centuries  before. 

CALVARY,  Mount.  The  place  where  the  Redeemer  suffered  death,  a.d.  33. 
Calvary  was  a  small  eminence  or  hill  adjacent  to  Jerusalem,  appropriated  to  the 
execution  of  malefactors.  See  Luke  xxiii.  33.  Adrian  at  the  time  of  his  persecution 
of  the  Christians  erected  a  temple  of  Jupiter  on  Mount  Calvary,  and  a  temple  of 
Adonis  on  the  manger  at  Bethlehem,  a.d.  142.  Here  is  the  church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  whither  pilgrims  flock  from  all  Christian  countries. 

CALYES^HEAD  CLUB,  suppressed,  owing  to  a  riot.  Some  noblemen  and  gentlemen 
who  composed  it  having  ridiculously  exposed  raw  heads  in  bloody  clodis  at  the 
windows  of  the  tavern  where  it  was  held,  the  mob  would  have  pulled  down  the  house 
if  the  guards  had  not  dispersed  them,  Jan.  16,  1734. — Salmon* 8  Chron. 

CALVI,  Siege  of.  The  British  forces  besieged  this  strong  fortress  on  the  12th  June, 
1794,  and  after  a  close  investment  of  it  for  fifty-nine  days,  it  surrendered  on  August 
10,  following.     Calvi  surrendered  to  the  French,  in  1796. 

CALVINISTS.  Named  after  their  founder,  John  Calvin,  the  celebrated  reformer  of 
the  Christian  church  from  Romish  superstition  and  doctrinal  errors.  Calvin  was  a 
native  of  Noyon,-in  Picardy  ;  but' adopting  the  principles  of  the  reformers,  he  fled 
to  AngoulSme,  where  he  composed  his  Institutio  Christianm  Religionis,  in  1533, 
published  about  two  years  afterwards.  He  subsequently  retired  to  Basle,  and  next 
settled  in  Geneva.  Although  he  differed  from  Luther  in  essential  points,  still  his 
followers  did  not  consider  themselves  as  different  on  this  account  from  the  adherents 
of  Luther.  A  formal  separation  first  took  place  after  the  conference  of  Poissy,  in 
1561,  where  they  expressly  rejected  the  tenth  article  of  the  confession  of  Augsburg, 
besides  some  others,  and  took  the  name  of  Calvinists. 

CAMBRAY.  The  town  whence  the  esteemed  manufacture  called  cambric  takes  its 
name.  This  city  was  ^ken  by  the  Spaniards  by  a  memorable  surprise,  in  1595. 
Cambray  was  taken  and^  retaken  several  times.  In  the  war  of  the  French  revolution  It 
was  invested  by  the  Austrians,  August  8,  1793,  when  the  republican  general,  Declay, 
replied  to  the  Imperial  summons  to  surrender,  that  "  he  knew  not  how  to  do  that, 
but  his  soldiers  knew  how  to  fight."  In  the  late  war  it  was  seized  by  the  British 
under  general  sir  Charles  Colville,  June.  24,  1815.  The  citadel  surrendered  the  next 
day,  and  was  occupied  by  Louis  XVIII.  and  his  court. 

CAMBRAY,  League  of.  This  was  the  celebrated  league  against  the  republic  of 
Venice,  comprising  the  pope,  the  emperor,  and  the  kings  pf  France  and  Spain  ;  and 
whereby  Venice  was  forced  to  cede  to  Spain  her  possessions  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
entered  into  Dec.  10,  1508. 

CAMBRICS.  A  fabric  of  fine  linen  used  for  ruffles. — Shedespeare.  Cambrics  were 
first  worn  in  Ei^land,  and  accounted  a  great  luxury  in  dress,  22  Elizabeth,  1580. — 


CAM 


[101  ] 


CAM 


Stowe,  llie  importation  of  them  was  restricted,  in  1 745  ;  and  was  totally  prohibited 
by  statute  of  32  George  II.  1758.  Readmitted  in  1786,  bat  afterwards  again 
prohibited :  the  importation  of  cambrics  is  now  allowed. 

CAMBRIDGE,  once  called  Granta,  and  of  most  ancient  standing,  being  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  earliest  accounts  of  the  oldest  British  historians.  Roger  de 
Montgomery  destroyed  it  with  fire  and  sword  to  be  revenged  of  king  WilliaAi  Rufus. 
The  university  is  said  to  have  been  commenced  by  Sigebert^  king  of  the  East  Angles, 
about  A.D.  636 ;  but  it  lay  neglected  daring  the  Danish  invasionst  from  which  it 
suffered  much.  It  was  somewhat  restored  by  Edward  the  Elder,  in  915 ;  and  learning 
began  to  revive  about  11 10,  when  Henry  I.  bestowed  many  privileges  upon  the  town ; 
as  did  Henry  III.  In  Wat  Tyler^s  and  Jack  Straw's  rebellion,  in  the  reign  of 
Richard  II.  the  rebels  entered  the  town,  seized  the  university  records,  and  burnt 
them  in  the  market-place,  1381.  Cambridge  now  contains  thirteen  colleges  and  four 
halls,  of  which  first,  Peter-house  is  the  most  ancient,  and  King's  College  the  noblest 
foundation  in  Europe,  and  the  chapel  one  of  the  finest  pieces  of  Gothic  architecture 
in  the  world. 


COLLBOaS. 

Christ  Collie,  founded    .  a.d.  1442 

[Endowed    by  Margaret,   counteaB    ot 

Richmond,  motho'  of  Henry  VIL] 
Corpus  Christl,  or  Benet   .         .         .    .  1351 
Downing  College,  by  sir  George  Downing, 

by  will,  in  1717 ;  its  charter       .         .  1800 
Emmanuel  College,  by  sir  Walter  Mild- 
may      1584 

Gonville  or  Caius,  by  Edmund  Gonvil  .  1348 
Enlarged  by  Dr.  John  Caius  in  .  .  1557 
Jesus  College,  by  the  bishop  of  Ely  .  1496 
King's  College  by  Henry  VI.  .  .  .  1441 
Magdalene  College,  by  Stafford,  duke  of 

Buckingham 1519 

Peterhouse  College,  by  Hugo  de  Balsham  1257 


Queen's  College,  by  Margaret  of  Anjou. 

oonsert  of  Henry  VI. 
St.  John's  College,  endowed  by  Margaret, 

countess  of  Richmond    .  .    . 

Sldney-SosMX  CoUege,  founded  1^  F. 

Sidney,  countess  of  Sussex 
Trinity  CoUege,  by  Henry  VllL  .    . 

HAhia. 
Catherine  Hall,  founded  .    . 

Clare  Hall,  first  by  Dr.  Richard  Baden« 

in  1326 ;  destroyed  by  fire,  and  re-ea-. 

tablished  by  Elisabeth  de  Burg  . 
Pembroke  Hall,  founded  by  the  ooun- 

tesa  of  Pembroke       .        .        .        . 
Trinity  Hall,   by  WUliam   fiateman, 

bishop  of  Norwich 


1448 

1511 

1593 
1546 

1475 


1344 


1343 


1351 


In  1687,  the  university  refused  the  degree  of  M.A.  to  father  Francis,  aBenediotine 
monk,  recommended  by  the  king ;  and  the  presidency  of  Magdalene  college  was 
also  refused  to  Fr.-mer,  a  Roman  catholic,  notwithstanding  the  mandate  of  the 
infatuated  James,  same  year. 

CAMDEN,  Battles  of.  The  first  battle  between  general  Gates  and  lord  Comwallis, 
the  former  commanding  the  revolted  Americans,  who  were  defeated,  was  fought 
August  16, 1780.  The  second  battle  between  general  Greene  and  lord  Rawdon,  when 
the  Americans  were  again  defeated,  April  25,  1781.  Camden  was  evacuated,  and 
burnt  by  the  British,  May  13,  1781. 

CAMELLIA.    Lady  Banks'  conservatory  plant,  brought  hither  from  China,  in  181 1. 

CAMERA  LUCIDA.  Invented  by  Dr.  Hooke,  about  1674.— FToorf'f  Ath.  Ox, 
Also  an  instrument  invented  by  Dr.  Wollaston,  in  1807.  The  camera  obscure,  or 
dark  chamber,  was  invented,  it  is  believed,  by  the  celebrated  Roger  Bacon,  in  1297 ;  it 
was  improved  by  Baptists  Porta,  the  writer  on  natural  magic,  about  1500. — Moreri. 
Sir  I.  Newton  remodelled  it.  By  the  recent  invention  of  M.  Daguerre,  the  pictures 
of  the  camera  are  rendered  permanent ;  this  last  was  produced  in  1 839. 

CAMERON  I ANS.  A  sect  in  Scotland  which  separated  from  the  Presbyterians,  and 
continued  to  bold  their  religious  meetings  in  the  fields. — Burnet,  The  name 
of  Cameronians  proudly  distinguishes  some  of  the  brave  regiments  of  native  Scotch 
in  the  British  army. 

CAMLET.  This  stuff  was  originally  made  of  silk  and  camel's  hair,  but  now  it  is 
manufactured  of  wool,  hair,  and  silk.  Camlet  is  mentioned  by  writers  of  the  middle 
ages,  as  a  stuff  prepared  from  earners  hair  alone.  The  true  oriental  camlet  first 
came  to  these  countries  from  Portuguese  India,  in  1660. — Anderson, 

CAMP.  All  the  early  warlike  nations  had  camps,  which  are  consequently  most  ancient. 
The  disposition  of  the  Hebrew  encampment  was,  we  are  told,  at  first  laid  out  by 
God  himself.    The  last  camp  in  England  was  formed  at  Hyde  Park,  in  1745. 

CAMPE ACHY-BAY.     Discovered  about  a.d.  1520;  it  was  taken  by  the  English  in 


CAM  Q  102  ]  CAN 

1659 ;  and  was  taken  by  the  Buccaneers,  in  1678 ;  and  by  the  freebooters  of  St. 
Domingo,  in  1685.  These  last  burnt  the  town  and  blew  up  the  citadel.  The  English 
logwood  cutters  made  their  settlement  here,  in  1662. 

CAMPERDOWN,  Battle  of.  Memorable  engagement  off  Camperdown,  south  of 
the  Texel,  and  signal  victory  obtained  by  the  British  fleet,  under  admiral  Duncan, 
over  the  Dutch  fleet,  commanded  by  admiral  de  Winter ;  the  latter  losing  fifteen 
ships,  which  were  either  taken  or  destroyed  ;  this  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  naval 
achievements  of  the  late  war,  October  11,1 797.  This  victory  obtained  the  brave  amd 
good  British  admiral  a  peerage  *. 

CAMPO  FORMIO,  Treaty  of,  concluded  between  France  and  Austria,  the  latter 
power  yielding  the  Low  Countries  and  the  Ionian  Islands  to  France,  and  Milan, 
Mantua,  and  Modena  to  the  Cisalpine  republic.  This  memorable  and  humiliating 
treaty  resulted  from  the  ill  success  of  Austria  on  the  Rhine.  By  a  secret  article, 
however,  the  emperor  took  possession  of  the  Venetian  dominions  in  compensation 
for  the  Netherlands,  Oct.  17,  1797. 

CANADA.  This  country  was  discovered  by  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot,  a.d.  1497,  and 
was  settled  by  the  French,  in  1608,  but  it  had  been  previously  visited  by  them. 
Canada  was  taken  by  the  English,  in  1628,  but  was  restored  in  1631.  It  was  again 
conquered  by  the  English,  in  1759,  and  was  confirmed  to  them  by  the  peace  of  1763. 
This  country  was  divided  into  two  provinces.  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  in  1791  ; 
and  it  was  during  the  debates  on  this  bill  in  the  British  parliament,  that  the  quarrel 
between  Mr.  Burke  and  Mr.  Fox  arose.  Mr.  Fox  seemed  anxious  for  a  reconciliation^ 
but  Mr.  Burke  rejected  it  with  disdain.  Canada  made  a  bishopric,  in  1793.  In  the 
war  of  1812,  the  Americans  invaded  Canada  at  different  points,  with  30,000  men, 
but  they  were  forced  to  retire  after  several  sanguinary  battles,  discomfited  in  their 
attempts  to  reduce  the  country.  The  tide  of  emigration  rapidly  increased  here, 
from  the  summer  of  1820. 

CANADIAN  INSURRECTION.  The  Papineau  rebellion  commenced  at  Montreal, 
Dec.  6,  1837.  The  Canadian  rebels  came  to  an  engagement  at  St.  Eustace, 
Dec.  14,  following.  See  St.  Eustace,  The  insurgents  surrounded  Toronto,  and 
were  repulsed  by  the  governor,  sir  Francis  Head,  Jan.  5,  1838.  Appointment  of 
Lord  Durham  as  governor  general,  Jan.  16,  1838.  Lount  and  Mathews  hanged 
aa  traitors,  April  12,  1838.  Lord  Durham  announced  his  resolve  to  resign  his 
government,  Oct.  9,  1838,  and  immediately  returned  to  Europe.  The  spirit  of 
rebellion  again  manifested  itself  in  Beauharnais,  Nov.  3,  1838.  The  insurgents 
concentrated  at  Napierville  under  command  of  Nelson  and  others,  Nov.  6 ;  some 
skirmishes  took  place,  and  they  were  routed  with  the  loss  of  many  killed  and  several 
hundred  prisoners.  Sir  John  Colborne  announced  the  suppression  of  the  rebellion 
in  his  despatches  dated  Nov.  17,  1838.  An  act  to  make  temporary  provision  for  the 
government  of  Lower  Canada  passed  Feb.  1838,  and  was  amended  by  act  2  and  3 
Victoria,  Aug.  1839. 

CANALS.  The  most  stupendous  in  the  world  is  a  canal  in  China,  which  passes  over 
2000  miles,  and  to  41  cities,  commenced  in  the  tenth  century.  The  canal  of  Lan- 
guedoc  which  joins  the  Mediterranean  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean  was  commenced  in 
1666.  That  of  Orleans,  from  the  Loire  to  the  Seine,  commenced  in  1675.  That 
between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Baltic,  commenced  1709.  That  from  Stockholm 
to  Gottenburg,  commenced  1751.  That  between  the  Baltic  and  North  Sea  at  Kiel, 
opened  1785.  That  of  Bourbon,  between  the  Seine  and  Oise,  commenced  1790. 
The  great  American  Erie  canal,  330  miles  in  length,  was  commenced  in  1817.  The 
first  canal  made  in  England  was  by  Henry  I.,  when  the  river  Trent  was  joined  to  the 
Witham,  a.d.  1134.  The  most  remarkable  canals  in  Great  Britain  are  the 
following : — 

*  The  unaffected  piety,  and  Christian  example  (one  of  the  objects  of  that  piety)  of  this  illustrious 
oommander,  are  recorded  by  his  biographers  with  respect  and  admiration :  When  the  victory  was 
decided,  he  ordered  the  crew  of  his  ship  to  be  called  together,  and  feeling  it  an  honour  to  be  a  Christian, 
and  encouraging  religion  by  his  own  practice,  he  knelt  at  their  head,  and  upon  his  bended  knees*  and 
in  the  presence  of  the  captured  Dutch  admiral,  (who  was  greatly  affected  by  the  scene,)  he  solemnly 
and  pathetically  offered  up  praise  and  thanksgiving  to  the  Oon  of  Battles  for  his  success,  strongly 
illustrating  the  truth,  that  piety  and  courage  reside  together  in  the  hearts  of  the  truly  great  Lord 
Duncan  died  suddenly  on  his  way  to  Edinburgh,  Aug.  4, 1804. 


CAN 


Cl03] 


CAN 


CANALS,  eanHnued. 

New  Riyer  canal  oommenoed    •        aj».  1006 
Brought  to  London  .         .         .1614 

Thames  made  navigable  to  Oxford      .    .  1624 
Kennet  made  navigable  from  Newbury 

to  Reading 1715 

Lagan  navigation  commenced    .        .    .  1755 
Caermarthenshire  canal  .         .  17M 

Droitwitch  to  the  Severn  .        .    .  1756 

Duke  of  Bridgewater's  navigation  (first 

great  canal),  commenced    .        .        .  1758 
Northampton  navigation            .         .    .  176) 
Dublin  to  the  Shannon  (the  Gruid)  com- 
menced      1765 

Opened  to  Sallins,  1782. 
Staffordafaire,  commenced  .    .  1766 

Forth  to  Clyde,  commenced  .         .  1768 

Birmingham  to  Bilston  .    .  1768 

Oxford  to  Coventry,  commenced  .  1769 

Lea  made  navigable  from  Hertford  to 


Ware,  1739;  to  London 
Leeds  to  Liverpool 
Tk-ent  and  Mersey     . 
Basingstoke  canal,  conmienced 
Liverpool  to  Wigan 
Stroud  to  the  Severn     . 
Staffordshire  canal,  commenced 
Stourbridge  canal,  completed 
Runcorn  to  Manchester     . 


1770 
1770 
1772 
1772 
1774 
1775 
1776 
1776 
1776 


Chesterfield  to  the  Trent  •  aji.  1777 

Belfast  to  Loogh  Neagh     .  .    .  1783 

Thames  to  Leachdale  ....  1783 
Sallins  to  Monastereven     .  .    .  1786 

Dublin  to  the  Shannon  (Royal)  .  .  1788 
Severn  to  the  Thames,  completed  .  .  1789 
Glasgow  to  the  Clyde,  opened  .  1790 

Grand  Junction  canal  .    .  179U 

Birmingham  and  Coventi7  .        .  1790 

Monastereven  to  Athy       .  .    .  1791 

Hereford  and  Gloucester  .  .  .  17y6 
Paddington  canal,  commenced  .    .  1796 

Kennet  and  Avon,  opened  .        .  1790 

Peak-forest  canal,  completed  .    .  180U 

Thames  to  Fenny  Stratford  .  1800 

Buckingham  canal 1801 

Brecknock  canal  ....  1802 

Caledonian  canal  (the  Great)  oomnienoed  1803 
Bllesmere  aqueduct  •         .         .    .  1805 

New  River,  <>pened  ....  1815 
Wey  and  Avon  canal  .    .  1816 

Sheffield  canal 1819 

The  Regent's  canal            .  .    .  1820 
Caledonian  canal,  opened      .        .        .  1H24 
Gloucester  and  Berkeley  ship  canal ,  com- 
pleted                .  1827 

Norwich    and    Lowestoft    navigation, 
opened 1831 


In  England,  there  are  2800  miles  of  canals,  and  2500  miles  of  rivers,  taking  the 
length  of  those  only  that  are  navigable — total»  5300  miles.  In  Ireland,  there  are  but 
300  miles  of  canals  ;  150  of  navigable  rivers,  and  60  miles  of  the  Shannon^  navigable 
below  Limerick,  making  in  all  510  miles. —  Williams. 

CAN  ARIL  ^  A  people  near  Mount  Atlas  in  Africa,  who  received  this  name  because 
they  fed  in  common  with  their  dogs.  The  islands  which  they  inhabited  were  called 
Fortunate  by  the  ancients,  and  are  now  known  by  the  name  of  the  Canaries. 
See  nejpt  article. 

CANARY  ISLANDS.  These  islands  were  known  to  the  ancients  as  the  Fortunate 
Isles.  The  first  meridian  was  referred  to  the  Canary  isles  by  Hipparchus,  about  140 
B.C.  They  were  re-discovered  by  a  Norman,  namra  Bethenconrt,  a.d.  1402  ;  and 
were  seized  by  the  Spaniards,  who  planted  vines,  which  flourish  here,  about  1420. 
The  canary-bird,  so  much  esteemed  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  is  a  native  of  these  isles ; 
it  was  brought  into  England,  in  1500.  The  Canary  bellflower  {Canarina  campo' 
nula)  came  thither  in  1696. 

CANDIA,  the  ancient  Crete,  whose  centre  is  Mount  Ida,  so  famous  in  history.  It  was 
seized  by  the  Saracens,  a.d.  808,  when  they  changed  its  name.  Taken  by  the 
Greeks,  in  961 ;  sold  to  the  Venetians,  1194,  and  held  by  them  until  the  Turks  ob- 
tained it,  after  a  24  years*  siege,  during  which  more  than  200,000  men  perished,  1669. 

CANDLB.  The  Roman  candles  were  composed  of  strings  surrounded  by  wax,  or 
dipped  in  pitch.  Splinters  of  wood,  fatted,  were  used  for  light  among  the  lower 
classes  in  England  about  a.d.  1300.  At  this  time  wax  candles  were  little  used,  and 
esteemed  a  luxury,  and  dipped  candles  usually  burnt  The  wax-chandlers'  com- 
pany was  incorporated,  1484.  Mould  candles  are  said*  to  be  the  invention  of  the 
sieur  Le  Brez  of  Paris.  Spermaceti  candles  are  of  modern  manufacture.  The 
Chinese  candles  (see  Candleberry  Myrtle)  are  made  from  the  berries  of  a  tree,  and 
they  universally  bum  this  wax,  which  is  fragrant,  and  yields  a  bright  light.  The 
duty  upon  candles  in  England  amounted,  previouily  to  the  abolition  of  the  impost, 
to  about  500,000/.  annually ;  it  was  repealed  by  statute,  1  and  2  William  IV.  and 
the  makers  were  placed  upon  the  same  footing  as  melters  of  tallow,  1831. 

CANDLE,  SALE  by  INCH  of  :  The  custom  of  selling  at  public  auctions  by  inch  of 
candle,  is  said  to  have  been  borrowed  from  the  church  of  Rome,  where  there  is  an 
excommunication  by  inch  of  candle,  and  the  sinner  is  allowed  to  come  to  repentance, 
before  final  excommunication,  while  yet  the  candle  burns. 


CAN  [  104  ]  CAN 

• 
CANDLEBERRY  MYRTLE.  Plants  of  this  extraordinary  tree  came  to  this  country 
from  N.  America,  in  1699.  The  tree  is  foond,  in  perfection,  at  Nankin,  in  China, 
where  it  flourishes  in  heautiful  blossoms,  and  fruit.  The  latter  when  ripe,  is  gathered 
and  thrown  into  boiling  water,  the  white  unctuous  substance  which  covers  the 
kernels  is  thereby  detached,  and  swims  at  the  top  ;  it  is  skimmed  off  and  purified 
by  a  second  boiling,  when  it  becomes  transparent,  and  of  a  consistence  between 
tallow  and  wax,  and  is  converted  into  candles. 

CANDLEMAS-DAY.  A  feast  instituted  by  the  early  Christians,  who  consecrated  on 
this  day  all  the  tapers  and  candles  used  in  churches  during  the  year.  It  is  kept  in 
the  reformed  church  in.  memory  of  the  purification  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  who,  sub- 
mitting to  the  law  under  which  she  lived,  presented  the  infant  Jesus  in  the  Temple. 
Owing  to  the  abundance  of  light,  this  festival  was  called  Candlemas,  as  well  as  the 
Purification.  The  practice  of  lighting  the  churches  was  discontinued  by  English  Pro- 
testants by  an  order  of  council  2  Edward  VI.  1548 ;  but  it  is  stiU  continued  in  the 
charch  of  Rome. 

CANDY,  IN  Ceylon.  In  an  expedition  against  it,  a  whole  British  detachment  which 
took  possession  Feb.  20,  1803,  capitulated  June  23,  following,  anxious  to  evacuate 
the  place  on  account  of  its  unheakhiness,  and  the  perfidy  of  the  Candians  ;  but  on 
the  third  ctay  they  were  treacherously  massacred  at  Colombo  or  imprisoned.  The 
war  against  the  natives  was  renewed  in  October  1814.  The  king  was  vanquished 
and  made  prisoner,  by  general  Brownrigg,  Feb.  19,  1815  ;  he  was  deposed,  and  the 
sovereignty  vested  in  Great  Britain,  March  2,  1815. 

CANNiE,  Battle  of.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  in  history,  and  most  fatal  to  the 
Romans.  Hannibal  commanded  on  one  side  50,000  Africans,  Gauls,  and  Spaniards  ; 
and  Paulus  iEmilius  and  Terentius  Varro,  88,000  Romans,  of  whom  40,000  were 
slain. — Livy.  The  victor,  Hannibal,  sent  three  bushels  of  rings,  taken  from  the 
Roman  knights  on  the  field,  as  a  trophy  to  Carthage.  Neither  party  perceived  an 
awful  earthquake  which  occurred  during  the  battle.  The  place  is  now  denominated 
the  field  of  blood  ;  fought  May  21,  216  B.C. — Bossuet. 

CANNIBALISM  has  prevailed  from  the  remotest  times.  The  Greeks  inform  us  that 
it  was  a  primitive  and  universal  custom,  and  many  of  the  South  American  tribes 
and  natives  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  eat  human  flesh  at  the  present  day,  and  the 
propensity  for  it  prevails  more  or  less  in  all  savage  nations.  St.  Jerome  says,  that 
some  British  tribes  ate  human  flesh  ;  and  the  Scots  from  Galloway  killed  and  eat 
the  English  in  the  reign  of  Henry  [.  The  Scythians  were  drinkers  of  human  blood. 
Columbus  found  cannibals  in  America.     See  Anthropophagi. 

CANNON.  They  are  said  to  have  been  used  as  early  as  a.d.  1338.  According  to 
some  of  our  historians  they  were  used  at  the  battle  of  Cressy  in  1346  ;  but  this 
Voltaire  disputes.  They  are  said  to  have  been  used  by  the  English  at  the  siege  of 
Calais,  1347.  Cannon  were  first  used  in  the  English  service  by  the  governor  of 
Calais,  6  Richard  II.  1383. — Rymer's  Fcedera,  Louis  XIV.  upon  setting  out  on 
his  disastrous  campaign  against  the  Dutch,  inscribed  upon  his  cannon,  "  The  last 
argument  of  kings."     See  Artillery. 

CANNON,  Remarkable.  The  largest  known  piece  of  ordnance  is  of  brass,  cast  in 
India  in  1685.  At  Ehrenbreitstein  castle,  one  of  the  strongest  forts  in  Germany, 
opposite  Coblentz  on  the  Rhine,  is  a  prodigious  cannon  eighteen  feet  and  a  half 
long,  a  foot  and  a  hAlf  in  diameter  in  the  bore,  and  three  feet  four  inches  in  the 
breech.  The  ball  made  for  it  weighs  IBOlbs.  and  its  charge  of  powder  941b.  The 
inscription  on  it  shows  that  it  was  made  by  one  Simon,  in  1529.  In  Dover  castle  is 
a  brass  gun  called  queen  Elizabeth's  pocket-pistol,  which  was  presented  to  her  by 
the  States  of  Holland  ;  this  piece  is  24  feet  long,  and  is  beautifully  ornamented, 
having  on  it  the  arms  of  the  States,  and  a  motto  in  Dutch,  importing  thus, 

**  Charge  me  well  and  sponge  me  clean, 
I'll  throw  a  ball  to  Calais  Green." 

Some  fine  specimens  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Tower.  A  leathern  cannon  was  fired  three 
times  in  the  King's  Park,  Edinburgh,  Oct.  23,  17 SS.-— Phillips.  The  Turkish 
piece,  now  in  St.  James's  Park,  was  taken  by  the  French  at  AlexandriA,  bat  was 
retaken,  and  placed  there  in  March,  1803. 

CANON.  The  first  ecclesiastical  canon  was  promulgated,  a.d.  380. — Usher.  Ca- 
nonical hours  for  prayer  were  instituted  in  391.    The  dignity  of  canon  existed  not 


CAN  f  105  ]  CAP 

.  previously  to  the  rule  of  Charlemagne,  about  768. — Patchier.  Canon  law  was  fiist 
introduced  into  Europe  by  Gratian,  the  celebrated  canon  Uw  author,  in  1151 ;  and 
was  introduced  into  England,  19  Stephen,  1154. — Siowe. 

CANONIZATION  of  pious  men  and  martyrs  as  saints,  was  instituted  in  the  Romish 
church  by  pope  Leo  III.  in  800. — TalletWa  TabU»»  Saints  have  so  accumulated, 
every  day  in  the  calendar  is  now  a  saint's  day. — HenauiL 

CANTERBURY.  The  Durovemum  of  the  Romans,  and  capital  of  Ethelbert,  king 
of  Kent,  who  reigned  a.d.  568.  Its  early  cathedral  was  erected  during  the  Heptarchy, 
and  was  several  times  burnt,  and  rebuilt.  It  was  onee  famous  for  the  shrine  of 
fiecket  (see  Becket)  and  within  it  are  interred  Henry  lY.  and  Edward  the  Black 
Prince.  During  the  rebellion  against  Charles  I.  the  usurper  Cromwell  made  it  a 
stable  for  his  dragoons.  The  cathedral  was  built  1184.  St.  Martin's  church  here 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  erection  for  Christian  worship  in  Britain ;  but  this 
is  doubted.  The  riot  at  Boughton,  near  Canterbury,  produced  by  a  fanatic  called 
Thom,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Sir  William  Courtenay,  occurred  May  31, 1838. 
See  Thomites. 

CANTERBURY,  Archbishopric  op.  This  see  was  settled  by  St.  Austin,  who 
preached  the  gospel  in  England  a.d.  596,  and  converted  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent. 
The  king,  animated  with  zeal  for  his  new  religion,  bestowed  great  favours  upon 
Austin,  who  fixed  his  residence  in  the  capital  of  Ethelbert's  dominions.  The  church 
was  made  a  cathedral,  and  consecrated  to  Christ,  although  it  was  formerly  called  St. 
Thomas,  from  Thomas  £i  Becket,  murdered  at  its  altar,  December  1171.  The  arch- 
bishop is  primate  and  metropolitan  of  all  England,  and  is  the  first  peer  in  the  realm, 
having  precedency  of  all  officers  of  state,  and  of  all  dukes  not  of  the  blood  royal. 
Canterbury  bad  formerly  jurisdiction  over  Ireland,  and  the  archbishop  was  styled  a 
patriarch.  This  see  hath  yielded  to  the  church  of  Rome,  18  saints  and  9  cardinals  } 
and  to  the  civil  state  of  England,  12  lord  chancellors  and  4  lord  treasurers. 
St.  Austin  was  the  first  bishop,  596.  The  see  was  made  superior  to  York,  1073. — 
See  York.     The  revenue  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  £2816.  17«.  9//. — Beatacn. 

CANTHARIDES.  A  venomous  kind  of  insects  which,  when  dried  and  pulverised,  are 
used  principally  to  raise  blisters.  They  were  first  introduced  into  medical  practice 
by  Aretseus,  a  physician  of  Cappadocia,  about  50  B.C. — Freind's  Hiaiary  of  Phytie. 

CANTON.  The  only  city  in  China  with  which  Europeans  have  "been  allowed  up  to 
the  present  time  to  trade.  Merchants  first  arrived  here  for  this  purpose  in  1517. 
Nearly  every  nation  has  a  factory  at  Canton,  but  that  of  England  surpasses  all 
others  in  elegance  and  extent.  Various  particulars  relating  to  this  city  will  be 
found  under  the  article  Chma.  In  1822,  a  fire  destroyed  15,000  houses  at  Canton ; 
and  an  inundation  swept  away  10,000  houses  and  more  than  1000  persons 
in  October  1833. 

CAOUTCHOUC,  or  Indian  Rvbbbr,  is  an  elastic  resinous  substance  that  exudes  by 
incision  from  two  plants  that  grow  in  Cayenne,  Quito,  and  the  Brazils,  called  Havia 
caoutchouc  and  Siphonia  eiasticat  and  vulgarly  called  syringe  trees.  It  was  first 
brought  to  Europe  from  South  America,  about  1733. — See  India  Rubber. 

CAP.  The  Romans  went  for  many  ages,  without  regular  covering  for  the  head,  and  hence 
the  heads  of  all  the  ancient  statues  appear  bare.  But  at  one  period  the  cap  was  a 
symbol  of  liberty,  and  when  the  Romans  gave  it  to  their  slaves  it  entitled  them  to 
freedom.  The  cap  was  sometimes  used  as  a  mark  of  infamy,  and  in  Italy  the  Jews 
were  distinguished  by  a  yellow  cap.  and  in  France  those  who  had  been  bankrupts 
were  for  ever  after  obliged  to  wear  a  green  cap.  The  general  use  of  caps  and  hats  is 
referred  to  the  year  1449  ;  the  first  seen  in  these  parts  of  the  world  being  at  the 
entry  of  Charles  VII.  into  Rouen,  from  which  time  they  took  the  place  of  chaperons 
or  hoods.  The  velvet  cap  was  called  mortier  ;  the  wool  cap.  bonnet.  The  clerical 
or  university  square  cap  was  invented  by  Patrouillet. — See  Capper. 

CAPE  BRETON,  discovered  by  the  English  in  1584.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  in 
1632,  but  was  afterwards  restored  ;  and  again  taken  in  1745  ;  and  re-taken  in  1748. 
It  was  finally  possessed  by  the  English,  when  the  garrison  and  marines,  consisting 
of  5600  men,  were  made  prisoners  of  war,  and  eleven  ships  of  the  French  navy  were 
captured  or  destroyed,  1758.     Ceded  to  England  at  the  peace  of  1763. 

CAPE  COAST  CASTLE,  settled  by  the  Portuguese,  in  1610 :  but  it  soon  fell  to  the 
Dutch.     It  was  demolished  by  admiral  Holmes,  in  1661.     All  the  British  settle- 


CAP C  106] CAP 

mentSy  factories,  and  shipping  along  the  coast  were  destroyed  by  the  Dutch  admiral, 
de  Rnyter,  in  1665.  This  Cape  was  confirmed  to  the  English  by  the  treaty  of  Breda, 
in  1667. 

CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE  ;  the  geographical  and  commercial  centre  of  the  East  Indies: 
it  was  discovered  by  Bartholomew  Diaz,  in  1486,  and  was  originally  called  the  **  Cape 
of  Tempests/'  and  was  also  named  the  '*  Lion  of  the  Sea,"  and  the  *'  Head  of  Africa." 
The  name  was  changed  by  John  II.,  King  of  Portugal,  who  augured  favourably  of 
future  discoveries  from  Diaz  having  reached  the  extremity  of  Africa.  The  Cape  was 
doubled,  and  the  passage  to  India  discovered  by  Yasco  di  Gama,  July  9,  1497. 
Planted  by  the  Dutch,  1651.  Taken  by  the  English,  under  admiral  Elphinstone 
and  general  Clarke,  Sept.  16,  1795,  and  restored  at  the  peace  in  1802  ;  again  taken 
by  sir  David  Baird  and  sir  Home  Popbam,  Jan.  8,  1806 ;  and  finally  ceded  to  Eng- 
land in  1814.  Emigrants  began  to  arrive  here  from  Britain  in  March,  1820.  The 
Caffres  have  made  several  irruptioos  on  the  British  settlements  here  y  and  they 
committed  dreadful  ravages  at  Grahamstown,  in  Oct.  1834. 

CAPE  DE  YERD  ISLANDS.  These  islands  were  known  to  the  ancients  under  the 
name  of  Gorgades ;  but  were  not  visited  by  the  moderns  till  discovered  by  Antonio 
de  Noli,  a  Genoese  navigator  in  the  service  of  Portugal,  a.d.  1446. 

GAPE  ST.  YINCENT,  Battles  of.  Admiral  Rooke,  with  twenty  ships  of  war,  and 
the  Turkey  fleet  under  his  convoy,  was  attacked  by  admiral  Tourville,  with  a  force 
vastly  superior  to  his  own,  off  Cape  St.  Yincent,  when  twelve  English  and  Dutch 
men-of>war,  and  eighty  merchantmen,  were  captured  or  destroyed  by  the  French, 
June  16,  1693.  Battle  of  Cape  St.  Yincent,  one  of  the  most  glorious  achievements 
of  the  British  navy.  Sir  John  Jervis,  being  in  command  of  the  Mediterranean  fleet 
of  fifteen  sail,  gave  battle  to  the  Spanish  .fleet  of  twenty-seven  ships  of  the  line  off 
this  Cape,  and  signally  defeated  the  enemy,  nearly  double  in  strength,  taking  four 
ships,  and  destroying  several  others,  Feb.  14, 1797'  For  this  victory  Sir  John  was 
raised  to  the  English  peerage^  by  the  titles  of  baron  Jervis  and  earl  St.  Yincent,  with 
a  pension  of  3000/.  a  year. 

CAPET,  House  of,  the  third  race  of  the  kings  of  France.  Hugo  Capet,  count  of 
Paris  and  Orleans,  the  first  of  this  race  (which  was  called  from  him  Capevigians),  was 
raised  to  the  throne  for  his  military  valour,  and  public  virtues,  a.d.  987. — HenauU. 

CAPITOL,  the  principal  fortress  of  ancient  Rome,  in  which  a  temple  was  built  to 
Jupiter,  thence  called  Jupiter  CapUolinus,  The  foundation  laid  by  Tarquinius 
Prisons,  616  b.c.  The  Roman  Consuls  made  large  donations  to  this  temple,  and  the 
emperor  Augustus  bestowed  2000  pounds  weight  of  gold,  of  which  precious  metal 
the  roof  was  composed,  whilst  its  thresholds  were  of  brass,  and  its  interior  was 
decorated  with  shields  of  solid  silver.  Destroyed  by  lightning,  188  B.C.  ;  by  fire, 
A.D.  70.     The  Capitoline  games  instituted  by  Domitian,  a.d.  86. 

CAPPADOCIA.  This  kingdom  was  founded  by  Pharnaces,  744  b.c.  The  successors 
of  Pharnaces  are  almost  wholly  unknown,  until  about  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  after  whose  death  Eumenes,  by  defeating  Ariarathes  II.  became  king  of 
Cappadocia. 

Pharnaces  is  declared  king         .        b.c.  744 

His  succefiaors  are  unknown  for  nearly 

three  centuries. 

*  ;ll^  *  ilf  ^  * 

Reign  of  Ariarathes  1 362 

Ferdiccas  takes  Cappadocia,  and  Ariara- 
thes is  crucified 392 

Defeat  of  the  Farthians  .'        .         .  217 

Irruption  of  the  Trocmi      .        .         .    .  164 

Mithridates,  sumamed  Philopator,  as- 
cends the  throne  ....  162 

Orophemes  dethrones  Philopator         .    .  161 

Attalus  assists  Philopator,  and  Oro- 
phemes dethroned      *.         .         .         .  154 

Philopator  joins  the  Romans  against  Aris* 
tonicus,  and  perishes  in  battle  .    .  153 

His  queen  Laodice,  desirous  of  usurping 

CAPPER,  or  HATTER.  A  statute  was^possed  that  none  should  sell  any  hat  above  20dL 
nor  cap  above  2s.  Bd.,  5  Henry  VlT.,  1489.     Caps  were  first  worn  at  the  entry  of 


the  throne,  poisons  five  of  her  own  ebil« 
dren,  the  sixth  and  only  remaining  child 
is  saved,  and  the  queen  put  to  death     .  153 
This  young  prince  reigns  as  Ariarathes 

VIL 153 

Gordius  assassinates  Ariarathes  Vn.    .    .    97 
Ariarathes  YIII.  assassinated  .         .    96 

Cappadocia  declared  a  free  country  by 

the  senate  of  Rome  .  .    .    96 

The  people  elect  a  new  king  Ariobar^ 

zanesl. 9i 

His  son,  Ariobarzanes  U.  reigns      .         •    65 
He  is  dethroned  by  Marc  Antony        .    .    38 
Archelaus,  the  last  king  of  Cappadocia, 
dies,  and  bequeaths  his  kingdom  to  the 
Roman  empire       .        .        .        ajk    17 


CAP [^  107  ] CAR 

Charles  VII.  into  Rouen,  1449.  A  law  was  enacted  that  every  person  above  seven  jeart 
of  age  should  wear  on  Sundays  and  holidays  a  cap  of  wool,  knit,  made,  thickened,  and 
dressed  in  England  by  some  of  the  trade  of  cappers,  under  the  forfeiture  of  three  far- 
things for  every  day's  neglect,  1571.  From  this  law  the  following  persons  were 
excepted  :  maids,  ladies,  and  gentlewomen,  and  every  lord,  knight,  and  gentleman, 
of  twenty  marks  of  land,  and  their  heirs,  and  such  as  had  borne  office  of  worship, 
in  any  city,  town,  or  place,  snd  the  warden  of  the  London  companies. — See  Cap* 
CAPRI.  The  Caprese  of  the  Romans,  and  memorable  as  the  residence  of  Tiberius,  and 
for  the  debaucheries  he  committed  in  this  once  delightful  retreat,  during  the  seven 
last  years  of  his  life  :  it  was  embellished  by  him  with  a  sumptuous  palace,  and  most 
magni6cent  works.     Capri  was  taken  by  sir  Sidney  SmiUi,  April  22,  1806. 

CAPUCHIN  FRIARS.  A  sort  of  Franciscans  to  whom  this  name  was  given,  from 
their  wearing  a  great  Capuchon,  or  cowl,  which  is  an  odd  kind  of  cap,  or  hood,  sewn 
to  their  habit,  and  hanging  down  upon  their  backs.  The  Capuchins  were  founded 
by  Matthew  Baschi,  about  a.d.  1525.  Although  the  rigours  of  this  order  have  abated, 
'still  the  brethren  are  remarkable  for  their  extreme  poverty  and  privations. — Ashe. 

CAR.  Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Ericthonius  of  Athens,  about  1486  B.C.  The 
Covered  cars  (currtM  arcuati)  were  in  use  among  the  Romans.  Triumphal  cars 
were  introduced  by  Romulus,  according  to  some ;  and  by  Tarquin  the  Elder,  accord- 
ing to  others. 

CARACCAS.  One  of  the  early  Spanish  discoveries,  a.d.  1498.  The  province  declared 
its  independence  6(  Spain,  May  9,  1810.  In  1812,  it  was  visited  by  a  violent  con- 
vulsion of  nature ;  thousands  of  human  beings  were  lost ;  rocks  and  mountains  split, 
and  rolled  into  valleys ;  the  rivers  were  blackened,  or  their  courses  changed  ;  and 
many  towns  swallowed  up,  and  totally  destroyed. 

CARBON  A  RI .  A  dangerous  and  powerful  society  in  Italy,  a  substitute  for  freemasonry, 
which  committed  the  most  dreadful  outrages,  and  spread  terror  in  several  states  ; 
they  were  suppressed,  however,  by  the  Austrian  government  in  Sept.,  1820. 

CARBONIC  ACID  GAS.  This  is  a  product  of  fermentation,  and  being  heavier  than 
air,  it  lies  over  all  fermentive  processes,  puts  out  a  candle,  and  produces  suffocation. 
Carbonate  of  soda  is  formed  by  passing  a  current  of  carbonic  acid  into  a  solution  of 
soda ;  and  it  becomes  a  hard  solid  mass.  Newton  considered  flame  a  red-hot  smoke ; 
but  modem  science  regards  it  as  the  place  where  oxygen  unites  with  hydrogen  and 
carbon ;  and  the  diminution  of  volumes  transfers  an  atomic  excitement  to  the  carboa 
which  radiates  or  protrudes  light,  the  fixation  of  the  gases  causing  the  heat  as  long 
as  the  hydrogen  is  evolved. 

CARDINALS.  They  are  properly  the  council  of  the  pope,  and  constitute  the  conclave 
or  sacred  college.  At  first  they  were  only  the  principal  priests,  or  incumbents  of 
the  parishes  in  Rome.  On  this  fxK>ting  they  continued  till  the  eleventh  century. 
They  did  not  acquire  the  exclusive  power  of  electing  the  popes  till  a.d.  1160.  They 
first  wore  the  red  hat  to  remind  them  that  they  ought  to  shed  their  blood,  if  required, 
for  religion,  and  were  declared  princes  of  the  church,  by  Innocent  IV.,  1243.  Paul 
II.  gave  the  scarlet  habit,  1464.  And  Urban  VIII.  the  title  of  Eminence  in  1630  ; 
some  say,  in  1623. — Du  Cange, 

CARDS.  Their  invention  is  referred  to  the  Romans ;  but  it  is  generally  supposed  that 
they  were  invented  in  France  about  the  year  1390,  to  amuse  Charles  VI.  during  the 
intervals  of  a  melancholy  disorder,  which  in  the  end  brought  him  to  his  grave.— 
MesSrai,  Hist,  de  France.  The  universal  adoption  of  an  amusement  which  was  in- 
vented for  a  fool,  is  no  very  favourable  specimen  of  wisdom. — Malkin,  Cards  are  of 
Spanish,  not  of  French  origin. — Dainet  Barringion.  Picquet  and  all  the  early 
games  are  French.  Cards  first  taxed  in  England,  1756.  428,000  packs  were 
stamped  in  1775,  and  986,000  in  1800.  In  1825,  the  duty  being  then  2«.  6<f.  per 
pack,  less  than  150«000  packs  were  stamped;  but  in  1827,  the  stamp  duty  was 
reduced  to  1«.,  and  310,854  packs  paid  duty  in  1830.  Duty  was  paid  on  239,200 
packs,  in  the  year  ending  5th  Jan.  1840. — Pari.  Reports. 

CARICATURES  originated,  it  is  said,  with  Bufalmaco,  an  Italian  painter :  he  first 
put  labels  to  the  mouths  of  his  figures  with  sentences,  since  followed  by  bad  mas- 
ters, but  more  particularly  in  caricature  engravings,  about  1330. — De  Piles.  A 
new  and  much  improved  style  of  caricatures  has  latterly  set  in  ;  and  the  productions 
in  this  way  of  a  clever  but  concealed  artist,  using  the  initials  H.  B.yare  political 
satires  of  considerable  humour  and  merit. 


OAR  Q  108  2  CAR 

CARLISLE.  The. frontier  town  and  key  of  England^  wherein  for  many  ages  a  strong 
garrison  was  kept.  Just  below  this  town  the  famous  Picts'  wall  began,  which 
crossed  the  whole  island  to  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  and  here '  also  ended  the  great 
Roman  highway.  The  great  chnrch,  called  St.  Mary's,  is  a  Tenerable  old  pile,  a 
great  part  of  it  was  bnilt  by  St.  David,  king  of  Scotland,  who  held  this  county,  toge- 
ther with  Westmoreland  and  Northumberland,  in  vassalage  from  the  crown  of  Eng- 
land ;  it  has  also  another  church,  called  Cuthbert's.  The  castle,  founded  in  109*2, 
by  William  II.,  was  made  the  prison  of  the  unfortunate  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  ia 
1568.     Taken  by  the  parliament  forces  in  1645,  and  by  the  pretender  in  1745. 

CARLISLE,  Skb  of,  erected  by  Henry  I.  in  1133,  and  made  suffragant  to  York.  The 
cathedral  had  been  founded  a  short  time  previously,  by  Walter,  deputy  in  these 
parts  for  William  Rufus.  The  church  was  almost  ruined  by  Cromwell  and  his  sol- 
diers, and  has  never  recovered  its  former  great  beauty,  although  repaired  after  the 
Restoration.  This,  see  has  given  to  the  civil  state  one  lord  chancellor,  and  two  lord 
treasurers  :  it  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  530/.  4«.  lid.  per  annum, 

CARLOW.    The  castle  here  was  erected  by  king  John.     It  surrendered  after  a  des- 
*    perate  siege  to  Rory  Oge  O'Moore,  in  1577.    Again  to  the  parliamentary  forces, 

in  1650.     Battle  between  the  royal  troops  and  the  insurgents,  the  latter  routed, 

May  27,  1798. 

CARLSBAD,  Congress  of,  on  the  affairs  of  Europe  :  The  popular  spirit  of  emanci- 
pation that  prevailed  in  many  of  the  states  of  Europe  against  despotic  government, 
led  to  this  congress,  in  which  various  resolutions  were  come  to,  denouncing  the 
press,  and  liberal  opinions,  and  in  which  the  great  continental  powers  decreed 
measures  to  repress  the  rage  for  limited  monarchies  and  free  institutions,  August 
1,  1819. 

CARMELITES,  or  White  Friars,  named  from  Mount  Carroel,  and  one  of  the  four 
orders  of  mendicants,  distinguished  by  austere  rules,  appeared  in  1141.  Their  rigour 
was  moderated  about  1540.  They  claim  their  descent  in  an  uninterrupted  suc- 
cession from  Elijah,  Elisha,  &c.  Mount  Carmel  has  a  monastery,  and  the  valley  of 
Sharon  lies  to  the  south  of  the  mount,  which  is  2000  feet  high,  shaped  like  a  flatted 
cone,  with  steep  and  barren  sides  :  it  is  often  referred  to  in  Jewish  histories. 

**  See  spioy  clouds  from  lowly  Sharon  rise. 
And  Carmel's  flowery  top  perfumes  the  skiea.**— Pope. 

CARNATIC.  This  country  of  Southern  Hindostan,  and  which  extends  along  the 
whole  coast  of  Coromandel,  is  now  under  the  control  of  British  power.  Hyder 
Ali  entered  the  Carnatic  with  80,000  troops,  and  was  defeated  by  the  British  under 
sir  Eyre  Coote,  July  1,  and  August  27,  1781  ;  and  decisively  overthrown  June  2, 

1782.     The  Carnatic  was  overrun  by  Tippoo,  in  1790 See  India.     The  British 

have  assumed  entire  authority  over  the  Carnatic  since  1801. 

CARNATION.  This  beautiful  flower  in  several  of  its  varieties,  together  with  the  gilly- 
flower, the  Provence  rose,  and  a  few  others,  were  first  planted  in  England  by  the 
Flemings,  about  1567. — Stowe.     See  article  Flowers, 

CARNEIAN  GAMES.  These  ganles  were  observed  in  most  of  the  Grecian  cities,  but 
more  particularly  at  Sparta,  where  they  were  instituted  about  675  b.c.  in  honour  of 
Apollo,  surnamed  Carneus.  The  festival  lasted  nine  days,  and  was  an  imitation  of 
the  manner  of  living  in  camps  among  the  ancients. 

CAROLINA,  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot,  in  1500.  A  body  of  English,  amounting 
to  about  850  persons  landed  and  settled  here  in  1 667  ;  and  Carolina  was  granted  to 
lord  Berkeley  and  others  a  few  years  afterwards. — See  United  States,  The  Caroline 
Islands  were  discovered  by  the  Spaniards,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  1686. 

CARP.  The  esteemed  fresh  water,  or  pond  fish.  In  the  palate  of  the  carp  is  some- 
times found  a  stone  of  a  triangular  form. — Pardon,  The  carp  was  first  brought  to 
these  countries  about  a.d.  1525. — Isaac  Walton. 

CARPETS.  They  were  in  use,  at  least  in  some  kind,  as  early  as  the  days  of  Amos, 
about  800  B.C. — Amos  ii.  8.  Carpets  were  spread  on  the  ground  on  which  persons 
sat  who  dwelt  in  tents  ;  but  when  first  used  in  houses,  even  in  the  East,  we  have 
no  record.  In  the  1 2th  century  carpets  were  articles  of  luxury ;  and  in  England,  it 
is  mentioned  as  an  instance  of  Becket's  splendid  style  of  living,  that  his  sumptuous 
apartments  were  every  day  in  winter  strewn  with  clean  straw  or  hay ;  about  A.i>. 
1 160.    The  manufacture  of  woollen  carpets  was  introduced  into  France  from  Persia, 


CAR  £  109  ]  CAR 

in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  between  1589  and  1610.  Some  artisans  who  had  quitted 
France  in  disgnst  came  to  England,  and  established  the  carpet  manufactiire,  aboat 
1750.  With  OS,  as  with  most  nations,  Persian  and  Turkey  carpets,  espedally  the 
former,  are  most  prized.  Oar  famous  Azminstery  Wilton,  and  Kidderminster  manu- 
facture is  the  growth  of  the  last  hundred  years. 

CARRIAGES.  The  invention  of  them  is  ascribed  to  Ericthonius  of  Athens,  who  pro- 
duced the  first  chariot  about  1486  B.C.  Carriages  were  known  in  France  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  II.  a.d.  1547 ;  but  they  were  of  very  rude  constructioni  and  rare. 
They  seem  to  have  been  known  in  England  in  1555  ;  bat  not  the  art  of  making  them. 
.  Close  carriages  of  good  workmanship  began  to  be  used  by  persons  of  the  highest 
quality  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Henry  IV.  had  one,  but  without 
straps  or  springs.  Their  construction  was  Tarious :  they  werie  first  made  in  England 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  were  then  called  whirlicotea.  The  duke  of  Backing- 
ham,  in  1619,  drove  six  horses  ;  and  the  duke  of  Northumberland,  in  rivalry,  drove 
eight.  They  were  first  let  for  Ure  in  Paris,  in  1650,  at  the  Hotel  Fiacre ;  and  hence 
their  name. — See  Coaches. 

CARRICKFERGUS.  The  celebrated  castle  of  this  town  is  supposed  to  have  been 
bailt  by  Hugh  de  Lacy,  in  1178.  The  town  surrendered  to  the  duke  of  Schomberg, 
Aug.  28, 1689.  William  111.  landed  here,  June  14,  1690,  to  reduce  the  adherents 
of  James  11.  Memorable;  expedition  of  the  French  admiral  Thurot,  when  the  castle 
surrendered  to  his  force  of  1000  men,  1760. — See  Thurot* »  Inviuion  of  Ireland, 

CARRON  IRON-WORKS.  They  are  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Carron,  in  Stir- 
lingshire, and  form  the  largest  foundry  in  existence,  established  in  1760.  The  works 
employ  about  1600  men,  and  occupy  above  100  acres  of  land  in  reservoirs,  pools  for 
water,  and  dams  built  about  two  miles  above  the  works  ;  the  streams,  after  turning 
18  large  wheels,  fall  into  the  tide  navigation,  which  conveys  their  castings  into  the 
sea.  Here  are  made  the  pieces  of  ordnance  called  carronades,  so  named  from  this 
foundry — first  made  in  1776. — See  Cannon, 

CARROTS.  These  among  other  edible  roots  were  imported  from  Holland  and  Flan- 
ders, and  it  was  not  until  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Were  produced 
in  England,  about  the  year  1540. — See  Gardening, 

CARTESIAN  DOCTRINES.  Their  author  was  Ren^  des  Cartes,  the  French  philo- 
sopher,  who  promulgated  them  in  1647.  He  was  an  original  thinker :  his  metaphy- 
sical principle  "  I  think,  therefore  I  am,''  is  refuted  by  Mr.  Locke ;  and  his  physical 
principle,  that  '*  nothing  exists  but  substance,"  is  disproved  by  the  Newtonian 
philosophy.  His  celebrated  system  abounds  in  great  singularities  and  originalities  ; 
but  a  spirit  of  independent  thought  prevails  throughout  it,  and  has  contributed  to 
excite  the  same  spirit  in  others.  Des  Cartes  was  the  most  distinguished  philosopher 
of  his  time  and  country. — Dufretnoy, 

CARTHAGE,  founded  by  Dido,  or  Elissa,  sister  of  Pygmalion,  king  of  Tyre,  869  B.c. 
She  fled  from  that  tyrant,  who  had  killed  her  husband,  and  took  refuge  in  Africa. 
Carthage  became  so  powerful  as  to  dispute  the  empire  of  the  world  with  Rome, 
which  occasioned  the  Punic  wars,  and  the  total  demolition  of  that  city.  Taken  by 
IScipio,  and  burned  to  the  ground,  146  b.c.  when  the  flames  raged  during  seventeen 
days,  and  many  of  the  inhabitants  perished  in  them,  rather  than  survive  the  «ub- 
jection  of  their  country.  The  Roman  senate  ordered  the  walls  to  be  razed,  that  no 
trace  might  remain  of  this  once  powerful  republic. — Eusebius, 

The  CarthaglnianB  defeated  hy  the  Ro- 
mans in  a  naval  engagement        .    b.c.  809 
Xantippus  defeats  RegoluB  .    .  S55 

Regulus  Is  crucified        ....  969 

Asdrubal  defeated  by  Metellus   .         .    .  261 
Romans  defeated  before  Lilyboeum .         .  2M 
End  of  the  first  Punic  war  .    .  241 

War  between    the    Carthaginians    and 

African  mercenaries    .  .        .241 

Hamilcar  Barcas  is  sent  into  Spain ;  he     , 
takes  with  him  his  son,  the  famous  Han- 
nibal, at  the  age  of  nine  years,  having 
first  made  him  swear  an  eternal  enmity 
to  the  Romans    ...         ...  297 

Hamilcariskilledin  battle  by  the  Vettones  iS3 


Dido  arrives  in  Africa,  and  builds  Byrsa. 

—Blair b.c.  869 

First  Alliance  of  the  Carthaginians  with 

the  Romans fi09 

The  Carthaginians  in  Sicily  are  defeated 

by  Gelo  ;  the  elder  Hamilcar  perishes. 

— Berodotus,  2.  vii 480 

They  send  300,000  men  into  Sicily  .  .  4o7 
The  Siege  of  Syracuse  .    .  306 

The  Carthaginians  land  in  Italy  .  .  379 
Their  defeat  by  Timoleon    .  .    .  340 

They  are  defeated  by  Agathooles,  and  ■ 

immolate  their  children  on  the  altar  of 

Saturn,  thereby  to  propitiate  the  gods  .  310 
The  first  Punic  war  begins  .    .  264 


CAR 


Clio  3 


CAS 


The  Carthaginians  expeUed  Spain  B.C.  206 
Scipio  arrives  in  Africa,  and  lays  siege  to 

Utica 204 

Hannibal  recalled  from  Italy  .  .  .  203 
Great  battle  of  Zama  (tohich  iee)  .  .  202 
An  ignominious  peace  ends  the  second 

Punic  war 201 

The  third  Punic  war  begins  .    .  149 

Destruction  of  Carthage,  which  is  burned 

to  the  ground 146 


CARTHAGE,  eontinwd, 

Afldrubal  is  assassinated  .  .  b.c.  220 
Hannibal  subjects  all  Spain,  as  far  as  the 

Iberus 219 

The  second  Punic  war  begins  .  *  .  218 
First  great  victory  of  Hannibal  .  .217 
Hannibal  crosses  the  Alps,  and  enters 

Italy  with  100,000  men  .  .  .217 
Great  battle  of  Canns  {which  see)  .  .  216 
New  Carthage  taken  by  Pub.  Scipio  .  210 
Asdrubal,  brother  of  Hannibal,  defeated 

and  slain  in  Italy        ....  207 

CARTHAGENA,  or  New  Carthage,  in  Spain  ;  built  by  Asdrubal,  the  Carthaginian 
general,  227  b.c.  From  here  Hannibal  set  out  in  his  memorable  march  to  invade 
Italy,  crossing  the  Alps,  217  B.C.  This  city  was  taken  by  a  British  force  under  sir 
John  Leake,  in  1706,  but  it  was  retaken  soon  afterwards  by  the  duke  of  Brunswick. 
Carthagena,  in  Columbia,  was  taken  by  sir  Francis  Drake  in  1 584.  It  was  pillaged 
by  the  French  of  £1,200,000,  in  1697  ;  and  was  bombarded  by  admiral  Vernon  in 
1740-1,  but  he  was  obliged,  though  he  took  the  forts,  to  raise  the  siege. 

CARTHUSIANS.  A  religious  order  founded  by  Bruno  of  Cologne,  who  retired  from 
the  converse  of  the  world,  in  1084,  to  Chartreuse,  in  the  mountains  of  Dauphin^. 
Their  rules  were  formed  by  Basil  VII.,  general  of  the  order,  and  were  peculiarly  dis- 
tinguished for  their  austerity.  The  monks  could  not  leave  their  cells,  nor  speak, 
without  express  leave  ;  and  their  clothing  was  two  hair  cloths,  two  cowls,  two  pair 
of  hose,  and  a  cloak,  all  coarse.  The  general  takes  the  title  tff  prior  of  the  Chartreuse, 
the  principal  monastery,  from  which  the  order  is  named. — Auberti ;  Mirai  Originet 
Carthus,  A  Carthusian  monastery  (among  others  in  England)  was  founded  by  sir 
William  Manny,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  on  the  site  of  the  Charter-house, 
London.  The  monks  were  treated  with  great  cruelty  when  their  convent  and  pos- 
sessions were  seized  by  Henry  VIII.     See  Charter-house. 

CARTHUSIAN  POWDER.  So  called  because  it  was  first  administered  by  a  Carthn- 
sian  friar,  father  Simon,  at  Chartreuse,  in  France  ;  compounded  about  1715. — See 
Carthusians. 

CARTOONS  OF  RAPHAEL.  They  were  designed  in  the  chambers  of  the  Vatican, 
under  Julius  II.  and  Leo  X.,  about  1510  to  1515.  The  seven  of  them  that  are  pre- 
served were  purchased  in  Flanders  by  Rubens  for  Charles  I.  of  England,  for  Hampton- 
court  palace,  in  1629.  These  matchless  works  represent — 1,  the  Miraculous  Draught 
of  Fishes  ;  2,  the  Charge  to  Peter  ;  3,  Peter  and  John  healing  the  Lame  at  the  gate 
of  the  Temple;  4,  the  Death  of  Ananias;  5,  Elymas, 'the  Sorcerer,  struck  with 
Blindness ;  6,  tbe  Sacrifice  to  Paul  and  Barnabas,  by  the  people  of  Lystra ;  7,  Paul 
preaching  at  Athens. 

CARVING.  We  have  scriptural  authority  for  its  early  introduction.  See  Exodus  xzxi. 
The  art  of  carving  is  first  mentioned  in  profane  history  772  B.C.,  and  is  referred  to  the 
Egyptians.  It  was  first  in  wood,  next  in  stone,  and  afterwards  in  marble  and  brass. 
Dipoenus  and  Scyllis  were  eminent  carvers  and  sculptors,  and  opened  a  school  of 
statuary,  568  B.C. — Pliny.  See  article  Sculptures.  Carvers  of  meat,  called  by  the 
Greeks  deribiiares,  are  mentioned  by  Homer. 

CASH-PAYMENTS.  The  Bank,  by  an  order  of  council,  stopped  its  payments  in  cash, 
Feb.  27,  1797  ;  and  the  Bank-restriction  bill  passed  immediately  afterwards.  Previ- 
ously to  this  measure,  many  private  banks  had  been  ruined  by  the  demand  upon  thena 
for  gold,  the  country  being  considerably  drained  of  the  precious  metals,  which  found 
their  way  to  France,  and  other  states  with  whom  we  were  at  war.  Notes  of  one  and 
two  pounds  were  issued  March  7,  1797.  Partial  return  to  cash-payments,  Sept.  22, 
1817,  when  notes,  which  had  been  issued  previously  to  January  1,  in  that  year, 
were  paid  in  gold.  The  restriction  was  taken  off  soon  afterwards,  and  cash-payments 
resumed. 

CASHEL ;  formerly  the  metropolis  of  the  kings  of  Munster.  In  the  cathedral  here  was 
deposited  the  LiaFail,  or  fatal  stone,  on  which  they  were  crowned,  and  which  is  now 
used  at  the  coronations  of  the  English  kings  in  Westminster  abbey. — See  Coronations. 

CASHEL,  See  of.    Cormac,  king  and  bishop  of  Cashel,  is  reputed  to  be  either  the 


CA8 Q  111  ] CAT 

founder  or  the  restorer  of  the  cathedral ;  and  nntil  his  time,  a.d.  901,  there  are  but 
few  traces  of  the  bishops  of  this  see.  In  1 152,  bishop  Donat  O'Laneq^n  was  invested 
with  the  paU.  See  PalRum,  Cashel  was  yalued  in  the  king*s  books,  by  an  eitent 
returned  29  Henry  VIII.,  at  £66.  13«.  id,  Irish  money.  By  the  Chnrch  Tempo- 
ralities Act,  of  3  &  4  WUliam  lY.  1833,  this  see  has  ceased  to  be  archiepisoopaL 

CASHMERE  SHAWLS.  The  district  from  whence  come  these  costly  shawls  it 
described  as  being  '*  the  happy  valley,  and  a  paradise  in  perpetual  spring."  The 
true  Cashmere  shawls  can  be  manufactured  of  no  other  wool  than  that  of  Thibet. 
They  were  first  brought  to  England  in  1666  ;  but  they  are  well  imitated  by  the  spin- 
ning at  Bradford,  and  the  looms  of  Huddersfield.  Shawls  for  the  omrahs,  of  the 
Thibetian  wool,  cost  150  rupees  each,  about  the  year  \^hQ,^Bemier, 

CASTELLA,  Battle  of  ;  between  the  French  army,  commanded  by  marshal  Suchet, 
and  the  allied  British  and  Spanish  forces  under  general  Murray,  who  defeated  the 
former  with  considerable  loss,  April  13,  1813. 

CASTEL  NUOYO,  Battlb  of.  The  Russians  defeated  by  the  French  army,  Sept.  29, 
1306.  Castel  Nuovo  has  several  times  suffered  under  the  dreadful  visitation  of  earth- 
quakes :  in  the  great  earthquake  which  convulsed  all  Naples  and  Sicily,  in  1783,  this 
town  was  almost  obliterated.  It  is  recorded,  that  an  inhabitant  of  Castel  Nuovo,  being 
on  a  hill  at  no  great  distance,  looking  back,  saw  no  remains  of  the  town,  but  only  a 
black  smoke  :  4000  persons  perished  ;  and  in  Sicily  and  Naples,  more  than  40,000. 

CASTIGLIONE,  Battle  of.  One  of  the  most  brilliant  victories  of  the  French  arms, 
under  general  Buonaparte,  against  the  main  army  of  Austrians,  commanded  by  general 
Wurmser  :  the  battle  lasted  five  days  successively,  from  the  2nd  to  the  6th  July, 
1796.  Buonaparte  stated  the  enemy's  loss  in  this  obstinate  conflict  at  70  field-pieces, 
all  his  caissons,  between  12  and  15,000  prisoners,  and  6000  killed  and  wounded. 

CASTILE.  The  most  powerful  government  of  the  Goths  was  established  here  about 
A.D.  800.  Ferdinand,  count  of  Castile,  assumed  the  title  of  king  in  1020.  Ferdinand 
of  Arragnn  married  Isabella  of  Castile,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Christian  domi- 
nions in  Spain  were  united  in  one  monarchy,  1474.    See  Arragon  and  Spain. 

CASTILLON,  Battle  of,  in  Guienne;  between  the  armies  of  Henry  YI.  of  England, 
and  of  Charles  YII.,  who  was  surnamed  the  Yictorious,  of  France.  The  English  were 
signally  defeated  ;  and  this  battle  put  a  period  to  English  dominion  in  France,  Calais 
alone  remaining  to  this  country,  1453. 

CASTLEBAR,  Battle  of  ;  between  a  body  of  French  troops  which  had  landed  at  Kil- 
lala,  assisted  by  an  insurgent  Irish  force,  and  the  king's  troops  :  the  latter,  after  a 
sharp  contest,  were  obliged  to  retreat,  Aug.  28,  1 798 :  this  was  the  period  of  the 
memorable  rebellion. 

CASTLEPOLLARD.  The  fatal  affray  here  between  some  peasantry  attending  a  fair, 
and  a  body  of  police,  when  thirteen  persons  lost  their  lives,  and  numbers  were 
wounded.  May  23,  1831.  The  coroner  s  jury  returned  a  verdict  against  the  chief 
constable,  Blake,  and  eighteen  of  his  men  ;  but  the  grand  jury  ignored  the  bills. 

CASTLES.  Anciently  British  castles  were  tall  houses,  strongly  fortified,  and  built  on 
the  tops  of  hills,  with  gates  and  walls.  The  castle  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  was  a  tower- 
keep,  either  round  or  square,  and  ascended  by  a  flight  of  steps  in  front  There  were 
eleven  hundred  castles  built  in  England  by  the  nobles,  by  permission  of  king  Stephen, 
A.D.  1135,  and  1154  :  most  of  these  were  demolished  by  Henry  II.,  who  deprived  the 
barons  of  such  possessions,  on  his  accession,  in  1154. 

CATACOMBS  ;  the  early  depositories  of  the  dead.  The  name  first  denoted  the  tombs 
of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul  at  Rome,  and  afterwards  the  burial-places  of  all  martyrs. 
They  were  numerous  in  Egypt ;  and  Belzoni,  in  1815  and  1818,  explored  many  cata- 
combs both  \n  that  country  and  Thebes,  built  3000  years  ago  :  among  others,  a  chef' 
d*€BUvre  of  ancient  sculpture,  the  temple  of  Psammaticus  the  Powerful,  whose  sarco- 
phagus, formed  of  the  finest  oriental  alabaster,  exquisitely  sculptured,  he  brought  to 
England.  Many  other  nations  had  their  catacombs ;  there  were  some  of  great  extent 
at  Rome.    The  Parisian  catacombs  were  projected  a.d.  1777.     See  Embalming, 

CATALANS.  A  society  which  chiefly  consisted  of  disbanded  soldiers;  who  fixed  in 
Greece,  and  became  a  people  of  that  country,  about  a.d.  1302. — Tallent*s  CAron. 

CATANIA.     This  ancient  city  was  almost  totally  overthrown  by  an  eruption  of  Mount 


CAT 


c  uj : 


CAT 


Etna,  in  1669.  By  an  earthquake  which  happened  in  1693,  Catania  was  nearly  swal- 
lowed up,  and  in  a  moment  more  than  18,000  of  its  inhabitants  were  buried  in  the 
ruins  of  the  city.  An  earthquake  did  great  damage,  and  a  number  of  persons  perished 
here,  Feb.  22,  1817. 

CATAPHRYGIANS.  A  sect  of  heretics,  so  called  because  they  were  Phrygians,  who 
followed  the  errors  of  Montanus.  They  made  up  the  bread  of  the  eucharist  with  the 
blood  of  infants,  whom  they  pricked  to  death  with  needles,  and  then  looked  upon 
them  as  martyrs. — Pardon, 

CATAPULTiE.  Ancient  military  engines  for  throwing  stones  of  immense  weight,  darts, 
and  arrows ;  invented  by  Dionysius,  399  B.c-^osephus.  They  were  capable  of 
throwing  darts  and  javeUns  of  four  and  five  yards  length. — Pardon, 

CATEAU,  pRACB  OF ;  concluded  between  Henry  II.  of  France,  and  Philip  II.  of  Spain  ; 
to  which  latter  country,  France  ceded  Savoy,  Corsica,  and  nearly  200  forts  in  Italy 
and  the  Low  Countries,  1559.  Battle  of  Cateau,  in  which  the  allies,  under  the  prince 
of  Coburg,  defeated  the  French,  whose  loss  amounted  to  5000  killed,  and  5  pieces  of 
cannon,  March  28,  1794. 

CATECHISM.  A  short  one  was  published  by  the  bishop  of  Winchester,  a.d.  1552. 
The  catechism  used  by  Protestants  originally  contained  no  more  than  a  repetition  of 
the  baptismal  vow,  the  creed,  and  Lord's  prayer ;  but  James  I.  ordered  the  bishops 
to  enlarge  it  by  adding  an  explication  of  the  sacraments.  1612. 

CATHERINE.  The  order  of  knighthood  instituted  in  Palestine,  a.d.  1063.  The  order 
of  nuns  ci^lled  Catherines  was  founded  in  1373.  An  order  of  ladies  of  the  highest 
rank,  in  Russia,  was  founded  by  Catherine,  empress  of  Peter  the  Great,  1714. 

CATHOLIC  ASSOCIATION.  An  organised  assembly  in  Ireland,  whose  object  was 
the  removal  of  the  civil  disabilities  which  then  affected  their  sect.  Previously  to 
1824,  various  associations  had  existed  under  other  appellations,  bat  with  similar  par- 
pose.  An  act  of  parliament  passed  for  the  suppression  of  this  body,  March  5,  1829  ; 
but  it  voted  its  own  dissolution  (its  object  having  been  achieved)  Feb.  12,  preceding. 
See  Catholics. 

CATHOLIC  CLERGY.  In  contrast  with  the  present  vast  number  of  Catholic  clergy  io 
these  countries,  particularly  in  Ireland,  may  be  viewed  their  former  comparative  few. 
ness.  The  following  is  a  statement  of  their  number,  according  to  the  first  oflScial 
returns  made  to  the  council  of  state,  shortly  after  the  memorable  revolution  of  1688, 
and  registered  at  the  Council-office,  Dublin  Castle,  in  1704. 


Antrim 

.  18 

Dublin 

.  36 

Limerick     . 

.47 

Sligo   . 

.  39 

Armagh  . 

.    .  19 

The  city  . 

.  34 

The  city  . 

.  12 

Tipperary 

.    .  45 

Catherlough 

.  14 

Fermanagh . 

.  13 

Londonderry 

.  14 

Tyrone 

.27 

Cavan     . 

.    .  30 

Galway   . 

.  87 

Longford 

.  16 

Waterford 

.    .  27 

Clare  . 

.  45 

The  town    . 

.    8 

Louth 

.  14 

Westmeath . 

.  36 

Cork 

.    .  38 

Kerry 

.  36 

Mayo  . 

.  51 

Wexford. 

.    .  34 

City  of  Cork 

.    4 

Kildare 

.  30 

Meath 

.  55 

Wicklow'     . 

.  13 

Donegal  . 

.    .  21 

Kilkenny  * 

.  30 

Monaghan  . 

.  17 

Youghal . 

.     .     1 

Down  . 

.  30 

King's  County 

.  20 

Queen's  County 

.  25 

Drogheda 

.     .    2 

Leitrim   . 

.  23 

Roscommon     . 

.  49 

Total    . 

.  1060 

The  number  of  Catholic  clergy  in  Ireland  at  present  is  very  considerable,  but  no 
official  returns  have  been  published  whereby  to  state  it  accurately. 

CATHOLICS  OF  THESE  REALMS.  Laws  were  enacted  against  them  in  1539. 
They  were  forbidden  the  British  court  in  1673;  but  restored  to  favour  there  in  1685. 
Disabled  from  holding  offices  of  trust  1689;  and  excluded  from  the  British  throne 
same  year.  Obliged  to  register  their  names  and  estates  1717.  Indulgences  were 
granted  to  Catholics  by  parliament  in  1778.  They  were  permitted  to  purchase  land, 
and  take  it  by  descent,  1 780.  In  London,  an  immense  multitude  assembled  in  St. 
George's  fields  to  accompany  lord  George  Gordon  with  a  petition  to  repeal  the  law 
of  a  preceding  session  favourable  to  the  Catholics :  here  they  divided  into  bodies,  and 
proceeded  to  the  avenues  of  the  House  of  Commons,  insulting  the  members  of  both 
houses,  and  compelling  them  to  put  cockades  to  their  hats  inscribed  "  iSTo  Popery.** 
Lord  George  having  harangued  them,  and  announced  that  their  petition  had  been 
rejected,  dreadful  excesses  followed  (see  Gordon's  Mob),  Further  disabilities  re- 
moved, 1793,  and  at  subsequent  periods.  Catholic  Emancipation  BiU  passed,  April 
13,  1B?9.     ^et  Penal  Laujs, 


CAT  C  '  ^  3  ]  CED 

CATHOLICS  OF  THESE  REALMS,  eonHnued, 

OlYISrONS  OR  THK  GATHOUC  qcCSnON  IJT  THS  BRITISB  H0U8B  Or  OOMMOMS  t 


[Bill  firat  propoeed  as  a  measore  of 
goveniiiient.3 
1889.    Feb.  21.    Read  a  lirBt  time    . 


1829.  March  &  For  oomiiilttM  .  .  188 
March  18.  For  second  reading  .  180 
March  30.    For  third  reading        .  178 


THB  DinSIONB  OR  THB  SAXX  BILL  IK  THB  HOUSB  OW  LOHDS,  WXIUi  AB  VOLLOW : 

1829.    March  81.    BjobA  a.  Ant  Ume,  ntmitu  ditsentiente. 

April  4.       Second  reading :  For  the  bUl.  217— against  it,  118.    MiO<^t7  .    .  105 
April  10.     Third  reading ;    For  the  bOl,  S13-againat  it,  100.   Majority  .   .  104 

The  royal  aSBent  was  given  to  this  measure,  and  it  became  a  law  April  13, 1829. 
Mr.  O'Connelly  who  h^  been  elected  for  Clare  coantj,  July  5,  1828,  now  took  his 
.  seat,  he  being  the  first  C«tholic  representatiTe  in  pailiament  since  the  Revolution. 
The  first  English  member  returned  was  the  earl  of  Surrey,  for  Horsham,  May  4, 
1829  ;  and  the  duke  of  Norfolk  and  lords  Dormer  and  Clifford,  were  the  first  Catholic 
peers  who  took  their  seats,  April  28,  1829.  Mr.  Alexander  Raphael  was  the 
first  Catholic  sheriff  of  London,  Sept.  28,  1834.  Sir  Michael  O'Loghlen  was  the 
first  Catholic  judge  (Master  of  the  Rolls  in  Ireland,)  OcL  30,  1836. 

CATHOLIC  MAJESTY.  The  titie  of  CathoUc  was  first  given  by  Pope  Gregory  III. 
to  Alphonsus  I.  of  Spain,  who  was  thereupon  sumamed  the  Catholics  a.d.  739.  The 
title  of  Catholic  was  also  given  to  Ferdinand  V.^474.     See  Spain. 

CATO-STREET  CONSPIRACY.  The  mysterious  plot  of  a  gang  of  low  and  desperate 
politicians,  whose  object  was  the  assassination  of  the  ministers  of  the  crown,  with 
a  view  to  other  sanguinary  and  indiscriminate  outrages,  and  the  overthrow  of  the 
government :  the  conspirators  were  arrested  February  23,  1820 ;  and  Thistlewood 
and  his  principal  associates,  Brunt,  Ings,  Davidson,  and  Tidd,  were  executed  at  New- 
gate, May  1,  following. 

CATTLE.  The  importation  of  cattle  from  Ireland  and  Scotland,  into  England,  was 
prohibited  by  a  law,  16  Charles  II.  1663 ;  but  the  export  of  cattle  from  Ireland  now 
forms  a  vast  and  beneficial  branch  of  the  Irish  trade  with  the  sister  country. 

CAULIFLOWER.  Called  the  queen  of  vegetables,  was  first  planted  in  these  king- 
doms  about  the  year  1603 ;  it  came  to  England  from  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  but  was  not 
raised  in  suflicient  perfection  and  abundance  so  as  to  be  sold  at  market  until  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.,  about  1670.  Sixty  years  ago,  cauliflowers  were  a  usual  present 
from  England  to  Portugal ;  but  they  are  now  largely  produced  in  the  Portuguese 
gardens.     See  Gardening, 

CAUSTIC  iM  PAINTING.  The  branch  of  the  art  so  called  is  a  method  of  burning 
the  colours  into  wood  or  ivory.  Gausias,  a  painter  of  Sicyon,  was  the  inventor  of 
this  process.  He  made  a  beautiful  painting  of  his  mistress  Glycere,  whom  he  re- 
presented as  sitting  on  the  ground,  and  makkig  garlands  with  flowers ;  and  from  this 
circumstance  the  picture,  which  was  bought  afterwards  by  Lucullus  for  two  talents, 
received  the  name  of  Stephanophcon^  335  b.c. — Plinii  Hist,  Nat, 

CAVALIERS.  4^i8  appellation  was  given  as  a  party  name  in  England  to  those  who 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  king  during  the  unhappy  war  which  brought  Charles  I.  to 
ttke  scaffold.  They  were  so  called  in  opposition  to  the  Roundheads  or  friends  of  the 
parliament,  between  1642  and  1649.— xftim^. 

CAVALRY.  Of  the  ancient  nations  the  Romans  were  the  most  celebrated  for  their  ca- 
valry, and  for  its  discipline  and  efficiency.  Attached  to  each  of  the  Roman  legions 
was  a  body  of  horse  300  strong,  in  ten  turmse ;  the  commander  was  always  a  veteran, 
and  chosen  for  his  experience  and  valour.  In  the  early  ages,  the  Persians  brought 
the  greatest  force  of  cavalry  into  the  field  :  they  had  10,000  horse  at  the  battle  of 
Marathon,  490  b.c.  ;  and  10,000  Persian  horse  were  slain  at  the  battle  of  Issus, 
333  B.C. 

CAYENNE.  First  settled  by  the  French  in  1625,  but  they  left  it  in  1654.  It  was  af- 
terwards successively  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  French,  and  Dutch.  These  last 
were  expelled  by  the  French  in  1677.  Cayenne  was  taken  by  the  British,  Jan.  12, 
1809,  but  was  restored  to  the  French  at  the  peace  in  1814.  In  this  settlement  is 
produced  the  capHcum  baceatum,  or  cayenne  pepper,  so  esteemed  in  Europe. 

CEDAR  TREE.  The  Red  Cedar  {Junipenu  Virginiana)  came  from  N.  America, 
before  1664.    The  Bermudas  Cedar,  from  Bermudas,  before  1683.     The  Cedar  of 

I 


CEL  [  11*  ]  CEM 

Lebanon  (Piniis  Cedrtu,)  from  the  Levant,  before  1683.  The  Cedar  of  Goa,  (Ctf- 
presaus  LusUanica)  was  brought  to  Earope  by  the  Portuguese,  abont  same  period. 
— See  Cypress. 

CELERY.  Is  said  to  have  been  first  introduced  to  the  tables  of  the  English  by  the 
French  marshal,  the  count  Tallard,  after  his  defeat  at  Blenheim  by  the  duke  of  Marl- 
borough, and  during  his  captivity  in  England,  in  1704. 

CELESTIAL  GLOBE.  A  celestial  sphere  was  brought  to  Greece  from  Egypt,  368 
B.C.  A  planetarium  was  constructed  by  Archimedes  before  212  B.C.  The  celestial 
globe  was  divided  into  constellations  after  the  age  of  Perseus.  The  great  celestial 
globe  of  Gottorp,  planned  after  a  design  of  Tycho  Brache,  and  erected  at  the  expense 
of  the  duke  of  Holstein,  was  eleven  f^et  in  diameter ;  and  that  at  Pembroke-hall, 
Cambridge,  erected  by  Dr.  Long,  is  eighteen  feet.     See  Globes, 

CELESTINS.  A  religious  order  of  monks,  reformed  from  the  Bemardins  by  pope 
Celestine  V.  in  1294.    The  order  of  nuns  was  instituted  about  the  same  period. 

CELIBACY,  and  the  monastic  life,  preached  by  St.  Anthony  in  Egypt,  about  a.d.  305. 
The  early  converts  to  this  doctrine  lived  in  caves  and  desolate  places  till  regular  noo- 
nasteries  were  founded.  The  doctrine  was  rejected  in  the  Council  of  Nice,  a.d.  325. 
Celibacy  was  enjoined  bishops  only  in  692.  The  Romish  clergy  generally  webe  com- 
pelled to  a  TOW  of  celibacy  in  1073.  Its  observance  was  finally  established  by  the 
council  of  Placentia,  held  in  1095.  Among  the  illustrious  philosophers  of  antiquity, 
the  following  were  unfriendly  to  matrimony  : — Plato,  Pythagoras,  Epicurus,  Bion, 
Anazagoras,  Heraclitus,  Democritus,  and  Diogenes ;  and  the  following  among  the 
moderns  : — ^Newton,  Locke,  Boyle,  Gibbon,  Hume,  Adam  Smith,  Harvey,  Leibnitz, 
Bayle,  Hobbes,  Hampden,  sir  F.  Drake,  earl  of  Essex,  Pitt,  Michael  Angelo,  the 
three  Caracci's,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  Haydn,  Handel,  "Wolsey,  Pascal,  Fenelon, 
Pope,  Akenside,  Goldsmith,  Gray,  Collins,  Thomson,  and  Jeremy  Bentham. 

CEMETERIES.  The  ancients  had  not  the  unwise  custom  of  crowding  all  their  dead 
in  the  midst  of  their  towns  and  cities,  within  the  narrow  precincts  of  a  place  reputed 
sacred,  much  less  of  amassing  them  in  the  bosom  of  their  fanes  and  temples.  The 
burying-places  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  at  a  distance  from  their  towns;  and 
the  Jews  had  their  sepulchres  in  gardens — John  xix.  41 ;  and  in  fields,  and  among 
rocks  and  mountains — Matthew  xxvii.  60.  The  present  practice  was  introduced  by 
the  Romish  clergy,  who  pretended  that  the  dead  enjoyed  peculiar  privileges  by  being 
interred  in  consecrated  ground.  The  burying-places  of  the  Turks  are  handsonae 
and  agreeable,  which  is  owing  chiefly  to  the  many  fine  plants  that  grow  in  them» 
and  which  they  carefully  place  over  their  dead.  It  is  only  within  a  very  few  years 
that  public  cemeteries  have  been  formed  in  these  countries,  although  the  crowded 
state  of  our  many  church-yards,  and  the  danger  to  health  of  burial-places  in  the 
midst  of  dense  populations,  called  for  some  similar  institutions  to  that  of  the  cele> 
brated  P^re  la  Chaise  at  Paris.  Six  public  cemeteries  have  been  recently  opened 
in  London  suburbs : — 


The  Kensall-green  or  general  cemetery, 
coutaining  S3  acres,  established  by  act 
2  and  3  WiUiam  TV.  1832 ;  consecrated 
by  the  bishop  of  London     .      Nov.  2  ,  1832 

The  South  Metropolitan  and  Norwood  ce- 
metery, containing  40  acres,  instituted 
by  act  6  and  7  W.  lY.  1836;  consecrated 
by  the  bishop  of  Winchester  .   Dec.  6,  1837 

The  Highgate  and  Kentish-Town  ceme- 
tery, formed  by  act  7  and  8  William 
lY.,  and  containing  22  acres,  was 
opened  and  consecrated  by  the  bishop 
of  London  .         .    May  80,  1839 

The  inclosed  area  of  each  of  these  cemeteries  is  planted  and  laid  out  in  walks  mfter 
the  manner  of  P^re  la  Chaise.  *  There  are  similar  cemeteries  in  Manchester,  Liver- 
pool, and  other  towns  ;  and  in  Ireland,  at  Cork,  Dublin,  &c. 

*  P^re  La  Chaise  takes  its  name  from  a  French  Jesuit,  who  was  a  favomite  of  Louis  XIY.,  and 
his  confessor.  He  died  in  1709 ;  and  the  site  of  his  house  and  grounds  at  Paris  is  now  occupied  by 
this  beautiful  cemetery.  It  was  a  practice  of  high  antiquity  to  plant  herbs  and  flowers  about  the 
graves  of  the  dead.    The  women  in  Egypt  go  weekly  to  pray  and  weep  at  the  sepulchres,  and  it  is 


The  Abney  Park  cemetery,  and  arbors' 
turn,  containing  30  adres,  is  on  the 
eastern  side  of  London,  at  Btoke 
Newington,  and  was  formally  opened 
by  the  lord  mayor,     '    .  May  20,  1840 

The  Westmingter  cemetery,  at  Earl's- 
court,  Kensington.road,  called  alao  the 
West  London,  consecrated  .   June  15,  1840 

The    Nunhead    cemetery,    containing 
about  50  acres,   consecrated  by  the 
bishop  of  Winchester      .        July  89,  1840 
Bee  Catacombs, 


CEN  C  115  ]  CHiE 

CENSORS.  Roman  mag;i8trates  whose  daty  was  to  snryey  and  rate,  and  correct  the 
manners  o^  th<f  people ;  their  power  was  also  extended  over  private  families,  and 
they  restrained  extraTagance.  The  two  first  censors  were  appointed  443  b.c.  The 
office  was  abolished  by  the  emperors. 

CENSUS.  In  the  Roman  polity,  a  general  estimate  of  every  man's  estate  and  personal 
effects,  delivered  to  the  government  npon  oath  every  five  years :  established  by  Ser- 
vios  Tullios,  566  b.c. — Legal  Polity  of  the  Roman  State,  In  England  the  census 
is  now  taken  at  decennial  periods,  of  which  the  last  were  the  years  1811, 1821,  and 
1831  ;  and  the  new  census  1841.    See  Population. 

CENTINELS.  Palamedes  of  Argo«  was  the  first  who  placed  centinels  round  a  camp, 
and  excited  their  vigilance  by  giving  them  watch- words,  1224  b.c. 

CENTRAL  CRIMINAL  COURT.  A  new  court  established  for  the  trial  of  offences  com- 
mitted in  the  metropolis  and  parts  adjoining;  it  being  expedient  that  such  trials  should 
be  had  before  justices  and  judges  of  Oyer  and  Terminer.    Statute  4  Wm.  IV.  1834. 

CENTURION.  The  captain,  head,  or  commander  of  a  subdivision  of  a  Roman  legion 
which  consisted  of  100  men,  and  was  called  a  centuria.  He  was  distinguished  by  a 
branch  of  vine  which  he  carried  in  his  hand.  By  the  Roman  census,  each  hundred 
of  the  people  was  called  a  centuria,  566  b.c. 

CENTURY.  The  method  of  computing  by  centuries  was  first  generally  observed  in 
ecclesiastical  history,  and  commenced  from  the  time  of  our  Redeemer's  incarnation, 
A.D.  1.     It  is  a  period  that  is  particularly  regarded  by  church  historians. — Pardon. 

CERBERE,  Frbnch  Brig  op  Wab.  The  capture  of  this  vessel  claims  record  as  one 
of  the  most  gallant  exploits  of  British  seamen  during  the  last  war  : — the  Cerb^re 
mounted  nine  large  guns,  had  a  crew  of  eighty-seven  men,  and  was  lying  at  Port 
Louis.  The  harbour  was  entered  in  a  ten-oared  cutter  manned  with  only  eighteen 
men  ;  and  directed  by  their  gallant  officer,  lieutenant  Paddon,  they  cut  out  and  made 
good  their  prize,  July  29,  1800. 

CEREMONIES,  Master  of  the.  This  office,  instituted  for  the  more  honourable  re- 
ception  of  ambassadors  and  persons  of  quality  at  court,  1  James  I.  1603. — Baker, 

CERES.  This  planet,  which  is  only  160  miles  in  diameter,  was  discovered  by  M. 
Piazzi,  astronomer  royal  at  Palermo,  on  the  1st.  of  January,  1801.  To  the  naked 
eye  it  is  not  visible,  nor  will  glasses  of  a  very  high  magnifying  power  show  it  with  a 
distinctly  defined  diameter.    Pallas^  discovered  by  Dr.  Oibers,  is  still  smaller. 

CERINTHIANS,  ancient  heretics,  founded  by  Cerinthus  of  Corinth,  the  first  writer 
against  the  divinity  of  Christ.     He  published  his  heresies,  a.d.  67. 

CESTUS.  Among  the  ancients  this  was  the  maid's  girdle,  which  the  bridegroom  un- 
tied when  he  led  her  as  his  bride  into  his  house.  It  had  the  power  of  charming 
and  conciliating  love. — Homer,    According  to  the  poets,  it  was  first  worn  by  Venus. 

CEYLON.  The  natives  claim  for  this  island  the  seat  of  paradise ;  it  was  discovered 
by  the  Portuguese  a  d.  1505 ;  but  it  was  known  to  the  Romans  in  the  time  of 
Claudius,  a.D#  41.  The  capital,  Columbo,  was  taken  by  the  Hollanders  in  1603  ; 
and  was  recovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1621.  The  Dutch  again  took  it  in  1656. 
A  large  portion  of  the  country  was  taken -by  the  British  in  1782,  but  was  restored 
the  next  year.  The  Dutch  settlements  were  seized  by  the  British  ;  Trincomalee, 
Aug.  26,  1795,  and  Jaffnapatam,  in  Sept.  same  year.  Ceylon  was  ceded  to  Great 
Britain  by  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1802.  The  British  troops  were  treacherously  mas- 
sacred, or  imprisoned  by  the  Adigar  of  Candy,  at  Colombo,  June  26,  1803.  The 
complete  sovereignty  of  the  island  was  assumed  by  England  in  1815. 

CHjSIRONEA,  Battle  of.  The  Athenians  are  defeated  by  the  Boeotians,  and  Tol- 
midas,  their  general,  is  slain,  447  b.c.  Battle  of  Chseronea,  in  which  Greece  lost  its 
liberty  to  Philip,  32,000  Macedonians  defeating  the  confederate  army  of  Thebans 
and  Athenians  of  30,000,  Aug.  2,  338  b.c.     Battle  of  Chseronea  in  which  Ar- 

thCTk  usual  to  throw  a  sort  of  herb  (our  sweet-basO)  upon  the  tombs;  which  in  Asia  Mhior.  and 
Turkey  in  Europe,  are  also  adorned  either  with  the  leaves  of  the  palm-tree,  boughs  of  myrtle,  or 
oypresses  planted  at  the  head  and  feet.  Between  some  of  the  tombs  is  placed  a  ohest  of  ornamented 
stone,  filled  with  earth,  in  which  are  planted  herbs  and  aromatic  flowers.  These  are  regularly  culti- 
vated by  females,  who  assemble  in  groups  for  that  duty.  At  Aleppo,  there  grow  many  myrtles, 
which  they  diligently  propagate,  because  they  are  beautiful,  and  remain  long  green,  to  put  about 
their  graves. — Mailet;  Chandler;  Butler. 

i2 


■  —  - 

CHA       Q  116  ]  CHA 

chelaus,  lieutenant  of  Mithridates,  is  defeated  by  Sylla,  and  110,000  Cappadodans  are 
slain.  86  b.c. 

CHAIN-BRIDGES.  The  largest  and  oldest  chain-bridge  in  the  world  is  said  to  be 
that  at  Kingtung,  in  China,  where  it  forms  a  perfect  road  from  the  top  of  one  moan- 
tain  to  the  top  of  another.  The  honour  of  constructing  the  first  chain-bridge  on  a 
grand  scale  belongs  to  Mr.  Telford,  who  commenced  the  chain-suspension-bridge  over 
the  strait  between  Anglesey  and  the  coast  of  Wales,  July  1818. — SeeMenai  Bridge. 

CHAIN-CABLES,  PUMPS,  and  SHOT.  Iron  chain-cables  were  in  use  by  the 
Veneti,  a  people  intimately  connected  with  the  Belgse  of  Britain  in  the  time  of 
Csesar,  65  b.c.  These  cables  came  into  modem  use,  and  generally  in  the  royal 
navy  of  England,  in  1812.  Chain-shot,  to  destroy  the  rigging  of  an  enemy's  ships, 
was  invented  by  the  Dutch  admiral  De  Witt,  in  1666.  Chain-pumps  were  first  used 
on  board  the  Florae  British  frigate,  in  1787. 

CHAINS,  Hanging  in.  To  augment  the  ignominy  of  the  scaffold,  in  the  cases  of  great 
malefactors  and  pirates.  This  punishment  long  disgraced  the  statute-book.  By  the 
25th  George  II.  1752,  it  was  enacted  that  the  judge  should  direct  the  bodies  of 
pirates  and  murderers  to  be  dissected  and  anatomised ;  and  he  might  also  direct 
that  they  be  afterwards  hung  in  chains.  An  act  to  abolish  the  custom  of  hanging 
the  bodies  of  criminals  in  chains,  was  passed  4  William  IV.  1834. 

CHAISE  OB  CALASH.  The  invention  of  the  chaise,  which  is  described  as  a  light 
and  open  vehicle,  is  ascribed  to  Augustus  Ceesar,  about  a.d.  7.  Aurelius  Victor 
mentions  that  the  use  of  post-chaises  was  introduced  by  Trajan,  about  a.d.  100. 
The  chariot  was  in  use  fifteen  centuries  before.     See  Chariot  and  Post-chaises, 

CHALDEAN  REGISTERS.  Registers  of  celestial  observatlpns  were  commenced  2294 
B.C.,  and  w.ere  brought  down  to  the  taking  of  Babylon  by  Alexander,  331  b.c.,  being  a 
period  of  1903  years.  These  registers  were  sent  by  Callisthenes  to  Aristotle.  Chai.- 
DEAN  Charactbbs  :  the  bible  was  translated  into  these,  now  called  Hebrew,  by  Ezra. 

CHAMBERLAIN.  Formerly  was  so  called  a  military  officer,  and  sometimes  a  priest, 
according  to  the  place  of  which  he  was  governor  or  head. — Pardon,  The  chamber- 
lain is  an  officer  of  civic  and  other  corporations.  The  city  of  London  hath  its  cham- 
berlain, and  it  obtained  the  title  of  Camera  Regis  some  centuries  since. — Shak- 
speare.  At  the  Chamberlain's  office,  Guildhall,  there  happened  a  great  fire,  when  a 
large  number  of  most  valuable  records  of  London,  and  other  property,  were  burnt 
Feb.  7,  1786.     See  Lord  Chamberlain, 

CHAMP  DE  MARS ;  an  open  square  space  in  front  of  the  Military  School  at  P&ris, 
with  artificial  embankments  raised  on  each  side,  extending  nearly  to  the  river  Seine, 
with  an  area  sufficient  to  contain  a  million  of  people.  Here  was  held,  on  the  14th 
July,  1790,  the  famous  '*  federation,''  or  solemnity  of  swearing  fidelity  to  the  ""  pa- 
triot king"  and  new  constitution.  In  the  evening  great  rejoicings  followed  the 
proceedings  ;  public  balls  were  given  by  the  municipality  in  the  Champs  Elys4es  and 
ehewhere,  and  Paris  was  illuminated  throughout.  1791,  July  17,  a  great  meeting 
of  citizens  and  others  held  here,  directed  by  the  Jacobin  clubs,  to  sign  petitions  on 
the  ''altar  of  the  country" — left  standing  since  the  above  ceremony — praying  for 
the  enforced  abdication  of  Louis  XVI.  Another  new  constitution  sworn  to  here, 
under  the  eye  of  Buonaparte,  May  1,  1815,  a  ceremony  called  the  Champ  de  Mai. 

CHAMPION  OF  ENGLAND.  The  championship  was  instituted  at  the  coronation  of 
Richard  II.  in  1377.  At  the  coronations  of  English  kings  the  champion  still  rides 
completely  armed  into  Westminster-hall,  and  challenges  any  one  that  would  deny 
their  title  to  the  crown.     The  championship  is  hereditary  in  the  Dymocke  family. 

CHANCELLORS,  LORD  HIGH,  of  ENGLAND.  The  Lord  ChanceUor  ranks  after 
the  princes  of  the  Blood  Royal  as  the  first  lay  subject.  Formerly,  the  office  was 
conferred  upon  some  dignified  clergyman.  Maurice,  afterwards  bishop  of  London, 
was  created  chancellor  in  1067.  The  first  personage  who  was  qualified  by  great 
legal  education,  and  who  decided  causes  upon  his  own  judgment,  was  sir  Thomaa 
More,  in  1530,  before  which  time  the  office  was  more  that  of  a  high  state  fdnctioQ- 
ary  than  the  president  of  a  court  of  justice.  Sir  Christopher  Hatton,  who  was  ap- 
pointed chancellor  in  1587,  was  very  ignorant,  on  which  account  the  first  reference 
was  made  to  a  master  in  1588.  In  England,  the  great  seal  has  been  frequently  put 
in  commission  ;  but  it  was  not  until  1813  that  the  separate  and  co-existent  office  of 
Vice  Chancellor  was  permanently  established.     See  Keeper,  Lord, 


CUA 


Ci'O 


CHA 


1692.  Bir    John     Bomen,  t^/Urwardt    lotd 

Somen. 
17(18.  Sir  Nathan  Wright,  L,  IT. 
1700.  Lord  Cowper,  £.  K. 
17IO1  In  commiMion. 

1713.  Lord  Haroourt. 

1714.  Lord  Cowper  again. 
17I8.  In  commiBsion. 

17I8.  Tiaooant  Parker,  €i/lenoardt  «ul  of 

Haocledield 
17S5.  Sir  Peter  King.  £.  K.  a/terwmrdt  lord 

King. 
1733.  Lord  Talbot. 
1737.  PhOip,  lord  Hardwicke. 
1761.  Sir  Robert    Henley,   e^flerwards   lord 

Henley,  and  earl  of  Northingtoa. 
1766.  Charles  Pratt,  lord  Camden. 
1770.  Hon.  Charles  Yorke,  Jan.  18 ;  died  next 

dap. 

1770.  In  commission. 

1771.  Henry  Bathur»t,  lord  Apsley,siiooeeded 

as  earl  Bathurst 
1778.  Lord  Thurlow. 
1783.  Lord  Longhborooi^  and  others 


CHANCELLORS,  LORD  HIGH,  OF  ENGLAND,  amHnued. 

U>RD  CHANCaUiOllS  OP  CHOLAND, 

-  (From  the  time  t/ Cardinal  WoleepJ 
U16.  Cardinal  Wols^. 
1530.  Sir  Thomas  More  {heheaded). 

1533.  Sir  Thomas  Audley. 

1534.  Thomas,  bishop  of  Ely. 
1545.  Lord  Wriotheeley. 
1547.  Lord  St  John. 
1547.  Lord  Rich. 
1561.  Bishop  of  Ely  again. 
155L  Sir  Nich.  Hare,  Lord  Keeper, 
155a  Bishop  of  Winchester. 
1655.  Archbishop  of  York. 
165a  Sir  Nicholas  Baoon. 
1579.  Sir  Thomas  Bromley 
1587.  Sir  Christopher  Hatton. 
159S.  Sir  John  Packering. 
1606.  Sir  Thomas  Egerton. 
1616.  Sir    Francis  Bacon,   e^Urtearde  lord 

Terulam. 
1635.  Sir  Thomas  Coventxy. 

1639.  Sir  John  Finch. 

1640.  Sir  Edward  Littleton,  e^flerwardel  ord 

Littleton. 
1645.  Sir  Riehard  Lane^ 
164&  In  commission. 
1653.  Sir  Edward  Herbert 
165a  Sir  Edward  Hyde,  q/Urwarde  earl  of 

Clarendon. 
1667.  Sir  Orlando  Bridgeman,  L.  K, 
167S.  Earl  of  Shaftesbury. 
1673b  Bir  Heneage  Finch,  a/Uneard$  earl  of 

Nottingham. 
1683.  Lord  Guilford,  L.  K, 
1686.  Sir  George  Jefflvys,  lord  Jeffreys. 
1690.  In  commission. 

CHANCELLOR  of  IRELAND,  LORD  HIGH.  The  earliest  nomination  was  by 
Richard  I.  a.d.  1186,  when  Stephen  Ridel  was  elevated  to  this  rank.  The  office  of 
▼ice-chancellor  was  known  in  Ireland,  bat  not  as  a  distinct  appointment,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  III.,  Geffrey  Tarville,  archdeacon  of  Dublin,  being  so  named,  1232. 

CHANCELLOR  OF  SCOTLAND.  In  the  laws  of  Malcolm  II.  who  reigned  a.d. 
1004y  this  ofiBoer  is  thus  mentioned :  "  The  Chancellar  sal  at  al  tymes  assist  the 
king  in  giving  him  counsall  mair  secretly  nor  of  the  rest  of  the  nobility.  The 
Chancellar  sail  be  ladgit  near  unto  the  kingis  Grace,  for  keiping  of  his  bodie,  and 
the  seill,  and  that  he  may  be  readie,  baith  day  and  nicht,  at  the  kingis  command." 
— Sir  James  Balfour,  James,  earl  of  Sealield,  afterwards  Findlater,  was  the  last 
lord  high  Chancellor  of  Scotland,  the  office  having  been  abolished  in  1708. — Scoit. 

CHANCELLOR  of  the  EXCHEQUER  of  ENGLAND.     See  article  Exchequer, 

CHANCERY,  COURT  of.  Instituted  as  early  as  a.d.  605.  Settled  npon  a  better 
*  footing  by  William  I.,  in  1067. — Stowe.  This  court  had  its  origin  in  the  desire  to 
render  justice  complete,  and  to  moderate  the  rigour  of  other  courts  that  are  bound 
to  the  strict  letter  of  the  law.  It  gives  relief  to  or  against  infants,  notwith- 
standing their  minority ;  and  to  or  against  married  women,  notwithstanding  their 
coverture ;  and  all  frauds,  deceits,  breaches  of  trust  and  confidence,  for  which  there 
is  no  redress  at  common  law,  are  relievable  here. — Biaeksione. 

XPFXCTS  OP  SUTTOIIS  LODOCD  IIT  COURT  AT  TBX  FOLLOWING  DKCBHiriAL  PCRT0D8. 

.       £5,300.000 

7,741.000 

.  13.338,000 

19,834,000 

There  are  about  10,000  accounts.  By  the  last  official  returns  the  number  of  com- 
mittals for  contempt  was  ninety-six  persons  in  three  years,  of  wLom  sixty -five  had 
been  discharged,  and  six  had  died  in  prison. — Pari.  Returns. 


<iu  eommieeUmS    . 

.  April   9 

1783L  Lord  Thurlow  again     . 

.  Doa23 

1792.  In  commlasion. 

1793.  Lord  Loughborough  again. 

1801.  Lord  Eldon 

April  14 

1806.  Lord  Erskine 

.    Feb.   7 

I8O7.  Lord  Eldon  again 

March  85 

1887.  Lord  Lyndharst 

April  80 

1830.  Lord  Brougham 

Nov.  88 

1834.  Lord  Lyudhurst  again 

Nov.  14 

1835.  In  commission. 

1836.  Lord  Cottenham     . 

.    Jan.  16 

1770 

Amount  lodged 

1780 

ditto 

1790 

.      ditto    . 

1800 

ditto 

1810    . 

Amount  lodged 

.      £26^12.000 

1820 

.    ditto 

.      34,206,785 

1830    . 

ditto    . 

38.88i),135 

1840 

.    ditto 

.       39.772.746 

8 

Earl     . 

.  5 

Knt  of  the  Garter.  3 

6 

Viscount  . 

.    .  4 

Duchess     .         .    .  2 

6 

Baron  . 

.  3 

Marchioness.        .  2 

5 

Chancellor 

.    .3 

Countess  .         .    .  2 

Baroness  .  .  2 
Master  of  the  Rolls  2 
Almoner  .  .  2 
Chief  Justice     .    .  1 


CHA  C  1^8  D  ^^^ 

CHANTRY.  A  chapel  endowed  with  revenue  for  priests  to  sing  mass  for  the  souls  of 
the  donors. — Shakspeare,  First  mentioned  in  the  commencement  of  the  seventh 
century,  when  Gregory  the  great  established  schools  of  chanters.     See  Chaunting. 

CHAOS.  A  mde  and  shapeless  mass  of  matter,  and  confused  assemblage  of  inactive 
elements  which,  as  the  poets  suppose,  pre-existed  the  formation  of  the  world,  and 
from  which  the  universe  was  formed  by  the  hand  and  power  of  a  superior  being. 
This  doctrine  was  first  advanced  by  Hesiod,  from  whom  the  succeeding  poets  have 
copied  it ;  and  it  is  probable  that  it  was  obscurely  drawn  from  the  account  of  Moses, 
by  being  copied  from  the  annals  of  Sanchoniathon,  whose  age  is  fixed  antecedent  to 
the  siege  of  Troy,  in  1193  b.c.     See  Geology, 

CHAPEL.  There  are  free  chapels,  chapels  of  ease,  the  chapel  royal,  &c. — Cowel, 
The  gentlemen  pensioners,  (formerly  poor  knights  of  Windsor,  who  were  instituted 
by  the  direction  of  Henry  YIII.  in  his  testament  ,a.d.  1546-7),  were  called  knights  of  the 
chapel.  The  place  of  conference  among  printers  is  by  them  called  a  chapel,  because  the 
first  work  printed  in  England  was  executed  in  a  chapel  in  Westminster-abbey.  Pardon* 

'  CHAPLAIN.  The  clergyman  who  performs  divine  service  in  a  chapel,  or  that  is 
retained  by  a  prince  or  nobleman.  There  are  about  seventy  chaplains  attached  to 
the  chapel  royal.  The  personages  invested  with  the  privilege  of  retaining  chaplains 
are  the  following,  with  the  number  that  was  originally  allotted  to  each  rank  and 
dignity  : — 

Archbishop  . 

Duke 

Bishop 

Marquess . 

Besides  these,  the  treasurer  and  comptroller  of  the  king's  house;  the  king's  secretary, 
the  clerk  of  the  closet,  the  dean  of  the  chapel,  and  the  warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports, 
were  each  allowed  chaplains. — Statutes,  Henry  VIII, 

CHAPLETS.  The  strings  of  beads,  used  by  the  Roman  Catholics  in  reciting  the 
Lord's  prayer,  Ave  Maria,  and  other  orisons,  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into 
their  church  by  Peter  the  Hermit,  about  a.d.  1094.  Beads  were  in  use,  we  are 
told,  by  the  Druids  as  well  as  Dervises  and  other  religious  of  the  East.  The  chaplet 
came  into  general  use  among  the  Catholics,  about  1213. 

CHAPTER.  Anciently  the  bishop  and  clergy  lived  together  in  the  cathedral,  the  latter 
to  assist  the  former  in  performing  holy  offices  and  governing  the  church,  until  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  The  chapter  is  now  an  assembly  of  the  clergy  of  a  collegiate 
church  or  cathedral. — Cowel,  The  celebrated  chapter-house  of  Westminster  Abbey 
was  built  in  1250.  By  consent  of  the  abbot,  the  commons  of  England  held  their 
parliaments  there,  1377,  and  until  1547,  when  Edward  YI.  granted  them  the  chapel 
of  St.  Stephen. 

CHARING  CROSS.  So  called  from  one  of  the  crosses  which  Edward  I.  erected  to 
the  memory  of  his  queen  Eleanor,  and  Charing,  the  name  of  the  village  in  which  it 
was  built.  Some  contend  that  it  derived  its  name  from  being  the  resting-place  of 
the  chere  reyne.  It  was  yet  a  small  village  in  1353,  and  the  cross  remained  till 
the  civil  wars  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  when  it  was  destroyed  on  the  foolish  pretence 
of  being  a  monument  of  popish  superstition.  Built  nearly  as  it  appeared  before  the 
late  improvements,  and  joined  by  streets  to  London  about  1678.  The  new  buildings 
at  Charing-cross  wer'e  commenced  in  1829  ;  and  the  first  stone  of  the  hospital  w^ 
laid  by  the  duke  of  Sussex,  Sept.  15,  1831. 

CHARIOTS.  The  invention  of  chariots  and  the  manner  of  harnessing  horses  to  draw 
them  is  ascribed  to  Erichthonius  of  Atheils,  1486  b.c.  Chariot  racing  was  one  of 
the  exercises  of  Greece.  The  chariot  of  the  Ethiopian  officer,  mentioned  in  Acts  viii. 
27,  28,  31,  was,  it  is  supposed,  something  in  the  form  of  our  modem  chaise  with 
four  wheels.  Csesar  relates  that  Cassibelanus,  after  dismissing  all  his  other  forces, 
retained  no  fewer  than  4000  war  chariots  about  his  person.  The  chariots  of  the 
ancients  were  like  our  phaetons,  and  drawn  by  one  horse.    See  Carriages^  Coaches,  S^e, 

CHARITABLE  BEQUESTS.  Statute  constituting  a  board  for  the  recovery  of  chari- 
table bequests,  and  to  enforce  the  due  fulfilment  by  executors  of  testamentary 
writings  in  this  particular,  enacted  4  George  III.  1764.  The  present  board  was 
constructed  by  a  new  act,  in  1800.  Act  constituting  a  board  of  commissioDers  in 
Ireland,  they  being  chiefly  prelates  of  the  established  charch,  1826. 


CHA  C  '^9  ]  CHA 

CHARITIES  AND  CHARITY  SCHOOLS.  It  has  been  jnitly  laid,  that  notwith- 
standing the  variety  of  sects  that  are  found  in  England,  and  diversity  of  religious 
sentiment,  the  conseqaence  of  free  discussion  with  respect  to  disputed  doctrines, 
there  is  no  country  on  earth  where  there  are  more  positive  acts  of  religion.  They 
do  not  indeed  consist  of  rich  shrines,  or  votive  tablets  consecrated  to  particular  saint^ 
but  of  efficient  charity  implied  to  every  purpose  of  philanthropy.  There  are  tens 
of  thousands  of  charitable  foundations  in  this  great  country ;  and  the  charity  com- 
mission reported  to  parliament  that  the  endowed  charities  alone  of  Great  Britain 
amounted  to  j£l, 500,000  annually,  in  1840. — Pari.  Rep.  Charity  schools  were 
instituted  in  London  to  prevent  the  seduction  of  the  in&nt  poor  into  Homan  Catholic 
seminaries,  3  James  II.  1687. — Rapin, 

CHARLEROI,  Battlss  of.  Great  battles  were  fought  near  this  town  in  several 
wars;  the  principal  were  in  1690  and  1794.  See  Fleurut,  And  near  hne,  at 
Ligny,  Napoleon  attacked  the  Prussian  line,  making  it  fall  back  upon  Wavres,  just 
previous  to  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  June  16,  1815. 

CHARLESTON,  Massachusetts.  Burnt  by  the  British  forces  under  general  Gage, 
January  17f  1775.  The  English  fleet  at  Charleston  repulsed  with  great  loss,  June 
28,  1776.  Charleston  taken  by  the  British,  May  7,  1779.  Charleston,  South 
Carolioa,  evacuated  by  the  British,  April  14,  1783. 

CHARTERS  op  RIGHTS.  The  first  charters  of  rights  granted  by  the  kings  of  England 
to  their  subjects,  were  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  by  Henry  I.  a.d.  1100.  The 
famous  bulwark  of  English  liberty,  known  as  Magna  ChartOf  or  the  great  charter, 
was  granted  to  the  barons  by  king  John,  June  15,  1215.  The  rights  and  privileges 
granted  by  this  charter  were  renewed  and  ratified  by  Henry  III.  in  1224,  ei  Meg. 
Sir  Edward  Coke  says  that  e?en  in  his  days  it  had  been  confirmed  above  thirty  times. 
Charters  to  corporations  were  of  frequent  grant  from  the  reign  of  William  I.  See 
Magna  Charia, 

CHARTER-HOUSE.  A  corruption  of  the  French  word  Chartreutej  the  name  of  a 
celebrated  monastery  of  Carthusian  monks,  which  formerly  stood  on  this  site,  but 
which  was  suppressed  by  Henry  VIII.  at  the  period  of  the  Reformation  Mr.  Tho- 
mas Sutton,  a  man  of  immense  wealth  and  unbounded  liberality,  purchased  the  vast 
premises  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk^  in  May,  1611 ;  and  founded  an  hospital  which  he 
endowed  with  a  large  estate  ;  and  hence  this  eztensiTe  charity  bears  alM>  the  name 
of  Sutton's  hospital. 

CHARTER  PARTY.  The  same  species  of  deed  or  agreement  as  the  ancient  chirograph. 
A  covenant  between  merchants  and  masters  of  ships  relating  to  the  ship  and  cargo. 
It  was  first  used  in  England  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  about  1243. 

CHARTISTS.  Large  bodies  of  the  working  people,  calling  themselves  Chartists, 
assembled  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  armed  with  guns,  pikes,  and  other  weapons, 
and  carrying  torches  and  flags,  and  conducting  themselves  tumultuously,  so  that  a 
proclamation  was  issued  against  them,  Dec  12, 1838.  Attack  on  Newport  by  the 
Chartists,  who  assembled  from  the  neighbouring  mines  and  collieries  to  the  number 
of  nearly  10,000,  headed  by  John  Frost,  an  ez-magistrate,  Nov.  4,  1839.  In 
this  affiray,  the  mayor  of  Newport  and  several  persons  acting  with  him  against 
the  rioters  were  wounded ;  but  a  detachment  of  the  45th  regiment  having  made  a 
sortie,  the  Chartists  fled,  leaving  about  twenty  dead  and  many  wounded.  Frost 
and  others  were  brought  to  trid,  Dec.  31,  following;  the  trial  lasted  seven  days, 
and  ended  in  their  conviction  of  high  treason ;  but  their  sentence  was  afterwards 
commuted  to  transportation.     See  Birmingham, 

CHARTS.  Anaximander  of  Miletns  was  the  inventor  of  geographical  and  celestial 
charts,  about  570  b.c.  Modern  sea  charts  were  brought  to  England  by  Bartholomew 
Columbus,  with  a  view  to  illustrate  his  brother's  theory  respecting  a  western  continent, 
1489.     Mercator's  chart,  in  which  the  world  is  taken  as  a  plane,  was  drawn  1556. 

CHARYBDIS,  a  dangerous  whirlpool  on  the  coast  of  Sicily,  opposite  another  whirlpool 
called  Scylla,  on  the  coast  of  Italy.  It  was  very  dangerous  to  sailors,  and  it  proved 
fatal  to  part  of  the  fleet  of  Ulysses.  The  exact  situation  of  the  Charybdis  is  not 
discovered  by  the  modems,  as  no  whirlpool  sufficiently  tremendous  is  now  found  to 
correspond  to  the  description  of  the  ancients.  The  words  Incidit  in  ScyUam  qui 
vuU  vitare  Chargbdimf  became  a  proverb,  to  show  that  in  our  eagerness  to  avoid  an 
evil,  we  fall  into  a  greater. 


CHA  []  120  ]  CHE 

CHASTITY.  The  R4>man  laws  justified  homicide  in  defence  of  one's  self  or  relatirea  ; 
and  our  laws  jnstif  j  a  woman  for  killing  a  man  who  would  defile  her ;  and  a  husband 
or  a  fistther  maj  take  the  life  of  him  who  attempts  to  violate  his  wife  or  daughter. 
In  1000  years  from  the  time  of  Numa,  710  b.c.  to  the  reign  of  Theodosius  the 
Ghreat,  a.d.  394,  but  eighteen  Roman  vestals  had  been  guilty  of  incontinence.  See 
Vestals.  There  are  many  remarkable  instances  of  chastity  recorded.  See  Acre^ 
LuoreHa,  &c.  Ebba,  the  abbess  of  Coldingham,  near  Berwick,  cut  off  her  nose  and 
lips,  and  persuaded  the  younger  nuns  to  follow  her  example,  to  render  themselYes 
hideous,  and  so  prevent  the  lustful  attack  of  their  ravishers,  the  Danes,  a.d.  886. — 
SUnoe's  Chron. 

CHATHAM  DOCK.  Commenced  by  queen  Elizabeth.  This  is  one  of  the  principal 
stations  of  the  royal  navy  ;  and  its  dock-yard,  containing  immense  magazines, 
furnished  with  all  sorts  of  naval  stores,  is  deemed  the  first  arsenal  in  the  world. 
The  Chatham  Chest  for  the  relief  of  wounded  and  decayed  seamen  was  originally 
established  hereby  a  law  of  Elizabeth  in  1558.  In  1667,  on  the  10th  June,  the  Dutch 
fleet,  under  the  command  of  admiral  De  Ruyter,  sailed  up  to  this  town  and  burnt 
several  men  of  war ;  but  the  entrance  into  the  Medway  is  now  defended  by  Sheemess 
and  other  forts,  and  additional  fortifications  are  made  at  Chatham. 

CHATILLON,  Conokbss  of.  Held  by  the  four  great  powers  allied  against  France, 
and  at  which  Caulaincourt  attended  on  the  part  of  the  emperor  Napoleon, 
Feb.  5,  1814  ;  but  the  negociation  for  peace,  which  was  the  object  of  the  congress, 
was  broken  off  on  March  19,  following. 

CHAUMONT,  Trbaty  of.  Entered  into  between  Great  Britain,  Austria,  Russia, 
and  Prussia,  and  signed  by  these  powers  respectively,  March  1, 1814. 

CHAUNTING.  Chaunting  the  psalms  was  adopted  by  Ambrose  from  the  pagan 
ceremonies  of  the  Romans,  about  a.d.  350. — Lenglet,  Chaunting  in  churches  was 
introduced  into  the  Roman  Catholic  service  in  602,  by  Gregory  the  Great,  who 
established  schools  of  chanters,  and  corrected  the  church  song. — Dufresrwy. 

CHEATS.  The  convicted  cheat  punishable  by  pillory  (since  abolished),  imprison- 
ment, and  fine,  1  Hawk,  L.C.  188.  A  rigorous  statute  was  enacted  against  cheats, 
33  Henry  VIII.  1542.  Persons  cheating  at  play,  or  winning  at  any  time  more 
than  10/.,  or  any  valuable  thing,  were  deemed  infamous,  and  were  to  suffer  punishment 
as  in  cases  of  perjury,  9  Anne,  1711. — Blackstone^s  Comm, 

CHEESE.  It  is  supposed  by  Camden  and  others  that  the  English  learned  the  process 
of  making  cheese  Arom  the  Romans  (who  brought  many  useful  arts  with  them)  about 
the  Christian  era.  Cheese  is  made  by  almost  all  nations.  Wilts,  Gloucester,  and 
Cheshire,  make  vast  quantities  ;  the  last  alone,  annually,  about  31»000  tons.  The 
Cheddar  of  Somerset,  and  Stilton  of  Huntingdon,  are  as  much  esteemed  with  us  as 
the  cheese  of  Parma,  and  Gruyere  of  Switzerland.  In  1840  we  imported  firom 
abroad  for  home  use,  a  quantity  exceeding  10,000  tons. 

CHELSEA  COLLEGE.  On  the  site  of  a  college  founded  by  James  I.  for  theolo- 
gical disputations,  but  converted  by  Charles  II.  to  its  present  better  purpose,  is  this 
magnificent  asylum  for  wounded  and  superannuated  soldiers.  Founded  by  Charles 
II.,  carried  on  by  James  II.,  and  completed  by  William  III.,  in  1690.  But  the 
projector  of  this  great  national  institution  was  sir  Stephen  Fox,  the  grandfather  of 
the  late  celebrated  patriot.  The  architect  was  sir  Christopher  Wren,  and  the  cost 
;£150,000.  The  physic  garden  of  sir  Hans  Sloane,  at  Chelsea,  was  given  to  the  Apo- 
thecaries' company  in  1721.  The  Chelsea  water-works,  a  valuable  establishment, 
was  incorporated  1722.  The  first  stone  of  the  Military  Asylum,  Chelsea,  was  Uid 
by  Frederick,  duke  of  York,  June  19,  1801. 

CHELTENHAM.  Now  a  great  resort  of  our  nobility  and  fashionable  persons,  as  well  as 
convalescents.  Its  mineral  spring,  so  celebrated  for  its  salubrity,  was  discovered  in 
1718.  The  King's-well  here  was  sunk  in  1778  ;  and  other  wells  were  sunk  by  Mr. 
Thompson,  in  1806.    Magnesian  salt  was  found  in  the  waters  in  1811. 

CHEMISTRY  and  DISTILLING.  Introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Spanish  Moors, 
about  A.D.  1150;  they  had  learned  them  from  the  African  Moors,  and  these  from 
the  Egyptians.  In  Egypt,  they  had,  in  very  early  ages,  extracted  salts  from  their 
bases,  separated  oils,  and  prepared  vinegar  and  wine  ;  and  embalming  was  a  kind 
of  chemical  process.     The  Chinese  also  claim  an  early  acquaintance  witii  chemistry ; 


CHK  ^  121*]  CHI 

- -  -  _[— _Mr-Ti— " —   -       -     — T    1-  ■  _       

but  the  fathers  of  true  chemical  philoaophy  were  of  our  own  eonntry  :  Bacon,  Boyl^ 
Hooke,  Mayowy  Newton,  &c.  The  modem  character  of  chemistry  was  formed  nndor 
Beecfaer  and  Stahl,  who  perceived  the  connexion  of  the  atmoephere  and  the  gases, 
with  the  production  of  phenomena.  Bergman  and  Scheele  were  cotemporary  with 
Priestley  in  England,  and  Lavoisier  in  France ;  then  followed  Thomson,  Davy,  and 
other  distinguished  men. 

CHERBOURG.  Memorable  engagement  here  between  the  English  and  French  fleets ; 
the  latter  were  defeated,  and  twenty-one  of  their  ships  of  war  were  burnt,  or  other- 
wise destroyed,  near  Cape  La  Hogue,  by  admirals  Rooke  and  Russell,  May  19, 1692. 
The  forts,  arsenal,  and  shipping  were  destroyed  by  the  British,  who  landed  here  in 
August  1758.  The  works  were  resumed  on  a  stupendous  scale,  by  Louis  XVI. ; 
but  their  progress  was  interrupted  by  the  revolution.  The  Breakwater  was  com- 
menced in  1783,  and  finally  completed  in  1813. 

CHERRIES.  They  were  brought  from  Pontus,  by  Lncullus,  to  Rome,  about  70  b.c. 
Apricots  from  Epirus ;  peaches  from  Persia  ;  the  finest  plums  from  Damascus  and 
Armenia ;  pears  and  figs  from  Greece  and  Egypt ;  citrons  from  Media ;  and  pome- 
granates from  Carthage,  114  b.c.  The  cherry-tree  was  first  planted  in  Britain,  it  is 
said,  about  a.d.  100.  line  kinds  were  brought  from  Flanders,  and  planted  in  Kent, 
with  such  success,  that  an  prchard  of  thirty-two  acres  produced  in  one  year  jf  1000, 
A.D.  1540. — See  Gardening, 

CHESAPEAKE,  Battle  of.  At  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  that  name,  between  the  Bri- 
tish admiral  Greaves,  and  the  French  admiral  De  Grasse,  in  the  interest  of  the  revolted 
states  of  America;  the  former  Was  obliged  to  retire,  1781.  The  Chesapeake  and 
Delaware  were  blockaded  by  a  British  fleet  in  1812*  The  Chesapeake  American 
frigate  struck  to  the  Shannon  British  frigate,  commanded  by  captain  Broke,  after  a 
severe  action,  June  2,  1813. 

CHESS,  Game  of.  Invented,  according  to  some  authorities,  680  b.c.  ;  and  according 
to  others,  in  the  fifth  century  of  our  era.  The  learned  Hyde  and  Sir  William  Jones 
concur  in  stating  (as  do  most  writers  on  the  subject),  that  the  origin  of  chess  is  to 
be  traced  to  India.    The  automaton  chess-player  was  exhibited  in  England  in  1769. 

CHESTER.  Founded  by  the  Romans,  and  one  of  the  last  places  in  England  that  was 
quitted  by  that  people.  It  was  the  station  of  the  twentieth  Roman  legion,  called  the 
Valeria  Victrijf.  The  city  wall  was  first  built  by  Edelfleda,  a.d.  908  ;  and  WiUiam  I. 
rebuilt  the  Saxon  castle  in  1084.  Chester  was  incorporated  by  Henry  III. ,  and  made 
a  distinct 'county.  It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an  accidental  fire  in  1471.  The  fatal 
gunpowder  explosion  occurred  Nov.  5,  1772. 

CHESTER,  Bishopric  of.  This  see  was  anciently  part  of  the  diocese  of  Lichfield, 
one  of  whose  bishops  removing  the  seat  hither  in  1075,  occasioned  his  successors  to 
be  styled  bishops  of  Chester ;  but  it  was  not  erected  into  a  distinct  bishopric  until 
the  general  dissolution  of  monasteries.  Henry  VIII.  in  1541,  raised  it  to  this  dig- 
nity, and  allotted  the  church  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Werburgh  for  the  cathedral.  This 
see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  ;^420  Is,  Sd,  per  year. 

CHEVALIER  D'EON.  This  extraordinary  personage,  who  had  been  acting  in  a  diplo- 
matic capacity  in  several  countries,  and  who  was  for  some  time  a  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary from  France  in  London,  was  proved  upon  a  trial  had  in  the  King's  Bench, 
in  an  action  to  recover  wagers  as  to  his  sex,  to  be  a  woman,  July  1,  1777.  He 
subsequently  wore  female  attire  for  many  years ;  yet  at  his  death,  in  London,  in 
1810,  it  was  manifest,  by  the  dissection  of  his  body,  and  other  undoubted  evidence, 
that  he  was  of  the  male  sex. — Biog.  Diet, 

CHICHESTER.  This  city  was  built  by  Cissa,  about  a.d.  540.  The  cathedral  was 
erected  in  1115,  and  having  been  burnt  with  the  city  in  1186,  was  rebuilt  by  bishop 
Seffric  in  1187.  The  bishopric  of  Chichester  originated  in  this  way  :  Wilfrids,  third 
archbishop  of  York,  having  been  obliged  to  flee  his  country  by  Egfrid,  king  of 
Northumberland,  came  and  preached  the  gospel  in  this  country,  and  built  a  church 
in  the  Isle  of  Selsey,  about  a.d.  673.  In  681,  Selsey  became  a  bishopric,  and  so 
continued  until  Stigand,  the  twenty-third  bishop,  had  it  removed  to  Chichester,  then 
called  Cissan-Caester,  from  its  builder,  Cissa,  a.d.  1071.  This  see  has  yielded  to 
the  church  two  saints ;  and  to  the  nation  three  lord  chancellors.  It  is  valued  in  the 
king's  books  at  £677  is,  Zd,  per  annum. 


CHI 


[122  ] 


CHI 


CHILDREN.  Most  of  the  ancient  nations  had  the  nnnatural  custom  of  ezposiog  their 
infanta — the  Egyptians  on  the  bunks  of  rivers,  and  the  Greeks  on  highways — when 
they  could  not  support  or  educate  them  ;  in  such  cases  they  were  taken  care  of,  and 
humanely  protected  by  the  state.  The  custom  which  long  previously  existed  of 
English  parents  selling  their  children  to  the  Irish  for  slaves,  was  prohibited  in  the  reign 
of  Canute,  about  1017. — Mat,  Paris.  At  Darien,  it  was  the  practice  when  a  widow 
died,  to  bury  with  her,  in  the  same  grave,  such  of  her  children  as  were  unable,  from 
their  tender  years,  to  take  care  of  themselves.  And  in  some  parts  of  China,  super- 
stition has  lent  her  hand  to  sanction  the  horrid  deed  of  offering  infants  to  the  spirit 
of  an  adjoining  river,  first  attaching  a  gourd  to  their  necks  to  prevent  their  imme- 
diately drowning. 

CHILI.  Discovered  by  Diego  de  Almagro,  one  of  the  conquerors  of  Peru,  a.d.  1535. 
Almagro  crossed  the  Cordilleras,  and  the  natives,  regarding  the  Spaniards  on  their 
first  visit  as  allied  to  the  Divinity,  collected  for  them  gold  and  silver,  amounting  to 
290,000  ducats,  a  present  which  led  to  the  subsequent  cruelties  and  rapacity  of  the 
invaders.  ChiU  was  subdued,  but  not  wholly,  in  1 546.  The  Chilisians  fought  for 
liberty  at  various  times,  and  with  various  success,  until  1817,  when,  by  the  decisive 
victory  gained  by  San  Martin,  over  the  royal  forces,  Feb.  12,  in  that  year,  the  pro- 
vinces was  released  from  its  oppressors,  and  declared  independent. 

CHILTERN  HUNDREDS.  An  estate  of  the  crown  on  the  chain  of  chalk  hills  that  pass 
from  east  to  west  through  the  middle  of  Buckinghamshire,  the  stewardship  whereof 
is  a  nominal  office,  conferred  on  members  of  parliament  when  they  wish  to  vacate 
their  seats,  as,  by  accepting  an  office  under  the  crown,  a  member  becomes  disquali- 
fied, unless  he  be  again  returned  by  his  constituents  :  this  custom  has  existed 
time  immemorial. 

CHIMNEYS.  Chafing-dishes  were  in  use  previous  to  the  invention  of  chimneys, 
which  were  first  introduced  into  these  countries  in  a.d.  1200,  when  they  were  con- 
fined to  the  kitchen  and  large  hall.  The  family  sat  round  a  stove,  the  funnel  of 
which  passed  through  the  ceiling,  in  1300.  Chimneys  were  general  in  domestic  archi- 
tecture in  1310.  The  ancients  made  use  of  stoves,  although  Octavio  Ferrari  affirms 
that  chimneys  were  in  use  among  them ;  but  this  is  disputed.  Act  to  regulate  the 
trade  of  chimney  sweeping,  28  George  III.  1789.  Statute  repealing  this  act,  and 
regulating  the  trade,  the  apprenticeship  of  children,  the  construction  of  flues,  pre- 
venting calling  **  sweep ''  in  the  streets,  &c.  4  William  IV.,  July,  1834.  By  the  act 
5  Victoria,  Aug.  1840,  it  is  not  lawful  for  master  sweeps  to  take  apprentices  under 
sixteen  years  of  age  ;  and  from  July  1, 1842,  no  individual  under  twenty-one  is  to 
ascend  a  chimney. 

CHINA.  This  empire  is  very  ancient,  and  the  Chinese  assert  that  it  existed  many 
thousands  of  years  before  Noah's  flood  ;  but  it  is  allowed  by  some  authorities  to  have 
commenced  about  2500  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  By  others  it  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Fohi,  supposed  to  be  the  Noah  of  the  Bible,  2240  b.c.  We 
are  told  that  the  Chinese  knew  the  periods  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets,  and  were 
.  acute  astronomers,  in  the  reign  of  Yao,  which  is  set  down  2357  b.c.  But  dates 
cannot  be  relied  upon  until  towards  the  close  of  the  seventh  century,  b.c.  when  the 
history  of  China  becomes  more  distinct.  In  the  battle  between  Phraates  and  the 
Scythians  129  e.g.,  the  Chinese  aided  the  latter,  and  afterwards  ravaged  the  countries 
on  the  coasts  of  the  Caspian,  which  is  their  first  appearance  in  history  .-^ZreA^i^/. 

Religion  of  Tao-tse  oommenoed  .  b.c.  15 
Religion  of  the  followers  of  Fo,  com- 
menced about  .  A.D.  GO 
Embassy  from  Rome  .  .  .  .  166 
Nankin  becomes  the  capital  .  420 
The  atheistical  philosophy,  Fan-<Shin,* 

flourishes 449 

The  Nestorian  Christians  permitted  to 

preadi  their  doctrines        .  .    635 

They  are  proscribed,  and  extirpated       .    845 
The  seat  of  the  imperial  government  is 

transferred  to  Pekin  .    .  1880 

Wonderful  canal,  called  the  Yn  Ho, 

completed  about        ....  140O 
Europeans  first  arrive  at  Canton        .    .  1517 


The  Chinese  state  tiieir  first  cyde  to  have 
commenced       ....    b.c.  2700 

The  first  of  the  22  Chinese  dynasties 
commenced 


2207 


In  the  history  of  China,  the  first  dates 
which  are  fixed  to  his  narrative*  by 
6e-ma-tden,  begin  .         .        .    . 

Confucius,  the  father  of  the  Chinese  phi- 
losophers, bom  .... 

Stupendous  wall  of  China  completed   .  . 

The  dynaaty  of  Han      .        .        .        . 

Literature  and  the  art  of  printing  encou- 
raged     


651 

551 
211 
206 

202 


CHI 


C  123] 


CHI 


CHINA,  eontinued. 

Macao  is  granted  as  a  settlement  to  the 
Portuguese        ....    aj>.  1586 

Jesuit  missionaries  are  sent  by  the  pope 
from  Rome  .    .  1575 

The  country  is  conquered  by  the  Eastern 
Tartars,  who  establish  the  present 
reigning  house  ....  1644 

An  earthquake  throughout  China  buries 
30O,U00  persons  at  Pekin  alone        .    .  1662 

Jesuit  missionaries  endeavour  to  estab- 
lish Christianity         ....  160S 

The  Jesuits  are  expelled  through  their 
own  misconduct 17M 

Another  general  earthqiiake  destroys 
100,000  persons  at  Pekin,  and  80,000  in 
a  suburb  ......  1731 

In  a  salute  by  one  of  our  India  ships  in 
China,  a  loaded  gun  was  inadrertently 
fired,  which  killed  a  native ;  the  go- 
vernment demanded  the  gunner  to  be 
given  up;  he  was  soon  strangled. — 
Sir  Geo.  Staunton  July  2,  1785 

Earl  Macartney's  embassy ;  he  leaves 
England     ....    Bept.  S6,  1792 

Ha  arrives  at  Pekin ;  his  reception  by 
the  emperor  .        .  Sept  14,  1793 

He  is  ordered  to  depart  from  Pekin  Oct.  7*  1793 

And  arrives  in  England  .         .   B^t.  6,  1794 

The  affair  of  the  Company's  ship  Nep- 
tune,  when  a  Chinese  was  killed     .    .  1607 

Edict  against  Christianity     .         .         .  1812 

Lord  Amherst's  embassy;  he  leaves 
England  ....  Feb.  8,  1816 
[His  lordship  failed  in  the  objects  of 
his  mission,  having  refused  to  make 
the  prostration  of  the  kou-4oUt  lest  he 
should  thereby  compromise  the  majes- 
ty of  England.] 

Lord  Napier  arrives  at  Macao,  and  pro- 
ceeds to  Canton      .  July  16,  1834 


Affair  between  the  naUvet  and  two  Bri- 
tish ships  of  war,   several    Chinese 

killed      ...  .  A.D.  Aug.  2,  1894 

Death  of  Lord  Napier  .   Oct  11,  1834 

[The  Chinese  government  arrests  Capt. 
.  Elliot,  BUperintendant  of  the  British 
trade  in  China,  and  several  merohants, 
and  declares  they  will  not  be  set  at 
liberty  till  they  deliver  up  the  opium 
th^  had  imported  contrary  to  an 
edict  This  they  consent  to  do,  and 
opium  to  the  value  of  3,000,000/.  is 
delivered  April  15  to  May  21,  1839 

90,291  chests  of  opium  are  destroyed  by 
the  Chinese  .    May  29.  1839 

Affnqr  in  whidi  a  native  losea  his  life, 

July  7.  1839 

All  SDpplies  for  British  saltjeots  in  China 
interdicted  Aug.  15|  1839 

Attack  made  on  the  British  schooner 
Black  Joke  .    Aug.  24,  1839 

Action  between  the  British  ships  Voloffe 
and  Hgeuinth,  and  29  sail  of  Chinese 
Junks      ....         Nov.  3,  1839 

Edict  of  the  emperor,  prohibiting  all 
commerce  with  the  English    .  Jan.  2,  1840 

British  blockade  of  the  river  of  Canton 

June  28,  1840 

Capture  of  the  Island  of  Chu-san  by  the 
BriUsh    ....        July  5,  1840 

The  following  is  a  list  of  those  who  have 
reigned  for  the  last  two  centuries  :•— 

Chwang-lei 1627 

Shun-che 1644 

Kang-he 1069 

Yung-chlng      ....:.  1693 

Keen-lung 1736 

Kearding 1796 

Taou^kwang  (present  emperor)  .1821 


The  embassj  of  lord  Macartney  has  thrown  some  light  on  the  political  circam- 
stances  of  this  empire :  it  appears  that  it  is  divided  into  15  provinces,  containing  4402 
walled  cities ;  the  population  of  the  whole  coantry  is  given  at  333,000,000 ;  its  annual 
revenues  ;^66,000,000  ;  and  the  army,  including  the  Tartars,  1,000,000  of  infantry, 
and  800,000  cavalry ;  the  religion  is  Pagan,  and  the  government  is  absolute.  Learn- 
ing, with  the  arts  and  sdenoes  in  genera^  are  encouraged,  and  ethics  are  studied  pro- 
foundly, and  influence  the  manners  of  the  people. 

CHINA  PORCELAIN.  This  manufacture  is  first  mentioned  in  history  in  1531 ;  it 
was  introduced  into  England  so  early  as  the  sixteenth  century.  Porcelain  was  made 
at  Dresden  in  1706 ;  fine  ware  in  England,  at  Chelsea,  in  1752  ;  at  Bow  in  1758 ; 
in  various  other  parts  of  England,  about  1760  ;  and  by  the  ingenious  Josiah  Wedg- 
wood, who  much  improved  the  British  manufacture,  in  Staffordshire,  1762  ei  teq, 

CHINA  ROSE.  This  most  delicate  and  beautiful  flower,  called  the  Rosa  Indica^  was 
brought  hither  from  China  about  1786.  The  Chinese  apple-tree,  or  Pyrua  spec- 
tabUiSf  was  brought  thither  about  1 780. — See  Flowers f  Fruits f  and  Gardening* 

CHIPPAWA,  Battlbs  of.  In  the  late  American  war,  the  British  forces  under  general 
Riall  were  defeated  by  the  Americans  under  general  Browne,  July  5,  1814.  The 
Americans  were  defeated  by  the  British,  commanded  by  generals  Drummond  and 
Riall,  but  the  latter  was  wounded  in  the  action,  and  taken  prisoner,  July  25,  following. 

CHIVALRY.  Began  in  Europe  about  a.d.  912.  From  the  twelfth  to  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury it  had  a  considerable  influence  in  refining  the  manners  of  most  of  the  nations 
of  Europe.  The  knight  swore  to  accomplish  the  duties  of  his  profession,  as  the 
champion  of  God  and  the  ladies.    He  devoted  himself  to  speak  the  truth,  to  main- 

\ .    tain  llie  right,  to  protect  the  distressed,  to  practise  courtesy,  to  fulfil  obligations,  and 


CHI  []  124  ]  COR 

to  vindicate,  ia  every  perilous  adventurey  his  honour  and  character.     Chivalry,  which 
owed  its  origin  to  the  feudal  system,  expired  with  it. — Robertson  ;  Gibbon. 

CHIVALRY,  Court  of.  It  was  commonly  after  the  lie-direct  had  been  given,  that 
combats  took  place  in  the  court  of  chivalry.  By  letters  patent  of  James  I.  the  earl- 
marshal  of  England  had ''  the  like  jurisdiction  in  the  court  of  chivalry,  when  the  office 
of  lord  high  constable  was  vacant,  as  this  latter  and  the  marshal  did  jointly  exercise,'' 
1623.  The  following  entries  are  found  in  the  pipe-roll  of  31  Henry  I.,  the  date  of 
which  has  been  fixed  by  the  labours  of  the  record  commission : — ''  Robert  Fitz- 
Seward  renders  account  of  fifteen  marks  of  silver,  for  the  office  and  w\fe  of  Hugh 
Cbivill.  Paid  into  the  exchequer  four  pounds.  And  he  owes  six  pounds  ;"  p.  53. 
*^  William  de  Hocton  renders  account  of  ten  marks  of  gold  that  he  may  have  the 
wife  of  Geoffrey  de  Faucre  in  marriage,  with  her  land,  and  may  have  her  son  in 
custody  until  he  is  of  age  to  become  a  knight ;  he  paid  into  the  exchequer  ten  marks 
of  gold,  and  is  dischaiged." — Pari,  Reports. 

CHOCOLATE,  first  introduced  into  Europe  from  Mexico  about  a.d.1520.  It  is  the 
floor  of  the  cocoa-nut,  and  makes  a  wholesome  beverage,  much  used  in  Spain.  It 
was  sold  in  the  London  coffee-houses  soon  after  their  establishment,  1650. — TaUer, 

CHOIR.  The  choir  was  separated  firom  the  nave  of  the  church  in  the  time  of  Con- 
stantine.  The  choral  service  was  first  used  in  England  at  Canterbury,  a.d.  677. 
This  service  had  been  previously  in  use  at  Rome  about  602. — See  Chaunting,  The 
Choragus  was  the  superintendant  of  the  ancient  chorus. —  Warburton. 

CHOLERA  MORBUS.  This  fatal  disease,  known  in  its  more  malignant  form  as  the 
Indian  cholera,  after  having  made  great  ravages  in  many  countries  of  the  north, 
east,  and  south  of  Europe,  and  in  the  countries  of  Asia,  where  alone  it  had  carried  off 
more  than  900,000  persons  in  its  progress  within  two  years,  made  its  first  appearance 
in  England,  at  Sunderland,  October  26,  1831.  Proclamation,  ordering  all  vessels 
from  Sunderland  to  London,  to  perform  quarantine  at  the  Nore,  December  4,  1831. 
Cholera  first  appeared  in  Edinburgh,  Feb.  6,  1832.  First  observed  at  Rotherhithe 
and  Limehouse,  London,  February  13 ;  and  in  Dublin,  March  3,  same  year.  The 
mortality  was  very  great,  but  more  so  on  the  Continent ;  the  deaths  by  cholera  in 
Paris  were  18,000  between  March  and  August,  1832.  Cholera  again  raged  in  Rome, 
the  Two  Sicilies,  Genoa,  Berlin,  &c.  in  July  and  August,  1837. 

CHORUSSES.  Singing  in  this  manner  was  invented  at  Athens.  Sterichorus,  whose 
real  name  was  Tysias,  received  this  appellative  from  his  having  been  the  first  who 
taught  the  chorus  to  dance  to  the  lyre,  556  B.C. — Quintil.  Inst.  Orat.  Hypodicns, 
of  Chalcides  carried  off  the  prize  for  the  best  voice,  508  b.c. — Parian  Marbles, 

CHRISM.  Consecrated  oil  was  used  early  in  the  ceremonies  of  the  Roman  and  Greek 
churches.  Musk,  saffron,  cinnamon,  roses,  and  frankincense  are  mentioned  as  used 
with  the  oil,  in  a.d.  1541.  But  it  was  ordained  that  chrism  should  consist  of  oil 
and  balsam  only ;  the  one  representing  the  human  nature  of  Christ,  and  the  other 
his  divine  nature. — 1596. 

CHRIST.  See  Jesus  Christ.  This  name,  so  universally  given  to  the  Redeemer  of 
the  world,  signifies,  in  Greek,  The  Anointed,  being  the  same  with  Messiah  in  the 
Hebrew,  which  the  Jews  called  that  Saviour  and  Deliverer  whom  they  expected,  and 
Trho  was  promised  to  them  by  all  the  prophets.  This  appellation  is  commonly  put 
to  our  Jbsus  (signifying  Saviour),  the  name  of  the  great  object  of  our  faith,  and 
divine  author  of  our  religion.  St.  Clement,  the  earliest  father,  according  to  St. 
Epiphanius,  fixes  the  birth  of  Christ  on  the  18th  of  November,  in  the  28th  year  of 
Augustus,  i.  e.  two  years  before  the  Christian  era  as  adopted  in  the  sixth  century. 
Cerinthus  was  the  first  Christian  writer  against  the  divinity  of  Christ,  about  a.d.  67. 
The  divinity  of  Christ  was  adopted  at  the  council  of  Nice,  in  a.d.  325,  by  two 
hundred  and  ninety-nine  bishops  against  eighteen. 

CHRIST'S  HOSPITAL.  A  noble  institution  which  is  indebted  for  its  establishment  to 
the  piety  of  Edward  VI.  1552.  A  mathematical  ward  was  founded  by  Charles  U., 
and  the  city  of  London  and  community  of  England  have  contributed  to  render  it  a 
great,  extensive,  and  richly  endowed  charity.  Large  portions  of  the  edifice  having 
fallen  into  decay,  have  been  lately  rebuilt ;  in  1822  a  new  infirmary  was  completed,  and 
in  1825  (April  28)  the  late  duke  of  York  laid  the  first  stone  of  the  magnificent  new  halL 

CHRIST'S-THORN.  This  shrub  came  hither  from  the  south  of  Europe,  before  1596. 
Supposed  to  be  the  plant  fromwhich  our  Saviour's  crown  of  thorns  was  composed. 


CHR  C  1^^  1  CHR 

CHRISTIAN.  This  name  was  first  given  to  the  belierers  and  followers  of  Chkist's 
doctrines  at  Antioch,  in  Sjria,  Acts  zi.  26,  in  the  year  38,  according  to  Builer ; 
in  the  year  40,  according  to  Taoihu  ;  and  according  to  other  authorities  in  the  year 
60.  The  first  Christians  were  divided  into  episcopoi,  presbyteroi,  diaconoi,  pistoi, 
catachumensy  or  learners,  and  energnmens  who  were  to  be  ezordsed. 

CHRISTIAN  ERA.  The  era  which  is  nsed  by  almost  all  Christian  nations ;  it  dates 
from  January  Ist,  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  year  of  the  194th  Olympiaid,  in  the 
753rd  of  the  building  of  Rome,  and  4714th  of  the  Julian  period.  It  was  first 
introduced  in  the  sixth  century,  but  was  not  very  generally  employed  for  some 
centuries  after.  We  style  the  Christian  era  a.d.  1.  It  was  first  used  in  modem 
chronology  in  516. 

CHRISTIAN  KING ;  Most  Christian  Kino  ;  ChrUtianimmtu.  This  title  was 
given  by  pope  Paul  II.  to  Louis  XI.  of  France  hi  1469  ;  and  never  was  a  distinction 
more  unworthily  conferred.  His  tyranny  and  oppressions  obliged  his  subjects  to 
enter  into  a  league  against  him ;  and  4,000  persons  were  executed  publicly  or 
privately  in  his  merciless  reign. — Henault ;  Fleury, 

CHRISTIANITY.  Founded  by  the  Sarionr  of  the  world.  The  persecutions  of  the 
Christians  commenced  a.d.  64.— See  PersectUioru.  Christianity  was  first  taught  in 
Britain  about  this  time;  and  it  was  propagated  with  some  success  in  156. — Beds, 
Lucius  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  Christian  king  of  Britain,  and  in  the  world  :  he 
reigned  in  179.  But  the  era  of  Christianity  in  England  commenced  with  the 
mission  of  St.  Austin  in  596,  from  which  time  it  spread  rapidly  throughout  the 
whole  of  Britain*.  It  was  introduced  intd  Ireland  in  the  second  century,  but  with 
more  success  after  the  arrival  of  St.  Patrick  in  432.  It  was  received  in  Scotland 
in  the  reign  of  Donald  I.  about  201,  when  it  was  embraced  by  that  king,  his  queen, 
and  some  of  his  nobility. 

Constantine  theGreat  made  his  solemn  de- 
claration of  the  Christian  religion,  a.i>.    312 

Chriatianity  was  eBtablished  in  France 
imder  Glovis  the  Great  .    .    496 

In  Helvetia,  by  Irish  misaionarieB  .    643 

In  Flandei^  in  the  seventh  century. 

In  Denmark,  under  Harold        .         .    ^  827 

In  Bohemia,  under  Borsivoi  .         .    894 

In  Russia,  by  Swiatodaf    .         .         .    .    940 

In  Poland,  under  MeicisIauBL         .         .    992 

In  Hungary,  under  Geisa  .    .    994 

In  Norway  and  Iceland,  under  Olaf  L    .  1000 

Christianity  was  propagated  in  various  parts  of  Africa,  as  Guinea,  Angola,  and 
Congo,  in  the  fifteenth  century ;  and  in  America  and  India  it  made  some  progress  in 
the  sixteenth,  and  now  rapidly  gains  ground  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

CHRISTMAS-DAY.  A  festival  of  the  church,  universally  observed  in  commemoration 
of  the  nativity  of  our  Sariour.  It  has  been  denominated  Christ-miM«,  from  the 
appellative  Christ  having  been  added  to  the  name  of  Jesus  to  express  that  he  was 
the  Messiah,  or  The  Anointed.  It  was  first  observed  as  a  festival  a.d.  98.  Ordered 
to  be  held  as  a  solemn  feast,  and  Divine  service  to  be  performed  on  the  25th  of 
December,  by  pope  Telesphorus,  about  a.d.  137  f.  In  the  eastern  primitive  church, 
Christmas  and  the  Epiphany  (which  see)  were  deemed  but  one  and  the  same  feast ; 
and  to  this  day  the  church  universally  keeps  a  continued  feast  within  those  limits. 
The  holly  and  misletoe  used  at  Christmas  are  remains  of  the  religious  observances  of 
the  Druids,  and  so  with  many  other  like  customs. 

*  It  is  said  that  Gregory  the  Great,  shortly  before  his  elevation  to  the  papal  chair,  chanced  one 
day  to  pass  through  the  dave-market  at  Rome,  and  perceiving  some  children  of  great  beauty  who 
were  set  up  for  sale,  he  enquired  about  their  country,  and  finding  they  were  English  Pagans,  he  is 
aaid  to  have  cried  out,  in  the  Latin  language,  **  Non  Angli,  ted  AngeU,/orent,  ti  intent  Chrittiani" 
that  is,  *'  they  would  not  be  English,  but  angels,  if  they  were  Christians."  From  that  time  ha  was 
struck  with  an  ardent  desire  to  convert  that  unenlightened  nation,  and  ordered  a  monk,  named 
Austin,  or  Augustxn,  and  others  of  the  same  fraternity,  to  undertake  the  mission  to  Britain  in  the 
year  5i96.-'-6oldsmi(h. 

t  Diocletian,  the  Roman  emperor,  keeping  his  court  at  Nicomedia,  being  informed  that  the  Chris- 
tians were  assembled  on  this  day  in  great  multitudes  to  celebrate  Christ's  nativity,  ordered  the  doors 
to  be  shut,  and  the  church  to  be  set  on  fire,  and  six  hundred  perished  in  the  bumhig  pile.  This  was 
the  commenoement  of  the  tenth  persecuticm,  which  lasted  ten  years,  a.d.  303. 


In  Sweden,  between  10th  and  11th  centuries. 

In  Prussia,  by  the  Teutonic  knights, 
when  they  were  returning  from  the 
holy  wars  ad..  1227 

In  Lithuania,  where  Paganism  was  abo- 
lished, about 1.186 

In  China,  where  it  made  some  progress 
(but  was  afterwards  extirpated,  and 
thousands  of  Chinese  Christians  were 
put  to  death)     .        *        .        .        .  1575 

In  Greece,  where  it  was  once  more  re- 
established     1688 


CHIEF  SPOCHS  OF  THB  JBW8. 

Creation  of  Adam    .  b.c.  4004 

Deluge 2348 

Death  of  Abraham 1821 

Drowning  of  Pharaoh    ....  1491 

Death  of  Joshua 1443 

Death  of  Dayid 1015 


cnR  Q  126  2  cnu 

CHRISTMAS  ISLAND.  So  named  by  Captain  Cook,  who  landed  here  on  Christmas 
day,  1777.    Captain  Cook  had  passed  Christmas  day  at  Christmas  Sound,  1774. 

CHRONICLES.  The  earliest  chronicles  are  those  of  the  Chinese,  Hindoos,  Jews,  and 
perhaps  those  of  the  Irish.  After  the  invention  of  writing,  all  well-informed  nations 
appear  to  have  kept  chroniclers,  who.  were  generally  priests  or  astrologers,  and  who 
mingled  popular  legends  with  their  records. — Phillips. 

CHRONOLOGY.  The  Chinese  pretend  to  the  most  ancient,  but  upon  no  certain 
authority.  The  most  authentic,  to  which  all  Europe'gives  credit,  is  the  Jewish  ;  bat 
owing  to  the  negligence  of  the  Jews,  they  have  created  abundance  of  difficulties  in 
this  science,  and  very  little  certainty  can  be  arrived  at  as  to  the  exact  time  of  many 
memorable  events.  The  earliest  epoch  is  the*  creation  of  the  world,  4004  b.c. 
Theophilus,  bishop  of  Antioch,  was  the  first  Christian  chronologist,  about  a.d.  169. 
See  the  different  eras  through  the  volume. 

Division  of  the  kingdom  between  the 

Ten  Tribes  and  Two  .  &&  97^ 

Dispersion  of  the  Ten  Tribes  .    721 

Captivity  of  the  Two  ...  .  eOG 
Return  of  the  Two  from  Babylon  .  ■  636 
Death  of  Judas  Maccabeus  .    .    161 

United  to  the  Roman  Empire        .         .      63 

CHUNAR,  Treaty  of.  Concluded  between  the  nabob  of  Oude  and  governor  Hastings, 
by  which  the  nabob  was  relieved  of  all  his  debts  to  the  East  India  Company,  on 
condition  of  his  seizing  the  property  .of  the  Begums,  his  mother  and  grandmother, 
and  delivering  it  up  to  the  English :  this  treaty  also  enabled  the  nabob  to  take 
possession  of  the  lands  of  Fyzoo&  Khan,  a  Rohilla  chief,  who  had  escaped  from  a 
recent  massacre,  and  had  settled  at  Rampoor,  under  guarantee  of  the  English.  On 
this  occasion  the  Nabob  made  a  present  to  Mr.  Hastings  of  j^IOO,000,  September 
19,  1781.     See  Hastings,  Warren^  Trial  of. 

CHURCH.  It  is  said  that  a  church  was  built  for  Christian  worship  in  the  first 
century  ;  and  some  will  have  it  that  one  was  built  in  England,  a.d.  60.  See  GUu- 
tonbury.  In  the  small  island  of  Whitehom,  Scotland,  are  the  remains  of  an  ancient 
church,  which  was  the  first  place  of  Christian  worship,  it  is  believed,  in  that  conntry, 
and  supposed  to  have  been  built  before  the  cathedral  at  Whitehom,  in  Wigtonshire, 
where  Nenian  was  bishop  in  the  fourth  century.  The  Christians  originally  preached 
in  woods,  and  in  caves,  by  candle-light,  whence  the  practice  of  candle-light  in  churches. 
Most  of  the  early  churches  were  of  wood.  The  first  church  of  stone  was  built  in 
London,  in  1087.  The  first  Irish  church  of  stone  was  built  at  Bangor,  in  the  county 
of  Down,  by  Malachy,  archbishop  of  Armagh,  who  was  prelate  in  1134. — Gordon's 
Ireland.  Church  towers  were  originally  parochial  fortresses.  Church-yards  were 
permitted  in  cities  in  742. 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND,  (the  present).  Commenced  with  the  Reformation,  and 
was  formally  established  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  1534.  This  church  consists 
of  two  archbishops  and  twenty-four  bishops,  exclusively  of  that  of  Sodor  and  Man  ; 
and  the  other  dignitaries  are  chancellors,  deans  (of  cathedrals  and  collegiate  churches), 
archdeacons,  prebendaries,  canons,  minor  canons,  and  priest  vicars  ;  these,  and  the 
incumbents  of  rectories,  vicarages,  and  chapelries,  make  the  number  of  prefer- 
ments of  the  established  church,  according  to  the  last  official  returns,  12,327.  The 
number  of  churches  for  Protestant  worship  in  England  was  11,742  in  1818 ;  and 
the  commissioners  for  building  and  promoting  the  building  of  additional  churches, 
report  the  number  of  new  churches  to  be  258  up  to  1841.  The  new  act  for  building 
and  enlarging  churches  was  passed  9  George  IV.  1828.  The  Church -building 
Amendment  act  was  passed  2  Victoria,  August  1838. 

CHURCH  OF  IRELAND.  Called,  in  connexion  with  that  of  England,  the  United 
Church  of  England  and  Ireland.  Previously  to  the  Church  Temporalities  Act  of 
William  IV.  in  1833,  there  were  four  archbishoprics  and  eighteen  bishoprics  in 
Ireland,  of  which  several  have  since  ceased  ;  that  act  providing  for  the  union  of  sees, 
and  for  the  abolition  of  certain  sees,  accordingly  as  the  present  possessors  of  them 
die.  There  are  1,659  places  of  Protestant  worship,  2,109  Catholic  chapels^  452 
Presbyterian,  and  414  other  houses  of  prayer.     See  Benefices  ;  Bishops, 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.  Presbyterianism  is  the  religion  of  Scotland.  Its  distin- 
guishing tenets  seem  to  have  been  first  embodied  in  the  formulary  of  faith  attributed 


CHU  C   '27  ]  CIR 

to  John  Knox,  and  compiled  by  that  reformer  in  1560.  It  wu  approred  by  the 
parliament  and  ratified  in  1567 ;  was  finally  settled  by  an  act  of  the  Scottish  senate  in 
1696,  and  was  afterwards  secured  by  the  treaty  of  nnion  with  England  in  1707. 
Previonsly  to  the  abolition  of  episcopacy  in  Scotland  in  1688,  there  existed  two 
archbishoprics  and  twelve  bishoprics,  which  were  then  dissolved.  The  Church  of 
Scotland  is  regulated  by  four  courts — the  General  Assembly,  the  Synod,  the  Pres- 
bytery, and  Kirk  Session. — See  Preibyleriant. 

CHURCH  MUSIC.  Was  introduced  into  the  Christian  church  by  Gregory  the  Great,  in 
A.D.  602.  Choir  serrioe  was  first  introduced  in  England,  at  Canterbury,  in  677. 
Church  organs  were  in  geoeral  use  in  the  tenth  century.  Church  music  was  first 
performed  in  English  in  1559.     See  Choir  ;  Chaunting. 

CHURCH. WARDENS.  OflBcers  of  the  parish  church,  appointed  by  the  first  canon 
of  the  synod  of  London  in  1127.  Overseers  in  every  parish  were  also  appointed  by 
the  same  body,  and  they  continue  now  nearly  as  then  constituted. — Johnson's  Canons, 

CHURCHING  OF  WOMEN.  It  originated  in  the  Jewish  rite  of  purification,  a.d. 
214.  Churching  is  the  act  of  returning  thanks  in  the  church  for  any  signal  deliver- 
ance, and  particularly  after  the  delivery  of  women. —  JVheailey,  It  was  a  Jewish 
law  that  a  woman  should  keep  within  her  house  forty  days  after  her  lying  iui  if  she 
had  a  son,  and  eighty  if  she  had  a  daughter,  at  the  expiration  whereof  she  was  to  go 
to  the  temple,  and  offer  a  lamb  with  a  young  pigeon  or  turtle,  and  in  case  of  poverty, 
two  pigeons  or  turtles. — See  PurifieaHon, 

CIDER.  Anciently  this  beverage,  when  first  made  in  England,  was  called  wine,  about 
A.D.  1284.  When  the  earl  of  Manchester  was  ambassador  in  France,  he  is  said  to 
have  frequently  passed  off  cider  upon  the  nobility  of  that  country  for  a  delicious 
wine.  It  was  made  subject  to  the  excise  regulations  of  sale  in  1763,  eiseg.  A 
powerful  spirit  is  drawn  from  cider  by  distillation.— Bti/iiffr. 

CIMBRI.  The  war  of  the  Cimbri,  113  B.C.  They  defeat  the  consul  Marcus  Silanus, 
109  B.C.  They  defeat  the  Romans  under  Manlius,  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine, 
where  80,000  Romans  are  slain,  105  b.c.  The  Teu tones  are  defeated  by  Marius  in 
two  battles  at  Aquae  Sextiee  (Aix)  in  Gaul,  200,000  are  killed,  and  70,000  made 
prisoners,  102  b.c.  The  Cimbri  are  defeated  by  Marius  and  Catullus  as  they  were 
again  endeavouring  to  enter  Italy ;  120,000  are  killed,  and  60,000  taken  prisoners, 
101  B.C.    Their  name  afterwards  sunk  in  that  of  the  Teutones  or  Saxons. 

CINCINNATI  SOCIETY.  A  society  established  in  America  soon  after  the  peace  of 
1783 ;  it  arose  among  the  army,  and  was  advancing  rapidly,  but  owing  to  the 
jealousy  which  it  produced  on  the  part  of  the  people,  who  had  just  accomplished  their 
freedom,  and  who  dreaded  the  influence  of  an  army,  the  officers  gave  up  the  society. 

CINNAMON  TRADE.  The  cinnamon  tree  is  a  species  of  laurel,  and  a  native  of 
Ceylon :  the  trade  was  commenced  by  the  Dutch  in  1 506 ;  but  cinnamon  had  been 
known  in  the  time  of  Augustus  Caesar,  and  even  long  before.  It  is  mentioned 
among  the  perfumes  of  the  sanctuary,  Exodus  xxx.  23.  It  was  found  in  the  American 
forests,  by  Don  Ulloa,  in  1736.  The  true  tree  of  Ceylon  was  cultivated  in  Jamaica 
and  Dominica  by  transplantation  in  1788. 

CINQUE  PORTS.  They  were  originally  five—Dover,  Hastings,  Hythe,  Romney, 
and  Sandwich  ;  Wincbelsea  and  Rye  have  since  been  added.  Their  jurisdiction 
was  vested  in  barons,  called  wardens,  for  the  better  security  of  the  English  coast, 
these  ports  being  the  nearest  points  to  France,  and  considered  the  keys  of  the 
kingdom;  instituted  by  William  I. in  1078. — Jlapin*  They  are  governed  by  a 
particular  policy,  and  are  under  a  lord  warden  ;  the  duke  of  Wellington  being  lord 
warden  in  1841. 

CINTRik,  CONVENTION  of.  The  memorable  and  disgraceful  convention  concluded 
between  the  British  army,  under  sir  Hew  Dalrymple,  and  the  French  under  marshal 
Junot ;  by  this  compact  the  defeated  French  army  and  its  chief  were  allowed  to 
evacuate  Portugal  in  British  ships,  carrying  with  them  all  their  ill-gotten  spoil ; 
signed  the  day  after  the  battle  of  Vimeira,  Aug.  22,  1808.  A  court  of  inquiry  was 
held  at  Chelsea,  Nov.  17,  same  year,  and  the  result  was  a  formal  declaration  by  the 
king  strongly  condemning  the  terms  of  the  convention. 

CIRCASSIA.  The  Circassians  are  descended  from  the  Alanians.  They  continued 
unsubdued,  even  by  the  arms  of  the  celebrated  Timur  ;  but  in  the  sixteenth  century 


CIR  C  128  ]  CIR 

the  greater  part  of  them  acknowledged  the  authority  of  the  Czar,  Ivan  II.  of  Russia. 
About  A.D.  1745,  the  princes  of  Great  and  Little  Kabarda  took  oaths  of  fealty  to  that 
power.  One  branch  of  their  traffic  is  the  sale  of  their  daughters,  famed  throughout  the 
world  for  their  beauty,  and  whom  they  sell  for  the  use  of  the  seraglios  of  Turkey 
and  Persia :  the  merchants  who  come  from  Constantinople  to  purchase  these  girls 
are  generally  Jews. — Klaproth's  Travels  in  the  Caucasus  and  Georgia, 

CIRCE,  British  Frigate,  of  thirty-two  guns,  while  in  chase  of  a  French  privateer 
off  the  coast  of  Holland,  where  the  latter  had  sought  refuge,  was  totally  lost,  and  all 
on  board  perished,  owing  to  a  heavy  gale  of  wind,  Nov.  16,  1803. 

CIRCENSIAN  GAMES.  These  were  combats  in  the  Roman  circus,  in  honour  of 
Census,  the  god  of  councils,  instituted  by  Evander,  and  established  at  Rome  732  B.C. 
by  Romulus,  at  the  rape  of  the  Sabines.  They  were  in  imitation  of  the  Olympian 
games  among  the  Greeks,  and  by  way  of  eminence  were  called  the  great  games,  but 
Tarquin  called  them  the  Circensian ;  their  celebration  continued  five  days,  beginning 
on  the  15th  Sept. — Virgil. 

CIRCUITS  IN  ENGLAND.  They  were  dirided  into  three,  and  three  justices  were 
appointed  to  each,  22  Henry  II.  1176.  They  were  afterwards  dirided  into  four, 
with  five  justices  to  each  division,  1180.: — Rapin,  The  number  and  arrangement  of 
circuits  have  been  frequently  altered. — Camden,  They  are  held  twice  a  year  in 
each  county  for  the  readier  distribution  of  justice,  the  judges  being  commissioned 
each  time  by  the  king ;  and  this  is  called  going  the  circuit — Blackstone, 

CIRCULATING  LIBRARY.  The  first  in  England,  on  a  public  pbin,  was  opened  by 
Samuel  Fancourt,  a  dissenting  minister  of  Salisbury,  about  1740.  He  had  little 
encouragement  in  the  undertaking,  which  in  the  end  failed. — Ferguson's  Biog, 

CIRCULATION  of  the  BLOOD,  and, the  motion  of  the  heart  in  animals,  con- 
firmed experimentally  by  William  Harvey,  the  celebrated  English  physician  and 
anatomist,  between  1619  and  1628.  See  article  Blood,  By  this  discovery  the 
medical  and  surgical  art  became  greatly  improved,  to  the  benefit  of  mankind. — 
Freind*s  Hist  of  Physic. 

CIRCUMCISION.  A  rite  instituted  1897  B.C.  It  was  the  seal  of  the  covenant  made 
by  God  with  Abraham.-x/o^epAu^.  Even  to  the  present  day  many  of  the  Turks 
and  Persians  circumcise,  although  not  regarding  it  as  essential  to  salvation ;  but  in 
some  eastern  and  African  nations  it  is  rendered  necessary  by  a  peculiar  conformation, 
and  is  used  without  any  reference  to  a  religious  rite. — Bell,  The  festival  of  the 
Circumcision  was  originally  called  the  Octave  of  Christmas.  The  first  mention  found 
of  it  is  in  a.d.  487.  It  was  instituted  by  the  church  to  commemorate  the  ceremony 
under  the  Jewish  law  to  which  Christ  submitted  on  the  eighth  day  of  his  natiyity ; 
it  was  introduced  into  the  Liturgy  in  1550. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS.  Among  the  greatest  and  most  daring  of  human  enterprises 
was  the  circumnavigation  of  the  earth  at  the  period  when  it  was  first  attempted,  a.d. 
1519  *.  The  following  are  the  most  renowned  of  this  illustrious  class  of  men  ;  their 
voyages  were  undertaken  at  the  dates  affixed  to  their  names.    See  Navigators. 


Mi^ellan,  a  Portuguese,  the  first  who 

entered  the  Padflo  ocean  .  a.d.  1519 
Oroalva,  a  Spanish  navigator  .  .  1537 
Avalradi,  a  Spaniard  .  •  1537 

Mendana,  a  Spaniard  ....  1567 
Sir  Francis  Dnike,  first  English  .  .1577 
Cavendish,  his  first  voyage  .  .  .  1586 
Le  Maire,  a  Dutchman       .  .    .  1615 

Quiros,  a  Spaniard        ....  1625 

Tasman,  Dutch 1642 

Ck>wle7,  British 1683 

Dampier,  an  Englishman  .    .  1689 

Several  voyages  have  been  since  undertaken,  and, among  other  nations  by  the  Russians. 
The  early  navigators,  equally  illustrious,  are  named  elsewhere. 

*  The  first  ship  that  sailed  round  the  earth,  and  hence  determined  its  being  globular,  was 
Magellan's,  or  Magelhaen's ;  he  was  a  native  of  Portugal,  in  the  service  of  Spain,  and  by  keeping  a 
westerly  course  he  returned  to  the  same  place  he  had  set  out  from  in  1519.  The  voyage  was 
completed  in  three  years  and  twenty-nine  days ;  but  Magellan  was  killed  on  his  homeward 
at  the  Philippbies,  in  1521.— fiuUer. 


Cooke,  an  Englishman  .        .  a.d.  1706 

Clipperton,  British       ....  1719 

Roggewein,  Dutch 1721 

Anson  (afterwards  Lord)       .        .        .  1740 
Byron  (grandfather  of  Lord  Byron)    .    .  1764 

Wallis,  British 1766 

Carteret,  an  Englishman  .         .    .  1766 

Cook,  the  illustrious  captain  .  1768 

On  the  death  of  Captain  Cook  his  last 

voyage  was  continued  by  King  .  .1779 
BougainviUe,  French  ....  1776 
Portlocke,  British 1788 


CIR Q  129  ]  CLA 

CIRCUS.  There  were  eight  (some  say  ten),  boildiogs  of  this  kind  at  Rome ;  the 
largest  of  them  was  called  the  Cireui  Majeifmts,  which  was  built  by  the  elder 
Tarqain,  605  B.C. ;  it  was  of  an  oval  figure;  its  length  was  three  stadia  and  a  half, 
or  more  than  three  English  farlongs,  and  its  breadth  960  Roman  feet.  This  circus 
was  enlarged  by  Caesar  so  as  to  seat  150,000  persons,  and  was  re-built  by  Augustus. 
All  the  emperors  vied  in  beautifying  it,  and  Julius  Caesar  introduced  in  it  large 
canals  of  water,  which  on  a  sudden  could  be  covered  with  an  infinite  number  of 
vessels,  and  represent  a  sea  fight. — Pliny, 

CISALPINE  REPUBLIC.  Founded  by  the  French  in  Jnne  1797.  It  was  acknow- 
ledged by  the  emperor  of  Germany  to  be  independent,  by  the  treaty  of  Cani]>o  Formio 
(which  see),  Oct.  17,  following.  Received  a  new  constitution  in  Sept  1793.  It 
merged  into  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  March,  1805  ;  Napoleon  was  crowned  king  in 
May  following,  and  was  represented  by  bis  viceroy,  Eugene  Beauhamois.     Ste  Italy, 

CISTERCIANS.  An  order  founded  by  Robert,  a  Benedictin,  in  the  eleventh  century. 
They  became  so  powerful  that  they  governed  almost  all  Europe  in  spiritual  and 
temporal  concerns.  They  observed  a  continual  silence,  abstained  from  flesh,  lay  on 
straw,  wore  neither  shoes  nor  shirts^  and  were  most  austere. — De  Vitri. 

CITIES.  The  word  city  has  been  in  use  in  England  only  since  the  Conquest,  at  which 
lime  even  London  was  called  Londonburgh,  as  the  capital  of  Scotland  is  still  called 
Edinburyh.  The  Engli^ih  cities  were  very  inconsiderable  in  the  twelfth  century. 
Cities  were  first  incorporated  a.d.  1079.  The  institution  of  cities  has  aided  much  in 
introducing  regular  governments^  police,  manners,  and  arts. — RoberUotu 

CITIZEN.  It  was  not  lawful  to  scourge  a  citi2en  of  Rome. — Livy,  In  England  a 
citizen  is  a  person  who  is  free  of  a  city,  or  who  doth  carry  on  a  trade  therein. — 
Camden*  Various  privileges  have  been  conferred  on  citizens  as  freemen  in  several 
reigns,  and  powers  granted  to  them.  The  wives  of  citizens  of  London  (not  being 
aldermen's  wives,  nor  gentlewomen  by  descent)  were  obliged  to  wear  minever  caps, 
being  white  woollen  knit  three* cornered,  with  the  peaks  projecting  three  or  four 
inches  beyond  their  foreheads  ;  aldermen's  wives  made  them  of  velvet,  1  Elizabeth, 
1 558. — Stowe,  The  title  of  citizen,  only,  was  allowed  in  France  at  the  period  of  the 
revolution,  1792,  etteq, 

CIUDAD  R0DRI60.  This  strong  fortress  of  Spain  was  invested  by  'the  French 
June  11,  1810;  and  it  surrendered  to  them  July  10,  following.  It  remained  in 
their  possession  until  it  was  gallantly  stormed  by  the  British,  commanded  by  lord 
Wellington,  Jan.  19,  1.812.  Lord  Wellington  had  made  a  previous  attack  upon 
Ciudad  Rodrigo  (Sept.  25, 1811),  which  ended  in  his  orderly  retreat  from  the  position. 

CIVIL  LAW.  Several  codes  come  under  this  denomination  of  laws.  A  body  of 
Roman  laws,  founded  upon  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nations,  was  first  collected  by 
Alfrenus  Varus,  the  Civilian,  who  flourished  about  66  B.C. ;  and  a  digest  of  them 
was  made  by  Servius  Sulpicius,  the  Civilian,  53  B.C.  The  Gregorian  laws  were 
compiled  a.d.  290  ;  the  Theodosian  in  435  ;  and  the  Justinian,  529-5H4.  Many  of 
the  former  laws  having  grown  out  of  use,  the  emperor  Justinian  ordered  a  revision 
of  them,  which  was  called  the  Justinian  code,  and  this  code  constitutes  a  large  part 
of  the  present  civil  law.  Civil  law  was  restored  in  Italy,  Germany,  &c.  1127. — 
Blair,  Civil  law  was  introduced  into  England  by  Theobald,  a  Norman  abbot,  who 
was  afterwards  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  1138.  It  is  now  used  in  the  spiritual 
courts  only,  and  in  maritime  affairs. — See  Doctors'  CommonSt  and  Laws, 

CIVIL  LIST.  This  comprehends  the  revenue  awarded  to  the  kings  of  England,  partly 
in  lieu  of  their  ancient  hereditary  income.  The  entire  revenue  of  Elizabeth  was  not 
more  than  600,000/.  and  that  of  Charles  I.  was  but  800,000/.  After  the  Revolution 
a  civil  list  revenue  was  settled  on  the  new  king  and  queen  of  700,000/.,  the  parliament 
taking  into  its  own  hands  the  support  of  the  forces,  both  maritime  and  military. 
The  civil  list  of  George  II.  was  increased  to  800,000/. ;  and  that  of  George  III.  in  the 
55th  year  of  his  reign,  was  1,030,000/.  By  the  act  1  William  IV.  1831,  the  civil 
list  of  that  sovereign  was  fixed  at  510,000/.  By  the  act  of  1  Victoria,  Dec.  1837, 
the  civil  list  of  the  que^  was  fixed  at  385,000/.  ;  and  Prince  Albert  obtained  an 
exclusive  sum  from  parliament  of  30,000/.  per  ann.  4  Victoria,  1840. 

CLANSHIPS.  These  were  tribes  of  the  same  race,  and  commonly  of  the  same  name, 
and  originated  in  feudal  times. — See  Feudal  Laws.  They  may  be  said  to  hnve 
arisen  in  Scotland,  in  the  reign  of  Malcolm  II.,  about  1008.    Clanships  and  other 

K 


CLA  Q  130  ]  CLE    ^ 

remaiDS  of  heritable  jurisdiction  were  abolished  in  Scotland  (where  clans  were  taken 
to  be  the  tenants  of  one  lordY,  and  the  liberty  of  the  English  was  granted  to  clansmen, 
20  George  II.,  IHQ.—Rvffhead. 

CLARE,  England.  This  town  is  famous  for  the  great  men  who  have  borne  the  title 
of  earl  and  duke  of  it.  Lionel,  third  son  of  Edward  III.  becoming  possessed  of  the 
honour  of  Clare,  by  marriage,  was  created  duke  of  Clarence ;  and  that  title  has  ever 
since  belonged  to  a  branch  of  the  royal  family. 

CLARE,  Ireland.  The  first  fbwn  in  Ireland  that  elected  a  Roman  Catholic  member 
of  parliament  for  140  years.  This  it  did  previously  to  the  passing  of  the  Catholic 
relief  bill,  in  1829. — See  Catholics  of  these  Realms.  Close  of  the  memorable 
election  for  Clare  county,  held  at  Ennis,  in  the  return  of  Mr.  Daniel  O'Connell,  the 
first  Catholic  representative  since  the  Revolution,  July  5,  1828. 

CLARE,  Nuns  of  St.  A  sisterhood  founded  in  Italy  about  a.d.  1212.  This  order 
settled  in  England,  in  the  Minories  without  Aldgate,  London,  about  1 293. 

CLAREMONT.  The  residence  of  the  late  princess  Charlotte,  and  the  scene  of  her 
death,  Nov.  6,  1817.  The  house  was  originally  built  by  sir  John  Vanbrugh,  and 
was  the  residence  of,  successively,  the  earl  of  Clare,  afterwards  duke  of  Newcastle, 
of  lord  Clive,  lord  Galloway,  and  the  earl  of  Tyrconnel;  it  was  purchased  of  Mr.  Ellis 
by  government  for  65,000/.  for  the  prince  and  princess  of  Saxe-Cobourg ;  and  the 
former,  now  king  of  Belgium,  assigned  it  to  prince  Albert  in  1840. 

CLARENCIEUX.  The  second  king  at  arms  here  with  us,  so  called,  because  formerly  he 
belonged  to  the  duke  of  Clarence ;  his  office  was  instituted  to  marshal  and  dispose 
of  the  funerals  of  all  the  lower  nobility,  as  baronets,  knights,  esquires,  and  gentlemen 
on  the  south  side  of  Trent,  from  whence  he  is  also  called  sur-roy  or  sonth-roy. 

CLARENDON,  Statutes  of.  These  were  statutes  enacted  in  a  parliament  held  at 
Clarendon,  the  object  of  which  was  to  retrench  the  then  enormous  power  of  the 
clergy.  They  are  rendered  memorable  as  being  the  ground  of  fieckett's  quarrel 
with  Henry  II.  A  number  of  regulations  were  drawn  up  under  the  title  of  the 
statutes  or  constitutions  of  Clarendon,  and  were  voted  without  opposition,  a.d.  1164. 
—  Warner's  Eccles.  Hist, 

CLARION.  This  instrument  originated  with  the  Moors,  in  Spain,  about  a.d.  800  ;  it 
was  at  first  a  trumpet,  serving  as  a  treble  to  trumpets  sounding  tenor  and  bass. — 
AsJie,   Its  tube  is  narrower,  and  its  tone  shriller  than  the  common  trumpet — Pardon, 

CLASSIS.  The  name  was  first  given  by  Tullius  Servius  in  making  divisions  of  the 
Roman  people.  The  first  of  six  classes  were  called  classicif  by  way  of  eminence, 
and  hence  authors  of  the  first  rank  came  to  be  called  classics,  578  b.c. 

CLEMENTINES.  Apocryphal  pieces,  fable  and  error,  attributed  to  a  primitive  father 
Clemens  Romanus,  a  cotemporary  of  St.  Paul;  some  say  he  succeeded  Peter  as  bishop 
of  Rome<  He  died  a.d.  102. — Niceron,  Also  the  decretals  of  pope  Clement  V., 
who  died  1314,  published  by  his  successor. — Bowyer.  Also  Augustin  monks,  each 
of  whom  having  been  a  superior  nine  years,  then  merged  into  a  common  monk. 

CLERGY.  In  the  first  century  the  clergy  were  distinguished  by  the  title  of  presbyters 
or  bishops.  The  bishops  in  the  second  century  assumed  higher  functions,  and  the 
presbyters  represented  the  inferior  priests  of  the  Levites :  this  distinction  was 
still  further  promoted  in  the  third  century  ;  and,  under  Constantino,  the  clergy  at- 
tained the  recognition  and  protection  of  the  secular  power. 

CLERGY  in  England.  They  increased  rapidly  in  number  early  in  the  seventh 
century,  and  at  length  controlled  the  king  and  kingdom.  Drunkenness  was  for- 
bidden among  the  clergy  by  a  law,  so  early  as  747  a.d.  The  first  fruits  of  the  then 
clergy  were  assigned  by  parliament  to  the  king,  1534.  The  clergy  were  exdaded 
from  parliament  in  1536.  The  conference  between  the  Protestant  and  Dissenting 
clergy  was  held  in  1604.  See  Conference,  Two  thousand  resigned  their  benefices 
in  the  church  of  England,  rather  than  subscribe  their  assent  to  &e  book  of  Common 
Prayer,  including  the  thirty-nine  articles  of  religion,  as  enjoined  by  the  Act  of  Uni- 
formity, 1661-2.  They  resigned  the  power  of  taxing  themselves  in  their  convoca- 
tion, 1664.  The  Irish  Protestant  clergy  were  restored  to  their  benefices,  from 
which  they  had  been  expelled,  owing  to  the  state  of  the  kingdom  under  James  II. 
1689.  Their  petition  for  relief  from  the  thirty-nine  articles  was  negatived  in  England, 
1772.    The  Clergy  Incapacitation  act  passed,  1801.     See  Churd^  of  England, 


CLE  [^  131  ]  CLO 

CLERGY,  Benefit  of.  PrivUegium  Clerieaie.  The  privilege  aroie  in  the  pious  re- 
gard paid  by  Christian  princes  to  the  church  in  its  infant  state,  and  consisted  of — 
1st,  an  exemption  of  places  consecrated  to  religions  duties  from  criminal  arrests, 
which  was  the  foundation  of  sanctuaries  ;  2nd,  exemption  of  the  persons  of  der^- 
men  from  criminal  process  before  the  secular  judge,  in  particular  cases,  which  was 
the  original  meaning  of  the  privilegium  ciericale.  In  the  course  of  time,  however, 
the  benefit  of  clergy  extended  to  every  one  who  could  read,  for  such  was  tbe  iguo- 
ranee  of  those  periods,  that  this  was  thought  a  great  proof  of  learning ;  aod  it  was 
enacted,  that  from  the  scarcity  of  clergy  in  the  realm  of  England,  there  should  be  a 
prerogative  allowed  to  the  clergy,  that  if  any  man  who  could  read  were  to  be  con- 
demned to  death,  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  might,  if  he  would,  claim  him  as  a  clerk, 
and  dispose  of  him  in  some  places  of  the  clergy  as  he  might  deem  meet ;  but  if  the 
bishop  would  not  demand  him,  or  if  the  prisoner  could  not  read,  then  he  was  to  be 
put  to  death,  3  Edward  I.  1274.  Benefit  of  clergy  was  abolished  by  statute 
8  George  IV.  1827. 

CLERGYMEN'S  WIDOWS,  and  ORPHANS'  CORPORATION.  EsUblished  in 
England,  1670.  William  Assheton,  an  eminent  theological  writer,  was  the  first 
proposer  of  a  plan  to  provide  for  the  fiunilies  of  deceased  clergy. — Watt's  Life 
of  Assheton, 

CLERK.  The  clergy  were  first  styled  clerks,  owing  to  the  judges  being  chosen  aAer 
the  Norman  custom  from  the  sacred  order ;  and  the  officers  being  clergy  :  this  gave 
them  that  denomination,  which  they  keep  to  this  day. — Blaekstone*s  Comm, 

CLE  RKEN WELL.  The  gaol  here  is  the  common  gaol  for  Middlesex  ;  a  house  of  cor- 
rection was  built  in  1616,  Bridewell  being  found  insufficient ;  the  present  edifice  was 
erected  in  1820.  At  Clerkenwell-close  formerly  stood  the  house  of  Oliver  Crom- 
well, where  some  suppose  the  death-warrant  of  Charles  I.  was  signed,  January  1649. 

CLIO.  The  initials,  CLIO,  forming  the  name  of  the  muse  of  history,  rendered 
famous  from  the  most  admired  papers  of  Addison,  in  the  Spectator,  having  been 
marked  by  one  or  other  of  them,  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century,^ Cikber, 

CLOCK.  That  called  the  clepsydra,  or  water-clock,  was  introduced  at  Rome  158  B.C. 
by  Scipio  Nasica.  Toothed  wheels  were  applied  to  them  by  Ctesibias,  about  140 
B.C.  Said  to  have  been  found  by  Cesar  on  invading  Britain,  55  b.c.  The  only  clock 
supposed  to  be  then  in  the  world  was  sent  by  pope  Paul  I.  to  Pepin,  king  of  France, 
A.D.  760.  Pacificus,  archdeacon  of  Verona,  invented  one  in  the  ninth  century.  Ori- 
ginally the  wheels  were  three  feet  in  diameter.  The  earliest  complete  clock  of  which 
there  is  any  certain  record,  was  made  by  a  Saracen  mechanic,  in  the  13th  century. 


The  scapement,  ascribed  to  Gerbert  ▲.!>.  1000 
A  clock  constructed  by  Richard,  abbot 

ofBtAlban's,  about  .        .         .1326 

A  striking  clock  in  Westminster  .  .  1368 
A  perfect  one  made  at  Paris,  by  Vick  .  1370 
The  first  portable  one  made  .  .  .  1530 
In  England  no  clock  went  accurately 

before  that  set  up  at  Hampton-court 

(maker's  initials,  NO.)  .         .    .  1540 

Richard  Harris  (who  erected  a  clock  in 

the  church  of  St.  Paul's,  Covent-Oar- 


den)  and  the  younger  Galileo  con- 
structed the  pendulum       .        .    A.O.  1641 

Christian  Huygens  contested  this  disco- 
very, and  made  his  pendulum  clock 
some  time  previously  to  .         .    .  1658 

Fromantil,  a  Dutchman,  improved  the 
pendulum,  about         ....  1659 

Repeating  clocks  and  watches  invented 
by  Barlow,  about  .  .    .  1676 

The  dead  beat,  and  horiaontal  escape- 
ments, by  Graham,  about  .1700 


The  subsequent  improvements  were  the  spiral  balance  spring  suggested,  and  the 
duplex  scapement  invented  by  Dr.  Hooke  ;  pivot  holes  jewelled  by  Facio  ;  the  de- 
tached scapement  invented  by  Mudge,  and  improved  by  Berthoud,  Arnold,  Earn- 
shaw,  and  others.  Clocks  and  watches  were  taxed  in  1797 ;  but  the  tax  was  re- 
pealed in  1798. 

CLOG  HER,  Bishopric  of.  Founded  by  St  Macartin,  an  early  disciple  of  St.  Pa- 
trick :  he  fixed  the  see  at  Clogher,  where  he  also  built  an  abbey  *'  in  the  street  be- 
fore the  royal  seat  of  the  kings  of  ErgaL''  Clogher  takes  its  name  from  a  golden 
stone,  from  which,  in  times  of  paganism,  the  devil  used  to  pronounce  jnggling 
answers,  like  the  oracles  of  Apollo  Pgthius,  as  is  said  in  the  register  of  Clogher. — 
jS^tr  James  Ware.  Eleven  saints  have  held  this  see :  the  first  was  St.  Macartin,  who 
died  in  a.d.  506.  In  1041,  the  cathedral  was  built  anew,  and  dedicated  to  its 
founder.  Clogher  is  to  merge  on  the  death  of  its  present  prelate  into  the  archiepis- 
copal  see  of  Armagh,  by  act  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  1834. 

k2 


CLO  C  ^32  ]  CO  A 

CLONARD.  Formerly  a  see  founded  by  St.  Finiani  who  was  very  learned,  and  had 
many  students  here,  in  510.  Simon  Rochfort,  bishop  of  Meath,  forsook  Clonard, 
and  fixed  the  seat  of  his  see  at  Newton,  near  Trim,  about  1206. — See  Meath, 

CLONFERT,  Sbb  of.  St.  Brendan  founded  an  abbey  at  Clonfert  in  558  ;  his  life  is 
extant  in  jingling  monkish  metre  in  the  Cottonian  library  at  Westminster.  In  his 
time,  the  cathedral,  famous  in  ancient  days  for  its  seven  altars,  was  erected ;  and 
Colgan  makes  St.  Brendan  the  founder  of  it,  and  the  first  bishop ;  but  in  the  Ulster 
annals,  under  the  year  57 If  the  death  of  the  first  prelate  of  this  see  is  thus  remarked : 
"  Moena,  bishop  of  Clonfert-Brenain,  went  to  rest."  Clonfert,  in  Irish,  signifies  a 
wonderful  den  or  retirement.  Three  saints  have  been  bishops  of  Clonfert.  The  see 
merged,  in  1839,  into  that  of  Killaloe. — See  Bishops. 

CLONTARF,  Battle  of.  One  of  proud  record  in  the  annals  of  Ireland,  fought  be- 
tween the  Irish  and  Danes,  the  former  headed  by  Bryan  Boiroimhe,  monarch  of 
Ireland,  who  signally  defeated  the  invaders  after  a  long  and  bloody  engagement. 
The  monarch  was  wounded  (and  soon  afterwards  died),  and  his  son  Murchard  fell, 
with  many  of  the  nobility ;  but  11,000  of  the  Danes  perished  in  the  battle ;  fought 
on  Good-Friday,  1039. 

CLOSTERSEVEN,  Convention  of.  Entered  into  between  the  duke  of  Cumberland 
and  the  duke  of  Richelieu,  commander  of  the  French  armies,  in  1758,  by  which 
38,000  Hanoverians  laid  down  their  arms  anft  were  dispersed,  signed  Sept  10,  1757. 

CLOTH.  Both  woollen  and  linen  cloth  were  known  in  very  early  times.  Coarse 
wollens  were  introduced  into  England  a.d.  1191  ;  and  seventy  families  of  cloth- 
workers  from  the  Netherlands  settled  in  England  by  Edward  IIl.*s  invitation,  and 
the  art  of  weaving  was  thereby  introduced,  1331. — Rymer's  Feeder  a.  Woolleni 
were  first  made  at  Kendal,  in  1390.  Medleys  were  manufactured,  1614.  Our  fine 
broad  cloths  were  yet  sent  to  Holland  to  be  dyed,  lf>54.  Dyed  and  dressed  in  Eng- 
land, by  one  Brewer,  from  the  Low  Countries*  1667.  The  manufacture  was  dis- 
couraged in  Ireland,  and  that  of  linen  countenanced,  at  the  request  of  both  houses 
of  parliament,  1698. — See  Woollen  Cloth, 

CLO  VIS,  Family  of.  Kings  of  France.  The  real  founder  of  the  French  monarchy 
was  Clovis  I.,  who  commenced  his  reign  a.d.  481,  and  was  a  warlike  prince  He 
expelled  the  Romans,  embraced  the  Christian  religion,  and  published  the  Salique 
law.  On  hfs  being  first  told  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  he  exclaimed,  **  O,  had  I 
been  there  with  my  valiant  Gauls,  how  I  would  have  avenged  him  I "  Clovis  united 
his  conquests  from  the  Romans,  Germans,  and  Goths,  as  provinces  to  the  then 
scanty  dominions  of  France ;  removed  the  seat  of  government  from  Soissons  to 
Paris ,^  and  made  this  the  capital  of  his  new  kingdom  ;  he  died  in  511. — Henauit, 

CLOYNE,  See  of.  Founded  in  the  sixth  century  by  St.  Coleman.  In  1431,  this  bi- 
shopric was  united  to  that  of  Cork,  and  so  continued  for  200  years.  It  is  not  taxed 
in  the  king's  books  ;  but  in  a  manuscript  in  Marsh's  library,  it  is  mentioned  as  hav- 
ing been  valued,  anno  33  Eliz.  at  10/.  10«.  sterling ;  and  in  another  manuscript  in 
the  college  library,  at  16/.  sterling.  This  bishopric  became  united  with  that  of  Cork 
and  Ross  by  the  act  3  and  4  William  IV.,  1834. 

CLUNY,  Abbey  of.  Formerly  one  of  the  most  magnificent  and  spacious  reUgious 
institutions  in  the  world.  It  was  founded  by  Benedictins,  under  the  abbot  Bern, 
about  A.D.  910,  and  was  sustained  afterwards  by  the  munificence  of  William,  duke 
of  Berry  and  Aquitaine ;  but  its  greatness  has  now  passed  away. 

CLYDE  CANAL.  The  navigation  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde  canal  was  commenced 
under  the  celebrated  Mr.  Smeaton,  July  10,  1768;  and  was  opened  July  28,  1790. 
This  great  work  forms  a  communication  between  the  eastern  and  western  seas  on 
the  coasts  of  Scotland. 

COACH.  The  coach  is  of  French  invention.  Under  Francis  I.,  who  was  a  coteni- 
porary  with  our  Henry  VIII.,  there  were  but  two  in  Paris,  one  of  which  belonged  to 
the  queen,  and  the  other  to  Diana,  the  natural  daughter  of  Henry  II.  There  were 
but  three  in  Paris  in  1550  ;  and  Henry  IV.  had  one,  but  vrithout  straps  or  springs. 
The  first  courtier  who  set  up  this  equipage  was  John  de  Laval  de  Bois-Danphin, 
who  could  not  travel  otherwise  on  account  of  his  enormous  bulk.  Previously  to  the 
use  of  coaches,  the  kings  of  France  travelled  on  horseback,  the  princesses  were  car- 
ried in  litters,  and  ladies  rode  behind  their  squires.    The  first  coach  seen  in  England 


4th.  By  Great  Britain,  Ruisia,  PnitBia, 

and  Saxony      .  Oct  6,  1806 

ftth.  By  England  and  Aiutria,  .  April  6,  1809 
6th.  By  Runia  and  Prussia ;  the  treaty 

ratified  at  KaUsoh     .    Maroh  17,  1813 
See  Treatiei. 


COA  [^  133  ]  COC 

was  in  the  reign  of  Mary,  aboat  1553. — Prieatle^s  I^ct.  They  were  introduced 
much  earlier. — Andrews*  Hist.  Great  Brit,  They  were  introduced  by  Fitz-AUen, 
earl  of  Arundel ,  in  1580. — Stowe.  And  in  acme  years  afterwards  the  art  of  making 
them. — Anderson* s  Hist,  of  Commerce.  A  bill  was  brought  into  parliament  to  pre- 
vent the  effeminacy  of  men  riding  in  coaches,  43  Eliz.  1601.* — Carte.  The  coach- 
tax  commenced  in  1747. — See  Carriages,  Hackney  Coaches  t  Mail  Coaches  f  &c« 

COALITIONS.  The  great  coalitions  against  France  since  the  period  of  the  French 
revolution  I  have  been  six  in  number ;  and  they  generally  arose  out  of  the  subsidising 
by  England  of  the  great  powers  of  the  Continent.  They  were  entered  into  as  follows : 

Ist.  The  king  of  Frnssia  lasttes  his  ma- 
nifesto  .  JoneSe,  1792 

2nd.  By  Great  Britain.  Germany.  Russia, 
Naples,  Portugal,  and  Turkey, 
signed  ....  June  22,  1799 

3rd.  By  Great  Britain,  Russia,  Austria, 

and  Naples  Aug.  6,  180A 

COALITION  MINISTRY.  This  designation  was  given  to  the  celebrated  ministry  of 
Mr.  Fox  and  Lord  North,  and  which  was  rendered  memorable  as  an  extraordinary 
union  in  political  life  on  account  of  the  strong  personal  dislike  which  had  always 
been  displayed  by  these  personages,  each  towards  the  other.  The  ministry  was 
formed  April  5, 1783,  and  dissolved  December  19,  same  year. — See  AdministratioHs. 

COALS.  It  is  contended,  with  much  seeming  truth,  that  coals,  although  they  are  not 
mentioned  by  the  Romans  in  their  notices  of  Britain,  were  yet  in  use  by  the  ancient 
Britons. — Brandt.  They  were  first  discovered  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  in  1234, 
some  say  earlier;  and  others  in  1239.  Sea-coal  was  prohibited  from  being  used  in 
and  near  London,  as  being  **  prejudicial  to  human  health  ;"  and  even  smiths 
were  obliged  to  burn  wood,  127Z.— Stowe.     Coals  were  first  made  an  article  of 

trade  from  Newcastle  to  London,  4  Richard  II.  1381 Rytner*s  Fcedera.     Not- 

withstandng  the  many  previous  complaints  against  coal  as  a  public  nuisance,  it  was 
at  length  generally  burned  in  London  in  1400  ;  but  coals  were  not  in  common  use  in 
England  until  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  1625. 

NXmSKR  or  CHALDRONS  OF  COALS  COIfSUJIBD  IN  LONDON  m  THS  FOLLOWINO  VKAUB: 


1650 

.  160,000  chald. 

1800 

1700    . 

.    .  317.000  ditto. 

1810 

17M 

.  510.000  ditto. 

1820 

ISaO     .         .  1,588,360  chald. 
1835  .    .  2,299.816  tons. 

1840     .         .  2,638,956  ditto. 


.     814.000  chald. 
.    .     980,372  ditto. 
.  1,171,178  ditto. 

The  coal-fields  of  Durham  and  Northumberland  are  723  square  miles  in  extent ; 
those  of  Newcastle,  Sunderland,  Whitehaven  and  other  places,  are  abo  of  vast  mag- 
nitude ;  and  there  are  exhaustless  beds  of  coal  in  Yorkshire.  The  coal  in  South 
Wales  alone,  would,  at  the  present  rate  of  consumption,  supply  all  England  for  2000 
years. — Bakewell.  It  is  supposed  that  there  are  now  about  25.000,000  of  tons 
consumed  annually  in  Great  Britain. — Phillips.  Scotland  teems  with  the  richest 
mines  of  coal,  and  besides  her  vast  collieries,  there  must  be  vast  fields  unexplored. — 
Pennant.  Fine  coal  is  found  in  Kilkenny,  Ireland.  The  first  ship  laden  with  Irish 
coal  arrived  in  Dublin  from  Newry,  in  1742. — Burns. 

COAL-TRADE.  King  John  granted  a  charter  to  Newcastle-npon-Tyne  ;  snd  Henry 
III.  granted  his  royal  licence  to  that  town,  *'  to  dig  coal  in  the  common  soil  without 
the  walls  for  use  and  sale,  to  its  own  profit,"  in  1239  ;  and  again  in  1272  ;  this  is 
the  first  official  notice  that  we  have  of  coal  in  England. — Hume. 

COBALT.  A  marcasite  fossil,  was  found  among  the  veins  of  ores,  or  in  the  fissures  of 
stone,  at  an  early  date  in  the  mines  of  Corwall,  where  the  workmen  call  it  mundic.  — 
Hill.  It  was  distinguished  in  its  present  character  as  a  metal  by  Brandt,  in  1733  ; 
and  subsequently  by  others. 

COCCEIANS.  A  beet  founded  by  John  Cocceius  of  Bremen  ;  they  held,  amongst  other 
singular  opinions,  that  of  a  visible  reign  of  Christ  in  this  world,  after  a  general  con- 
version of  the  Jews  and  all  other  people  of  the  Christian  faith,  1G65. 

COCHINEAL.     The  properties  of  this  insect  became  known  to  the  Spaniards  soon  after 


*  In  the  b^inning  of  the  year  1619.  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  who  had  been  Imprisoned  ever 
since  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  obtained  his  liberation.  Hearing  that  Buckingham  was  drawn  about 
with  six  horses  in  his  coach  (being  the  first  that  was  so),  the  earl  pat  on  eight  to  his,  and  in  that 
manner  passed  from  the  Tower  through  the  city.— ^pfn. 


coo ■     [  134  ]  COP 

their  conqaest  of  Mexico,  ia  1518.  Cochioeal  was  not  knowo  in  Italy  in  1548, 
although  the  art  of  dyeing  then  flourished  there. — See  Dpeing,  The  annual  import  of 
this  article  into  England  had  reached  260,000  lbs.  weight  in  1830. 

COCK-FIGHTING.  Practised  by  the  early  barbarous  nations,  and  by  Greece.  It  was 
instituted  at  Rome  after  a  victory  over  the  Persians,  476  B.C.  :  and  was  introduced 
by  the  Romans  into  England.  William  Fitz-Stephen,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II., 
describes  cock-fighting  as  the  sport  of  schooLboys  on  Shrove  Tuesday.  Cock-fight- 
ing was  prohibited,  39  Edward  III.,  1365  ;  and  again  by  Henry  VIII.  and  Crom- 
well.  Part  of  the  site  of  Drury-lane  theatre  was  a  cock-pit  in  the  reign  of  James  I. ; 
and  the  cock-pit  at  Whitehall  was  erected  for  this  cruel  sport  by  Charles  II.  Till 
within  these  few  years  there  was  a  Cock-pit  Royal,  in  St.  James's-park  ;  but  as  the 
ground  belonged  to  Christ's  Hospital,  that  body  would  not  renew  the  lease  for  a 
building  devoted  to  cruelty*.  But  this  practice  is  happily  now  discouraged  by  the 
law. — See  article  Cruelty  to  Animals, 

COCK-LANE  GHOST.  A  famous  imposition  practised  upon  the  credulous  multitude 
by  William  Parsons,  his  wife,  and  daughter.  The  contrivance  was  that  of  a  female 
ventriloquist,  and  all  who  beard  her  behaved  she  was  a  ghost :  the  deception,  which 
arose  in  a  malignant  conspiracy,  was  carried  on  for  some  time  at  the  house.  No.  33, 
Cock-lane,  London :  but  it  was  at  length  detected,  and  the  parents  were  condemned 
to  the  pillory  and  imprisonment,  July  10,  1762. 

COCOA.  Unknown  in  these  realms  until  the  discovery  of  America,  about  1500.  The 
cocoa-tree  supplies  the  Indians  with  almost  whatever  they  stand  in  need  of,  as  bread, 
water,  wine,  vinegar,  brandy,  milk,  oil,  honey,  sugar,  needles,  clothes,  thread,  cups, 
spoons,  basins,  baskets,  paper,  masts  for  ships,  sails,  cordage,  nails,  covering  for 
their  houses,  &c. — Ray. 

CODES  OF  LAWS.  The  laws  of  Phoroneus  were  instituted  1807  b.c.  ;  those  of  Ly- 
curgus,  884  B.C. ;  of  Draco,  623  B.C. ;  of  Solon,  587  B.C.  Alfreuus  Varus,  the 
civilian,  first  collected  the  Roman  laws  about  66  B.C.  ;  and  Servius  Sulpicius,  the 
civilian,  embodied  them  about  53  b.c  The  Gregorian  and  Hermoginian  codes  were 
published  a.d.  290 ;  the  Theodosian  code  in  435  ;    the   celebrated  code  of  the 

emperor  Justinian,  in  529 — a  digest  from  this  last  was  made  in  533 Blair.  Alfred's 

c»de  of  laws  is  the  foundation  of  the  common  law  of  England,  887. — See  Laws. 

CODICILS  TO  WILLS  C.  Trebatius  Testa,  the  civilian  of  Rome,  was  the  first  who 
introduced  the  use  of  this  supplementary  instrument  to  wills,  about  31  b.c. 

CCEUR  DB  LION^  OR  THE  LioN-HBARTED.  The  surname  given  to  Richard  Plantagenet 
I.  of  England,  on  account  of  his  dauntless  courage,  about  a.d.  1192.  This  surname 
was  also  conferred  on  Louis  VIII.  of  France,  who  signalised  himself  in  the  crusades 
and  in  his  wars  against  England,  about  1223.  This  latter  prince  had  also  the  appel- 
lation of  the  Lion  given  him. 

COFFEE.  It  grows  in  Arabia,  Persia,  the  Indies,  and  America.  Its  use  as  a  beverage 
is  traced  to  the  Persiansf.  It  came  into  great  repute  in  Arabia  Felix  about  a.d. 
1454  ;  and  passed  thence  into  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  thence,  in  1511,  to  Constanti- 
nople, where  coffee-houses  were  opened  in  1554.  M.  Thevenot,  the  traveller,  was  the 
first  who  brought  it  into  France,  to  which  country  he  returned  after  an  absence 
of  seven  years,  in  1662. — Chambers,  Coffee  was  brought  into  England  by  Mr. 
Nathaniel  Canopus,  a  Cretan,  who  made  it  his  common  beverage  at  Baliol  college, 
Oxford,  in  1641. — Anderson. 

COFFEE-HOUSES.  The  first  in  England  was  kept  by  a  Jew  named  Jacobs,  in  Oxford, 
1650.  In  that  year,  Mr.  Edwards,  an  English  Turkey  merchant,  brought  home 
with  him  a  Greek  servant  named  Pasquet,  who  kept  the  first  house  for  making  coffee 
in  London,  which  he  opened  in  George-yard,  Lombard-street,  in  1652.     Paaqnet 

*  Mr.  Ardeaoif ,  a  gentleman  of  large  fortune,  and  great  hospitality,  and  who  was  almost  unrivalled 
in  the  splendour  of  his  equipages,  had  a  favourite  cock,  upon  which  he  had  won  many  profitable 
matches.  The  last  wager  he  laid  upon  this  cock  he  lost ;  which  so  enraged  him,  that  in  a  fit  of 
passion  he  thrust  the  bird  into  the  fire.  A  delirious  fever  was  the  result  of  his  rage  and  inebriety, 
which  in  three  days  put  an  end  to  his  life.  He  died  at  Tottenham,  near  London,  April  4, 1789.— BtiUer. 

t  Some  ascribe  the  discovery  of  coffee  as  a  beverage  to  the  prior  of  a  monastery  who,  being  informed 
by  a  goat-herd  that  his  cattle  sometimes  browsed  upon  the  tree,  and  that  they  would  then  wake  at 
night,  and  sport  and  bound  upon  the  hills,  became  curious  to  prove  its  virtues.  He  accordingly  tried 
it  on  his  monks  to  prevent  their  sleeping  at  matins,  and  he  found  that  it  obeoked  their  slumbers. 


COP  Q  135  ]  coi 

afterwards  went  to  Holland,  and  opened  the  first  honse  in  that  conntry. — Anderaon. 
The  Rainbow  coffee-  honse,  near  Temple-bar,  was  represented  as  a  nuisance  to  the 
neighboorhood,  1657.  Coffee-honses  were  suppressed  by  proclamation,  26  Charles 
II.,  1675.  The  proclamation  was  afterwards  suspended  on  the  petition  of  the  traders 
in  tea  and  coffee. 
COFFEE-TREES.  These  trees  were  conveyed  from  Mocha  to  Holland  in  1616  ;  and 
were  carried  to  the  West  Indies  in  the  yearl726.  First  cultivated  at  Surinam  by  the 
Dutch  about  1718.     The  culture  was  encouraged  in  the  plantations  about  1732. 

COFFINS.  The  Athenian  heroes  were  buried  in  coffins  of  the  cedar-tree ;  owing  to  its 
aromatic  and  incorruptible  qualities. — ThueyditUi,  Coffins  of  marble  and  stone 
were  used  by  the  Romans.  Alexander  is  said  to  have  been  buried  in  one  of  gold ; 
and  glass  coffins  have  been  found  in  England. — Gough,  The  earliest  record  of 
wooden  coffins  amongst  us,  is  that  of  the  burial  of  king  Arthur,  who  was  buried  in 
an  entire  trunk  of  oak,  hollowed,  a.d.  543. — Auer,  The  patent  coffins  were 
invented  in  1796. 

COIF.  The  sergeant's  coif  was  originally  an  iron  skull-cap,  worn  by  knights  under 
their  helmets.  The  coif  was  introduced  before  1259,  and  was  used  to  hide  the  ton- 
sure of  such  renegado  clergymen  as  chose  to  remain  as  advocates  in  the  secular 
courts,  notwithstanding  their  prohibition  by  canon. — Blackatone. 

COIN.  Homer  speaks  of  brass  money  as  existing  1184  b.c.  The  invention  of  coin  is 
ascribed  to  the  Lydians^  who  cherished  commerce,  and  whose  money  was  of  gold  and 
silver.  Both  were  coined  by  Phidon  tyrant  of  Argos,  869  B.C.  Money  was  coined 
at  Rome  under  Servius  TulUus,  about  578  b.c.  The  most  ancient  knewn  coins  are 
Macedonian,  of  the  fifth  century  b.c.  ;  bat  others  are  believed  to  be  more  ancient. 
Brass  money  only  was  in  use  at  Rome  previously  to  269  b.c.  (when  Fabins  Pictor 
coined  silver),  a  sign  that  little  correspondence  was  then  held  with  the  East,  where 
gold  and  silver  were  in  use  long  before.  Gold  was  coined  206  b.c  Iron  money 
was  used  in  Sparta,  and  iron  and  tin  in  Britain* — Dufreanoy.  Julius  Cssar  was 
the  first  who  obtained  the  express  permission  of  the  senate  to  place  bis  portrait  on 
the  coins,  and  the  example  was  soon  followed.  In  the  earlier  and  more  simple  days 
of  Rome,  the  likeness  of  no  living  personage  appeared  upon  their  money ;  the 
heads  were  those  of  their  deities,  or  of  those  who  had  received  divine  honours.  . 

COIN  OF  ENGLAND.  The  first  coinage  in  England  was  under  the  Romans  at  Camu- 
lodunum,  or  Colchester.  English  coin  was  of  different  shapes,  as  square,  oblong, 
and  rounds  until  the  middle  ages,  when  round  coin  only  was  used.  Groats  were  the 
largest  silver  currency  until  after  a.d.  1351.  Coin  was  made  sterling  in  1216,  before 
which  time  rents  were  mostly  paid  in  kind,  and  money  was  found  only  in  the  coffers 
of  the  barons. — Stowe, 


The  first  gold  coins  on  certain  record, 

struck,  42  Henry  XXL  .         .   a.d.  1957 

Gold  florin  first  struck,  Ed.  IIL  {Camden)  1337 
First  struck  (Ashe)  ....  1344 
Old  sovereigns  first  minted  .  .  .  1494 
Bhillings  first  coined  (Z)r.Ji(:«2(y)  .  .1503 
Crowns  and  half  crowns  coined  .    .  1553 

Irish  shilling  struck  ....  1560 
MUled  shilling  of  Elizabeth  .  .  .  1562 
First  large  copper  coinage,  putting  an 

end  to  the  circulation  of  private  leaden 

pieces,  &e. 1620 

Gold  coin  was  introduced  in  six  shilling  pieces  by  Edward  III.  and  nobles  followed, 
at  six'  shillings  and  eightpence,  and  hence  the  lawyer's  fee ;  afterwards  there  were 
half  and  quarter  nobles.  Edward  IV.  coined  angels  with  a  figure  of  Michael  and 
the  dragon,  the  original  of  George  and  the  dragon.  Henry  VIII.  coined  sovereigns 
and  half-sovereigns  of  the  modern  value.  Guineas  were  of  the  same  size  ;  but  being 
made  of  superior  gold  from  sovereigns,  guineas  passed  for  more.  See  Guineas, 
English  and  Irish  money  were  assimilated  Jan.  1,  1826. — See  Gold. 

MONSTs  coiinsn  m  thx  foliowimo  rbioks,  and  thbir  amount. 


Modem  milling  introduced  A.o.  1631 

Halfpence  and  farthings  coined  .  .  1665 
By  the  government,  23  Char.  II.  .  .  1672 
Guineas  first  coined,  25  Char.  IL  .  .  1673 
Double  guineas  ...  1673 

Five  guineas 1673 

Half  guineas 1673 

Quarter  guineas  coined,  3  Geo.  I.  .  1716 

Seven  shilling  pieces  coined  .  .  .  1797 
Two-penny  copper  pieces  •    .  1797 

Sovereigns,  new  coinage  .  1816 


Elizabeth    . 

.  £5,832,000 

James  n.     . 

.  £3,740,000 

George  IH.,  gold  .£74,501,586 

James  I. . 

.     .     2,500.000 

WiUiam  UI. 

.,  .  10.511,900 

George  IV.       .    .   41,782^15 

Charles  L    . 

.   10,500,000 

Anne  . 

.     2,691,626 

William  IV.         .   10,827,603 

Cromwell 

.    .     1,000,000 

George  I. . 

.    .     8,725.920 

Victoria  .        .    .    *    *    * 

Charles  IL  . 

.    7,524,100 

George  11.     . 

.  11,966,576 

col  C   *36  ]  COL 

The  coin  of  the  realm  was  about  twelve  millions  in  1711. — Davenant.  It  was  esti- 
mated at  sixteen  millions  in  1762. — Anderson.  It  was  supposed  to  be  twenty  mil- 
lions in  1786. — ChcUmert,  It  amounted  to  thirty-seyen  millions  in  1800. — Phillips. 
The  gold  is  twenty-eight  millions,  and  the  rest  of  the  metallic  currency  is  thirteen 
millions,  while  the  paper  largely  supplies  the  place  of  coin,  1830. — Duke  of  Wei' 
lingtoUf  Prime  Minister,  in  the  House  of  Lords,  In  1841,  it  may  be  calculated  as 
reaching  forty-five  millions. — See  Gold, 

COINING.  This  operation  was  originally  performed  by  the  metal  being  placed  between 
two  steel  dies,  struck  by  a  hammer.  In  i  553,  a  mill  was  invented  by  Antonie  Bru- 
cher,  and  introduced  into  England,  1 562.  An  engine  for  coining  was  inyented  by 
Balancier  in  1617.  The  great  improvements  of  the  art  were  effected  by  Boulton  and 
Watt,  at  Soho,  1 788,  and  subsequently.  The  art  was  rendered  perfect  by  the  creation 
of  the  present  costly  machinery  at  the  Mint,  London,  commenced  in  1811. 

COLCHESTER.  Supposed  by  some  authors  to  be  the  birth-place  of  Constantine  the 
Great,  and  famous  in  history  as  a  Roman  station :  it  obtained  its  first  charter  in 
1 198.  Memorable  siege  of  Colchester  in  the  civil  war,  when  its  sixteen  churches  and 
all  its  buildings  sustained  great  damage  ;  the  siege  continued  for  ten  weeks,  1648. 
The  baize  manufacture  was  established  here,  1660. — Anderson, 

COLD.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  found  to  produce  the  same  perceptions  on 
the  skin,  and  when  mercury  is  frozen  at  forty  degrees  below  zero,  the  sensation  is 
the  same  as  touching  red-hot  iron.  During  the  hard  frost  in  1740,  a  palace  of  ice 
was  built  at  St.  Petersburg,  after  an  elegant  model,  and  in  the  just  proportions  of 
Augustan  architecture. — Greig,  Perhaps  the  coldest  day  ever  known  in  London  was 
Dec.  25,  1796,  when  the  thermometer  was  16**  below  zero.  Quicksilver  was  frozen 
hard  at  Moscow,  Jan.  13,  1810. — See  Frosts,  Joe, 

COLDINGHAM,  near  Berwick.  The  name  of  this  town  rendered  famous  by  the 
heroism  of  its  nuns,  who,  on  the  attack  of  the  Danes,  in  order  to  preserve  themselves 
inviolate,  cut  off  their  noses  and  lips,  thereby  becoming  objects  of  horror  to  the 
lustful  invaders.  The  Danes,  in  revenge,  burnt  the  whole  sisterhood,  with  the  abbess, 
Ebba,  in  their  monastery,  a.d.  886. — Stotoe, 

COLDSTREAM  GUARDS.  General  Monk,  before  marching  from  Scotland  into 
England  to  restore  Charles  II.,  raised  in  the  town  of  Coldstream  that  regiment  of 
royal  guards,  which  is  still  distinguished  by  this  honourable  name,  a.d.  1660. 

COLLIS^UM.  The  edifice  of  this  name  at  Rome  was  built  by  Vespasian,  in  the  place 
where  the  basin  of  Nero's  gilded  house  had  previously  been,  a.d.  72.  The  splendid 
Collisaeuro  of  London,  and  one  of  its  most  worthy  objects  of  admiration,  is  built  near 
the  Regent's-park,  and  was  completed  in  1827-8. 

COLLAR.  Generally  a  gold  enamelled  chain  with  cyphers  and  other  devices,  having  the 
badge  of  some  .order  suspended  at  the  bottom,  llie  collar  of  the  order  of  the  Garter 
consists  of  S.  S.,  with  roses  enamelled  red,  within  a  garter  enamelled  blue,  a.d. 
1349-50.  The  fashion  of  wearing  the  collar  of  S.  S.  in  honour  of  St.  Simplicius 
began  about  1407.  One  was  given  to  the  mayor  of  Dublin,  Robert  Deey,  by  Charles 
II.,  1660.  A  second  was  presented  as  a  royal  donation  to  the  chief  magistrate  of 
Dublin,  the  former  one  having  been  lost,  1697. — Annals  of  Dublin, 

COLLATION.  A  light  repast  of  fruits  on  fast  days,  in  lieu  of  more  substantial  food  : 
anciently,  even  bread  was  not  allowed  in  the  collations  in  Lent,  nor  anything  except 
a  few  comfits,  and  dried  herbs  and  fruits,  until  a.d.  15\^,-^ Lobitieau. 

COLLECTS.  These  are  prayers  in  the  Roman  Mass,  and  also  in  the  English  Liturgy. 
The  first  were  appointed  by  pope  Gelasius,  a.d.  493.  The  king  of  England,  coming 
into  Normandy,  appointed  a  collect  for  the  relief  of  the  Holy  Land,  1166. — Rapin. 

COLLEGES.  University  education  preceded  the  erection  of  colleges,  which  were 
munificent  foundations  to  relieve  the  students  from  the  expense  of  living  at  lodging- 
houses  and  at  inns.  Collegiate  or  academic  degrees  are  said  to  have  been  first  con- 
ferred at  the  University  of  Paris,  a.d.  1140  ;  but  some  authorities  say,  not  before 
1215.  In  England,  it  is  contended  that  the  date  is  much  higher,  and  some  hold 
that  Bede  obtained  a  degree  formally  at  Cambridge,  and  John  de  Beverley  at  Oxford, 
and  that  they  were,  respectively,  the  first  doctors  of  those  universities. — See  Cam* 
bridge,  Oxford,  &c. 


COL 


[137] 


COL 


COLLEGES,  continued, 

Cheshmit  College,  foanded  .  .  a.d.  1799 
Doctor's  Commons,  civil  law  .  1870 

Durham  University  .         .         ,    .   *  * 

Edinburgh  University  ....  15ao 

Eton  College 1441 

Glasgow  University       ....  1451 

Gresham  CuU^e 1061 

Harrow IMS 

Hayleybuiy,  or  East  India  College  .  .  1800 
Highbury  College         ....  1R26 

Highgate 1564 

King's  Ctillege,  Aberdeen  .1494 
King's  College,  London  .  .  1829 
Mareschal  College,  Aberdeen  .  1A93 
Majmooth  College 1796 


Naval  College,  PDrtmoutb 
PhyiiiclAns,  London  * 

Physicians,  Dublin    . 
Physicians,  Edinburgh 
St.  Andrews,  Scotland 
Sion  College 

Sion  College,  re-founded    . 
Surgeons,  London 
Ditto  re-incorporated 
Surgeons,  Dublin 
Surgeons,  Edinburgh  (new) 
Trinity  College,  Dublin 
University,  London 
Winchester  College 

See  these  CoUeget  eweratlp 


A.V.  1739 

.  161H 
.    .  1067 

.  16«(1 
.    .  1410 

.  I3i9 
.    .  1630 

.  1746 
.    .  180O 

.  1786 
.    .  1803 

.  1691 
.    .  1896 

.  1387 


Military  CoUege,  Sandhurst  .         .  1799 

COLOGNE.  A  member  of  the  Hanseatic  league,  1260.  The  Jews  were  eipelled  from 
here  in  1485,  and  the  Proteatanta  in  1618,  and  it  has  siDce  fallen  into  ruin.  Cologne 
was  taken  by  the  French,  under  Jourdan,  Oct.  6,  1794.  In  the  cathedral  are  shown 
the  heads  of  the  three  Magi ;  and  in  the  church  of  St.  Ursola  is  the  tomb  of  that 
saint,  and  bones  belonging  to  the  11,000  virgins  said  to  have  been  put  to  death 
along  with  her. 

COLOMBIA.  A  new  republic  of  the  western  world,  formed  of  states  which  have  lately 
declared  their  independence  of  the  crown  of  Spain ;  but  its  several  chiefs  have  been 
contending  one  against  another,  and  each  state  has  been  a  prey  to  ci?il  war,  and  the 
stability  of  the  union  is  for  from  assured. 

New  Grenada,  founded  by  Columbus  a.D.  1497 

.  1490 


Venezuela  discovered  .... 
The  Caraccas  formed  into  a  kingdom, 

under  a  captain  general  .    . 

The  history  of  these  provinces,  under 

the  tyranny  and  oppression   of  the 

Spaniards,  presents  but  one  continuous 

scene  of  rapine  and  blood. 


1647 


Battle  of  Carabobo,  the  Royalists  wholly 

overthrown  .  .        June  84,  1831 

Bolivar  is  named  Dictator  by  tlie  Con- 
gress of  Peru  Feb.  10.  1824 
Alliance  betwe6n,Colombia  and  Mexico 

formed  .        .  June  30,  1884 

Alliance  with  Guatamala  .    March  1U86 

Congress  at  Lima  names  Bolivar  Pre- 

silent  of  the  republic  .  Aug.  1626 

Bolivar's  return  to  Bogota  .  .  Nov.  18M 
He  assumes  the  dictatorship  .  Nov.  83,  1826 
Padilla's  insurrection  .  April  9,  1828 
Conspiracy  of  Santander  against  the  life 

of  Bolivar      .        .        .        Sept.  86,  1828 
Bolivar  resigns  his  office  of  president  of 
the  republic  .    April  U,  1889 

Hedies Dec.  17,  1830 

Santander  dies  .    May  26,  1840 


Confederation  of  Yenezucla  .  .  1810 

Independence  formally  declared         .    .1811 

Defeat  of  General  Miranda    .         .         .  1812 

Bolivar  defeated  by  Boves  .    .  1816 

Bolivar  defeats  Morillo  In  the  battle  of 
Sombrero    .         .         .  Feb.  1818 

Union  of  the  States  of  Grenada  and  Ve- 
nezuela .        Dec.  17.  1819 

COLOMBO.  Built  A.D.  1638,  by  the  Portuguese,  who  were  expelled  by  the  Dutch, 
in  1666  ;  and  the  latter  surrendered  it  to  the  British^  Feb..  15,  1796.  The  British 
troops  were  murdered  here  in  cold  blood  by  the  adigaar  of  Candy,  June  6, 1803. 
See  Ceylon. 

COLON.  This  point  was  known  to  the  ancients,  but  was  not  expressed  as  it  is  in 
modem  times.  The  colon  and  period  were  adopted  and  explained  by  Thrasymachus 
about  373  H,c.—Suida8,  It  was  known  to  Aristotle.  Our  punctuation  appears  to 
have  been  introduced  with  the  art  of  printing.  The  colon  and  semicolon  were  both 
first  used  io  British  literature,  in  the  sixteenlh  century. 

COLONIES  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN.  In  the  following  table  will  be  found  enumerated 
the  several  colonies  belonging  to  the  British  empire,  together  with  the  date  at  which 
each  colony  was  captured,  ceded,  or  settled.  The  white  and  the  free-coloured  popu- 
lation, as  far  as  it  has  been  ascertained,  amounts  to  about  2,500,000,  and  the  slaves 
at  the  period  of  their  emancipation,  were  770,280.  The  number  of  convicts  in  New 
South  Wales  and  Van  Diemen*8  Land,  is  33,573  ;  the  aborigines  of  the  latter  place 
have  not  been  ascertained.  The  act  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  throughout  the  Bri- 
tish colonies,  and  for  compensation  to  the  owners  of  slaves  (j^20, 000,000  sterling) 
was  passed  3  and  4  William  IV.  1833.  By  this  statute  all  slaves  in  the  British 
colonies  were  emancipated  August  1,  1834. 


CUL 


[138] 


COM 


COLONIES  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN,  continued. 


Colony  t  or  Possession, 
African  Forts 
Anguilla    . 
Antigua 

Bahama  Islands  • 
Barbadoes 
Bengal 
Berbice  . 
Bermudas  . 
Bombay 

Canada,  Lower    . 
Canada,  Upper 
Cape  Breton 
Cape  Coast  Castle    . 
Cape  of  Good  Hope 
Ceylon  . 

Demerara,  and  Essequibo 
Dominica     .         .         . 
Gambia . 
Gibraltar    . 
Goza 

Grenada     . 
Honduras 
Jamaica     . 
Madras  . 
Malta 
Mauritius 
Montserrat 
Nevis     . 
New  Brunswick . 
Newfoundland         . 
New  South  Wales 
Nova  Scotia    . 
Prince  Edward's  Island 
Prince  of  Wales'  Island 
Sierra  Leone        . 
St.  Christopher's      . 
St  Helena  . 
St.  Lucia 
St.  Vincent 
Swan  River    . 
Tobago 
Tortola . 
Trinidad     . 
Yan  Diemen's  Land 

COLOSSUS  OF  RHODES 


Date  qf  Settlementf  ifC, 


Settlement 
Settlement    . 
Settlements 
Settlement     . 
See  India. 
Capitulation  . 
Settlements 
See  India. 
Capitulation 
Capitulation  . 
Settlement,  in    . 
By  cession 
Capitulation 
Capitulation  . 
Capitulation 
Ceded  by  France 
Settlement,  in  . 
Capitulation . 
Capitulation 
Ceded  by  France 
By  treaty,  in 
Capitulation  . 
See  India. 
Capitulation  . 
Capitulation 
Settlement,  in 
Settlement,  in   . 
Settlement,  in 
Settlement,  about 
Settlement,  in 
Settlement,  in   . 
Capitulated,  in 
Settlement  in  . 
Settlement,  in 
Settlement,  in    . 
Capitulated,  in 
Capitulation 
Ceded  by  France 
Settlement,  in  . 
Ceded  by  France 
Settlement,  in  . 
Capitulation  . 


White  Population. 


.  1066 

365 

.     .  Ib32 

1.980 

1629,  et  srq. 

4,240 

.    .  16U5 

14,950 

Sept.  18()3 

552 

16U9,  ei  seq. 

3,905 

,  Sept.  1759 

423.630 

.      Sept  176() 

188.568 

.  1584 

40.222 

.    .  1672 

no  return. 

.  Jan.  1806 

65,675 

.      Sept.  1795 

6.414 

.Sept.  18a') 

3,006 

.    .  1763 

840 

.  1631 

24 

.      Aug.  1704 

17.024 

.  Sept  1800 

15,480 

.    .  1763 

801 

.  1670 

260 

.    .  1066 

no  census  taken. 

.      Sept  1800 

104,489 

.  Deo.  1810 

8,844 

.    .  1632 

330 

.  1628 

700 

.    .  1622 

72.933 

.  1500 

60.068 

.    .  1787 

20,930 

.  1622 

102,326 

.     .  1745 

23,473 

.  1786 

no  return. 

.    .  1787 

87 

.  1623 

1,612 

.    .  1600 

no  return. 

June,  1803 

972 

.    .  1763 

l,aoi 

.  1829 

850 

.    .  1763 

322 

.  1666 

477 

.      Feb.  1797 

4,201 

.  1803 

9,421 

Settlement,  in 

A  brass  statue  of  Apollo,  seventy  cubits  high,  erected  at 
the  port  of  Rhodes  in  honour  of  the  snn,  and  esteemed  one  of  the  wonders  of  the 
world.  Built  by  Chlires  of  Lindus,  290  b.c.  It  was  thrown  down  by  an  earthquake 
224  B.C. ;  and  was  finally  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  on  their  taking  Rhodes  in  a.d. 
672.  The  figure  stood  upon  two  moles,  a  leg  being  extended  on  each  side  of  the 
harbour,  so  that  a  vessel  in  full  sail  could  enter  between.  A  winding  staircase  ran 
to  the^  top,  from  which  could  be  discerned  the  shores  of  Syria,  and  the  ships  that 
sailed  on  the  coast  of  Egypt.  This  statae  had  lain  in  ruins  for  nearly  nine  centuries, 
and  had  never  been  repaired ;  but  now  the  Saracens  pulled  it  to  pieces,  and  sold  the 
metal,  weighing  720,000  lbs.  to  a  Jew,  who  is  said  to  have  loaded  900  camels  in 
transporting  it  to  Alexandria. — Du  Fresnoy, 

COMBAT,  SINGLE,  in  England.  It  commenced  with  the  Lombards  a.d.  659. — 
Baronius,  This  method  of  trial  was  introduced  into  England  and  was  allowed  in 
accusations  of  treason,  if  neither  the  accuser  nor  the  accused  could  produce  evidence 
of  the  charge,  or  of  innocence,  9  WiUiam  II.  1096.  The  first  battle  by  single 
combat  was  that  fought  before  the  king  and  the  peers  between  Geoffry  Baynard  and 
William  earl  of  Eu,  who  was  accused  by  Baynard  of  high  treason ;  and  Baynard 
having  conquered,  Eu  was  deemed  convicted.  The  last  combat  proposed  was 
between  lord  Reay  and  David  Ramsay,  in  1631,  but  the  king  prevented  it.— See 
article  High  Constiible, 


COM  C  ^39  ]  COM 

COMBAT,  SINGLE,  in  I&eland.  The  same  method  of  triAl  had  also  ezistenoe  in 
Ireland.  A  trial  was  appointed  between  the  prior  of  Kilmainham  and  the  earl  of 
Ormond,  the  former  having  impeached  the  latter  of  high  treason  ;  bat  the  quarrel 
having  been  taken  up  by  the  king,  was  decided  without  fighting,  1446.  Remarkable 
combat  in  Dublin  castle,  before  the  lords  justices  and  council,  between  Connor 
Mac-Cormac  O'Connor  and  Teig  Mac-Gilpatrick  O'Connor ;  in  which  the  former 
had  his  head  (nit  off,  and  presented  to  the  lords  justices,  1553. 

COMEDY.  Thalia  is  the  muse  of  comedy  and-  lyric  poetry.  Susarion  and  Dolon  wen 
the  inventors  of  theatrical  exhibitions,  562  B.C.  They  performed  the  first  comedy 
at  Athens,  on  a  waggon  or  moveable  stage,  on  four  wheels,  for  which  they  were 
rewarded  with  a  basket  of  figs  and  a  'cask  of  wiae,-'Arundelian  Marbles.  Aristo- 
phanes was  called  the  prince  of  ancient  comedy,  434  B.C.,  and  Menander  that  of  new, 
320  B.C.  Of  Plautus,  20  comedies  are  extant;  he  flourished  220  B.C.  Statins  CRcilius 
wrote  upwards  of  30  comedies  ;  he  flourished  at  Rome  180  b.c.  The  comedies  of 
Lselius  and  Terence  were  first  acted  154  b.c.  The  first  regular  comedy  was  per- 
formed in  England  about  a.d.  1551.  It  was  said  of  Sheridan,  that  he  wrote 
the  best  comedy  (the  School  for  Scandal),  the  best  opera  (the  Dueitna),  and  the 
best  afterpiece  (the  CriHc),  in  the  English  language. — See  Drama, 

COMETS.  The  first  that  was  discovered  and  described  accurately,  was  by  Nicephorus. 
At  the  birth  of  the  great  Mithridates  two  large  comets  appeared,  which  were  seen 
for  seventy-two  days  together,  and  whose  splendour  eclipsed  that  of  the  mid-day 
sun,  and  occupied  forty-five  degrees,  or  the  fourth  part  of  the  heavens,  135  b.c. — 
Justin,  A  remarkable  one  was  seen  in  England,  10  Edward  III.  1337. — Siowe, 
These  phenomena  were  first  rationally  explained  by  Tycho  Brache,  about  1577.  A 
comet,  which  terrified  the  people  from  its  near  approach  to  the  earth,  was  visible  from 
Nov.  3,  1679,  to  March  9,  1680.  The  orbits  of  comets  were  proved  to  be  ellipses, 
by  Newton,  1704.  A  most  brilliant  comet  appeared  in  1769,  which  passed  within 
two  millions  of  miles  of  the  earth.  One  still  more  brilliant  appeared  in  Sept.,  Oct., 
and  Nov.,  1811,  visible  all  the  autumn  to  the  naked  eye.  Another  brilliant  comet 
appeared  in  1823. — See  the  three  next  articles, 

COMET,  BIELA'S.  This  comet  has  been  an  object  of  fear  to  many  on  account  of  the 
nearness  with  which  it  has  approached,  not  the  earth,  but  a  point  of  the  earth's 
path  :  it  was  first  discovered  by  M.  Biela,  an  Austrian  officer,  Feb.  28,  1826.  It  is 
one  of  the  three  comets  whose  re-appearance  was  predicted,  its  revolution  being 
performed  in  six  years  and  thirty-eight  weeks.  Its  second  appearance  was  in  1832, 
when  the  time  of  its  perihelion  passage  was  Nov.  27.  Its  third  appearance  was  of 
course  in  1839. 

COMET,  ENCKE'S.  First  discovered  by  M.  Pons,  Nov.  26,  1818,  but  justly  named 
by  astronomers  after  professor  Encke,  from  his  success  in  detecting  its  orbit,  motions, 
and  perturbations ;  it  is,  like  the  preceding,  one  of  the  three  comets  which  have 
appeared  according  to  prediction,  and  its  revolutions  are  made  in  3  years  and  15  weeks. 

COMET,  HALLEY'S.  This  is  the  great  and  celebrated  comet  of  the  greatest  astro- 
nomer of  England. — Lalande.  Doctor  Halley  first  proved  that  many  of  the 
appearances  of  comets  were  but  the  periodical  returns  of  the  same  bodies,  and  he 
demonstrated  that  the  comet  of  1682  was  the  same  with  the  comet  of  1456,  of  1531, 
and  ]  607,  deducing  this  fact  from  a  minute  observation  of  the  first  mentioned  comet, 
and  being  struck  by  its  wonderful  resemblance  to  the  comets  described  as  having 
appeared  in  those  years  :  Halley,  therefore,  first  fixed  the  identity  of  comets,  and 
first  predicted  their  periodical  returns — Vinee*t  Aetronomy,  The  revolution  of 
Halley*8  comet  is  performed  in  about  seventy-six  years :  it  appeared  in  1759,  and 
came  to  its  perihelion  on  March  13  ;  and  its  last  appearance  was  in  1835. 

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF.  This  rank  in  the  British  army  has  been  very  frequently 
vacant,  and  sometimes  for  several  years  consecutively.  When  the  duke  of  WelUngton 
resigned  the  office,  on  becoming  minister,  in  1828,  his  grace's  successor,  lord  HiU, 
assumed  the  rank  of  commander  of  the  forces,  or  general  commanding-in-chief. 

CAPTAINS  OXI^KSAL.  COMMANOXRS  IN  CHIBV. 

Duke  of  Marlborough  . 

Duke  of  Ormond 

Duke  of  Marlborough  again  .        . 

Duke  of  Cumberland  .   . 


.  1709 

Lord  Ligonier     . 

Oct  20.  1747 

.  1712 

Marquis  of  Granby    . 

Aug.  13.  1769 

.  1714 

He  resigned  in 

.    .  1769 

.  1745 

Vacant 

•                       •                   «        ^r    •^ 

COM  C   '4^  ]  ^^** 


Duke  of  York  again  May  29,  1811 

Duke  of  Wellington        .         .    Jun.  22,  \Bi7 

OKNKRAX.  CX)HMANDII>rO-IN-CHIBr,    Of  OBNBRAL 
ON  THB  8TAFF« 

Lord  Hill       ....    Feb.  25,  1828 


COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF,  continued. 

Jeffrey,  Lord  Amherst         .    March  19,  1778 
Field  Marshal  Honble.  Henry  Seymour 

Conway  .  .  .  March  29,  1782 
Duke  of  York  .  .  .  Feb.  11,  1795 
Sir  David  Dundaa  .  March  25,  Jim 

COMMANDMENTS.  The  law  was  promulgated  from  Mount  Sinai  1491  B.c^Blair, 
Usher^  Lenglet.  The  ten  commandments,  together  with  the  Creed  and  the  Lord's 
prayer^  were  first  translated  into  the  Saxon  language,  a.d.  781. — Stotoe. 

COMMERCE.  Flourished  in  Arabia,  Egypt,  and  among  the  Phoenicians  in  the  earliest 
ages.  In  later  times  it  was  spread  over  Europe  by  a  confederacy  of  maritime  cities 
A.D.  1241. — See  Hanse  Towns,  The  discoveries  of  Columbus  and  the  enterprises 
of  the  Dutch  and  Portuguese,  enlarged  the  sphere  of  commerce,  and  led  other  nations, 
particularly  England,  to  engage  extensively  in  its  pursuit. — See  the  various  articies 
connected  with  this  subject. 

COMMERCIAL  TREATIES.  The  first  treaty  of  commerce  made  by  England  with 
any  foreign  nation,  was  entered  into  with  the  Flemings,  1  Edward  I.  1272.  The 
second  was  with  Portugal  and  Spain,  2  Edward  II.  1308. — Anderson.    See  Treaties. 

COMMON  COUNCIL  of  LONDON.  Its  formation  commenced  about  1208.  The 
charter  of  Henry  I.  mentions  the  fotk-mote,  this  being  a  Saxon  appellation,  and 
which  may  fairly  be  rendered  the  court  or  assembly  of  the  people.  The  general 
place  of  meeting  of  the  folk-mote  was  in  the  open  air  at  St.  Paul's  Cross,  in  St.  Paul's 
churchyard.  It  was  not  discontinued  till  after  Henry  III. 's  reign;  when  certain 
representatives  were  chosen  out  of  each  ward,  who,  being  added  to  the  lord  mayor 
and  aldermen,  constituted  the  Court  of  Common  Council.  At  first  only  two  were 
returned  for  each  ward  ;  but  it  being  afterwards  considered  that  the  number  was 
insufficient,  it  was  enlarged  in  1347,  and  since.  This  council  soon  became  the  parent 
of  other  similar  institutions  throughout  the  realm. 

COMMON  LAW  of  ENGLAND.  Custom,  to  which  length  of  time  has  given  the  force 
of  law,  or  rules  generally  received  and  held  as  law,  called  le*  non  scripta^  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  written  law.  Common  law  derives  its  origin  from  Alfred's  body 
of  laws  (which  was  lost),  a.d.  890. — See  Custom.    Laws. 

COMMON  PLEAS,  Court  of.  This  court  in  ancient  times  was  kept  in  the  king's 
own  palace,  distinct  from  that  of  the  King's  Bench.  But  on  the  confirmation  of 
Magna  Charta  by  king  John,  in  1215,  it  was  fixed  at  Westminster,  where  it  still 
continues.  In  it  are  debated  all  controversies,  in  matters  civil,  between  subject  and 
subject,  according  to  law.  Here  real  actions  are  pleadable,  and  fines  and  recoveries 
suffered,  and  in  no  other  court  but  this  ;  it  may  also  grant  prohibitions,  as  the  court 
of  King's  Bench  doth :  and  in  personal  and  mixed  actions  it  has  a  concurrent 
jurisdiction  with  that  court ;  but  no  cognizance  of  pleas  of  the  crown. — Black' 
stone.  In  England  no  barrister  under  the  degree  of  a  sergeant  can  plead  in  this 
court ;  but  in  Ireland  it  is  open  to  the  profession  at  large. 

COMMON  PRAYER.  PubUshed  in  the  English  language  by  the  authority  of  par- 
liament  in  1548.  The  Common  Prayer  was  voted  out  of  doors,  by  parliament,  and 
the  Directory  (which  see^t  set  up  in  its  room  in  1644.  A  proclamation  was  issued 
against  it,  1647. — See  Directory. 

COMMONS,  House  of.  The  great  representative  assembly  of  the  people  of  Great 
Britain,  and  third  branch  of  the  Imperial  legislature,  originated  with  Simon  de 
Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,  who  ordered  returns  to  be  made  of  two  knights  from 
every  shire,  and  deputies  from  certain  boroughs  to  meet  the  barons  and  clergy  who 
were  his  friends,  with  a  view  thereby  to  strengthen  his  own  power  in  opposition  to 
that  of  his  sovereign  Henry  III.  This  was  the  first  confirmed  outline  of  a  house  of 
commons  ;  and  the  first  commons  were  summoned  to  meet  the  king  in  parliament 
42  and  43  Henry  III.  1258. — Goldsmith.  Stowe.  According  to  other  authorities, 
the  first  parliament  formally  convened  was  the  one  summoned  49  Henry  III.  Jan. 
23,  1265 ;  and  writs  of  the  latter  date  are  the  earliest  extant.  Some  historians  date 
the  first  regularly  constituted  parliament  from  the  22d  of  Edward  I.  1294.  The 
first  recorded  speaker,  duly  chosen,  was  Petre  de  Montfort  in  1260 ;  he  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Evesham  in  1265.     The  city  of  London  first  sent  members  to 


COM 


[141] 


COM 


144 

English  and  Welsh 

.    000 

4 

Scotch.— County  members 

.  30 

32a-47l 

Cities  and  boroughs 

.    .  83—53 

15 

Irish.— County  members . 

.  64 

U— 29 

Uniyersity    , 

.    .    8 

.    MO 

Cities  and  boroughs  . 

.  39—105 

parliament  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  while  Westminater  was  not  represented  in 
that  assembly  until  the  latter  end  of  Henry  VIII/s  life,  or  rather  in  the  first  House 
of  Commons  of  Edward  YI.  The  following  is  the  constitution  of  the  House  of 
Commons  since  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bills  {which  see)  in  1832 :— - 

English — County  members 

Universities 

Cities  and  boroughs 
Wklsu. — County  members. 

Cities  and  boroughs 

English  and  Wdsh 

Total  {see  Parliament)  .    658 

COMMONWEALTH  of  ENGLAND.  This  was  the  interregnum  between  the  decol- 
lation of  Charles  L  and  the  restoration  of  Charles  H.  The  form  of  the  government 
was  changed  to  a  republic  on  the  execation  of  Charles  I.  Jan.  30,  1649.  Oliver 
Cromwell  was  made  Protector,  Dec.  12,  1653.  Richard  Cromwell  was  made  Pro- 
tector Sept.  4,  1658.  Monarchy  was  restored  in  the  person  of  Charles  XL,  who 
returned  to  London  May  29,  1660. — See  England. 

COMMUNION.  It  originated  in  the  Lord*s  Sapper,  and  was  practised  early  in  the 
primitive  church.  Communicating  under  the  form  of  bread  alone,  is  said  to  have  had 
its  rise  in  the  West,  under  pope  Urban  II.  1096.  The  fourth  Lateran  council 
decreed  tliat  every  believer  shall  receive  the  communion  at  least  at  Easter,  1215. 

COMPANl  ES.  Among  the  earliest  commercial  companies  in  England,  may  be  named 
the  Sceel-yard  society,  established  a.d.  1232.  llie  second  company  was  the  mer- 
chants of  St.  Thomas  k  Becket,  in  1248. — Siowe.  The  third  was  the  Merchant 
Adventurers,  incorporated  by  Elizabeth,  1564.  The  following  are  the  eity  com- 
panies of  London,  and  the  dates  when  they  were  instituted  or  incorporated  by 
charter  or  by  act  of  parliament.  Of  these  there  are  ninety-one ;  the  first  twelve 
are  the  chief,  and  are  styled  ''the  Honourable  ;"  they  are  arranged  in  the  order 
of  their  precedency  : — 


IX)NDON  CTTY  COMPANIS8. 

1.  Mercers     .... 

2.  Grocers 

3.  Drapers 

4.  Fishmongers  . 

5.  Goldsmiths 

6.  Slcinn<«rs 

7.  Merchant  Tailors 

8.  Haberdashers 

9.  Baiters 

10.  Ironmongers    . 

11.  Vintners 

12.  Cloth-workers 

13.  Dyers 

14.  Brewers  . 

15.  Leather-sellers    . 

16.  Pewterers 

17.  Barber  Surgeons 
1&  Cutlers   . 

19.  Bakers 

20.  Wax-chandlers 

21.  Tallow-chandlers 

22.  Armourers  and  Braziers 
2a  Girdlers 

24.  Butchers 

25.  Saddlers      . 
26L  Carpenters 

27.  Cordwainers 

28.  Paper  Stainers 

29.  Curriers 

30.  Masons 
.31.  Plumbers    . 

32.  Inn-holderd 

33.  Founders    . 

34.  Poultereis 


A.D.  1393 

.  1429 
.  .  1439 

.  1536 
.  .  1327 

.  1327 
.  .  1446 

.  1407 
.  .  1558 

.  1464 
.  .  1437 

.  1482 
.  .  1469 

.  1438 
.  .  1442 

.  1474 
.  .  1308 

.  1417 
.  .  1307 

.  1484 
.  .  1463 

.  1463 
.  .  1448 

.  1604 
.  .  1280 

.  1344 
.  .  1410 

.  1580 
.  .  1605 

.  1677 
.  .  1611 

.  1515 
.    .   1614 

.  1503 


35.  Cooks 

36.  Coopers 
S7-  Tilers  and  Bricklayers 

38.  Bowyers 

39.  Fletchers    . 
4a  Bhicksmiths 

41.  Joiners 

42.  Weavers 
43  Woolmen     . 

44.  Scriveners 

45.  Fruiterers 

46.  Plasterers 

47.  Stationers 

48.  Embroiderers 

49.  Upholders 

50.  Musicians 

51.  Turners 

52.  Basket-makers 
53b  Glaziers      . 

54.  Homers 

55.  Farriers 

56.  Paviors 

57.  Lorimers    . 

58.  Apothecaries 

59.  Shipwrights 

60.  Spectacle-makers 

61.  Clock-makers 

62.  Glovers 

63.  Comb-makers 

64.  Felt  makers   . 

65.  Framework-knitters 

66.  8ilk-throwsters 

67.  Silk-men     . 

68.  Pin-makers     . 

69.  Needle-makers    . 


D. 


1481 
1501 
1568 
1620 
1526 
1577 
1564 
1164 

*  ♦ 

1616 
1604 
1500 
1556 
1591 
1627 
1604 

1604 

*  « 

1637 
1638 

1673 

*  * 

1488 
1617 
1610 
16.10 
1632 
1556 
1650 
1604 
1664 

1629 

*  * 

1636 
1656 


COM 


ri42] 


CON 


JL.D. 


1616 

81.  Gold  and  siWer  wire-drawen 

A.D.  1623 

163B 

8S.  Long  bowstring-makers  . 

.  *  ♦ 

1670 

83.  Card-makers 

.    .  1629 

1670 

84.  Fan -makers    .... 

.  1700 

*  * 

85.  Wood-mongers    . 

.    .  *  ♦ 

1638 

86.  Starch-makers 

.  1632 

1670 

87*  Fishermen 

.    .  1687 

1664 

8a  Parish  clerks 

.  1232 

1663 

89  Carmen       .... 

.    .  *   * 

1677 

90.  Porters            .... 

.  *  * 

163R 

91.  Watermen 

.    .  1&50 

COMPANIES,  eonHnued, 

70.  Oardenera 

71.  Soap-makers 

72.  Tinplate-worken    . 

73.  Wheelwrights 

74.  Distillers 
76.  Hatband-makers 

76.  Patten-makers 

77.  Glass-sellers 

78.  Tobacco-pipe  makers 

79.  Coach  and  Harness  makers 
8a  Gunmakers 1638 

COMPANIES}  BUBBLE.  Ruinous  speculations  coming  under  this  name  have  been 
formed,  commonly  by  designing  persons.  Law's  Bubble,  in  1720-1,  was  perhaps  the 
most  extraordinary  of  its  kind,  and  the  South  Sea  Bubble,  in  the  same  year,  was 
scarcely  less  memorable  for  its  ruin  of  thousands  of  families.  Many  companies  were 
established  in  these  countries  in  1824  and  1825,  and  most  of  them  turned  out  to  be 
bubbles  ;  and  owing  to  the  rage  for  taking  shares  in  each  scheme  as  it  was  projected, 
immense  losses  were  incurred  by  individuals,  and  the  families  of  thousands  of  specu- 
lators were  totally  ruined. — See  Law^s  Bubble,  and  Bankrupts. 

COMPASS,  The  MARINER'S.  It  is  said  to  have  been  known  to  the  Chinese,  1 115 
B.C. ; '  but  this  seems  to  be  a  mistake.  They  had  a  machine  which  self-moved,  pointed 
towards  the  south,  and  safely  guided  travellers  by  land  or  water ;  and  some  authors 
have  mistaken  it  for  the  mariner's  compass,  the  invention  of  which'  is  by  some 
ascribed  to  Marcus  Paulus,  a  Venetian,  a.d.  1260  ;  while  others,  with  more  seeming 
justice,  assign  it  to  Flavio  Gioja,  of  Pasitano,  a  navigator  of  Naples.  Until  his  time 
the  needle  was  laid  upon  a  couple  of  pieces  of  straw,  or  small  split  sticks,  in  a  vessel 
of  water;  Gioja  introduced  the  suspension  of  the  needle  as  we  have  it  now,  1302. 
Its  variation  was  discovered  by  Columbus,  in  1 492.  The  compass-box  and  hanging 
compass  used  by  navigators  were  invented  by  William  Barlowe,  an  English  divine 
and  natural  philosopher,  in  1608. — Biog,  Diet.  The  measuring  compass  was 
invented  by  Jost  Byng,  of  Hesse,  in  1602. 

CONCEPTION  OF  THE  VIRGIN.  This  is  a  feast  in  the  Romish  church  in  honour 
of  the  Virgin  Mary  having  been  conceived  and  bom  immaculate,  or  without  original 
sin.  The  festival  was  appointed  to  be  held  on  the  8th  of  Dec.  by  the  church,  in 
1389. — CoNCEPTiONisTS,  an  order  of  nuns,  established  1488. 

CONCERT. .  The  first  public  subscription  concert  was  performed  at  Oxford,  in  1665, 
when  it  was  attended  by  a  great  number  of  personages  of  rank  and  talent  from  every 
part  of  England.  The  first  concert  of  a  like  kind  performed  in  London  was  in  1678. 
Concerts  afterwards  became  fashionable  and  frequent. 

CONCHOLOGY.  This  branch  of  natural  history  is  mentioned  by  Aristotle  and  Pliny, 
and  was  a  favourite  with  the  most  intellectual  and  illustrious  men.  It  was  first  reduced 
to  a  system  by  John  Daniel  Major  of  Kiel,  who  published  his  classification  of  the  Tes- 
tacea  in  1675.     Lister's  system  was  published  in  1685  ;  and  that  of  Largius  in  1722. 

CONCLAVE  FOR  THE  ELECTION  of  POPES.  The  conclave  is  a  range  of  small 
cells  in  the  hall  of  the  Vatican,  or  palace  of  the  pope  at  Rome,  where  the  cardinals 
usually  hold  their  meetings  to  elect  a  pope.  The  word  is  also  used  for  the  assembly, 
or  meeting  of  the  cardinals  shut  up  for  the  election  of  a  pope.  The  conclave  had  its  rise 
in  A.D.  1271.  Clement  IV.  being  dead  at  Viterbo  in  1268,  the  cardinals  were  nearly 
three  years  unable  to  agree  in  the  choice  of  a  successor,  and  were  on  the  point  of  breaking 
up,  when  the  magistrates,  by  the  advice  of  St.  Bonaventure,  then  at  Viterbo,  shut 
the  gates  of  their  city,  and  locked  up  the  cardinals  in  the  pontifical  palace  till  they 
agreed.    Hence  the  present  custom  of  shutting  up  the  cardinals  while  they  elect  a  pope. 

CONCORDANCE  to  the  BIBLE.  An  index  or  alphabetical  catalogue  of  all  the 
words  in  the  Bible,  and  also  a  chronological  account  of  all  the  transactions  of  that 
sacred  volume.  The  first  concordance  to  the  Bible  was  made  under  the  direction  of 
Hugo  de  St.  Charo,  who  employed  as  many  as  500  monks  upon  it,  ad.  1247. — 
Abbe  Lenglet. 

CONCORDAT.  The  name  given  to  an  instrument  of  agreement  between  a  prince  and 
the  pope,  usually  concerning  benefices.     The  celebrated  concordat  between  Napoleon 


CON  C  1*3  ]  CON 

Baonaparte  and  Pius  VII.,  whereby  the  then  French  consul  was  made,  in  effect,  the 
head  of  the  Galilean  charch,  as  all  ecclesiastics  were  to  have  their  appointments  from 
him,  was  signed  at  Paris,  July  15, 1801.  Another  concordat  between  Buonaparte 
and  the  same  pontiff  was  signed  at  Fontainbleau,  Jan.  25,  1813. 

CONCUBINES.  They  are  mentioned  as  having  been  allowed  to  the  priests,  a.d.  1132. 
Cujas  observes,  that  although  concubinage  was  beneath  marriage,  both  as  to  dignity 
and  civil  effects,  yet  concubine  was  a  reputable  title,  very  different  from  that  of 
mistress  among  us.  This  kind  of  union,  which  is  formed  by  giving  the  left  hand 
instead  of  the  rights  and  called  half-marriage^  is  still  in  use  in  some  parts  of 
Germany. — See  Harlots. 

CONDUITS.  Those  of  the  Romans  were  of  stone.  Two  remarkable  conduits  existed 
early  in  Cheapside,  London.  That  called  the  Great  Conduit  was  the  first  cistern  of 
lead  erected  in  the  city,  and  was  built  a.d.  1285.  At  the  procession  of  Anna  Boleyn 
it  was  repaired,  and  ran  with  white  and  claret  wine  all  the  afternoon,  June  1,  1533. 
— Stowe. 

CONFEDERATION  at  PARIS.  Upwards  of  600,000  citizens  formed  this  memorable 
confederation,  held  on  the  anniversary  of  the  taking  of  the  Bastile,  at  which  cere- 
mony the  king,  the  national  assembly,  the  army,  and  the  people,  solemnly  swore  to 
maintain  the  new  constitution,  July  14,  1790. — See  Champ  de  MarSf  Btutile. 

CONFEDERATION  of  the  RHINE,  or  League  of  the  Germanic  States,  formed  under 
the  auspices  of  Napoleon  Buonaparte.  By  this  celebrated  league,  the  minor  German 
princes  collectively  engaged  to  raise  258,000  troops  to  serve  in  case  of  war,  and 
they  established  a  diet  at  Frankfort,  July  12,  1806. — See  Germanic  Confederation. 

CONFERENCE.  The  celebrated  religious  conference  held  at  Hampton  Court  palace, 
between  the  prelates  of  the  church  of  England  and  the  dissenting  ministers,  in  order 
to  effect  a  general  union,  at  the  instance  of  the  king,  2  James  I.  1604.  This  con- 
ference led  to  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible,  which  was  executed  in  1607-11,  and  is 
that  now  in  general  use  in  England  and  the  United  States  ;  and  during  the  meeting 
some  alterations  in  the  church  liturgy  were  agreed  upon,  but  this  not  satisfying  the 
dissenters,  nothing  more  was  done.  A  conference  of  the  bishops  and  presbyterian 
ministers  with  the  same  view  was  held,  in  1661. 

CONFESSION.  Auricular  confession  in  the  Romish  church  was  first  instituted  about 
A.D.  1204,  and  was  regularly  enjoined  in  1215.  It  is  made  to  a  priest,  in  order  to 
obtain  absolution  for  the  sins  or  faults  acknowledged  by  the  penitent,  who  performs 
a  penance  enjoined  by  the  priest ;  and  if  this  be  done  with  a  contrite  heart,  the  sins 
thus  absolved  are  supposed  to  be  absolved  in  heaven. 

CONFIRMATION.  One  of  the  oldest  rites  of  the  Christian  church  \  it  was  used  by 
Peter  and  Paul;  and  was  general,  according  to  some  church  authorities,  in  a.d.  190. 
It  is  the  public  profession  of  the  Christian  religion  by  an  adult  person,  who  was 
baptised  in  infancy.  It  is  still  retained  in  the  church  of  England ;  but  to  make 
confirmation  the  more  solemn,  it  has  been  advanced  into  a  sacrament  by  the  church 
of  Rome. 

CONFLANS,  Treaty  of.  Between  Louis  XI.  of  France,  and  the  dukes  of  Bourbon, 
Brittany,  and  Burgundy ;  by  one  of  the  provisions  of  this  treaty,  Normandy  was 
ceded  to  the  duke  de  Berri,  1465.  This  treaty  was  confirmed  by  that  of  Peronne, 
with  other  stipulations,  in,  1468. 

CONGELATION.  Ice  was  produced  in  summer  by  means  of  chemical  mixtures,  by 
Mr.  Walker,  in  1783.  The  congelation  of  quicksilver  was  effected  without  snow  or 
ice,  in  1787.  A  mixture  of  four  ounces  of  nitrate  of  ammonia,  four  ounces  of  sub> 
carbonate  of  soda,  and  four  ounces  of  water,  in  a  tin  pail,  have  been  found  to  produce 
ice  in  three  hours. — See  Cold  ;  Ice  ;  &c. 

CONGE  D*ELIRE.  The  licence  of  the  king,  as  head  of  the  church,  to  chapters,  and 
other  bodies,  to  elect  dignitaries,  particularly  bishops.  After  the  interdict  of  the 
pope  upon  England  had  been  removed  in  1214,  king  John  had  an  arrangement  with 
the  clergy  for  the  election  of  bishops.  Bishops  were  elected  by  the  king's  Conge 
d^Elire,  26  Henry  VIII.,  1535. 

CONGRESS.  An  assembly  of  princes  or  ministers,  or  meeting  for  the  settlement  of  the 
affairs  of  nations»  or  of  a  people.  Several  congresses  were  held  daring  the  late  con- 
tinental wars  ;  but  the  following  were  the  most  remarkable  congresses  of  Europe : — 


CON  (^  144  ]  CON 


CONGRESS,  continued. 

Congress  of  Soissons  .  June  14,  1728 

Congress  of  Antwerp    .  .      April'8,  1793 

Congress  of  Radstadt  .    Dec.  9,  1797 

Congress  of  Chatillon  .  Feb.  5,  1814 

Congress  of  Vienna  .         .    Nov.  3,  1814 


Congress  of  Carlsbad  .        Aug.   1,  1819 

Congress  of  Troppau         .         .  Oct.  20,  1820 
Congress  of  Laybach,  .       May   6.  1821 

Congress  of  Verona  .         .  Aug.  25,  1822 

See  AUiancet,  Conventions,  ^c. 


The  first  general  congress  of  the  United  States  of  America,  preparatory  to  their 
declaration  of  independence,  was  held  Sept.  5,  1774,  when  strong  resolutions  were 
passed,  also  a  petition  to  the  king,  and  an  address  to  the  people  of  England.  The  first 
federal  American  congress,  under  the  constitution,  was  held  at  New  York,  George 
Washington,  president,  in  March,  1789. 

CONGREVE  ROCKETS.  Invented  by  general  sir  William  Congreve,  in  1803. 
They  were  used  with  great  effect  in  the  attack  upon  Boulogne,  in  Oct.  1 806,  when 
they  set  a  part  of  the  town  on  fire,  which  burned  for  two  days ;  they  were  employed  in 
various  operations  in  the  late  war  with  much  success,  discharged  by  a  corps  called 
rocket-men. 

CONIC  SECTIONS.  Their  most  remarkable  properties  were  probably  known  to  the 
Greeks  four  or  five  centuries  before  the  Christian  era.  The  study  of  them  was  cul- 
tivated in  the  time  of  Plato,  390  B.C.  The  earliest  treatise  was  written  by  Aristaeus, 
about  380  B.C.  ApoUonius's  eight  books  were  written  about  240  b.c.  The  para- 
bola was  applied  to  projectiles  by  Galileo,  and  the  ellipse  to  the  orbit  of  planets, 
by  Kepler. 

CONJURATION  and  WITCHCRAFT.  They  were  declared  to  be  felony  by  various 
statutes,  and  the  most  absurd  and  wicked  laws  were  in  force  against  them  in  these 
countries  in  former  times. — See  article  Witchcraft,  Conjuration  was  felony  by  sta- 
tute 1  James  I.,  1603.  This  law  was  repealed  9  George  II.,  1736  ;  but  pretensions 
to  such  skill  was  then  made  punishable  as  a  misdemeanour. — Statutes, 

CONNOR,  Bishopric  of  ;  in  Ireland.  This  see  was  united  to  that  of  Down,  a.d. 
1442.  The  first  prelate  was  iEngus  Macnisius,  who  died  a.d.  507.  The  united  see 
of  Down  and  Connor  is  to  have  that  of  Dromore  united  to  it,  on  the  death  of  the 
present  bishop  of  the  latter,  by  act  3  and  4  William  IV.,  1833. 

CONQUEST,  Thb.  The  memorable  era  in  British  history,  when  William  duke  of 
Normandy  overcame  Harold  II.,  at  the  battle  of  Hastings,  and  obtained  the  crown 
which  had  been  most  unfairly  bequeathed  to  him  by  Edward  the  Confessor  (fur 
Edgar  was  the  rightful  heir)  Oct.  14,  1066.  William  has  been  erroneously  styled 
the  Conqueror,  for  he  succeeded  to  the  crown  of  England  by  compact.  He  killed 
Harold,  who  was  himself  an  usurper,  and  defeated  his  army,  but  a  large  portion  of 
the  kingdom  afterwards  held  out  against  him,  and  he,  unlike  a  conqueror,  took  aa 
oath  to  observe  the  laws  and  customs  of  the  realm,  in  order  to  induce  the  submission 
of  the  people.  Formerly  our  judges  were  accustomed  to  reprehend  any  gentleman 
at  the  bar  who  casually  gave  him  the  title  of  William  the  Conqueror,  instead  of 
William  I. 

CONSCIENCE,  COURTS  OF,  ov.  or  REQUESTS.  First  constituted  by  a  st  .tutc 
of  Henry  VII.  in  1493,  and  re-organised  by  statute  9  Henry  VIII.  1517.  These 
courts  have  been  improved  and  amended  by  various  acts  ;  their  jurisdiction  in  Lon- 
don reaches  to  5/.,  and  to  40«.  in  other  towns.  The  practice  is  by  summons,  and  if 
the  party  do  not  appear,  the  commissioners  have  power  to  apprehend  and  commit. 
They  proceed  summarily,  examining  the  witnesses  of  both  parties  on  oath,  and,  ac- 
cording to  their  own  judgment,  pronounce  a  verdict. 

CONSECRATION.  That  of  churches  was  instituted  in  the  second  century,  the 
temple  of  worship  being  dedicated  with  pious  solemnity  to  God  and  a  patron  saint. 
The  consecration  of  churches,  places  of  burial,  &c.,  is  admitted  in  the  reformed  reli- 
gion.   The  consecration  of  bishops  was  ordained  in  the  latter  church  in  1549. — Siowe, 

CONSERVATORS  of  the  PUBLIC  LIBERTIES.  Officers  chosen  in  England  to 
inspect  the  treasury,  and  correct  abuses  in  administration,  28  Henry  III.  1244. — 
JRapin,  The  conservators  of  the  peace  were  officers  appointed  to  see  the  king's 
peace  kept.  A  political  party  under  the  name  of  Conservatives,  whose  leading 
principle  is  the  conservation  of  our  great  and  ancient  national  institutions,  has 
sprung  up  in  England  since  the  discouragement  of  Orange  lodges  and  societies, 
which  latter  have  been  suppressed  by  various  late  enactments. 


CON 


C  145] 


CON 


CONSISTORY  COURT.  Anciently  the  Consistory  was  joined  with  the  Hundred 
court,  and  its  original,  as  divided  therefrom^  is  found  in  a  law  of  William  I.  quoted 
by  lord  Coke,  1079.  The  chief  and  most  ancient  Consistory  court  of  the  kingdom 
belongs  to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  and  is  called  the  Court  of  Arches,  which  see, 

CONSPIRACIES  AND  INSURRECTIONS  in  GREAT  BRITAIN.  Among  the  re- 
corded conspiracies,  real  or  supposed,  the  following  are  the  most  remarkable.  They 
are  extracted  from  Camden^  Temple,  Hume,  and  other  authorities  of  note  : — 


1074 
1093 

1173 

1224 

1S58 


Of  the  Norman  Barona,  against  William 

the  Conqueror  .         .         •    ▲.!>. 

Against  WiUiam  11. 1088,  and 
Against  Henry  II.  by  his  queen  and 

children 

Insnnection  of  Fonlk  de  Brent  against 

king  Henry  IIL         .... 
Against  the  same  king,  for  cancelling 

Magna  Charta 

Of  Edward  IX's  queen,  when  the  king 

f ell  a  sacrifloe 1387 

Of  the  duke  of  Exeter  against  the  life  of 

Henry  lY.  discovered  by  the  dropping 

of  a  paper  aocidentally  .        .    .  1400 

Of  Hie  earl  of  Cambridge  and  others 

against  Henry  y 1415 

Of  Richard,  duke  of  Gloucester,  against 

his  nephews,  Edward  and  York, whom 

he  caiued  to  be  murdered 
Of  the  earl  of  Suffolk  and  others,  against 

Henry  VII.        .         ,         •         .         . 
Insnrrection  of  the  London  apprentices, 

7Henry  Vin 1315 

Of  Doctor  Story  and  others  against  queen 

ISlicabeth 

Of  Anthony  Babington  and  others,  agst. 

Elisabeth.  (See  Babington.)  .         .    . 
Of  Lopez,  a  Jew,  and  others 
Of  Patrick  York,  an  Irish  fencing-mas- 
ter, hired  by  the  Spaniards  to  kill  the 

queen  

Of  Walpole,  a  Jesuit  and  squire    . 
Tyrone's  insurrection  in  Ireland        .    . 
Against  James  L  by  the  marohioneas 

Vemeuil,  his  mistress,  and  other  persons  1604 
The  Gunpowder  plot  {tchich  see)  .  .  1605 
Tyrone's   conspiracy    to    surprise    the 


1483 


1506 


1571 

1586 
1503 


1594 
1596 
1598 


Of  Sinderoomb  and  others^  to 
ate  Oliver  Cromwell 

Insnrrection  of  the  Puritans 

Insurrection  of  the  fifth  monarohy-mea 
against  Charles  IL      .        .        . 

Of  Blood  and  his  associates,  who  seised 
the  duke  of  Ormond,  wounded  him, 
and  would  have  hanged  him ;  and  who 
afterwards  stole  the  crown 

The  pretended  oonqttracy  of  the  French, 
Danish,  and  English  Jesuits  to  assaa* 
sinate  Ch.  IL  revealed  by  the  infamous 
Titus  Oates,  Dr.  Tongue,  and  others  . 

The  Meal-tub  plot  (which  tee)        . 

The  Rye-house  plot  to  assassinate  the 
king  on  his  way  to  Newmarket  (Bee 
Rye  house  plot) 

Of  lord  Preston,  the  bishop  of  Ely,  and 
others,  to  restore  James  IL  . 

Of  Granville,  a  French  chevalier,  to 
murder  king  William  in  Flanders 

Of  the  earl  of  Aylesbury,  called  the  As- 
sassination plot  (which  see) 

Of  Simon  Fraser,  lord  Lovat,  In  favour 
of  the  Pretender 

Of  the  marquess  Guisoard 

Of  James  Sheppard,  an  enthusiast,  to 
assassinate  George  L      .        .        •    . 

Of  counsellor  Layer  and  others,  to  bring 
in  the  Pretender       .... 

Of  Colonel  Despard  and  others,  to  over- 
turn the  government  .         .    . 

Of  Robert  Emmett  in  Dublin,  when 
lord  Kilwarden  was  kiUed,   .  July  S3,  1803 

Of  Moreau,  Pichegm,  and  Georges, 
against  Buonaparte         .        Feb.  15,  1804 

Of  Thistlewood,  to  assassinate  the  king's 
ministers.  (See  Cato-street.)  .    1890 


1656 

1687 

1680 


1671 


1678 
1679 


1683 

1691 

1698 

1606 

1703 
1710 

i7ia 

1789 
1803 


castle  of  Dublbi     .        .         •        .    .  1607 

CONSTABLES  of  HUNDREDS  and  FRANCHISES.  Instituted  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  I.  1285.  These  officers  are  now  called  high  constables  throughout  the  realm. 
There  are  three  kinds  of  constables,  high,  petty,  and  special :  the  high  constable's 
jurisdiction  extends  to  the  whole  hundred ;  the  petty  constable's  to  the  parish  or 
liberty  for  which  he  is  chosen ;  and  the  special  constable  is  appointed  for  particular 
occasions  and  emergencies. 

CONSTABULARY  FORCE.  That  of  London  has  been  regulated  at  various  periods. 
—See  article  Police.  Mr.  Peel's  act,  organising  a  new  and  more  efficient  force,  10 
George  IV.  1829.  The  Constabulary  of  Ireland  act  passed  in  1823,  when  this 
species  of  force  was  embodied  throughout  that  country.  Several  subsequent  acts  were 
consolidated  by  the  statute  6  William  IV.  1836.  The  London  Police  Improve- 
ment act  passed  3  Victoria,  1839.  The  Counties  and  District  Constabulary  act  for 
England,  passed  3  Victoria,  Aug.  1839. 

CONSTANCE,  Council  or.  The  celebrated  council  of  divines  (!)  which  condemned 
the  pious  martyrs  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  to  be  burnt  alive,  a  sentence 
executed  upon  the  first  on  July  6, 1415,  and  on  the  other,  on  May  30,  following. 
Huss  had  complied  with  a  summons  from  the  council  of  Constance  to  defend  his 
opinions  before  the  clergy  of  all  nations  in  that  city,  and  though  the  emperor  Sigis- 
muttd  had  given  him  a  safe-conduct,  he  was  cast  into  prison.  Jerome  of  Prague 
hastened  to  Constance  to  defend  him,  but  was  himself  loaded  with  chains,  and  in 

L 


CON  [  146  ]  CON 

the  end  shared  the  fate  of  his  friend.  This  scandalous  violation  of  public  faith^  and 
the  cruelty  and  treachery  which  attended  the  punishment  of  these  unhappy  disciples 
of  Wickliffe,  our  great  reformer,  prove  the  melancholy  truth,  that  toleration  is  not 
the  virtue  of  priests  in  any  form  of  ecclesiastical  government. — Hume, 

CONSTANTINA.  The  former  capital  of  Numidia.  It  has  become  known  to  Euro- 
peans but  very  recently,  they  being  strangers  to  it  until  the  French  occupation  of 
Algiers.  Here  was  fought  a  great  battle  between  the  French  and  Arabs,  Oct.  13, 
1837,  when  the  former  carried  the  town  by  assault,  but  the  French  general,  Damre- 
mont,  was  killed.  Achmet  Bey  retired  with  12,000  men  as  the  victors  entered 
Constantina. 

CONSTANTINOPLE.  So  called  from  Constantine  the  Great,  who  removed  the  seat 
of  the  Eastern  Empire  here,  a.d.  328.  Taken  by  the  western  crusaders,  who  put  the 
emperor  Mourzoufle  to  death,  first  tearing  out  his  eyes,  1204.  Retaken  by  Michael 
Palaologus,  thus  restoring  the  old  Greek  line,  1261.  Conquered  by  Mahomet  II. 
who  slew  Constantine  Palseologus,  the  last  Christian  emperor,  and  60,000  of  his  peo- 
ple, 1453.  The  city,  taken  by  assault,  had  held  out  for  fifty-eight  days.  The  un- 
fortunate emperor,  on  seeing  the  Turks  enter  by  the  breaches,  threw  himself  into 
the  midst  of  the  enemy,  and  was  cut  to  pieces  ;  the  children  of  the  imperial  house 
were  massacred  by  the  soldiers,  and  the  women  reserved  to  gratify  the  lust  of  the 
conqueror.  This  put  an  end  to  the  Eastern  Empire,  which  had  subsisted  for  1125 
years,  and  was  the  foundation  of  the  present  empire  of  Turkey  in  Europe. — See 
Eastern  Empire^  and  Turkey, 

CONSTANTINOPLE,  Era  of.  This  era  has  the  creation  placed  5508  years  B.C.  It 
was  used  by  the  Russians  until  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  is  still  used  in  the 
Greek  church.  The  civil  year  begins  September  1 ,  and  the  ecclesiastical  year  to- 
wards the  end  of  March ;  the  day  is  not  exactly  determined.  To  reduce  it  to  our  era, 
subtract  5508  years  from  January  to  August,  and  5509  from  September  to  the  end. 

CONSTELLATIONS.  Those  of  Arcturus,  Orion,  the  Pleiades,  and  Mazaaroth, 
are  mentioned  by  Job,  about  1520  B.C.  Homer  and  Hesiod  notice  constellations ; 
but  though  some  mode  of  grouping  the  visible  stars  bad  obtained  in  very  early  ages, 
our  first  direct  knowledge  was  derived  from  Claud,  t^tolemeeus,  about  a.d.  140. 

CONSTITUTION  of  ENGLAND.  See  Magna  Charta.  It  comprehends  the  whole  body 
of  laws  by  which  the  British  people  are  governed,  and  to  which  it  is  presumptively 
held  that  every  individual  has  assented. — Lord  Somers,  This  assemblage  of  laws  is 
distinguished  from  the  term  government,  in  this  respect — that  the  constitution  is 
the  rule  by  which  the  sovereign  ought  to  govern  at  all  times  ;  and  government  is 
that  by  which  he  does  govern  at  any  particular  time. — Lord  Bolingbroke.  The  king 
of  England  is  not  seated  on  a  solitary  eminence  of  power ;  on  the  contrary,  he  sees 
his  equals  in  the  co-existing  branches  of  the  legislature,  and  he  recognises  his  supe- 
rior in  the  law. — Sheridan, 

CONSTITUTION,  Amb&ican  Ship.  This  vessel,  carrying  54  heavy  guns,  engaged 
the  British  frigate  Guerriere,  of  46  guns  of  smaller  calibre  ;  and  in  thirty  minutes 
the  latter  was  reduced  to  a  sinking  state,  and  having  lost  100  men  in  killed  and 
wounded,  surrendered  to  the  enemy,  who  lost  but  7  men  killed,  and  7  wounded ; 
August  20, 1812. 

CONSULS.  These  officers  were  appointed  at  Rome,  509  b.c.  They  possessed  regal 
authority  for  the  space  of  a  year :  Lucius  Junius  Brutus,  and  Lucius  Tarquiniua 
Collatinus,  the  latter  the  injured  husband  of  Lucretia,  were  the  first  consuls.  A 
consular  government  was  established  in  France  November  9, 17  99,  when  Buona- 
parte, Cambac^res,  and  Lebrun,  were  made  consuls ;  and  subsequently  Buonaparte 
was  made  first  consul  for  life.  May  6,  1802.  Commercial  agents  were  first  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  consuls  in  Italy,  in  1485.  A  British  consul  was  appointed 
in  Portugal  in  1633, 

CONTRACTORS  with  GOVERNMENT  disqualified  from  sitting  in  pariiament,l782. 

CONTRIBUTIONS,  Volunta&t.  In  the  two  last  wars  voluntary  contributions  to  a 
vast  amount  were  several  times  made  by  the  British  people  in  aid  of  the  goyem- 
ment.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  acts  of  patriotism  was  that  in  1798,  when,  to 
support  the  war  against  France,  the  contributions  amounted  to  two  millions  and  a 
half  sterling.  Several  men  of  wealth,  among  others  sir  Robert  Peel,  of  Bury,  Lan- 
cashire, subscribed  each  10,000/. ;  and  200,000/.  were  transmitted  from  India  in  1799. 


CON C  ^^7  ] coo 

CONVENTICLES.  These  were  priyate  aBsembliet  for  religiotu  worship,  and  were 
particularly  applied  to  those  who  differed  in  form  and  doctrine  from  the  established 
church,  fiut  the  term  was  first  applied  in  England  to  the  schools  of  Wickliffe. 
Conventicles,  which  were  Terr  numerous  at  the  time,  were  prohibited  12  Charles 
II.,  1661. 

CONVENTION  PARLIAMENT.  Then  were  two  memorable  parliaments  which 
were  especially  distinguished  by  this  name;  being  parliaments  which  assembled 
without  the  king's  writ  upon  extraordinary  occasions.  The  first  of  these  was  held 
in  March  1660,  voting  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  and  afterwards  enacting  many 
salutary  statutes.  They  second  was  held  in  1688,  and,  by  a  majority  of  two  ToiceSy 
declared  for  a  new  sovereign,  in  William  III.  (and  Mary)  in  preference  to  a  regent 
which  was  proposed. 

CONVENTIONS.  See  Allianeet,  Treatiet,  &c.  The  following  are  the  principal 
treaties  entered  into  between  Great  Britain  and  foreign  powers,  under  the  title  of 
eonventionst  and  by  foreign  powers  with  each  other.  They  are  more  fuUy  described 
in  their  respective  places  through  the  volume : — 


Of  Paris,  with  the  aUIss  .  April  86,  1818 
Of  Aix-U-Chapelle  .    Oct   9.  1818 

Of  Austria  with  England;  the  latter 
agrees  to  accept  2,500,00(M.,  as  a  oom- 
poflition  for  claims  on  Austrla^amount- 
ing  to  ao.OOO.OOOr.  sterling  .  1884 

Of  England  with  Russia,  .  Feb.  28,  1825 
Of  England  and  United  States  Nov.  26,  1826 
Of  Spain,  for  satisfying  the  olalms  of 

British  merchants  .  June  26,  1828 

Of  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt  and  Sir  Edward 
Codrington,  for  restoring  the  Greek 
captives,  &o.  .  .        Aug.  6,  1828 

Of  Franoe  with  Braail    .        .    Aug.  14,  1828 
Convention  between  Holland  and  Bel- 
gium,  signed  in  London      .    April  19,  1838 


OfCIosCersevea         .  Sept.  10,  1767 

Of  Armed  Neutrality  .    July  9,  1780 

Of  Pilnits  .         .         .         July  20,  1791 

Of  Paris  (French  National)    Instituted 

Sept.  17,  1792 
Of  Cintra  {which  see)  Aug.  30,  1808 

Of  Berlin  ....  Nov.  6.  1806 
Of  Peterswalden  July    8,  1813 

Of  Paris  ....  April  S3,  1814 
Of  the  Dutch  with  England.  Aug.  13,1814 
Of  Yienna ;   Saxony  placed  under  the 

control  of  Prussia  .        Sept.  28,  1814 

Of  Zurich,  signed  .    May  20^1816 

Of  Capua,  with  Marat  May  20,1816 

Of  St.    Cloud,  between  Davoost,  and 

Wellington,  and  Blucher     .    July  6,  1816 

CONVENTS.  They  were  first  founded,  according  to  some  authorities,  in  a.d.  270. 
The  first  in  England  was  erected  at  Folkstone,  by  Eadbald,  in  630. — Camdeti,  The 
first  in  Scotland  was  at  Coldingham,  when  Ethelreda  took  the  veil,  in  670.  They 
were  founded  earlier  than  this  last  date  in  Ireland.  Convents  were  suppressed  in 
England  in  various  reigns,  particularly  in  that  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  comparatively 
few  now  exist  in  Great  Britain.  More  than  3000  have  been  suppressed  in  Europe 
within  the  last  few  years.  The  emperor  of  Russia  abolished  187  convents  of  monks, 
by  an  ukase  dated  July  31,  1832.  The  king  of  Prussia  followed  his  example,  and 
secularised  all  the  convents  in  the  duchy  of  Posen.  Don  Pedro  put  down  300  con- 
vents in  Portugal  in  1834,  and  Spain  has  lately  abolished  1800  convents. 

CONVICTS.  The  first  arrival  of  transported  convicts  at  Botany  Bay,  was  in  1788. 
On  the  20th  of  January  in  that  year,  governor  Philip,  the  fint  governor,  with  about 
800  convicts  under  sentence  of  transportation,  took  possession  of  this  settlement, 
but  he  snbse<}ttently  removed  to  Sydney,  denominated,  from  lord  Sydney,  Sydney 
Cove.  Convicts  are  now  sent  to  Van  Diemen's  Land,  Norfolk  Island,  &c. ;  and 
many  thousands  of  them  are  transferred  to  Penitentiaries,  and  set  to  labour  in  the 
hulks  in  several  ports  of  the  realm. — See  New  South  Wales  and  Transporiaiion, 

CONVOCATION  of  the  CLERGY.  The  first  summoned  to  meet  by  writ  of  the 
king,  was  23  Edward  I.,  1295.  The  power  of  the  convocation  was  limited  by  a 
statute  of  Henry  VIII.,  in  whose  reign  the  convocation  was  re-organised.  The  clergy 
relinquished  the  power  of  taxing  themselves  in  1665.  The  two  houses  of  convoca- 
tion were  deprived  of  various  privileges  in  1716.  The  meetings  of  the  clergy  in 
convocation  are  now  infrequent^  and  merely  formaL 

CONVOLVULUS.  The  Canary  Convolvulus  (Convolvulus  Canariensie)  came  to  Eng- 
land firom  the  Canary  Isles,  1690.    The  many-flowered  Convolvulus,  in  1779. 

COOK'S  VOYAGES.  The  illustrious  captain  Cook  sailed  from  England  in  the  En^ 
deavour,  on  his  first  Toyage,  July  30,  1768 ;  *  and  returned  home  after  having 

^  *  A  memorial  was  presented  to  the  king  hy  the  Royal  Sodoty  in  1768,  setting  forth  the  advantages 
which  would  be  derived  to  scienoe  if  an  accurate  observation  of  the  then  approaehing  transit  of 

l2 


coo [  148  ] COP 

drcamnavigated  the  globe,  arriying  at  Spithead,  July  13,  1771.  Sir  Joseph  Banks, 
afterwards  the  Ulustrioiis  president  of  the  Royal  Society,  accompanied  captain  Cook 
in  this  voyage.  Captain  Cook  again  sailed  to  explore  the  soathem  hemisphere, 
July  1772,  and  returned  in  July  1775.  In  his  third  expedition  this  great  navigator 
was  killed  by  the  savages  of  O-why-hee,  at  8  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  Feb.  14, 
1779.  His  ships,  the  ResoluHon  and  Discovery ,  arrived  home  at  Sheemessy  Sept. 
22,  1780. 

COOPERAGE.  This  art  must  be  coeval  with  the  dawn  of  history,  and  seems  to  have 
been  early  known  in  every  country.  The  coopers  of  London  were  incorporated  in  1501. 

COPENHAGEN.  Distinguished  as  a  royal  residence,  a.d.  1443.  In  172By  more 
than  seventy  of  its  streets  and  3785  houses  were  burnt.  Its  famous  palace,  valued 
at  four  millions  sterling,  was  wholly  burnt,  Feb.  1794,  when  100  persons  lost  their 
lives.  In  a  fire  which  lasted  forty-eight  hours,  the  arsenal,  admiralty,  and  fifty  streets 
were  destroyed,  1795.  Copenhagen  was  bombarded  by  the  English  under  lord  Nel- 
son and  admiral  Parker;  and  in  their  engagement  with  the  Danish  fleet,  of  twenty- 
three  ships  of  the  line,  eighteen  were  taken  or  destroyed  by  the  British,  April  2, 
1801.  Again,  after  a  bombardment  of  three  days,  the  city  and  the  Danish  fleet  sur- 
rendered to  admiral  Gambler  and  lord  Cathcart,  Sept.  7,  1807.  The  capture  con- 
sisted of  eighteen  sail  of  the  line,  fifteen  frigates,  six  brigs,  and  twenty-five  gun- 
boats, and  immeuse  naval  stores. — See  Denmark. 

COPERNICAN  SYSTEM.  The  system  of  the  world  wherein  the  sun  is  supposed  to 
be  in  the  centre,  and  immoveable,  and  the  earth  and  the  rest  of  the  planets  to  move 
round  it  in  elliptical  orbits.  The  heavens  and  stars  are  here  imagined  to  be  at  rest, 
and  the  diurnal  motion,  which  th^y  s^em  to  have  from  east  to  west,  is  imputed  to 
the  earth's  motion  from  west  to  east  This  system  was  published  at  T*horn,  a.d. 
1530 ;  and  may  in  many  pointy  be  regarded  as  that  of  Pythagoras  revived. — Gassendus, 

COPPER.  It  is  one  of  the  six  primitive  metals  ;  its  discovery  is  said  to  have  pre- 
ceded that  of  iron.  We  read  in  the  Scriptures  of  two  vessels  of  fine  copper,  pre- 
cious as  gold. — Ezra  viii.  27.  The  great  divisibility  of  this  metal  almost  exceeds 
belief;  a  grain  of  it  dissolved  in  alkali,  as  pearl  ashes,  soda,  &c.,  will  give  a  sensible 
colour  to  more  than  500,000  times  its  weight  in  water ;  and  when  copper  is  in  a 
state  of  fusion,  if  the  least  drop  of  water  touch  the  melted  ore,  it  will  fly  about  like 
shot  from  a  gun. — Boyle.  The  mine  of  Fahlun,  in  Sweden,  is  the  most  surprising 
artificial  excavation  in  the  world.  In  England,  copper-mines  were  discovered  in 
1561 ,  and  copper  now  forms  an  immense  branch  of  British  trade :  there  are  up- 
wards of  fifty  mines  in  Cornwall,  where  mining  has  been  increasing  since  the  reign 
of  William  III. 

COPPER-MONEY.  The  Romans,  prior  to  the  reign  of  Servius  Tullius,  used  rude 
pieces  of  copper  for  money. — See  Coin,  In  England,  copper-money  is  of  extensive 
coinage*  That  proposed  by  sir  Robert  Cotton  was  brought  into  use  in  1 609.  Cop- 
per was  extensively  coined  in  1665.  It  was  again  coin^  by  the  crown,  23  Charles 
II.,  1672.  Private  traders  had  made  them  previously  to  this  act  In  Ireland, 
copper  was  coined  as  earl>  as  1339;  in  Scotland  in  1406;  in  France  in  1 680. 
Wood's  coinage  in  Ireland,  (which  see)  commenced  in  1723.  Penny  and  two-penny 
pieces  were  extensively  issued,  1797. 

COPPER-PLATE  PRINTING.  This  species  of  printing  was  first  attempted  in  Ger. 
many,  about  a.d.  1450.  Rolling-presses  for  working  the  plates  were  invented  about 
1545.  Messrs.  Perkins  of  Philadelphia,  invented,  in  1819,  a  mode  of  engraving  on 
soft  steel  which,  when  hardened,  will  multiply  copper-plates  and  fine  impressions 
indefinitely. — See  Engraving. 

COPPERAS.     First  produced  in  England  by  Cornelius  de  Yos,  a  merchant,  in  1587. 

COPYRIGHT.     The  decree  of  the  Star-chamber  regarding  it,  a.d.  1556.     Every 

*"  ■    ■■  y  I  «     .       ,     ■■  ■  ■  ■  ■■-^      — ■   II      —     ■■  I      ■■     .  ■      ■  I    -^— ^^■     -.    ...  ■^■■11  ■■■■■■■■  ■  ■ 

Venus  over  the  sun  were  taken  in  the  South  Sea.  The  ship  Endeavour  was,  in  oonaequenoe,  pire- 
pared  for  that  purpose,  and  the  command  of  her  given  to  Lieutenant  Jamee  Cook.  He  sailed  in  Jolj 
1768,  touched  at  Madeira  and  Rio  de  Janeiro,  doubled  Cape  Horn,  and  after  a  proeperooa  voyage 
reached  Otaheite,  the  place  of  destination,  in  April  1769.  By  a  comparison  of  the  observations  made 
on  this  transit  (June  i  1769)  from  the  various  parts  of  the  globe,  on  which  it  was  viewed  by  men  of 
science,  the  system  of  the  universe  has,  in  some  particulars,  been  better  understood ;  the  diatanoe  of 
the  sun  from  the  earth,  as  calculated  by  this  and  the  transit  in  1761,  is  now  wttled  at  106,000,000 
miles,  instead  of  the  oonunonly  received  computation  of  96,000,000.— .0«<lcr. 


COR  [[  149  "]  COR 

book  and  publication  ordered  to  be  licensed,  1585.  An  ordinance  forbidding^  the 
printing  of  any  work  without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  1649.  Copyright  farther 
secured  by  a  statute  enacted  in  1709.  Protection  of  copyright  in  prints  and  engrav- 
ings, 17  George  III.,  1777.  Copyright  Protection  act,  54  George  III.  1814. 
Dramatic  authors'  protection  act,  3  William  IV.,  1833.  The  act  for  preventing  the 
publication  of  lectures  without  consent,  6  William  IV.,  1835.  Theaictofthe  17th 
George  111.,  extended  to  Ireland,  7  William  IV.,  1836.  International  copyright 
bill,  1  Victoria,  1838.  Copyright  of  designs  for  articles  of  manufacture  protectodi 
2  Victoria,  1839. — See  Literary  Property, 

CORDAGE.  The  naval  cordage  in  early  ages  was,  probably,  merely  thongs  of  leather ; 
and  these  primitive  ropes  were  retained  by  the  Caledonians  in  the  third  century, 
and  by  some  northern  nations  in  the  ninth. — See  article  Hemp, 

CORDELIERS.  Friars  of  the  order  of  St.  Francis,  and  the  same  with  the  Minorites. 
They  are  clothed  in  coarse  grey  cloth,  with  a  small  cowl  and  cloak  of  the  same  ma- 
terial, having  a  girdle  of  cord,  or  rope,  tied  with  three  knots,  and  hence  the  name, 
which  was  first  given  to  them  by  St.  Louis  of  France,  about  a.d.  1227.  They  once 
had  the  degree  of  doctor  in  the  university  of  Paris,  and  in  that  city  were  all  Scotists. 

CO  RFE  CASTLE,  Dorset.  Built  a.d.  976.  It  is  remarkable  as  being  the  place  where 
Edward  the  Martyr,  king  of  England,  was  treacherously  murdered  by  order  of 
Elfrida,  his  step-mother,  thereby  to  make  way  for  her  own  son,  979. 

CORFU.  So  celebrated  in  mythology  and  poetry,  and  capital  of  the  island  of  the  sam« 
name,  was  for  some  years  under  British  administration,  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in 
1815.  It  is  the  chief  of  the  Ionian  Isles,  which  see.  A  magazine  containing  72,000 
lbs.  of  powder  blew  up  here,  and  killed  1 80  persons,  March  11,1 789. 

CORINTH.  The  city  was  built  in  1520  and  the  kingdom  founded  by  Sisyphus  in  1376 
B.C.  In  146  B.C.  the  capital  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans,  but  it  was  rebuilt  by 
Julius  Csesar  ;  and  was  among  the  first  cities  of  Greece  that  embraced  the  Christian 
religion.  It  was  defended  by  a  fortress  called  Acrocorinth,  on  the  summit  of  a  high 
mountain,  surrounded  with  strong  walls.  The  situation  of  this  citadel  was  so  advan- 
tageous, tiiat  Cicero  named  it  the  Eye  of  Greece f  and  declared,  that  of  all  the  cities 
known  to  the  Romans,  Corinth  alone  was  worthy  of  being  the  seat  of  a  great  empire. 

Corinth  built  on  the  ruins  of  Ephyra,  A  colony  goes  to  Sicily,  and  they  build 

{Abbi  Lenglet)        .        .         .         b.c.  1620        Syracuse  *         .         .  B.C.  .    73S 

Sisyphus,  a  public  robber,  seizes  upon  Death  of  Periander   .        .        .        .    .    585 

the  city  (idem) 1376     The  Corinthians  form  a  republic  .         .    582 

The  Pythian  games  instituted  .  1375 

The  reign  of  Bacchus,  whose  successors 

are  called  Bacchide,  in  remembrance 

of  the  equity  of  his  reign    .         .         .    935 
The    Corinthians  invent   ships   called 

triremet ;  vessels  of  3  benches  of  oars^    786 
Thelestes  deposed,  and  the  government 

of  the  Pry  tanes  instituted:  Automenes 

is  the  first  on  whom  this  dignity  is 

conferred 757 

CORINTHIAN  ORDER.  The  finest  of  all  the  orders  of  ancient  architecture,  aptly 
called  by  Scamozzi,  the  virginal  order,  as  being  expressive  of  the  delicacy,  tenderness, 
and  beauty  of  the  whole  composition.  The  invention  of  it  is  attributed  to  Callimachus, 
540  B.C. — See  Abactu. 

CORINTHIAN  WAR.  The  war  which  received  this  name,  because  the  battles  were 
mostly  fought  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Corinth,  was  begun  b.c.  395,  by  a  confederacy 
of  the  Athenians,  Thebans,  Corinthians,  and  Argives,  against  the  Lacedaemonians. 
The  most  famous  battles  were  at  Coronea  and  Leuctra,  which  see, 

CORK.  Built  in  the  sixth  century.  The  principality  of  the  M'Cartys,  was  converted 
into  a  shire  by  king  John,  as  lord  of  Ireland.  A  chapter  was  granted  to  the  city 
by  Henry  III.  in  1242  ;  its  great  charter  was  granted  by  Charles  I.  A  large 
part  of  the  town  was  consumed  by  an  awful  fire,  in  1621.  The  earl  of  Marlborough 
besieged  and  took  Cork  from  king  James's  army,  in  1690,  when  the  duke  of 
Grafton,  a  natural  son  of  Charles  II.,  was  slain.  The  cathedral  was  built  by  the 
produce  of  a  coal  duty,  between  the  years  1725  and  1735.  Explosion  of  gunpowder 

,      here,  Nov.  10,  1810. 


War  with  the  Corcyreans  .    .    439 

The  Corinthian  war  (which  see)  .  .  305 
Acrocorinth  (citadel)  taken  by  Aratus  .  MS 
The  Roman  ambassadors  first  appear  at 

Corinth 8S8 

Corinth  destroyed  by  Lucius  Mummius, 
who  aendM  to  Italy  the  first  fine  paint- 
ings there  seen,  they  being  part  of  the 
spoU(£ivy) 149 


COR  C  150  ]  COR 

CORK,  See  of.  Its  foundation  is  ascribed  to  St.  Barr,  or  Finbarr,  early  in  tbe 
seventh  century.  About  1431,  this  see  and  that  of  Cloyne  were  canonically  united ; 
but  on  the  death  of  Bishop  Synge,  in  1678,  they  were  separated,  the  see  of  Ross 
having  been  added  to  Cork  about  a  century  before,  a.d.  1 682.  No  valuation  is  re- 
turned of  this  see  in  the  king's  book  ;  but  in  a  manuscript  in  Marsh's  library,  it  is 
taxed,  31  Bliz.  at  40/.  sterling;  and  in  a  MS.  in  the  College  library,  at  25/.  The  sees  of 
Cork  and  Cloyne  have  been  again  united  by  act  3  and  4  W.  IV. ,  1833. — See  Bishops. 

CORK-TREE.  Called  the  Quereus  suber,  and  resembling  the  holm  ;  its  fruit  is  an 
acorn,  and  its  bark  when  burned  makes  the  cork  used  for  stopping  bottles,  casks, 
and  other  articles.    The  cork-tree  was  brought  to  England  before  1690. 

CORN.  The  ori^n  of  its  cultivation  is  attributed  to  Ceres,  who  having  taught  the  art 
to  the  Egyptians,  was  deified  by  them,  2409  b.c. — Arundelian  Marbles.  The  art 
of  husbandry,  and  the  method  of  making  bread  from  wheat,  and  wine  from  rice,  is 
attributed  by  the  Chinese  to  Ching  Noung,  the  successor  of  Fohi,  and  second 
monarch  of  China,  1998  b.c. — Univ.  Hist.  But  corn  provided  a  common  article 
of  food  from  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world,  and  baking  bread  was  known  in  the 
patriarchal  ages. — See  Exodus  zii.  15.  Wheat  was  introduced  into  Britain  in  the 
sixth  century,  by  Coll  ap  Coll  Frewi. — Roberts*  Hist.  Ano.  Britons.  The  first 
importation  of  com  of  which  we  have  a  note,  was  in  1347.  Bounties  were  granted 
on  its  importation  into  England,  in  1686.  Its  importation  from  Ireland  into  Eng- 
land now  forms  a  vast  branch  of  trade.  The  new  London  Com  Exchange,  Mark- 
lane,  London,  was  opened  in  June  1828. 

CORN  BILL.  Various  enactments  regulating  the  importation  of  com,  have  been 
made  from  time  to  time.  A  bill  to  permit  the  exportation  of  com  was  passed  in 
1814.  An  act  to  permit  its  importation  when  corn  shall  be  at  eighty  shillings  per 
quarter,  was  passed  in  1815.  During  the  discussions  on  this  latter  bill,  mobs 
assembled  in  London,  and  many  of  the  houses  of  its  supporters  were  damaged, 
\  January  28 ;  and  a  riot  in  Westminster  continued  several  days,  and  occasioned  much 
mischief,  March  21,  et  seq.  1815.  The  memorable  Corn  Bill,  after  passing  in  the 
Commons,  was  defeated  in  the  House  of  Lords  by  a  clause,  proposed  by  the  duke  of 
Wellington,  being  carried  by  a  majority  of  four,  June  1,  1827. 

CORNWALXj.  On  the  retreat  of  the  ancient  Britons,  Cornwall  was  formed  into  a 
kingdom,  which  existed  for  many  years  under  different  princes,  among  whom  were 
Ambrosius  Aurelins,  and  the  celebrated  Arthur.  It  was  erected  into  a  dukedom  by 
Edward  III.,  in  1336. 

CORONATION.  The  first  coronation  by  a  bishop,  was  that  of  Majocianus,  at  Con- 
stantinople, in  A.D.  457.  The  ceremony  of  anointing  at  coronations  was  introduced 
into  England  in  872,  and  into  Scotland  in  1097.  The  coronation  of  Henry  III. 
took  place,  in  the  first  instance,  without  a  crown,  at  Gloucester,  October  28,  1216. 
A  plain  circle  was  used  on  this  occasion  in  lieu  of  the  crown,  which  had  been  lost  with 
the  other  jewels  and  baggage  of  king  John,  in  passing  the  marshes  of  Lynn,  or  the 
Wash,  near  Wisbeach.— Jlfa/^A^t^  Paris.  Rymer.  At  the  coronation  of  king  Wil- 
liam and  queen  Mary,  the  bishop  of  London  put  the  crown  on  the  king's  head,  as 
Dr.  Sancroft,  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  would  not  take  the  oaths  to  their  ma- 
jesties. George  lY.  was  crowned  July  19,  1821.  William  IV.  was  crowned,  with 
his  queen,  Sept.  8,  1831 ;  and  Victoria,  June  28,  1838. 

CORONATION  CHAIR.  In  the  cathedral  of  Cashel,  formerly  the  metropolis  of  the 
kings  of  Munster,  was  deposited  the  Lia  Failf  or  Fatal  Stone,  on  which  they  were 
crowned.  In  a.d.  513,  Fergus,  a  prince  of  the  royal  line,  having  obtained  the 
Scottish  throne,  procured  the  use  of  this  stone  for  his  coronation  at  Dunstaffnage, 
where  it  continued  until  the  time  of  Kenneth  II.,  who  removed  it  to  Scone  ;  and  in 
1296,  it  was  removed  by  Edward  I.  from  Scone  to  Westminster.  Edward  wishing 
to  annex  Scotland  to  his  own  dominions,  dethroned  John  Baliol,  ravaged  the  coun- 
try, and  seized  this  stone,  among  other  monuments  of  Scottish  history. 

CORONATION  FEASTS,  and  OATH.  The  oath  was  first  administered  to  the 
kings  of  England,  by  Dunstan  (the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  afterwards  canonised), 
to  Etbelred  II.  in  979.  An  oath,  nearly  corresponding  with  that  now  in  use, 
was  admmistered  in  1377  ;  it  was  altered  in  1689.  The  f^tes  given  at  coronations 
commenced  with  Edward  I.  in  1273.  That  at  the  coronation  of  George  IV.  rivalled 
the  extravagances  and  sumptuousness  of  former  times. 


COR  Q  151  ]  COT 

CORONERS.  They  were  officers  of  the  reahn  in  a.d.  925.  Coroners  for  every  connty 
in  England  were  first  appointed  by  statute  of  Westminster,  4  Edward  I.  1276.^ 
Slowe.     Coroners  were  instituted  in  Scotland  in  the  reign  of  Malcolm  XL,  about  1004. 

CORONETS.  Those  for  earls  were  first  allowed  by  Henry  III. ;  for  viscounts  by 
Henry  Till. ;  and  for  barons  by  Charles  II.  Sir  Robert  Cecil,  earl  of  Salisbury, 
was  the  first  of  the  degree  of  earl  who  wore  a  coronet,  1604. — Beatton.  It  is 
uncertain  when  the  coronets  of  dukes  and  marquesses  were  settled. — Idem. 

CORPORATIONS.  They  were  of  very  high  antiquity  among  the  Romans,  and  were 
introduced  ^here  from  Italy.  These  political  bodies  were  first  planned  by  Numa,  in 
order  to  break  the  force  of  the  two  rival  factions  of  Sabines  and  Romans,  by 
instituting  separate  societies  of  every  manual  trade  and  profession. — Plutarch, 
The  Corporation  and  Test  Act  Repeal  Bill  passed  9  George  IV.,  May  1828.  The 
Corporation  Reform  bill  for  the  regulation  of  municipal  corporations  in  England  and 
Wales  passed  Sept.  9,  1835.  The  Irish  Municipal  Corporation  bill,  altering  the 
entire  structure  of  corporations  in  Ireland,  passed  4  Victoria,  Aug.  10,  1840. 

CORROSIVE  SUfiLIMATE.  This  compound,  which  is  200  of  mercury  and  72 
of  chlorine,  is  said  to  have  been  known  to  the  Arabians  so  early  as  the  tenth 
century.— PAt/Zipx. 

CORSICA.  This  island  was  dependent  upon  the  republic  of  Genoa  until  1730.  It  was 
sold  to  France  in  1733.  It  was  erected  into  a  kingdom  under  Theodore,  its  first  and 
only  king,  in  1736.  He  came  to  England,  where  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  King's 
Bench  prison  for  debt,  and  for  many  years  subsisted  on  the  benevolence  of  private 
friends.  Having  been  released  by  an  act  of  insolvency  in  1756,  he  gave  in  his 
schedule  the  kingdom  of  Corsica  as  an  estate  to  his  creditors,  and  died  the  same 
year,  at  his  lodgings  in  Chapel-street,  Soho.  The  earl  of  Orford  wrote  the  following 
epitaph,  on  a  tablet  erected  near  his  grave,  in  St.  Anne's  church,  Dean-street  :— 

*'  The  grave,  great  teacher  I  to  a  level  hrings 
Heroes  and  beggars,  galley-slaves  and  kings. 
But  Theodore  this  moral  leam'd  ere  dead : 
Fate  pour'd  its  lesson  on  his  living  head, 
Bestow'd  a  kingdom,  and  denied  him  bread." 

The  celebrated  Pascal  Paoli  was  chosen  for  their  general  by  the  Corsicans,  in  1753. 
He  was  defeated  by  the  count  de  Yaux,  and  fled  to  England,  1769.  The  peoplo 
acknowledged  George  III.  of  England  for  their  king,  June  17,  1794,  when  sir 
Gilbert  Elliott  was  made  viceroy,  and  he  opened  a  parliament  in  1795.  A  revolt  was 
suppressed  in  June  1796 ;  and  the  island  was  relinquished  by  the  British,  Oct.  22, 
same  year,  when  the  people  declared  for  the  French. 

CORTES  OF  SPAIN.  A  deliberative  assembly  under  the  old  constitution  of  Spain ; 
several  times  set  aside.  The  cortes  were  newly  assembled  after  a  long  interval  of 
years.  Sept  24,  1810  ;  and  they  settled  the  new  constitution  March  16,  1812.  This 
constitution  was  set  aside  by  Ferdinand  VII.,  who  banished  many  members  of  the 
assembly  in  May  1814.  The  cortes  or  states-general  were  opened  by  Ferdinand  VII. 
1820,  and  they  have  since  been  regularly  convened. 

CORUNNA,  Battle  of.  The  British  army,  under  the  command  of  sir  John  Moore, 
amounting  to  about  15,000  men,  had  just  accomplished  a  safe  retreat  when  they  were 
attacked  by  the  French,  whose  force  exceeded  20,000  :  the  enemy  were  completely 
repulsed,  but  the  loss  of  the  British  in  the  battle  was  immense.  The  illustrious  and 
honoured  hero  in  command  was  struck  by  a  cannon-ball,  which  carried  away  his  left 
shoulder  and  part  of  the  collar-bone,  leaving  the  arm  hanging  by  the  flesh :  he  died 
in  the  arms  of  victory,  universally  lamented.  In  the  evening  of  the  day  of  battle, 
the  remains  of  the  army  hastily  embarked  at  Corunna  Jan.  16,  1809. 

COSTUME.  As  relates  to  that  worn  on  the  stage,  ^schylus  the  Athenian  was,  it  is 
said,  the  first  who  erected  a  regular  stage  for  his  actors,  and  ordered  their  dresses  to 
be  suited  to  their  characters,  about  436  B.C. — Parian  Marbles. 

COTTAGES  IN  England.  By  returns  to  the  Tax  office  in  1786,  the  number  of  cot- 
tages was  284,459.  The  number  in  1800  was  428,214  ;  and  the  present  number  is 
said  to  be  abont  770,000.  The  term  cottage  originally  applied  to  a  small  house 
without  land,  4  Edward  1.  1275.  **  No  man  may  build  a  cottage,  except  in  towns, 
unless  he  lay  four  acres  of  land  thereto,''  &c.  31  Elizabeth  1589.  This  statute  was 
repealed,  15  George  III.  1774. 


COT 


[162] 


cou 


COTTON.  The  method  of  spinning  cotton  formerly  waa  by  the  hand ;  but  about  1767, 
Mr.  Hargreaves,  of  Lancashire,  invented  the  spinning -jenny  Mith  eight  spindles  ;  he 
also  erected  the  first  carding-machine  with  cylinders.  Sir  Richard  Arkwright 
obtained  a  patent  for  a  new  invention  of  machinery  in  1769  ;  and  another  patent  for 
an  engine  in  1775.  Crompton  invented  the  mule,  a  further  and  wonderful  improve- 
ment in  the  manufacture  of  cotton,  in  1779,  and  various  other  improvements  have 
been  since  made.  The  names  of  Peel  and  Arkwright  are  eminently  conspicuous  in 
connexion  with  this  vast  source  of  British  industry  ;  and  it  is  calculated  that  more 
than  one  thousand  millions  sterling  have  been  yielded  by  it  to  Great  firitain.  Cotton 
manufacturers'  utensils  were  prohibited  from  being  exported  in  1774.  There  have 
passed  of  late  years  many  important  acts  regulating  cotton  factories,  and  particularly 
relating  to  the  employment  of  children  ;  among  these  are  the  acts  of  6  George  IV. 
1825  ;  2  WilUam  IV.  1831 ;  4  William  IV.  Aug.  1833,  et  seq. 

COTTONIAN  LIBRARY.  Formed  by  great  labour  and  with  great  judgment  by  sir 
Robert  Cotton,  a.d.  1600  et  seq.  This  vast  treasury  of  knowledge,  after  having  been 
with  difficulty  rescued  from  the  fury  of  the  republicans  during  the  protectorate,  waa 
secured  to  the  public  by  a  statute,  13  William  III.  1701.  It  was  removed  to  Essex- 
'  house  in  1712  ;  and  in  1730  to  Dean's-yard,  Westminster,  where,  on  Oct  23, 1731, 
a  part  of  the  books  sustained  damage  by  fire.  The  library  was  removed  to  the 
British  Museum  in  1753. 

COUNCILS.  An  English  council  is  of  very  early  origin.  The  wise  AlfredT'to  whom 
we  are  indebted  for  many  excellent  institutions,  so  arranged  the  business  of  the 
nation,  that  all  resolutions  passed  through  three  councils.  The  first  was  a  select 
council,  to  which  those  only  high  in  the  king's  confidence  were  admitted  ;  here  were 
debated  all  affairs  that  were  to  be  laid  before  the  second  council,  which  consisted  of 
bishops  and  nobles,  and  resembled  the  present  privy  council,  and  none  belonged  to 
it  but  those  whom  the  king  was  pleased  to  appoint.  The  third  was  a  general  council 
or  assembly  of  the  nation,  called  in  Saxon,  Wittenagemot,  to  which  quality  and 
offices  gave  a  right  to  sit,  independent  of  the  king.  In  these  three  councils  we 
behold  the  origin  of  the  cabinet  and  privy  councils,  and  the  antiquity  of  parliaments ; 
but  the  term  cabinet  council  is  of  a  much  more  modern  date,  according  to  lord 
Clarendon. — See  Cabinet  Council,  Common  Council^  Privy  Council,  ^c. 

COUNCILS  OF  THE  CHURCH.  The  following  are  among  the  most  important  and 
memorable  Christian  councils,  or  councils  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  Most  other 
councils  and  synods  (the  list  of  which  would  make  a  volume)  either  respected 
national  churches  or  the  ecclesiastical  government  of  particular  cities. 

The  fifth  at  Constantinople*  when  pope 
Yigilios  presided    .         .         .        a.d.    553 

The  sixth  at  Constantinople,  when  poi>e 
Agatho  presided         ....    680 

Authority  of  the  six  general  councils  re- 
estahlished  by  Theodosius       .        .    .    715 

The  second  Nicene  council,  seventh  Ge- 
neral: 350  bishops  attended        .         .    787 

Of  Constantinople;  eighth  G«ieral:  the 
emperor  Basil  attended  .         .    .    869 

The  first  Lateran,  the  ninth  General : 
the  right  of  investitures  settled  by 
treaty  between  pope  Calixtus  n.  and 
the  emperor  Henry  V 1122 

The  second  Lateran,  tenth  General, 
Innocent  II.  presided:  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  temporal  ties  of  ecclesias- 
tics, the  principal  subject, which  occa- 
sioned the  attendance  of  1000  fathers 
of  the  church 1139 

The  third  Lateran,  eleventh  General: 
held  against  schismatics    .        .        .1179 

Fourth  Lateran,  twelfth  General:  400 
bishops  and  1000  abbots  attended: 
Innocent  m.  presided       .         .         .  1215 

Of  Lyons,  the  thirteenth  General,  under 
pope  Innocent  lY.  .        .    .  1245 


Of  the  Apostles  at  Jerusalem        .    a.d.      50 

Of  the  western  bishops  at  Aries,  in 
France,  to  suppress  the  Donatists; 
three  fathers  of  the  English  church 
went  over  to  attend  it    .         .        .    .    314 

The  first  CEcumenical  or  General  Ni- 
cene, held  at  Nice,  Constantino  the 
Great  presided:  Arius  and  Eusebius 
condemned  for  heresy.  This  council 
composed  the  Nicene  creed         .         .    325 

At  Tyre,  when  the  doctrine  of  Athana- 
sius  was  canvassed     ....    335 

The  first  held  at  Constantinople,  when 
the  Arian  heresy  gained  ground  .    337 

At  Rome,  concerning  Athanasius,  which 
lasted  eighteen  months  .         .    .    340 

At  Sardis :  370  bishops  attended    .         .    347 

Of  Rimini :  400  bishops  attended,  and 
Constantino  obliged  them  to  sign  a 
new  confession  of  faith      .  .         .    359 

The  second  General  at  Constantinople : 
350  bishops  attended,  and  poi>e  Dama- 
sius  presided 381 

The  third  at  Ephesus,  when  pope  Celes- 
tine  presided 431 

Fourth  at  Chalcedon :  the  emperor  Mar- 
cian  and  his  empress  attended    .        .   451 


con 


[153] 


cou 


Of  Ba«n,  fba  elghtemth  Gonenl    .  a-d.  1431 

The  fifth  Latenn,  the  nineieenth  General, 
befan  by  JoUos  a.     ....  161* 

Continned  under  Leo  X.  for  the  nippne- 
■ton  of  the  Pragmatlo  nnotion  of 
Franoe*  againat  the  council  of  Piaa, 
&a  till IftlT 

Of  Trent,  the  twentieth  and  laat  General 
oooncQ,  etyled  (Ecumenical,  aa  regard- 
ing the  affaire  of  all  the  Chrietian 
world:  it  waa  held  to  condemn  the 
dootrinea  of  the  reformers,  Luther, 
Zuina^tt%  and  CalTin^^M^  LetigUt  .  U4B 


COUNCILS  OF  TBS  CHURCH,  eanHnued. 
Of  Ljrma,  the  fourteenth  Oenenl,  under 

Gregory  X.        ....  A.D.  1S74 
Of  Yienne  in  Dauphin^,  the  fifteenth 

General:    Clement  Y.  presided,  and 

the  kings  of  France  and  Arragon  at- 
tended.   The  order  of  the  Knight 

Templars  suppressed  ...  1311 

Of  Pisa,  the  sbcteenth  General:  Gregory 

XIL  and  Benedict  XIIL  deposed,  and 

Alexander  elected  .    .  1409 

Of  Constance,  the  seventeenth  General : 

Martin  Y.  ia  elected  pope;  and  John 

Hussand  Jerome  of  Fngue  condemned 

to  be  burnt 1414 

COUNCILS,  Frsnch  Republican.  The  council  of  Ancients  wm  an  aisembly  of 
revolutionary  France,  consisting  of  250  members,  instituted  at  Paris,  Nov.  1, 1795, 
together  with  the  council  of  Five  Hundred  ;  the  executive  was  a  Directory  of 
FIVE.  Buonaparte  dispersed  the  council  of  Five  Hundred  at  St.  Cloud,  Nov.  9« 
1799,  dec^ring  himself,  Roger  Ducos,  and  Si^yes,  consuls  provismret, — See  France, 

COUNSEL.  See  Barruten.  Counsel  who  were  giiilty  of  deceit  or  collusion  were 
punishable  by  the  statute  of  Westminster,  13  Edward  T.  1284.  Counsel  were  allowed 
to  persons  chaiged  with  treason,  by  act  8  William  III.  1696.  Act  to  enable  persons 
indicted  of  felony  to  make  their  defence  by  counsel,  6  and  7  William  lY.  Aug.  1836. 

COUNTIES.  The  division  of  this  kingdom  into  counties  began,  it  ia  said,  with  king 
Alfred  ;  but  some  counties  bore  their  present  names  a  century  before.  The  division 
of  Ireland  into  counties  took  place  in  1562.  County  courts  were  instituted  in  the 
reign  of  Alfred,  896.  Counties  first  sent  members  to  parliament,  before  which  period 
knights  met  in  their  own  counties,  1258. — See  Commont,  and  Parliament 

COURIERS  OR  POSTS.  Xenophon  attributes  the  first  couriers  to  Cyrus ;  and 
Herodotus  says  that  they  were  common  among  the  Persians.  But  it  does  not  appear 
that  the  Greeks  or  Romans  had  regular  couriers  till  the  time  of  Augustus,  when  they 
travelled  in  cars,  about  24  b.c.  0)uriers  or  posts  are  said  to  have  been  instituted 
in  France  by  Charlemagne,  about  a.o.  800.  The  couriers  or  posts  for  letters  were 
established  in  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XI.  of  Prance,  owing  to  this 
monarch's  extraordinary  eagerness  for  news.  They  were  the  first  institution  of  the 
kiud  in  Europe,  a.d.  1463. — Henault, 

COURT  PARTY— COUNTRY  PARTY.  The  latter,  most  usually  directly  opposed 
in  sentiment  to  the  former,  was  a  class  of  politicians  of  very  fluctuating  numbers, 
and  varying  power,  in  the  kingdom  and  parliaments  of  England.  The  title  took  its 
origin  as  early  as  1620,  during  the  disputes  of  king  and  commons.  At  the  end  of 
the  same  century,  their  party  principles  embodied  the  high  toryism  and  high  church 
principles  of  the  day,  including  a  general  if  not  universal  bias  to  Jacobitism,  with  a 
strenuous  maintenance  of  the  assumed  rights  of  **  the  land,"  as  opposed  to  the  inno- 
vations of  Whiggism  and  the  corruptions  of  the  trading  or  moneyed  interests — our 
first  Hanoverian  kings,  Greorge  I.  and  II.,  being  ever  supposed  to  favour  the  latter 
too  much.  The  most  distinguished  statesman  latterly  of  the  Country  Party  was  sir 
Thomas  Hanmer  (the  Montalio  of  Pope's  Satires),  bom  1677,  died  1746. 

COURTESANS.  In  all  ages  and  countries  courtesans  have  existed  where  refinement 
and  luxury  abounded  ;  and  many  women  of  Egypt,  Greece,  Persia,  and  Rome,  and 
the  States  of  Italy,  and  in  later  times  of  France,  have  been  celebrated  for  their 
extraordinary  beauty  and  debaucheries.  Among  very  celebrated  women  of  this  class, 
may  be  mentioned  Lais.  She  first  began  to  sell  her  favours  at  Corinth,  for  10,000 
drachmas  ;  and  the  immense  number  of  princes,  nobles,  and  philosophers  who 
courted  her  embraces,  stands  a  record  of  her  personal  charms.  Even  Demosthenes 
himself  visited  Corinth  for  the  sake  of  Lais.  Diogenes,  the  cynic,  was  one  of  her 
admirers,  and  gained  her  heart,  and  enjoyed  her  most  unbounded  favours :  she  was 
assassinated  in  Thessaly,  in  the  temple  of  Venus,  about  340  b.c. — Plutarch, 
Phryne,  of  Athens,  was  the  loveliest  woman  of  her  time,  and  Apelles  made  her 
the  model  of  his  Venus  Anadyomene.  She  became  so  rich  by  the  liberality  of  her 
lovers,  that  she  offered  to  rebuild,  at  her  own  expense,  Thebes,  which  Alexander  had 
destroyed. — Plu,  Detn,     Phryne  was  accused  of  impiety,  and  when  she  saw  that  she 


COU  C  154  ]  GOV 

was  about  to  be  condemnedi  she  unveiled  her  bosom,  and  her  judges  were  so  influenced 
by  the  sight  of  her  beauty  that  they  instantly  acquitted  her,  about  328  B.C.— Qum. 

COURTS.  Courts  of  justice  were  instituted  at  Athens,  1507  B.C. — See  Areopagiite, 
There  were  courts  for  the  distribution  of  justice  in  Athens,  in  1272  B.C. — Blair. 
They  existed  under  various  denominations  in  Rome,  and  other  countries.  For  courts 
of  justice  in  these  realms,  see  Chancery^  Common  PleaSy  Exchequer ^  King*s  Bench^ 
&c.  The  citizens  of  London  were  privileged  to  plead  their  own  cause  in  the  courts 
of  judicature,  without  employing  lawyers,  except  in  pleas  of  the  crown,  41  Henry  III. 
1257. — Stowe*8  Chron,  The  courts  of  law  of  England  and  Ireland  were  separated 
by  a  British  act  of  parliament,  in  April  1783. 

COURT  BARON.  An  ancient  court  which  every  lord  of  a  manor  may  hold  by  pre- 
scription, and  which  he  may  keep  in  some  part  of  the  manor.  In  this  court,  duties, 
heriots,  and  customs  are  received,  and  estates  and  surrenders  are  passed. 

COURT  OF  HONOUR.  In  England,  the  court  of  chivalry,  of  which  the  lord  high 
constable  was  a  judge,  was  called  Curia  Militaris  in  the  time  of  Henry  IV.,  and  sub- 
sequently the  Court  of  Honour.  In  the  States  of  Bavaria,  in  order  to  prevent 
duelling,  a  court  of  honour  was  instituted  in  April,  1819.  In  these  countries,  Mr. 
Joseph  Hamilton  has  been  ardently  labouring,  during  a  number  of  years,  for  the 
establishment  of  similar  institutions. 

COURT  LEET.  A  court  of  record  belonging  to  a  hundred,  instituted  for  punishing 
encroachments,  nuisances,  and  fraudulent  weights  and  measures,  and  also  offences 
against  .the  crown.  The  steward  is  the  judge,  and  all  persons  residing  within  the 
hundred  (peers,  clergymen,  &c.,  excepted),  are  obliged  to  do  suit  within  this  court. 

COURT  OF  REQUESTS.  This  court,  which  is  also  called  a  Court  of  Conscience,  was 
first  instituted  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  1493,  and  was  remodelled  by  a  statute  of 
Henry  VIII.  in  1517. — Stowe,  This  court  is  for  the  summary  recovery  of  small  debts 
under  forty  shillings,  but  in  the  city  of  London,  the  jurisdiction  extends  to  debts  of  five 
pounds.  There  are  courts  of  requests  in  the  principal  corporate  towns  throughout 
the  kingdom,  and  their  functions  have  been  regulated  by  various  succeeding  statutes. 

COVENANT.  That  of  God  with  Abraham,  in  memorial  whereof  the  rite  of  circum- 
cision was  instituted,  and  Abraham  circumcised  himself,  was  made  1897  B.C.— 
Josephus, 

COVENANTERS.  The  name  which  was  particularly  applied  to  those  persons  who  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  I.  took  the  solemn  league  and  covenant,  thereby  mutually  engag- 
ing to  stand  by  each  other  in  opposition  to  the  projects  of  the  king  ;  it  was  entered 
into  in  1638.  The  covenant  or  league  between  England  and  Scotland,  was  formed 
in  1643  ;  it  was  declared  to  be  illegal  by  parliament,  14  Charles  II.,  1662. 

COVENT  GARDEN.  So  called  from  having  been  formerly  the  garden  of  St.  Peter's 
convent ;  the  square  was  built  about  1633,  and  its  noble  piazza  on  the  north  side 
was  designed  by  Inigo  Jones.  The  fruit  and  vegetable  market  was  rebuilt  in  1829-30 
from  the  designs  of  Mr.  Fowler ;  it  occupies  about  three  acres  of  ground. 

COVENT  GARDEN  THEATRE.  This  theatre  sprung  out  of  the  celebrated  one  in 
Lincoln's-inn-fields,  and  is  indebted  for  its  origin  to  a  patent  granted  14  Charles  II., 
1662,  to  sir  William  Davenant,  whose  company  was  denominated  the  duke's  servants, 
as  a  compliment  to  the  duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.  The  theatre  which  pre- 
ceded the  present,  was  first  opened  by  the  celebrated  Rich,  about  1732,  but  after 
undergoing  several  alterations,  was  destroyed  by  fire,  Sept.  20,  1808.  The  new 
theatre  was  erected  during  the  ensuing  year,  the  first  stone  having  been  laid  by  the 
duke  of  Sussex,  Dec.  31,  1808,  and  it  opened  Sept.  18,  1809,  with  Macbeth.  The 
memorable  O.P.  riot,  on  account  of  the  increased  of  prices  of  admission,  commenced 
on  the  first  night,  and  did  not  terminate  until  Dec.  10,  following.  The  Covent 
Garden  Theatrical  Fund  was  instituted  in  1765. — See  Drama,  Theatres,  &c. 

COVENTRY.  Leofric  earl  of  Mercia,  was  the  lord  of  Coventry,  about  a.o.  1040.  A 
parliament  was  held  here  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  called  parliamentum  indoolum, 
or  the  unlearned  parliament,  because  the  lawyers  were  excluded.  The  town  was  well 
built,  and  was  surrounded  with  strong  walls,  which  were  three  miles  in  circumferencei 
and  twenty-six  towers,  which  were  demolished  by  order  of  king  Charles  II.  in  1662. 

COVENTRY  Bishopric  of.  Founded  by  Oswy,  king  of  Mercia,  a.d.  656.  This 
see  has  the  double  name  of  Coventry  and  Lichfield,  which  is  reversed  by  the  present 


COV  C  **^S  D  CRA 

biflhops.  It  was  to  extremely  wealthy,  tbat  king  Offa,  by  the  ftiyoar  of  pope  Adrian, 
made  it  archiepiscopal ;  bnt  this  title  was  laid  aside  on  the  death  of  that  king.  In 
1075  the  see  was  removed  to  Chester  ;  in  1102,  to  Coventry  ;  and  afterwards  to  its 
original  foundation,  Lichfield,  but  with  great  opposition  from  the  monks  of  Coventry. 
The  dispute  was  finally  settled  in  a  manner  nearly  similar  to  that  mentioned  between 
Bath  and  Wells.  This  see  has  given  three  saints  to  the  church.  It  was  valued  in  the 
king's  book  at  jf  559  IBs,  2d,  per  annum. 

COVENTRY,  PEEPING  TOM  or.  The  great  show  fidr  of  Coventry  owes  its  origin 
to  the  following  tradition  : — Leofnc,  earl  of  Mercia,  had  imposed  such  heavy  taxes 
on  the  citizens,  his  lady,  Godiva,  moved  by  their  entreaties,  importuned  her  lord  to 
remit  them,  and  he  consented  on  the  condition  of  her  riding  naked  through  the  city 
at  mid-day.  Her  humanity  induced  her  to  consent,  and  she  so  disposed  her  flowing 
tresses  as  to  hide  her  person ;  and  ordering  all  the  inhabitants,  on  pain  of  death, 
to  close  their  doors  and  windows,  she  rode  quite  naked  through  the  town.  One 
person,  yielding  to  curiosity,  stole  a  glance  at  the  countess,  and  was  struck  dead  ; 
and  has  been  famed  ever  since  under  the  name  of  Peeping  Tarn,  and  his  eflSgy  is 
shown  to  this  day.  To  commemorate  this  event,  a.d.  1057,  at  the  great  show  fair 
the  mayor  and  corporation  walk  in  procession  through  the  town,  accompanied  by  a 
female  on  horseback,  clad  in  a  linen  dress  closely  fitted  to  her  limbs. 

COW-POCK  INOCULATION.  This  species  of  inoculation,  as  a  security  against  the 
small-pox,  was  introduced  by  Dr.  Jenner,  and  it  became  general  in  1 799.  The 
genuine  cow-pox  appears  in  the  form  of  vesicles  on  the  teats  of  the  cow,  and 
was  first  noticed  by  Dr.  Jenner,  in  1796.  He  wiis  rewarded  by  parliament  with 
the  munificent  grant  of  ;^10,000,  June  2,  1802. — See  Inooulationf  Stnail^Pox, 
Vaccination. 

CRACOW.  The  Poles  elect  Cracus  for  their  duke,  and  he  builds  Cracow  with  the  spoils 
taken  from  the  Franks,  a.o.  700,  ei  teq.  Taken  by  Charles  XII.  in  1702  ;  taken 
and  retaken  by  the  Russians  and  confederates  on  the  one  side,  and  the  patriotic 
people  on  the  other  several  times.  Kosciusko  expelled  the  Russisn  garrison  from 
the  city,  March  24,  1794.  It  surrendered  to  the  Prussians,  June  15,  same  year. 
Formed  into  a  republic  in  1815.  Occupied  by  10,000  Russians  who  followed  there 
the  defeated  Poles,  Sept.  1831.— See  Poland. 

CRANES.  They  are  of  very  early  date,  for  the  engines  of  Archimedes  may  be  so  called. 
The  theory  of  the  inclined  plane,  the  pulley,  &c.  are  also  his,  220  b.c. — Livy. 

CRANIOLOGY.  The  science  of  animal  propensities.  Dr.  Grail,  a  Grerman,  started 
this  new  doctrine  respecting  the  brain,  in  1803.  Dr.  Spurzheim  followed,  and  by 
his  expositions  gave  a  consistency  to  the  science,  and  it  seems  to  be  rapidly  gaining 
ground  ;  it  hss  now  many  professors,  and  in  almost  all  countries  craniology  is  coun- 
tenanced by  learned  and  enlightened  men.  The  science  sssigns  the  particular  loca- 
tions of  certain  organs,  or  as  many  different  seats  of  the  most  prominent  operations 
of  the  mind. 

CRANMER,  LATIMER,  and  RIDLEY.  Illustrious  names  in  the  list  of  English 
martyrs  of  the  reformed  religion.  Ridley,  bishop  of  London,  and  Latimer,  bishop 
of  Worcester,  were  burnt  at  Oxford,  Oct.  16, 1655  ;  and  Cranmer,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  March  21,  1556.  His  love  of  life  had  induced  Cranmer,  sometime 
previously,  in  an  unguarded  moment,  to  sign  a  paper  wherein  he  condemned  the 
Reformation  ;  and  when  he  was  led  to  the  stake,  and  the  fire  was  kindled  round 
him,  he  stretched  forth  his  right  hand,  with  which  he  had  signed  his  recantation,  that 
it  might  be  consumed  before  the  rest  of  his  body,  exclaiming  from  time  to  time, 
"This  unworthy  hand  V*  Raising  his  eyes  to  heaven,  he  expired  with  the  dyine  ^ 
prayer  of  the  first  martyr  of  the  Christian  church,  **  Lord  Jesus,  receive  my  spirit  r' 

CRANON,  Battles  of.  The  Macedonians  under  Antipater  and  Craterus  are  victo. 
rious  over  the  confederated  Greeks,  whom  they  defeat  twice  by  sea,  and  once  by  land, 
near  Cranon.  The  Athenians  demand  peace,  and  Antipater,  the  conqueror,  puts 
their  orators  to  death.  Among  them  was  Hyperides,  who,  that  he  might  not  betray  the 
secrets  of  his  country,  when  under  torture,  cut  out  his  {ongue,d22  b.c. — Dufresnoy, 

CRAPE.  A  light  kind  of  stuff  like  gauze,  made  of  raw  silk  gummed  and  twisted  on 
the  mill.  Its  manufacture  is  of  very  early  date,  and  it  is  said  some  crape  was  made 
by  St.  Badour,  when  queen  of  France,  about  a.d.  680.  It  was  first  made  at  Bologno^ 
and  in  modem  times  has  been  principally  used  for  mourning. 


CYP  C  16'^  D  I>AM 

* : 

It  was  used  by  the  ancients  as  a  token  of  sorrow.  Some  are  of  opinion  that  the 
wood  gophir,  of  which  Noah's  ark  was  made,  was  cypress ;  and  the  Athenians  baried 
their  heroes  in  coffins  made  of  this  wood,  of  which  many  of  the  Egyptian  mommy- 
chests  were  also  fabricated.  The  cypress  was  brought  to  England  about  a.d.  1441. 
The  Deciduous  cypress,  or  Cupressus  disticha,  came  from  North  America  before 
the  year  1640. 

CYPRUS.  An  island,  whose  inhabitants  anciently  were  much  given  to  love  and  plea- 
sure  Pliny,     It  was  divided  among  several  petty  kings  till  the  time  of  Cyrus,  who 

subdued  them  ;  it  ranked  among  the  proconsular  provinces  in  the  reign  of  Augustus. 
Conquered  by  the  Saracens,  a.d.  648 ;  but  recovered  by  the  Romans,  in  957.  Cyprus 
was  reduced  by  Richard  I.  of  England,  in  1191.  Taken  by  the  Turks  from  the 
Venetians,  in  1570. — Priestley, 

CYRENAIC  SECT.  Aristippus  the  Elder,  of  Cyrene,  was  the  founder  of  the  Cyre- 
naici,  392  B.C.  They  maintained  the  doctrine  that  the  supreme  good  of  man  in  this 
life  is  pleasure,  and  particularly  pleasure  of  a  sensual  kind ;  and  said  that  virtue  ought 
to  be  commended  because  it  gave  pleasure,  and  only  so  far  as  it  conduced  thereto. 
The  sect  flourished  for  several  ages. — Laer,  Ar,  Cicero. 

CYRENE.     Founded  by  Battus,  630  b.c.    Aristseus,  who  was  the  chief  of  the  colonists 

here,  gave  the  city  his  mother's  name.     It  was  also  called  Pentapolis,  on  account 

.    of  its  five  towns,  namely,  Cyrene,  Ptolemais,   Berenice,  ApoUonia,  and  Arsinoe. 

Cyrene  was  left  by  Ptolemy  Apion  to  the  Romans,  97  B.C.     It  is  now  a  desert.^ 

Priestley, 

CYZICUM,  Battle  of.  The  Lacedemonian  fleet  under  Mindarus,  assisted  by  Phar- 
nabazBS,  the  Persian,  is  encountered  by  the  Athenians,  and  is  defeated  with  great 
slaughter.  In  this  battle  Mindarus  is  slain,  410  B.C. — Plutarch.  408  b.c. — Lengki. 

CZAR.  From  Cnsar,  a  title  of  honour  assumed  by  the  sovereigns  of  Russia.  Ivan 
Basilowitz,  after  having  achieved  great  triumphs  over  the  Tartars,  and  made  many 
conquests,  pursued  them  to  the  centre  of  their  own  country,  and  returning  in  triumph, 
took  the  title  of  Tzar,  or  Czar,  (signifying  Great  King). — Aspin's  Chron,  The 
courts  of  Europe  consented  to  address  the  Russian  Czar,  by  the  title  of  Emperor 
in  1722. — Idem. 


D. 

DAHLIA.  This  beautiful  flower  was  imported  from  China,  of  which  it  is  a  native, 
early  in  the  present  century,  and  amateurs  in  flowers  have  annually  laid  out  hundreds' 
of  pounds  in  England,  and  thousands  of  francs  in  France,  in  the  purchase  of  it.  The 
Swedish  botanist,  professor  Dahl,  first  cultivated  and  made  it  known.  It  soon 
attracted  notice  in  England,  where,  from  the  beauty  of  its  form  and  variety  of  colour, 
it  became  at  once  an  especial  favourite.  In  1815,  about  two  months  after  the  battle 
of  Waterloo,  it  was  introduced  into  France,  and  the  celebrated  florist,  Andr^  Thouin, 
suggested  various  practical  improvements  in  its  management.  The  botanist  Greorgi, 
had,  shortly  before  this,  introduced'  ic  at  St.  Petersburgh ;  'and  hence  it  is,  that  to 
this  day  the  dahlia  is  known  throughout  Germany  under  the  name  of  Georpina. 

DAMASCUS.  This  city  was  in  being  in  the  time  of  Abraham. — Gen.  ziv.  It  is,  con- 
sequently, one  of  the  most  ancient  in  the  world.  From  the  Assyrians,  Damascus 
passed  to  the  Persians,  and  from  them  to  the  Greeks  under  Alexander ;  and  after, 
wards  to  the  Romans,  about  70  b.c.  It  was  taken  by  the  Saracens,  a.d.  633  ;  by 
the  Turks  in  1006 ;  and  was  destroyed  by  Tamerlane,  in  1400.  It  was  in  a  journey  to 
this  place  that  the  apostle  Paul  was  miraculously  converted  to  the  Christian  fiiith, 
and  here  he  began  to  preach  the  gospel,  about  a.d.  50.  Damascus  is  now  the  capital 
of  a  Turkish  pachalic.  The  disappearance  of  a  Greek  priest,  named  Father  Tommaso, 
from  here,  Feb.  1, 1840,  led  to  the  torture  of  a  number  of  Jews,  suspected  of  his  mur- 
der, and  in  the  end,  to  a  cruel  persecution  of  that  people,  which  caused  remonstrances 
from  many  states  of  Europe. 

DAMASK  LINENS  and  SILKS.  They  were  first  mannfactdred  at  Damascus,  and 
hence  the  name,  their  large  fine  figures  representing  flowers,  and  being  raised  above 
the  ground-work.  They  were  beautifully  imitated  by  the  Dutch  and  Flemish 
weavers;  and  the  manufacture  was  brought  to  England  by.  artisans  who  fled  from  th« 
perMcntion  of  the  cruel  duke  of  Alva,  between  the  years  1571  and  1573.— ^lufsnion. 


DAM  [  163  2  I>^N 

DAMASK  ROSE.  The  Rosa  Damateena  has  not  been  more  highly  celebrated  by  the 
poets  of  modem  times,  than  by  those  of  antiquity. — Butler.  Most  of  the  ancients 
loved  this  fragrant  and  charming  rose. — Darwin.  It  is  the  pride  of  plants,  and 
qneen  of  flowers. — Sappho.  And  sweetest  daughter  of  the  spring. — Anaereon.  The 
damask  rose  was  transplanted  from  the  gardens  of  Damascus,  and  was  brought  to 
these  countries  from  the  south  of  Europe  and  Marseilles,  by  Dr.  Linacre,  physician 
to  Henry  VIII.,  about  a.d.  1540.  Several  varieties  of  the  rose  were  subsequently 
planted  in  England.— See  article  Hose. 

DAMIENS'  ATTEMPT  on  the  LIFE  of  LOUIS  XV.  Loois,  who  was  styled  the 
Well-beloved,  was  stabbed  with  a  knife  in  the  right  side  by  Damiens,  a  native  of 
Arras,  Jan.  5*  1757.  For  this  crime  the  wretched  culprit  suffered  a  dreadful  death ; 
he  was  first  made  to  endure  the  most  excruciating  tortures,  nearly  similar  to  those 
which  had  been  inflicted  on  the  regicide  Ravillac,  and  was  then  broken  on  the 
wheel,  March  28,  following. — See  RavUlao's  Murder  of  Henry  IV. 

DAMON  AND  PYTHIAS.  Pythagorean  philosophers.  When  Damon  was  condemned 
to  death  by  the  tyrant  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  he  obtained  leave  to  go  and  settle  some 
domestic  affairs,  on  a  promise  of  returning  at  the  appointed  tim^  of  execution,  and 
Pythias  became  surety  for  the  performance  of  his  engagement.  When  the  fatal 
hour  approached,  Damon  had  not  appeared,  and  Pythias  surrendered  himself,  and  was 
led  away  to  execution  ;  but  at  this  critical  moment  Damon  returned  to  redeem  his 
pledge.  Dionysius  was  so  struck  with  the  fidelity  of  these  friends,  that  he  remitted 
the  sentence,  and  entreated  them  to  permit  him  to  share  their  friendship,  387  B.C. 

DANCING.  The  dance  to  the  measure  o^  time  was  invented  by  the  Curetes,  1534  B.C. 
Eusebius,  The  Greeks  were  the  first  who  united  the  dance  to  their  tragedies  and 
comedies.  Pantomimic  dances  were  first  introduced  on  the  Roman  stage,  22  b.c.—- 
Usher,  Dancing  by  cinque  paces  was  introduced  into  England  from  Italy  a.d.  1 541. 
In  modem  times,  the  French  were  the  first  who  introduced  baUets  analogues  in 
their  musical  dramas.  The  country  dance  ( eontre-danse )  is  of  French  origin,  but 
its  date  is  not  precisely  known. — Spelman, 

DAN  TO  BEERSHEBA.  The  phrase  <<  From  Dan  to  Beersheba,'*  is  now  fi«qnently 
used,  and  in  modern  literature  is  first  met  with,  perhaps,  in  Sterne^  1768.  Dan 
was  usually  accounted  the  utmost  northern  border  of  the  knd  of  Israel,  as  Beersheba 
was  the  southern,  whence  the  expression  denotes  the  whole  length  of  the  Holy 
Land,  from  north  to  south,  and,  proverbially,  the  extremity  of  any  other  district. 
We  read  of  Erastus  having  been  (about  a.d.  60)  bishop  of  Paneus,  which  is  another 
name  for  Dan.  **  I  pity  the  man  who  can  travel  from  Dan  to  Beersheba  and  cry 
*  'Tis  all  barren' — and  so  it  is  ;  and  so  is  all  the  world  to  him  who  will  not  cultivate 
the  fruits  it  offers." — SentimentalJoumey. 

DANE-GELD,  on  DANEGELT.  This  was  a  tribute  formerly  paid  to  the  Danes, 
arising  out  of  their  exactions,  and  to  stop  their  ravages  in  this  kingdom.  It  was 
first  raised  by  Ethelred  II.  in  991,  and  was  again  collected  in  1003 ;  and  continued 
to  be  levied  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Danes,  to  pay  fleets  for  scouring  the  seas  of 
them.  The  tax  was  suppressed  by  Edward  the  Confessor  in  1051  :  but  it  was 
revived  by  William  the  Conqueror,  and  formed  part  of  the  revenue  of  the  crown, 
until  abolished  by  king  Stephen.  The  Danegelt  was  thus  raised :  every  hide  of 
land,  i.  «.  as  much  as  one  plough  could  plough,  or,  as  Bede  says,  maintain  a  family, 
was  taxed  one  shilling* — Stowe. 

DANES,  Invasions  of  the.  The  invasions  of  this  people  were  a  scourge  to  Eng- 
land for  upwards  of  two  hundred  years.  During  their  attacks  upon  Britain  and 
Ireland,  they  made  a  descent  on  France,  where,  in  895,  under  Rollo,  they  received 
presents  under  the  walls  of  Paris.  They  returned  and  ravaged  the  French  territories 
as  far  as  Ostend  in  896.  They  attacked  Italy  in  903.  Neustria  was  granted  by  the 
king  of  France  to  Rollo  and  his  Normans  (North-men),  hence  Normandy,  in  905. 
The  invasions  of  England  and  Ireland  were  as  follows  :» 

They  invade  Scotland  and  Ireland  .  a.d.   796 
They  enter  Dublin  with  a  fleet  of  60  sail, 
and  possess  themselves  of  Dublin,  Fin- 
gal,  and  other  places  ....    796 
They  take  the  Isle  of  Sheppey    .        •    .    838 
Defeated  in  Cornwall,  by  Egbert    .        .    896 
m2 


vntar  bkribb  of  nrvAsiONs. 
First  hostile  appearance  of  the  Danes 

upon  the  coast  ....   a.d.    7B3 
They  land  near  Purbeck,  Dorset        .    .    787 
Descend  in  Ncnrtbumberland ;  are  re- 
pelled, and  perish  by  shipwreck .        .    794 


DAN 


[164] 


DAR 


995 


They  land  in  Essex,  and  in  the  west,  and 
are  paid  a  sum  of  money  (16,0002.)  to 
quit  the  kingdom  .         .   a.d. 

A  general  massacre  of  the  Danes,  by 
order  of  Ethelred  II. .         .         .  Nov.  1002 

Bweia  revenges  the  death  of  his  coimtry- 
men,  and  receives  36,0002.  (which  he 
afterwards  demands  as  an  annual  tri- 
bute) to  depart 1003 

They  make  fresh  inroads,  and  defeat  the 
Saxons  in  Suffolk       .... 

They  again  sack  Canterbury,  and  put  the 
inhabitants  to  death  .... 

Their  conquest  of  England  completed    . 

THIRD  SERIES  OF  RAVAGES- 

They  settle  in  Scotland  .... 
Vanquished  at  Clontarf  in  Ireland,  in  a 

bloody  battle  (tee  Clontarf) 
They  are  driven  out  of  England.         .    . 
They  land  again  at  Sandwich,  carrying 

off  much  plunder  to  Flanders 
They  bum  York,  and  put  3000  Normans 

to  the  sword 

Once  more  invade  England,  but  are 

bribed  by  William  to  depart 


1010 

1011 
1017 

1020 

1014 
1041 

1047 

1069 

1074 


DANES,  Invasions  of  the,  continued. 

They  defeat  Ethel  wolf  at  Charmouth  a.d.  836 
They  land  in  Kent  from  350  vessels,  and 

take  Canterbury  and  London  .  .  851 
Their  signal  defeat  by  Ethelwolf  .  .  853 
[This  defeat  closes  the  first  period  of  their 

ravages.] 

SECOND  SCRIES  OF  INVASIOXS. 

They  return  to  England,  make  a  descent 

on  Northumberland,  and  take  York   .  867 

They  defeat  the  Saxons  at  Merton      .    .  871 

They  take  Wareham  and  Exeter  .  .  876 
They  take  Chippenham ;  but  120  of  their 

ships  are  wrecked      ....  877 

Defeated  by  the  earl  of  Devon    .        .    .  878 

Alfred  enters  into  a  treaty  with  them  .  882 
Their  fleet  totally  destroyed  by  Alfred  at 

Appledore 894 

They  invade  and  waste  Anglesey        .    .  900 

They  submit  to  the  Saxons  .  .  .  921 
They  defeat  the  people  of  Leinster,  whose 

king  is  killed 956 

Their  new  invasion  of  Dorsetshire  .  .  982 
They  ravage  Essex  .  .  .  .991 
Their  fleet  defeated  after  a  breach  of 

treaty,  purchased  by  money        .        .  992 

DANGEROUS  ASSOCIATIONS'  BILL.  The  statute  for  the  suppression  of  dan- 
gerous  associations  in  Ireland,  particularly  with  reference  to  Uie  then  Catholic 
Association,  passed  March  5,  1829.  This  law[was  enacted  at  the  same  time  that  the 
Catholic  Relief  Bill  was  passed. — See  Catholic  Association. 

DANTZIC.  A  commercial  city  in  a.d.  997.— £u«cAt7i^.  It  was  built,  according  to 
other  authorities,  by  Waldemar  I.  in  1169.  Seized  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  and 
Annexed  to  his  dominions  in  1793.  It  surrendered  to  the  French  after  a  siege  of 
four  months.  May  5,  1807  ;  and,  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  it  was  restored  to  its  former 
independence,  under  the  protection  of  Prussia  and  Saxony.  Dantzic  was  besieged 
-  by  the  allies  in  1812;  and,  after  a  gallant  resistance,  surrendered  to  them  Jan.  1, 
1814.  By  the  treaty  of  Paris  it  again  reverted  to  the  king  of  Prussia.  Awful 
inundation  here,  owing  to  the  Vistula  breaking  through  its  dykes,  by  which  10,000 
head  of  cattle  and  4,000  houses  were  destroyed,  and  a  vast  number  of  lives  lost, 
April  9,  1829. 

DARDANELLES,  Passage  of  the.  The  Dardanelles  are  two  castles,  one  called 
Sestos,  seated  in  Romania,  the  other  called  Abydos,  in  Natolia,  commanding  the 
entrance  of  the  strait  of  Gallipoli.  They  were  built  by  the  emperor  Mahomet  IV. 
in  1659,  and  were  named  Dardanelles  from  the  contiguous  town  Dardanus.  The 
gallant  exploit  of  forcing  the  passage  of  the  Dardanelles  was  achieved  by  the  British 
squadron  under  admiral  sir  John  Duckworth,  February  19,  1807 ;  but  the  admiral 
was  obliged  to  repass  them,  which  he  did  with  great  loss  and  immense  damage  to  the 
fleet,  March  2,  following,  the  castles  of  Sestos  and  Abydos  hurling  down  rocks  of 
stone,  each  of  many  tons  weight,  upon  the  decks  of  the  British  ships. 

DARIC.  This  gold  coin  was  issued  by  Darius  the  Mede,  and  hence  Its  name,  about 
338  B.C.     It  weighed  two  grains  more  than  the  English  guinea. — Dr,  Bernard, 

DARTFORD.  At  this  town  commenced  the  memorable  insurrection  of  Wat  Tyler, 
A.D.  1381.  Here  was  a  celebrated  convent  of  nuns  of  the  order  of  St.  Augustin, 
endowed  by  Edward  III.  1355,  which  was  converted  by  Henry  VIII.  at  the  time 
of  the  Reformation  into  a  royal  palace.  The  first  paper-mill  in  England  was  erected 
.  at  Dai*tford  by  sir  John  Speilman,  a  German,  in  1590. — Stowe,  And  about  same 
period  was  erected  here  the  first  mill  for  slitting  iron  bars.  The  powder-mills  here 
were  blown  up  four  times  between  1730  and  1738.  Various  explosions  have  since 
occurred,  in  some  cases  with  loss  of  life  to  many  persons.  A  great  explosion  took 
place  Oct.  12,  1790 ;  again  Jan.  1,  1795  ;  and  others  more  recently. 

DARTMOUTH.  Burnt  by  the  French  in  the  reigns  of  Richard  I.  and  Henry  IV. 
In  a  third  attempt  the  invaders  were  defeated  by  the  inhabitants,  assisted  by  the 
valoui"  of  the  women.   The  French  commander,  M.  Castel,  three  lords,  and  thirty-two 


DAU  Q  165  3  DEA 

knights  were  made  prisoners,  1404.  In  the  war  of  the  parliament,  Dartmouth  was 
taken  (1643)  after  a  siege  of  four  weeks,  by  prince  Maurice,  who  garrisoned  the 
place  for  the  king ;  but  it  was  retaken  by  general  Fairfax  by  storm  in  1646. 

DAUPHIN.  The  title  given  to  the  eldest  sons  of  the  kings  of  France,  from  the 
proTince  of  Dauphin^,  which  was  ceded  by  its  last  prince  Humbert  II.  to  Philip  of 
Valois,  on  the  condition  that  the  heirs  to  the  French  throne  should  bear  the  arms 
and  name  of  the  province,  a.d.  1343. — Priestley,  The  present  duke  of  Orleans, 
eldest  son  of  Louis  Philip,  is  not  called  the  dauphin. 

DAVIS'  STRAIT.  Discovered  by  the  renowned  English  navigator,  John  Davis,  whose 
name  it  bears,  on  his  voyage  to  find  a  North-west  passage,  in  1585.  Davis  made 
two  more  voyages  for  the  same  purpose,  and  afterwards  performed  five  voyages  to 
the  East  Indies.  In  the  last  he  was  killed  by  Japanese  pirates,  in  the  Indian  seas, 
on  the  coast  of  Malacca,  December  27,  1605. 

DAY.  Day  began  at  sunrise  among  most  of  the  northern  nations/  and  at  sunset 
among  the  Athenians  and  Jews.  Among  the  Romans  day  commenced  at  midnight, 
as  it  now  does  among  us.  The  Italians  in  most  places,  it  the  present  time,  reckon 
the  day  from  sun-rise  to  sun-set,  making  their  clocks  strike  twenty-four  hours 
round,  instead  of  dividing  the  day,  as  is  done  in  all  other  countries,  into  equal 
portions  of  twelve  hours.  This  mode  is  but  partially  used  in  the  larger  towns  of 
Italy,  most  public  clocks  in  Florence,  Rome,  and  Milan,  being  set  to  the  hour 
designated  on  French  or  English  clocks.  The  Chinese  divide  the  day  into  twelve 
parts  of  two  hours  each.  Our  civil  day  is  distinguished  from  the  astronomical  day, 
which  begins  at  noon,  and  is  the  mode  of  reckoning  used  in  the  Nautical  Almanack. 
At  Rome,  day  and  night  were  first  divided  in  time  by  means  of  water-clocks,  the 
invention  of  Scipio  Nasica,  158  b.c. —  Vossitude  Soien.  Math. 

DEACON.  An  order  of  the  Christian  priesthood,  which  took  its  rise  from  the  insti- 
tution of  seven  deacons  by  the  Apostles,  which  number  was  retained  a  long  period 
in  many  churches,  about  a.d.  51.  See  Acts,  ehap,  vi.  The  original  deacons  were 
Philip,  Stephen,  Prochorus,  Nicanor,  Timon,  Parmenos,  and  Nicolas.  The  quali- 
fications of  a  deacon  are  mentioned  by  St.  Paul,  1st  Titnothy  iii.  8 — 13. 

DEAF  AND  DUMB.  The  first  systematic  attempt  to  instruct  the  deaf  and  dumb  was 
made  by  Pedro  de  Ponce,  a  Benedictine  monk  of  Spain,  about  a.d.  1570.  Bonet, 
who  was  also  a  monk,  published  a  system  at  Madrid  in  1620.  Dr.  Wallis  published 
a  work  in  England  on  the  subject,  in  1650.  The  first  regular  academy  for  the  deaf 
and  dumb  in  these  countries  was  opened  in  Edinburgh  in  1773.  In  our  own  times 
the  Abb^  de  TEp^,  and  Abb^  Sicard  of  Paris  ;  the  rev.  Mr.  Townsend,  and  Mr. 
Baker,  of  London ;  Mr.  Braidwood,  of  Edinburgh  ;  atad  surgeon  Orpen,  of  Dublin, 
have  laboured  with  much  success  in  promoting  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb. 
An  asylum  for  teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb  poor  was  opened  in  London  through 
the  humane  exertions  of  Mr.  Townsend,  in  1792.  The  asylum  at  Ciaremont, 
Dublin,  was  opened  in  1816. — See  Dumb, 

DEAN,  Fo&EST  OF.  Anciently  it  was  shaded  with  woods  quite  through,  and  was  of 
immense  extent ;  and  in  the  last  century,  though  much  curtailed,  it  was  twenty  miles 
in  length  and  ten  in  breadth.  It  was  .famous  for  its  oaks,  of  which  most  of  our 
former  ships  of  war  were  made.  The  memorable  riots  in  this  district,  when  more 
than  3,000  persons  assembled  in  the  forest,  and  demolished  upwards  of  fifty  miles  of 
wall  and  fence,  throwing  open  10,000  acres  of  plantation,  June  8, 1831. 

DEATH,  Punishment  of.  Death  by  drowning  in  a  quagmire  was  a  punishment 
among  the  Britons  before  450  b.c. — Siowe,  The  most  eulogised  heroes  of  antiquity 
inflicted  death  by  crucifixion,  and  even  women  suffered  on  the  cross,  the  victims 
sometimes  living  in  the  most  excruciating  torture  many  days.  A  most  horrifying 
instance  of  death  by  torture  occurs  in  the  fiite  of  Mithridates,  the  assassin  of  Xerxes. 
See  a  note  to  the  article  Persia  ;  see  also  Ravillac ;  Boiling  to  Death ;  Bum- 
ing  to  Death,  &c.  Maurice,  the  son  of  a  nobleman,  was  hanged,  drawn,  and 
quartered  for  piracy,  the  first  execution  in  that  manner  in  England,  25  Henry  III. 
1241.  The  punishment  of  death  was  abolished  in  a  great  number  of  cases  by  Mr. 
Peel's  acts,  4th  to  10th  George  IV.  1824-9.  Act  abolishing  the  punishment  of 
death  in  certain  other  cases,  2  and  3  William  IV.  1832.  Act  of  same  session  to 
continue  the  punishment  of  death  in  cases  of  forgery,  excepting  the  forging  of  wills 
and  powers-of-attomey  to  transfer  stock,  August  16,  1832.  Act  abolishing  the 
punishment  of  death  in  all  cases  of  forgery,  1  Victoria,  July  17,  1837. 


DEA  C  1^^  D  ^EE 

DEATHS,  Parish  Registers  of.  Cromwell,  earl  of  Essex,  who  was  the  chief 
instrament  of  Henry  VIII.  in  the  suppression  of  monasteries  and  abbeys,  was  the 
institator  of  parish  registers  of  deaths,  births,  and  marriages,  a.d.  1536 ;  bat  they 
were  more  formally  compiled  in  1593,  after  the  great  plague  of  that  year.  A  tax 
was  levied  on  deaths  and  births  in  England,  23  George  III.  1783. 

DEATH'S  HEAD.  An  ancient  female  order,  instituted  in  Germany  in  the  17th 
century.  It  was  revived  by  Louisa  Elizabeth,  widow  of  Philip  Duke  of  Saxe 
Mersburgh,  1709. — Aspin, 

DEBTORS.  See  Bankrupts,  and  Insolvents,  Debtors  have  been  subjected  to  impri- 
sonment in  almost  all  countries  and  times  ;  and  until  the  passing  of  the  later  bank- 
rupt laws  and  insolvent  acts,  the  prisons  of  these  countries  were  crowded  with 
debtors  to  an  extent  that  is  now  scarcely  credible.  It  appeared  by  parliamentary 
returns,  that  in  the  eighteen  months  subsequent  to  the  panic  of  December  1825,  as 
many  as  101,000  writs  for  debt  were  issued  from  the  courts  in  England.  In  the 
year  ending  5th  January,  1830,  there  were  7114  persons  sent  to  the  several  prisons 
of  London  ;  and  on  that  day,  1547  of  the  number  were  yet  confined.  On  the  1st 
January,  1840,  the  number  of  prisoners  for  debt  in  England  and  Wales  was  1732  ; 
in  Ireland  the  number  was  under  1000 ;  and  in  Scotland  under  100. 

DECEMBER.  In  the  year  of  Romulus  this  was  the  tenth  month  of  the  year,  called 
so  from  decern,  ten,  the  Romans  commencing  their  year  in  March.  Numa  intro- 
duced January  and  February  before  this  latter  month,  in  713  B.C.,  and  from 
thenceforward  December  became  the  twelfth  of  the  year.  In  the  reign  of  Com  modus 
December  was  called,  by  way  of  flattery,  Amazonius,  in  honour  of  a  courtezan  whom 
that  prince  passionately  loved,  and  had  got  painted  like  an  Amazon ;  but  it  only 
kept  the  name  during  that  emperor's  life,  between  a.d.  181  and  192.  The  English 
commenced  their  year  on  the  25th  December,  until  the  reign  of  William  the 
Conqueror.     See  article  Year, 

DECEMVIRI.  Ten  magistrates,  who  were  chosen  annually  at  Rome  to  govern  the 
commonwealth  instead  of  consuls  ;  first  instituted  450  b.c. — Livy,  The  decemviral 
power  became  odious  on  account  of  their  tyranny,  and  the  attempt  of  Appius 
Claudius  to  defile  Virginia,  and  the  office  was  abolished,  the  people  demanding  from 
the  senate  to  burn  the  decemviri  alive.  Consuls  were  again  appointed,  and  tran- 
quillity restored. — See  Virginia, 

DECENNALIA.  Festivals  celebrated  by  the  Roman  emperors  every  tenth  year  of  their 
reign,  with  sacrifices,  games,  and  largesses,  instituted  by  Augustus,  17  b.c. — Livy, 

DE  COURCY'S  PRIVILEGE.  The  privilege  of  standing  covered  before  the  king, 
granted  by  king  John,  to  John  De  Courcy,  baron  of  Kinsale,  and  his  successors, 
in  1203.  Sir  John  De  Courcy  was  the  first  nobleman  created  by  an  English 
sovereign,  27  Henry  II.  1181  ;  and  was  entrusted  with  the  government  of  Ireland, 
in  1185.  The  privilege  accorded  to  this  family  has  been  exercised  in  most  reigns, 
and  was  allowed  to  the  baron  Kinsale,  by  William  III.,  George  III.,  and  by  George 
IV.,  at  his  court  held  in  Dublin,  in  August,  1821. 

DECRETALS.  The  second  part  of  the  canon  law,  or  collection  of  the  pope's  edicts 
and  decrees.  The  first  of  these  that  is  acknowledged  to  be  genuine  by  the  learned, 
is  a  letter  of  Syricius  to  Himerus,  the  bishop  of  Spain,  written  in  the  first  year  of 
his  pontificate,  a.d.  385. — Howel. 

DEDICATIONS.  The  dedication  of  books  was  introduced  in  the  time  of  Maecenas, 
17  B.C.,  and  the  custom  has  been  practised  ever  since  by  authors  to  solicit  patronage, 
or  testify  respect.  Maecenas  was  the  friend  and  privy  counsellor  of  Augustus  Ceesar, 
and  he  was  so  famous  a  patron  of  men  of  genius  and  learning,  that  it  has  been 
customary  to  style  every  minister  of  a  sovereign  prince,  imitating  his  example,  the 
Maecenas  of  the  age  or  country  in  which  he  lived. —  Valerius  Paterculusy  Hist.  Rom, 

DEDICATION  of  CHURCHES.  Of  the  dedication  of  churches,  we  meet  in  the 
Scriptures,  under  the  Jewish  dispensation,  with  the  dedication  of  the  tabernacle  and 
of  altars.  It  was  also  used  in  heathen  worship.  The  Christians,  finding  themselves 
at  liberty  under  Constantine,  built  new  churches,  and  dedicated  them  with  great 
solemnity,  in  a.d.  331  et  seq, 

DEEDS.  They  were  formerly  written  in  the  Latin  and  French  languages :  the  earliest 
known  instance  of  the  English  tongue  having  been  used  in  deeds,  is  that  of  the 
indenture  between  the  abbot  and  convent  of  Whitby,  and  Robert,  the  son  of  John 


DEP  C  167  ]]  DEL 

Bastard,  dated  at  York,  in  the  year  1343.    The  English  tongue  was  ordered  to  be 
used  in  all  law  pleadings  in  1362.    Ordered  to  be  used  in  all  law  suits  in  May,  1731 . 

DEFENDER  of  the  FAITH.  Fidei  Defetuar.  A  title  conferred  by  Leo  X.  on 
Henry  YHI.  of  England.  The  king  wrote  a  tract  in  behalf  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
then  accounted  Domicilium  fidei  Catholisa,  and  against  Luther,  who  had  just  begun 
the  Reformation  in  Germany,  upon  which  the  pope  gave  him  the  title  of  Defender  of 
the  Faith,  a  title  still  retained  by  the  monarchs  of  Great  Britain :  the  bull  conferring 
it  bears  date  Oct.  9,  1521. 

DEFENDERS.  A  faction  in  Ireland,  which  arose  out  of  a  private  quarrel  between 
two  residents  of  Market-hill,  July '4,  1784.  Each  was  soon  aided  by  a  large  body  of 
friends,  and  many  battles  ensued.  On  Whitsun-Monday,  1785,  an  armed  assemblage 
of  one  of  the  parties  (700  men),  called  the  Nappagh  Fleet ^  prepared  to  encounter 
the  Baton  Fleet,  but  the  engagement  was  prevented.  They  subsequently  became 
religious  parties,  Catholic  and  Presbyterian,  distinguished  as  Defenders  and  Ptep- 
o^ -day 'boys :  the  latter  were  so  named  because  they  usuallv  visited  the  dwellings  of 
the  Defenders  at  daybreak  in  search  of  arms. — Sir  Richard  Muagrave, 

DEGREES.  The  first  attempt  to  determine  the  length  of  a  degree  is  recorded  as 
having  been  made  by  Eratosthenes,  about  250  B.C. — Snellius,  The  first  degree  of 
longitude  was  fixed  by  Hipparchus  of  Nice  (by  whom  the  latitude  was  determined  also), 
at  Ferro,  one  of  the  Canary  islands,  whose  most  western  point  was  made  the  first  general 
meridian,  162  b.c.  Several  nations  have  fixed  their  meridian  from  places  connected 
with  their  own  territories  ;  and  thus  the  English  compute  their  longitude  from  the 
meridian  of  Greenwich. — See  Latitude ,  Longitude,  and  the  varioute  Collegiate  degreet, 

DEISM.  This  denomination  was  first  assumed  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century 
by  some  gentlemen  of  France  and  Italy,  in  order  thus  to  disguise  their  opposition 
to  Christianity  by  a  more  honourable  appellation  than  that  of  Atheism. —  Virot't 
Instruction  Chrilienne,  1563.  Deism  is  a  rejection  of  all  manner  of  revelation  : 
its  followers  go  merely  by  the  light  of  nature,  believing  that  there  is  a  God,  a 
providence,  vice  and  virtue,  and  an  after  state  of  punishments  and  rewards  :  it  is 
sometimes  called  free-thinking.  The  first  deistical  writer  of  any  note  in  England, 
was  Herbert,  baron  of  Cherbury.in  1624.  The  most  distinguished  deists  were  Hobbes, 
Tindal,  Morgan,  lord  liolingbroke,  Hume,  Holcroft,  and  Godwin. 

DELEGATES,  COURT  of.  Until  lately  the  highest  of  all  the  Ecclesiastical  courts. 
Appeals  to  the  pope  in  ecclesiastical  causes  having  been  forbidden  (see  Appeals), 
those  causes  were  for  the  future  to  be  heard  inthis  court,  by  statute  24  Henry  Vlll. 
1532;  and  soon  afterwards  the  pope's  authority  was  superseded  altogether  in 
England. — Stowe,  This  court  was  abolished,  and  in  lieu  of  it  appeals  now  lie  to  the 
Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council,  as  fixed  by  statute  3  and  4  William  IV. 
August  14,  1833. 

DELFT.  This  town  was  founded  by  Godfrey  le  Bossu,  and  is  famous  for  the  earthen- 
ware which  is  known  by  its  name,  and  which  was  first  manufactured  here  in  a.o. 
1310.     It  was  the  birth-place  of  the  renowned  Grotius. 

DELHI.  The  once  great  capital  of  the  Mogul  empire  ;  it  is  now  in  decay,  but  con- 
tained a  million  of  inhabitants,  in  1700..  In  1738,  when  Nadir  Shah  invaded 
Hindoostan,  he  entered  Delhi,  and  dreadful  massacres  and  famine  followed  : 
100,000  of  the  inhabitants  perished  by  the  sword  ;  and  plunder  to  the  amount  of 
62,000,000/.  sterling  was  said  to  be  collected.  The  same  calamities  were  endured 
in  1761,  on  the  invasion  of  Abdalla,  king  of  Candahar.  In  1803,  the  Mahrattas, 
aided  by  the  French,  got  possession  of  this  place  ;  but  they  were  afterwards  defeated 
here  by  general  Lake,  and  the  aged  Shah  Aulum,  emperor  of  Hindoostan,  was 
restored  to  his  throne. 

DELICATE  INVESTIGATION.  The  memorable  investigation,  so  called,  into  the 
conduct  of  the  princess  of  Wales,  afterwards  queen  of  England  as  consort  of  George 
IV.,  was  commenced  by  a  committee  of  the  Privy  Council,  under  a  warrant  of 
inquiry,  dated  May  29,  1806.  The  members  were  lord  Grenville,  lord  Erskine, 
earl  Spencer,  and  lord  EUenborough.  The  inquiry,  of  which  the  countess  of  Jersey, 
sir  J.  and  lady  Douglas,  and  other  persons  of  rank  were  the  promoters,  and  in  which 
they  conspicuously  figured,  lasted  until  the  following  year,  and  led  to  the  publication 
called  **  The  Book,''  which  was  afterwards  suppressed.^ — See  Qiieen. 


DEL 


[168] 


DEN 


B.C.  3246 

Persian    . 

B.C.  3103 

Playfair    .    b.c.  2352 

Jackson   . 

.  3170 

Hindoo 

.    .  3102 

Usher  .         .    .  2348 

Hales  . 

.    .  3155 

Samaritan 

.  2998 

English  Bible   .  2348 

Josephus  . 

.  3146 

Howard 

.    .  2698 

Marsham      .    .  2344 

DELPHI.  Celebrated  for  its  oracles  delivered  by  Pythia,  in  the  temple  of  Apollo, 
which  was  built,  some  say,  by  the  council  of  the  Amphictyons,  1263  b.c.  The 
priestess  delivered  the  answer  of  the  god  to  such  as  came  to  consult  the  oracle,  and 
was  supposed  to  be  suddenly  inspired.  The  temple  was  burnt  by  the  Pisistratidse,  548 
B.C.  A  new  temple  was  raised  by  the  AlcmKonidse,  and  was  so  rich  in  donations 
that  at  one  time  it  was  plundered  by  the  people  of  Phocis  of  20,000  talents  of  gold 
and  silver ;  and  Nero  carried  from  it  500  costly  ■  statues.  The  first  Delphic,  or 
sacred  war,  concerning  the  temple  was  449  B.C.  The  second  sacred  war  was  com- 
menced on  Delphi  being  attacked  by  the  Phocians,  356  B.C. — Du  Fresnoy. 

DELUGE,  THE  GENERAL.  The  deluge  was  threatened  in  the  year  of  the  world 
1536  ;  and  it  began  Dec.  7,  1656,  and  continued  377  days.  The  ark  rested  on  Mount 
Ararat,  May  6 ,  1657  ;  and  Noah  left  the  ark,  Dec.  18,  following.  The  year  cor- 
responds with  that  of  2348  B.C. — Blair,  The  following  are  the  epochs  of  the  deluge 
according  to  the  table  of  Dr.  Hales. 

Petaviua  .  b.c.  2329 
Strauchuis  .  .  2293 
Hebrew  .  .  2288 
Vulgar  Jewish .  2104 

Some  of  the  states  of  Europe  were  alarmed,  we  are  told,  by  the  prediction  (!)  that 
another  general  deluge  would  occur,  and  arks  were  everywhere  built  to  guard  against 
the  calamity  ;  but  the  season  happened  to  be  a  fine  and  dry  one,  a.d.  1524. 

DELUGE  OF  DEUCALION.  The  fabulous  one,  is  placed  1503  b.c.  according  to 
Ettsebius,  This  flood  has  been  often  confounded  by  the  ancients  with  the  general 
flood  ;  but  it  was  845  years  posterior  to  that  event,  and  was  merely  a  local  inunda- 
tion, occasioned  by  the  overflowing  of  the  river  Pineus,  whose  course  was  stopped  by 
an  earthquake  between  the  Mounts  Olympus  and  Ossa.  Deucalion,  who  then 
reigned  in  Thessaly,  with  his  wife  Pyrrha,  and  some  of  their  subjects,  saved  them- 
selves by  climbing  up  Mount  Parnassus. 

DELUGE  OF  OGYGES.  In  the  reign  of  Ogyges  was  a  deluge  which  so  inundated 
the  territories  of  Attica  that  they  lay  waste  for  near  200  years  ;  it  occurred  before 
the  deluge  of  Deucalion,  about  1764  b.c. — Blair,  Buffon  thinks  that  the  Hebrew 
and  Grecian  deluges  were  the  same,  and  arose  from  the  Atlantic  and  Bosphorus 
bursting  into  the  valley  of  the  Mediterranean. 

DEMERARA  and  ESSEQUIBO.  These  colonies,  founded  by  the  Dutch,  were  taken  by 
the  British  under  major-general  Whyte,.April  22,  1796,  but  were  restored  at  the  peace 
of  1802.  Demerara  and  Essequibo  again  surrendered  to  the  British  under  general 
Griniield  and  commodore  Hood,  Sept.  20, 1803.    They  are  now  fixed  English  colonies. 

DENARIUS.  The  chief  sUver  coin  among  the  Romans  (from  denos  oris),  weighing 
the  seventh  part  of  a  Roman  ounce,  and  value  sevenpence-three-farthings  sterling, 
first  coined  about  269  b.c,  when  it  exchanged  for  ten  asses  (see  article  As), 
In  216  B.C.  it  exchanged  for  sixteen  asses.  A  pound  weight  of  silver  was  coined 
into  100  denarii. — Digby,  A  pound  weight  of  gold  was  coined  into  twenty  denarii 
aurei,  in  206  b.c.  ;  and  in  Nero's  time  into  forty-five  denarii  aurei. — Lempriere, 

DENMARK.  The  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  this  kingdom  were  the  Cimbri  and 
the  Teutones,  who  were  driven  out  "by  the  Jutes  or  Goths.  The  Teutones  settled 
in  Germany  and  Gaul ;  the  Cimbrians  invaded  Italy,  where  they  were  defeated  by 
Marius.  The  peninsula  of  Jutland  obtains  its  name  from  the  Jutes ;  and  the  genend 
name  of  Denmark  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  Dan,  the  founder  of  the  Danish 
monarchy,  and  markf  a  German  word  signifying  country,  t.  e,  Dan-mark,  the 
country  of  Dan. 

60 


Reign  of  Sciold,  first  king      .        .    b.c 

The  Danish  chronicles  mention  18  kings 
to  the  time  of  Ragnor  Lodbr(^  .    a.d.    750 

[Ragnor  is  killed  in  an  attempt  to  invade 
England,  and  for  more  than  200  years 

,  from  this  time  the  Danes  were  a  terror 
to  the  northern  nations  of  Europe, 
often  landing  on  our  own  shores,  and 
at  length  conquering  all  England.— See 
Danet.^ 

Reign  of  Canute  the  Great    .  .  1014 


Reign  of  Waldemar  the  Oreat  .  a.d.  1157 
Waldemar  n.,  with  a  fleet  of  1000  sail, 

makes  immense  conquests  .  .  1223 

Gothland  conquered .  .    .  1347 

Denmark,   Norway,  and    Sweden    are 

united  into  one  kingdom  .        •  1397 

Revolt  of  the  Swedes  .    .  1414 

The  nations  reunited  ....  143d 
Copenhagen  made  the  capital  .  .  .  1440 
Accession  of  Christian  I.,  from  whom 

the  present  royal  family  springs .        .  1448 


DEN 


Cieo] 


DEN 


DENMARK,  continued. 

Christian  II.  is  deposed,  and  fbe  inde- 
pmdenoe  of  Sweden  acknowledged  A.D.  1523 

Luthenmism  established  by  Christian  III.  1536 

Danish  East  India  Company  established 
by  Christian  IV 1612 

Christian  IT.  chosen  head  of  the  Protest- 
ant league 16S9 

Charles  'Gustavus  of  Sweden  invades 
Denmark,  besides  Copenhagen,  and 
makes  lai^  conquests  .  1658 

The  crown  made  hereditary  and  absolute  l(i60 

Frederick  IV.  takes  Holstein,  Sleswick. 
Tonningoi,  and  Stralsund;  reduces 
Weismar,  and  drives  the  Swedes  out  of 
Norway 1716  et  seq, 

Copenhagen  destroyed  by  a  fire  which 
consumes  1650  houses,  5  churches,  the 
university,  and  4  colleges    .        .        .  1728 

The  peaceful  reign  of  Christian  YL,  who 
promotes  the  happiness  of  his  subjects  1730 

Christian  YIL  in  a  fit  of  jealousy  suddenly 
confines  his  queen,  Caroline  Matilda, 
sister  of  Qeorge  III.,  who  is  afterwards 
banished.— See  Zell  Jan.  18,  1772 

The  counts  Struensee  and  Brandt  are 
Beized  at  the  same  time,  on  the  charge 
of  a  criminal  intercourse  with   the 


queen ;  and  the  fonnw  oonfessing  to 
avoid  the  torture,  both  are  beheaded 
for  high  treason  .         .    April  28,  a. o.  1772 

The  queen  Caroline  Blatilda  dies  at 
ZeU "May  10,  1775 

Christian  Til.  becomes  deranged,  and 
prince  Frederick  is  appointed  regent  .  1784 

One-fourth  of  Copenhagen  is  destroyed 
by  fire June  9,  1795 

Admirals  Nelson  and  Parker  bombard 
Copenhagen,  and  engage  the  Danish 
fleet,  taking  or  destroying  18  ships  of 
the  line,  of  whose  crews  1800  are  killed. 
The  Confederacy  of  the  North  (see 
Armed  NeutraJitp)  is  thus  dissolved, 

April  2,  1801 

Admiral  Gambler  and  lord  Cathoart 
bombard  Copenhagen,  and  seise  the 
Danish  fleet  of  18  ships  of  the  line,  15 
frigates,  and  37  brigs,  dec.     .     Sept.  7,  1807 

Pomerania  and  Rugen  are  annexed  to 
Denmark,  in  exchange  for  Norway     .  1814 

Commercial  treaty  with  England  .        .  1824 

Frederick  bestows  a  new  constitution  on 

hiskingdom 1831 

See  Copenhagen' 


A.D.  714.  Gormo  1. 

75a  Ragnor  Lodbrog. 
770.  Sigefrid. 
801.  Godefrid. 
809.  Ohius  I. 

811.  Hemming. 

812.  Siward  and  Ringon,  killed  in  a  sea-fight. 
814.  Harold  and  Regner;  the  latter  made 

prisoner  in  Ireland,  and  died  in  a 
dungeon  there. 

849.  Siward  11.  deposed. 

856.  Eric ;  killed  in  battle. 

858.  Eric  IL 

873.  Canute  L 

915.  Frothon. 

920.  Gormo  II. 

925.  Harold. 

928.  Hardioanute. 

930.  Gormo  HI. 

935.  Harold  HI. 

980.  Suenon. 

1014.  Canute  U.  the  Great. 
1036.  Hardicanute  H. 
1041.  Magnus  I. 
1048.  Suenon  IL 
1079.  Harold  IV. 
1060.  Canute  HI.  assassinated. 
1066.  OhiUsIL 
1097.  Eric  m. 

1106.  Nicholas,  killed  in  Sleswldc. 
« 1135.  Eric  lY.,  kiUed  at  Ripen. 
1138.  Eric  Y. 
1147.  Suenon  IIL,  beheaded  by  Waldemar  for 


KINGS  OF  DKNMARK. 

1157*  Waldemar  the  Great. 

1182.  Canute  Y. 

1202.  Waldemar  U. 

1240.  Eric  YI. 

1250.  Abel  I.,  killed  in  on  expedition  against 
the  Prisons. 

1252.  Christopher  L,  i)oisoned  by  the  bishop  of 
Arhus. 

1289.  Eric  YH.  assassinated. 

1286.  Eric  YIII. 

1319*  Christopher  IL  (An  interregnum  of 
seven  years.) 

134a  Waldemar  III. 

1375.  Olaus  lU. 

1375.  Margaret  I.,  queen  of  Denmark  and 
Norway. 

1411.  Eric  IX.,  abdicated. 

1439.  Christopher  m. 

144&  Christian  L,  of  the  house  of  Oldenburgh. 

1481.  John. 

1513.  Christian  II. ,  confined  27  years  in  a  dun- 
geon, where  he  died. 

1523.  Frederick. 

1534.  Christian  HI. 

1559.  Frederick  n. 

1588.  Christian  lY. 

164&  Frederick  HL 

1670.  Christian  Y. 

1699.  Frederick  lY. 

1730.  Christian  YL 

1746.  Frederick  Y. 

1766.  Christian  YH. 

1806.  Frederic  YL 

1839.  Christian  YHI. 


assassinating  prince  Canute. 

DENNEWITZ,  Battle  of.  In  which  a  remarkable  yictory  was  obtained  by  marshal 
Bemadotte,  prince  of  Ponte  Corvo,  (afterwards  Charles  XIV.,  king  of  Sweden)  over 
marshal  Ney,  prince  of  Moscow,  September  €,  1813.  In  this  battle  the  loss  on  the 
French  side  exceeded  16,000  men,  and  several  eagles;  and  the  defeat  of  Napoleon 


DEN  C  170  ]  DEN 

at  Leipsic,  on  the  18  th  of  October  following,  closed  the  series  of  reverses  expe- 
rienced by  his  arms  in  the  memorable  and  disastrous  campaign  of  this  year. 

DENIS,  St.  An  ancient  town  of  France,  six  miles  from  Paris  to  the  northward,  the 
last  stage  on  the  road  from  England  to  that  capital, — famous  for  its  abbey  and 
church>  the  former  abolished  at  the  Revolution  ;  the  latter  desecrated  at  the  same 
epoch,  after  having  been  the  appointed  place  of  sepulture  of  the  French  kings,  from 
its  foundation  by  Dagobert,  in  613.  This  church  is  a  beautiful  gothic  edifice,  not 
large,  but  constructed  in  the  purest  taste.  On  the  l'2th  October,  1793,  the  republi- 
cans demolished  most  of  the  royal  tombs,  and  emptied  the  leaden  coffins  into  the 
danghills,  melting  the  lead  for  their  own  use.  By  a  decree  of  fiuonaparte,  dated 
Feb.  20,  1806,  the  church  (which  had  been  turned  meanwhile  into  a  cattle-market  I) 
was  ordered  to  be  cleaned  out  and  redecorated  as  ''  the  future  burial-place  of  the 
Emperors  of  France."  On  the  return  of  the  Bourbons,  some  more  restorations 
were  effected,  and  when  the  duke  de  Berry  and  Louis  XVIII.  died,  both  were  bu- 
ried there — thus  reconsecrating  it,  for  a  time,  to  the  old  dynasty.  It  will  probably 
be  similarly  used  for  the  Orleans  family. 

DEPTFORD.  The  hospital  here  was  incorporated  by  Henry  VIII.,  and  called  the 
Trinity-house  of  Deptford  Strond ;  the  brethren  of  Trinity-house  hold  their  cor- 
porate rights  by  this  hospital.  Queen  Elizabeth  dined  at  Deptford  on  board  the 
Pelican,  the  ship  in  which  the  illustrious  Drake,  the  first  British  circumnavigator, 
had  made  his  voyage  round  the  globe,  April  4,  1581.  The  Deptford  Victualling- 
office  was  burnt  Jan.  16,  1748-9  ;  the  store-house,  Sept.  2,  1758  ;  the  Red-house, 
Feb.  26,  1761 ;  and  the  King's-mill,  Dec.  1,  1775. 

DERBY  STATE  TRIALS.  Brandreth,  Turner,  Ludlam  senior,  Ludlam  junior, 
Weightman,  and  others,  convicted,  at  this  memorable  commission,  of  high-treason, 
October  15,  1817  ;  and  Brandreth,  Turner,  and  the  elder  Ludlam,  executed,  Nov. 
6,  following.  Twenty-three  were  tried,  and  twelve  not  tried. — Phillips.  Twenty- 
one  prisoners  were  indicted  at  Derby  for  the  murder  of  several  miners  in  the  Red- 
soil  mine ;  but  were  acquitted  on  the  ground  that  the  mischief  was  not  wilful, 
March  23,  1834. 

DERRY.  See  Londonderry,  The  bishopric  of  Derry  was  first  planted  at  Ardfrath ; 
from  thence  it  was  translated  to  Maghera ;  and,  in  1158,  it  was  transferred  to  Derry. 
The  cathedral,  which  was  built  in  1164,  becoming  ruinous,  was  rebuilt  by  a  colony 
of  Londoners  who  settled  here  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  The  see  is  valued  in  the 
king's  books,  by  an  extent  returned  in  the  1 5th  James  L,  at  250/.  sterling ;  but  it  is 
one  of  the  richest  sees  in  Ireland. — Beatson, 

DESPARD*S  CONSPIRACY.  Colonel  Edward  Marcns  Despard,  a  native  of  the 
Queen's  County,  in  Ireland,  and  six  others,  were  executed  in  London  on  a  charge 
of  high-treason.  Their  plan  was,  to  lay  a  restraint  upon  the  king's  person  on  the 
day  of  his  meeting  parliament,  January  16,  1803,  and  to  destroy  him,  and  overturn 
the  government :  a  special  commission  was  issued  on  February  7,  and  they  all  suf- 
fered death,  February  21,  1803. 

DETTINGEN,  Battle  of.  Between  the  British,  Hanoverian,  and  Hessian  army, 
commanded  by  king  George  II.  of  England,  in  person,  and  the  earl  of  Stair,  on  one 
side,  and  the  French  army,  under  Marshal  Noailles  and  the  duke  de  Grammont,  on 
the  other ;  the  first  52,000  and  the  latter  60,000  strong.  The  French  passed  a 
defile  which  they  should  have  been  contented  to  guard ;  and  the  duke  de  Grammont, 
heading  the  French  cavalry,  charged  the  British  foot  with  great  fury,  but  were  re- 
ceived with  such  intrepidity  that  they  were  obliged  to  give  way,  and  to  repass  the 
Mayne,  and  were  defeated,  losing  5000  men,  June  16,  1743. 

"  DEVIL  AND  DR.  FAUSTUS."  Faustus,  one  of  the  eariiest  printers,  had  the  po- 
licy to  conceal  his  art,  and  to  this  policy  we  are  indebted  for  the  tradition  of  ^  'The 
Devil  and  Dr.  Faustus."  Faustus  associated  with  John  of  Guttemberg;  their 
types  were  cut  in  wood,  and  fixed,  not  moveable  as  at  present.  Having  printed  off 
numbers  of  copies  of  the  bible,  to  imitate  those  which  were  commonly  sold  in  MS., 
he  undertook  the  sale  of  them  at  Paris,  where  printing  was  then  unknown.  As  he 
sold  his  copies  for  sixty  crowns,  while  the  scribes  demanded  five  hundred,  he  created 
universal  astonishment ;  but  when  he  produced  copies  as  fast  as  they  were  wanted, 
and  lowered  the  price  to  thirty  crowns,  all  Paris  was  agitated.  The  uniformity  of 
the  copies  increased  the  wonder ;  informations  were  given  to  the  police  against  him 


DIA  C  171  ]  Die 

as  a  magician,  and  his  lodgings  being  searched,  and  a  great  number  of  copies  being 
found,  they  were  seized.  The  red  ink  with  which  they  were  embellished  was  sup- 
posed to  be  his  blood,  and  it  was  seriously  adjudged  that  he  was  in  league  with  the 
devil ;  and  if  he  had  not  fled,  he  would  have  shared  the  fate  of  those  whom  super- 
stitious judges  condemned  in  those  days  for  witchcraft,  a.d.  1460,— Nouv.  Diet. 

DIADEM.  The  band  or  fillet  worn  by  the  ancients  instead  of  the  crown,  and  which 
was  consecrated  to  the  gods.  At  first,  this  fillet  was  made  of  silk  or  wool,  and  set 
with  precious  stones,  and  was  tied  round  the  temples  and  forehead,  the  two  ends 
being  knotted  behind,  and  let  fall  on  the  neck.  Aurelian  was  the  first  Roman  em- 
peror who  wore  a  diadem,  a.d.  272. — TUlemont. 

DIALS.  Invented  by  Anazimander,  550  b.c. — Pliny.  The  first  dial  of  the  sun  seen 
at  Rome,  was  placed  on  the  temple  of  Qairinus  by  L.  Papirins  Cursor,  when  time 
was  divided  into  hours,  293  b.c — Blair.  In  the  times  of  the  emperors  slmost  every 
palace  and  public  buUding  had  a  sun-dial.  They  were  first  set  up  in  churches  in 
A.D.  613. — Lenglet. 

DIAMONDS.  They  were  first  brought  to  Europe  from  the  East,  where  the  mine  of 
Sumbulpour  was  the  first  known  ;  and  where  the  mines  of  Golconda  were  discovered 
in  1584.  This  district  may  be  termed  the  realm  of  diamonds.  The  mines  of  Brazil 
were  discovered  in  1728.  From  these  last  a  diamond,  weighing  1680  carats,  or 
fourteen  ounces,  was  sent  to  the  court  of  Portugal,  and  was  valued  by  M.  Romeo 
de  I'Isle  at  the  extravagant  sum  of  224  millions  ;  by  others  it  was  valued  at  fifty- six 
millions  :  its  value  was  next  stated  to  be  three  millions  and  a  half ;  but  its  true 
Tslue  is  400,000/.  The  diamond  called  the  "  mountain  of  light,"  which  belonged 
to  the  king  of  Canbul,  was  the  most  superb  gem  ever  seen  ;  it  was  of  the  finest  water, 
and  the  size  of  an  egg,  and  was  also  valued  at  three  millions  and  a  half.  The  great 
diamond  of  the  emperor  of  Russia  weighs  193  carats,  or  1  oz.  12  dwt.  4  gr.,troy.  The 
empress  Catharine  II.  offered  for  it  104,166/.  13s.  id,,  besides  an  annuity  for  life,  to 
the  owner,  of  1041/.  13s.  4r/.,  which  was  refused ;  but  it  was  afterwards  sold  to  Ca- 
tharine's favorite,  count  OrlofT,  for  the  first  mentioned  sum,  without  the  annuity, 
and  was  by  him  presented  to  the  empress  on  her  birth-day,  1772  ;  it  is  now  in  the 
sceptre  of  Russia.  The  Pitt  diamond  weighed  136  carats,  and  after  cutting  106 
carats  ;  it  was  sold  to  the  king  of  France  for  100,000/.  in  1720.  The  Pigot  diamond 
was  sold  for  9,500  guineas,  May  10,  1802.  Diamonds  were  found  in  the  Ural 
mountains  in  1829. 

DIAMONDS,  Inflammabxlitt  of.  Boetius  de  Boot  conjectured  that  the  diamond 
was  inflammable,  16U9. — Hist,  of  Gems.  It  was  discovered  that  when  exposed  to 
a  high  temperature,  it  gave  out  an  acrid  vapour  in  which  a  part  of  it  was  dissipated, 
1673. — Boyle,  Sir  Isaac  Newton  concluded  from  its  great  refracting  power  that  it 
must  be  combustible,  1675. — Newton* s  Optics.  The  celebrated  Averani  demon- 
strated, by  concentrating  the  rays  of  the  sun  upon  it,  that  the  diamond  was  exhaled 
in  vapour,  and  entirely  disappeared,  while  other  precious  stones  merely  grew  softer, 
1695.  It  has  been  ascertained  by  Guy  ton,  Davy,  and  others,  that  although  dia- 
monds are  the  hardest  of  all  known  bodies,  they  yet  contain  nothing  more  than  pure 
charcoal,  or  carbon. 

DIAMONDS,  Nine  of.  This  card  has  been  called  the  curse  of  Scotland,  owing,  it  is 
said,  to  a  Scotch  member  of  parliament,  part  of  whose  family  arms  was  the  nine  of 
diamonds,  having  voted  for  the  introduction  of  the  malt  tax  into  Scotland. 

DIANA,  TEMPLE  of,  at  EPHESUS.  One  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world, 
built  at  the  common  charge  of  all  the  Asiatic  States.  The  chief  architect  was 
Ctesipbon  ;  and  Pliny  says  that  220  years  were  employed  in  completing  this  temple, 
whose  riches  were  immense.  It  was  425  feet  long,  225  broad,  and  was  supported 
by  127  columns,  (60  feet  high,  each  weighing  150  tons  of  Parian  marble)  furnished 
by  so  many  kings.  It  was  set  on  fire  on  the  night  of  Alexander's  nativity,  by  an 
obscure  individual  named  Eratostratus,  who  confessed  on  the  rack,  that  the  sole 
motive  which  had  prompted  him  to  destroy  so  magnificent  an  edifice,  was  the  desire 
of  transmitting  his  name  to  future  ages,  356  B.C.  The  temple  was  rebuilt,  and  again 
burnt  by  the  Goths,  in  their  naval  invasion,  a.d.  256. — Univ.  Hist. 

DICE.  The  invention  of  dice  is  ascribed  to  Palamedes,  of  Greece,  about  1224  b.c. 
The  keeper  of  the  temple  of  Hercules,  playing  at  dice,  made  that  god  one  of  the 
number  in  the  game ;  and  Hercules  having  been  the  winner,  became  entitled  to  the 


Die  £  172  ] mo 

fay  ours  of  Acca  Laurentia,  a  celebrated  courtezan,  in  whose  honour  the  Laurentalia 
{which  see)  were  afterwards  instituted. — Plutarch.  The  g^ame  of  Tali  and  Tessera 
among  the  Romans  was  played  with  dice.  Act  to  regulate  the  license  of  makers^ 
and  the  sale  of  dice,  9  George  IV.  1828. 

DICTATORS.  These  were  supreme  and  absolute  magistrates  of  Rome,  instituted 
498  B.C.,  when  Titus  Larcius  Flavus,  the  first  dictator,  was  appointed.  This  office, 
respectable  and  illustrious  in  the  first  ages  of  the  Republic,  became  odious  by  the 
perpetual  usurpations  of  Sylla  and  J.  Cssar ;  and  after  the  death  of  the  latter,  the 
Roman  senate,  on  the  motion  of  the  consul  Antony,  passed  a  decree,  which  for  erer 
forbade  a  dictator  to  exist  in  Rome,  44  B.C. 

DICTIONARY.  A  standard  dictionary  of  the  Chinese  language,  containing  about 
40,000  characters,  most  of  them  hieroglyphic,  or  rude  representations  somewhat  like 
our  signs  of  the  zodiac,  was  perfected  by  Pa-out-she,  who  lived  about  1100  B.C. — 
Morrison.  Cyclopedias  were  compiled  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries. 
The  first  dictionary  of  celebrity,  perhaps  the  first,  is  by  Ambrose  Calepini,  a  Vene- 
tian friar,  in  Latin  ;  he  wrote  one  in  eight  languages,  about  a.d.  1500. — Niceron, 
The  Lexicon  Heptaglotton  was  published  by  Edmund  Castell,  in  1659.  Bayle's 
Dictionary  was  published  in  1696,  **  the  first  work  of  the  kind  in  which  a  man  may 
learn  to  think.'' — Voltaire.  Chambers'  Cyclopeedia,  the  first  dictionary  of  the 
circle  of  the  arts,  sciences,  &c.,  was  published  in  1728.  The  great  dictionary  of  the 
English  langruage,  by  Samuel  Johnson,  who  was  truly  called  the  **  Leviathan  of 
Literature,"  appeared  in  1755.  Francis  Grose's  Dictionary  of  the  Vulgar  Tongue, 
was  compiled  in  1768 ;  and  from  this  period  numerous  dictionaries  hare  been  added 
to  our  store  of  literature. 

DIEPPE.  Laid  in  ashes  by  the  English  admiral  Russell,  in  July  1694,  and  the  town 
has  not  been  so  considerable  since  that  time.  It  was  again  bombarded,  together 
with  the  town  of  Granville,  by  the  British,  September  14,  1803. 

DIET  OF  THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE.  The  supreme  authority  of  this  empire  may 
be  said  to  have  existed  in  the  assemblage  of  princes  under  this  name.  The  diet,  as 
composed  of  three  colleges,  viz.  :— the  college  of  electors,  the  college  of  princes,  and 
the  college  of  imperial  towns,  commenced  with  the  famous  edict  of  Charles  IV. 
1356. — See  Golden  Bull.  Diets  otherwise  constituted  had  long  previously  been 
held  on  important  occasions.  The  diet  of  Wurtzbui^,  which  proscribed  Henry  the 
lion,  was  held  in  1179.  The  celebrated  diet  of  Worms,  at  which  Luther  assisted 
in  person,  was  held  in  1521.  That  of  Spires,  to  condemn  the  Reformers,  was  held 
in  1529 ;  and  the  famous  diet  of  Augsburg,  in  1530.  In  the  league  of  the  German 
princes,  called  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  they  fixed  the  diet  at  Frankfort, 
July  12, 1806.     Germany  is  now  governed  by  a  diet  of  seventeen  voices. 

**  DIEU'DOyNE.'*  The  name  given  in  his  infancy  to  Louis  le  Grand,\ang  of  France, 
because  the  French  considered  him  as  the  gift  of  Heaven,  the  queen,  his  mother, 
having  been  barren  for  twenty-three  years  previously,  a.d.  1638. —  Voltaire. 

DIEUET  MON  DROIT,  "  God,  and  my  right"  This  was  the  parole  of  the  day, 
given  by  Richard  I.  of  England,  to  his  army  at  the  battle  of  Gisors,  in  France.  In 
this  battle  {which  see)  the  French  army  was  signally  defeated  ;  and  in  remembrance 
of  this  victory,  Richard  made  **  Dieu  et  mon  droit"  the  motto  of  the  royal  arms  of 
England,  and  it  has  ever  since  been  retained,  a.d.  1198. — Rymer*s  FcBdera. 

DIGEST.  The  first  collection  of  Roman  laws  under  this  title  was  prepared  by  Alfrenus 
Varus,  the  civilian  of  Cremona,  66  b.c. — Quiniil.  Inst.  Orat.  Other  digests  of 
Roman  laws  followed.  The  Digest,  so  called  by  way  of  eminence,  was  the  col- 
lection of  laws  made  by  order  of  the  emperor  Justinian :  it  made  the  first  part  of  the 
Roman  law,  and  the  first  volume  of  the  civil  law.  Quotations  from  it  are  marked 
with  a  ff."^  Pardon. 

DIGITS.  Arithmetical  figures  were  known  to  the  Arabian  Moors  about  a.d.  900.  They 
were  introduced  from  thence  into  Spain  in  1050,  and  into  England  about  1253.  The 
digit  is  any  whole  number  under  10 — as  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  which  are  called 
the  nine  digits ;  also  a  measure  containing  tluree-quarters  of  an  inch.  In  astronomy, 
the  digit  is  also  a  measure  used  in  the  calculation  of  eclipses,  and  is  the  twelfth  part 
of  the  luminary  eclipsed. — See  article.  Figures. 

DIOCESE.  The  first  division  of  the  Roman  empire  into  dioceses,  which  were  at  that 
period  civil  governments,  is  ascribed  to  Constantine,  a.d.  323  ;  but  Strabo  remarks 


DIO  Q  173  ]  DIS 

that  the  Romans  had  the  departments  called  dioceses  long  before. — Strabo,  lib.  ziii. 
In  England  these  circuits  of  the  bishops'  jurisdiction  are  ooeyal  with  Christianity  ; 
there  are  twenty-fonr  dioceses,  of  which  twenty-one  are  suffragan  to  Canterbury, 
and  three  to  York. 

DIOCLETIAN  ERA.  Called  also  the  era  of  Martjrrs,  was  used  by  Christian  writers 
until  the  introduction  of  the  Christian  era  in  the  sixth  century,  and  is  still  employed 
by  the  Abyssinians  and  Copts.  It  dates  from  the  day  on  whidi  Diocletian  was  pro- 
cLdmed  emperor  at  Chalcedon,  29th  August,  284.  It  is  called  the  era  of  martyrs, 
on  account  of  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian. 

DIORAMA.  This  species  of  exhibition,  which  had  long  previously  been  an  object  of 
wonder  and  delight  at  Paris,  was  first  opened  in  London,  September  29,  1823.  The 
diorama  differs  from  the  panorama  in  this  respect,  that,  instead  of  a  circular  view  of 
the  objects  represented,  it  exhibits  the  whole  picture  at  once  in  perspectiye,  and  it  is 
decidedly  superior  both  to  the  panorama  and  the  cosmorama  in  the  fidelity  with 
which  the  objects  are  depicted,  and  in  the  completeness  of  the  illusion. 

DIRECTORY,  the  CHURCH.  The  book  so  called  was  published  in  England  at  the 
period  of  the  civil  war.  It  was  drawn  up  at  the  instance  of  the  parliament,  by  an 
assembly  of  divines  at  Westminster,  with  the  object  .that  the  ministers  might  not  be 
wholly  at  a  loss  in  their  devotions  after  the  suppression  of  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer.  There  were  some  general  hints  given,  which  were  to  be  managed  at 
discretion,  for  the  Directory  prescribed  no  form  of  prayer,  nor  manner  of  external 
worship,  nor  enjoined  the  people  to  make  any  responses,  except  Amen,  The  Directory 
was  established  by  an  ordinance  of  the  parliament  in  1 644. — Bishop  Taylor. 

DIRECTORY,  French.  The  French  Directory  was  installed  at  the  Little  Luxembourg, 
at  Paris,  under  a  new  constitution  of  the  government,  Nov.  1,  1795,  and  held  the 
executive  power  four  years.  It  was  composed  of  five  members,  and  ruled  in  con- 
nexion with  two  chambers,  the  Council  of  Ancients  and  Council  of  Five  Hundred, 
tphich  see.  Deposed  by  Buonaparte,  who,  with  Cambac^r^s  and  Si^yes,  became  the 
ruling  power  of  France,  the  three  governing  as  consuls,  the  first  as  chief,  November 
9,  1799.    See  Buonaparte, 

DISCIPLINE,  THE  BOOK  of.  Drawn  up  by  an  assembly  of  ministers  in  Scotland,  in 
A.D.  1650.     In  this  book  the  government  of  the  church  by  prelates  was  set  aside. 

DISPENSATIONS.  Ecclesiastical  dispensations  were  first  granted  by  pope  Innocent 
III.  in  1200.  These  exemptions  from  the  law  and  discipline  of  the  church  led 
eventually,  with  indulgences,  absolutions,  and  the  remission  of  sins,  to  the  Reformation 
in  Germany  in  1517,  and  subsequently  to  that  in  England  in  1534  et  seq, 

DISPENSING  POWER  of  the  CROWN.  This  was  a  power  unconstitutionally 
asserted  by  James  II.  in  1686.  Most  of  the  judges  were  dismissed  by  that  infa- 
tuated monarch  for  refusing  to  allow  the  legality  of  this  power,  1687.  Since  this 
period  the  same  power  has  been  on  certain  occasions  exercised,  as  in  the  case  of 
embargoes  upon  ships,  the  restraint  upon  corn  leaving  the  kingdom,  &c.,  without  the 
previous  concurrence  of  parliament.     See  Indemnity, 

DISSENTERS.  They  arose  early  in  the  Reformation,  contending  for  a  more  complete 
departure  from  the  Romish  models  of  church  government  and  discipline.  They 
were  reproached  with  the  name  of  Puritans,  on  account  of  the  purity  they  proposed 
in  religious  worship  and  conduct ;  and  the  rigorous  treatment  they  endured  under 
Elizabeth  and  James  I.  led  multitudes  of  them  to  emigrate  in  those  reigns.  The 
first  place  of  worship  for  Dissenters  in  England  was  established  at  Wandsworth,  a 
village  near  London,  November  20, 1572  ;  and  now,  in  London  alone,  the  number 
of  chapels,  meeting-houses,  &c.  for  all  classes  of  Dissenters,  amounts  to  near  200. 
The  great  act  for  the  relief  of  Dissenters  from  civil  and  religious  disabilities,  was  the 
statute  passed  9  George  IV.  c.  17.  By  this  act,  called  the  Corporation  and  Test 
Repeal  Act,  so  much  of  the  several  acts  of  parliament  of  the  preceding  reigns  as 
imposed  the  necessity  of  receiving  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  as  a  qualifi- 
cation for  certain  offices,  &c.  was  repealed,  May  9,  1828.  Several  other  acts  of 
ameliorating  effect  have  been  since  passed. 

DISTAFF.  The  staff  to  which  hemp,  fiax,  wool,  or  other  substances  to  be  spun  is 
fastened.  The  art  of  spinning  with  it,  at  the  small  wheel,  first  taught  to  English 
women  by  Anthony  Bonavisa,  an  Italian,  20  Henry  VII.  IbOb.-^Stowe. 


DIS  C  A74  ]  DOC 

DISTILLATION,  and  the  various  chemical  processes  dependent  on  the  art,  are 
generally  believed  to  have  been  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Moors,  about  a.o. 
1150 ;  their  brethren  of  Africa  had  them  from  the  Egyptians.  The  distillation  of 
spirituous  liquors  was  in  practice  in  these  countries  in  the  sixteenth  century. — Bums, 

DIVINATION.  In  the  Scriptures  we  find  mention  made  of  different  kinds  of  divina- 
tion ;  and  it  is  mentioned  by  most  of  the  ancient  authors.  It  was  retained  in  the 
hands  of  the  priest  and  priestesses,  the  magi,  soothsayers,  augurs,  and  other  like 
professors,  till  the  coming  of  Christ,  when  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  and  the  spirit 
of  philosophy  banished  such  visionary  opinions.  The  oracles  of  Delphi  began,  1 263  B.C. 
Augurs  were  instituted  by  Numa  at  Rome,  710  b.c. — See  Augury ^  Witchcraft^  ^o, 

DIVING-BELL.  First  mentioned,  though  obscurely,  by  Aristotle,  325  b.c.  The 
diving-bell  was  first  used  in  Europe,  a.d.  1509.  It  is  said  to  have  been  used  on  the 
coast  of  Mull,  in  searching  for  the  wreck  of  part  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  before  a.d. 
1669.  Halley  greatly  improved  this  machine,  and  was,  it  is  said,  the  first  who,  by 
means  of  a  diving-bell,  set  his  foot  on  dry  ground  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  Smeaton 
applied  the  condensing-pump  to  force  down  air.  Mr.  Spalding  and  his  assistants 
going  down  in  a  diving-bell  in  Ireland,  were  drowned,  June  1,  1783.  The  Royal 
George  man-of-war,  which  was  sunk  off  Portsmouth  in  1732,  was  first  surveyed  by 
•  means  of  a  diving-bell,  in  May  1817.  Lately,  and  particularly  in  1840,  it  has  been 
employed  in  sub-marine  surveys.  The  first  dXvuig-belle  was  the  wife  of  Captain 
Morris,  at  Plymouth,  who  descended  in  one  a  few  years  ago. 

DIVORCES  FOR  ADULTERY.  Of  the  earliest  institution,  both  in  ecclesiastical 
and  civil  law,  among  the  ancients.  First  put  in  practice  by  Spurius  Carvilius  at 
Rome,  231  b.  c. — Blair,  At  this  time  morals  were  so  debased,  that  3000  prosecu- 
tions for  adultery  were  enrolled.  Divorces  were  attempted  to  be  made  of  more  easy 
obtainment  in  England,  in  a.d.  1539.  The  bill  to  prevent  women  marrying  their 
seducers  was  brought  into  parliament  in  1801. 

DIZIER,  St.,  in  Champagne.  One  of  the  most  memorable  sieges  in  modem  history 
was  sustained  by  this  town  for  six  weeks  against  the  army  of  Charles  V.  emperor  of 
Germany,  a.d.  1544.  A  battle  was  fought  here  between  the  army  of  the  allies  on 
one  side,  and  the  French  commanded  by  Napoleon  in  person  on  the  other,  in  which 
the  latter  army  was  defeated  with  considerable  loss,  January  27,  1814. 

DOCKS  OF  LONDON.  They  are  said  to  be  the  most  extensive  and  finest  constructions 
of  the  kind,  for  the  purposes  of  commerce,  in  the  world.  In  London  there  are  a 
number  of  these  docks,  of  which  the  following  are  the  principal : — The  West  India 
docks,  the  act  for  whose  formation  passed  in  July  1799  ;  they  were  commenced 
February  3,  1800,  and  were  opened  August  27,  1802,  when  the  Henry  Addington 
West  Indiaman  first  entered  them,  decorated  with  the  colours  of  the  different  nations 
of  Europe.  The  London  docks  were  commenced  June  26,  1802,  and  were  opened 
January  31,  1805.  The  East  India  docks  were  commenced  under  an  act  passed 
July  27,  1803,  and  were  opened  August  4,  1806.  The  first  stone  of  the  St.  Kathe- 
rine  docks  were  laid  May  3,  1827  ;  and  2,500  men  was  daily  employed  upon  them 
until  they  were  opened,  October  25,  1828. 

DOCK- YARDS,  Royal.  There  are  seven  chief  dock-yards  in  England  and  Wales, 
and  nine  others  in  various  of  our  colonies.  That  of  Woolwich  was  already  an 
extensive  one  in  1509.  Chatham  dock-yard  was  founded  by  queen  Elizabeth,  and 
is  one  of  th6  principal  stations  of  the  royal  navy  ;  it  contains  immense  magazines  of 
warlike  stores,  rendering  it  one  of  the  finest  arsenals  in  Europe.  The  dock-yard  at 
Portsmouth  was  established  by  Henry  VIII.  Plymouth  Dock,  now  Devonport,  is  a 
matchless  naval  magazine  and  rendezvous.  After  the  insult  of  the  Dutch,  who 
burnt  our  men-of-war  at  Chatham  in  1667,  Charles  II.  strengthened  Sheerness, 
where  there  is  a  fine  dock-yard.  Great  fire  in  the  dock-yard  at  Devonport,  by 
which  the  Talavera,  of  74  guns,  the  Imogene,  of  28  guns,  and  immense  stores  were 
destroyed ;  the  relics  and  figure-heads  of  the  favourite  ships  of  Boscawen,  Rodney, 
Duncan,  and  other  naval  heroes,  which  were  preserved  in  a  naval  museum,  were 
also  burnt,  September  27,  1840.  Fire  at  Sheerness  dock-yard  on  board  the  Cam- 
perdowrif  October  9,  1840. 

DOCTOR.  This  rank  was  known  in  the  earliest  times.  Doctor  of  the  church  was  a 
title  given  to  SS.  Athanasius,  Basil,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  Chrysostom,  in  the 
Greek  church ;  and  to  SS.  Jerome,    Augustin,  and  Gregory  the  Great^  ia  the 


DOC  [[  175  ]  DOM 

Romish  cfaarch,  a.o.  373,  etaeq.  Doctor  of  the  law  was  a  title  of  honour  amoDg 
the  Jews.  The  degree  of  doctor  was  conferred  in  England,  8  John,  1207.— 
Sprlman.  Some  give  it  an  earlier  date,  referring  it  to  the  time  of  the  Yenerahle 
Bede  and  John  de  Beverley,  the  former  of  whom,  it  is  said,  was  the  first  that 
obtained  the  degree  at  Cambridge,  about  a.d.  725. — See  Collegiate  Degrees, 

DOCTORS'  COMMONS.  The  college  for  the  professors  of  civil  and  canon  law,  residing 
in  the  city  of  London ;  the  name  of  Commons  is  given  to  this  college  from  the 
civilians  commoning  together  as  in  other  colleges.  Doctors'  Commons  was  founded 
by  Dr.  Henry  Harvey,  whose  original  college  was  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of  1666, 
but  after  some  years  it  was  rebailt  on  the  old  site.  The  causes  taken  cognizance  of 
here  are,  blasphemy,  divorces,  bastardy,  adultery,  penance,  tithes,  mortuaries,  pro- 
bate of  wills,  &C. — See  article  Civil  Law, 

DOG.  The  chien  de  berger,  or  the  shepherd's  dog,  is  the  origin  of  the  whole  race.— 
Buffon.  Boffon  describes  this  dog  as  being  *^  the  root  of  the  tree,''  assigning  as  his 
reason  that  it  possesses  from  nature  the  greatest  share  of  instinct.  The  Irish  wolf- 
dog  is  supposed  to  be  the  earliest  dog  known  in  Europe,  if  Irish  writers  be  correct. 
Dr.  Gall  mentions  that  a  dog  was  taken  from  Vienna  to  England  ;  that  it  escaped  to 
Dover,  got  on  board  a  vessel,  landed  at  Calais,  and  after  accompanying  a  gentleman 
to  Mentz,  returned  to  Vienna.  Statute  against  dog-stealing,  10  George  III.  1770. 
Dog-tax  imposed,  1796,  and  again  in  1808.  The  cruel  employment  of  dogs  in 
drawing  carts  and  burthens  through  the  streets,  was  abolished  January  1, 1840.— 
See  Greyhound. 

DOG-DAYS.  The  canicular  or  dog-dayt,  commence  on  the  3d  of  July,  and  end  on 
the  11th  of  August.  Common  opinion  has  been  accustomed  to  regard  the  rising 
and  setting  of  Sirins,  or  the  dog-star  *,  with  the  sun,  as  the  cause  of  excessive  heat, 
and  of  consequent  calamities,  instead  of  its  being  Tiewed  as  the  sign  when  such  effects 
■  might  be  expected.  The  star  not  only  varies  in  its  rising,  in  every  one  year  as  the 
latitude  varies,  but  is  always  later  and  later  every  year  in  all  latitudes,  so  that  in 
time  the  star  may,  by  the  same  rule,  come  to  be  charged  with  bringing  frost  and 
snow. — Dr.  Button, 

DOGE.  The  title  of  the  duke  of  Venice,  which  state  was  first  governed  by  a  prince  so 
named,  Anafesto  Paululio,  a.d.  697.  The  Genoese  revolted  against  their  count,  and 
chose  a  doge  from  among  their  nobility,  and  became  an  aristocratic  republic,  1030-4. 
The  ceremony  of  the  doge  of  Venice  marrying  the  sea,  "  the  Adriatic  wedded  to  our 
duke,"  was  instituted  in  1173,  and  was  observed  annually  on  Ascension-day,  until 
1797,  when  the  custom  was  dispensed  with. — See  Adriatic, 

DOGGET  COAT  and  BADGE.  The  annual  rowing-match  upon  the  Thames,  thus 
called,  originated  in  this  way.  Mr.  Thomas  Dogget,  an  eminent  actor  of  Drury-lane, 
on  the  first  anniversary  of  the  accession  to  the  ti^rone  of  George  I.  gave  a  waterman's 
coat  and  silver  badge  to  be  rowed  for  by  six  young  watermen  in  honour  of  the  day. 
And,  to  commemorate  that  event,  he  bequeathed  at  his  death  a  sum  of  money,  the 
interest  whereof  was  to  be  appropriated  annually,  for  ever,  to  the  same  purpose. 
The  candidates  start,  at  a  signal  given,  at  that  time  of  the  tide  when  the  current  is 
strongest  against  them,  and  row  from  the  Old  Swan,  London-bridge,  to  the  White 
Swan,  at  Chelsea ;  first  match,  August  1,  1715. 

DOIT.  A  silver  Scottish  penny,  of  which  twelve  were  equal  to  a  penny  sterling  Some 
of  those  struck  by  Charles  I.  and  II.  are  in  the  cabinets  of  the  curious.  A  Dutch 
piece  of  this  name  was  also  coined. 

DOMINGO,  ST.  Discovered  by  Columbus  in  his  second  voyage,  in  1493.  The  city 
was  founded  in  1494.  The  town  of  Port-au.Prince  was  burnt  down,  and  nearly 
destroyed  by  the  revolted  negroes,  in  Oct.,  Nov.,  and  Dec,  1791.  Tonssaint 
L'Ouvertnre  governed  the  island,  on  the  expulsion  of  the  French  colonists,  after  this 
till  1802,  when  he  was  entrapped  by  Buonaparte,  and  died  in  prison.  His  successor, 
Dessalines,  recommended  the  blacks,  by  proclamation,  to  make  a  general  massacre  of 
the  whites,  which  was  accordingly  executed  with  horrid  cruelty,  and  2500  were 
butchered  in  one  day,  March  29,  1804.     Dessalines  proclaimed  himself  emperor, 

*  Mathematicians  assert  th^  Slrios,  or  the  Dog  Stur,  is  the  nearest  to  us  of  all  the  fixed  stars ;  and 
they  compute  its  dlatanoe  from  our  earth  at  2^00,000  millions  of  miles.  They  maintain  that  a  sound 
would  not  reach  our  earth  from  Sirius  in  M,000  years ;  and  that  a  cannon-ball,  flying  with  its  usual 
vtlooity  of  480  miles  an  hour,  would  consume  £23,81 1  years  In  its  passage  thence  to  our  globe. 


■■■■— -■-■-■■^■- ■ ■ — -i  —  ^"  ■■■■^■■l        111  ■■■■■         ■        —f      ■ 

DOM  r  176  "1  DOU 

»       —  ~ — _ ■ . —  ■ 

Oct.  8,  1804.     See  Hayti,  in  which  article  particulars  will  be  found  up  to  the 
independence  of  St.  Domingo,  acknowledged  by  France,  in  April,  1825. 

DOMINICA.  Discovered  by  Columbus  in  his  second  voyage,  in  1493.  This  island 
was  taken  by  the  British  in  1761,  and  was  confirmed  to  them  by  the  peace  of  1763. 
The  French  took  Dominica  in  1778,  but  restored  it  at  the  subsequent  peace  in  1783. 
It  suffered  great  damage  by  a  tremendous  hurricane  in  1806 ;  and  several  devas- 
tating hurricanes  have  moc^  recentiy  occurred. 

DOMINICAL  LETTER.  Noting  the  Lord's  day,  or  Sunday.  The  seven  days  of 
the  week,  reckoned  as  beginning  on  the  Ist  of  January,  are  designated  as  by  the  first 
seven  letters  of  the  alphabet,  A»  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G  ;  and  the  one  of  these  which 
denotes  Sunday  is  the  dominical  letter.  If  the  year  begin  on  Sunday,  A  is  the  do- 
minical letter  ;  if  it  begin  on  Monday,  that  letter  is  G  ;  lif  on  Tuesday,  it  is  F,  and  so 
on.  Generally  to  find  the  dominical  letter  call  New  Year's  day  A,  the  next  day  B, 
and  go  on  thus  until  you  come  to  the  first  Sunday,  and  the  letter  that  answers  to  it 
is  the  dominical  letter  ;  in  leap  years  count  two  letters. 

DOMINICANS.  A  religious  order  whose  power  and  influence  were  almost  universal. 
They  were  called  in  France  Jacobins,  and  in  England  Blackfriars,  and  were  founded 
by  St.  Dominick,  approved  by  Innocent  III.  in  1215  ;  and  the  order  was  confirmed 
by  a  bull  of  Honorius  III.  in  1216,  under  St.  Austin's  rules,  and  the  founder's 
particular  constitutions.  In  1276  the  corporation  of  London  gave  them  two  whole 
streets  by  the  river  Thames,  where  they  erected  a  large  and  elegant  convent,  and 
whence  tiiat  part  is  still  called  Blackfriars. 

DONATISTS.  An  ancient  sect  of  schismatics  founded  by  Donatus,  bishop  of 
Carthage,  about  a.d.  331.  The  general  profession  of  this  sect  was  an.  exclusive 
pretended  puritanism. — Hooker.  The  Donatists  held  that  the  Father  was  above  the 
Son,  and  the  Son  above  the  Holy  Ghost ;  and  that  there  was  no  virtue  in  the  cliurch, 
for  which  reason  those  of  their  sect  were  re-baptised. 

DOOM'S-DAY  OR  DOME'S-DAY  BOOK.  Liber  JudiciaHtis  vel  CensuaOs  Anglim. 
A  book  of  the  general  survey  of  England,  commenced  in  the  reign  of  William  I.  a.d. 
1080.  The  intent  of  this  book  was,  to  be  a  register  whereby  to  determine  the  right 
in  the  tenure  of  estates ;  and  from  this  book  the  question  whether  lands  be  ancient 
demesne  or  not,  is  sometimes  still  decided.  The  book  is  still  preserved  in  the 
Exchequer,  fair  and  legible,  consisting  of  two  volumes,  a  greater  and  lesser,  wherein 
all  the  counties  of  England,  except  Northumberland  and  Durham,  are  surveyed. 
It  was  finished  in  a.d.  1086,  having  been  completed  by  five  justices.  '*  This  dome*8- 
day  book  was  the  tax-book  of  kinge  William." — Camden,  The  taxes  were  levied 
according  to  this  survey  till  13  Henry  YIII.  1522,  when  a  more  accurate  survey  was 
taken,  and  was  called  by  the  people  the  new  Doom's-day-book. 

DORCHESTER,  Bishopric  of.  Founded  in  a.d.  634.  It  continued  for  460  years. 
In  A.D.  1094,  Remigius,  its  last  prelate,  transferred  it  to  Lincoln,  which  see, 

DORIC  Order  of  Architecture.  The  most  ancient  of  the  five,  the  invention  of 
the  Dorians,  a  people  of  Greece.  The  Dorians  also  gave  the  name  to  the  Doric 
muse.  The  migration  of  this  people  to  the  Peloponnesus  took  place  1104  b.c. 
They  sent,  in  their  vast  spirit  of  enterprise,  many  colonies  into  different  places,  which 
afterwards  bore  the  same  name  as  their  native  country. 

DORT.  Here  happened  an  awful  inundation  of  the  sea,  a.d.  1446.  It  arose  in  the 
breaking  down  of  the  dykes ;  and  in  the  territory  of  Dordrecht  10,000  persons  were 
overwhelmed  and  perished ;  and  more  than  100,000  round  DuUart,  in  Friesland  and 
in  Zealand.  In  the  last  two  provinces  upwards  of  300  villages  were  overflowed,  and 
the  tops  of  their  towers  and  steeples  were  for  ages  after'  to  be  seen  rising  out  of  the 
water.  Dort  is  feimous  for  the  Protestant  synod  held  in  1618  ;  a  general  assembly, 
to  which  'deputies  were  sent  from  England,  and  from  all  the  Reformed  churches  in 
Europe,  to  settle  the  differences  between  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  Calvin,  and 
Arminius,  principally  upon  points  of  justification  and  grace.  This  synod  condemned 
the  tenets  of  Arminius^ — Aiizema, 

DOUAY,  IN  France.  Erected  into,  a  university  by  Philip  11.  of  Spain,  who  founded 
here  the  celebrated  college  of  Roman  Catholics,  a.d.  1569.  Douay  was  taken  from 
the  Spaniards  by  Louis  XIV.  in  person,  in  1667.  It  was  taken  by  the  duke  of 
Marlborough,  in  1710 ;  and  retaken  by  the  French  next  year.  This  town  gives  iU 
name  to  the  Catholic  edition  of  the  Bible,  which  continues  in  almost  universal  use 


DOV  C  *77  ]  DRA 

by  the  consent  of  the  soccessiTe  popes  among  the  members  of  that  communion,  as 
the  only  anthorised  version  of  the  Sacred  volame  ;  its  text  being  copiously  explained 
by  the  notes  of  Catholic  divines. 

DOVE.  This  bird  has  been  always  in  great  ftiTonr  with  the  Eastern  nations,  and  was 
held  sacred  in  the  early  ages  by  many  of  them.  The  doye  was  sent  from  the  ark, 
and  returned  2347,  B.C.  Fuller)  in  his  History  of  the  Holy  War,  tells  us  that  at  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem  the  Christians  intercepted  a  letter  tied  to  the  feet  of  a  dove,  in  which 
the  Persian  emperor  promised  assistance  to  the  besieged. — Fuller^  hook  I.  cap,  xziv. 

DOVER.  Here  Julius  Cssar  made  his  first  landing  in  England,  August  26,  55  B.C. 
Its  original  castle  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  him  soon  after  ;  but  this  is  disputed. 
The  castle  was  rebuilt  and  strengthened  by  Henry  II.  and  rendered  impregnable  by 
the  towers  and  works  erected  in  succeeding  reigns.  The  priory  was  commenced  by 
archbishop  Corboyl,  orCorboist  about  a.d.  1130.  At  Dover,  king  John  ingloriously 
resigned  his  kingdom  to  Pandolf,  the  pope's  legate,  May  13,  1213.  The  pier  was 
projected  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1533.  Charles  II.  landed  here  from  his  exile,  May  25, 
1660.  The  Foot- barracks  were  burnt  down  by  an  accidental  fire,  July  30,  1800. 
A  large  part  of  the  cliff  fell,  Nov.  27,  1810.  Tlie  quantity  of  land  lost  by  two  foils 
was  estimated  at  six  acres. 

DOWER.  The  gifts  of  a  husband  for  a  wife. — Genesis  xxxiv.  12.  The  custom  is  said 
to  l>e  derived  from  the  Germans  ;  and  it  was  a  usage  among  the  Saxons,  as  appears 
from  the  laws  of  king  Edmund,  by  which  a  widow  was  entitled  to  a  moiety  of  her 
husband's  property  for  her  life,  a.d.  941.  The  widows  of  traitors,  but  not  those  of 
felons,  are  debarred  their  dower  by  statute  5  Edward  VI.,  1550. — Statutes. 

DOWN,  Bishopric  of.  An  ancient  see,  whose  first  bishop  was  St.  Cailan,  in  499. 
At  the  instance  of  John  Conrcey,  the  conqueror  of  Ulster,  the  cathedral,  although 
previously  consecrated  to  the  Trinity,  was  dedicated  to  the  honour  of  St.  Patrick, 
about  1183.  Christopher  Pemb ridge  alleges,  in  bis  Annals,  that  many  believed 
Courcey  by  this  act  had  drawn  on  himself  that  vast  train  of  misfortunes  which  after- 
wards befel  him.  The  sepulchre  of  St.  Patrick  (who  was  buried  here  in  493,  in  the 
abbey  of  Saul,  founded  by  himself)  brought  this  place  into  great  repute.  The  see 
was  united  with  that  of  Connor  in  1441 ;  it  is  valued  in  the  king's  books,  15  James 
I.,  at  25/.  per  ann. — See  Connor,  The  cathedral  of  Downpatrick  was  destroyed  by 
lord  Grey,  lord  deputy  of  Ireland,  for  which,  and  other  crimes,  he  was  impeached, 
and  beheaded,  in  1541. — Beatson. 

DRACO,  Laws  of.  Draco,  when  he  exercised  the  office  of  archon,  made  a  code  of 
laws,  which,  on  account  of  their  severity,  were  said  to  be  written  in  letters  of  blood : 
by  them  idleness  was  punished  with  as  much  severity  as  murder ;  the  smallest 
laransgression,  he  said,  deserved  death,  and  he  could  not  find  any  punishment  more 
rigorous  for  more  atrocious  crimes,  623  B.C. — Sigonius  de  Repub,  Athen, 

DRAGOONS.  The  name  is  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from  dragon,  ''because 
mounted  on  horseback  with  lighted  match  he  seemeth  like  a  fiery  dragon." — Mey- 
rick's  Pref,  to  Anc,  Armour,  The  dracona&ii  were  horse  soldiers  who  bore 
dragons  for  ensigns.  The  first  regiment  of  dragoons  was  raised  in  England,  a.d.  1681. 

DRAKE'S  CIRCUMNAVIGATION.  Sir  Francis  Drake  sailed  from  Plymouth  Nov. 
13,  1577,  and  sailing  round  the  globe,  returned  to  England,  after  many  perilous  ad- 
ventures, Nov.  3,  1580.  This  illustrious  seaman  was  vice-admiral  under  lord 
Howard,  high  admiral  of  England,  in  the  memorable  conflict  with  the  Spanish 
Armada,  Jcdy  19,  1588.  His  expeditions  and  victories  over  the  Spaniards  have 
been  equalled  by  modem  admirals,  but  not  his  generosity ;  for  he  divided  the  booty 
he  took  in  proportional  shares  with  the  common  sailors,  even  to  wedges  of  gold  given 
him  in  return  for  his  presents  to  Indian  chiefs. — Stowe,     Rapin, 

DRAMA.  We  owe  both  forms  of  composition,  tragedy  and  comedy,  to  the  Greeks. 
The  first  comedy  was  performed  at  Athens,  by  Susarion  and  Dolon,  on  a  moveable 
scaffold,  562  b.c.  See  Comedy.  The  chorus  was  introduced  556  b.c.  See 
Chorus,  Tragedy  was  first  represented  at  Athens,  by  Thespis,  on  a  waggon,  536 
B.C. — Arund,  Marb,  Thespis  of  Icaria,  the  inventor  of  tragedy,  performed  at 
Athens  Aleestis,  this  year,  and  was  rewarded  with  a  goat,  536  b.c. — Pliny,  Anax- 
andrides  was  the  first  dramatic  poet  who  introduced  intrigues  and  rapes  upon  the 
stage.  He  composed  about  a  hundred  plays,  of  which  ten  obtained  the  prize  ;  he 
died  340  B.C. 

N 


DRA  Q  178  ]  DRE 

DRAMA  IN  ROME.  The  drama  was  first  introduced  into  Rome  on  occasion  of  a 
plague  which  raged  during  the  consulate  of  C.  Sulpicius  Peticus  and  C.  Lucinius 
Stolo.  The  magistrates  to  appease  the  incensed  deities  instituted  the  games  called 
Scenicif  which  were  amusements  entirely  new.  Actors  from  Etruria  danced,  after 
the  Tuscan  manner,  to  the  flute,  364  b.c.  Subsequently  came  satires  accompanied 
with  music  set  to  the  flute  ;  and  afterwards  plays  were  represented  by  Living  An- 
dronicus,  who,  abandoning  satires,  wrote  plays  with  a  regular  and  connected  plot, 
240  B.C. — Livy.  Andronicus  was  the  flrst  person  who  gave  singing  and  dancing  to 
two  different  performers ;  he  danced  himself,  and  gave  the  singing  to  a  younger 
exhibitor Livy, 

DRAMA,  Modern.  The  modem  drama  arose  early  in  the  rude  attempts  of  minstrels 
and  buffoons  at  fairs  in  France,  Italy,  and  England.—  Warton.  Stories  from  the 
Bible  were  represented  by  the  priests,  and  were  the  origin  of  sacred  comedy. — Idem. 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  an  early  father  of  the  church,  is  said  to  have  constructed  a 
drama  about  a.d.  364,  on  the  Passion  of  Christ,  to  counteract  the  profanities  of  the 
heathen  stage,  and  thus  to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  the  modern  romantic  drama ; 
but  this  is  not  clearly  proved.  Fitzstephen,  in  his  Life  of  Thomas  a  Beckett  asserts 
that  ^  London  had  for  its  theatrical  exhibitions  holy  plays,  and  the  representation  of 
miracles,  wrou^t  by  holy  confessors."  The  Chester  Mysteries  were  performed  about 
1270.  Plays  were  performed  at  Clerkenwell  by  the  parish  clerks  in  1397,  and  mi- 
racles were  represented  in  the  fields.  Allegorical  characters  were  introduced  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VI.  Individual  characters  were  introduced  in  Henry  VII.'s  reign. 
The  first  regular  drama  acted  in  Europe  was  the  '^Sophonisba*'  of  Trissino,  at  Rome, 
in  the  presence  of  pope  Leo  X.,  1515. —  Voltaire.  The  English  drama  became  per- 
fect in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  The  flrst  royal  license  for  the  drama  in  England  was 
to  master  Burbage,  and  four  others,  servants  to  the  earl  of  Leicester,  to  act  plays  at 
the  Globe,  Bankside,  1574.  A  license  was  granted  to  Shakspeare,  and  his  associates, 
in  1603.  Plays  were  opposed  by  the  Puritans  in  1633,  and  were  afterwards  sus- 
pended until  the  Restoration  in  1660.  Two  companies  of  regular  performers  were 
licensed  by  Charles  II.,  Killigrew's  and  Davenant's,  in  1662.  KUligrew^s  patent 
bears  date  April  25,  in  that  year  ;  and  sir  William  Davenant's  was  regulated  same 
time.  The  first  was  at  the  Bull,  Yere-street,  Clare-market,  which  was  immediately 
afterwards  removed  to  Drury-lane ;  the  other  in  Dorset-gardens.  Till  this  time 
boys  performed  women's  parts.  Sir  William  Davenant  introduced  operas,  and  both 
companies  united,  1684,  and  continued  together  till  1694,  when  a  schism  under 
Betterton  led  to  the  opening  of  a  theatre  in  Lincoln's-Inn  Fields,  1695,  which  was 
the  parent  of  Covent  Garden.  Act  for  the  revision  of  plays,  and  for  licensing  them 
previously  to  being  performed,  1737.  Authors'  Dramatic  Copyright  Protection  Act, 
3  William  IV.,  June  1833. — See  Covent  Garden^  Drury-lane^  &c. 

DREAMS.  The  first  who  attempted  to  give  an  interpretation  to  dreams,  and  to  draw 
prognostics  from  omens,  was  Amphictyon  of  Athens,  1497  B.C.  Laodice,  the  mo- 
ther of  Seleucus,  nine  months  before  his  birth,  dreamed  that  Apollo  presented  her 
with  a  precious  stone,  on  which  was  engraved  the  figure  of  ah  anchor,  and  com- 
manded her  to  deliver  it  to  her  son  as  soon  as  born.  It  is  said,  that  in  the  morning 
she  found  a  ring,  answering  in  description  the  jewel  she  had  dreamed  of;  and  that 
not  only  the  son  of  whom  she  was  then  pregnant,  but  all  his  successors  of  the  house 
of  the  Seleucidse,  had  the  mark  of  an  anchor  on  the  thigh,  353  b.c.  There  is  scrip- 
tural authority  for  a  reliance  upon  dreams;  particularly  may  be  mentioned  the  dream 
of  Joseph,  see  Matthew  i.  20.  In  Westminster  Abbey  are  singular  records  of  the 
dreams  of  Edward  the  Confessor  ;  and  instances  of  faith  in  visions  would  fill  a  vo- 
lume. A  remarkable  modern  instance  is  attested  in  the  Life  of  lord  Lyttleton :  that 
distinguished  nobleman  expired  three  days  after  a  singular  dream,  in  which  he  was 
warned  of  his  approaching  dissolution,  Aug.  22,  1773. 

DRESDEN.  Peace  of  Dresden,  between  Saxony,  Prussia,  and  the  queen  of  Hungary, 
confirming  the  treaties  of  Berlin  and  Breslau,  Dec.  25,  1745.  Siege  of  Dresden  by 
the  king  of  Prussia  ;  during  which  memorable  investment  he  bombarded  the  town, 
but  was  obliged  to  retire  after  nine  days,  1759.  This  city  has  been  taken  and  retaken 
.  several  times.  Battle  of  Dresden,  see  next  article.  Here  marshal  St.  Cyr,  and 
•  25,000  French  troops,  surrendered  to  the  allies,  Nov.  6,  1813.  Political  commotion, 
the  king  of  Saxony  resigns  the  royal  authority,  and  prince  Frederick,  his  nephew,  i  s 
declared  regent,  Sept.  9,  et  seq,  1830. 


DRE  C   '79  ]  DRU 

DRESDEN,  Battle  of,  between  the  allied  army  under  the  prince  of  Schwarzenberg, 
and  the  French  army  commanded  by  Napoleon,  Aag.  26  and  27,  1813.  The  allies, 
who  were  200,000  strong,  attacked  Napoleon  in  his  position  at  Dresden,  and  the 
event  had  nearly  proved  fatal  to  them,  but  for  an  error  in  the  conduct  of  general 
Vandamme.  They  were  defeated  with  dreadful  loss,  and  were  obliged  to  retreat 
into  Bohemia  ;  but  Vandamme  pursuing  them  too  far,  his  division  was  cut  to  pieces, 
and  himself  and  all  his  staff  made  prisoners.  In  this  battle  general  Moreau  received 
bis  mortal  wound  while  in  conversation  with  the  emperor  of  Russia. 

DRESDEN  CHINA.  The  fine  porcelain  ware  known  as  Dresden  china,  was  disco- 
vered by  M.  Boeticher,  who  was  at  the  time  only  an  apothecary's  boy,  1700.  Ser- 
vices of  this  ware  have  cost  many  thousands  of  pounds  each.  A  costly  service, 
each  piece  exquisitely  painted,  and  the  battles  represented,  and  subjects,  all  different, 
was  presented  to  the  duke  of  Wellington,  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  in  1816,  and  is  the 
finest  in  England. 

DRESS.  Excess  in  dress  was  restrained  by  a  law  in  England,  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
IV.,  1465.  And  again  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  1574. — Stowe.  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  we  are  told,  wore  a  white  satin-pinked  vest,  close  sleeved  to  the  wrist,  and 
over  the  body  a  brown  doublet  finely  flowered,  and  embroidered  with  pearls.  In  the 
feather  of  his  hat,  a  large  ruby  and  pearl  drop  at  the  bottom  of  the  sprig,  in  place 
of  a  button.  His  breeches,  with  his  stockings  and  ribbon  garters,  fringed  at  the 
end,  all  white ;  and  buff  shoes,  which  on  great  court  days  were  so  gorgeously 
covered  with  precious  stones,  as  to  have  exceeded  the  value  of  6600/.  ;  and  he  had 
a  suit  of  armour  of  solid  silver,  with  sword  and  belt  blazing  with  diamonds,  rubles, 
and  pearls.  King  James's  favourite,  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  could  afford  to  have 
his  diamonds  tacked  so  loosely  on,  that  when  he  chose  to  shake  a  few  off  on  the 
ground,  he  obtained  all  the  fame  he  desired  from  the  pickers-up,  who  were  generally 
les  Dames  de  la  Cour, 

DROGH  EDA.  Anciently  this  town  was  called  Tredagh,  and  was  a  place  of  great  im- 
portance, having  the  privilege  of  coining  money.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  an 
act,  yet  unrepealed,  was  passed  for  the  foundation  of  a  university  here.  Drogheda 
was  besieged  several  times  in  the  contests  between  1641  and  1691.  Cromwell  took 
the  town  by  storm,  and  put  the  governor,  sir  A.  Aston,  and  the  whole  of  the  gar- 
rison, to  the  sword,  Aug.  14, 1649.  More  than  3000  men,  most  of  them  English, 
perished  in  this  dreadful  slaughter,  from  which  one  individual  only,  a  lieutenant, 
escaped.  Cromwell  also  murdered  every  man,  woman,  and  child,  of  the  citizens 
that  were  Irish. — See  Boyne. 

DROMORE,  Bishopric  of.  Its  founder  was  St.  Coleman,  descended  from  a  sept  of 
the  Arads:  he  was  first  bishop,  about  556:  the  cathedral  is  dedicated  to  the  Re- 
deemer. By  an  extent  returned  15  Joe.  1.  this  see  was  valued  in  the  king's  books 
at  50/.  The  see  of  Dromore  is  to  be  united  to  that  of  Down,  on  its  next  becoming 
vacant,  by  statute,  3  and  4  William  IV.,  1833. — See  Bishops. 

DROWNING,  Punishment  of.  The  punishment  of  death  by  drowning  is  very  an- 
cient, and  was  practised  by  many  countries,  even  by  our  own.  The  Britons  inflicted 
death  by  drowning  in  a  quagmire,  before  450  B.C. — Stowe.  It  was  inflicted  on 
eighty  intractable  bishops  near  Nicomedia,  a.d.  370.  It  was  practised  in  France 
under  Louis  XL,  and  on  the  French  clergy  in  1792,  when  they  were  termed  Noyades. 

DROWNING  PERSONS.  Societies  for  the  recovery  of  drowning  persons  were  first 
instituted  in  Holland,  a.o.  1767.  The  second  society  is  said  to  have  been  formed 
at  Milan,  in  1768  ;  the  third  in  Hamburg,  1771  :  the  fourth  at  Paris,  in  1772 ;  and 
the  fifth  in  London,  in  1774.  Similar  societies  have  been  instituted  in  other  coun- 
tries. The  motto  of  the  Royal  Humane  Society  in  England  is  very  appropriate  : — 
Lateat  sctntillula  forsan — a  small  spark  may  lurk  unseen. 

DRUIDS.  A  celebrated  order  among  the  ancient  Germans,  Gauls,  and  Britons,  who 
from  their  veneration  for  the  oak  (Drys)  were  so  called.  They  acted  as  priests  and 
magistrates ;  one  of  them  was  invested  occasionally  with  supreme  authority.  In 
England  they  were  chosen  out  of  the  best  families,  that  the  dignity  of  their  station, 
added  to  that  of  their  birth,  might  procure  them  the  greater  respect.  They  were 
versed  in  sciences ;  had  the  administration  of  all  sacred  things  ;  were  the  inter- 
preters of  the  gods  ;  and  supreme  judges  in  all  causes.  The  Druids  headed  the  Bri- 
tons who  opposed  Cssar's  first  landing,  55  b.c.     They  were  cruelly  put  to  death, 

N  2 


DRU 


[180] 


DUB 


defending  the  freedom  of  their  country  against  the  Roman  governor,  Suetonius 
Paulinus,  who  totally  destroyed  every  mark  of  Druidism^  a.d.  59. — Rowland* s 
Mona  Anttqua. 

DRUM.  A.  martial  instrument  whose  invention  is  ascribed  to  Bacchus,  who,  according 
to  Polyenes,  ''gave  his  signals  of  battle  with  cymbals  and  drums."  The  drum  was 
an  oriental  invention  brought  by  the  Moors  into  Spain,  a.d.  713. — Le  Clerc,  The 
braces  on  the  sides^  whereby  the  sound  may  be  rendered  louder  or  slacker,  are  of  later 
Aht&,^Ashe.  In  navigation,  the  drum,  or  drum-capstan,  for  weighing  anchors,  was 
invented  by  sir  S.  Moreland,  in  1685. — Anderson. 

DRUNKARDS.  The  phrase  '*  Drunk  as  a  lord,"  arose  out  of  an  older  proverb, 
*<  Drunk  as  a  beggar ; "  and  we  are  told  that  it  was  altered  owing  to  the  vice  of  drun- 
kenness prevailing  more  among  the  great  of  late  years.  Drunkenness  was  punished 
in  many  of  the  early  nations  with  exemplary  severity.  In  England,  a  canon  law  re- 
strained it  in  the  clergy  so  early  as  a.d.  747.  Constantine,  king  of  Scots^  punished 
this  oifence  against  society  with  death.  He  used  to  say,  that  a  drunkard  was  but 
the  mimic  of  a  man,  and  differed  from  the  beast  only  in  shape,  a.d.  870.  Drunken- 
ness was  restrained  in  the  commonalty  in  England  in  975  *,  and  by  several  later  laws. 

DRURY-LANE  THEATRE,  derives  its  origin  from  a  cock-pit  which  was  converted 
into  a  theatre  in  the  reign  of  James  1.  It  was  pulled  down,  and  rebuilt,  and  called 
the  Phoenix  ;  and  Charles  II.  granted  an  exclusive  patent  to  Thomas  Killigrew,  25 
April,  1662.  The  actors  were  the  king's  servants,  and  ten  of  them,  who  were  called 
gentlemen  of  the  great  chamber,  had  an  annual  allowance  of  ten  yards  of  scarlet  cloth 
with  a  suitable  quantity  of  lace.  The  theatre,  with  sixty  adjoining  houses,  was 
burnt  down  in  1671 ;  and  a  new  edifice  was  built  in  its  room  by  sir  Christopher 
Wren,  in  1674.  The  interior  was  rebuilt  by  Mr.  Adams,  and  was  re-opened  Sept. 
23,  1775.  The  Drury-lane  Theatrical  Fund  was  originated  by  David  Garrick,  in 
1777.  In  1791,  the  whole  structure  of  the  theatre  was  pulled  down,  and  it  was  re- 
built and  opened  March  12,  1794.  It  was  totally  destroyed  by  fire,  Feb.  24,  1809  ; 
and  was  rebuilt  and  opened,  Oct.  1*6,  1812. — See  Theatres^  and  Drama. 

DUBLIN.  This  city,  anciently  called  Aschded,  built  a.d.  140.  It  obtained  its  pre- 
sent name  from  Alpinua,  a  lord  or  chief  amo.ng  the  Irish,  whose  daughter,  Auliana, 
having  been  drowned  at  the  ford  where  now  Whitworth-bridge  is  bmlt,  he  changed 
the  name  to  Auliana,  by  Ptolemy  called  Eblana  (afterwards  corrupted  into  Dublana), 
that  she  might  be  had  in  remembrance.  Alpinus  is  the  first  chief  mentioned  in  his- 
tory as  having  made  this  place  his  residence,  which  he  did  about  a.d.  155,  when  he 
brought  ''  the  then  rude  hill  into  the  form  of  a  town.'' — See  Ireland. 

Name  of  bailiff  changed ;  John  Ryan  and 
Thomas  Gomyn,  first  sheriffs      .   a.i>.  1648 


Christianity  established  here  on  the  ar- 
rival of  St.  Patrick     .         .        .   A.D. 

[St.  Patrick's  cathedral  founded  about 
this  time.] 

Dublin  environed  with  walls  by  the 
Danes,  or  Ostmen  (see  Iktnei) 

Named  by  king  Edgar  in  the  preface  to 
his  charter,  **  NobilUsima  Civitat "      . 

Battle  of  Clontaif  {tohich  see) 

Dublin  taken  by  Raymond  le  Gros,  for 
Henry  n.,  who  soon  after  arrives 

Charter  granted  by  this  king 

Christ's  Church  built,  1038 ;  rebuilt  .    . 

Slaughter  of  500  British  by  the  citizens 

'  (see  Cullen*s  wood)     .... 

Assemblage  of  Irish  princes,  who  'swear 
allegiance  to  king  John 

Foundation  of  Dublin  castle  laid  by 
Henry  de  Loundres,  1205 ;  finished      . 

John  le  Decer  first  provost ;  Richard  de 
St.  Olave  and  John  StiJcebold,  first 
bailiffs  (see  Mayor)    .... 

Thomas  Cusack,  first  mayor  {idem)    .    . 

Besieged  by  the  son  of  the  earl  of  Kildare, 
lord  deputy 

Christ  Church  made  a  deanery  and  chap- 
ter by  Henry  Yin. —  See  [Christ- 
Church    ■'. 1541 


448 


796 

964 
1039 

1171 
1173 
1190 

1209 

1210 

1213 


1308 
1409 

1500 


University  founded 1591 

Charter  granted  by  James  L  .  .  .  1609 
Convocation    which     established    the 

Thirty-nine  Articles  of  religion  .         .1614 
Besi^ed  by  the  marquis  of  Orm(md  and 

battle  of  Rathmines  {which  see)  .        .  1649 
Cromwell  arrives  in  Dublin  with  9000 

foot,  and  400  horse  Aug.  1649 

Chief  magistrate  honoured  with  the  title 

of  lord  while  holding  office         .         .  1665 
Blue-coat  hospital  incorporated  .    .  1670 

Essex-bridge  built  by  sir  H.  Jervis  .  1676 
Royal  Hospital,  Kilmainham,  founded  .  1683 
James  H.  arrives  in  Dublin    .  .  1688 

Great  c^unpowder  explosion  .      .  1693 

Lamps  first  erected  in  the  city  .  .  .1696 
Infirmary,  Jervis-street,  founded  .  .  1728 
Parliament-house  began    .  .    .  1729 

Foundling  Hospital  incorporated  .  .  1739 
St  Patrick's  spire  erected.— See  Patrick's 

Cathedral 1749 

Royal  Dublin  Society,  originated  1731 ; 

incorporated 1749 

Lock  Hospital  opened  .  .  .  1758 
Hibernian  Society  ....  1765 
Marine  Society 1766 


DUB 


[1811 


DUE 


DUBLIN,  continued. 

Queen'a-bridge  first  erected,  1684 ;   de- 
stroyed by  a  flood,  1763 ;  rebuilt    a.d.  1768 
Act  for  a  general  pavoment  of  the  streets 

of  the  city 1773 

Royal  EKchaoge  began,  1769 ;  opened  .  1779 
Order  of  St.  Patrick  instituted  .  .1783 
Bank  of  Ireland  instituted  (see  Bank)  .  1783 
Police  established  by  statute  .  1736 

Royal  Academy  incorporated  .  .  .  1786 
Duke  of  Rutland's  funeral     .  .1787 

Custom-house  begun,  1781 ;  opened  .  .1791 
Dublin  Library  instituted  .  179I 

Fire  at  the  Parliament-house  .    .  1792 

Carlisle-bridge  erected  ....  1794 
City  armed  Association  .    .  1796 

New  law  courts  op^ed  .  .  1796 


Union  with  England  (see  Union),  Jan.  1,  1801 
Emmett's  Insurrection  July  S3,  1803 

Hibernian  Bible  Society  .  1806 

Bank  transferred  to  College-greaa  .         .  1808 


Dublin  Institution  founded 
Riot  at  the  theatre 
Visit  of  Oenrge  IV.     . 
Hibernian  Academy 
Dublin  lighted  with  gas     . 
Railroad  to  Kingstown 
Dublin  New  Police  Act 
Royal-arcade  burnt 
Poor  Law  Bill  passed 
Awful  storm  raged 


.  .  1811 
Dec.  16,  1814 
Aug.  12,  18S1 
Aug.  16,  18S3 

Oct.  5,  1825 

Deo.  17,  1834 

.  July  4,  1836 

April  25,  1837 

July  31.  1838 

Jan.  6,  1839 


See  the  various  other  articUt  under  their  re- 
spective heads. 


The  Rebellion ;  arrest  of  lord  Edward 
Fitzgerald,  in  Thomas-street,  Hay  19,  1798 

DUBLIN,  Archbishopric  of.  United  to  the  see  of  Glandelagh,  or  Glendalagh,  in  a.d. 
1214.  It  is  supposed  that  the  see  of  Dublin  was  founded  by  St.  Patrick,  in  448. 
Gregory,  who  succeeded  to  the  prelacy  in  112 1,  afterwards  became  archbishop  ;  and 
George  Browne,  an  Augustine  friar  of  London  (deprived  by  queen  Mary  in  1554), 
was  the  first  Protestant  archprelate  of  this  see.  Dublin  has  two  cathedrals,  Christ- 
Church,  and  St  Patrick's,  both  in  the  city,  a  most  rare  thing.  The  revenue  was 
valued,  in  the  king's  books,  by  an  extent  taken  30  Henry  VIII.,  at  534/.  15«.  2d. 
Irish. — See  Bishops. 

DUCAT.  First  coined  by  Longinns,  governor  of  Italy. — Procopitu.  First  struck  in 
the  duchy  of  Apulia. — Du  Cange.  Coined  by  Robert,  *king  of  Sicily,  in  a.d.  1240. 
The  ducat  is  so  called  because  struck  by  dukes. — Johnson.  It  is  of  silver  and  gold, 
the  value  of  the  first  being  is.  6d.,  and  that  of  the  gold  9«.  6d, — Pardon. 

DUELLING  AND  KNIGHT-ERRANTRY,  took  their  rise  from  the  judicial  combats 
of  the  Celtic  nations.  The  first  duel  in  England,  not  of  this  character,  took  place, 
A.D.  1096.  Duelling  in  civil  matters  was  forbidden  in  France,  1305.  The  present 
practice  of  duelling  arose  in  the  challenge  of  Francis  I.  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
1527.  The  fight  with  small  swords  was  introduced  into  England,  29  Elizabeth  1587. 
Proclamatioa  that  no  person  should  be  pardoned  who  killed  another  in  a  dud,  30 
Charles  II.,  1679.  Duelling  was  checked  in  the  army,  1792. — See  Battel,  Wayer 
off  Combat,  ^c. 

Lord  Macartney  and  miyjor.-gen.  Stuart ; 
the  former  wounded  June  8, 

Mr.  Barrington  and  Mr.  M'Kenzie ;  (the 
former  killed  on  the  ground  by  general 
OiUeeple,  the  second  of  the  latter !)     . 

Mr.  M*E[eon  and  George  Nugent  R^- 
nolds ;  the  latter  murdered  by  the 
former        ....    Jan.  31, 

Mr.  Purefoy  and  colonel  Roper ;  the  lat- 
ter killed  Dec.  17, 1788 

Duke  of  York  and  colonel  Lennox,  after- 
wards duke  of  Richmond     .    May  27,  1789 

Sir  George  Ramsay  and  captain  Macrea ; 
sir  George  killed        .... 

Mr.  Curran  and  major  Hobart     April  1, 

Mr.  Macduff  and  Mr.  Prince;  the  latter 
killed    ....  June  4, 

Mr.  Harvey  Aston  and  lieut.  Fitzgerald ; 
the  former  severely  wounded,  June  25,  1790 

Mr.  Steevens  and  Mr.  Anderaon;  the 
former  killed  .    Sept  20, 1790 

Mr.  Graham  and  Mr.  Julius ;  tiie  former 
killed     ....         July  19,  1791 

Mr.  John  Kemble  and  Mr.  Aiken ;  no 
fatality        .         .         .  March  1,  1793 

Earl  of  Lonsdale  and  captain  Cuthbert ; 
no  fatality  June  9,  1798 


1712 


LATX  MBMORABLB  DUELS. 

Between  the  duke  of  Hamilton  and  lord 
Mohun,  fought  .         .    a.o. 

[This  duel  was  fought  with  small  swords 
in  Hyde-park.  Lord  Mohun  was  killed 
upon  the  spot,  and  the  duke  expired  of 
his  wounds  as  he  was  being  carried  to 
his  coach.] 

Captain  Peppard  and  Bir.  Hayes ;  the 
latter  killed  

Mr.  Hamilton  and  Mr.  Morgan  ;  the  for- 
mer killed  .... 

Mr.  S.  Martin  and  Mr.  Wilkes,  M.P.  .    . 

Lord  Townshend  and  lord  Bellamont ; 
lord  Bellamont  wounded       .    Feb.  1, 

The  Count  D'Artois  and  the  duke  of 
Bourbon     .         .         .  March  21, 

Charles  James  Fox  and  Mr.  Adam ;  Mr. 
Fox  wounded         .  Nov.  30, 

Mr.  Donovan  and  captain  Hanson ;  the 
latter  killed        .        .        .    Nov.  13,  1779 

Colonel  Fullertonand  lord  Shelbume; 
the  latter  wounded  March  22,  1780 

Rev.  Mr.  Alloi  Mid  Lloyd  Dulany ;  the 
latter  kiUed         .  .    June  18,  1782 

Colonel  Thomas  of  the  Guards  and  Col. 
Gordon  ;  Col.  Thomas  killed.    Sept  4,  1783 


1728 

1748 
1763 

1773 

1778 

1779 


1786 


1788 


1788 


1790 
1790 

1790 


DUK 


C  182  ] 


DUK 


DUELLING  AND  KNIGHT-ERRANTRY,  continued. 


M.  de  Ghauvigny  and  Mr.  Lameth  ;  the 
latter  wounded      .         .         .    Noy.  8,  1792 

Mr.  Carpenter  and  Mr.  Pride ;  the  former 
kiUed         ....     Aug.  20,  1796 

Lord  Norbury  and  Mr.  Napper  Tandy 
(an  affair ;  no  meeting)   .         Aug.  21,  1796 

Lord  Yalentia  and  Mr.    Gawler;    the 
former  wounded  .         .    June  28,  1796 

Rt.  hon.  WiUiam  Pitt  and  Mr.  George 
Tierney  .  .  May  27.  1798 

Rt.  hon.  Isaac  Corry  and  Rt.  hon.  Henry 
Grattan     ....      Jan.  15,  1800 

Lieut.  Stapleton  and  ensign  Grainger ; 
the  latter  killed     .         .         .    Jan.  7,  1801 

Lieut.  Willis  and  major  Impey :  the  ma- 
jor killed  .         .         .       Aug.  26,  1801 

Rt  hon.  George  Ogle  and  Bernard  Coyle 
(eight  shot*;  no  fatality)         .        .    .  1802 

Sir  Richard   Musgrave  and  Mr.  Todd 
Jones ;  sir  Richard  wounded,   June  8,  1802 

Colonel  Montgomery  and  captain  Mao 
Namara ;  the  former  killed,     April  6,  1803 

Qen.  Hamilton  and  col.  Burr ;  the  gen. 
killed,  greatly  lamented         .         .    .  1804 

Lord  Camelford  and  captain  Best ;  lord 
Camelford  killed  .    March  10,  1804 

Ensign  Butler  and  ensign  Browne ;  the 

'    latter  killed  .     Jan.  1,  1806 

Surgeon  Fisher  and  lieut  Torrens ;  the 
latter  killed    .  .      March  22,  1806 

Baron  Hompesch  and  Mr.  Richardson ; 
the  latter  severely  wounded     Sept  21,  1806 

Sir  Francis  Burdett  and  Mr.  PauU ;  the 
former  wounded  .         .      May  6,  1807 

Mr.  Alcock  and  Mr.  Colclough ;  the  latter 
killed  (the  survivor  lost  his  reason,) 

June  8,  1807 

M.  de  Granpree  and  M.  Le  Pique,  in  bal- 
loons, at  Paris ;  the  latter  killed.  May  3,  1806 

Major  Campbell  and  captain  Boyd ;  the 
latter  murdered      .         .         June  23,  1808 

Lord  Paget  and  captain  Cadogan ;  nei- 
ther wounded     .         .         .      May  30,  1809 

Lord  Castlereagh  and  Mr.  George  Can- 
ning ;  the  latter  wounded      .  Sept  22,  1809 

Mr.  George  Payne  and  Mr.  Clarke ;  the 
former  killed         .         .         .    Sept  6,  1810 

Captain  Boardman  and  ensign  de  Balton  ; 
the  former  killed  .      March  4,  1811 

Lieut.  Stewart  and  lieut.  Bagnal;  the 
latter  mortally  wounded         .    Oct.  7,  1812 

Mr.  Edward  Maguire  and  lieut  Blim- 
dell ;  the  latter  killed      .  July  9,  1813 

Mr.  Hatohell  and  Mr.  Morley      Feb.  12,  1814 

Capt  Stackpole  (Statira)  and  lieut.  Cecil ; 
the  captain  killed        .         .         April  1814 

Mr.  O'Connell  and  Mr.  D'Esterre ;  Mr. 
D'Esterre  killed     .         .         .    Feb.  1,  1815 

Col.  Quentin  and  col.  Palmer        Feb.  7,  1815 

Mr.  O'Connell  and  Mr.  Peel  (an  affair  ; 


Major  Greene  and  Mr.  Price,  in  America ; 

the  latter  killed,  greatly  lamented  .  1816 
Captain  Fottrell  and  colonel  Ross ;  five 

shots  each,  but  no  fatality  .  Dec. — ,1817 
Lieut  Hindes  and  lieut  Gilbert  Conroy ; 

the  former  killed  .  .  March  6,  1817 
Mr.  John.  Sutton  and  major  Lockyer; 

the  former  killed  .  .  Deo.  10,  1817 
Mr.  O'Callaghan  and  lieut.  Bayley ;  the 

latter  killed  .  .  .  .  Jan.  12,  1818 
Mr.  Grattan  and  the  earl  of  Clare,  June  7,  1820 
Mr.  Henshaw  and  Mr.  Hartinger ;  both 

desperately  wounded  .   Sept.  18,  1820 

Mr.  Scott  and  Mr.  Christie  ;  the  former 

killed     ....  Feb.  16,  1821 

M.  Manuel  and  Mr.  Beaumont. .  April  9,  1821 
Sir  Alexander  Boswell  and  Mr.  James 

Stuart ;  the  former  killed  March  26,  1822 
The  duke  of  Buckingham  and  the  duke 

of  Bedford ;  no  fatality  .  May  2,  1822 
General  Pepeand  general  Carascosa ;  the 

latter  wounded     .  .  Feb.  28,  1823 

Mr.  Westall  and  captain  Gourlay  ;  the 

latter  killed 1824 

Mr.  Beaumont  and  Mr.  Lambton,  July  1,  1826 
Mr.  Brie,  barrister,  and  Mr.  Hayes ;  the 

former  killed  .  .  .  Dec.  26,  1826 
Rev.  Mr.  Hodson  and  Mr.  Grady ;  the 

latter  wounded  .         .         .    Aug.  1827 

Major  Edgeworth  and  Mr.  Henry  Grat- 
tan (an  affair ;  no  meeting)   Sept.  — ,  1827 
Mr.  Long  Wellesley  and  Mr-  Crespigny ; 

neither  wounded 1828 

Duke  of  Wellington  and  the  earl  of  Win- 

chilsea  ....  March  21,  1829 
Lieut.  Crowther  and  captain  Helsham ; 

the  former  killed  .  April  1,  1829 

Captain  Smith  and  Mr.  O'Grady ;  the 

latter  kiUed     .  .     March  18.  1830 

Mr.  Wm.  Lambrecht  and   Mr.  Oliver 

Clayton;  the  latter  killed  .  Jan.  8.  1830 
Mr.  Storey  and  Mr.  Mathias;  the  latter 

wounded  ....  Jan.  22,  1833 
Mr.  Maher  and  Mr.  CoUes  .  Jan.  22,  1833 
Sir  John  W.  Jeffcott  and  Dr.  Hennis ; 

the  latter  mortally  wounded,  and  died 

on  the  18th     .  .         May  10,  1833 

Capt.  Wellesley  Ashe  and  sir  Charles 

Hampton         .  Sept  11,  1834 

Lord  Alvanley  and  Mr.  Morgan  O'Con- 
nell ;  two  shots  each         .  May  4,  1835 
Sir  Colquhoun  Grant  and  lord  Seymour; 

nofataUty  .      May  29,  1835 

Mr.  Roebuck,  MP.  and  Mr.  Black,  editor 

Morn.  Chron-i  two  shots  each  Nov.  19,  1835 
Mr.  Ruthven  and  Mr.  Scott;  and  Mr. 

Ruthven  and  Mr.  Close  (Mr.  Scott's 

second),  the  latter  wounded  .  May  23,  1836 
The  earl  of  Cardigan  and  capt.  Tuckett, 

nth  Regt.,  two  shots  each,  the  latter 

wounded  .         .         .    Sept  12, 


1840 


no  meeting)    .         .         .         Aug.  31,  1815 

As  many  as  227  official  and  memorable  duels  were  fought  during  my  grand  climacteric. 
— Sir  J.  Barrington.  A  single  writer  enumerates  172  duels,  in  which  63  individuals 
were  killed  and  96  wounded :  in  three  of  these  cases  both  the  combatants  were 
killed,  and  18  of  the  survivors  suffered  the  sentence  of  the  law. — Hamilton. 

DUKE,  originally  a  Roman  dignity,  first  given  to  the  generals  of  armies.     In  England, 
during  Saxon  times,  the  commanders  of  armies  were  called  dakes,  duces, — Camden, 


DUK  Q  183  ]  DUN 

The  title  lay  dormant  from  the  Conquest  till  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  who  conferred 
the  title  on  his  eldest  sod,  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  by  the  style  of  ouke  of  Corn- 
wall, A.D.  1336.  Robert  de  Vere  was  created  marquis  of  Dublin  and  duke  of 
Ireland,  9  Richard  II.  1385.  The  first  duke  created  in  Scotland  was  by  king 
Robert  III.,  who  created  David,  prince  of  Scotland,  duke  of  Rothsay,  a  title  which 
afterwards  belonged  to  the  king's  eldest  son,  a.d.  1398. 

DUKE,  Grand.  The  Medici  family  was  one  of  extraordinary  greatness  and  immense 
wealth.  Of  this  family,  Alexander  de  Medicis  was  acknowledged  the  chief  of  the 
republic  of  Tuscany  in  1531  ;  he  was  stabbed  in  the  night;  and  his  son,  Cosmo,  was 
created  grand  duke,  the  first  of  that  rank,  by  pope  Pius  V.  in  1569. 

DUKE  HUMPHREY.  The  old  saying  of"  Dining  with  duke  Humphrey,''  was  in 
allusion  to  persons  who  used  to  walk  in  St.  Paul's  church  during  dinner  time ; 
Humphrey  duke  of  Gloucester  being  a  man  of  great  hospitality,  and  supposed  to 
have  been  buried  in  St.  Paul's. 

DULWICH  COLLEGE,  founded  by  Edward  Alleyne,  an  eminent  comedian,  and  called 
God's- Gift  College,  was  completed  in  1617;  he  was  the  first  master  of  his  own 
college,  and  died  in  1626.  A  fine  gallery,  to  contain  the  Bourgeois  collection  of 
pictures,  bequeathed  by  sir  Francis  Bourgeois,  was  annexed  in  1813.  The  manor  of 
Dulwich  belongs  to  the  corporation  of  this  college  ;  and  the  estate  being  much 
increased  by  inclosures,  donations,  and  the  advanced  value  of  land,  while  the 
original  number  of  persons  relieved  has  not  been  enlarged,  a  situation  in  God's-Gift 
College  approaches  to  opulence. — Leigh, 

DUMB.  As  early  as  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Pedro  de  Ponce  educated  two 
children  of  the  constable  of  Castile,  who  were  born  deaf  and  dumb,  so  as  not  only  to 
read  and  write  and  know  arithmetic,  but  to  understand  several  languages,  and  the 
principles  of  religion,  philosophy,  and  astronomy.  Perreira,  a  Spaniard,  exhibited 
at  Paris  children  instructed  by  him,  whose  acquirements  astonished  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  there,  1748.  The  Abb^  I'Epee  has  been  most  successful  in  France ;  and  in 
these  countries  are  many  asylums  for  teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb.    See  Deaf^  Dumb, 

DUMBLANE,  Battle  of,  called  also  Sheriffmuir,  between  the  royalist  army  and  the 
Scots  rebels,  the  former  commanded  by  the  duke  of  Argyle,  and  the  latter  by  the 
earl  of  Mar,  who  was  defeated  with  great  loss,  November  12,  1715. 

DUN.  This  term  has  been  supposed  to  come  from  the  French,  where  donne  signifies 
give  me,  implying  a  demand  for  something  due,  but  the  true  origin  of  the  expression 
is  as  follows  : — There  was  a  man  named  John  Dun,  a  bailiff  of  the  town  of  Lincoln, 
who  was  so  extremely  active,  and  so  dexterous  at  the  management  of  his  rough 
business,  that  it  became  a  proverb,  when  a  man  refused  to  pay  his  debts,  to  say, 
**  Why  don't  you  Dun  him  ?"  that  is,  "  Why  don't  you  send  Dun  to  arrest  him?" 
Hence  it  grew  into  a  custom,  and  m  now  as  old  as  since  the  days  of  Henry  VII. — 
Gale's  Recreations. 

DUNBAR,  Battle  of,  between  the  Scottish  and  English  army,  in  which  John  Baliol 
was  defeated  by  the  earl  of  Warrenne,  and  Scotland  subdued,  by  Edward  I.,  fought 
April  27, 1296.  Battle  between  the  Scots  and  the  English  under  Cromwell,  who 
obtained  a  signal  victory,  September  3,  1 650. 

DUNDALK.  After  the  defeat  of  the  unfortunate  Edward  Bruce,  who  had  invaded 
Ireland  in  1315,  and  had  been  crowned  king,  he  was  beheaded  here  in  1318,  and 
with  him  6200  Scots  invaders  lost  their  lives.  The  walls  and  fortifications  of 
Dundalk  were  destroyed  in  1641.  The  first  cambric  manufacture  in  Ireland  was 
established  in  this  town  by  artisans  from  France  in  1727. 

DUNGAN-HILL,  Battle  of,  in  Ireland,  between  the  English  and  Irish  armies,  the 
former  commanded  by  colonel  Jones,  who  signally  defeated  the  Irish,  of  whom  6000 
were  slain,  while  the  loss  of  the  English  was  inconsiderable,  July  10,  1647. 

DUNKIRK.  This  town  was  taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  the  English  and  French, 
and  put  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  June  24,  1658,  the  last  year  of  Cromwell's 
administration.  It  was  sold  by  Charles  II..  for  500,000/.  to  Louis  XIV.  in  1662. 
The  French  king  made  Dunkirk  one  of  the  best  fortified  ports  in  the  kingdom  ;  but 
all  the  works  were  demolished,  and  the  basins  filled  up,  in  consequence  of  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht,  in  1713.  The  French  afterwards  resumed  the  works;  but  they  were 
ordered  to  be  demolished  at  the  peace  of  1763.     They  continued  thus  till  the  peace 


DUN  [_  184  ]  DWA 

of  1 783,  when  they  were  again  resumed.  The  English  attempted  to  besiege  this 
place  ;  but  the  duke  of  York,  who  commanded,  was  defeated  by  Hoche,  and  forced  to 
retire  with  loss,  Sept.  7, 1793. 

DUNMOW,  IN  Essex.  This  town  is  famous  for  the  tenure  of  the  manor,  ''  that 
whatever  married  couple  will  go  to  the  priory,  and,  kneeling  on  two  sharp-pointed 
stones,  will  swear  that  they  had  not  quarrelled  nor  repented  of  their  marriage  within 
a  year  and  a  day  after  its  celebration,  shall  receive  a  flitch  of  bacon.*'  This  custom 
was  instituted  by  Robert  de  Fitzwalter,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  1244.  The  earliest 
recorded  claim  for  the  bacon  was  in  1445,  since  which  period  it  has  only  been  de- 
manded Ave  times*.  The  last  claimants  were  John  Shakeshanks  and  his  wife,  who  estab- 
lished their  right  to  it,  June  20,  1751 ;  they  made  a  large  sum  by  selling  slices  of  the 
flitch  to  those  who  were  witnesses  of  the  ceremony,  there  being  5000  persons  present. 

DUNSINANE.  Celebrated  in  dramatic  story  by  the  immortal  Shakspeare,  for  the 
battle  of  Dunsinane,  which  was  fought  between  Seward  and  Macbeth,  a.d.  1054. 

DURHAM,  Bishopric  of.  First  fixed  at  Holy  Island  on  the  coast  of  Northum- 
berland, in  635,  but  forced  from  it  by  the  merciless  invasion  of  the  Danes.  It  waJs 
next  fixed  at  Chester-le -street  for  200  years,  and  then  finally  at  Durham.  The 
bones  of  St.  Cuthbert,  the  sixth  bishop,  were  taken  to  Durham,  and  interred  in  the 
cathedral  founded  there.  This  see  is  deemed  the  richest  in  England,  and  was  valued 
in  the  king's  books  at  2821/.  The  Palatinate  jurisdiction  of  Durham  was  separated 
from  the  diocese,  and  vested  in  the  crown,  June  21,  1836. 

DURHAM,  Battle  of,  between  the  English  and  Scottish  armies,  fought  at  Nevill's- 
cross,  near  Durham.  The  former  army  was  commanded  by  queen  Philippa  and 
lord  Piercy,  and  the  latter  by  David  Bruce,  king  of  Scotland,  who  was  vanquished. 
Fifteen  thousand  of  Bruce's  soldiers  were  cut  to  pieces,  and  himself,  with  many  of 
his  nobles  and  knights,  and  many  thousand  men,  were  taken  prisoners,  Oct.  17, 1346. 

DUUMVIRI.  Two  noble  patricians  at  Rome,  who  were  first  appointed  by  Tarquin 
the  Proud  to  take  care  of  the  books  of  the  Sibyls,  which  were  supposed  to  contain 
the  fate  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  Sibylline  books  were  placed  in  the  capitol,  and 
secured  as  a  sacred  deposit  in  a  chest  under  the  ground.  The  Duumviri  were 
instituted  520  B.C.,  and  continued  until  their  number  was  increased  to  ten,  and  called 
the  Decemviri,  450  B.C. — Livy. 

DWARFS,  Ancient.  The  most  celebrated  dwarf  in  ancient  history  for  shortness  of 
stature,  was  Philetus  of  Cos,  who  was,  at  the  same  time,  most  distinguished  in  his 
age  as  a  poet,  and  for  learning  :  he  was  so  diminutive  that  he  always  carried  leaden 
weights  in  his  pockets  to  prevent  his  being  blown  away  by  the  wind.  Philetus  was 
preceptor  to  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. — Mlian,  Julia,  niece  of  Augustus,  had  a  dwarf 
called  Coropas,  but  two  feet  and  a  hand's  breadth  high  ;  and  Andromeda,  a  freed- 
maid  of  Julia's,  was  of  the  same  height. — Pliny,  Aug.  Caesar  exhibited  in  his  plays 
a  man  not  two  feet  in  stature. — Sueton,  Alypius  of  Alexandria,  a  logician  and 
philosopher,  was  but  one  foot  five  inches  and  a  half  high;  beseemed  to  be  consumed 
into  a  kind  of  divine  nature. —  Voss,  Iwttit, 

DWARFS,  Modern.  John  de  Estrix,  of  Mechlin,  was  brought  to  the  duke  of  Parma, 
in  1 592,  when  he  was  35  years  of  age,  having  a  long  beard ;  he  was  skilled  in 
languages,  and  not  more  than  three  feet  high.  Jeffery  Hudson,  an  English  dwarf, 
was  served  up  to  table  in  a  cold  pie,  before  the  king  and  queen,  at  a  feast  given  to 
them  by  the  duchess  of  Buckingham,  in  1626  ;  he  was  then  a  youth  18  inches  high. 
In  later  years,  Jeffery  having  challenged  a  Mr.  Crofts,  who  had  offended  him,  to 
fight  a  duel,  the  latter  came  to  the  ground  armed  onljr  with  a  squirt :  this  new 
indignity  led  in  the  end  to  an  actual  meeting,  and  the  dwarf  shot  his  antagonist 
dead,  1653.  Count  Borowlaski,  a  Polish  gentleman,  of  great  accomplishments  and 
elegant  manners,  well  known  in  England,  where  he  resided  many  years,  was  bom  in 
November  1739.  His  growth  was,  at  one  year  of  age,  14  inches ;  at  six,  17  inches ; 
at  twenty,  33  inches  ;  and  at  thirty,  39.  He  had  a  sister,  named  Anastasia,  seven 
years  younger  than  himself,  and  so  much  shorter  that  she  could  stand  under  his 

*  A  MS.  in  the  College  of  Arms  records  the  following  times  that  the  baoon  has  been  demanded  and 
r^eivf^l,  viz.,  in  1445,  in  1468,  in  1510,  in  1710,  and  in  1751.  Some  applications  made  since  have  been 
refused.  Mr.  Gough,  in  the  Britannia^  says  that  the  custom  is  abolished.  The  two  last  applications 
were  determmed  by  a  court  baron,  Uie  priorsbips  having  ceased  before  their  time. 


DYE  C  ^^^  D  ^^^ 

arm.  He  Tisited  many  of  the  courto  of  Europe,  and  died  in  England  at  the  great 
age  of  98,  in  1837. 
DYEING,  Art  of.  The  diseovery  of  it  attributed  to  the  Tyrians.  In  dyeing  and 
dipping  their  own  cloths,  the  English  were  so  little  skilled,  that  their  manufactures 
were  usually  sent  white  to  Holland,  and  returned  to  England  for  sale.  The  art  of 
dyeing  woollens  was  brought  from  the  Low  Countries  in  1608,  **  Two  dyers  of 
Exeter  were  flogged  for  teaching  their  tut  in  ihe  north"  (of  England)  1628.  A 
statute  against  abuses  in  dyeing  passed  in  1783. 


E. 

EAGLE.  An  ancient  coin  of  Ireland,  made  of  a  base  metal,  and  current  in  the  first 
years  of  Edward  I.,  about  a.d.  1272 ;  it  was  so  named  from  the  figure  impressed 
upon  it.  The  American  gold  coinage  of  eagles,  half-eagles,  and  quarter  eagles,  began 
December  6,  1792.     An  American  eagle  is  of  the  value  of  10  dollars,  or  about  two 

«    guineas  English. 

EAGLE.  The  standard  of  the  eagle  was  first  borne  by  the  Persians ;  and  the  Romans 
carried  figures  of  the  eagle,  as  ensigns,  in  silver  and  gold,  and  sometimes  repre- 
sented with  a  thunderbolt  in  its  talons,  on  the  point  of  a  spear  ;  they  adopted  the 
eagle  in  the  consulate  of  Marius,  102  b.c.  When  Charlemagne  became  master  of 
the  whole  of  the  German  empire,  he  added  the  second  head  to  the  eagle  for  his  arms, 
to  denote  that  the  empires  of  Rome  and  Grermany  were  united  in  him,  a.d.  802. 
The  eagle  was  the  imperial  standard  of  Napoleon ;  and  is  that  of  Austria,  Russia, 
and  Prussia. — White  Eagle,  an  order  of  knighthood  instituted  in  1325,  by 
Uladislaus,  king  of  Poland,  on  the  marriage  of  his  son  Casimir  with  a  daughter  of 
the  great  duke  of  Lithuania ;  the  knights  of  this  order  wore  a  gold  chain  on  the 
breast,  to  which  hung  a  silver  eagle  crowned. — See  Knighthood.  Black  Eaole 
was  an  order  of  the  same  kind,  instituted  in  1701,  by  the  elector  of  Brandenburgh, 
Frederick  I.,  on  his  being  crowned  king  of  Prussia. 

EAR-RINGS.  Among  the  Athenians  the  perforation  of  the  ears  was  a  mark  of 
nobility :  among  the  Hebrews  and  Romans  it  indicated  servitude.  Pendents  from 
the  ears  are  at  this  day  sometimes  used  by  the  men  in  France,  Italy,  and  other 
countries,  even  the  most  civilised  in  Europe. 

EARL.  An  honour  which  came  from  the  Saxons,  and  continued  for  many  ages  the 
highest  rank  in  England,  until  Edward  III.  created  dukes,  and  Richard  II.  created 
marquesses,  both  having  precedency  assigned  above  earls.  They  had,  anciently,  for 
the  support  of  their  state,  the  third  penny  out  of  the  sheriff's  court,  issuing  out  of 
the  pleas  of  the  shire  whereof  they  had  their  title,  as  in  ancient  times  there  were  no 
counts  or  earls  but  had  a  county  or  shire  for  his  earldom.  Upon  the  increase  of 
earls  their  revenue  ceased,  and  their  powers  were  abridged.  Alfred  used  the  title  of 
earl  as  a  substitute  for  king.  William  Fitz-Osbom  was  made  earl  of  Hereford  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  a.d.  1066.  Gilchrist  was  created  earl  of  Angus,  in  Scot- 
land, by  king  Malcolm  III.  in  1037.  Sir  John  de  Courcy  created  baron  of  Kinsale 
and  earl  of  Ulster  in  Ireland,  by  Henry  II.  1181. 

EARL  MARESCHAL.  The  Earl  Mareschal  of  Scotland  was  an  ofllcer  who  com- 
manded the  cavalry,  whereas  the  constable  commanded  the  whole  army;  but  they 
seem  to  have  had  a  joint  command,  as  all  orders  were  addressed  to  ''  our  constable 
and  marischal."  The  office  of  earl  mareschal  has  never  been  out  of  the  noble  family 
of  Keith.  It  was  reserved  at  the  Union  ;  and  when  the  heritable  jurisdictions  were 
bought,  .it  was  in  the  crown,  being  forfeited  by  the  rebellion  of  George  Keith,  earl 
mareschal,  in  1715. 

EARL-MARSHAL.  The  eighth  great  officer  of  state.  This  office,  until  it  was  made 
hereditary,  always  passed  by  grant  from  the  king.  The  rank  was  lord  marshal  only, 
until  Richard  II.,  in  1397,  granted  letters  patent  to  the  earl  of  Nottingham,  by  the 
style  of  earl  marshal.  In  1672,  Charles  II.  granted  to  Henry,  lord  Howard,  the 
dignity  of  earl  marshal,  with  power  to  execute  the  same  by  deputy.  Gilbert  de 
Clare  was  created  lord  marshal  by  king  Stephen,  1135.  The  last  lord  marshal  was 
John  Fitz-AUan,  lord  Maltravers. — Camden  ;  Ashmole's  Inatit. 

EARTH.  The  globular  form  of  the  earth  was  first  suggested  by  Thales  of  Miletus, 
about  640  b.c  Its  magnitude  was  calculated  from  measuring  an  arc  of  the  meridian, 


EAR 


:i86] 


EAR 


by  Eratosthenes,  240  b.c.  The  Greeks  taught  the  sphericity  of  the  earth,  and  the 
popes  belieyed  it  to  be  a  plane,  and  gave  all  towards  the  west  to  the  kings  of  Spain. 
The  first  ship  that  sailed  round  the  earth,  and  thence  demonstrated  that  its  form  was 
globular,  was  Magellan's,  in  1519.  The  notion  of  its  magnetism  was  started  by 
Gilbert  in  1576.  The  experiments  of  M.  Richer,  in  1672,  led  Newton  to  prove  the 
earth  to  be  in  the  shape  of  an  oblate  spheroid.  The  variation  of  its  axis  was  disco- 
vered by  Dr.  Bradley  in  1 737. — See  Globe, 

EARTHENWARE.  Vessels  of  this  ware  were  in  use  among  the  most  ancient  nations. 
Various  domestic  articles  were  made  by  the  Romans,  715  B.C.  The  art  was  revived 
and  improved  in  Italy,  a  d.  1310.  Wedgewood's  patent  ware  was  first  made  in 
1762.  His  pottery  in  Staffordshire  was  extended  to  a  variety  of  curious  compositions, 
subservient  not  only  to  the  ordinary  purposes  of  life,  but  to  the  arts,  antiquity, 
history,  &c.,  and  thereby  rendered  a  very  important  branch  of  commerce,  both 
foreign  and  domestic.    See  China. 

EARTHQUAKES.  The  theory  of  earthquakes  has  not  yet  been  formed  with  any 
degree  of  certainty.  Anaxagoras  supposed  that  earthquakes  were  produced  by  sub- 
terraneous clouds  bursting  out  into  lightning,  which  shook  the  vaults  that  confined 
them,  B.C.  435. — Diog.  Laert.  Kircher,  Des  Cartes,  and  others,  supposed  that 
there  were  many  vast  cavities  under  ground  which  have  a  communication  with  each 
other,  some  of  which  abound  with  waters,  others  with  exhalations,  arising  from 
inflammable  substances,  as  nitre,  bitumen,  sulphur,  &c.  These  opinions  con- 
tinued to  be  supported  till  1749-50,  when  an  earthquake  was  felt  at  London,  and 
several  parts  of  Britain.  Dr.  Stukeley,  who  had  been  engaged  in  electrical  experi- 
ments, then  began  to  suspect  that  a  phenomenon  of  this  kind  ought  to  be  at- 
tributed not  to  vapours  or  fermentations  generated  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth, 
but  to  electricity.  These  principles  at  the  same  time  were  advanced  by  Signor 
Beccaria,  without  knowing  anything  of  Dr.  Stukeley's  discoveries,  and  the  hypothesis 
has  been  confirmed  by  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Priestley.  In  many  cases,  however, 
it  appears  probable  that  the  immense  power  of  water  converted  into  steam  by  sub- 
terraneous fires  must  contribute  to  augment  the  force  which  occasions  earthquakes. 
Among  those  which  are  recorded  as  having  been  the  most  destructive  and  memorable, 
are  the  following,  which  are  quoted  from  the  best  sources :  it  would  be  impossible 
to  enumerate  in  this  volume  all  that  have  occurred  * : — 

Nicomedia  again  demolished,  and  its  in- 
habitants buried  in  its  ruins       .   a.d. 

One  felt  by  nearly  the  whole  world    .    . 

At  Constantinople ;  its  edifices  destroyed, 
and  thousands  perished 

In  Africa ;  many  cities  overturned     .    . 

Awful  one  in Byria,  Palestiue,  and  Asia; 
more  than  500  cities  were  destroyed, 
and  the  loss  of  life  surpassed  all  calcu- 
lation         

In  France,  Germany,  and  Italy  .    . 

Constantinople  overturned,  and  all 
Greece  shaken  .... 

One  felt  throughout  England  .    . 

One  at  Antioch ;  many  towns  destroyed : 
among  them,  Mariseiun  and  Mamistria  1114 

Catania  in  Sicily  overturned,  and  15,000 
persons  buried  in  the  ruins 

One  severely  felt  at  Lincoln       .         .    . 

At  Calabria,  when  one  of  its  cities  and 
all  its  inhabitants  were  overwhelmed 
in  the  Adriatic  Sea    .... 

One  again  felt  throughout  England    .    . 

At  Naples,  when  40,000  of  its  inhabitants 
perished 1466 


425 


One  which  made  the  peninsula  of  Eu- 
beea  an  island  .         .         b.c. 

EUice  and  Bula  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
swallowed  up 372 

One  at  Rome,  when,  in  obedience  to  an 
oracle,  M.  Curtius,  armed  and  mounted 
on  a  stately  horse,  leaped  into  the 
dreadful  chasm  it  occasioned  {Livp)    . 

Doras,  in  Greece,  buried  with  ajl  its  in- 
habitants ;  and  twelve  cities  in  Cam- 
pania also  buried        .... 

Lysimachia  totally  buried,  with  all  its 
inhabitants 

Awful  one  in  Asia,  which  overturned 
twelve  cities        .        .         .         A.n. 

One  accompanied  by  the  eruption  of 
Vesuvius;  the  cities  of  Pompeii  and 
Herculaneum  buried 

Four  cities  in  Asia,  two  in  Greece,  and 
two  in  Galatia,  overturned 

Antioch  destroyed 

Nicomedia,  Ccesarea,  and  Niceain  Bithy- 
nia,  overturned  .... 

In  Asia,  Pontus,  and  Macedonia,  150 
cities  and  towns  damaged       .        .    . 


358 


345 


283 


17 


79 

107 
114 

126 


357 


358 
543 

558 
560 


748 
801 

936 
1069 


1137 
1142 


1186 
1274 


*  Shocks  of  earthquakes  are  recorded  as  occurring  at  various  times  in  these  realms :  but  they  have 
never  been  fatal  in  their  consequences,  although  in  some  cases  (but  the  instances  are  rare)  a  few 
buildings  have  fallen,  or  sustained  partial  damage.  To  avoid  the  fatal  effects  of  a  more  terrible 
shock  predicted  by  a  madman,  for  the  8th  of  April  following,  thousands  of  persons,  particularly 
those  of  rank  and  fortune,  pansed  the  night  of  the  7th  April,  1750,  in  their  carriages  and  in  tents 
in  Hyde-park. 


EAR 


[187] 


EA8 


EARTHQUAKES,  continued. 

One  felt  in  London :  part  of  St  Paul's 

and  the  Temple  churches  fell  .  a.Dw  IfiOO 
In  Japan,  several  cities  made  ruins,  and 

thousands  perished    .  .  1596 

Awful  one  at  Calabria  .    .  1638 

One  in  China,  when  300,000  persons  were 

buried  in  Pekin  alone  .  .  .  1662 
One  severely  felt  in  Ireland  .  .  .  1690 
One  at  Jamaica,  which  totally  destroyed 

Port  Royal,  whose  houses  were  en- 
gulfed  forty  fathoms  deep,   and  300 

persons  perished  ....  1^2 
One  in  Bicily,  which  overturned  54  cities 

and  towns,  and  300  villages.  Of  Catania 

and  its  18,000  inhabitants,  not  a  trace 

remained;  more    than    100,000  lives 

were  lost 1693 

Palermo  nearly  destroyed,  and  6000  per- 
sons perished     1726 

Again  in   China;   uid   100,000   people 

swallowed  up  at  Pekin  .  .  .  .  1731 
One  in  Hungary,  which  turned  a  moun- 
tain round        1736 

Lima  and  Callao  demolished ;  18,000  per- 
sons buried  in  the  ruins  .  Oct  28,  1746 
One  at  Palermo,  which  swallowed  up  a 

convent ;  but  the  monks  escaped  .  .  1740 
In  London,  the  inhabitants  terrified  by 

a  slight  shock  .  Feb.  8,  1750 

Another,  but  severer  shock,  March  8,  1750 
Adrianople  nearly  overwhelmed  .  •  1752 
At  Grand  Cairo,  half  of  the  houses,  and 

40,000  persons  swallowed  up  .  1754 

Quito  destroyed       .  .      April,  1755 

Great  earthquake  at  Lisbon.    In  about 

eight  minutes  most  of  the  houses,  and 

upwards  of  A0,000  inhabitants,   were 

swallowed  up,  and  wholestreets  buried. 

The  cities  of  Coimbra,  Oporto,  and 

Braga,  suffered  dreadfully,   and   St. 

Ubes  was  wholly  overturned.  In  Spain, 

a  laige  part  of  Malaga  became  ruins. 

One  half  of  Fez,  in  Morocco,  was  de- 
stroyed, and  more  than  12,000  Arabs 

perished  there.     Above  half  of  the 

island  of  Madeira  became  waste ;  and 

2000  houses  in  the  island  of  Meteline, 

in  the  Archipelago,  were  overthrown : 

this  awful  earthquake  extended  5000 

miles,  even  to  Scotland  .  Nov.  1,  1755 
One  in  Syria  extended  over  10,000  square 

miles :  Balbec  destroyed  .  .  .  1759 
One  at  Martinico,  when  1600  persons  lost 

their  lives  .  Aug.  1767 

At  Guatemala,  which,  with  80.000  inha- 
bitants, was  swallowed  up  Dec.  1773 
A  destructive  one  at  Smyrna  .  .  1778 
At  Tauris :  15,000  houses  thrown  down, 

and  multitudes  buried  .  .  .  .  1780 
One  which  overthrew  Messina  and  a 

number  of  towns  in  Italy  and  Sicily : 

40,Q0O  persons  perished       .         .         .  1783 

EAST  ANGLES.  The  kingdom  of  the  East  Angles  commenced  a.d.  571,  and  ended 
in  792. — See  article  Britain.  Of  this  name  was  an  ancient  see  founded  by  St.  Felix, 
who  converted  the  East  Angles,  in  630.  In  669  this  see  was  divided  into  two 
bishoprics,  viz.,  Eimham  and  Dunwich,  and  these  were  united  in  955.  The  bishopric 
was  removed  to  Norwich,  in  1088.     See  Norwich^  Bishopric  of. 


Archindschan  wholly  destroyed,  and 
12,000  persons  buried  in  its  ruins  a.d,  1784 

At  Borgo  di  San  Sepolcro,  an  opening  of 
the  earth  swallowed  up  many  houses 
and  1000  persons  Sept  1789 

Another  fatal  one  in  Sicily  .  1791 

One  in  Naples,  when  Vesuvius  issuing 
forth  its  flames  overwhelmed  the  city 
of  Torre  del  Greco         ....  1794 

In  Turkey,  where,  in  three  towns,  10,000 
persona  lost  their  lives  .  1794 

The  whole  country  between  Santa  Fe 
and  Panama  destroyed,  including  the 
cities  of  Cusco  and  Quito,  40.000  of 
whose  people  were,  in  one  second, 
hurled  into  eternity      .  .     .  1797 

One  at  Constantinople,  which  destroyed 
the  royal  palace  and  an  immensity  of 
buildings,  and  extended  into  Romania 
and  Wallaohia 1800 

A  violent  one  felt  in  Holland    .        Jan.  1804 

In  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  where  2O,C0O 
persons  lost  their  lives        .  .  1805 

At  the  Azores:  a  village  of  St  Michael's 
sunk,  and  a  lake  of  boiling  water  ap- 
peared in  its  place  Aug.  1810 

Awful  one  at  Caraccas  {which  iee)  .  1812 

Several  felt  throughout  India.  The  dis- 
trict of  Kutch  sunk;  2000  persons  were 
buried  with  it    .  .         June,  1819 

In  Gtenoa,  Palermo,  Rome,  and  many 
other  towns ;  great  damage  sustained, 
and  thousands  perished  .        .  1819 

One  fatal,  at  Messina  Oct  1826 

One  in  Spain,  which  devastated  Murcia, 
and  numerous  villages;  6000  persons 
perished     ....  March  21,  1829 

In  the  duchy  of  Parma ;  no  less  than  40 
shocks  were  experienced  at  Borgotaro ; 
and  at  Pontremoli  many  houses  were 
thrown  down,  and  not  a  chimney  was 
left  standing  .         .         .         Feb.  14,  }834 

In  many  cities  of  Southern  Syria,  by 
which  hundreds  of  houses  were  thrown 
down,  and  thousands  of  the  inhabit- 
ants perished      .         .         .     Jan.  22,  ia37 

At  Martinique,  by  which  nearly  half  of 
Port  Royal  is  destroyed,  nearly  700 
persons  killed,  and  the  whole  island 
damaged         .         .  Jan.  11,  1839 

At  Temate :  the  island  made  a  waste, 
almost  every  house  destroyed,  and 
thousands  of  the  inhabitants  lose  their 
lives  ....    Feb.  14,  1840 

Awful  and  destructive  earthquake  at 
Mount  Ararat ;  in  one  of  the  districts 
of  Armenia  3137  houses  were  over- 
thrown, and  several  hundred  persons 
perished  .         .  July  2,  1840 

Great  earthquake  at  2^te,  where  many 
persons  perished         .         .      Oct  30,  1840 


BAS 


11188] 


EA8 


EAST  INDIA  BILL.  This  bill  originated  in  a  parliamentary  committee  on  East 
India  affairs,  which  exposed  a  scene  of  disgraceful  intrigues  and  crimes :  a  governor- 
general  was  appointed  to  reside  in  Bengal,  to  which  the  other  presidencies  were  now 
made  subordinate :  a  supreme  court  of  judicature  was  instituted  at  Calcutta :  the 
saUry  of  the  governor  was  fixed  at  25,000/.  per  year ;  that  of  the  council  at  10,000/. 
each ;  and  of  the  chief  judge  at  8000/. :  the  affairs  of  the  company  were  controlled ; 
all  the  departments  were  reorganised,  and  all  territorial  correspondence  was  henceforth 
to  be  laid  before  the  British  ministry,  June  16,  1 773.  Mr.  Pitt's  bill,  appointing  a 
Board  of  Control,  passed  August  13, 1784. — See  Board  of  Control. 

EAST  INDIES.  For  all  particulars  relating  to  the  East  Indies,  see  India,  The 
East  India  house,  Leadenhall-street,  was  built  in  1 726,  and  considerably  enlarged 
in  1799.     The  East  India  Docks  were  opened  August  4,  1806. — See  India, 

EAST  SAXONS.  The  kingdom  of  the  East  Saxons  began  with  Erchenwin,  a.d.  527, 
and  ended  with  Sigered,  the  last  monarch  previous  to  the  union  of  the  kingdoms  of 
the  heptarchy  under  Egbert,  in  828. — See  article  Briiain, 

EASTER.  So  called  in  England  from  the  Saxon  goddess  Eesire.  The  festival  of 
Easter  was  instituted  about  a.d.  68 ;  the  day  for  the  observance  of  it  was  fixed  in 
England  by  St.  Austin,  in  597.  It  was  ordained  by  the  council  of  Nice  to  be 
observed  on  the  same  day  throughout  the  whole  Christian  world.  Easter  is  the  first 
Sunday  after  the  first  full  moon  that  occurs  after  the  21st  of  March. 

EASTER  ISLAND.  This  island,  which  lies  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  was  discovered  by 
Davis,  in  1686;  it  was  visited  by  Roggewin,  in  1722,  and  from  him  it  obtained  the 
name  it  now  bears ;  it  was  visited  by  Cook,  in  1774. 

EASTERN  EMPIRE.  Commenced  under  Valens,  a.d.  364,  and  ended  in  the  defeat 
and  death  of  Constantine  XIII.  the  last  Christian  emperor,  in  1453.  Mahomet  II. 
resolved  to  dethrone  him,  and  possess  himself  of  Constantinople  ;  he  laid  siege  to 
that  city  both  by  sea  and  land,  and  took  it  by  assault  after  it  had  held  out  fifty -eight 
days.  The  unfortunate  emperor,  seeing  the  Turks  enter  by  the  breaches,  threw 
himself  into  the  nudst  of  the  enemy,  and  was  cut  to  pieces ;  the  children  of  the 
Imperial  house  were  massacred  by  the  soldiers,  and  the  women  reserved  to  gratify 
the  lust  of  the  conqueror ;  and  thus  terminated  the  dynasty  of  the  Constantines,  and 
commenced  the  present  empire  of  Turkey,  May  29,  1453. — See  Turkey, 

Zoe  adopts  for  her  son  Michael  V.,  Bur- 
named  Calaphates     .        .        .  a.d.  1041 

Isaac  Comnenus  chosen  emperor  by  the 
soldiery 1057 


425 


514 
545 


602 


Reign  of  Valens  ....    a.d.    364 

Maximus,  the  tyrant,  defeated  and  put 
to  death 388 

Theodosins  defeats  Eugenius     .         .    .    382 

Public  schools  instituted,  and  Theodosius 
n.  endeavours  to  restore  learning 

Constantinople  besi^ied  by  Yitalianus, 
whose  fleet  is  burned  with  a  brazen 
speculum  by  Proclus .... 

Turkish  empire  begins  in  Asia  .        .'^. 

Fhocas,  a  simple  centurion,  elected  em- 
peror, after  a  revolt  of  the  soldiery, 
and  murder  of  Maurice  and  his  children 

Power  of  the  popes  begins,  by  the  conces- 
sions of  Phocas 606 

The  Persians  besiege  Constantinople  .    .    626 

The  Arabs  beside  it      .        .         .        .    668 

It  is  besieged  by  the  Saracens,  whose  fleet 
is  destroyed  by  the  Greek  fire. — See 
OreOt  Fire 

Second  si^e  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Arabs 

Zoe  prostitutes  herself,  poisons  her  hus- 
band; and  her  favourite,  Michael,  a 
Paphlagonian  money-lender,  ascends 
the  throne 


673 
716 


1034 


Isaac  Comnenus  abdicates  .    .  1059 

Romanus  taken  prisoner  b>  the  Turks  .  1078 
Alexius  Angelus,  brother  of  Isaac  11., 
revolts,  puts  out  the  emperor's  eyes, 
and  ascends  the  throne       .         .        .  1195 
Constantinople  is  taken  by  the  Latins, 

who  restore  Isaac,  with  his  son  .        .  1203 
The  father  and  son  murdered  by  Mour^ 

zoufle 1204 

The  French  and  Venetians  take  Constan- 
tinople by  storm ;  Mourzoufle  put  to 
death,  his  eyes  being  flrst  torn  from 

hishead 1204 

Constantinople  recovered  firom  tiieLatins] 

by  the  Oredk  emperors  .        .'  1261 

Andronicus  abdicates        .        .        .    .  1320 
Turks  flrst  enter  Europe  .         .  1352 

Fall  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  and  extinc- 
tion of  the  imperial  families  of  the 
Conmeni  and  Palaeologi  .  1453 

Soe  Turkey. 


A.O.  364.  Valens. 

379.  Theodosius  the  Great. 
395.  Arcadius. 
403.  Theodositu  II. 
450.  Maroian. 


KMPKRORS  OF  THK  KA&TBRN  EMPIRC 

457.  Leo  L,  the  Thracian. 

468.  Ardaburius. 

474.  Leo  the  younger. 

474.  Zeno. 

491.  Anastasius. 


EAS 


[189] 


cc 


EASTERN  EMPIRE,  eontinued. 
A.D.    618.  Justin  I. 
627.  Jnatinian. 
666.  Jnstin  IL 
678.  Tiberius  IL 
682.  Maurice,  murdered. 
602.  Phocas,  murdered. 
610.  Heraelius. 
641.  Constantine. 

641.  Heraoleonas. 

642.  Constans. 
668.  Constanftiua 
686.  Justinian  n. 

696.  Leontius. 

697.  Apsimar  Tiberius. 
705.  Justinian  m. 
711.  FhilippicuB. 

713.  Anastasius  IL 

714.  Theodosius  m. 
716.  Leo  Isauricus. 

741.  Const.  Copronymus. 

762.  Leo  Porphyrogenitua. 

780.  Constantine  and  Lrene. 

790.  Constantine  alone ;  murdered. 

797.  Irene  alone. 

802.  Nioepborusl. 

811.  Michael  I. 

813.  Leo  y.,  the  Armenian. 

820.  Michael  IT.,  the  Stammere.. 

829.  Theophilus  Logothetes. 

842.  Michael  IIL«  murdered. 

867.  Basil  L,  the  Macedonian. 

886.  Leo  YI.,  the  Sage. 

911.  Alexander. 

912.  ConstantinuB  Porphyrogenitua. 
919.  RomanuB  I.  associated. 

946.  Constantinusalonei 

969.  Romanus  II.,  the  Boy ;  poisoned. 

863.  NicephorusIL»  Phocas,  murdered. 

969.  John  Zimisces,  the  Small. 

976.  Basil  IL  and  Constantine  IX. 
1026.  Constantine  alone. 
1028.  Romanus  IIL,  poisoned. 


1034.  MichaellY.,  the Paphlagonian. 

1041.  Michael  V. 

1042.  Zoe  and  Theodora. 
1042.  Constantine  X. 
1064.  Theodora. 

1056.  Michael  YI. 
1067.  Isaac  Comnenos. 
1069.  Constantine  Ducas  XL 
1067.  Michael  Andronicus. 
1061.  Romanus  Diogenes. 
1071.  Michael  Diecas  Vn. 
107&  Nicephorus  Botoniates. 
1061.  Alexius  Comnenus  L 
111&  John,  or  Calojohannes. 
1143.  Manuel  Comnennw. 
1180l  Alexius  Comnenus  n. 
1183.  Andronicus  L  Comnenus. 
1186.  Angelus,  Isaac  IL 
1196.  Alexius  Angelus. 

1203.  Isaac  Angelus  restored. 

1204.  Alexius  Ducas,  or  Mourisoufle. 

1204.  Baldwin  of  Flanders,  elected  emperoi . 

1206.  Henry. 

1217.  Peter  de  Courtenai« 

1219.  Robert  de  CourtenaL 

1228.  John  de  Brienne,  Ung  of  Jerusalei 

ani>eror  with  Baldwin  n. 
1237.  Baldwin  IL,  alone. 
1261.  Michael  Palaeologus. 
1282.  Andronicus  Palseologus,  the  elder. 
1292.  Andronicus  Palaeologus  and  Michael. 
1320.  Andronicus  Palaeologus,  alone. 
1323.  Andronicus  Palaeologus,  and  Andronicus 

the  younger. 
1328.  Andronicus  the  younger,  alone. 
1341.  John  Cantacuzene. 
1356.  John  Palaeologus. 
1391.  Manuel  Palsrologus. 
1426.  John  Palaeologus  IL 
1448.  Constantine  Palaeologus,  the  last  ChrV 

tian  emperor. 
1463.  Mahomet  IT.  [See  Turkei,.'\ 


EBIONITES.  Ancient  heretics  who  arose  in  the  very  first  age  of  the  church,  and 
who,  denying  the  divinity  of  Christ,  formed  themselves  into  a  sect  in  the  second 
century.    The  Ebionites  seem  to  have  been  a  branch  of  the  Nazarenes. — Etuebius. 

EBONY.  Amerimnum  Ebentu,  The  ebony  wood  was  unknown  at  Rome  until  it 
was  introduced  there  by  Pompey,  after  his  defeat  of  Mithridates,  about  66  b.c. 

EBRO.  The  scene  of  a  signal  defeat  of  the  Spaniards  by  the  French,  near  Tudela^ 
Nov.  23,  1808 ;  and  also  the  scene  of  several  important  movements  of  the  allied 
armies  during  the  Peninsular  war,  between  the  years  1809  and  1814,  etseq. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  COURTS.  There  existed  no  distinction  between  lay  and  eccle- 
siastical courts  in  England  until  after  the  Norman  conquest,  a.d.  1066. — See  Arches, 
Consistory,  and  other  courts.  The  following  are  the  causes  cognizable  in  ecclesias- 
tical courts  :  blasphemy,  apostacy  from  Christianity,  heresy,  schism,  ordinations, 
institutions  to  benefices,  matrimony,  divorces,  bastardy,  tithes,  incests,  fornication^ 
adultery,  probate  of  wills,  administrations,  &c. — Blackstone. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  STATE,  or  STATES  of  the  CHURCH.  See  Rome.  In  a.d. 
1798,  this  state  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  French,  who  erected  it  into  the 
''Roman  Republic."  They  obliged  the  pope,  Pius  VI.  to  remove  into  Tuscany,  and 
afterwards  into  France,  where  he  died,  in  1799.  In  the  same  year  a  conclave  was 
permitted  to  be  held  at  Venice ;  and,  in  1800,  cardinal  Chiaramonti,  who  was  elected 
to  the  papal  chair,  took  the  title  of  Pius  VII.  and  resumed  the  dominion  of  the 
Ecclesiastical  State.  This  power  was  held  until  1809,  when  he  was  deprived  by  Buona- 
parte of  his  temporal  sovereignty,  and  reduced  to  the  condition  of  bishop  of  Rome  ^ 
but  in  1814  the  pope  was  restored. 


ECH 


[190] 


EDE 


ECHOES.  The  time  which  elapses  between  the  utterance  of  a  sound  and  its  return 
must  be  more  than  one-twelfth  of  a  second,  to  form  an  echo.  Echo  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  nymph  who  pined  into  a  sound. — Sydney.  Echoes  in  poetry  are  found 
in  the  earliest  authors  ;  the  following  is  an  example  : — 

**  Crudelis  mater  magis,  an  puer,  improbus  ille  ? 

Lnprobos  ille  puer»  crudelis  tu  quoque  mater." — Virgil, 

The  echo  of  Westminster-bridge  has  attained  a  dramatic  fame.  In  the  arch>roofed 
sitting  places,  or  at  least  in  one  of  them,  it  is  said  that  the  least  whisper  uttered  in 
the  dry  arches  below  may  be  heard,  and  vice  versd. 

ECKMUHL,  Battle  of,  between  the  main  armies  of  France  and  Austria ;  the  one 
commanded  by  the  emperor  Napoleon  in  person,  and  the  other  by  the  archduke 
Charles.  Napoleon  adopted  his  usual  plan  of  breaking  through  the  enemy's  line,  to 
which  the  Austrian  position  afforded  too  great  facility ;  and  the  conflict  terminated  in 
the  disastrous  defeat  of  the  Imperialists,  whose  loss  of  this  battle  led  to  other  and 
immediate  reverses,  April  22,  1809. 

ECLECTICS.  Ancient  philosophers,  also  called  Analogeticiy  and  Philaleihesy  or  the 
lovers  of  truth.  Without  attaching  themselves  to  any  sect,  they  chose  what  they 
judged  good  from  each  :  founded  by  Polemon  of  Alexandria,  about  a.d.  1. — Dryden. 
Also  a  sect,  so  called  in  the  Christian  church,  who  considered  the  doctrine  of  Plato 
conformable  to  the  spirit  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Christian. 

ECLIPSES.  The  theory  of  eclipses  was  known  to  the  Chinese  at  least  120  B.C. — 
Gaubil.  An  edipse  was  supposed  by  most  of  the  eastern  nations  to  be  the  effect  of 
magic ;  hence  the  custom  among  them  of  drumming  during  its  continuance.  The 
first  eclipse  recorded,  happened  March  19,  721  B.C.  at  8'  40''  p.m.  according  to 
Ptolemy ;  it  was  lunar,  and  was  observed  with  accuracy  at  Babylon. — See  Astronomy. 
Tlie  following  were  extraordinary  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon  : — 

distinguish   the   difference   by   their 


OF  THB  SUN. 

That  predicted  by  Thales ;  observed  at 
Sardis  (Pliny,  lib.  h.)  .        .    b.c.    585 

One  at  Athens  (ThucydideSt  lib-  iv.>       .    424 

Total  one ;  three  days'  supplication  de- 
creed at  Rome  (Livy)         .         .         .    188 

One  general  at  the  death  of  Jesus  Christ 
(Josephus)        .        .        .        .   A.D.     33 

One  at  Rome,  causing  a  total  darkness 
at  nopn-day  (Livy)    .         .         .         *    291 

One  observed  at  Constantinople .         .    .    968 

In  France,  when  it  was  dark  at  noon-day, 
(Du  Fretnoy)         .         .         June  29,  1033 

In  England,  where  it  occasioned  a  total 
darkness  (  Wm.  Malmsb.)  .         .         .1140 

Again;  the  stars  visible  at  ten  in  the 
morning  (Camden)         .         June  23,  1191 

The  true  sun,  and  the  appearance  of  ano- 


glasses  (Comp.  Hist.  Eng.)  .        .1191 

Again ;  total  darkness  raisued  (idem)      ,  1331 
A  total  one ;  the  darkness  so  great  that 
the  stars  shone,  and  the  birds  went  to 
roost  at  noon  (Oldmixon's  Annals  of 
Geo.  I.)         .         .         .  April  22,  1715 

Remarkable  one,  coitral  and  annular  in 
the  interior  of  Europe  .         .   Sept.  7,  1820 

OF  THE  MOON. 

The  first,  bbseryed  by  the  Chaldeans  at 

Babylon  (Ptolemy,  lib.  iv.>  .  .  b.c  721 
A  total  one,  observed  at  Sardis  (Thucy- 

dides,  lib.  vii.> 413 

Again,  in  Asia  M^or  (Polybius)  .  .  219 
One  at  Rome,  predicted  by  Q.  Sulpitius 

Gallus  (Livy,  lib.  xliy.;  .  .  .  1G8 
One  terrified  the   Roman   troops  and 

quelled  their  revolt  (Tacitus)     .  a.d.      14 


ther,  80  that  astronomers  alone  could 

The  revolution  of  eclipses  was  first  calculated  by  Calippus,  the  Athenian,  336  b.c. 
The  Egyptians  say  they  had  accurately  observed  373  eclipses  of  the  sun,  and  832 
of  the  moon,  up  to  the  period  from  Vulcan  to  Alexander,  who  died  323  b.c. 

EDDYSTONE  LIGHT-HOUSE,  off  the  port  of  Plymouth,  was  erected  by  the 
Trinity-house  to  enable  ships  to  avoid  the  Eddystone  rock.  It  was  commenced  under 
Mr.  Winstanley,  in  1696  ;  was  finished  in  1699  ;  and  was  destroyed  by  the  dreadful 
tempest  of  Nov.  27,  1703,  and  by  which  Mr.  Winstanley  and  those  with  him 
perished.  It  was  rebuilt  by  act  of  parliament,  4  Anne,  1706,  and  all  ships  were 
obliged  to  pay  one  penny  per  ton  inwards  and  outwards  towards  supporting  it.  This 
light-house  was  burnt  in  1755  ;  and  one  on  a  better  plan  was  erected  by  Mr.  Smeaton, 
and  finished  Oct.  9,  1759.  Of  this  last,  the  wood-work  was  burnt,  in  1770,  but  it 
was  afterwards  renewed  with  stone,  and  has  continued  uninjured  since  1774. 

EDEN,  GARDEN  of.  The  question  about  the  site  of  Eden  has  greatly  agitated 
theologians  ;  some  place  it  near  Damascus,  others  in  Armenia,  some  in  Caucasus, 
others  at  Hillah,  near  Babylon,  others  in  Arabia,  and  some  in  Abyssinia.  The 
Hindoos  refer  it  to  Ceylon  :  and  a  learned  Swede  asserts  that  it  was  in  Sudermania  ! 
Several  authorities  concur  in  placing  it  in  a  peninsula  formed  by  the  main  river  of 


KDO 


Iml 


EDI 


Eden,  on  the  east  side  of  it,  below  the  confluence  of  the  lesser  riyers,  which  emptied 
themselves  into  it,  about  27<>  N.  lat.«  now  swallowed  up  by  the  Persian  Gulf,  an 
event  which  may  have  happened  at  the  Universal  Deluge,  2348  b.c.  The  country  of 
Eden  extended  into  Armenia. — Calmet,  The  Almighty  constructed  Eden  with  a 
view  to  beauty  as  well  as  usefulness  :  not  only  every  plant  that  was  good  for  food^ 
but  such  also  as  were  pleasant  to  the  eye,  were  planted  there. — Genesis  ii.  8,  9. 

EDGEHILL,  Battle  of,  also  called  Edgehill  Fight,  between  the  Royalists  and  the 
Parliament  army,  the  first  engagement  of  importance  in  the  civil  war ;  Charles  I. 
was  personally  present  in  this  battle.  The  king's  army  lost  5,000  dead  on  the  field 
of  battle,  with  vast  numbers  of  wounded  and  prisoners  ;  but  owing  to  the  great  loss 
on  the  other  side  also,  the  action  produced  no  decisive  consequence  to  either  party,  and 
neither  could  fairly  claim  the  victory,  though  the  parliament  army  did,  Oct.  23,  1642. 

EDICT  OP  NANTES.  This  was  the  celebrated  edict  by  which  Henry  IV.  of  France 
granted  toleration  to  his  Protestant  subjects,  in  1598.  It  was  revoked  by  Louis 
XIV.,  Oct.  24, 1685.  This  bad  and  unjust  policy  lost  to  France  800,000  Protestants, 
and  gave  to  England  (part  of  these)  50,000  industrious  artisans.  Some  thousands, 
who  brought  with  them  the  art  of  manufacturing  silks,  settled  in  Spitalflelds,  where 
their  descendants  yet  remain :  others  planted  themselves  in  Soho  and  St.  Giles's ;  and 
pursued  the  art  of  making  crystal  glasses,  and  various  fine  works  in  which  they 
excelled  :  among  these,  jewellery,  then  little  understood  in  England — Anderson's 
Orig,  of  English  Commerce. 

EDICT,  The  PERPETUAL.  Salvius  Julianus,  of  Milan,  a  civilian  at  Rome  (the 
author  of  several  treatises  on  public  right),  was  employed  by  the  emperor  Adrian  to 
draw  up  this  edict  or  body  of  laws  for  the  Praetors,  a.d.  132. 

EDINBURGH.  The  metropolis  of  Scotland,  and  one  of  the  first  and  finest  cities  of 
the  empire.  The  early  accounts  of  it  are  not  authentic.  It  is  said  that  its  castle 
was  first  built  by  Camelon,  king  of  the  Picts,  330  B.C.  The  castle  makes  a  con- 
spicuous appearance,  standing  at  the  west  end  of  the  town  on  a  rock  300  feet  high  ; 
and  before  the  use  of  great  guns  it  was  a  fortification  of  considerable  strength. 
Leith  is  the  sea-port  of  Edinburgh. 


Christianity  introduced,  the    reign  of 
Donald  I a.d.    SOI 


Edinburgh  taken  by  the  Anglo  Saxons  . 
Retaken  by  the  Picts  .  .  *  . 
City  fortified,  and  castle  rebuilt  .    . 

Besieged  by  Donald  Bane       • 
Scone-ubbey  founded  .  .    . 

Holyrood-house  founded  by  David  I. 

[Repaired  in  1753.] 
The  abbey  founded  by  David 
Castle  surrendered  to  Henry  IL  .    . 

First  parliament  held  here    . 
City  taken  by  the  Rnglish  .    . 

Grant  of  the  town  of  Leith 
James  II.  first  king  erowned  here       .    . 
City  strengthened  by  a  wall 
Made  the  metropolis  of  Scotland  by  king 

James  III.  .         .         ... 

A  British  force  landing  from  a  fleet  of 

200  ships  takes  Edinburgh  and  Leith, 

and  bums  both  towns 
Leith  is  again  burnt ,  but  Edinburgh  is 

spared 

David  Rizzio  murdered     .  .    . 

Lord  Damley  (the  husband  of  queen 

Mary)  is  blown  up  in  a  private  house 

by  gunpowder :  he  is  supposed  to  have 

been  first  murdered   .... 
Mary's  marriage  with  James  Hepburn, 

earl  of  Bothwell         .         .         .        . 


452 
685 
1074 
1093 
1114 
1128 

1133 
1174 
1215 
1296 
1329 
1437 
1450 

1482 


1542 

1547 
1566 


1667 
1567 


Era  of  the  civil  war  on  account  of  Mary's 

forced  resignation  .        .  A.n. 

Death  of  John  Knox  .  .    . 

University  founded  by  James  VL-^ee 

Edinburgh  University 
Edinburgh  erected  into  a  bishopric  by 

Charles  I.,  while  making  a  visit  here  . 
The  castle  is  surrendered  to  Cromwell 

by  Dundas         .         •         .        .        . 
Coffee  houses  first  opened  .    . 

Bank  established  .... 

Royal  Bank  founded  .         .    . 

Affair  of  Captain  Porteous :  he  is  bulged 

by  the  populace  (see  Porteous)    . 
City  occupied  by  the  Pretender's  army  . 
Modem  improvements  commenced 
Magistrates  assigned  gold  chains        .    . 
Fire  in  the  Lawn-market 
Society  of  Antiquarians     .         .         .    . 
New  College,  foundation  laid 

New  Bridewell 

New  Bank,  commenced 
Edinburgh  Review  published     .         .    . 
New  system  of  Police  established 
Alanning  riots  here    .         .        Dec.  31, 

Visit  of  George  IT 

Destructive  fires  June  and  Nov. 

See  Scotland. 


1670 
1672 

1580 

1633 

1650 

1677 
1695 

1727 

1736 
1746 
1753 
1754 

1771 
I7w0 

1789 
1791 
1801 
1802 
1806 
1811 
1822 
1824 


EDINBURGH,  Bishopbic  of.  This  see  was  created  by  Charles  L  when  that  mon- 
arch was  in  Scotland,  in  1633 ;  and  William  Forbes,  one  of  the  ministers  of  Edinburgh, 
was  made  first  bishop.     The  king  allotted  the  parishes  of  the  shires  of  Edinburgh, 


EDI 


[192] 


EGY 


Linlithg^Wt  Haddington,  and  a  part  of  Berwick  and  of  Stirlingshire  to  compose  the 
see.  llie  sixth  and  last  prelate  was  Alexander  Ross,  who  was  ejected  on  the  abolition 
of  episcopacy,  at  the  period  of  the  ReTolation,in  1688. 

EDINBURGH  UNIVERSITY,  Founded  by  James  VI.  afterwards  James  I.  of 
England,  in  1580.  It  has  long  been  celebrated  throughout  the  world,  particularly 
for  its  medical  school,  which  is  entitled  to  the  first  rank.  Some  of  the  most  learned 
men,  the  most  profound  writers,  and  ablest  physicians,  have  been  produced  by  this 
uniyersity. 

E6ALITE'.  Equality,  The  surname  assumed  by  Philip  Bourbon  Capet,  the  infamous 
duke  of  Orleans,  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  republicans,  cm  the  abolition  of 
monarchy  in  France,  Sept  11, 1792.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  his 
relative ;  But  this  did  not  save  him  from  a  like  doom.  He  was  guillotined  Nov.  6, 1793. 

EGYPT.  The  dynasty  of  its  Pharaohs  or  kings  commenced  with  Mizraim,  the  son  of 
Ham,  second  son  of  Noah,  2188  3.c.  The  kingdom  lasted  1663  years ;  it  was 
conquered  by  Cambyses,  525  B.C.  In  a.d.  639,  this  country  was  wrested  from  the 
•  eastern  emperor  Heraclius,  by  Omar,  calif  of  Uie  Saracens.  The  famous  Saladin 
established  the  dominion  of  the  Mamelukes,  in  1171.  Selim  I.  emperor  of  the 
Turks,  took  Egypt,  in  1517,  and  it  was  governed  by  Beys  till  1799,  when  a  great 
part  of  the  country  was  conquered  by  the  French,  under  Buonaparte.  In  1801,  the 
invaders  were  disposssessed  by  the  British,  and  the  government  was  restored  to  the 
Turks. — See  Turkey^  for  modem  events. 

Mizraim  builds  Memphis  (Blair)  .    bx.  2188 

Egypt  made  four  kingdoms,  viz. :  Upper 


Egypt,  Lower  Egypt,  This,  and  Mem 
phis  {AbbS  Lenglet,  Blair) .        .        .  3126 
Athotes  invents  hien)glyphic8    .        .    .  2122 
Busbis  builds  Thebes  (I7«ft«r)         .        .2111 
O^ymandyas,   the  firsl  warlike  king, 
passes  into  Asia,  conquars  Bactria,  and 
causes  his  exploits  to  be  represented  in 
sculpture  and  painting  ( Usher  y  Lenglet)  2100 
ThePhoeuIcians  invade  Lower  Egypt  and 

hold  it  260  yean  {Uther)     .  .2080 

The  lake  of  Mceris  constructed  .         .    .  1938 
The  patriarch  Abraham  visits  Egypt  to 

avoid  the  famine  in  Canaan        .         .  1921 
Syphoas  Introduces  the  use  of  the  com- 
mon, lettesn  (Usher)    .        .        .        .1891 
Memnon  invents  the  EJgyptian  letters 

(Blair,  Lenglet)  ....  1822 

Amenophis  L  is  acknowledged  the  king 

of  all  Egypt  (Lenglet)         .  .  1821 

Joseph  the  Israelite  is  sold  into  Egypt  as 

a  slave  (Lenglet)         ....  1728 
He  interprets  the  king's  dreams         .    .  1716 
His  father  and  brethren  settle  here        .  1706 
Sesostris  reigns ;  he  extends  his  dominion 
by  conquest  over  Arabia,  Persia*  India, 
and  Asia  Minor  (Lenglet)  *         .        .  1618 
Settlement  of  the  Ethiopians  (J3;air)      .  1615 
Rampses,  who  imposed  on  his  subjects 
the  building  of  walls  and  pyramids, 
and  other  labours,  dies  (L&%glet)         .  1492 
Amenophis  L  is  overwhelmed  in  the  Red 

Sea,  with  all  his  army  (Lenglet,  Blair)  1492 
Reign  of  Egyptus,  from  whom  the  coun- 
try, hitherto  called  Mizraim,  is  now 
called  Egypt  (Blair)  ....  1486 
Reign  of  Thuoris  (the  Proteus  of  the 
Greeks)  who  had  the  faculty  of  assum- 
ing whatever  form  he  pleased,  as  of  a 
lion,  a  dragon,  a  tree,  water,  fire         .  1189 


[These  fictions  were  probably  intended 
to  mark  the  profound  policy  of  this 
king,  who  was  eminent  for  his  wisdom, 
by  which  his  dominion  flourished.-JB/.] 

Paeusennes  enters  Palestine,  ravages  Ju- 
dea,  and  carries  off  the  sacred  vessels 
of  the  Temple   ....  a  j>.    971 

The  dynasty  of  kings  called  Tanitet  be- 
gins with  Petubastes  (BJm'r)       .        .    826 

The  dynasty  of  Saitei  (Blair)     .        .    .    781 

Sebaoon  invadesEgypt,  subdues  the  king, 
Bocchoris,  whom  he  orders  to  be  roasted 
tHiye  (Usher) 737 

Psammittichus  the  Powerful  reigns       .    660 

He  invests  Azoth,  which  holds  out  for  19 
years,  the  longest  siege  in  the  annals 
of  antiquity  (£r#A«r)    .         .         .         .647 

Necho  begins  the  famous  canal  between 
the  Arabic  gulf  and  the  Mediterranean 
BeA  (Blair)        .        .        -        .         .610 

This  canal  abandoned,  after  costing  the 
lives  of  120,000  men  ( Herodotus)  .    609 

Nebuchadnezzer  of  Babylon  deposes 
Apries  (Usher) 681 

Apries  taken  prisoner  and  strangled  In 
hia]peluce(Diod.  Siculvs)  ,         .         .    671 

The  philosopher  Pythagoras  comes  from 
Samos  into  Egypt,  and  is  instructed  in 
the  mysteries  of  Egyptian  theology  ( Us.)    536 

The  line  of  the  Pharaohs  ends  in  the  mur- 
der of  Psammenitus  by  Cambyses  (Bl.)    526 

Dreadful  excesses  of  Cambyses ;  he  puts 
the  children  of  the  grandees,  male  and 
female,  to  death,  and  makes  the  coun- 
try a  waste  (Herodotus)      .         .        .624 

He  sends  an  army  of  60,000  mrai  across 
the  desert  to  destroy  the  temple  of  Ju- 
piter Ammon,  but  they  all  perish  in 
the  burning  sands  (Justin)  *         .    624 

Egypt  revolts  from  the  Persians;  again 
subdued  by  Xerxes  (Blair)         .        .    487 


*  The  epoch  of  the  reign  of  Sesostris  is  very  uncertain ;  Blair  makes  it  to  fall  133  years  later. 
As  to  the  achievements  of  this  monr  -ch,  th^  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  labours  of  sever>' 
kings,  attributed  by  the  Egyptian  piiests  to  Sesostrfs  a^one,  whose  very  er'-tence,  indeed,  is  doubted 
by  m>»  ly  1-  '^toriar  q 


EGY 


[193] 


ELB 


EGYPT,  continued. 

A  revolt  under  Inaru8( Btofr)    •    .    b.c. 

Buooessf ul  revolt  under  AmyrtasuB,  who 
is  proclaimed  king  (Lenglet) 

Bgypt  again  reduced  by  Persia,  and  its 
temples  pillaged  (Cr«A«r)     . 

Alexander  the  Great  enters  Egypt,  wrests 
it  from  the  Persians,  and  builds  Alex- 
andria (Blair) 

Philadelphus  completes  the  Pharos  of 
Alexandria  {Blair)     .         .         .         . 

The  Beptuagint  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment made  about  this  time 

The  famous  library  of  Alexandria  also 
dates  about  this  period  {Blair)    . 

Ambassadors  first  sent  to  Rome         .    . 

Ptolemy  Euergetes  overruns  Syria,  and 
returns  laden  with  rich  spoils,  and 
250O  statues  and  vessels  of  gold  and 
silver,  which  Cambyses  had  taken 
from  the  Egyptian  temples  {Blair) 

Reign  of  Philometer  and  Physcon 

At  the  death  of  Philometer,  his  brother 
Physcon  marries  his  queen,  and  on 
the  day  of  his  nuptials  murders  the 
infant  stm  of  Philometer  in  its  mo- 
ther's arms        

He  repudiates  his  wife,  and  marries  her 
daughter  by  his  brother  {Blair) 

His  subjects,  wearied  with  his  cruelties 
and  crimes,  demolish  his  statues,  set 
fire  to  his  palace,  and  he  flies  from 
their  fury  (Btoir) 


463 


414 


360 


333 

283 

283 

283 
2G9 


246 
151 


145 


130 


129 


He  murders  his  son  by  his  new  queen  ; 
also  his  son  by  her  mother,  sending  the 
head  and  limbs  of  the  latter  as  a  pre- 
sent to  the  parent  on  a  feast  day     b.c.    129 

Tet,  defeating  the  Egj'ptian  army,  he 
recovers  his  throne ;  and  dies     .         •    117 

Pestilence  from  the  putrefaction  of  vast 
swarms  of  locusts;  800,000  parsons 
perish  in  Egypt  .  .         .128 

Revolt  in  Upper  Egypt ;  the  famous  city 
of  Thebes  destroyed  after  a  siege  of 
three  yean  {Diod.  Siculus)         .         .     82 

Auletea  dying,  leaves  his  kingdom  to  his 
eldest  son,  Ptolemy,  and  the  famous 
Cleopatra  {Blair)       ....     51 

During  a  civil  war  between  Ptolemy  and 
Cleopatra,  Alexandria  is  besieged  by 
Cesar,  and  the  famous  library  nearly 
destroyed  by  fire  (Blair)     .         .         .47 

Caesar  defeats  the  king,  who,  in  crossing 
the  Nile,  is  drowned ;  and  the  younger 
Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra  reign      .  46 

Cleopatra  poisons  her  brother  (only  14 
years  of  age)  and  reigns  alone     .        .     43 

She  appears  before  Mark  Antony,  to 
answer  for  this  crime.  Fascinated  by 
her  beauty,  he  follows  her  into  Egypt      40 

Antony  defeated  by  Octavius  Caeaar  at 
the  battle  of  Actium  {Blair)  .    .      31 

Octavius  enters  Egypt;  Antony  and 
Cleopatra  kill  themselves;  and  the 
kingdom  becomes  a  Roman  province  .      30 


EGYPTIAN  ERA.  The  old  Egyptian  year  was  identical  with  the  era  of  Nabonasser, 
.beginning  February  26,  747  b.c.,  and  consisted  of  365  days  only.  It  was  reformed, 
30  B.C.,  at  which  period  the  commencement  of  the  year  had  arrived,  by  coDtinaally 
receding,  to  the  29th  August,  which  was  determined  to  be  in  future  the  first  day  of 
the  year.    To  reduce  to  the  Christian  era,  subtract  746  years,  125  days. 

ELBA,  IsLB  OF,  taken  possession  of  by  the  British,  July  6,  1796  ;  but  it  was  aban- 
doned the  next  year.  Elba  was  conferred  upon  Napoleon  ( with  the  title  of  emperor 
continued)  as  the  place  of  his  retreat  upon  relinquishing  the  throne  of  France,  April 
5,  1814.  He  secretly  embarked  from  this  island  with  about  1200  men  in  hired  fe- 
luccas, on  the  night  of  Feb.  25,  1815,  and  landed  in  Provence,  March  1,  to  recover 
the  Imperial  crown.— See  Buonaparte,  and  France.  After  having  been  quitted  by 
Buonaparte,  Elba  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Florence,  July  1815. 

ELEATIC  SECT.  Founded  by  Xenophanes,  the  philosopher  of  Colophon ;  he  had 
been  banished  to  Sicily  on  account  of  his  wild  theory  of  God  and  nature,  and  his 
sect  originated  there.  This  theorist  supposed  that  the  stars  were  extinguished  every 
morning  and  rekindled  at  night ;  that  eclipses  were  occasioned  by  a  partial  extinc- 
tion of  the  sun  ;  that  there  were  several  suns  and  moons  for  the  convenience  of  the 
different  climates  of  the  earth,  &c.,  about  535  b.c. — Strabo. 

ELECTIONS,  Bribeby  at.  Various  statutes  have  been  enacted  against  it  from  tim6 
to  time.  The  principal  acts  relating  to  elections  commenced  with  the  7th  of  Henry 
IV.,  1409.  Elections  were  made  void  by  bribery,  in  1696,  et  acq.  Messrs.  Sykes 
and  Rumbold  were  fined  and  imprisoned  for  bribery  at  an  election,  1776.  An  elector 
of  Durham  was  convicted  in  a  penalty  of  500/.  in  July,  1803.  Mr.  Swan,  M.  P« 
for  Penryn,  was  fined  and  imprisoned,  and  sir  Manasseh  Lopez  sentenced  to  a  fine 
.  of  10,000/.,  and  to  two  years'  imprisonment,  for  bribery  at  Grampound,  in  October 
1819.  The  members  for  Liverpool  and  Dublin  were  unseated,  in  1831.  Among 
other  elections  which  have  lately  been  made  void,  were  those  of  Cambridge  and 
Ludlow,  in  May  1840. —  See  Bribery. 

ELECTORS.  Those  for  members  of  Parliament  for  counties  were  obliged  to  have 
forty  shillings  a  year  in  land,  39  Henry  VI.,  1460. — Ruff  head*  a  Statutes,  Among 
the  recent  acts  relating  to  elections  are  the  following  :  act  depriving  excise  and  cus- 

o 


ELE  [_  194  ]]  ELO 

tom.house  officers,  and  contractors  with  government,  of  their  votes,  1782.  Act  to 
regulAte  polling,  9  George  IV.,  1828.  Reform  in  Parliament  bill  (see  Reform  Bill), 
2  and  3  William  IV.,  1832.     County  Elections  act,  7  WilUam  IV.,  1836. 

ELECTORS  OF  GERMANY.  Originally,  all  the  members  of  the  Germanic  body 
made  choice  of  their  head ;  but  amidst  the  violence  and  anarchy  which  prevailed  for 
several  centuries  in  the  empire,  seven  princes  who  possessed  the  greatest  power 
assumed  the  exclusive  privilege  of  nominating  the  emperor. — Dr.  Robertson*  An 
eighth  elector  was  made,  in  1648  ;  and  a  ninth,  in  favour  of  the  duke  of  Hanover, 
in  1692.  The  number  was  reduced  to  eight,  in  1777  ;  and  was  increased  to  ten  at 
the  peace  of  Luneville,  in  1801.  The  electorship  ceased  on  the  dissolution  of  the 
German  empire,  and  when  the  crown  of  Austria  was  made  hereditary,  1804,  1806. 
— See  Germany, 

ELECTRICITY.  That  of  amber  was  known  to  Thales,  600  B.C.  Electricity  was  im- 
perfectly discovered  a.d.  1467.  It  was  found  in  various  substances  by  Dr.  Gilbert,  of 
Colchester,  in  1600  ;  he  first  obtained  the  knowledge  of  its  power,  of  conductors, 
and  non-conductors,  in  1 606.  Ottoguerick  found  that  two  globes  of  brimstone  con- 
tained electric  matter,  1647.  The  electric  shock  wus  discovered  at  Leyden,  1745, 
and  hence  the  operation  is  termed  the  *'  Leyden  phial.*'  Electric  matter  was  first 
found  to  contain  caloric,  or  fire,  and  that  it  would  fire  spirits,  1756.  The  identity 
of  electricity  and  lightning  was  proved  by  Dr.  Franklin,  about  this  period.  The  elec- 
tricity of  the  Aurora  Borealis  was  discovered  by  means  of  the  electric  kite,  in  1769. 

ELECTRO-GALVANISM.  It  owes  its  origin  to  the  discoveries  of  Dr.  L.  Galvani, 
an  eminent  Italian  philosopher,  in  1789.  Volta  pursued  the  inquiries  of  this  good 
man  (for  he  was  alike  distinguished  by  his  virtues  and  genius),  and  discovered  the 
mode  of  combining  the  metals  ;  constructed  what  is  very  properly  called  the  Voltaic 
pile  ;  and  extended  the  whole  science  into  a  system  which  should  rather  be  called 
Voltaism  than  Galvanism. 

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.  Analogies  between  electricity  and  magnetism  were  dis- 
covered by  Oersted  of  Copenhagen,  in  1807.  This  analogy  was  established  in  1819| 
and  was  confirmed  by  subsequent  experiments  in  England,  France,  and  Germany. 

ELEPHANT.  This  animal,  in  the  earliest  times,  was  trained  to  war.  The  history  of 
the  Maccabees  informs  us,  that  **to  every  elephant  they  appointed  1000  men,  armed 
with  coats  of  mail,  and  500  horse  ;  and  upon  the  elephants  were  strong  towers  of 
wood/'  &c.  The  elephants  in  the  army  of  Antiochus  were  provoked  to  fight  by 
showing  them  the  *'  blood  of  grapes  and  mulberries."  The  first  elephant  said  to 
have  been  seen  in  England,  was  one  of  enormous  size,  presented  by  the  king  of 
France  to  our  Henry  III.,  in  1238. — Baker* s  Chron, 

ELEUSINIAN  MYSTERIES.  A  great  festival  under  this  name  was  observed  by  the 
Athenians  and  other  nations  :  these  mysteries  were  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the 
religious  ceremonies  of  Greece,  and  were  instituted  by  Eumolpus,  1356  B.C.  They 
were  so  superstitiously  observed,  that  if  any  one  revealed  them,  it  was  supposed  that 
he  had  called  divine  vengeance  upon  him,  and  he  was  put  to  death.  The  mysteries 
were  introduced  from  Eleusis  into  Rome,  and  lasted  about  1800  years,  and  were  at 
last  abolished  by  Theodosius  the  Great,  a.d.  389. 

ELGIN  MARBLES.'  These  admirable  works  of  ancient  art  were  derived  chiefly  from 
the  Parthenon,  a  temple  of  Minerva  in  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  of  which  temple 
they  formed  part  of  the  frieze  and  pediment,  built  by  Phidias  about  500  b.c.  Lord 
Elgin  began  the  collection  of  these  marbles  during  his  mission  to  the  Ottoman  Porte, 
in  1802  ;  they  were  purchased  of  him  by  the  British  government  for  36,000/.,  and 
placed  in  the  British  Museum,  in  1816. 

ELL.  An  English  measure  containing  a  yard  and  a  quarter ;  it  was  so  named  from 
ulna,  the  arm,  and  was  fixed  to  this  precise  length  by  Henry  I.,  in  1101. — Stowe'a 
Chron,  This  sovereign  fixed,  at  the  same  time,  the  measure  of  the  yard  to  the 
length  of  his  arm. — Idem, 

ELOPEMENT.  A  married  wonmn  who  departs  from  her  husband,  loses  her  dower  by 
the  statute  of  Westm.  2,  c.  14 — except  that  her  husband,  without  coercion  of  the 
church,  shall  become  reconciled  to  her,  13  Edward  I.,  1284. —  Viner^s  Stahitee, 
Earlier  laws  punished  elopement  with  great  severity,  and  in  cases  wherein  adultery 
followed  from  it,  it  was  punished  with  death. 


ELP  [^  195  3  EMI 

ELPHIN.  St.  Patrick  founded  a  cathedral  near  thia  place,  ''  by  a  river  issuing  from 
two  fountains,"  in  the  fifth  century,  and  placed  oyer  it  St  Asicus,  whom  he  created 
bishop,  and  who  soon  after  filled  it  with  monks.  After  many  centuries,  and  a  little 
before  the  arrival  of  the  English,  this  see  was  enriched  with  large  estates,  upon  the 
translation  of  Roscommon  to  it.  Ardcarn,  Drumclive,  and  others  of  less  note,  wert 
also  annexed  to  Elphin ;  and  by  these  unions,  it  became,  at  length,  one  of  the 
richest  in  all  Ireland.  It  is  valued  in  the  king's  books,  by  an  extent  returned  28 
EUzabeth,  at  103/.  18<.  sterling. 

ELY.  A  church  was  built  here  by  Etheldra,  queen  of  Egfrida,  king  of  Northumberland, 
who  founded  also  a'  religious  house,  and  planted  it  with  vii^ns,  and  became  first 
abbess  herself.  The  Danes  ruined  the  latter ;  but  the  monastery  was  rebuilt  and 
filled  with  monks,  on  whom  king  Edgar  and  many  succeeding  monarchs  bestowed 
great  privileges,  and  made  grants  of  land  ;  so  that,  in  process  of  time,  the  abbey  of 
Ely  became  the  richest  in  England.  Richard,  the  eleventh  abbot,  wishing  to  free 
himself  from  the  bishop  of  Lincoln,  within  whose  diocese  the  monastery  was  situated, 
made  great  interest  with  Henry  I.  to  get  Ely  erected  into  a  bishopric.  His  successor 
was  the  first  prelate,  a.d.  1109.     It  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  2134/.  18<.  bd. 

EMBALMING.  The  ancient  Egyptians  believed  that  their  souls,  after  many  thousand 
years,  would  come  to  reinhabit  their  bodies,  in  case  these  latter  were  preserved 
entire.  Hence  arose  their  practice  of  embalming  the  dead.  The  Egyptian  manner 
of  preserving  the  dead  has  been  the  admiration  and  wonder  of  modem  times.  They 
rendered  the  body  not  only  incorruptible,  but  it  retained  its  full  proportion  of  size, 
symmetry  of  features,  and  personal  likeness.  They  called  the  embalmed  bodies 
mummieSf  some  of  which,  buried  3000  years  ago,  are  perfect  to  this  day.  The  art 
of  such  embalming  is  now  lost.  When  Nicodemos  came,  with  Joseph  of  Arimathea, 
to  pay  the  last  duties  to  our  Saviour  after  his  crucifixion,  he  brought  a  mixture  of 
myrrh  and  aloes  to  embalm  his  body. — John  xix.  38. 

EMBARGO.  This  power  is  vested  in  the  crown,  but  is  rarely  exercised  except  in 
extreme  cases,  and  sometimes  as  a  prelude  to  war.  The  most  memorable  instances 
of  embargo  were  those  for  the  prevention  of  corn  going  out  of  the  kingdom  in  1766; 
and  for  the  detention  of  all  Russian,  Danish,  and  Swedish  ships  in  the  several  ports 
of  the  kingdom,  owing  to  the  armed  neutrality,  Jan.  14, 1801. — See  Armed  Neutrality, 

EMBER  WEEKS.  Observed  in  the  Christian  church  in  the  third  century,  to  implore 
the  blessing  of  God  on  the  produce  of  the  earth  by  prayer  and  fasting.  Ember 
Days,  three  of  which  fall  in  these  weeks,  and  in  which  penitents  sprinkle  the  ashes 
(embers)  of  humiliation  on  their  heads.  Four  times  in  each  year  were  appointed  for 
these  acts  of  devotion,  so  as  to  answer  to  the  four  seasons,  spring,  summer,  autumn, 
and  winter. 

EMBROIDERY.  Its  invention  is  usually  ascribed  to  the  Phrygians  ;  but  we  learn 
from  Homer,  and  other  ancient  authors,  that  the  Sidonians  particularly  excelled  in  this 
decorative  species  of  needle-work.  Of  this  art  very  eariy  mention  is  made  in  the 
Scriptures..^£iro(/tt«  xxxv.  35,  and  xxxviii*  23.  An  ancient  existing  specimen  of 
beautiful  embroidery  is  the  Bayeux  tapestry,  worked  by  Matilda,  the  queen  of 
William  I.  of  England. — See  Bayeux  l^apestry. 

EMERALD.  The  precious  stone  of  a  green  colour  is  found  in  the  East  and  in  Peru  ; 
inferior  ones  in  other  places.  It  has  been  alleged  that  there  were  no  true  emeralds 
in  Europe  before  the  conquest  of  Peru ;  but  there  is  a  genuine  emerald  in  the  Paris 
Museum,  taken  from  the  mitre  of  Pope  Julius  II.  who  died  in  1513,  and  Peru  was 
not  conquered  till  1515 ;  hence  it  is  inferred  that  this  emerald  was  brought  from 
Africa,  or  the  East 

EMIGRATION.  Of  late  years  emigrations  from  Britain  have  been  considerable.  In 
the  ten  years  ending  1830,  the  emigratioos  to  our  North  American  colonies,  West 
Indies,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  New  South  Wales,  Swan  River,  Van  Diemen's  Land, 
&c.  were,  according  to  official  returns,  154,291.  In  the  decennial  period  to  1840, 
the  emigrations  advanced  to  277,696,  exclusively  of  the  vast  numbers  that  preferred 
settling  in  the  United  States  of  America. 

EMINENCE.  A  spiritual  dignity  in  the  Roman  states,  conferred  upon  cardinals  by  a 
decree  of  pope  Urban  VIII.,  dated  January  10,  1630,  previously  to  which  time  they 

,  had  the  title  of  lUustrUsimu — Ashe,  The  grand-master  of  Malta  also  obtained  this 
title. — Pardon, 

o2 


EMI Q  196  ]  ENG 

EMIR.  A  title  of  dignity  among  the  Turks  and  Persians,  first  given. to  caliphs.  This 
rank  was  first  awarded  to  the  descendants  of  Mahomet,  by  his  daughter  Fatima,  about 
A.D.  650. — Ricaut,  To  the  emirs  only  was  originally  given  the  privilege  of  wearing 
the  green  turban.    It  is  also  given  to  high  officers  (another  title  being  joined). 

EMLY.  An  ancient  Irish  see,  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  St.  Patrick,  and 
formerly  endowed  with  large  possessions.  Emly  was  called  Imelaca-Ibair  ;  and  St. 
Ailbe  was  the  first  bishop  in  448  :  ancient  historians  mention  it  as  having  been, 
about  this  time,  a  great  and  flourishing  city ;  but  Emly  is  now  an  inconsiderable 
village.     In  1568,  the  see  was  united  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Cashel. 

EMPALEMENT.  This  barbarous  and  dreadful  mode  of  puttmg  criminals  to  death  ia 
mentioned  by  Juvenal,  and  was  often  inflicted  in  Rome,  particularly  by  the  monster 
Nero.  The  victim  doomed  to  empalement  is  spitted  through  the  body  on  a  stake 
fixed  upright ;  and  this  punishment  is  still  used  in  Turkey  and  Arabia.  The  dead 
bodies  of  murderers  were  sometimes  staked  in  this  manner,  previously  to  being 
buried,  in  England. — Southern,  Williams  (who  committed  suicide)  the  murderer 
of  the  Marr  family,  in  Ratcliffe  Highway,  London,  Dec.  8, 1811,  was  staked  in  his 
ignominious  grave.  This  practice  has  been  since  abc^ished  with  us. — See  Burying  Alive, 

EMPEROR.  Originally  a  title  of  honour  at  Rome,  conferred  on  victorious  generals, 
who  were  first  saluted  by  the  soldiers  by  that  name.  Augustus  Caesar  was  the  first 
Roman  emperor,  27  B.C.  Valens  was  the  first  emperor  of  the  Eastern  empire,  a.d. 
364.  Charlemagne  was  the  first  emperor  of  Germany,  crowned  by  Leo  III.  a.d.  800. 
Ottoman  I.,  founder  of  the  Turkish  empire,  was  the  first  emperor  of  Turkey,  1296. 
The  Czar  of  Russia  was  the  first  emperor  of  that  country,  1722.  Don  Pedro  lY.  of 
Portugal  was  the  first  emperor  of  Brazil,  in  1825. 

EMPIRICS.  They  were  a  set  of  early  physicians  who  contended  that  all  hypothetical 
reasoning  respecting  the  operations  of  the  animal  economy  was  useless,  and  that 
experience  and  observation  alone  were  the  foundation  of  the  art  of  medicine.  The 
sect  of  Empirics  was  instituted  by  Acron  of  Agrigentum,  about  473  b.c. 

ENAMELLING.  The  origin  of  the  art  of  enamelling  is  doubtful.  It  was  practised 
by  the  Egyptians  and  other  early  nations  ;  and  was  known  in  England  in  the  time 
of  the  Saxons.  At  Oxford  is  an  enamelled  jewel  which  belonged  to  Alfred,  and 
which,  as  appears  by  the  inscription,  was  made  by  his  order,inhis  reign,  about  a.d.  887. 

ENCAUSTIC  PAINTING,  known  to  the  ancients.  This  very  beautiful  art,  after 
having  been  lost,  was  restored  by  Count  Caylus  and  M.  Bachelier,  a.d.  1749. 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA.  The  first  work  to  which  this  designation  was  expressly  given, 
was  that  of  Abulfaraius,  an  Arabian  writer,  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Many  were 
published  as  early  as  the  fifteenth  century,  but  none  alphabetically.  Chambers' 
Dictionary  was  the  first  of  the  circle  of  arts  and  sciences,  in  England,  first  pub- 
lished in  1728. — See  Cyclopedia, 

ENGHIEN,  Battle  of,  fought  by  the  British  under  William  III.  and  the  French 
under  Marshal  Luxemburg,  who  were  victorious,  August  3,  1692.  William  had 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  confederated  army  in  the  Netherlands,  and  leagued 
himself  with  the  Protestant  powers  upon  the  Continent  against  the  ambition  of 
Louis  XIV.  and  in  the  end  he  triumphed.  A  victory  obtained  here  by  the  great 
Conde,  first  gave  the  ducal  title  to  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Bourbon  Conde.  The 
duke  D'EngMen  was  shot  by  torch-light,  immediately  after  condemnation  by  a  military 
court,  at  Yincennes,  March  20,  1804.     The  body  was  exhumed,  March  20,  1816. 

ENGINEERS.  This  name  is  of  modern  date,  as  engineers  were  formerly  called 
Trench.masters.  Sir  William  Pelham  officiated  as  trench-master  in  1622.  The 
chief  engineer  was  called  camp- master-general  in  1634.  Captain  Thomas  Rudd  had 
the  rank  of  chief  engineer  to  the  king,  about  1650.  The  corps  of  engineers  was 
formerly  a  civil  corps,  but  was  made  a  military  force,  and  directed  to  rank  with  the 
artillery,  April  25,  1787.  It  has  a  colonel-in-chief,  and  a  second,  and  five  colonel- 
commandants,  and  twenty  colonels.  The  Association  of  Civil  Engineers  was  estab- 
lished in  1828. 

ENGLAND.  See  Britain,  So  named  by  order  of  Egbert,  first  king  of  England,  in  a 
general  council  held  at  Winchester,  a.d.  829.  This  appellative  had  been  used  as 
far  back  as  a.d.  688,  but  had  never  been,  until  then,  ratified  by  any  assembly  of  the 
nation.     It  came  from  Angles,  a  tribe  of  Saxons,  and  lond,  the  Saxon  for  country. 


ENO 


C  w] 


ENQ 


*  ENGLAND,  conHnued, 

The  Danes  begin  their  ravages  .        a.d.    838 
They  enter  the  Thames  witii  a  fleet  of 
350  sail,  and  destroy  Canterbury  and 
London  by  fire  .         .        .        .         .851 
Reign  of  Alfred,  who  defeats  the  in- 
vaders in  56  pitched  battles        .        .    871 
[The  University  of  Oxford  is  said  to  have 

been  founded  about  this  time.] 
Alfred's  body  of  laws  framed  .    890 

His  general  survey  made,  and  the  rolls 

d^>osited  at  Winchester      .        .         .896 
He  divides  England  into  counties       .    .    900 
University  of  Cambridge  foimded  .         .    915 
Genera]  massacre  of  the  Danes  .        .    .  1002 
fiweyn,  king  of  Denmark,  arrives  in 
England,  and  avenges  the  death  of  his 
countrymen.  Ethelred  II.  flies  to  Nor- 
mandy for  protection  .        .        .  1003 
Ethdred  recalled  from  exile      .        .    .  1014 
The  Danes  again  ravage  England  and 

complete  its  conquest         .         .         .  1017 
The  Saxon  line  restored  .         .    .  104S 

Era  of  the  conquest    The  Norman  line 

begins  in  William  L  .        .  .M066 

Justices  of  peace  first  appointed  .    ."  1076 

New  survey  of  England ;   Domesday- 
book  commenced,  106O— completed     .  1086 
The  Saxon  line  again  restored  .1154 

Becket  murdered  ....  1171 

Conquest  of  Ireland  by  Henry  IL   .         .1173 
England  divided  into  .circuits  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  Justice        .        .        .1176 
English  laws  digested  by  GlanviUe         .1181 
Dieu  et  mon  droit,  made  the  motto  of 
England  by  Richard  I.  (see  Dieu  et 

mon  droit) 1198 

England  put  under  an  interdict  by  the 

pope,  and  king  John  excommunicated  1208 
Magna  Charta,  or  the  great  Charter  of 
English  Liberty,  obtained  by  the  ba- 
rons, (see  Mag.  Ch.)    ....  1215 
The  Commons  of  England  summoned  to 

parliament  (see  Parliament)       .         .  1265 
The  principality  of  Wales  united  to 

England  by  Edward  I.  .         .  1283 

Death  of  Friar  Bacon  .    .  1284 

Gaveston  Piers  beheaded       .  .  1312 

Edward  IIL  takes  Calais   .         .        .    .  1347 
Order  of  the  Garter  instituted  .  1350 

Edward  the  Black   Prince  takes   the 
French  king  prisoner,  at  the  battle  of 
Poitiers  {tehich  see)         .         .         .    .  1356 
Law  pleadings  in  English       .         .         .  1362 

Death  of  Wickliffe 1385 

The  line  of  Lancaster    ....  1399 
Order  of  the  Bath  instituted  .    .  1399 

Henry  V.  conquers  France,  and  is  made 
r^ent  of  the  kingdom  .1415 

The  line  of  York 1460 

The  civil  wars  between  the  houses  of 
York  and  Ckncaster  terminate  by  the 
death  of  Richard  HI.  .  .  1485 

Yeomen  of  the  Guard,  being  the  first 
appearance  of  a  standing  army  in  Eng- 
land, instituted  by  Henry  YIL  .  1488 


Gardening  Introduced  into  England  ge- 
nerally, from  the  Netherlands  a.d.  1530 
Firstgeographical  map  of  England  drawn  1520 
Cardinal  Wolsey  dies  .  ...  1530 
Pope's  authority  in  England  abolished  .  1533 
Era  of  the  R^ormation  .         .  1534 

Sir  Thomas  More  beheaded  .  •  .  1535 
Anna  Boleyn  beheaded  .        .        .  1536 

The  first  authorised  edition  of  the  Sacred 

Yolume  printed 1530 

Cromwell,  lord  Essex,  beheaded  .  .  1540 
Queen  Catherine  Howard  beheaded  .  .  1543 
Edward  YI.  promotes  the  Reformation 

during  his  short  reign  .  .  .  1546 
Interest  fixed  at  10  per  cent,  .  .  .  1547 
Mary  restores  Papacy  ....  1553 
Execution  of  lady  Jane  Grey,  and  of  her 

husband,  father,  said  friends  .         .    .  1564 
Calais  retiUcen  by  the  French         .         .  1558 
Reign  of  Elizabeth ;  Papacy  abolished, 
and  the  Church  of  England  established 


nearly  as  it  now  exists 
Execution  of  Alary,  queen  of  Scots 
The  Spanish  Armada  (see  Armada) 
Union  of  the  two  crowns        . 
The  Gunpowder  Plot  {tehich  see) 
The  preseqt  translation  of  the  Bible 
Shakspeare  died        .         .        .         , 
Raleigh  beheaded 
Death  of  lord  Bacon 
Buckingham  assassinated 
Hampden's  trial       %         ,         ,         . 
Lord  Strafford  beheaded 
Archbishop  Laud  beheaded 
Death  of  Hampden 
Execution  of  Charles  L ;  the  form 


of 


1558 
1587 
1588 
1603 
1605 
1611 
1614 
1618 
1626 
1628 
1637 
1641 
1644 
1644 

1649 


government  changed  Jan.  30, 

Oliver  Cromwell  made  Protector  of  the 
Commonwealth  ....  1654 

Death  of  Cromwell 1658 

Monarchy  re-established  in  the  "  Re- 
storation "  of  Charles  II.     .         .         .  1660 
A  great  plague  ravages  London,  carrying 

off  68,000  persons 1665 

Great  fire  of  London  (see  Fires)  .  1666 

Death  of  Milton 1674 

The  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  tor  protecting 
English  subjects  against  false  arrest 
and  imprisonment,  passed .  .  1678 

Lord  Russell  and  Algernon  Sydney  put 

to  death 1683 

Duke  of  Monmouth's  rebellion  .         .    .  1685 
Abdication  of  James  U.         .         ,         .  1688 
Era  of  the  Revolution,  styled  by  Yoltaire 
the  era  of  English  liberty ;  William 
ni.  proclaimed  ....  1688 

Death  of  James  IL 1701 

Union  of  the  two  crowns  .         .  1702 

Union  of  the  two  kingdoms,  by  act,  un- 
der the  title  of  Great  Britain  .        .    .1707 
Accession  of  the  House  of  Hanover        .  1714 

Interest  at  5  per  cent 1714 

The  Scots' rebellion  ....  1715 
Death  of  Newton  .  .  .  .  .  1727 
Second  Scots*  rebellion  ....  1745 


*  The  various  occurrences  of  a  remarkable  character  relating  to  England,  not  noticed  in  this  place, 
will  be  found  under  their  respective  heads  through  the  volume. 


ENG 


[   198  ] 


ENG 


ENGLAND,  continued. 

Lord  Lovat  beheaded  a.d.  1747 

New  style  introduced  into  England  (see 

New  Stifle) 1752 

Isle  of  Man  annexed  to  the  sovereignty 

of  Great  Britain  ....  1765 
Death  of  Chatham    .         .  May  U,  1778 

Separation  of  America  from  Great  Bri- 
tain  .         .         .         .         .    Nov.  30,  1783 
Margaret  Nicholson's  attempt  on  the 

life  of  George  III.  .  .  Aug.  3,  1786 
George  III.  becomes  deranged  .  Oct.  12,  1788 
He  recovers,  and  goes  to  St.  Paul's,  to 

make  thank^ving  .  April  23,  1789 
Cash  payments  suspended  .  Feb.  25,  1797 
Death  of  Edmund  Burke  .  July  8,  1797 
Hatfield'a  attempt  on  the  life  of  George 

UL  {90Q  Hatfield)  .  .  May  11,  1800 
Union  with  Ireland  .  .  Jan.  1,  1801 
Habeas  corpus  act  suspended  (see  Ha- 


beas Corpus) 
Death  of  Nelson    . 
Death  of  Mr.  Pitt     . 
Death  of  Charles  James  Fox 
King's  malady  returns  . 
The  prince  of  Wales  sworn 

regent      .        .        •        . 
Assassination  of  Mr. 

minister 


April  19,  1801 

Oct.  21,  1805 

Jan.  23,  1106 

.  Sept  13,  1806 

Nov.  2,  1810 

as  prince 

Feb.  5,  1811 

Perceval,  prime 

May  11,  1812 


Visit  of  the  emperor  of  Russia  and  king 

■  of  Prussia  to  England       .        June  7,  1814 

Habeas  corpus  act  suspended      Feb.  21 ,  1817 

KINGS  OF 

Btfore  the  Conquest 
AJ>.  828.  Egbert,  sole  monarch. 
837.  St.  Ethelwolf. 
857.  Ethelbald  IL 
860.  Ethelbert  II. 
866.  St.  Ethelred. 
872.  Alfred  the  Great. 
901.  Edward  the  Elder. 
929.  Athelstan. 
940.  Edmund  I.,  killed. 
947.  Edred,  his  brother. 
955.  Edwy,  died  ofgri^* 
959.  Edgar. 

973.  Edward,  the  Martyr,  stabbed. 
979.  Ethelred  II.,  retired. 
lOia  Sweine. 

1014.  Canute,  retired. 

1015.  Ethelred,  returned. 

1016.  Edmund  Ironside,  murdered. 
1617.  Canute  again. 

1036.  Harold  I. 

1039.  Hardicanute. 

1041.  Edward,  the  Confessor. 

1066.  Harold  IL,  killed  in  battle. 

[William  of  Normandy  invaded  England 
in  Sept  1066,  with  a  powerful  fleet 
and  army,  and  gave  battle  to  Harold, 
at  Hastings,  on  the  14th  October,  1066, 
over  whom  he  gained  a  complete  vic- 
tory ;  and  Harold  being  slain,  he  was 
proclaimed  king  by  his  victorious  army 
on  the  spot. 

J/ter  the  Conquest, 
1066.  William,  the  Conqueror. 
1087.  William  U.,  Rufus.  Killed  by  an  arrow. 


Cash  payments  resumed  .  Sept  22,  1817 
The  princess  Charlotte  of  Wales  died 

in  child-birth  .         .  Nov.  6,  1817 

Charlotte,  Queen  of  George  HL,  died  at 

Kew  ....  Nov.  17>  1818 
Duke  of  Kent  died  .    Jan.  23,  1820 

George  III.  died  .  .  .  Jan.  29,  1820 
Trial  of  qu.  Caroline  (see  Queen)  Aug.  19,  1820 
Her  death  at  Hammersmith  Aug.  7.  1821 
Lord  Byron  dies  .  .  .  April  19,  1824 
Duke  of  York  dies    .         .  Jan.  5,  1827 

Mr.  Canning  dies  .  .  Aug.  8,  1827 
The  portals  of  the  Constitution  thrown 

open  to  the  Roman  Catholics,  April  13,  1829 
Death  of  George  lY.  .  .  JuneS6,  1830 
Cholera  morbus  makes  great  ravages  in 

England  (see  Cholera  Morbus)  Oct.  26,  1831 
Parliamentary  Reform  .  June  7,  1832 
Sir  Walter  Scott  dies        .  Sept  21,  1832 

Assault  on  William  IV.  by  a  discharged 

pensioner,  at  Ascot  .        June  19,  1832 

Abolition  of  Slavery  .  .  Aug.  1,  1834 
Corporation  Reform  .  Sept  9.  1835 

William  lY.  dies  .  .  .  June  20,  1837 
[The  crown  of  Hanover  is  now  separated 

from  that  of  Great  Britain.] 
Marriage  of  the  queen  with  pUnce  Albert 

ofSaxeCobnrg  .  .  Feb.  10,  1840 
Edward  Oxford's  assault  upon  the  queen, 

by  firing  pistols  at  her  June  10,  1840 

See  London. 

BMOLAND. 

1100.  HenryI.,Beauc1erk. 
1135.  Stephen,  earl  of  Blois. 

Saxon  line  restored. 
1154.  Henry  IL,  Plantagenet. 
1189.  Richard  L  {Cceur  de  Lion.) 
1199.  John. 
1216.  Henry  HL 

1272.  Edward  I.,  sumamed  Longshanks. 
1307.  Edward  II. ;  murdered  at  Pomfiet. 
1326.  Edward  IIL 
1377.  Richard  U. ;  dethroned  and  murdered. 

House  cf  Lancaster. 
13.09.  Henry  IV. 
1413.  Henry  V. 

1422.  Henry  VL ;  murdered  by  Ridutrd,  duke 
of  Gloucester. 

House  of  York. 

1461.  Edward  lY. 

1483.  Edward  V. ;  murdered  in  the  Tower  bff 
Gloucester, 

1483.  Richard  IH. ;  kUUd  at  the  battle  of  Bos- 
worth. 

House  (if  Tudor. 
1485.  Henry  VII. 
1609.  Henry  VIIL 
1546.  Edward  YL 
1553.  MaryL 
1558.  Elizabeth. 

HoMe  of  Stuart. 
160a  James  Stuart,  VI.  of  Scotland,  and  I.  of 

England. 
1625.  Charles  I. ;  beheaded,  January  30,  1649. 
1653.  OUv.  Cromwell,  madeProteetOTpD^o.  12. 


FNO  C  199  D  ENQ 


1714.  George!.,  Aug.  1. 
1727*  George  II.,  June  11. 
1760.  George  III.,  Oct.  25. 
1811.  R^ency,  Feb.  5. 
IHiO.  George  lY ,  Jan.  S9. 
1^30.  William  IV.,    June  20. 
1837.  Victoria,  June  20. 


ENGLAND,  continued, 

A.n.  1C58.  Rich.  Cromwell,  made  Protector,  Bept 
4 ;  but  resigned,  April  Si,  l«B9. 
1660.  Charles  II.,  restored.  May  29,  tfds  pear. 
1685.  James  II.,  abdicated  by  flight,  Dec.  12, 

1688. 
IfiflS   i  Williun  III.,  prince  of  Orange,  and 

(     Mary  II.,  daughter  of  James  IL 
1702.  Anne,  second  daughter  of  James  II. 

England  and  Wales  were  united  a.d.  1283,  and  Scotland  was  united  to  both  in  1707, 
and  the  three  were  then  styled  Great  Britain.  Ireland  was  incorporated  with  thesa 
countries  by  the  Act  of  Legislative  Union,  January  1,  1801,  and  the  whole  called 
the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

ENGLAND,  NEW.  First  settled  by  persons  driven  from  England  by  religious  perse- 
cution. The  first  attempt  to  form  a  settlement  was  made  in  1607.  Named  New 
England  by  captain  Smith  in  1614 ;  settlement  of  the  Plymouth  company  in  1620. 

ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  See  article  Languages.  From  the  High  Dutch  or  Teutonic 
sprung  (among  others)  the  English  language,  now  one  of  the  most  copious  and 
beautiful  of  Europe.  Law  pleadings  were  made  in  English  by  order  of  Edward  III. 
instead  of  the  French  language,  which  had  been  continued  from  the  time  of  the 
Conqueror,  a.d.  1362.  The  English  tongue  and  English  apparel  were  ordered  to 
be  used  in  Ireland,  28  Henry  VIII.  1536.  The  Liturgy  was  first  read  in  English  in 
Christ's  Church,  Dublin,  in  1550;  and  was  immediately  afterwards  printed  in 
English  by  Humphrey  Powell.  The  English  was  ordered  to  be  used  in  all  law  suits, 
and  the  Latin  disused,  May  1731. 

ENGRAVING.  The  engraving  of  gems  is  a  branch  of  art  of  the  highest  antiquity. 
The  earliest  writers  make  mention  of  engraved  seals  and  seal  rings,  and  there  still 
exist  many  antique  engravings  equal  to  later  productions  of  similar  artists.  Engrav- 
ing from  plates  and  wood  is  chiefly  of  modem  invention,  having  its  origin  about 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Engraving  on  glass  was  perfected  to  an  art  by 
Boudier  of  Paris,  1799.  The  copyright  to  engravings  has  been  protected  by  several 
statutes,  among  the  principal  are  the  acts  16  and  18  George  III.  1775  and  1777. 

ENGRAVING  on  COPPER.  Prints  from  engraved  copper-plates  made  their  appear- 
I  ance  about  a.d.  1450,  and  were  first  produced  in  Germany.  Masso,  sumamed 
Finiguerra,  was  the  first  Italian  artist  in  this  way,  1460.  The  earliest  date  known  of 
a  copper-plate  engraving  is  1461.  Rolling  presses  for  working  the  plates  were 
invented  in  1545,  and  many  improvements  of  it  followed.  Of  the  art  of  etching  on 
copper  by  means  of  aquafortis,  Francis  Mazzooli,  or  Parmagiano,  is  the  reputed 
inventor,  about  a.d.  1532. — De  Piles, 

ENGRAVING,  Lithographic.  This  is  a  new  branch  of  the  art,  and  Alois  Sennefelder 
may  be  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  it.  It  was  first  announced  on  the  Continent  in 
1798,  and  became  more  known  as  poly  autography  in  1808.  It  was  introduced  into 
general  use  in  England  by  Mr.  Ackermann  of  London  in  1817. 

ENGRAVING,  Mezzotinto.  The  art  was  discovered  by  Siegen,  and  was  improved 
by  prince  Rupert  in  1648.  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  the  illustrious  architect,  further 
improved  it  in  1662.  Another  species  of  engraving,  called  Aquatinta,  by  which  a 
soft  and  beautiful  effect  is  produced,  was  invented  by  the  celebrated  French  artist 
St.  Non,  about  1662 ;  he  communicated  his  invention  to  Le  Prince.  Barrabe  of 
Paris  was  distinguished  for  his  improvements  in  this  kind  of  engraving,  1763.  Chiaro 
oscuro  engraving  originated  with  the  Germans,  and  was  first  practised  by  Mair,  one 
of  whose  prints  bears  date  1491. — See  Zincography ^  ^c, 

ENGRAVING  on  STEEL.  The  mode  of  engraving  on  soft  steel,  which,  after  it  has 
been  hardened,  will  multiply  copper-plates  and  fine  impressions  indefinitely,  was 
introduced  into  England  by  Messrs.  Perkins  and  Heath  of  Philadelphia  in  1819. 

ENGRAVING  on  WOOD,  took  its  rise  from  the  brief  mahlerSf  or  manufacturers  of 
playing-cards,  about  A.d.  1400 ;  and  from  this  sprung  the  invention  of  printing, 
first  attempted  by  means  of  wooden  types  not  moveable.  See  Printing,  The 
earliest  wood  engraving  which  has  reached  our  times  is  one  representing  St.  Chris- 
topher carrying  the  infant  Jesus  over  the  sea ;  it  bears  date  a.d.  1423. 


ENL  Q  200  ]  EPI 

ENLISTMENT*  By  statute  no  persons  enlisting  as  soldiers  or  sailors  are  to  be  sworn 
in  before,  a  magistrate  in  less  than  twenty-four  hours,  and  then  they  are  at  liberty  to 
withdraw  upon  their  returning  the  enlistment  or  bounty  money,  and  2 Iff.  costs.] 

ENNISKILLEN.  The  people  of  this  town  occupy  a  remarkable  place  in  the  history 
of  the  civil  wars  of  Ireland.  They  made  an  obstinate  defence  against  the  army  of 
Elizabeth,  1595.  Their  memorable  defence  against  James  II.,  1689.  1500  Ennis- 
killeners  met  General  M'Carty  with  a  force  of  6000  men,  of  whom  3000  were  slain, 
and  nearly  all  the  rest  were  made  prisoners,  they  losing  but  20  men,  July  20,  1689. 
The  dragoon  regiment  called  the  "  Inniskillingers,''  is  always  recruited  here. 

ENTOMOLOGY.  This  branch  of  natural  history  cannot  be  regarded  as  ranking  as  a 
science  until  the  arrangement  of  Linnaeus,  a.d.  1739.  The  London  Entomological 
Society  was  instituted  in  1806 ;  it  is  directed  chiefly  to  the  study  of  insects  found  in 
Great  Britain ;  and  inquires  into  the  best  methods  of  destroying  noxious  insects, 
and  making  known  such  as  are  useful. 

ENVOYS.  They  enjoy  the  protection,  but  not  the  ceremonies  of  ambassadors.  Envoys 
Extraordinary  are  of  modern  date. —  Wicquefort.  The  court  of  France  denied  to 
them  the  ceremony  of  being  conducted  to  court  in  the  royal  carriages,  a.d.  1639. 

EPHESUS.  Famous  for  the  temple  of  Diana,  which  magnificent  structure  was  one  of 
the  seven  wonders  of  the  world  ;  it  was  425  feet  long  and  200  broad,  and  cost  220 
years  of  labour.  Ctesiphon  was  the  chief  architect,  and  127  kings  contributed  to 
its  grandeur.  The  temple  was  burnt  by  Erostratus,  solely  to  perpetuate  his 
memory,  356  B.C. — Pliny,  It  rose  from  its  ruins,  and  was  richer  and  more  splendid 
than  before  ;  but  it  was  again  burnt  a.d.  260. — Univ,  Hist. 

EPHORI.  Powerful  magistrates  of  Sparta,  first  created  by  Theopompus  to  control  the 
royal  power,  760  b.c.  They  were  five  in  number,  and  acting  as  censors  in  the  state, 
they  could  check  and  restrain  the  authority  of  the  kings,  and  even  imprison  them, 
if  they  were  guilty  of  irregularities. 

EPICUREAN  PHILOSOPHY.  Epicurus  of  Gargettus,  near  Athens,  was  the 
founder  of  it,  about  300  b.c.  and  taught  that  the  greatest  good  consists  in  a  happiness, 
springing  not  from  sensual  gratification  or  vicious  pleasures,  but  from  virtue,  and 
consisting  in  the  peace  and  harmony  of  the  soul  with  itself.  His  disciples  had  all 
things  in  common ;  and  the  pleasantness  of  his  system,  and,its  ease  and  luxury,  made 
him  many  followers. 

EPIGRAMS.  They  derive  their  origin  from  the  inscriptions  placed  by  the  ancients  on 
their  tombs.  Marcus  Valerius  Martialis,  the  celebrated  Latin  epigrammatist,  who 
flourished  about  a.d.  83,  is  allowed  to  have  excelled  all  others,  ancient  or  modern, 
in  the  tasteful  and  pointed  epigram.  The  following  Latin  epigram  on  the  miracle  of 
our  Saviour  in  turning  water  into  wine  at  Cana  (John  iii.)  is  a  beautiful  example : — 

*'  Yidet  et  erubuit  lympha  pudica  Deum." 

And  Dr.  Johnson  has  declared  that  the  subjoined  English  epigram,  by  Dr.  Doddridge, 
on  the  words  Dum  vivimus  vivamus,  is  the  finest  specimen  in  our  language  :— 

"  Live  while  we  live  1"  the  epicure  will  say, 

*'  And  taste  the  pleasures  of  the  present  day." 

"  Live  while  we  live !"  the  hoary  preacher  cries, 

*'  And  give  to  God  each  moment  a«  it  flies." 
Lord !  in  mp  view  let  both  united  be. 
We  live  in  pleasure  when  we  live  to  thee. — Doddridge. 

EPIPHANY.  The  feast  of  the  Epiphany  celebrates  the  arrival  of  the  wise  men  of  the 
East,  and  the  manifestation  to  the  world  of  the  Saviour,  by  the  appearance  of  a 
miraculous  blazing  star,  which  conducted  the  Magi  to  the  place  where  he  was  to  be 
found  ;  instituted  a.d.  813. —  Wheatley.  The  primitive  Christians  celebrated  the 
feast  of  the  Nativity  for  twelve  days,  observing  the  first  and  last  with  great  solem- 
nity ;  and,  from  the  circumstance  of  this  being  twelve  days  after  Christmas,  it  is 
vulgarly  called  Twelfth-day. 

EPIRUS.  Known  by  the  great  warlike  achievements  of  Pyrrhus.  Its  early  history 
is  very  obscure,  and  it  is  only  during  the  reign  of  this  sovereign,  who  was  the  last, 
that  it  becomes  interesting.  The  first  Pyrrhus  (Neoptolemus)  settled  in  Epiros 
after  the  Trojan  war,  1170  b.c. 


EPl 


[201  ] 


ERA 


Expedition  against  Sparta  b.c. 

He  enters  Argos,  and  is  killed  by  a  tile, 
thrown  at  him  from  a  house-top  by  a 
woman 

Philip  unites  Epirus  to  Maoedon        .    . 

Its  conquest  by  the  Romans 

*  «  «  ♦  3|t  :|c  )|( 

Annexed  to  the  Ottoman  empire   .    a.d. 


272 


27s 
220 
167 

1406 


EPIRUS,  continued. 

Reign  of  the  great  Pyrrhus                b.c.  306 

He  enters  into  a  league  i^ainst  Deme- 
trius ;  the  battle  of  Beraea          .         .  294 

Expedition  into  Italy  ;  he  gains  his  first 

battle  against  the  Romans                   .  280 

He  gains  another  great  battle     .         .    .  279 

His  conquest  of  Sicily   ....  278 

His  last  battle  with  the  Romans         .    .  274 

He  takes  Maoedon  from  Antigonus        .  274 

EPISCOPACY.  The  government,  by  its  bishops,  of  the  Christian  church.  It  may  be 
said  to  have  been  instituted  a.d.  33,  when  Peter  sat  in  the  bishop's  chair  at  Rome. 
Butler.  Episcopacy  comraenced  in  England  in  the  second  century ;  in  Ireland 
about  the  same  time  ;  and  in  Scotland  in  the  fourth  century ;  but  historians  dispute 
with  theologians  upon  this  point.  See  Bishops.  In  Scotland,  episcopacy  was 
finally  abolished  at  the  period  of  the  revolution,  1688-9.  The  sect  called  Episco- 
palians first  appeared  about  the  year  500. — Burnet. 

EPITAPHS.  The  origin  of  epitaphs  cannot  be  precisely  traced  :  they  were  used  by 
the  ancient  Jews,  by  the  Athenians,  the  Romans,  and  most  of  the  nations  of 
antiquity ;  their  date  is  referred  in  England  to  the  earliest  times. — In  the  epitaphs 
of  the  ancients  arose  the  epigram. — Boileau.  Among  the  most  admired  epitaphs  in  the 
English  language  is  the  following  exquisite  inscription  on  the  monument  of  Mrs. 
Mason,  daughter  of  William  Sherman,  esq.  and  lady  of  the  Rev.  William  Mason, 
the  distinguished  poet  and  author  of  Elfrida^  Caractacusy  the  EnglishGardenf  jfc. 
Mrs.  Mason  died  at  Bristol  Wells  in  1767,  and  is  interred  in  Bristol  cathedral : — 

"  Take,  holy  earth,  all  that  my  soul  holds  dear : 

Take  that  best  gift,  which  Heav'n  so  lately  gave : 
To  Bristol's  foimt  I  bore,  with  trembling  care. 

Her  faded  form — she  bow'd  to  taste  the  wave. 
And  died !    Does  youth,  does  beauty  read  the  line  ? 

Does  sympathetic  fear  their  breast  alarm  ? 
Speak,  dead  Maria !  breathe  a  strain  divine — 

E'en  from  the  grave  thou  shalt  have  power  to  charm  ! 
Bid  them  be  chaste,  be  innocent,  like  thee ; 

Bid  them  in  duty's  sphere  as  meekly  move. 
And  if  so  fair,  from  vanity  as  free, 

As  firm  in  friendship,  and  as  fond  in  love ! 
Tell  them,  though  'tis  an  awful  thing  to  die, 

('Twas  e'en  to  thee)— yet  the  dread  path  once  trod» 
Heav'n  lifts  its  everlasting  portals  high. 

And  bids  the  pure  in  heart  behold  their  God." 


And  again — 


"  Rest,  gentle  shade !  and  wait  thy  Maker's  will : 
Then  rise  imchanged,  and  be  an  angel  still." 


EPITHALAMIUM.  Stesichorus,  the  lyric  poet,  was  the  first  writer  of  a  nuptial 
complimentary  song,  or  epithalamium ;  he  was  also  the  author  of  the  fable  of  the 
Horse  and  the  Stag,  imitated  by  Horace.  He  was  originally  called  Tisiast  and 
received  the  name  of  Stesichorus  from  the  alterations  made  by  him  in  music  and 
dancing,  536  B.C. — Bossuet, 

EPOCHAS.  These  are  periods  in  history  which  are  agreed  upon  and  acknowledged 
by  the  respective  historians  and  chronolegers,  and  which  serve  to  regulate  the  date 
of  events.     The  following  are  the  epochas  thus  particularly  adopted. — See  Eras, 

Creation b.c.  4004 

Deluge 2348 

Calling  of  Abraham  .         .         .    .  1921 

Argonautic  expedition  ....  1225 

Destruction  of  Troy 1184 

1st  Olympiad 776 

ERAS.  Notices  of  the  principal  eras  will  be  found  in  their  alphabetical  order  ;  a  few 
only  need  be  mentioned  here.  The  era  of  Nabonasser,  after  which  the  astronomical 
observations  made  at  Babylon  were  reckoned,  began  February  26,  747.  The  era  of 
the  Seleucidse  (used  by  the  Maccabees)  commenced  312  b.c.  The  Olympiads  belong 
to  the  Grecians^  and  date  from  the  year  776  b.c.  ;   but  they  subsequently  reckoned 


Building  of  Rome 

B.C.    753 

Nabonasser 

.    747 

The  Seleucidae 

.    .    312 

The  battle  of  Actium     . 

.      38 

The  Christian  era     . 

A.D.         1 

Diocletian    . 

.    284 

I -  ^ . ■ ■ 1 ■ 

ERA  13  202  ]  ETE 

*  I  -  —III-  ■     r  I  I  I  ■■■  ■ 

by  Indictions,  the  first  beginning  a.d.  313 :  these,  among  chronologera,  are  still 
used. — See  Indictions,  The  Romans  reckoned  from  the  building  of  their  city,  753 
B.C. ;  and  afterwards  from  the  16th  year  of  the  emperor  Augustus,  which  reckoning 
was  adopted  among  the  Spaniards  until  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  The 
disciples  of  Mahomet  began  their  Hegira  from  the  flight  of  their  prophet  from 
Mecca,  which  occurred  a.d.  622. 

ERAS  OP  THE  CREATION  and  REDEMPTION.  The  Jews  and  Christians  have 
had  divers  epochas ;  but  in  historical  computation  of  time  are  chiefly  used  the  most 
extraordinary  epochs,  which  are  two,  the  Creation  of  the  World,  and  the  appearance 
of  our  Redeemer,  which  last  the  Christians  have  made  their  era.  They  did  not 
adopt  it,  however,  until  the  sixth  century,  when  it  was  introduced  by  Denys  the 
Little,  a  Scythian,  who  became  abbot  of  a  monastery  near  Rome :  he  was  the  first 
who  computed  time  from  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  fixed  that  great  event  according  to 
the  vulgar  era. — Cassiodorus  Chron,  This  computation  began  in  Italy,  a.d.  525, 
and  in  England  in  816.  It  is  the  only  one  now  in  general  use,  and  is  that  observed 
in  this  work. — See  Creation f  and  Christian  Era, 

ERFURTH.  Founded  in  a.d.  476 ;  and  its  famous  university  established  in  1390. 
Erfurth  was  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1802.  It  capitulated  to  Murat,  when  14,000  Prus- 
sian troops  surrendered,  October  16,  1806.  In  this  city  Napoleon  and  Alexander 
met,  and  offered  peace  to  England,  September  27,  1808.  The  French  retreated  to 
Erfurth  from  Leipsic,  18th  October,  1813. 

ESCHEATS.  Any  land  or  other  property  that  falls  to  a  lord  within  his  manor  by  for- 
feiture or  death.  The  escheator  observes  the  rights  of  the  king  in  the  county  whereof 
he  is  escheator. — Cowet.  In  London  a  court  of  escheats  was  held  before  the  lord 
mayor,  to  recover  the  property  of  a  bastard  who  died  intestate,  for  the  king  ;  such  a 
court  had  not  been  held  in  the  city  for  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  before,  July  16, 
1771.— PAt/Ztp*. 

ESCURIAL.  The  palace  of  the  kings  of  Spain,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  magnifi- 
cent in  the  world.  It  was  commenced  by  Philip  II.  in  the  year  1562  ;  and  the  first 
expenditure  of  its  erection  was  6,000,000  of  ducats.  It  forms  a  vast  square  of 
polished  stone,  and  paved  with  marble.  It  may  give  some  notion  of  the  surprising 
grandeur  of  this  palace  to  observe,  that,  according  to  the  computation  of  Francisco 
de  los  Santos,  it  would  take  up  more  than  four  days  to  go  through  all  its  rooms  and 
apartments,  the  length  of  the  way  being  reckoned  thirty-three  Spanish  leagues, 
which  is  above  120  English  miles.  Alvarez  de  Colmenar  also  asserts,  that  there  are 
14,000  doors,  and  11,000  windows  belonging  to  this  edifice. 

ESPIERRES,  Battle  of,  between  the  allied  English  and  Austrians  on  the  one  side, 
the  former  commanded  by  the  duke  of  York,  and  the  French  on  the  other.  The 
French  attacked  the  allies  concentrated  here,  with  an  army  of  100,000  men,  and 
were  repulsed  after  a  long  and  desperate  engagement,  losing  12,000  killed  and 
wounded,  500  prisoners,  and  seven  pieces  of  cannon.  May  22,  1794. 

ESQUIRES.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  esquires  were  armour-bearers  to,  or 
attendants  on,  a  knight. — Blount.  In  England  the  king  created  esquires  by  putting 
about  their  necks  the  collar  of  S  S,  and  bestowing  upon  them  a  pair  of  silver  spurs. 
A  British  queen  is  recorded  as  having  married  the  armifferum,  or  esquire,  of  her  de- 
ceased husband.  The  distinction  of  esquire  was  first  given  to  persons  of  fortune  not 
attendant  upon  knights,  a.d.  1345. — Stowe.     Meyr%ck*s  Ancient  Armour. 

ESSLING,  Battle  of,  between  the  armies  of  France  and  Austria,  commanded  by 
Napoleon  and  the  archduke  Charles ;  a  dreadful  conflict  which  commenced  on  May 
21,  and  was  renewed  with  increased  vigour  on  the  next  day.  May  22,  1809.  Napo- 
leon was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  30,000  men;  but  the  loss  of  the  Austrians,  also 
most  severe,  exceeded  20,000.  This  was  the  severest  check  that  the  French  em- 
peror had  yet  experienced,  and  his  army  was  greatly  endangered  in  its  retreat. 

ETERNITY.  When  creation  began  we  do  not  knaw :  there  were  angels,  and  a  place 
of  angelic  habitation  before  the  creation  of  man,  and  of  the  world  destined  for  his 
residence,  and  even  among  those  pure  spiritual  essences,  there  had  been  a  rebellion, 
and  a  fall.  How  long  those  spirits  had  existed,  and  how  many  other  orders  of  beings 
besides,  we  conjecture  in  vain ;  but  how  far  back  soever  we  suppose  the  commence- 
ment of  creation,  even  beyond  the  greatest  amount  of  ages  that  figures,  in  any  way 
combined,  could  be  made  to  express,  still  there  was  an  eternity  preceding — an  eter- 


ETH  [^  203  ]  EUR 

nity  from  which  this  unimaginable  and  incompatible  duration  has  made  not  the 
minutest  deduction  ;  for  it  is  the  property  of  eternity,  that  it  can  neither  be  length- 
ened by  the  addition,  nor  shortened  by  the  subtraction,  of  the  longest  possible 
periods  of  time.  Before  the  commencement  of  creation,  therefore— before  the  fiat 
of  omnipotence  which  gave  being  to  the  first  dependent  existence,  and  dated  the  be- 
ginning of  time— in  infinite  and  incomprehensible  solitude,  yet,  in  the  boundless 
self-sufficiency  of  his  blessed  nature,  feeling  no  want  and  no  dreariness— Jehovah 
had,  from  eternity,  existed  alone  1 

ETHER.  It  was  known  to  the  earliest  chemists.  Nitric  ether  was  first  discovered  by 
Kunkel,  in  1681 ;  and  muriatic  ether  was  first  made  from  the  chloride  of  tin,  by 
Courtanvauz,  in  1759.  Acetic  ether  was  discovered  by  count  Lauraguais,  same 
year  ;  and  hydriodic  ether  was  first  prepared  by  Gay-Lussac.  The  phosphoric  was 
obtained  by  M.  Boullay. 

ETHICS.  The  doctrine  and  system  of  morality ;  a  science  which  is  scarcely  more  in- 
culcated by  religion  and  virtue,  than  it  is  inflaenced  by  manners  and  government : 
the  Chinese,  who  are  said  to  have  been  acquainted  with  astronomy  at  least  3000  years 
before  the  birth  of  Christ,  were  so  refined  in  the  earliest  ages,  that  they  studied  ethics, 
we  are  told,  a  thousand  years  before  that  event ;  and  hence  they  must  have  lived  at  that 
time  under  not  only  civilised  and  enlightened,  but  refined  and  moral  governments. 

ETNA,  MOUNT.  Here  were  the  fabled  forges  of  the  Cyclops  ;  and  it  is  called  by 
Pindar  the  pillar  of  heaven.  Eruptions  are  mentioned  by  Diodorus  Siculus  as  hap- 
pening 1693  B.C.,  and  Thucydides  speaks  of  three  eruptions  as  occurring,  734,  477, 
and  425  B.C.  There  were  eruptions,  125,  121,  and  43  b.c. — Livy.  Eruptions  a.d. 
40,  253,  and  420.— Carrera,  One  in  1012.— Geoffrey  de  Viterbo.  Awful  one 
which  overwhelmed  Catania,  when  15,000  inhabitants  perished  in  the  burning  ruins, 
1169.  Eruptions  equally  awful  and  destructive,  1329,  1408,  1444, 1536, 1537, 1564, 
and  in  1669,  when  tens  of  thousands  of  persons  perished  in  the  streams  of  lava 
which  rolled  over  the  whole  country  for  forty  days.  Eruptions  in  1766, 1787,  1809, 
1811,  and  in  May  1830,  when  several  villages  were  destroyed,  and  showers  of  lava 
reached  even  to  Rome.  Another  violent  eruption,  and  the  town  of  Bronte  destroyed, 
Nov.  18,  1832. 

ETON  COLLEGE.  Founded  by  Henry  VI.  in  1441,  and  designed  as  a  nursery  to 
King's  College,  Cambridge.  Besides  about  300  noblemen's  and  gentlemen's  sons, 
there  are  seventy  king's  scholars  on  the  foundation,  who,  when  properly  qualified, 
are  elected,  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  August,  to  King's  College,  in  Cambridge,  but 
are  not  removed  till  there  are  vacancies,  and  then  according  to  seniority. 

ETON  MONTEM.  The  establishment  of  the  montem  is  nearly  coeval  with  the  col- 
lege, and  consists  in  the  procession  of  the  scholars,  arrayed  in  fancy  dresses,  to  Salt- 
hill  once  in  three  years,  to  collect  donations  on  the  road.  The  money  so  collected 
has  amounted  to  800/. ,  and  is  given  to  the  senior  or  best  scholar,  their  captain,  who 
is  going  off  to  Cambridge,  for  his  support  while  studying  at  that  university..^ 
Lyson^s  Magna  Britannia, 

EUCLID,  Elements  of.  Euclid  was  a  native  of  Alexandria,  and  flourished  there 
about  300  B.C.  The  Elements  are  not  wholly  his,  for  many  of  the  invaluable  truths 
and  demonstrations  they  contain  were  discovered  and  invented  by  Thales,  Pythagoras, 
Eudoxus,  and  others  ;  but  Euclid  was  the  first  who  reduced  them  to  regular  order, 
and  who  probably  interwove  many  theorems  of  his  own,  to  render  the  whole  a  com- 
plete and  connected  system  of  geometry.  The  Elements  were  first  printed  at  Basil, 
by  Simon  Grynseus,  in  a.d.  1533. 

EUDIOMETER.  To  ascertain  the  purity  of  atmospheric  air,  or  the  quantity  of  Oxy- 
genous gas  or  vital  air  contained  in  it,  was  invented  by  Dr.  Priestley,  in  1772« 
Some  improvements  upon  this  instrument  have  been  since  made. 

EUNUCHS.  This  species  of  mutilation  is  first  mentioned  among  the  Egyptian  and 
Assyrian  nations  ;  and  eunuchs  in  the  earliest  times  were  attendants  in  courts.  The 
first  princess  who  was  waited  upon  by  eunuchs  in  her  chamber,  was  Semiramis, 
queen  of  Assyria  and  Babylon,  about  2007  B.C. —  Lenglet.  Numbers  of  this  class 
of  persons  are  in  the  quality  of  attendants  on  the  ladies  of  the  Seraglio  in  Turkey. 

EURYMEDON,  Battle  of  ;  most  celebrated  in  Grecian  history,  when  Cimon,  son 
of  Miltiades,  destroys  the  Persian  fleet  at  Cyprus,  and  defeats  their  land  forces  near 
the  river  Eurymedon,  in  Pamphylia,  fought  470  b.c. — Lenglet. 


EUS  t  204  ]  EXC 

EUSTATIA,  ST.  This  island  was  settled  by  the  Dutch  in  1632  ;  it  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  1689  ;  by  the  English  in  1690  ;  and  again  by  the  British  forces,  under 
admiral  Rodney  and  general  Vaughan,  February  3,  1781.  It  was  recovered  by  the 
French  under  the  marquis  de  BouiU^,  Nov.  26,  same  year ;  and  was  again  captured 
by  the  British  in  1801,  and  1810  ;  but  restored  in  1814. 

EVANGELISTS.  Mark  and  Matthew  wrote  their  Gospels  in  a.d.  44 ;  Luke  in  55  ; 
and  John  in  97.  In  95,  John  was  thrown  into  a  cauldron  of  boiling  oil  at  Rome, 
whence,  being  taken  out  unhurt,  he  was  banished  to  the  Isle  of  Patmos,  and  there, 
in  the  year  96,  he  wrote  the  Apocalypse ^  and  died  in  100. — Butler.  At  the  council 
of  Nice  in  325,  there  were  200  varied  versions  of  the  adopted  Evangelists. 

EVESHAM,  Battle  of,  between  prince  Edward,  afterwards  Edward  I.,  and  Simon 
de  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,  in  which  the  barons  were  defeated,  and  the  earl,  his 
son,  and  most  of  his  adherents  slain.  Henry  III.  at  one  period  of  the  battle  was 
on  the  point  of  being  cleft  down  by  a  soldier  who  did  not  know  his  rank,  but  was 
saved  by  his  timely  exclamation,  *'  Do  not  kill  me,  soldier,  I  am  Henry  of  Win- 
chester, thy  king  !''  This  victory  broke  up  the  treasonable  conspiracy  of  the  barons  ; 
fought  August  4,  1265. 

EVIL  MAY-DAY.  A  day  memorable  in  London,  and  thus  called  on  account  of  the 
dreadful  excesses  of  the  populace,  which  were  directed  against  foreigners,  particularly 
the  French.  "  The  rioters  were  headed  by  one  Lincoln,  who,  with  a  number  of 
others,  was  hanged ;  and  400  more  in  their  shirts,  and  bound  with  ropes,  and 
halters  about  their  necks,  were  carried  to  Westminster,  but  they  crying  *  mercy, 
mercy  ! '  were  all  pardoned  by  the  king  (Henry  VIII.},  which  clemency  gained  him 
much  love/'    May  1,  1617. — Delaune. 

EXCHANGE.  One,  called  Collegium  Mercaiorum,  existed  at  Rome,  493  B.C.  The 
Exchange  at  Amsterdam  was  reckoned  the  finest  structure  of  the  kind  in  the  world. 
Many  edifices  of  this  name  in  the  United  Kingdom  are  magnificent.  The  Exchange 
of  London  was  founded  by  sir  Thomas  Gresham,  June  7, 1566,  and  was  called  Royal^ 
by  Elizabeth,  on  her  paying  it  a  visit  in  Jan.,  1571.  This  edifice  was  built  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Tun-prison.  It  was  totally  destroyed  in  the  memorable  fire  of 
1666  ;  and  was  rebuilt  by  Nicholas  Hawkesmoor,  1668  ;  and  repaired  and  beautified 
in  1769.  Again  burnt  and  made  a  pile  of  ruins,  with  a  number  of  public  offices  and 
adjoining  houses,  Jan.  10,  1838.  Its  rebuilding  was  commenced  under  Mr.  Tite, 
in  1840. — See  Bills  of  Exchange,  and  Royal  Exchange, 

EXCHEQUER.  An  institution  of  great  antiquity,  consisting  of  officers  whose  functions 
are  financial  or  judicial :  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  is  the  first  of  these,  and  he 
formerly  sat  in  the  court  of  exchequer  above  the  barons.  The  first  chancellor  was 
Eustace  de  Fauconbridge,  bishop  of  London,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  about  I22I. 
The  exchequer  stopped  payment  from  Jan.  to  May  the  24th,  Charles  II.  1673. — 
Stowe.     The  English  and  Irish  exchequers  were  consolidated  in  1816. 

EXCHEQUER  BILLS.  The  government  securities  so  called  were  first  issued  in  1697,  and 
first  circulated  by  the  bank  in  1796.  These  bills,  of  which  more  than  twenty  millions 
sterling  are  often  in  circulation,  are  in  effect  accommodation  notes  of  government, 
that  are  issued  in  anticipation  of  taxes,  at  daily  interest ;  and,  being  received  for  taxes, 
and  paid  by  the  bank  in  lieu  of  taxes,  in  its  dealings  with  the  exchequer,  they  usually 
bear  a  premium. 

EXCHEQUER  CHAMBER,  Court  of.  Erected  by  Edward  III.  in  1357.  It  was 
remodelled  by  Elizabeth,  in  1504,  and  then  made  to  comprise  the  judges  of  all  the  courts. 
This  court  is  for  error  from  the  judgments  of  the  courts  of  Queen's  Bench,  Common 
Pleas,  and  Exchequer,  of  pleas  in  actions  commenced  therein.  Remodelled  by  act  1 1 
George  IV.  and  1  William  IV.  1830.  The  Exchequer  office,  Westminster,  was 
instituted  by  Henry  IV.  in  1399. 

EXCHEQUER,  Court  op.  Instituted  by  William  I.  on  the  model  of  the  Trans- 
marine Exchequer  of  Normandy,  in  1079.  It  included  the  Common  Pleas  until  they 
were  separated,  16  John,  1215. — Cooke's  Reports,  The  exchequer  is  so  named 
from  a  chequered  cloth  which  anciently  covered  the  table  where  the  judges  and 
chief  officers  sat.  Here  are  tried  all  causes  relating  to  the  king's  revenue  ;  such  as 
are  concerning  accounts,  disbursements,  customs,  and  fines  imposed,  as  well  as  all 
matters  of  equity  between  subject  andsubject.  The  judges  arestyled  barons. — Beatson, 


EXC 


[  205  ] 


EXP 


EXCISE.  The  excise  system  was  established  in  England  by  the  Long  Parliament ;  was 
continued  under  Cromwell  and  Charles  II.  ;  and  was  organised  as  at  present  in  the 
Walpole  administration.  It  was  first  collected  and  an  office  opened  in  1643,  and  was 
arbitrarily  levied  upon  liquors  and  provisions  to  support  the  parliament  forces  against 
Charles  I.  The  Excise  office  was  built  on  the  site  of  Gresham  College,  in  1774. 
The  officers  of  excise  and  customs  were  deprived  of  their  votes  for  members  of 
parliament  in  1 782. — See  Revenue. 

AMOXTNT  OF  THB  BJCCI8B  RBVBNUB  OP  ORJBAT  BRITAIN  IN  THB  FOLLOWINO  YBAR8. 


1744.  Great  Britain    . 

.    £3,7i54,072 

1830.  United  Kingdom 

£18,644,385 

1786.       Ditto 

5.540,114 

1834.           Ditto 

.      16,877>292 

1800.       Ditto 

.      19,867,914 

1837.           Ditto 

14,518,142 

1820.       Ditto 

26.364,702 

1840.           Ditto 

.      12,607,766 

1827.  United  Kingdom 

.      20,995,324 

EXCOMMUNICATION.  An  ecclesiastical  anathema,  or  interdict  from  Christian 
communion.  It  was  originally  instituted  for  preserving  the  purity  of  the  church  ; 
but  ambitious  ecclesiastics  converted  it  by  degrees  into  an  engine  for  promoting  their 
own  power.  Some  suppose  excommunication  to  be  of  Hindoo  origin  in  the  Pariah 
caste,  and  that  it  was  adopted  by  the  Jews  (who  had  three  degrees  of  it),  and  from 
these  latter  by  the  Christian  churches.  The  Greek  and  Roman  priests,  and  even  the 
Druids,  had  similar  punishments  in  aid  of  their  respective  religions. — Phillips, 

EXCOMMUNICATION  by  the  POPES.  The  Catholic  church  excommunicates 
by  bell,  book,  and  candle. — See  Bell,  Book,  and  Candle,  The  popes  have  carried 
their  authority  to  such  excess  as  to  excommunicate  and  depose  sovereigns.  Gregory 
YII.  was  the  first  pope  who  assumed  this  extravagant  power.  He  excommunicated 
Henry  IV.  emperor  of  Germany,  in  1077,  absolving  his  subjects  from  their  alle- 
giance ;  and  on  the  emperor's  death,  **  his  excommunicated  body  "  was  five  years 
above  ground,  no  one  daring  to  bury  it.  In  England  were  many  excommunications 
in  Henry  II.'s  reign;  and  king  John  was  excommunicated  by  pope  Innocent  III. 
in  1208,  when  all  England  lay  under  an  interdict  for  six  years.  The  citizens  of 
Dublin  were  excommunicated  by  Clement  IV.  in  1206.  Bnlls  denouncing  hell-fire 
to  queen  Elizabeth  accompanied  the  Spanish  Armada,  and  plenary  indulgences  were 
offered  to  all  who  should  assist  in  deposing  her. — See  article  Interdict, 

EXECUTIONS.  See  Crime,  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (thirty-eight  years)  it  is 
shown  that  no  less  a  number  than  72,000  criminals  were  executed. — Stowe.  In  the 
ten  years  between  1820  and  1830,  there  were  executed  in  England  alone  797 
criminals  ;  but  as  our  laws  became  less  bloody,  the  number  of  executions  propor- 
tionally decreased.  In  the  three  years  ending  with  1820,  the  executions  in  England 
and  Wales  amounted  to  312 ;  in  the  three  years  ending  with  1830,  they  were 
reduced  to  178  ;  and  in  the  three  years  ending  with  1840,  they  had  decreased  to  62. 
— Pari,  Returns, 


SXBCDTIONS  IN  LONDON  IN  THS  FOLLOWING  YXARS. 


In  the  year  1820 
In  the  year  1825 
In  the  year  1830 


43 

17 
6 


In  the  year  1835 
In  the  year  1836  . 
In  the  year  1837 


nil, 

nil. 

2 


In  the  year  1838 
In  the  year  1839 . 
In  the  year  1840 


nil. 
2 
1 


BXKCUnONS  OF  RBMARKABLE  CRIMINALS. 


Name. 
Jack  Sheppard 
Lord  Balmerino  and  others 
LordLovat  . 
Eugene  Aram   . 
Theodore  Gardelle 
Earl  Ferrers 
John  Perrott 

John  McNaughten,  esq.     . 
Elizabeth  Brownrigg     . 
Daniel  Perreau  ) 
Robert  Perreau  ) 
Rev.Dr.Dodd  . 
John  Donellan,  esq. 
Mr.  Hackman  . 
Mrs.  Phepoe  . 

Sir  Edward  Crosbie 
Messrs.  Bheares 


-  brothers 


Crime. 
Celebrated  robber 
Rebellion 
Rebellion  . 
Murder 
Murder     . 

Murder  of  his  steward    . 
Fraudulent  bankrupt 
Murder  of  Miss  Knox 
Murder  of  her  apprentice 

See  Forgery 

Forgery  (see  Forgery)     , 

Murder 

Murder  of  Miss  Reay 

Celebrated  murderess 

High  treason . 

High  treason 


Executed, 
Tyburn 
Tower-hill 
Tower-hill . 
York      . 
Haymarket 
Tyburn  . 
Smithfield  . 
Strabane 
Tyburn 

Tyburn  . 

Tyburn 
Warwick 
Tyburn     . 
Old  Bailey 
Ireland 
Dublin . 


Date. 
.      Nov.  16, 1724 

Aug.  18, 1746 
.  March  30, 1747 

Aug.  6, 1767 

.     April  4, 1760 

May  6,  1760 

.    Nov.  11,1761 

Deo.  13, 1761 
.     Sept.  14, 1767 

Jan.  17, 1776 

.     June  27, 1777 

April  2, 1778 

.    April  18, 1779 

Dec.  11, 1797 

June  2, 1798 

.  July  12, 1798 


EXE 


[206  ] 


EXE 


;} 


EXECUTIONS,  continued. 

Name. 
ChiUoping  Dick 
Governor  Wall 
Mr.  Crawley 
George  Foster  . 

Colonel  Despard 
♦John  Hatfield     . 
Robert  Emmett 
Riobard  Patch 
t  John  Holloway 
Owen  Haggerty     . 
T.  Simmons,  the  man  of  blood 
Major  Campbell    . 
Capt.  Sutherland      .         .    • 
Richard  Armitage 
John  Bellingham      .         .    • 
Philip  Nicholson  . 
Francis  Tuite  .         .         •    . 
Charles  Callq,ghan 
William  Sawyer         .         .    . 
Capt  Grant  .... 
John  Cashman .        .        .    . 
Murderersof  the  Lynch  family 
^  Eliza  Penning     . 
The  3  Ashcrof ts,  father  &  sons 
firandreth  and  others    . 

Charles  Hoaaey         .        .    . 

John  Scanlan,  esq. 

Arthur  Thistlewood . 

John  Brunt 

James  Ings 

John  Davidson 

Richard  Tidd  . 

John  Chennell 

Thomas  Calcraft 

Murderers  of  Miss  Thompson 

David  Haggart 

Josiah  Cadman         .         .    . 

Murderers  of  Mrs.  Torrance  . 

Murderere  of  Mr.  Hoskins 

John  Smith  .... 

Samuel  Greenwood  .        .    . 

John  Thurtell 

John  Wayte     .        .         .    . 

Hen.  Fauntleroy,  esq. ,  banker 

Edward  Harris  .        .    . 

{Probert,  ThurteU's  associate 

Spitalfields  gang        .         .    . 

Charles  Thomas  White 

II Edward  Lowe         .         .    . 

Catherine  Walsh  . 

^WilliamRea.         .         .    . 

William  Corder    . 

Joseph  Hunton,  quaker     .    . 


Crime. 
Highway  robbery  .        .    . 
Murder  of  seij.  Armstrong. 
Murder  of  two  females 
Murder  of  his  wife  and  child 
High  treason 
Forgery 
High  treason 
Murder  of  Mr.  Bligh      .    . 

Murder  of  Mr.  Steele  , 

Murder 

Murd.  of  capt  Boyd  in  a  duel 
Murder     .         .         .         . 
Forgery         .         .         .    . 
Murder  of  Mr.  Perceval 
Murder  of  Mr.  &  Mr&  Bonar 
Mur.  of  Mr.  &  Mrs.  Goulding 
Murder  of  Mr.  Merry     .    . 
Miu'der  of  Jack  Hacket 
Famous  Irish  robber  . 
Spa-fields  riots        .         .    . 
Wild-goose-lodge  affair 
Administering  poison     .    . 
Murder     .         .        .         . 
High  treason .        .        .    . 
Murdierof  Mr.Birdand  ) 
his  housekeeper       .  J 
Murder  of  Ellen  Hanley     . 

Cato-street  gang ;  murder  \ 
and  treason  (see  Cato-  ? 
street  Conspiracy)        .  ^ 

Murder  and  parricide  of  ) 
Mr.  Chennell,  sen.       .  ' 


\ 


•  • 


Murder 
Highway  robbery 
Murder  of  Mr.  Weare     .    . 
Forgery     .... 
Forgery  .        .        .    . 

Robbery    .... 

•      •  •  •  •  •       • 

Highway  robbery 

Arson   .         .         .         .  . 

Coining      .         .         .  . 

Murder  of  her  child        .  . 

Highway  robbery 

Murder  of  Maria  Marten  . 

Forgery     .... 


Executed. 
Aylesbury 
Old  Bailey 
Dublm      . 
Old  Bailey 


Date, 

April  4,  1800 

.  Jan.  28,  1802 

March  16, 1802 

Jan.  18, 1803 


Horsemonger-lane,  Feb.  18,  1803 
Carlisle  .  .  Sept  3, 1803 
Dublin  .  .  Sept  20, 1803 
Horsemonger-lane,  April  8, 1806 


Old  Bailey 

Hertford 

Armagh  . 

Execution-dock  . 

Old  Bailey 

Old  Bailey   . 

Pennenden-heath 

Dublin      . 

Horsemonger-lane .  April  2,  1814 

Old  Bailey   .         .   May  15, 1811 


Feb.  22, 1807 

March  7>  1808 

.  Oct  2,  1808 

June  29, 1809 

June  24,  1811 

May  18, 1812 

Aug.  23, 1813 

Oct  9,  1813 


Maryborough 
Skinner-street 
Ireland 
Old  Bailey 
Lancaster 
Derby     . 


Aug.  16, 1816 
March  12, 1817 
.  July  19,  1817 

July  26,  1817 

.    Sept  8, 1817 

Nov.  6, 1817 


Pomaiden-heath  .  Aug.  3, 1818 
Limerick  March  16, 1820 


Old  Bailey 


May  1, 1820 


Godalming 

Dublin 

Edinburgh 

Old  Bailey    . 

Ireland    . 

Ireland 

Maidstone 

Old  Bailey    . 

Hertford 

Old  Bailey    . 

Old  Bailey 

Old  Bailey    . 

Old  Bailey 

Old  Bailey    . 

Old  Bailey 

Old  Bailey    . 

Old  Bailey 

Old  Bailey    . 

Bury  St.  Edmunds    Aug.  8, 1828 

Old  Bailey         .         Deo.  8, 1828 


Aug.  17, 1820 

.    May  3. 1821 

June  11, 1821 
.  Nov.  21,1821 

Dec.  19, 1821 
.    Aug.  3, 1822 

Dec.  23, 1822 

.  Dec.  27, 1822 

Jan.  9, 1823 

,  Feb.  24. 1823 

Nov.  30, 1824 
.  Feb.  22, 1825 

June  20, 1825 

.  Nov.  29, 1826 

Jan.  2, 1827 

.  Nov.  22, 1827 

April  14, 1828 

July  4. 1828 


*  He  was  a  rank  impostor,  and  married,  by  means  of  the  most  odious  deceit  and  fraud,  the  '*  Beauty 
of  Buttermere." 

t  Thirty  of  the  spectators  of  this  execution  were  trodden  to  death,  and  numbers  were  pressed, 
maimed,  and  wounded. 

%.  Immediately  after  her  execution  a  great  and  painful  sensation  was  caused  by  its  being  universall  y 
believed  that  this  young  creature  suffered  innocently. 

§  This  criminal  was  an  accomplice  of  ThurteU's  in  the  memorable  murder  of  Mr.  Weare,  and  he 
became  approver ;  but  was  afterwards  hanged  for  horse-stealing. 

n  He  was  the  last  coiner  di-awn  on  a  sledge  to  the  scaffold. 

^  Captain  Charles  Montgomery  was  ordered  for'execution  this  day,  for  forgery ;  but  he  took  a  dose 
(an  ounce  and  a  half)  of 'prussic  acid,  to  save  himself  from  the  ignominy  of  the  gallows,  and  he  was 
found  dead  In  his  cell  by  the  officers  of  justice. 


EXE 


[207] 


EYR 


EXECUTIONS,  continued. 

Name. 
Burke,  the  murderer    . 
Anne  Chapman    . 
Stewart  and  wife 
Mr.  Comyn  . 
John  Bishop     . 
Thomas  Williams 
Elizabeth  Cooke 
John  Smith .         .         . 
James  Pratt 
Maryanne.Burdock 
John  Pegsworth 
James  Greenacro  . 
William  Lees    . 
Fran90is  Benj.  Courvoisier 


;} 


Crime* 
See  Burking  . 
Murder  of  her  child  , 
Noted  murderers    .         .    . 
Burning  his  own  house 
Murder  of  a  poor  Italian  ) 
boy  (see  Burking)        .  } 
Burking  of  Cath.  Walsh     . 

Unnatural  crime 


Executed. 
Edinburgh 
Old  BaUey 
Glasgow 
Ennis 

Old  Bailey    . 

Old  Bailey 

Old  Bailey   . 

Bristol      . 
Old  Bailey    , 
Old  Bailey 
Old  Bailey 
Old  Bailey 


Date. 

.  Feb.  16, 1829 

June  30, 1829 

.    July  24, 1829 

fifarch  18, 1830 

.     Dec.  5, 1831 

Jan.  9,1832 

.  April  8,  1836 

April  15, 1835 

March  7, 1837 

May  2, 1837 

.  Dec.  16, 1839 

July  6, 1840 


Remarkable  ca.  of  poisoning 
Murder      .         .         •        . 
Murder  of  Hannah  Brown  . 
Murder  of  his  wife 
Murder  of  lord  W.  Russell . 

EXETER.  Made  a  Roman  station  by  Vespasian  ;  and  formerly  the  seat  of  the  West 
Saxon  kings,  at  Rougemont  castle,  so  called  from  the  colour  of  its  hill.  It  was 
plundered  by  the  Danes,  a.d.  875.  Massacre  of  its  inhabitants  and  destruction  of 
the  town  by  these  invaders,  1003.  Besieged  by  William  the  Conqueror,  1067. 
Again  in  the  reigns  of  Stephen,  Edward  IV.,  and  Henry  YII.  Cannonaded  in  July, 
1544.     The  bridge  built,  1770.    The  theatre  built,  1783. 

EXETER,  The  Bishopric  of.  It  formerly  constituted  two  sees,  Devonshire  and 
Cornwall.  The  church  of  the  former  was  at  Crediton,  and  of  the  latter  at  Bodmin. 
In  A.D.  1032,  the  sees  were  united,  and  soon  after  the  seat  was  removed  to  Exeter. 
The  cathedral  belonged  to  a  monastery  founded  by  Athelstan  :  Edward  the  Confessor 
removed  the  monks  to  his  new  abbey  of  Westminster,  and  gave  their  church  for  a 
cathedral  to  the  united  see.     It  was  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  500/.  per  annum, 

EXETKR  CHANGE,  &c.  London.  Built  by  Walter  Stapleton,  bishop  of  Exeter, 
and  lord  treasurer,  in  1316,  and  entirely  demolished  at  the  period  of  the  Strand 
improvements,  in  1829.  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  was  founded  by  the  same  prelate, 
in  1314.  Exeter  Institution  was  opened  for  science  and  natural  history  in  1819. 
Exeter  Hall,  for  the  meeting  of  religious,  charitable,  and  scientific  institutions,  was 
erected  in  1830. 

EXPEDITIONS,  OR  DESCENTS  of  the  BRITISH.  The  following  being  the 
most  remarkable  of  our  later  expeditions,  are  those  most  commonly  referred  to  : — 


Coast  of  France,  near  Port   I'Orient, 

Oct.  1  to  8  .  .  .  .  A.D.  1746 
Cherbourg  ....  Aug.  7,  1753 
8t  Male :  4000  men  lost  .  .  Sept.  17A8 
Quiberon  Bay  {French  Emigrants)        .  1796 


Helder  Point  and  Zuyder  Zee 
Perrol,  in  Spain    . 
Egypt  {Abercrombie) 
Copenhagen  {which  see) 
Walcheren  (unfortunate) 
Bergen-oi»-2Soom  . 


.  Sept.  1799 
Aug.  1800 

.  March  1801 
Sept.  1807 
July  1809 

March  8,  1814 


Ostend  (cUl  made  prisoners)  .         .  May  1798 

EXPORTS.  See  Revenue,  The  exports  of  British  manufactures  are  increasing 
annually,  Edward  III.  by  his  encouragement  of  trade  turned  the  scale  so  much  in 
favour  of  English  merchandise,  that  by  a  balance  of  trade  taken  in  his  time,  the 
exported  commodities  amounted  to  294,000/.,  and  the  imported  to  only  38,000/. — 
Addison* 8  Freeholder. 

VALUB  or  EXPORTS  FROM  ORSAT  BRITAIN  TO  ALL  PARTS  OP  THB  WORLD,  VIZ. 


In  1700 

id«,097,12O 

In  1000   . 

.  4^38,120.120 

In  1830 

.   4^66.735,445 

In  17£0   . 

.   10,130.991 

In  1810 

46,869,859 

In  1835   . 

.   78,376,732 

Inl77fi 

16,326,363 

In  1820   . 

.   61,733,113 

In  1840 

97,402,726 

The  amounts  stated  in  1835  and  1840  are  the  exports  of  the  United  Kingdom  of 
British  and  Irish  produce  only  :  the  exports  of  foreign  and  colonial  produce  were, 
in  1835,  of  the  value  of  12,797,724/.,  thus  making  the  total  exports  of  that  year 
91,174,456/.     In  1840  the  total  exports  amounted  to  110,198,716/. 

EYLAU,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  and  Russians,  one  of  the  most  bloody  of 
the  late  war :  it  terminated  in  favour  of  Napoleon,  who  commanded  in  person  ;  but 
both  armies  by  this  and  other  recent  battles  were  so  much  reduced  that  the  French 
retired  to  the  Vistula,  and  the  Russians  on  the  Pregel :  the  loss  to  the  victor  was 
15,000  men,  and  the  Russian  loss  in  slain  alone  was  20,000.    Feb.  8,  1807. 

EYRE,  JUSTICES  in.  The  term  signifies  the  itinerant  court  of  justices.  This  court 
was  instituted  by  Henry  I. ;  and  when  the  forest  laws  were  in  force,  the  office  of 


FAB  Q  208  ]  FAL 

Chief  Justice  in  Eyre  was  one  of  great  trust  and  dignity.  By  an  ancient  castom, 
these  jastices  should  go  their  circuit  every  third  year,  and  punish  all  abuses  com- 
mitted in  the  king's  forests.  The  last  instance  of  a  court  being  held  in  any  of  the 
forests  is  believed  to  have  been  during  the  reign  of  Charlea  II.  a.d.  1671. — Beatson, 

F. 

FABII.  A  noble  and  powerful  family  at  Rome,  who  derived  their  name  from  faba,  a 
bean,  because  some  of  their  ancestors  cultivated  this  pulse :  they  were  said  to  be 
descended  from  Fabius,  a  supposed  son  of  Hercules,  and  were  once  so  numerous  that 
they  took  Upon  themselves  to  wage  war  against  the  Yeientes.  They  came  to  a 
general  engagement  near  the  Cremera,  in  which  all  the  family,  consisting  of  306 
men,  were  totally  slain,  b.c.  477.  There  only  remained  one,  whose  tender  age  had 
retained  him  at  Rome,  and  from  him  arose  the  noble  Fabii  in  the  following  ages. 

FABLES.  **  Jotham's  fable  of  the  trees  is  the  oldest  extant,  and  as  beautiful  as  any 
made  since.'* — Addison.  Nathan's  fable  of  the  poor  man  (2  Sam.  xii.)  is  next  in 
antiquity.  The  earliest  collection  of  fables  extant  is  of  eastern  origin,  and  preserved 
in  the  Sanscrit.  The  fables  of  Vishnoo  Sarma,  called  Pilpay,  are  the  most  beautiful, 
if  not  the  most  ancient,  in  the  world. — jS'tV  William  Jones,  The  well-known  ^sop's 
fables  (which  see),  were  written  about  540  b.c. — Plutarch, 

FAIRLOP  OAK.  A  celebrated  tree  in  the  forest  of  Hainanlt,  Essex,  blown  down  in 
February,  1820.  Its  extended  branches  covered  a  space  of  more  than  300  feet  in 
circumference ;  and  beneath  them  a  fair  was  annually  held  on  the  first  Friday  in  July. 
This  fair  originated  with  the  eccentric  Mr.  Day,  a  pump  and  block  maker,  of 
Wapping,  who,  having  a  small  estate  in  the  vicinity,  annually  repaired  here  with  a 
party  of  friends,  to  dine  on  beans  and  bacon.  Every  year  added  to  the  number  ;  and 
in  the  course  of  a  short  time  it  assumed  the  appearance  of  a  regular  fair,  which  is  still 
continued,  though  the  eccentric  in sti tutor  and  the  venerable  oak  are  no  longer  in 
existence.  The  pump  and  block  makers  of  Wapping  always  attend  in  a  boat  drawn 
by  six  horses,  and  accompanied  by  music. 

FAIRS  AND  WAKES.  They  are  of  Saxon  origin,  and  were  first  instituted  in  England 
by  Alfred,  a.d.  886. — Spelman.  They  were  established  by  order  of  Gregory  YII. 
in  1078,  and  termed  FeritB,  at  which  the  monks  celebrated  the  festival  of  their 
patron  saint ;  the  vast  resort  of  people  occasioned  a  great  demand  for  goods,  wares, 
&c.  They  were  called  wakes  from  the  people  making  merry  during  the  vigil,  or  eve. 
Fairs  were  established  in  France  apd  England  by  Charlemagne  and  William  the 
Conqueror,  about  a.d.  800  in  the  first,  and  1071  in  the  latter  kingdom.  The  fairs 
of  Beaucaire,  Falaise,  and  Leipsic,  are  the  most  famous  in  Europe. 

FALCONRY.  The  certainty  of  falconry  in  England  cannot  be  traced  until  the  reign 
of  king  Ethelbert,  the  Saxon  monarch,  a.d.  760. — Pennant.  There  are  thirty-two 
species  of  the  falco  genus.  It  is  no  credit  to  human  nature  to  state  that  these  noble 
birds  used  formerly  to  be  tamed,  and  kept  for  the  genteel  pastime  of  falconry. — 
Phillips.    The  duke  of  St.  Albans  is  hereditary  grand  falconer  of  England. 

FALCZI,  PEACE  of.  This  celebrated  peace  was  concluded  between  Russia  and 
Turkey,  July  2,  1711,  the  Russians  giving  up  Azoph  and  all  their  possessions  on  the 
Black  Sea  to  the  Turks  ;  in  the  following  year  the  war  was  renewed,  and  terminated 
by  the  peace  of  Constantinople,  April  16,  1712. 

FALKIRK,  Battle  of,  between  the  English  under  Edward  I.  and  the  Scots,  in  which 
40,000  of  the  latter  were  slain  ;  the  whole  Scotch  army  was  broken  up,  and  was  chased 
off  the  field  with  dreadful  slaughter,  July  22,  1298.  Battle  of  Falkirk  between 
the  king's  forces  and  prince  Charles  Stuart,  in  which  the  former  were  defeated, 
January  18,  1746. 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS.  They  were  probably  seen  by  Magellan  ;  but  Davis  is  deemed 
to  have  been  the  discoverer  of  them,  in  1592.  They  were  visited  by  Hawkins,  in 
1594 ;  and  commodore  Byron  made  a  settlement  at  Port  Egmont,  in  1764.  In 
1770,  the  Spaniards  forcibly  dispossessed  the  English.  This  affair  was  settled  by 
a  convention,  and  the  English  regained  possession  ;  but  in  1774  the  settlement  was 
abandoned,  and  the  islands  were  ceded  to  Spain. 

FALSE  NEWS.  The  disseminators  and  publishers  of  false  news,  of  evil  reports, 
malicious  and  defamatory  statements,  and  libels,  were  punished  by  the  cutting  out 


FAM 


[209] 


F£C 


of  the  tongue,  or  by  paying  the  value  of  their  heads ;    and  they  were  afterwards 
deemed  to  be  of  no  credit,  28th  law  of  Alfred. — Asserts  Life  fif  Alfred. 

FAMINES,  AND  SEASONS  of  REMARKABLE  SCARCITY.  The  famine  of  the 
seven  years  in  Egypt  began  1708  B.C. — linker  ;  Blair,  In  a  famine  that  raged  at 
.  Rome  thousands  of  the  people  threw  themselves  into  the  Tiber,  436  B.C.  — Ltvy. 


A.O. 


42 

sea 


Awful  famine  in  Bgypt 

At  Rome,  attended  by  plague 

In  Britain,  so  grievous  that  people  ate 

the  bark  of  trees  .... 
In  Scotland,  and  thousands  die  .    . 

In  England,  where  40,00U  perish    . 
Awful  (me  in  Phrygia        .        .         .    . 
So  dreadful  in  Italy,  that  parents  ate 

their  children  (2>i4/V«m0y) 
In  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland       .    . 
Again,  when  thousands  starve 
Again,  which  lasts  four  years    .         .    . 
Awful  one  throughout  Europe        .         • 
In  England,  21  William  I.  ... 

In   England  and  France ;   this  famine 

leads  to  a  pestilential  fever,  which 

lastsfromll93to  .... 
Another  famine  in  England  .  .  . 
Again,  so  dreadful,  that  the  people  de- 

FAN.    The  use  of  the  fan  was  known  to  the 


272 

306 
310 
370 

450 
739 
823 
964 
1016 
1087 


1195 
1351 


voured  the  fle^  of  horses,  dogs,  cats, 
and  vermin        .  .  a.d.  1315 

One  occasioned  by  long  ndns  .    .  1335 

One  in  England  and  France  {Rapin)      ,  1353 
Again,  one  so  great,  that  bread  was  made 

from  fern-roots  (Stowe)  .  .  .  1438 
One  throughout  these  islands  .  .  .  1565 
Awful  one  in  France  <  Voltaire)  .  1693 
One  general  in  these  realms  .  .  .  1748 
One  which  devastates  Bengal  .1771 
At  the  Cape  de  Yerds,  where  16,000  per- 
sons perish    177s 

One  grievously  felt  in  France        .        .  1788 
One  severely  felt  in  England    .  •    .  1795 

Again,  throughout  the  kingdom    .        .  1801 
At  Drontheim,  owing  to  Swedmi  inter- 
cepting the  supplies  .        .         .  1813 
Scarcity  of  food,  severely  felt  by  the 
Irish  poor,  1814, 1816, 1822,  and  .  1831 

ancients  :  Cape  hoc  flabellum  el  venlulum 


huic  sic  facito. — ^Terence.  The  modern  custom  among  the  ladies  was  borrowed 
from  the  East.  Fans,  together  with  muflFs,  masks,  and  false  hair  were  first  devised 
by  the  harlots  in  Italy,  and  were  brought  to  England  from  France. — Slowe.  The 
fan  was  used  by  females  to  hide  their  faces  at  church. — Pardon, 

FARCE.  This  species  of  dramatic  entertainment  originated  in  the  droll  shows  which 
were  exhibited  by  charlatans  and  their  buffoons  in  the  open  street.  These  were 
introduced  into  our  theatres  in  a  less  ludicrous  and  more  refined  form  ;  and  they  are 
now  only  shorter,  but  often  superior  to  the  pieces  called  comedies. — See  article  Drama. 

FARTHING.  One  of  the  earliest  of  the  English  coins.  Farthings  in  silver  were 
coined  by  king  John;  the  Irish  farthing  of  his  reign  is  of  the  date  1210,  and  is 
valuable  and  rare.  Farthings  were  coined  in  England  in  silver  by  Henry  VIII. 
First  coined  in  copper  by  Charles  II.  1665  ;  and  again  in  1672,  when  there  was  a 
large  coinage  of  copper  money. — See  Queen  Anne*s  Farthings, 

FASTING,  AND  ^FASTS.  They  were  practised  and  observed  by  most  nations  from  the 
remotest  antiquity.  Annual  fasts,  as  that  of  Lent,  and  at  other  stated  times,  and  on 
particular  occasions,  begun  in  the  Christian  church,  to  appease  the  anger  of  God,  in 
the  second  century,  a.d.  138  Retained  as  a  pious  practice  by  the  reformed  churches. 
"^Eusebius,  Fasting  for  an  incredible  time  has  been  recorded  of  numerous  persons. 
The  Royal  Society  published  an  account  of  a  woman  in  Ross-shire  who  was  living 
altogether  without  food  or  drink,  in  1777. — See  Abstinence. 

FEASTS  AND  FESTIVALS.  The  feast  of  the  Tabernacles  was  instituted  by  Moses  in 
the  wilderness,  1490  B.C.,  but  was  celebrated  with  the  greatest  magnificence  for 
fourteen  days,  upon  the  dedication  of  the  temple  of  Solomon,  1005  B.C. — Josephus, 
In  the  Christian  church,  those  of  Christmas,  Easter,  Ascension,  and  the  Pentecost 
or  Whitsuntide,  were  first  ordered  to  be  observed  by  all  Christians,  a.d.  68.  Rogation 
days  were  appointed  in  469.  Jubilees  in  the  Romish  church  were  instituted  by 
Boniface  VIII.  in  1300 — See  Jubilees,  For  fixed  festivals  observed  in  the  Church 
of  England,  and  for  which  offices  are  appointed,  as  settled  at  the  Reformation,  et 
seq.  see  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

FEBRUARY.  The  second  month  of  the  year,  so  called  from  Februa,  a  feast  which 
was  held  therein  in  behalf  of  the  manes  of  diseased  persons,  when  sacrifices  were 
performed,  and  the  last  offices  were  paid  to  the  shades  of  the  dead.  This  month, 
with  January,  was  added  to  the  year,  which  had  previously  but  ten  months,  by 
Numa,  713  b.c. — See  Calendar^  and  Year, 

FECIALES.  Heralds  of  ancient  Rome,  to  denounce  war  or  proclaim  peace.  When 
the  Romans  thought  themselves  injured,  one  of  this  sacerdotal  body  was  empowered 
to  demand  redress ;  and  after  thirty-three  days,  if  submission  were  not  made,  war  was 

p 


FEN  E  210  ]  FET 

declared,  and  th^  Feciales  hurled  a  bloody  spear  into  the  territories  of  the  enemy, 
in  proof  of  intended  hostilities.  These  priests  or  heralds  were  instituted  by  Nnma, 
about  712  B.C. — Livy, 

FENCING.  This  science,  as  it  is  called,  was  introduced  into  England  from  France, 
where  it  had  long  before  been  tolerated,  and  is  still  much  in  use,  as  instruction  in 
self-defence,  duels  being  fought  chiefly  by  small  swords  there.  Fencing-schools 
having  led  to  duelling,  in  England,  they  were  prohibited  in  London,  by  statute  13 
Edward  I.  12S4. ^-^NortJiottok* 8  Hist,  of  London, 

FERE-CHAMPENOISE,  Battlb  of,  between  the  French  army  under  Marmont, 
Mortier,  and  Arrighi,  and  the  Austrians  under  the  prince  of  Schwartzenberg,  by 
whom  the  French  were  surprised  and  defeated,  March  25,  1814.  Paris  surrendered 
to  the  allied  armies  six  days  after  this  battie.~See  France, 

FERI^  LATINS.  These  were  festivals  at  Rome,  instituted  by  Tarquin  the  Proud. 
The  principal  magistrates  of  forty-seven  towns  of  Latium  assembled  on  a  mount  near 
Rome,  where  they  and  the  Roman  authorities  offered  a  bull  to  Jupiter  Latialis. 
During  these  festivals  it  was  not  lawful  for  any  person  to  work,  534  b.c. — Livy. 

FERNS,  Bishopric  of.  Anciently  this  see  was  for  a  time  archiepiscopal ;  for  in  the 
early  ages  of  Christianity  the  title  of  archbishop  in  Ireland,  except  that  of  Armagh, 
was  not  fixed  to  any  particular  see,  but  sometimes  belonged  to  one,  and  sometimes 
to  another  city,  according  to  the  sanctity  and  merits  of  the  presiding  bishop.  He 
was  not  denominated  from  his  see,  but  from  the  province  in  which  his  prelacy  was 
situated.  St.  Edan  was  seated  here,  in  598.  Ferns  was  valued  in  the  king's  bookf, 
29  Henry  YIII.  at  108/.  13«.  4(f.,  Irish,  per  annum, 

FERRARS'  ARREST.  Mr.  George  Ferrars,  a  member  of  parliament,  being  in  at- 
tendance on  the  house,  was  token  in  execution  by  a  sheriff's  officer  for  debt,  and 
committed  to  the  Compter.  The  house  dispatohed  their  sergeant  to  require  his 
releaser  which  was  resisted,  and  an  affray  toking  place,  his  mace  was  broken.  The 
house  in  a  body  repaired  to  the  lords  to  complain,  when  the  contempt  was  adjudged 
to  be  very  great,  and  the  punishment  of  the  offenders  was  referred  to  the  lower  house. 
On  another  messenger  being  sent  to  the  sheriffs  by  the  commons,  they  delivered  up 
the  senator,  and  the  civil  magistrates  and  the  creditor  were  committed  to  the  Tower, 
the  inferior  officers  to  Newgate,  and  an  act  was  passed  releasing  Mr.  Ferrars  from 
liability  for  the  debt.  The  king,  Henry  VIIL,  highly  approved  of  all  these  pro- 
ceedings, and  the  transaction  became  the  basis  of  that  rule  of  parliament  which 
exempte  members  to  this  day  from  arrest,  a.d.  1542. — Hollitigahed, 

FERRO.  The  most  western  of  the  Canary  Isles,  from  whose  west  point  some  geo- 
graphers have  taken  their  first  meridian  ;  this  island  was  known  t6  the  anciente,  and 
was  re-discoTcred  in  1402. — See  Canary  Islands.  In  the  middle  of  the  Island  of 
Ferro  is  the  fountain-tree,  from  the  leaves  of  which  great  quantities  of  water  are 
distilled. 

FERROL,  British  Expedition  to.  Upwards  of  10,000  British  landed  near  Ferrol 
under  the  command  of  sir  James  Pnlteney,  in  August,  1800.  They  gained  posses- 
sion of  the  heights,  notwithstanding  which  the  British  general,  despairing  of  success 
on  account  of  the  strength  of  the  works,  desisted  from  the  enterprise,  and  re-embarked 
the  troops.  His  conduct  on  this  occasion,  which  was  in  opposition  to  the  opinion 
and  advice  of  the  officers  of  his  army,  was  very  much  condemned  in  England.  The 
French  took  seven  sail  of  the  line  here,  January  27,  1809. 

FESCENNINE  VERSES.  Were  invented  in  Fescennia,  and  were  a  sort  of  rustic  and 
obscene  dialogue,  in  which  the  actors  exposed  before  the  auditory  the  ftdlings  and 
vices  of  particular  persons,  and  by  satirical  humour  and  merriment  endeavoured  to 
raise  the  laughter  of  the  company.  They  were  often  repeated  at  nuptials,  and 
many  lascivious  expressions  were  used  for  the  general  diversion,  as  also  at  harvest- 
home,  722  B.C. 

FETE  DB  DIEU.  Berengarius,  archbishop  of  Angers,  was  opposed  to  the  doctrine 
of  transubstantiatioB  when  it  was  first  propagated,  and  to  atone  for  this  crime  a 
yearly  procession  was  made  at  Angers,  which  was  called  ktfiie  de  Dieu,  a.d.  1019. 

FETE  DB  'YERTU.  An  assemblage,  chiefly  of  young  persons,  annually  brought  to- 
gether by  the  late  benevolent  lady  Harcourt,  to  be  adjudged  rewards  for  industry 
and  virtue.    Hie  scene  of  this  cheering  exhibition  was  Newnham,  in  Oxfordshire ; 


FKU  E  2^0  ^^* 

and  here  females  of  correct  morala,  and  males  engaged  in  laudable  punuits,  obtained 
prises  every  year.  These  /(fttes  were  commenced  in  1789,  and  continued  till  lady 
Harcourt's  death. 

FEUDAL  LAWS.  The  tenure  of  land,  by  suit  and  service  to  the  lord  or  owner  of  it, 
was  introduced  into  England  by  the  Saxons,  about  a.d.  600.  The  slavery  of  this 
tenure  was  increased  under  William  I.  in  1068.  This  was  done  by  dividing  the 
kingdom  into  baronies,  and  giving  them  to  certain  persons,  requiring  them  to  furnish 
the  king  with  money,  and  a  stated  number  of  soldiers.  These  laws  were  discoun- 
tenanced in  France  by  Louis  XI.  in  1470.  The  vassalage  was  restored,  but  limited 
by  Henry  VIL  1495.  Abolished  by  statute  12  Charles  II.  1663.  The  feudal 
system  was  introduced  into  Scotland  by  Malcolm  II.  in  1008  ;  and  was  finally 
abolished  in  that  kingdom,  20  George  11.  mS.-^Lpttleton  ;  StifAeadi  Blaekstone. 

FEUILLANS.  Members  of  a  society  formed  in  Paris  to  counteract  the  intrigues  and 
operations  of  the  Jacobins,  named  from  the  Feuiilan  convent,  where  their  meetings 
were  held,  early  in  the  Revolution.  A  body  of  Jacobins  invested  the  building,  burst 
into  their  hsJl,  interrupted  their  discussions,  and  obliged  them  to  separate, 
December  25,  1791. 

FEZ.  The  ancient  Mauriiania,  founded  by  Edrus,  a  Barbary  farmer,  about  a.d.  696. 
It  soon  afterwards  became  the  capital  of  all  the  western  Morocco  States.  Leo  Afri- 
canus  describes  Mauritania  as  containing  more  than  seven  hundred  temples,  mosques, 
and  other  public  edifices,  in  the  twelfth  century. 

FICTION,  LAW.  Memorable  declaration  of  lord  Mansfield,  in  the  court  of  King's 
Bench,  emphatically  uttered,  that  "no  fiction  of  law  shall  ever  so  far  pre- 
vail AGAINST  THE  REAL  TRUTH  OF  THE  FACT,  AS  TO   PREVENT  THE   EXECUTION 

OF  JUSTICE,''  May  21,  1784.    This  constitutional  maxim  is  now  a  rule  of  law. 

FIEF.  In  France  we  find  fiefs-men  mentioned  as  early  as  the  age  of  Childebert  I., 
A.D.  511.  Thev  were  introduced  into  Italy  by  the  Lombards.  Into  Spain,  before 
the  invasion  of  the  Moors,  a.d.  710.  Into  England  by  the  Saxons  (see  Feudal 
Laws).    Into  Scotland,  directly  from  England,  by  Malcolm  II.,  1008. 

FIELD  OF  THE  CLOTH  of  GOLD.  Henry  VIII.  embarked  at  Dover  to  meet 
Francis  I.  of  France,  at  Ardres,  a  small  town  near  Calais  in  France,  May  31,  1520. 
The  nobility  of  both  kingdoms  here  displayed  their  magnificence  with  such  emula- 
tion and  profuse  expense,  as  procured  to  the  place  of  interview  (an  open  plain)  the 
name  of  The  Field  qf  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  Many  of  the  king's  attendants  involved 
themselves  in  great  debts  on  this  occasion,  and  were  not  able,  by  the  penury  of  their 
whole  lives,  to.  repair  the  vain  splendour  of  a  few  days.  A  painting  of  the  embark- 
ation, and  another  of  the  interview,  are  at  Windsor-Castle. — Butler. 

FIESCHI'S  ATTEMPT  on  LOUIS-PHILIPPE.  This  assassin  fir«d  an  infernal 
machine  at  the  French  king,  as  he  rode  along  the  lines  of  the  National  Guard,  on 
the  Boulevard  du  Temple,  accompanied  by  his  three  sons  and  suite.  The  machine 
consisted  of  twenty-five  barrels,  charged  with  various  species  of  missiles,  and  lighted 
simultaneously  by  a  train  of  gunpowder.  The  king  and  his  sons  escaped;  but  mar- 
shal Mortier  (duke  of  Treviso)  was  shot  dead,  many  officers  were  dangerously 
wounded,  and  an  indiscriminate  slaughter  was  made  among  the  spectators,  there 
being  upwards  of  forty  men,  women,  and  children,  killed  and  wounded,  July  28, 
1835.     He  was  tried  and  executed. 

FIFTH  MONARCHY-MEN.  Fanatical  levelters  who  arose  in  the  time  of  Cromwell, 
and  who  supposed  the  period  of  the  Millennium  to  be  just  at  hand,  ^en  Jesus 
should  descend  from  heaven  and  erect  the  fifth  universal  monarchy.  They  actually 
proceeded  to  elect  Jesus  Christ  king  at  London !  CromweU  dispersed  them,  1653. 

FIG  TREE,  Fieus  Cariea;  brought  from  the  south  of  Europe,  before  a.d.  1548. — 
The  Botany-Bay  Fig,  FtciM^tM^ro/w,  brought  from  N.  S.  Wales  in  1789 .—See  FrttiV«. 

FIGURES.  Arithmetical  figures  (nine  digits  and  zero),  and  the  method  of  computing 
by  them,  were  brought  into  Europe  from  Arabia,  about  a.d.  900.  They  were  first 
known  in  England  about  the  year  1253,  previously  to  which  time  the  numbering  by 
letters  was  in  use  in  these  countries. — See  Arithmetic. 

FIR  TREE.  The  Silver  Fu*,  Pinut  Pieea,  was  brought  from  Switzerland  before  a.d. 
1603.    The  Balm  4>f  Gilead  Fir,  Piuu»  BaUamsa,  came  from  Virginia  before  1696. 

f2 


FIR  [_  212  ]  FIR 

FIRE.  It  is  said  to  haTe  been  fint  prodaced  by  striking  fliots  together.  The  poets 
suppose  that  fire  was  stolen  from  heaven  by  Prometheus.  Zoroaster,  king  of 
Bactria,  was  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Magi,  or  Worshippers  of  Fire,  since  known 
by  the  appellation  of  Guebres,  still  numerous  in  the  countries  of  the  East,  2115  b.c. 
.l-Justin  ;  Pliny,  Heraclitus  maintained  that  the  world  was  created  from  fire,  and 
he  deemed  it  to  be  a  god  omnipotent,  and  taught  this  theory  about  506  b.c. — 
Nouv,  Diet.  In  the  Scriptures  God  is  said  often  to  have  appeared  in,  or  encom- 
passed with  fire — as  to  Moses  in  the  burning  bush,  on  Mount  Sinai ;  and  to  the  pro- 
phets  Isaiah,  Ezekiel,  and  St.  John.  The  wrath  of  God  is  described  by  a  consuming 
fire,  and  the  angels,  as  his  ministers,  are  compared  to  it. — See  the  Bible, 

FIRE-ARMS.  Small  arms  were  contrived  by  Schwartz,  a.d.  1378 ;  they  were  brought 
to  England  about  1388.  Fire-arms  were  a  prodigious  rarity  in  Ireland  in  1489, 
when  six  muskets  were  sent  from  Germany  as  a  present  to  the  earl  of  Kildare,  who 
was  then  chief-governor.  Muskets  were  first  used  at  the  siege  of  Rhegeo,  in  1525. 
The  Spaniards  were  the  first  nation  who  armed  the  foot  soldier  with  these  weapoos. 
— Ullotk,  Voltaire  states,  that  the  Venetians  were  the  first  to  use  guns,  in  an  en- 
gagement at  sea  against  the  Genoese,  in  1377  ;  but  our  historians  affirm,  that  the 
English  had  guns  at  the  battle  of  Cressy,  in  1346  ;  and  the  year  following  at  the 
siege  of  Calais. — See  Artillery, 

FIRE-BARS,  Death  bt  the.  A  punishment  of  China,  the  invention  of  the  emperor 
Sheoo,  who  reigned  in  the  12th  century  b.c.  The  sufferer  was  compelled  to  walk  on 
bars  of  red-hot  iron,  from  which,  if  he  fell,  his  almost  certain  fate,  he  was  received 
in  a  burning  furnace  beneath,  and  was  consumed  in  the  flames. 

FIRE-ENGINES.  The  fire-engine  is  of  modern  invention,  although  the  forcing- 
pump,  of  which  it  is  an  application,  is  more  than  two  centuries  old.  The  fire-en- 
gine, to  force  water,  was  constructed  by  John  Vander  Heyden,  about  the  year  1663  ; 
it  was  improved  materially  in  1752,  and  from  that  time  to  the  present.  The  fire- 
wateh,  or  fire-guard  of  London,  was  instituted  November  1791.  The  fire-brigade 
was  established  in  London  in  1833. 

FIRE-SHIPS.  They  were  first  used  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Among  the  most  for- 
midable contrivances  of  this  kind  ever  used,  was  an  explosion  vessel  to  destroy  a 
bridge  of  boats  at  the  siege  of  Antwerp,  in  1585.  The  first  use  of  them  in  the 
English  navy  was  by  Charles,  lord  Howard  of  Effingham,  afterwards  earl  of  Notting. 
ham,  lord  high  admiral  of  England,  in  the  engagement  with  the  Spanish  Armada, 
July,  1588. — Rapin, 

FIRE- WORKS.  Are  said  to  have  been  familiar  to  the  Chinese  in  remote  ages :  they 
were  invented  in  Europe  at  Florence,  about  a.d.  1360  ;  and  were  first  exhibited  as 
a  spectacle  in  1588.  At  an  exhibition  of  fire- works  in  Paris,  in  honour  of  the  mar- 
riage of  the  dauphin,  afterwards  Louis  XVI.,  the  passages  being  stopped  up  occa- 
sioned such  a  crowd,  that  the  people,  seized  with  panic,  trampled  upon  one  another 
till  they  lay  in  heaps  ;  a  scaffold  erected  over  the  river  also  broke  down,  and  hun- 
dreds were  drowned ;  more  than  1000  persons  perished  on  this  occasion,  June  21, 
1 770.  Madame  Blanchard  ascending  from  Tivoli  Gardens,  Paris,  at  night  in  a  balloon 
surrounded  by  fireworks,  the  balloon  took  fire,  and  she  was  precipitated  to  the 
ground,  and  dashed  to  pieces,  July  6, 1819.— See  Balloon, 

FIRE-WORKS  IN  ENGLAND.  The  grandest  ever  known  in  this  country  were 
played  off  from  a  magnificent  building  purposely  erected  in  the  Green-parkj  LDudon, 
at  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  which  was  signed  April  30,  1748.  Sir  William 
Congreve  has  borne  the  palm  from  the  Italian  and  French  artists  ;  he  erected  the 
beautiful  .pagoda-bridge,  the  temple  of  concord,  and  other  devices  in  the  parks,  and 
superintend^  the  grand  display  of  firjB-works,  August  1,  1814,  in  the  celebration  of 
the  general  peace,  and  to  commemorate  the  centenary  accession  of  the  family  of 
Brunswick  to  the  British  throne.  The  fire-works  constructed  by  him  on  this  occa- 
sion surpassed  all  previous  exhibitions  of  the  kind. 

FIRES  IN  LONDON.  The  conflagration  of  a  city,  with  all  ite  tumult  of  concomitant 
distress,  is  one  of  the  most  dreadful  spectacles  which  this  world  can  offer  to  human 
eyes. — Dr,  Johnson,  In  London  have  been  many  fires  of  awfiil  magnitude.  Among 
the  early  fires,  was  one  which  destroyed  the  greater  part  of  the  city,  a.d.  982.  A 
fire  happened  in  the  20th  of  William  I.,  1086 ;  it  consumed  all  the  houses  and 
churches  from  (lie  west  to  the  east  gate. — Baker's  Ckron,    For  the  Gksat  Firis 


FIH 


C  213  ] 


FI8 


in  London,  see  next  article.    The  following  are  among  th^  memorable  fires  of  more 
recent  occurrence : — 


In  South  wark,  600  houses  bamt         aj>.  1676 
In  Wapping,  1£0  houses  burnt       .         .  1716 
At  Shadwell.  60  houses  burnt    .        .    .  1736 
In  Comhill  ward,  SOO  houses  burnt;  this 
fire  began  in  Ghango-alley>  and  was  the 
most  terrible  since  the  great  fire  of 
1666    ...         .        March  25,  1748 
At  Covent-garden,  50  houses  .        .  1759 

In  Bmlthfield,  28  houses  burnt  .  .  .  1761 
At  Shadwell,  30  houses  burnt  .  .1761 
In  Throgmorton-street,  20  houses  .  .  1774 
At  Wapping,  20  houses  .  1775 

At  Hermitage  stairs,  31  houses  .    .  1799 

AtHorsley-down,  30  houses  besidesmany 

warehouses  and  ships 
In  the  Strand,  40  houses 
In  Aldoisgate-Btreet,  40  houses ;  the  loss 
exceeding  100,000/.         .  Nov.  5, 

At  Rotherhithe,  20  houses  .  Oct  12,  1790 
Again,  when  many  ships  and  60  houses 

were  consumed      .        .         Sept.  14,  1791 
At  Wapping,  630  houses,  and  an  East 
India  warehouse,  tn  which  35.000  bags 
of  saltpetre  were  stored;    the  loss 
1,000.0002.        .         .         .         July  21,  1794 
Astley's  Amphitheatre    .  Sept.  17,  1794 

At  Shad  well,  20  houses  burnt  .  Not.  1,  1796 
In  the  Minories,3i  houses  March  23,  1797 
In  the  King's  Bench,  50  residoioes  July  14,  1799 
Near  the  Customs,  3  West  India  ware- 


1780 
1781 

1783 


Jan.  22,  1821 
Aug.  14,  1829 

Jwie6.  1823 
July  13,  1827 


At  Wapping,  30  houses  Oct.  6,  a j>.  - 1800 

In  Store^treet,  Tottenham-court-road ; 

immense  property  destroyed.  Sept  27,  1808 
The  great  tower  over  the  choir  of  West- 
minster Abbey,  burnt        .        July  9,  1803 
Astley's  again,  and  40  houses   .    Sept  1,  1803 
Covent-garden  theatre  Sept  20,  1806 

Drury-lane  theatre  .    Feb.  24,  1809 

In  Conduit-street;   Mr.   Windham,   in 
aiding  to  save  Mr.  North's  library, 
received  an  ipjury  which  caused  his 
death         ....        July  9,  1809 
In  Bury-street,  St  Mary-axe,  half  the 

street  made  ruins  .  June  12,  1811 

Custom-house  biumed  down,  with  many 
adjoining  warehouses,  and  the  publio 
records        ....    Feb.  12,  1814 
At  Rotherhithe ;  loss,  80.0002.  March  16,  1820 
At  Mile-end ;  loss,  200,0002. 
In  Smithfield;  loss,  100,0002. 
In  Red-lion-street,  15  houses 
At  Sheemess,  45  dwellings 
English  Opera-house,  and  several  houses 

in  its  rear,  burnt  .    Feb.  16,  183^ 

The  two  Houses  of  Parliament  entirely 

consumed      ....  Oct  16,  1834 
The  Royal-Exchange  and  many  adjoining 

houses  burnt  to  the  ground      Jan.  10,  1838 
At  Wapping,    12   houses  burnt,   and 
immense  property  destroyed,  June  16.  1840 
houses;  loss 300,0002.        .         Feb.  11,  1800 

These  are  but  a  few  memorable  fires  out  of  as  many  hundreds  that  have  occurred* 
and  they  refer  only  to  the  loss  of  property :  it  is  estimated  that  three  hundred  fires 
occur  in  London  annually  ;  and  in  1840  there  were  many  fires  attended  with  serious 
loss  of  life. 

FIRES  OF  LONDON,  the  GREAT.  Awful  one  at  London-bridge,  which  began  on 
the  South wark  side,  but  by  some  accident  (not  accounted  for)  it  took  fire  at  the 
other  end  also,  and  hemmed  in  the  numerous  crowd  which  had  assembled  tp  help 
the  distressed.  The  sufferers,  to  avoid  the  flames,  threw  themselves  over  the  bridge 
into  boats  and  barges ;  but  many  of  these  sunk  by  people  crowding  into  them,  and 
3000  persons  were  drowned  in  the  Thames.  The  fire  likewise,  for  want  of  hands  to 
extinguish  it,  burnt  great  part  of  the  city  north  and  south  from  the  bridge,  14  John 
1212.  The  fire,  called  the  Great  Firb,  whose  ruins  covered  436  acres,  ex- 
tended  from  the  Tower  to  the  Temple-church,  and  from  the  north-east  gate  to  Hol- 
bom-bridge.  It  began  at  a  baker's  house  in  Pudding-lane  behind  Monument-yard, 
and  destroyed  in  the  space  of  four  days  eighty-nine  churches,  including  St.  Paul's  ; 
the  city  gates,  the  Royal  Exchange,  the  Custom  House,  Guildhall,  Sion  College,  and 
many  other  public  buildings,  besides  13,200  houses,  laying  waste  400  streets.  This 
conflagration  happened  (not  without  strong  suspicion  of  treason),  Sept.  2,  1666, 
and  continued  three  days  and  nights,  and  was  at  last  only  extinguished  by  the  blow- 
ing up  of  houses. — Hume  ;  Rapin  ;  Carte, 

FIRST  FRUITS.  Primitia  among  the  Hebrews.  They  were  offerings  which  made  a 
large  part  of  the  revenues  of  the  Hebrew  priesthood.  First  fruits  were  instituted  by 
pope  Clement  Y.,  in  a.d.  1306 ;  and  were  collected  in  England  in  1316.  The  first 
year's  income  of  every  church  benefice  in  England  was  given  to  the  popes  till  the 
27th  of  Henry  VIII.,  1535,  when  the  first  fruits  were  assigned,  by  act  of  parliament, 
to  the  king  and  his  successors. — Carte.  Granted,  together  with  the  tenths,  to  in- 
crease the  incomes  of  the  poor  clergy,  by  queen  Anne,  Feb.  1704.  Consolidation 
of  the  offices  of  First  Fruits,  Tenths,  and  queen  Anne's  Bounty,  by  statute  I  Vict, 
April  1838. — See  Augmentation  of  Poor  Livings, 

FISHERIES.  The  Fishmongers*  company  of  London  was  incorporated  in  1536. 
Fishing  towns  were  regulated  by  an  act  passed  in  1542.     Fishing  on  our  coasts  wm 


PIV  E  214  ]  FLB 

forbidden  by  statute  to  strangers  in  1609.  The  Dutch  paid  30,000/.  for  permission 
to  fish  on  the  coasti  of  Britain,  1636.  The  corporation  of  the  Free  British  Fisheries 
was  instituted  in  1750.  Fish-machines  for  conveying  fish  by  land  to  London,  were 
set  up  in  1761 ;  and  supported  by  parliament  1764.  The  British  Society  of  Fisheries 
was  established  in  London  in  1786.  The  Irish  Fishery  Company  was  formed  in 
Dec.  1818. — See  Herring^  Whaie,  and  Newfoundland  FUheriea. 

FIVE-MILE  ACT.  This  statute  was  passed  16  Charles  11.,  October  1665.  It  obliged 
non-conformist  teachers,  who  refused  to  take  the  non-resistance  oath,  not  to  come 
within  five  miles  of  any  corporation  where  they  had  preached  since  the  act  of 
obliTion  (unless  they  were  travelling),  under  the  penalty  of  fifty  pounds. 

FLAG.  The  flag  acquired  its  present  form  in  the  sixth  century,  in  Spain  ;  it  was  pre- 
viously small  and  square.  The  honour-of-the.flag  salute  at  sea  was  exacted  by  Eng- 
land from  very  early  times  ;  but  it  was  formally  yielded  by  the  Dutch  in  a.d.  1673, 
at  which  period  they  were  defeated  in  many  actions. — See  Naval  Battles, 

FLAGELLANTES,  Sect  of.  They  established  themselves  at  Perouse^  a.d.  1260. 
They  maintained  that  there  was  no  remission  of  sins  without  flagellation,  and  pub- 
licly lashed  themselves,  while  in  procession  preceded  by  the  cross,  until  the  blood 
flowed  from  their  naked  backs.     Their  leader,  Conrad  Schmidt,  was  burnt,  1414'. 

FLAMBE  ^UX,  Feast  of.  Instituted  to  commemorate  the  fidelity  of  Hypermnestra, 
who  saved  her  husband,  while  her  forty- nine  sisters,  on  the  night  of  their  nuptials, 
sacrificed  theirs,  at  the  command  of  their  father,  Danaus,  1425  B.C. — See  Arffos, 

FLANDERS.  The  country  of  the  ancient  Belgse  ;  conquered  by  Julius  Ceesar,  47  b.c. 
It  passed  into  the  hands  of  France,  a.d.  412.  It  was  governed  by  its  earls  subject 
to  that  crown,  from  864  to  1369.  It  then  came  into  the  house  of  Austria  by  mar- 
riage ;  but  was  yielded  to  Spain  in  1556.  Flanders  shook  off  the  Spanish  yoke  in 
1572 ;  and  in  1725,  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  it  was  annexed  to  the  German  empire. 
— Priestley,  Flanders  was  overrun  by  the  French  in  1792  and  1794,  and  was  de- 
clared part  of  their  Republic.  It  was  made  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands 
in  1814,  and  was  erected  into  the  kingdom  of  Belgium  in  1831. — See  Belgium, 

FLAT-BUSH,  Battle  of,  Long  Island ;  between  the  British  forces  and  the  Ameri- 
cans, when  the  latter,  aifter  a  desperate  engagement,  were  defeated,  with  the  loss  of 
2000  men  killed,  and  1000  prisoners,  August  27,  1776.  The  Americans,  in  their 
retreat  to  New  York,  were  providentially  saved  by  the  interposition  of  a  thick  fog. 

FLATTERY  CAPE.  Situate  on  the  western  coast  of  North  America,  was  so  named 
by  captain  Cook,  because  it  prooiised  to  him  a  harbour  at  a  distance,  which  it  did 
not  yield  him  upon  his  nearer  approach,  in  1778. — Coolers  Voyages, 

FLAX.  The  flax  seed  was  first  planted  in  England  in  a.d.  1533.  For  many  ages  the 
core  was  separated  from  the  flax,  the  bark  of  the  plant,  by  the  hand.  A  mallet  was 
next  used ;  but  the  old  methods  of  breaking  and  scutching  the  flax  yielded  to  a 
water-mill  which  was  invented  in  Scotland  about  1750. — See  article  Hemp, 

FLEET  MARKET,  PRISON,  &c.  Built  on  the  small  river  Fleta,  now  arched  over, 
and  used  as  a  common  sewer.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  this  river  was  navigable 
to  Holborn-bridge ;  and  the  obelisk  in  Fleet-street  denotes  the  extent  of  it  in  1775. 
The  prison,  for  debtors,  was  founded  as  early  as  the  first  year  of  Richard  I.  It  was 
the  place  of  confinement  for  those  who  had  incurred  the  displeasure  of  that  arbitrary 
court,  the  Star  Chamber ;  and  persons  are  now  committed  here  for  contempts  of 
the  Court  of  Chancery.  Fleet  Prison  was  burnt  down  by  the  prisoners,  June  7, 
1780.*   Fleet-market  was  originally  formed  in  1737 ;  and  was  removed  from  Farring- 

*  An  extraordinary  and  formidable  evil  once  prevailed  in  this  prison.  Illicit  marriages  were  cele- 
brated in  it  to  an  amazing  extent.  Between  the  19th  October,  1704*  and  February  12,  1705,  there 
were  celebrated  2954  marriages  in  the  Fleet,  without  license  or  certificate  of  banns.  Twenty  or 
thirty  cou|)le  were  sometimes  Joined  in  one  day,  and  their  names  concealed  by  private  marks,  if 
they  chose  to  pay  an  extra  fee.  Pennant,  at  a  later  period,  describes  the  daring  manner  in  which 
this  nefarious  traffic  was  carried  on.  He  says,  that  in  walking  by  the  prison  in  his  youth,  he  has 
been  often  accosted  with  "  Sir,  will  you  please  to  walk  in  and  tte  married?"  And  he  states,  that 
painted  signs,  of  a  .male  and  female  hand  conjoined,  with  the  inscription  '*  Marriages  performed 
within,"  were  common  along  the  building.  A  difty  creature  outside,  generally  conducted  you  to 
the  parson,  who  was  a  Bardolph-looking  fellow,  in  a  tattered  night-gown,  and  who.  If  he  could  not 
obtain  more,  would  marry  a  coufde  for  a  glass  of  gin.  This  glaring  abuse  was  only  put  an  end  to  bgr 
the  Marriage  A«t  in  1753. 


FLB  Q  215  ]  FLO 

don-street,  Nov.  20,  1829.  On  Jane  25^  1833^  the  first  stone  wu  laid,  at  the  end 
of  Farringdon-street,  of  a  granite  obelisk  to  the  memory  of  the  late  Alderman 
Waithman  :  it  was  entirely  completed  by  the  next  morning. 

FLEUR-DE-LIS.  The  emblem  of  France,  and  of  which  it  is  gravely  recorded,  that 
it  was  sent  to  the  French  people  from  heaven  by  an  angel,  whose  commission  was 
addressed  to  Ciovis,  their  first  Christian  king.  Clovis,  it  is  related,  made  a  vow  that 
if  he  proved  victorioos  in  a  pending  battle  with  the  Alemans,  he  would  embrace 
Christianity ;  and  his  arms  having  been  triumphant  in  this  battle,  which  was  fought 
near  Cologne,  a.d.  496,  he  adopted  the  lily,  and  it  has  been  the  national  emblem 
ever  since* — See  Lily, 

FLEURUSy  Battlb  of,  between  the  allies  under  the  prince  of  Coburg,  and  the 
French  revolutionary  army  commanded  by  Jonrdan.  The  allies,  with  an  army  of 
lOOjOOO  men,  had  for  their  object  the  relief  of  Charleroi,  when  they  were  met  on  the 
plains  of  Fleurus,  and  signally  defeated.  Between  eight  and  ten  thousand  were 
killed,  wounded,  and  taken  prisoners  ;  and  Jourdan  was  enabled  to  form  a  junction 
with  the  French  armies  of  the  Moselle,  the  Ardennes,  and  the  north.  In  this  me- 
morable battle  the  French  made  use  of  a  balloon  to  reconnoitre  the  enemy's  army,  an 
experiment  which,  it  is  said,  contributed  to  the  success  of  the  day,  June  17,  1794. 

FLIES.  There  happened  an  extraordinary  and  memorable  fall  of  these  insects  in  Lon- 
don, covering  the  clothes  of  passengers  in  the  streets,  in  which  they  lay  so  thick, 
that  the  impressions  of  the  people's  feet  were  visible  on  the  pavements,  as  they  are 
in  a  thick  fall  of  snow,  a.d.  1707. — Chamberlain's  History  of  London.  In  the 
United  States  of  America  is  an  insect,  commonly  called  the  Hessian  fly  ^  from  the 
notion  of  its  having  been  brought  there  by  the  Hessian  troops  in  the  service  of  Eng- 
land in  the  American  war  of  Independence ;  its  ravages  were  very  extensive  on  the 
wheat  in  1777,  et  seq. ;  but  the  injury  to  the  crops  was  much  less  after  a  few  years. 

FLOATING  BATTERIES.     See  article  Batteries^  and  Gibraltar,  Siege  qf,  17B1. 

FLODPEN  FIELD,  Battle  of,  between  the  English  and  Scots.  James  IV.  of  Scot- 
hmd,  having  taken  part  with  Louis  XII.  of  France,  against  Henry  VIII.  of  England, 
this  battle  was  one  of  the  consequences  of  his  unfortunate  policy ;  and  James,  and 
most  of  his  chief  nobles,  and  upwards  of  10,000  of  his  army  were  sUdn,  while  the 
English,  who  were  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Surrey,  lost  only  persons  of  small 
note.  Henry  VIII.  was  at  the  time  besieging  Terouenne,  near  St.  Omer ;  fought 
Sept.  9,  1513. 

FLORALI  A.  Games,  in  honour  of  Flora  at  Rome,  instituted  about  the  age  of  Romulus, 
but  they  were  not  celebrated  with  regularity  and  proper  attention  tiU  the  year  u.c. 
580.  They  were  observed  yearly,  and  exhibited  a  scene  of  the  most  unbounded 
Ucentiousness.  It  is  reported  that  Cato  wished  once  to  be  present  at  the  celebration^ 
and  that  when  he  saw  that  the  deference  for  his  presence  interrupted  the  feast,  he 
retired,  not  choosing  to  be  the  spectator  of  the  prostitution  of  naked  women  in  a 
public  theatre. —  Falerius  Max, 

FLORENCE.  Is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  soldiers  of  Sylla,  and  enlarged  by 
the  Roman  Triumviri.  It  was  destroyed  by  Totila,  and  was  rebuilt  by  Charlemagne. 
This  city  is  truly  the  seat  of  the  arts.  In  its  palaces,  university,  academies,  churches, 
and  libraries,  are  to  be  found  the  rarest  works  of  sculpture  and  painting  in  the  world. 
The  Florentine  academy,  and  the  Accademia  delta  Cruscat  were  instituted  to  enrich 
the  literature  and  improve  the  language  of  Tuscany ;  the  latter  is  so  named  because 
it  rejects  like  bran  aU  words  not  purely  Tuscan.  Florence  was  taken  by  the  French 
in  July  1796,  and  again  in  March,  1799 ;  and  was  restored  in  1814. 

FLORES,  OH  ISLE  of  FLOWERS.  Discovered  by  Vanderberg,  in  1439;  and 
settled  by  the  Portuguese  in  1448.  The  whole  surface  of  this  island  presented  ori- 
ginally the  appearance  of  a  garden  of  fiowers,  rich  in  perfume,  the  summer  breeze 
wafting  the  odour  round  the  coast.  This  is  one  of  the  Azores  ;  so  called  by  Martin 
Behem,  on  account  of  their  abounding  in  hawks. 

FLORIDA.  First  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in.  a.d.  1497.  It  was  visited  by 
Ponce  de  Leon,  the  Spanish  navigator,  April  2,  1512,  in  a  voyage  he  had  absurdly 
undertaken  to  discover  a  fountain  whose  waters  had  the  property  of  restoring  youth 
to  the  aged  who  tasted  them  !  Florida  was  conquered  by  the  Spaniards  under  Fer- 
dinand de  Soto  in  1539  ;  but  the  settlemeAt  was  not  fully  established  until  1565.  It 
was  plundered  by  sir  Francis  Drake  in  1585  ;  and  by  Davis,  a  buccaneer,  in  1665. 


FLO 


[216] 


FLO 


It  was  invaded  by  the  British  in  1702.  Again,  by  general  Oglethorpe  in  1740.  Ceded 
to  the  British  crown  in  1763.  Taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1781 ;  and  guaranteed  to 
them  in  1783.     Ceded  by  Spain  to  the  United  States  in  1820. 

FLORIN.  A  coin  first  made  by  the  Florentines,  k^fioren  was  issued  by  Edward  III. 
which  was  current  in  England  at  the  value  of  Qi,^  in  1337. — Camden.  This  English 
coin  was  called  floren  after  the  Florentine  coin,  because  the  latter  was  of  the  best 
gold. — Ashe.  The  florin  of  Germany  is  in  value  2s,  4d, ;  that  of  Spain  4s.  4Jc2. ; 
that  of  Palermo  and  Sicily  2s,  6d, ;  that  of  Holland  2s, — Ayliffe. 

FLOWERS.  The  most  delightful  and  fragrant  among  the  ornaments  of  our  gardens 
are  of  foreign  production.  The  modern  taste  for  flowers  came,  it  is  said,  from  Persia 
to  Constantinople,  and  was  imported  thence  to  Europe  for  the  first  time  in  the  six- 
teenth century  ;  at  least  many  of  the  productions  of  our  gardens  were  conveyed  by 
that  channel. — Beckmann.  With  what  goodness  does  God  provide  for  our  happi- 
ness  and  enjoyments,  by  making  even  the  most  remote  countries  contribute  towards 
them  ! — Sturm.  From  the  reign  of  Henry  YII.  to  that  of  Elizabeth,  our  present 
common  flowers  were,  for  the  most  part,  introduced  into  England.  The  art  of  pre- 
serving flowers  in  sand  was  discovered  in  1633.  A  mode  of  preserving  them  from 
the  effects  of  frost  in  winter,  and  hastening  their  vegetation  in  summer,  was  invented 
in  America,  by  George  Morris,  in  1792.  Among  the  flowers,  the  periods  of  whose 
introduction  to  our  gardens^have  been  traced,  are  the  following : — 


njOWBTLS,  PLANTS,   AcO. 

Acaoia,  N.  America,  before  .  a  d.  1640 
Allsploe  shrub,  Carolina  .  .  *  1726 
Anniseed  tree,  Florida,  about  .  .  .  1766 
Arbor  Yitae,  Canada,  before  .  .  .  1596 
ArctopuB,  Cape  of  Good  Hope  .  •  1774 
Auricula,  Switzerland  .  .  .  .  1567 
Azarole,  S.  Europe,  before  .  .  .  1640 
Bay,  royal,  Madeira  .         .         ,    .  1665 

Bay,  sweet,  Italy,  before        .         .         .  1548 

Camellia,  China 1811 

Chaate  tree,  Sicily,  before  .  .  .  1670 
Christ's  thorn,  Africa,  before  .  ,  .  1596 
Canary  bell-flower.  Canaries  .         .  1696 

Carnation,  Flanders  .         .         .    .  15^7 

Ceanothus,  blue,  New  Spain  .         .  1818 

Canary  convolvulus,  Canaries  .  .  .  1690 
Convolvulus,  many-flowered  .  .  .  1779 
Coral  tree.  Cape  ....  1816 

Coral  tree,  bell-flowered.  Cape  .  .  .  1791 
Coral  tree,  tremulous.  Cape  .  .  .  1789 
Creeper,  YlrKinian,  N.  America         .    .  1603 

Dahlia,  China 1803 

Dryandra,  New  Holland  .  .  .  .  1803 
Evergreen  thorn,  Italy  .         .         .  1629 

Everlasting,  great-flowered.  Cape  .  .  1781 
Everlasting,  giant.  Cape  .  .  .  1793 
Fembush.  sweet,  N.  America  .  ,  1714 
Fox-glove,  Canaries  .         .         .    .  1698 

Geranium,  Flanders  ....  1534 
Gillyflower,  Flanders  ,  .  .  ,  1567 
Gold-plant,  Japan  ....  1783 
Golden  bell-flower,  Madeira  .  .  .  1777 
Hawthorn,  Ameiican,  from  N.  America, 

before 1683 

Heath,  ardent.  Cape  ....  1800 
Heath,  beautiful,  Cape       .         .         .    .  1795 


Heath,  fragrant.  Cape 
Heath,  garland,  Cape 
Heath,  perfumed.  Cape 
Honeyflower,  great.  Cape 
Honeysuckle,  Chinese,  China 
Honeysuckle,  fly.  Cape 
Honeysuckle,  trumpet,  N.  America 
Hyssop,  south  of  Europe,  before 
Jasmine,  Circasda,  before     . 


.  1803 
.  1774 
.  1803 
.  1688 
.  1806 
.  1752 
.  1656 
.  1548 
.  1548 


Jasmine,  Catalonian,  East  Indies  A.D..  16S9 
Judas-tree,  south  of  Europe,  before  .  1596 
Laburnum,  Hungary  .  .  .  .  1576 
Laurel,  Alexandrian,  Portugal,  before  .  1713 
Laurestine,  south  of  Europe,  before  .  .  1596 
Lavender,  south  of  Europe,  before  .  1568 

Lily,  Italy,  before  .         .         .    .  1460 

Lily,  gigantic,  N.  South  Wales  .  .  1800 
Lily,  red-coloured,  South  America  .  .  1693 
Loblolly-bay,  N.  America,  before  •  .  1739 
Lupine  tree.  Cape,  about  .  .  .  1793 
Magnolia  (see  Magnolia),  North  Amerka  1688 
Magnolia,  dwarf,  China  .  .  .  1786 
Magnolia,  laurel-leaved,  N.  America  .  1734 
Maiden-hair,  Japan       ....  1714 

Mignionette,  Italy 1528 

Milk-wort,  greatflowered,  Cajra  .  .  1713 
Milk-wort,  showy,  Cape  .  .  .  .  1814 
Mountain  tea,  N.  America,  b^ore  .  1758 
Mock  orange,  south  of  Europe,  before  .  1596 
Mjrrtle,  candleberry,  N.  America  .  1699 

Myrtle,  woolly-leaved,  China  .         .  1776 

Nettle-tree,  south  of  Europe,  before        .  1596 

Olive,  Cape,  Cape 1730 

Olive,  sweet-scented,  China  .  .  .  1771 
Oleander,  red,  south  of  Europe  .    .  1596 

Paraguay  tea,  Carolina,  before  .  .  1724 
Passion-flower,  Brazil  .  .  .  .  1699 
Passion-flower,  orange,  Carolina  .  .  1799 
Pigeon-berry,  N.  America  .         .    .  1736 

Pink,  from  Italy  ....  1567 

Ranunculus,  Alps 1528 

Roses,  Netherlands  ....  1529 
Rose,  the  China,  China  .  .  .  .  1789 
Rose,  the  damask,  Marseilles,  and  south 

of  Europe,  about  ....  1543 
Rose,  the  Japan,  China  .  .  .  .  1793 
Rose,  the  moss,  before  .         .         .  1724 

Rose,  the  musk,  Italy  .  .  .  .  1529 
Rose,  the  Provence,  Flanders  .  .  1567 
Rose,  sweet-scented  guelder,  from  China  1821 
Rose,  tube,  from  Java  and  Ceylon  .  1629 

Rose  without  thorns,  N.  America,  before  1726 
Rosemary,  south  of  Europe  .         .  1648 

St.  Peter's  wort.  North  America  .  .  1730 
Sage,  African,  Cape  ■  .        .        .        :  1731 


FLO 


[217] 


FOR 


FLOWERS,  continued. 

Sage,  Mexican,  Mezfoo     .  aj>.  1724 

Sassafras  tree,  N.  America,  before  •  1663 

Savin,  south  of  Europe,  before  .  .  .  1584 
Snowdrop,  Carolina  ....  17^6 
Sorrel-tree,  N.  America,  before  .    .  17^2 

Sweet  bay,  south  of  Europe,  before  .  1548 
Tamarisk  plant,  Oermany  .  .  .  1560 
Tea  tree,  China,  about  ...  1768 

Tooth-ach  tree,  from  Carolina,  before     .  1739 


Tmmpet-flower,  N.  America     .       a.d.  1640 

Trumpet^flower,  Cape   ....  1823 

Tulip,  Vienna 1578 

Virginia  creeper,  N.  America,  before     .  1629 

Virgin's-bower,  Japan                .        .    .  1776 

Weeping  willow,  Levant,  before    .        .  1692 

Wax  tre«,  China 1794 

Winter  berry,  Vingfni*                   .        .  1736 

Youlani  China 1789 


FLUSHING,  SiBOB  of.  A  British  armament  under  the  command  of  the  earl  of 
Chatham,  landed  at  Walcheren,  Augnit  16,  1809,  with  a  view  to  the  destruction  of 
the  ships  and  arsenal  at  Antwerp  ;  but  a  number  of  untoward  circumstances  first 
rendered  the  principal  object  of  the  expedition  abortive,  and  then  the  pestilential 
nature  of  the  island,  at  that  particular  season  of  the  year,  obliged  the  British  to 
relinquish  every  advantage  they  had  gained,  and  the  place  was  evacuated,  with  great 
loss,  in  December  following. — See  Walcheren  Expedition, 

FLUTE.  Invented  by  Hyagnis,  a  Phrygian,  the  father  of  Marsyas. — Plutarch,  The 
flute,  harp,  lyre,  and  other  instruments  were  known  to  the  BLomans;  and  the  flute 
was  so  prized  in  antiquity,  that  several  female  deittes  lay  claim  to  its  invention.  It 
was  in  far  more  general  use  as  a  concert  instrument  than  the  violin,  until  early  in 
the  last  centary,  when  the  works  of  Corelli  came  over. — See  Music. 

FLUXIONS.  Invented  by  Newton,  1669.  The  differential  calculus  by  Leibnitz,  1684. 
The  finest  applications  of  the  calculus  are  by  Newton,  Euler,  La  Grange,  and  La  Place. 

FLYING,  Artificial.  It  has  been  attempted  in  all  ages.  Friar  Bacon  maintained 
the  possibility  of  the  art,  and  predicted  it  would  be  of  general  practice,  a.d.  1273. 
Bishop  Wilkins  says,  it  will  yet  be  as  usual  to  hear  a  man  call  for  his  wings  when  he 
is  going  on  a  journey,  as  it  is  now  to  hear  him  call  for  his  boots,  1651.  We  appre- 
hend  that  many  ages  will  pass  away  previously  to  the  accomplishment  of  these 
predictions. 

FONTH ILL- ABBEY,  in  Wiltsbike.    The  celebrated  mansion  of  Mr.   Beckford. 

Within  this  vast  and  sumptuous  edifice  were  collected  the  most  costly  articles  of 

vertu,  the  rarest  works  of  the  old  masters,  and  the  finest  specimens  of  the  arts.    The 

'  auction  of  its  treasures,  and  the  sale  of  the  abbey  to  Mr.  Farquhar,  took  place  in  1819. 

FONTAINEBLEAU,  Pbace  of,  concluded  between  France  and  Denmark  in  1679. 
Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  between  the  emperor  of  Germany  and  Holland,  signed 
November  8, 1 785.  Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  between  Napoleon  and  the  royal  family 
of  Spain  Oct.  27, 1807.  Concordat  of  Fontainebleau  between  Napoleon  and  pope 
Pius  VII.  January  25,  1813.  Fontainebleau  was  entered  by  the  Austrians,  Feb.  17, 
1814.  And  here  Napoleon  resigned  his  imperial  dignity,  and  bade  a  farewell  to  his 
army,  April  5,  1814. 

FONTENOY,  Battle  of,  near  Tournsy,  between  the  French  under  count  Saxe,  and 
the  English,  Hanoverians,  Dutch,  and  Austrians,  commanded  by  the  duke  of  Cum- 
berland. The  battle  was  fought  with  great  obstinacy ,  and  the  carnage  on  both  sides 
was  considerable,  the  allies  losing  12,000  men,  and  the  French  nearly  an  equal 
number  of  lives  ;  but  the  allies  were  in  the  end  defeated.  Count  Saze,  who  was  at 
the  time  ill  of  the  disorder  of  which  he  afterwards  died,  was  carried  about  to  all  the 
posts  in  a  litter,  assuring  his  troops  that  the  day  would  be  their  own ;  fought 
AprU  30,  1745. 

FONTS.  Formerly  the  baptistry  was  a  small  room,  or  place  partitioned  off  in  a  church, 
where  the  persons  to  be  baptised  (many  of  whom  in  the  early  ages  were  adults), 
were  submerged.  Previously  to  these  artificial  reservoirs,  lakes  and  rivers  were 
resorted  to  for  immersion.  Fonts  for  the  initiation  into  Christianity  were  instituted 
in  A.D.  167. 

FOOLS,  Festivals  of,  at  Paris.  They  were  held  on  the  first  of  January,  and  were 
continued  for  240  years.  In  their  celebration,  we  are  told,  all  sorts  of  absurdities 
and  indecencies  were  committed,  a.d.  1198.  Fools  or  licensed  jesters  were  kept  at 
court  in  England  (as  they  were  at  other  courts  of  Europe),  and  were  tolerated  up 
to  the  time  of  Charles  I.  1625. 

FOREIGNERS.    See  Aliens,    Foreigners  were  banished  by  proclamation,  in  conse- 


FOR  [  218  ]  FOR 

quence  of  England  being  OTemin  with  Flemings,  Normans,  and  ike  people  of  other 
nations,  2  Henry  I.  1155.  Foreigners  were  ezcladed  from  enjoying  ecclesiastical 
benefices,  by  the  statute  of  provisors,  18  Edward  III.  1343. —  Viner.  The  later  alien 
acts  operate  much  in  relieving  foreigners  from  coercion  and  restraint. 

FORESTS.  There  were  in  England,  even  in  the  last  century,  as  many  as  68  forests, 
18  chases,  and  upwards  of  780  parks.  The  New  Forest  in  Hampshire  was  made  by 
William  I.  who  for  that  purpose  destroyed  36  parishes,  pulled  down  36  churches, 
and  dispeopled  the  country  for  30  miles  round,  a.d.  1079-85. — Stowe.  The  com- 
missioners appointed  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  the  woods  and  forests,  between 
A.D.  1787  and  1793,  reported  the  following  as  belonging  to  the  Crown,  tiz.: — ^in 
Berkshire,  Windsor  Forest  and  Windsor  Great  and  Little  Park.  In  Dorset,  Cranbum 
Chase.  In  Essex,  Waltham  or  Epping  Forest.  In  Gloucestershire,  Dean  Forest.  In 
Hampshire,  the  New  Forest,  Aliqe  Holt,  and  Woolmer  Forest,  Bere  Forest.  In 
Kent,  Greenwich  Park.  In  Middlesex,  St.  James's,  Hyde,  Bushy,  and  Hampton, 
court  Parks.  In  Northamptonshire,  the  Forests  of  Whittlebury,  Salcey,  and 
Rockingham.  In  Nottingham,  Sherwood  Forest.  In  Oxford,  Whichwood  Forest. 
In  Surrey,  Richmond  Park.    Some  of  these  have  been  since  enclosed. 

FORESTS,  Charter  of  the.  Charta  de  Foresta.  It  was  granted  by  king  John,  as 
well  as  the  grand  charter  of  Kberties,  Mctgna  Charta^  a.d.  1215.  This  king  having 
meanly  resigned  his  crown  and  dominions  to  the  pope.  Innocent  III.  to  obtain 
absolution  for  the  murder  of  his  nephew  Arthur,  and  having,  in  a  full  assembly  of 
clergy  and  laity,  submitted  to  the  humiliation  of  receiving  them  again  from  the  pope's 
legate,  to  whom  he  paid  homage  for  them,  and  took  an  oath  to  hold  them  as  his 
vassal,  under  the  yearly  tribute  of  1000  marks,  the  bishops  and  barons  incensed 
at  the  indignity,  and  roused  by  his  exactions,  entered  into  a  confederacy  against 
him,  rose  in  arms,  and  compelled  him  to  sign  the  great  national  charters.  See 
Magna  Charta,  There  have  been  several  Forest  charters.  An  original  charter  of 
Henry  II.  was  found  by  the  Record  Commission,  when  inspecting  the  ancient  records, 
October  1,  1813. 

FORFARSHIRE  STEAMER.  This  vessel,  on  its  passage  from  Hull  to  Dundee,  was 
wrecked  in  a  violent  gale,  and  thirty-eight  persons  perished.  Owing  to  the  noble 
and  courageous  conduct  of  the  Outer-Fern  Lighthouse  keeper  (J.  Darling),  and  his 
heroic  daughter  (Grace  Darling),  who  ventured  out  in  a  tremendous  sea  in  a  coble, 
several  of  the  passengers  were  rescued.  There  were  fifty-three  persons  in  the 
vessel  before  she  struck,  September  5,  1838. 

FORGERY.  The  forging  of,  or  giving  in  evidence  forged  deeds,  &c.  made  punishable 
by  fine,  by  standing  in  the  pillory,  having  both  ears  cut  off,  the  nostrils  slit  up  and 
seared,  the  forfeiture  of  land,  and  perpetual  imprisonment,  5  Elizabeth,  1562. 
Forgery  was  first  punished  by  death  in  1634.  Since  the  establishment  of  paper 
credit,  a  multitude  of  statutes  have  been  enacted.  Forging  letters  of  attorney,  for 
the  transfer  of  stock,  was  made  a  capital  felony  in  1722.  Mr.  Ward,  M.P.,  a  man 
of  prodigious  wealth,. was  expelled  the  House  of  Commons  for  forgery.  May  16, 1726 ; 
and  was  consigned  to  the  pillory,  March  17,  the  following  year.  The  value  of 
forged  notes  which  were  presented  at  the  Bank  during  ten  years,  from  Jan.  1,  I8OI5 
was  nominally  101,661/. — Bank  Returns.  In  one  year  (1817)  the  Bank  prosecuted 
142  persons  for  forgery  or  the  uttering  of  forged  notes. — Pari,  Returns.  Statutes 
reducing  into  one  act  all  such  forgeries  as  shall  henceforth  be  punished  with  death, 
1  William  IV.  1830.  The  punishment  of  forgery  with  death  ceased  by  statute  2  and 
3  William  IV.,  August  1832,  except  in  cases  of  forging  or  altering  wills  or  powers 
of  attorney  to  transfer  stock ;  but  these  cases  also  are  no  longer  punishable  by 
death,  having  been  reduced  to  transportable  offences,  by  act  1  Victoria,  July  1837. 

FORGERY,  Remarkable  Executions  for.  The  unfortunate  Daniel  and  Robert 
Perreau,  brothers  and  wine-merchants,  were  hanged  at  Tyburn,  January  17,  1776. 
The  rev.  Dr.  Dodd  was  found  guilty  of  forging  a  bond,  in  the  name  of  Lord  Ches- 
terfield, for  4,200/. :  the  greatest  interest  was  made,  and  the  highest  influence  was 
exerted  to  save  him,  but  when  the  case  came  before  the  coundl*  the  minister  of  the 
day  said  to  George  III.,  '*  if  your  majesty  pardon  Dr.  Dodd,  you  will  have  murdered 
the  Perreaus  ;*'  and  he  was  hanged  accordingly,  June  27,  1777.  John  Hatfield,  a 
heartless  impostor,  who  had  inveigled  "  Mary  of  Buttermere,"  the  celebrated  beauty, 
into  a  marriage  with  him,  was  hanged  for  forgery,  at  Carlisle,  September  3,  1 803. 


FOR [^  219  ] FHA 

Mr.  Henry  Fanntleroy,  a  London  banker,  was  hanged,  November  30, 1824.  Joseph 
Hnnton,  a  qnaker  merchant,  suffered  death,  December  8, 1828.  The  last  criminal 
hanged  iPor  forgery  at  the  Old  Bailey,  was  Thomas  Maynard,  December  31, 1829. 

FORKS.  They  were  in  use  on  the  Continent  in  the  13di  and  14th  centuries. — Voltaire, 
This  is  reasonably  disputed,  as  being  too  early.  In  Fynes  Moryson's  Itinerary,  reign  of 
Elizabethi  he  says,  **  At  Venice  each  person  was  served  (besides  his  knife  and 
spoon)  with  a  fork  to  hold  the  meat,  while  he  cuts  it,  for  there  they  deem  it  ill 
manners  that  one  shonld  touch  it  with  his  hand."  Thomas  Corymte  describes,  with 
much  solemnity,  the  manner  of  using  forks  in  Italy,  and  adds,  **  I  myself  have 
thought  it  good  toimitate  the  Italian  fuMon  since  I  came  home  to  England,"  a.d.  1608. 

FORMA  PAUPERIS.  A  person  having  a  just  cause  of  suit,  certified  as  such,  yet 
so  poor  that  he  cannot  meet  the  cost  of  maintaining  it,  has  an  attorney  and  counsel 
assigned  him  on  his  swearing  he  is  not  worth  5/. ,  by  statute  Henry  VII.  1495). 

FORNICAl?ION.  From  the  Fornicea  in  Rome.  Formerly  courts-leet  had  cognizance 
of  this  crime.  It  was  made  capital  for  the  second  offence,  and  (with  incest  and 
adultery)  was  punished  with  death,  without  benefit  of  clergy,  under  Cromwell,  a.d. 
1650.     At  the  Restoration,  however,  it  was  not  thought  wise  to  renew  this  law. 

FORT  ERIE.  This  fortress  was  taken  by  the  American  General  Browne,  July  3, 1814. 
It  was  attacked  unsuccessfully  by  the  British,  with  the  loss  of  962  men,  August  15, 
1814.  Sortie  from  the  fort  repulsed  by  the  British,  but  with  great  loss,  September 
17,  1814.    Evacuated  by  the  Americans,  November  5, 1814. — See  Lake  Erie. 

FORTH  AND  CLYDE  CANAL.  This  great  undertaking  was  commenced  July  10, 
1768,  under  the  direction  of  the  ingenious  Mr.  Smeaton;  and  the  navigation  was 
opened  July  28,  1790.  By  uniting  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  it  forms  a  communication 
between  the  eastern  and  western  seas  on  the  coast  of  Scotland  ;  and  thereby  saved 
the  long  and  dangerous  navigation  round  the  Land's  End,  or  the  more  hazardous 
course  through  the  Pentland  Frith. 

FORTIFICATION.  The  Phoenicians  were  the  first  people  who  had  fortified  cities. 
Apollodorus  says  that  Perseus  fortified  MycenSB,  where  statues  were  afterwards  erected 
to  him.  The  modern  system  was  introduced  about  a.d.  1500.  Albert  Durer  first 
wrote  on  the  science  in  1527 ;  and  improvements  were  made  by  Yauban,  towards  1700. 

FOTHERINGAY  CASTLE,  Northamptonshire.  Built  a.d.  1408.  Here  Richard  III. 
of  England  was  born  in  1443 ;  and  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  whose  death  is  an  inde- 
lible stain  upon  the  reign  of  our  great  Elizabeth,  was  beheaded  in  this  castle,  in 
which  she  had  been  long  previously  confined,  February  8.  1587,  after  an  unjust  and 
cruel  captivity  of  almost  nineteen  years  in  England.  It  was  ordered  to  be  demo- 
lished by  her  son  James  I.  of  England. 

FOUNDLING  HOSPITAL.  "A  charity  practised  by  most  nations  about  us  for 
those  children  exposed  by  unnatural  parents.'' — Addison.  Foundling  Hospitals 
are,  comparatively,  of  recent  institution  in  England,  where  it  would  appear  none 
existed  when  Addison  wrote.  The  foundling  hospital  at  Moscow,  built  by  Cathe- 
rine II.,  was  an  immense  and  costly  edifice,  in  which  8000  infant  children  were 
succoured.  The  London  Foundling  Hospital  was  projected  by  Thomas  Coram,  a 
benevolent  sea-captain,  the  master  of  a  vessel  trading  to  the  colonies ;  it  was  incor- 
porated by  a  charter  from  George  II.  in  October  1739,  and  succours  about  500 
infant  children.  The  foundling-  hospital  in  Dublin  was  instituted  in  1704  :  in  this 
last-named  charity  there  had  been  received,  according  to  parliamentary  returns,  in 
the  thirty  years  preceding  January  1825,  as  many  as  52,150  infants  :  of  these  14,613 
had  died  infants — 25,859  were  returned  as  dead  from  the  country,  where  they  were 
out  nursing — 730  died  in  the  infirmary  after  returning — 322  died  grown  children— 
total  deaths,  .41,524  ;  so  that  10,626  only  escaped  this  fate. 

FOX-GLOVE,  the  Canary  {Digitalis  Canariensis)^  brought  from  the  Canary  islands 
to  these  countries,  a.d.  1698.  The  Madeira  Fox-glove  brought  from  that  island  in  1 777. 
The  Fox-grape  shrub  {Vitis  Vulpina),  brought  from  Virginia  before  a.d.  1656. 

FRANCE.  This  country  was  known  to  the  Romans  by  the  name  of  Gaol.  In  the 
decline  of  their  power  it  was  conquered  by  the  Franks,  a  people  of  Germany,  then 
inhabiting  what  is  still  called  Franconia.  These  invaders  gave  the  name  to  the 
kingdom ;  but  the  Gauls,  being  by  far  the  most  numerous,  are  the  real  ancestors  of 
the  modem  French.    There  is  no  nation  in  Europe  where  the  art  of  war  is  better 


FRA 


[220] 


F&A 


understood  than  in  France :  the  government  has  always  been  military,  and  every 
man  bred  to  the  use  of  arms. 


The  Franks,  under  their  leader  Pharar 
mond,  tetUe  in  that  part  of  Gaul  till 
late  called  flanders      .  a.d.    420 

Reign  of  Clovis  the  Oreat  .481 

He  defeats  the  Romans  at  Soissons  .  486 
He  defeats  the  Alemans  at  Cologne  .  .  496 
Clovis  emhraoes  Christianity  .    496 

He  kills  Alario,  the  Guth.  in  hattle,  near 
Poiotiov,  and  conquers  all  the  country 
from  the  Loire  to  the  Pyrenees ;  makes 
Paris  the  capital:    and  founds  the 

monarchy BffJ 

He  proclaims  the  Salique  law  .    fill 

Reign  of  Clothaire  L  ;  the  kingdoms  of 

Burgundy  and  Thuringia  end  .    .    530 

The  four  sons  and  successors  of  Clothaire 
fall  by  the  hand  of  each  other ;  reign 
of  Clothaire  IL  ....    584 

The  majrors  of  the  palace  now  assume 

almost  sovereign  authority  .  .  .  684 
Charles  Martel  becomes  mayor  of  the 
palace,  U  e.  governor  of  France,  and 
rules  with  despotic  sway  .  •  .  714 
Invasion  of  the  Saracens  .  .  .  .  720 
Reign  of  Pepin  the  Short  .  .  .751 
Reign  of  Charlemagne  .  .  .  .  768 
He  is  crowned  emperor  of  the  West  .  800 
RoUo  obtains  Normandy  (see  Danet)  .  905 
Reign  of  Hugh  Capet  ....  987 
Paris  made  capital  of  all  France  .  .  996 
Letters  of  franchise  granted  to  cities  and 

towns  by  Louis  YL  .        .         .    .  1135 

Louis  YIL  Joins  in  the  crusades  .  .1146 
Louis  YIII.  Cceur-de-LioTit  gives  freedom 

to  the  peasantry 1226 

Louis  IX.  called  St  Louis,  defeats  John 
of  England ;  conducts  an  army  into 
Palestine;  takes  Damietta;  and  is 
killed  before  Tunis  .        .        .  1270 

Knights  Templars  suppressed  .  .  .  1308 
Union  of  France  and  Navarre  .  .  1314 
Philip  YI.  defeated  at  Cressy  .  .  .  1346 
Calais  taken  by  Edward  HI.  .        .  1347 

Dauphiny  annexed  to  France  .    .  1349 

Battle  of  Poictiers  (tohiclitee),  John  king 
of  France  taken,  and  brought  prisoner 

to  England 1356 

Battle  of  Agincourt  {which  $ee)  .    .  1415 

Entire  conquest  of  France  by  Henry  Y. 
of  England,  who  is  acknowledged  heir 
to  the  kingdom  ....  1420 

Henry  YI.  crowned  at  Paris ;  the  duke 
-  of  Bedford's  regency  .        .    .  1422 

Siege  of  Orleans ;  battle  of  Patay ;  the 

English  defeated  by  Joan  cfArc        .  1429 
England  lost  all  her  possessions   (but 

Calais)  in  France,  between  1434  and    .  1450 
The  splendid  interview  of  the  Cloth  of 
Gold,  between  Francis  I.  and  Henry 
YUI.  of  England         ....  1529 
League  of  England  with  the  emperor 

Charles  Y.  against  France  .        .  1544 

Calais  lost  to  England  .  .  .  .  1558 
Religious  wars ;  massacre  at  Yassy  .  1561 
Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  Aug-  24,  1572 
Henry  HI.  murdered  by  Jacques  Cle- 
ment, a  friar  .  .  Aug.  1,  1589 
Edict  of  Nantes  by  Henry  lY.        .        .  1598 


Henry  is  murdered  by  Ravillao  a.d.  1610 
Navarre  re-united  to  France  .  .  1620 
Splendid  reign  of  Louis  XIY.  begins  .  1643 
Edict  of  Nantes  revoked  .  .  .  1685 
The  peace  of  Utrecht  .  .  .  .  1713 
Law's  bubble  in  France  (tee  £aio)  .  1716 

Damiens' attempt  on  Louis  XY.         .    .  1757 
Tortmv  in  courts  of  justice  ends    .        .1780 
The  memorable  French  revolution  com- 
mences with  the  destruction  of  the 
Bastile  Iwhieh  see)  .        July  14,  1789 

France  divided  into  80  departments,  Oct.  1789 
C<mfederation  of  the  Champ  de  Man 

(see  Champ  de  Mars)  .        .        .  1790 

The  king  (Louis  XYL),  queen,  and  royal 
family,  arrested  at  Yarennes,  in  their 
flight  from  Paris    .  June  22,  1791 

Louis  (now  a  prisoner)  sanctions  the 

National  Constitution     .        Sept.  15,  1791 
He  attends    the  National  Assembly; 

renounces  his  sovereignty        Aug.  10,  1798 
National  Convention  .        Sept  17>  1792 

Royalty  abolished  .    Sept.  21.  1798 

Louis  is  confined  in  the  Temple,  distinct 
from  the  queen :  he  is  brought  to  trial , 
Jan  19 ;  condemned,  Jan.  20 ;  and  be- 
headed   ....         Jan.  21,  1793 
Marat  stabbed  to  the  heart  by  Charlotte 


July  13,  1793 
Oct.  16,  1793 
May  12,  1794 
July  27,  1794 
June  8,  1795 
Nov.  1,  1795 


Corday 
The  queen  beheaded    .        . 
Princess  Elizabeth  beheaded 
Robespierre  guillotined       • 
Louis  XYII.  dies  in  prison 
French  Directory 
Council  of  Five-hundred   (which  see) 

deposed  by  Buonaparte,  who  is  declared 

First  Consul   .         .         .  Nov.  9,  1799 

Legion  of  Honour  instituted  .  May  18  1802 
Duke  d'Enghien  shot  .  March  20,  1804 
France  formed  into  an  empire   under 

Napoleon,  emperor  .         May  20,  1804 

He  is  crowned  king  of  Italy  .  May  26,  1805 
New  nobility  of  France  created  .    .  1806 

Holland  united  to  France  .  July  9,  1810 
The  war  with  Russia,  in  the  end  so  fatal 

to  the  fortunes  of  Napoleon,  declared 

by  France  .         .         .    June  22,  1818 

Triple  alliance  of  Austria,  Russia,  and 

Prussia,  against  France        .    Sept  9,  1813 
The  British  i>ass  the  Bidassoa,  and  enter 

France  .  Oct  17,  1813 

Surrender  of  Paris  (see  BatUes)  to  the 

allied  armies  .         March  31,  1814 

Abdication  of  Napoleon  .  April  5,  1814 
Bourbon   dynasty  restored,   and   Louis 

XYIU.  arrives  at  Paris 
Napoleon  returns  to  France 
His  defeat  at  Waterloo 
Paris  again  surrenders 
Louis  re-enters  the  capital 
Execution  of  Marshal  Ney 
Duke  de  Berry  murdered 
Louis  X  YIIL  dies ;  Ch.  X.  succeeds  Sp.  16,  1824 
National  Guard  disbanded  April .%,  1827 
Seventy-six  new  peas  created  Nov.  5,  1887 
Polignac  administration  .  Aug.  4,  1829 
Chamber  of  Deputies  dissolved  .  BCay,  1830 
The  obnoxious  ordinances  regarding  the 


.    May  3,  1814 

March  1,  1815 

.  June  18,  1816 

July  3,  1816 

.    July  8,  1815 

Aug.  16,  1816 

Feb.  13,  1880 


FRA 


[221] 


FRA 


FRANCE,  conHnued. 

pre88>  and  re-oonBtruction  of  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies        .         July  26,  a.d.  1830 

Revolution  commenced    .        .  Jnly27i  1830 

Conflicts  in  Paris  betweoi  the  populace 
(ultimately  aided  by  the  national 
guard)  and  the  army ;  they  oontinne 
three  days,  till    .  .    July  30,  1830 

Charles  X.  retires  to  RambouiUet ;  flight 
of  the  ministry        .  July  30,  1830 

The  duke  of  Orleans  (Louis-Philippe  I.) 
accepts  the  crown  •     Aug.  9,  1830 

Charles  X.  retires  to  England     Aug.  17,  1830 

Polignac  and  other  late  ministers  are 
found  guilty*  and  sentenced  to  per- 
petual imprisonment  Dea  21 ,  1830 

M.  Casimir  Perier  introduces  the  pro- 
ject of  law  for  the  abolition  of  the 
hereditary  peerage  Aug.  27,  1831 

Its  abolition  decreed  by  both  chambers ; 
that  of  the  peers  (36  new  peers  being 
created)  concurring  by  am^rity  of 
103  to  70  .  Dea  27,  a.d.  1831 


AO).  420. 
428. 
449. 

456. 

481. 
611. 
561. 
583. 
628. 
638. 
666. 
670. 
672. 
672. 
690. 
695. 
710. 
716. 
718. 
720. 
736. 

742. 
761. 

768. 

814. 
840. 
877. 
878. 


88& 

898. 
itt3. 
936. 

954. 
966. 


907* 


Kinei  or 
Pharamond. 
Clodius  the  Hairy. 
Merovaras.    This  race  of  kings  called 

from  him,  Merovingians. 
Chilperia 
Cloyis  the  Great 
Clothaire. 

Chilperic  L,  killed  in  hunting. 
Clothaire  II. 
Dagobert  L,  the  Great. 
ClovisII. 
Clothaire  IIL 
ChUderic  U. 
Theodorio. 

Dagobert  IL,  asaaasinated. 
Clovis  IIL 
Childebert  m. 
Dagobert  III. 
Chilperic  IL,  deposed. 
Clothaire  lY. 
Theodorio  II. 
Charles  Martel  ruled  with  despotic  sway 

during  an  interregnum. 
Chilperic  III.,  the  Stupid ;  turned  monk. 
Pepin  the  Short,  son  of  Charles  Martel ; 

this  race  called  Carlovingians. 
Charlemagne,  or  Charles  the  Great; 

also  emperor  of  Germany. 
Lewis  L,  the  Ctentle. 
Charles  L,  the  Bald. 
Lewis  the  Stammerer. 
Carolman  and  Lewis  III.     The  latter 

died  882.    Carolman  reigned  alone. 
Charles  IL.  the  Fat 
Eudo,  or  Hugh. 

Charles  HL,  the  Simple ;  deposed,  and 
Rudolph.  [died  in  prison. 

Lewis  IV.,  d'Ontremer ;  died  by  a  fall 

from  his  horse. 
LothaireUL 
Lewis  y.,  the  Indolent ;  poisoned  by  his 

wife;  and  in  him  ended  the  race  of 

Charlemagne. 
Hugh  Capet,  fhmi  whom  this  race  of 

kings  are  called  Caperinglana. 


Charles  X.  leaves  Holyrood-house  for  the 
Continent    ....    Sept  8,  1832 

Duchess  de  Berri  is  sent  off  to  Palermo, 

June  9,  1833 

Fiesohi's  attempt  on  the  life  of  the  king, 
by  flring  the  infernal  machine  (see 
FUiChi) ....         July  28,  1836 

Louis  Alibaud  flres  at  the  king  on  his 
way  from  the  Tuileries    .        June  26,  1836 

He  is  guillotined    .  .    July  11,  1836 

Talleyrand  dies  .         May  17,  1838 

The  French  chamben  decree  the  re- 
moval of  the  ashes  of  Napoleon  from 
St.  Helena  to  France  .      May  10,  1840 

Descent  of  prince  Louis  Napoleon,  gen. 
Montholon,  and  50  followers,  at  Yime- 
rouz,  near  Boulogne  (afterwards  tried, 
and  the  prince  imprisoned  for  life)  Au.  6, 1840 

Darmes  fires  at  the  king  Oct  16,  1840 

The  ashes  of  Napoleon  are  deposited  in 
the  Hotel  des  Invalides   .        Dec.  16,  1840 
See  Buonaparte**  Empire  cf  France* 

FaANca. 

996.  Robert 

031.  Henry  I. 

059.  Philip  L  the  Fair. 

107.  Lewis  YL,  the  Lusty. 

137.  Lewis  YIL,  the  Young. 

180.  Philip  IL,  Augustus. 

223.  Lewis  YIH..  the  Lion. 

226.  Lewis  IX.,  called  St  Lewla. 

27a  Philip  lU.,  the  Hardy. 

286.  Philip  lY.,  the  Handsome. 

314.  Lewis  X,,  Hutin. 

317.  John,  who  reigned  only  eight  days. 

317.  PhUip  Y.,  the  Long. 

323.  Charles  I Y.,  the  Handsome;  Ung  of 

Navarre. 
328.  Philip  YI.,  of  Yalols. 
350.  John  IL 

363.  Charles  Y.,  the  Wise. 
380.  Charles  YI.,  the  Beloved. 
422.  Charles  YIL,  the  Yictorious. 
461.  Lewis  XI. 
483.  Charles  YHL 
498.  Lewis  XII.,  Duke  of  Orleans,  snmamed 

the  Father  of  his  People. 
515.  Francis  L,  duke  of  Angoulftme. 
647.  Henry  IL 
659.  Francis  IL 
56a  Charles  IX. 
674.  Henry  IIL,   elected  king  of  Poland ; 

murdered. 
689.  Henry  lY.,  the  Great,  king  of  Navarre ; 

murdered  by  Ravillac. 
610.  Lewis  XUI.,  the  Just 
64a  Lewis  XIY.,  the  Great. 
716.  Lewis  XY.,  the  Well-beloved. 
774.  Lewis  XYL,  his  grandson ;  guillotined. 
789.  The  Revolution  commences  with  the 

destruction  of  the  Bastile,  July  14. 
796.  Lewis  XYU.,  dies  in  prison 
804.  Napoleon   Buonaparte,    under    whom 

France   is  formed  bito  an  empire. 
814.  Louis  XYHL,   Bourbon  dynasty   re- 
stored, Bfay  3. 
824.  Charles  X. ;  deposed.  * 
830.  Louis-Philippe^  August  9. 


FRA  [^  222  ]  FRB 

FRANCISCANS.  An  order  of  friars,  called  also  Grey  Friars,  in  the  Church  of  Rome, 
founded  by  Francis  de  Assise  in  a.d.  1209,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  about 
1220.  Their  rules  were  chastity,  poverty,  obedience,  and  very  austere  regimen  of 
life.  In  1224  they  are  said  to  have  appeared  in  Englabd,  where,  at  the  time  of  the 
dissolution  of  monasteries  by  Henry  VIII.,  they  had  fifty-five  abbeys  or  other 
houses,  A.D.  1536-38. 

FRANKFORT.  Many  ages  a  free  city;  it  was  taken  and  retaken  several  times  during 
the  wars  of  the  late  and  present  centuries,  and  felt  the  iron  rule  of  Buonaparte  from 
1803  to  1813,  when  its  independence  was  guaranteed  by  the  allied  sovereigns.  The 
diet  of  the  princes  of  Germany  was  established  here  by  the  Rhenish  confederation 
in  1806. 

FRANKINCENSE.  The  earliest  historians  inform  us  that  frankincense  was  used 
among  the  sacred  rites  and  sacrifices  ;  but  we  are  uncertain  as  to  the  place  whence 
frankincense  is  brought,  and  as  to  the  tree  which  produces  it. — Hill,  Incense 
made  of  an  aromatic  gum  or  resin  is  burnt  in  the  Jewish  and  Catholic  temples  to 
this  day. 

FRANKING.  The  privilege  of  letters  passing  free  of  postage  was  claimed  by  parlia- 
ment (almost  from  the  regular  institution  of  the  post-office),  a.d.  1660.  Various 
statutes  have  been  enacted  to  regulate  franking,  and  correct  the  abuses  of  it,  in  the 
late  reigns.  The  privilege  of  franking  abolished  by  the  introduction  of  the  uniform 
penny-postage,  which  came  into  operation,  January  10,  1840.     See  Postage* 

FREDERICKSHALL,  Sibob  of.  Rendered  memorable  by  the  death  of  Charles  XII. 
of  Sweden,  who  was  killed  by  a  cannon-shot  before  its  walls,  and  while  in  the 
trenches,  leaning  against  the  parapet,  examining  the  works.  He  was  found  in  that 
position,  with  his  hand  upon  his  sword,  and  a  prayer-book  in  his  pocket,  Dec.  11, 
1718.  It  is  now  generally  supposed  that  a  pistol  fired  by  some  near  and  traitorous 
hand  closed  the  career  of  this  celebrated  monarch,  who  was  too  aptly  styled  the 
**  madman  of  the  north.*' 

FREEHOLDERS.  Those  under  forty  pounds  sterling  per  annum  were  not  qualified  to 
vote  for  members  of  parliament,  a.d.  1429.  Those  for  members  for  counties  obliged 
to  have  forty  shillings  a  3rear  in  land,  39  Henry  VI.  l460.^Ruffhead*8  Statutes. 
Yarioas  acts  have  passed  for  the  regulation  of  the  franchise  at  different  periods. 
Among  the  more  important  recent  acts  were,  the  act  to  regulate  polling,  9  George 
IT.  1828 ;  bill  for  the  disqualification  of  freeholders  in  Ireland,  which  deprived 
those  of  forty  shillings  of  this  privilege,  passed  April  13,  1829  ;  Reform  Bill,  %  and 
3  William'  lY.  1832 ;  county  elections  act,  7  William  lY.  1836. 

FREEMASONRY.  It  is  of  great  antiquity.  Writers  on  masonry,  themselves  masons, 
affirm  that  It  has  had  a  being  "  ever  since  symmetry  began,  and  harmony  cBsplayed 
her  charms."  Masonry  is  traced  by  some  to  the  building  of  Solomon's  temple  ; 
and  it  is  said  the  architects  from  the  African  coast,  Mahometans,  brought  it  into 
Spain,  about  the  sixth  century,  as  a  protection  against  Christian  fanatics.  Its  in- 
troduction into  these  realms  has  been  fixed  at  the  year  a.d.  674 ;  although  by  other 
authorities  it  is  assigned  a  much  earlier  date.  The  grand  lodge'at  York  was  founded 
A.D.  926.  Freemasonry  was  interdicted  in  England,  a.d<  1424  ;  but  it  afterwards 
rose  into  great  repute.  In  1717,  the  grand  lodge  of  England  was  established;  that 
of  Ireland  was  established  in  1730 ;  and  that  of  Scotland  in  1736.  Freemasons 
were  excommunicated  by  the  pope,  in  1738.  The  Freemasons' -hall,  London,  built 
1775  ;  the  charity  instituted,  1788. 

FRENCH  LANGUAGE.  Hie  language  of  France  and  many  of  the  French  laws  and 
customs  were  first  introduced  into  England  by  William  I.  1066.  The  language,  and 
fashions  in  dress  and  diet  were  then  very  general  in  England.  Law  pleadings  were 
changed  from  French  to  English,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  1362. — Stowe, 

FRENCH  REYOLUTIONARY  CALENDAR.  In  the  year  1792,  the  French  nation, 
in  their  excessive  desire  to  change  all  the  existing  institntions,  adopted  a  new 
calendar,  founded  on  philosophical  principles  ;  but  as  they  were  unable  to  produce 
any  plan  more  accurate  and  convenient  than  that  previously  in  use,  they  were  con- 
tented to  follow  the  old  plan  under  a  different  name,  merely  changing  some  of  the 
minor  details  and  subdivisions,  and  commencing  the  year  at  a  different  period  of  time. 
The  first  year  of  the  sera  of  the  republic  began  on  the  22d  of  September,  1792. 


PRE  []  223  ]                                    FRO 

FRENCH  REVOLUTIONARY  CALENDAR.  eonHnued. 

Autumn. — Yenddmlaire  .        .  Vintage  month    .  from  Sept.  2S  to  Oct.  21. 

Brumaire  .    .  Fog  month  .        .  from  Oct  22  to  Not.  80. 

Frimaire  .  Sleet  month    .    •  from  Nor.  21  to  Deo.  20. 

Wnimi.^-Niyoee  .    .  Snow  month        .  from  Dec  21  to  Jan.  19. 

Pluvioee  .  .  Rain  month    .    .  from  Jan.  20  to  Feb.  18. 

Yentoee  .    .  Wind  month        .  from  Feb.  19  to  March  20. 

Spuno.  »  Germinal  .  Sprouts'  month    .  frt>m  Karoh  21  to  April  19. 

Flor^  .    .  Flowers'  monthj  .  from  April  20  to  May  19. 

Prairial   .  .  Pastare  month    .  frmn  May  90  to  June  18. 

SuMMKiu— Mesaidor      .  .    .  Harrest  month    .  from  June  19  to  July  la 

Fervidor  .  .        .  Hot  month  .        .  from  July  19  to  Aug.  17. 

Fructidor     .  .    .  Fruit  month    .    .  from  Aug.  18  to  Sept.  16. 

BAlfSCULOnOBS,  Or  FSASTB  nSDICATXD  TO 


L'Opinion  .        .    .  Opinion  .        .  Sept  20. 
Les  Recompenses    .  Rewards     .    .  Sept  21. 


Les  Yertus  .  .  The  Yirtues  .  Sept.  17. 
Le  G^nie  .  .  •  Genius  .  .  Sept.  18. 
Le  Tratrail  .  Labour       .    .  Sept.  19. 

As  all  the  public  acts  of  the  French  nation  were  dated  according  to  this  altered  style 
for  a  period  of  more  than  twelve  yeare,  its  record  here  may  be  naefdl.  Though  this 
era  commenced  on  the  22d  September,  1792,  its  establishment  was  not  decreed  until 
the  4th  Frimaire  of  the  year  IL  (24th  November,  1793.)  The  revolutionary  calendar 
existed  until  the  10th  Nivose,  year  of  the  RepubUe  XIV.  being  the  Slst  December, 

1805,  when  the  Gregorian  mode  of  calculation  was  restored  at  the  instance  of  Napoleon. 

FRENCHTOWN,  Canada.  This  town  was  taken  from  the  British  by  the  American 
general  Winchester,  January  22,  1813,  the  period  oi  the  late  war  with  the  United 
States.  It  was  re-taken  by  the  British  forces  under  general  Proctor,  immediately 
afterwards,  and  the  American  commander  and  his  troops  were  made  prisioners. 

FRIDAY.  The  sixth  day  of  the  week ;  so  called  from  Friga,  a  goddess  worshipped 
by  our  forefathers  on  this  day,  commonly  supposed  to  be  the  same  with  Venus. 
Friga  was  the  wife  of  Thor,  and  goddess  of  peace,  fertility,  and  riches.  Good-Friday 
is  a  fast  hi  the  church  of  England  in  memory  of  our  Saviour's  cmcifizion,  April  3, 
33.^See  Good  Friday. 

FRIEDLAND,  Battle  of,  between  the  allied  Russian  and  Prussian  armies  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  French,  commanded  by  Napoleon  in  person,  who  completely 
vanquished  the  allies,  with  the  loss  of  eighty  pieces  of  cannon,  and  50,000  men, 
June  14,  1807.  This  victory  led  to  the  peace  of  Ulsit,  by  which  Russia  lost  no 
territory,  but  Prussia  was  obliged  to  surrender  nearly  half  her  dominions. 

FRIENDLY  ISLES.  These  islands  were  discovered  by  Tasman,  a.d.  1642.  Visited 
by  Wallis,  who  called  them  Keppel  Isles,  1767  ;  and  by  captain  Cook,  who  called 
them  by  their  present  name  on  account  of  the  friendly  disposition  of  the  natives,  1773. 

FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES.  These  useful  institutions  originated  in  the  clubs  of  the 
industrious  classes  ;  and  since  they  began  to  spring  into  importance  they  have  been 
regulated  and  protected  by  various  legislative  enactments.  They  have  now,  with 
ot£er  similar  institutions,  more  than  twenty  millions  sterling  in  the  public  funds. 
Laws  regarding  Friendly  Societies  consolidated  by  statute,  June,  1829.  Statute  to 
amend  the  laws  relating  to  Friendly  Societies,  4th  William  IV.  1834.  Friendly 
Societies'  act,  4  Victoria,  August  1840. 

FRIESLAND.  Formerly  governed  by  its  own  counts.  On  the  death  of  prince  Charles 
Edward,  in  1744,  it  became  subject  to  the  kipg  of  Prussia;  Hanover  disputed  ite 
possession,  but  Prussia  prevailed.    It  was  annexed  to  Holland  by  Buonaparte,  in 

1806,  and  afterwards  to  the  French  empire ;  but  Prussia  regained  the  country  in 
1814.  The  term  Chevatue  de  Frise  (tometimeB,  thoxigh  rarely,  written  Cheval  de 
Ffiset  a  Frietland  Horse)  is  derived  from  Friesland,  where  it  was  invented. 

FROBISHER'S  STRAITS.  Discovered  by  sir  Martin  Frobisher,  the  first  Englishman 
who  attempted  to  find  a  north-west  passage  to  China,  in  1576.  After  exploring  the 
coast  of  New  Greenland,  he  entered  this  strait,  which  has  ever  since  been  called  by 
his  name.  Frobisher  returned  to  England,  bringing  with  him  a  quantity  of  black 
ore,  which  was  supposed  to  contain  gold,  and  which  induced  queen  Elizabeth  to 
IMitroniae  a  second  voyage,  and  lend  a  sloop  of  war  for  the  purpose.  The  delusion 
was  even  kept  up  to  a  third  expedition  ;  but  all  of  them  proved  firuitless. 

FR06M0RE.   This-channing  estate  near  Windsor^  held  on  lease  from  the  Crown  by  the 


FRO 


[;  224  ] 


FRU 


hon.  Mrs.  Egerton,  was  purchased  in  1792  by  the  consort  of  George  III.,  by  whom 
it  was  greatly  improved.  The  grounds  are  adorned  with  several  ornamental  buildings, 
some  of  which  were  designed  by  Wyat,  and  others  by  the  princess  Elizabeth.  Her 
majesty  had  a  private  printing-press  here,  under  the  superintendence  of  her  librarian. 

FROSTS.  The  Euzine  Sea  frozen  over  for  twenty  days,  a.d.  401,— Univ,  Hist.  A 
frost  at  Constantinople  which  commenced  in  October,  763,  and  continued  until 
February  of  the  next  year ;  the  two  seas  there  were  frozen  a  hundred  miles  from  the 
shore. — Univ.  Hist,  A  frost  in  England  on  Midsummer-day  was  so  violent  that  it 
destroyed  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  1035. — Speed. 


Thames  frozen  for  14  weeks  .        .a.d. 
Dreadful  froBts  in  England  from  Nov.  to 

April  (Mat  Paris)  .... 
The  Categat  entirely  frozen  .  .  . 
The  Baltic  passable  to  foot  traveHers 

and  horsemen,  for  six  weeks 
The  Baltic  frozen  from  Pomerania  to 

Denmark,  for  some  weeks  . 
In  England,  when  all  the  small  birds 

perished,  9  Henry  IV. 
The  ice  bore  riding  upon  it  from  Lubeck 

to  Prussia  ..... 
Awfully  severe  frost,  whoi  even  the 

large  fowl  of  the  air  sought  shelter  in 

the  towns  of  Germany 
The  river  frozen  below  bridge  to  Graves- 
end,  from  Nov.  24  to  Feb.  10 
The  Baltic  frozen,  and  horse  passengers 

crossed  from  Denmaxk  to  Sweden ;  the 

vineyards  destroyed  .  .  .  . 
The  winter  so  severe  in  Flanders,  that 

the  wine  distributed  to  the  soldiers 

was  cut  by  hatchets  .... 
One  so  intense,  that  carriages  passed 

over  from  Lambeth  to  Westminster  . 
The  wine  in  Flanders  again  frozen  into 

solid  lumps  ..... 
Sledges  drawn  by  oxen  travelled  on  the 

sea  from  Rostock  to  Denmark    . 
The  Scheldt  frozen  so  hard  as  to  sustain 

loaded  waggons  '       . 
The  Rhine,  the  Scheldt,  and  even  the 

sea  at  Venice,  frozen 
Fires  and  diversions  on  the  Thames 


1063 

1076 
1294 

1323 

1402 

1407 
1426 


1413 


1434 


1460 


1468 

1515 

1544 

1548 

1565 

1594 
1607 


1668 


The  rivers  of  Europe  frozen,  and  even 
the  Zayder  Zee ;  a  sheet  of  ice  covered 
the  Hellespont  ....   a.d.  1628 

Charles  X.  of  Sweden  crossed  the  Little- 
Belt  over  the  ice  from  Holstein  to  Den- 
mark, with  his  whole  army,  horse  and 
foot,  with  large  trains  of  artillery  and 
baggage     ....»• 

The  forest  trees,  and  even  the  oaks  in 
England,  split  by  the  frost ;  most  of 
the  hollies  were  killed ;  the  Thames 
was  covered  with  ice  11  inches  thick ; 
and  nearly  all  the  birds  perished 

The  wolves  driven  thence  by  the  cold, 
entered  Vienna,  and  attacked  the  cat- 
tle, and  even  men      .... 

Three  months'  frost  with  heavy  snow 
from  December  to  March,  8  Anne 

A  fair  held  on  the  Thames,  and  oxen 
roasted;  this  frost  continued  from  Nov. 
24  to  Feb.  9 1716 

One  which  lasted  9  weeks,  when  coaches 
plied  upon  the  Thames,  and  festivities 
and  diversionsof  all  kinds  wereeuJoyed 
upon  the  ice.  This  season  was  called 
the  "hard  winter"     .... 

From  Dec.  25  to  Jan.  16,  «nd  from  Jan. 
18  to  22 ;  most  terrible  in  its  effects     . 

One,  general  throughout  Europe.  The 
Thames  was  passable  opposite  the  Cus- 
tom House,  from  Nov.  to  Jan.    . 

Intense  frost  in  all  December    .         .    . 

Booths  erected  on  the  Thames ;  the  win- 
ter very  severe  in  Ireland  .        .  Jan.  1814 


1684 


1691 


1709 


1740 
1766 


1789 
1796 


The  frost  in  Russia  in  1812  surpassed  in  intenseness  that  of  any  winter  in  that 
country  for  many  preceding  years,  and  caused  the  total  destruction  of  the  French 
army  in  its  retreat  from  Moscow,  at  the  close  of  that  memorable  year.  Napoleon 
commenced  his  retreat  on  the  9th  November,  when  the  frost  covered  the  ground, 
and  the  men  perished  in  battalions,  and  the  horses  fell  by  hundreds  on  the  roads. 
What  with  her  loss  in  battle,  and  the  effects  of  this  awful  and  calamitous  frost, 
France  lost  in  the  campaign  of  this  year  more  than  400,000  men. 

FRUITS  OF  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.  Several  varieties  of  fruit  are  mentioned  as 
having  been  introduced  into  Italy,  70  b.c.  et  teq.  Exotic  fruits  and  flowers  of 
various  kinds,  previously  unknown  in  England,  were  brought  thither  in  the  reigns  of 
Henry  y  1 1.  andyill.,and  of  Mary  and  Elizabeth,  between  the  years  1500  and 
1578. — See  Gardeninpf  and  Flowers,  Among  others  of  less  note,  were  musk  melons, 
plum  trees,  and  currant  plants  of  sundry  sorts,  the  musk  and  damask  roses,  tulips, 
&c. ;  also  saffron,  woad,  and  other  drugs  for  dyeing,  but  these  last  were  attempted 
to  be  cultivated  without  success. — Hctcklupt ;  Lord  Kaimes.  The  following  are 
among  the  fruits  whose  introduction  into  England  has  been  traced : — 


Fruits,  &o. 
Almond-tree,  Barbary  .        .        .   a.d.  1548 

Apples,  Syria 1522 

Apple,  the  custard.  North  America       .  1736 
Apple,  the  osage,  ditto      .  .    .  1818 

Aprioots,  Epirus  ....  1540 


Cherry-trees,  Pontus 
Cornelian  cherry,  Austria 
Currants,  Zante        .        .        i 
Currant,  the  hawthorn,  Canada 
Fig-tree,  south  (»f  Europe,  before 


A.D. 


100 
1596 
1533 
170S 
1548 


Fig,  the  Botany-bay,  New  South  Wales  1789 


FRU  f  225  ]  GAB 

FRUITS  OF  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES,  continued. 


Peaches,  Persia  .        .        .    a.d.  15G2 

Pears,  from  yarloiu  climes  •  .  .  *** 
Pine-apple,  Brazils  ....  1568 
Pippins,  Netherlands         .         .         .    .  1525 

Plums,  Italy 1522 

Plom,  the  date,  Barbary  .  •  .  .  1596 
Pomegranate,  Spain,  before  .        .        .  1548 

Quince,  Austria 1573 

Quince,  the  Japan  ....  1796 
Raspberry,  the  flowering,  North  America  1700 
Raspberry,  the  Virginian,  ditto,  before  .  1696 
Strawberry,  Flanders  ....  1530 
Strawberry,  the  Oriental,  Levant  .  .  1724 
Walnut,  the  black,  N.  America,  before    1629 


Gooseberries,  Flanders,  before  .  a.d.  1540 
Grapes,  Portugal  ....  1528 

Lemons,  Spain  .        .         •         .    .  1554 

Limes,  Portugal 1554 

Lime,  the  American,  before      .        .    .  1752 

Melons,  before 1540 

Mock  orange,  south  of  Europe,  before    .  1596 

Mulberry,  Italy 1520 

Mulberry,  white,  China,  about  .  .  .  1596 
Mulberry,  the  red, from  N.America,  bef.  1629 
Mulberry,  the  paper,  from  Japan,  before  1754 
Nectarine,  Persia  ....  1562 
Olive,  the  Cape,  Cape  .  .  .  .  1730 
Olive,  the  sweet-scented,  China  s  .  1771 
Oranges 1595 

FUMIGATION.  The  purifying  the  air  by  burning  sweet  wi^ods,  flowers,  gums,  &c. 
Acron,  a  physician  at  Agrigentum,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  caused  great 
fires  to  be  lighted,  and  aromatics  to  be  thrown  into  them  to  purify  the  air ;  and  by 
this  process  he  put  a  stop  to  the  plague  at  Athens  and  other  places  in  Greece, 
about  473  b.c. —  Univ,  Diet. 

FUNDS.  To  the  Venetians  is  ascribed  the  origin  of  the  funding  system,  in  a.d.  1171. 
Public  funds  were  raised  by  the  Medici  family  at  Florence,  in  1340.  Our  funding 
system,  or  the  method  of  raising  the  supplies  for  the  public  service  in  England,  by 
anticipations  of  the  public  revenues  (the  origin  of  the  national  debt),  introduced  at 
the  Revolution,  1689. — Mortimer**  Broker,  The  funding  system  is  coeval  with  the 
commencement  of  the  Bank  of  England. ...^neferson.  The  Three  per  cent,  annuities 
were  created  in  1726.  The  Three  per  cent,  consols  were  created  in  1731.  The 
Three  per  cent,  reduced,  1746.  Three  per  cent,  annuities,  payable  at  the  South  Sea- 
house,  1751.  Three  and-a-half  per  cent,  annuities  created,  1758.  Long  annuities, 
1761.  YoMT  per  cent,  consols,  1762.  Five  per  cent,  annuities,  1797,  and  1802.  Five 
per  cents,  reduced  to  four,  1822. 

FUNERAL  GAMES  are  mentioned  by  most  early  writers.  Among  the  Greeks  they 
were  chiefly  horse  races ;  and  among  the  Romans,  processions,  and  the  mortal 
combats  of  gladiators  around  the  funeral  pile.  These  games  were  abolished  by  the 
emperor  Claudius,  a.d.  47.  Funeral  orations  have  a  heathen  origin.  Solon  was 
the  first  who  spoke  one,  580  b.c.  They  were  indispensable  among  the  Romans  ; 
the  custom  of  led  horses  took  place^  a.d.  1268.     A  tax  laid  on  funerals  here,  1793. 

FUNERAL  ORATIONS.  The  Romans  pronounced  harangues  over  their  dead,  when 
people  of  quality,  and  great  deeds,  and  virtues.  Theopompus  obtained  a  prize  for 
the  best  funeral  oration  in  prais^^  of  Mausolus,  353  B.C.  Popilia  was  the  first  Roman 
lady  who  had  an  oration  pronounced  at  her  funeral,  which  was  done  by  her  son 
Crassos ;  and  it  is  observed  by  Cicero  that  Julius  Caesar  did  the  like  for  his  aunt 
Julia,  and  his  wife  Cornelia.  In  Greece,  Solon  was  the  first  who  pronounced  a 
funeral  oration,  according  to  Herodotus,  580  B.C. 

FUNERALS,  PUBLIC.  Among  the  late  instances  of  public  funereal  honours  being 
paid  to  illustrious  men  of  Great  Britain,  and  voted  by  parliament  as  national  de- 
monstrations of  respect,  are  the  following :  duke  of  Rutland's  funeral  in  Ireland, 
November  17,  1787 ;  lord  Nelson's  funeral,  January  9,  1806 ;  Mr.  Pitt's  funeral, 
January  22,  1806  ;  Mr.  Fox's  funeral,  October  10, 1806  :  that  of  Richard  Brinsley 
Sheridan,  July  13,  1816  ;  of  the  right  hon.  George  Canning,  August  16,  1827. 

FUR.  The  refined  nations  of  antiquity  never  used  furs :  in  later  times,  as  luxury 
advanced,  they  were  used  by  princes  as  linings  for  their  tents.  They  were  worn  by 
our  first  Henry,  about  a.d.  1125.  Edward  III.  enacted  that  all  such  persons  as 
could  not  spend  100/.  a  year,  should  be  prohibited  this  species  of  finery,  1337. 

G. 

GABELLE.  The  old  duty  upon  the  consumption  of  salt,  first  imposed  on  the  subjects  of 
France  in  1435. — Du  Fresnoy.  The  assessments  were  unequal,  being  very  heavy  in 
some  provinces  and  light  in  others ;  owing  to  privileges  and  exemptions  purchased 
from  the  sovereigns  in  early  periods. — Neckar  on  the  Finances  qf  France, 


GAG  Q  226  ]  GAR 

GAGGING  BILL.  A  bill  so  called  by  the  popnlace,  meant  to  protect  the  king 
and  government  from  the  harangues  of  seditious  meetings,  was  enacted  in  1795. 
More  recently  statutes  coercing  popular  assemblies,  particularly  in  Ireland,  and 
restraining  the  expression  of  public  opinion,  have  been  so  designated. 

GALLEYS.  The  ancient  galleys  with  three  rows  of  rowers,  iri-remes,  were  invented 
by  the  Corinthians,  786  B.C. — Blair,  They  were  built  at  Athens,  786  b.c.  For  an 
account  of  their  construction  and  the  method  of  fighting  in  them  see  Polybius, 

GALVANISM.  The  discovery  of  it  is  recent ;  it  was  first  noticed  in  1767,by  Saltzer ;  but 
it  was  not  till  about  1 789  that  Mrs.  Galvani,  wife  of  Dr.  Galvani,  of  Bologna, accidentally 
discovered  its  extraordinary  effects  on  animals ;  and  from  the  name  of  the  <Mscoverer 
it  was  called  galvanism.  Mrs.  Galvani  having  observed  the  convulsions  produced  in 
the  muscles  of  frogs  by  the  contact  of  metals,  directed  her  husband's  attention  to 
the  phenomenon ;  and  in  1791,  Galvani  announced  the  result  of  his  observations  on 
this  s&bject.  Since  that  period  a  great  many  experiments  have  been  made,  and  many 
curious  facts  observed,  which  have  excited  much  attention  among  philosophers. — 
See  Eleetro-Galvanism,  Buonaparte,  after  the  discovery  of  the  true  principles  of 
galvanic  electricity  by  Yolta,  presented  him  with  a  gold  medal,  and  3000  livres,  in 
IS08.-^  Phillips. 

GAME  LAWS.  The  laws  restricting  the  killing  of  game  are  peculiar  to  the  north  of 
Europe,  and  partake  of  the  nature  of  the  forest  laws  imposed  by  William  the 
Conqueror,  who,  to  preserve  his  game,  made  it  forfeiture  of  property  to  disable  a 
wild  beast,  and  loss  of  eyes  for  a  stag,  buck,  or  boar.  Of  these  laws  the  clergy  were 
zealous  promoters;  and  they  protested  against  ameliorations  under  Henry  III. 
The  first  game  act  passed  in  1496.  Game  certificates  were  first  granted  with  a  duty 
in  1784-5.  Numerous  statutes  have  been  passed  on  this  subject  from  time  to  time. 
An  act  to  prevent  the  destruction  of  game  passed  July  19,  1828.  An  act  to  amend 
the  various  laws  relating  to  game  passed  2  William  IV.,  October  5,1831. 

GAMING,  ExcESSiVB.  Introduced  into  England  by  the  Saxons;  the  loser  was  often 
made  a  slave  to  the  winner,  and  sold  in  traffic  like  other  merchandise. — Camden  ; 
Stowe.  Act,  prohibiting  gaming  to  all  gentlemen  (and  interdicting  tennis,  cards, 
dice,  bowls,  &c.,  to  inferior  people,  except  at  Christmas  time),  33  Henry  VIII.  1541. 
Gaming-houses  were  licensed  in  London  in  1620.  Act  to  prevent  excessive  and 
fraudulent  gaming,  when  all  private  lotteries,  and  the  games  of  Faro,  Basset,  and 
Hazard  were  suppressed,  13  George  II.  1739. — Ruff  head*  s  Statutes.  The  profits 
of  a  well-known  gaming-house  in  London  for  one  season  have  been  estimated  at 
150,000/.  In  one  night  a  million  of  money  is  said  to  have  changed  hands  at  this 
place. — Leigh. 

GAMING,  Statutes  against.  Any  person  losing,  by  betting  or  playing,  more 
than  100/.  at  any  one  time,  is  not  compellable  to  pay  the  same,  16  Charles  II.  1663. 
Bonds  or  other  securities  given  for  money  won  at  play,  not  recoverable ;  and  any 
person  losing  more  than  10/.  may  sue  the  winner  to  recover  it  back,  9  Anne,  1710. 
Several  other  laws  have  been  made  from  time  to  time,  but  ineffectually,  to  restrain 
this  vice.  The  Lord  Chancellor  refused  a  bankrupt  his  certificate,  because  he  had 
lost  five  pounds  at  one  time  in  gaming,  July  17,  1788. — Phillips.  Three  ladies  of 
quality  convicted  in  penalties  of  50/.  each  for  playing  at  Faro,  March  11,  1797. — 
Idem.     Gaming-houses  were  licensed  in  Paris  until  1836. 

GAMES.  Those  of  Greece  and  Rome  will  be  found  under  their  respective  heads. 
The  candidates  for  athletic  games  in  Greece  used  to  be  dieted  on  new  cheese,  dried 
figs,  and  boiled  grain,  with  warm  water,  and  no  meat.  The  games  were  leaping,  foot- 
races,  darting,  quoits,  wrestling,  and  boxing. — See  the  Capitoliney  Isthmian,  Olympie^ 
Pythian  t  Secular^  and  other  Games, 

GANYMEDE,  Rape  of.  When  Troas  built  his  capital  he  invited  all  the  neighbouring 
princes,  with  the  exception  of  Tantalus,  king  of  Upper  Phrygia,  to  be  present  at 
its  dedication.  Tantalus,  resenting  the  affront  put  upon  him,  stole  away  Ganymede 
from  his  father's  court,  and  after  abusing  his  person  sent  him  back.  The  young 
prince  soon  after  died  of  grief,  and  his  father,  whose  favourite  he  was,  did  not  long 
survive  him.  Ilus  avenged  the  injury  done  to  his  brother  by  driving  Tantalus  from 
his  throne,  1341  b.c — Vossius, 

GARDENING.  The  first  garden.  Eden,  was  planted  by  God.— See  Eden.  Gardening 
was  one  of  the  first  arts  that  succeeded  the  art  of  building  houses. —  Walpole,    Noah 


OAR 


[227] 


OAR 


planted  a  Tineyard,  and  drank  of  the  vnne.  Of  fruit,  flower,  and  kitchen-gardens, 
the  garden  of  Eden  was^  bo  doabt,  the  prototype. — Idem.  There  wants  nothing 
but  the  embroidery  of  a  parterre  to  make  a  garden  in  the  reign  of  Trajan  serre  for  a 
description  of  one  in  that  of  our  William  III. — Idem,  The  art  of  gardening  became 
better  understood  in  England  about  a.d.  1500,  before  which  time  many  of  our 
vegetables  were  imported  from  Brabant  The  era  of  the  art  was  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth; but  the  modern  mode  of  gardening  was  introduced  about  1700.  The  following 
came  from  the  countries  respectively  named  : — 


ROOTS  AND  YSGBTABLXS. 

Carrots  . 

.  Flanders 

Oranges 

.  Spain 

Rice,  from     . 

.  Ethiopia 

BrocoU 

.  Cyprus 

Lemons . 

.  Spain 

Buck  wheat 

.  Asia 

Beans    . 

.  Greece 

Pink 

.  Italy 

Borage  . 

.  Byrla 

Peas  . 

.  Spain 

Provence-rose 

.  Marseilles 

Cresses 

.  Crete 

FRUITS  AND  FLOWRRS. 

Convolvulus 

.  Canaries 

Cauliflower    . 

.  Cjrprus 

Jasmine 

.  Circassia 

Arctopus 

.  Capo 

Asparagus. 

.  Asia 

Elder-tree 

.  Persia 

Bell-flo«ver 

.  Canaries 

Lettuce . 

.  Brabant 

Tulip 

.  Cappadocia 

Cherries 

.  Pontus 

Artichokes 

.  Holland 

Daffodil 

.  Italy 

Figs  . 

.  lUly 

Garlic    . 

.  The  East 

Lily  . 

.  Syria 

Date-plum      . 

.  Barbary 

Shallots     . 

.  Siberia 

Tuberose 

.  Java,  dec. 

Mulberry  . 

.  Italy 

Horse-radish  . 

.  China 

Carnation  . 

.  Italy>  dec. 

Nectarine 

.  Persia 

Kidney-beans 

.  East  Indies 

Ranunculus  . 

.  Alps 

Passion-flower 

.  Brazil 

Oourds 

.  Astracan 

Apples 

.  Syria 

Pomegranate 

.  Spain 

Lentils  . 

.  France 

Apricots 

.  Eplrus 

Rosemary 

.  Italy 

Chenril 

.  Italy 

Currants   . 

.  Zante 

Laburnum 

.  Hungary 

Celery    . 

.  Flanders 

.  Damascus 

Laurel   . 

.  Levant 

Potatoes     . 

.  Brazil 

Hops 

.  Artois 

Lavender   . 

.  Italy 

Tobacco 

.  America 

Gooseberries 

•  Flanders 

Peaches 

.  Persia 

Cabbage 

.  Holland 

Gilly-flowers 

.  Toulouse 

Quince 

.  Austria 

Anise    . 

.  Egypt 

Musk-rose  . 

.  Damascus 

Weeping  Willow  Levant 

Parsley 

.  Egypt 

Plums   . 

.  Damascus 

Fennel 

.  Canaries 

Musk-melons  and  other  rich  fruits  that  are  now  cultivated  in  England,  and  the  pale 
gooseberry,  together  with  salads,  garden-roots,  cabbages,  &c.,  were  brought  from 
Flanders,  and  hops  from  Artois,  in  1520.  The  damask-rose  was  brought  hither  by 
Dr.  Linacre,  physician  to  Henry  VIII.,  about  1540.  Pippins  were  brought  to 
England  by  Leonard  Mascal,  of  Plumstead,  in  Sussex,  1525.  Currants  or  Corinthian 
grapes  were  first  planted  in  England  in  1533,  brought  from  the  Isle  of  Zante.  The 
musk-rose  and  several  sorts  of  plums  were  brought  from  Italy  by  lord  Cromwell. 
Apricots  came  from  Epirus,  1540.  The  tamarisk  plant  was  brought  from  Germany, 
by  archbisop  Grindal,  about  1570 ;  and  about  Norwich,  the  Flemiugs  planted  flowers 
unknown  in  England,  as  gilly-flowers,  carnations,  the  Provence  rose,  &c.,  1567. 
Woad  came  originally  from  Toulouse,  in  France.  Tulip  roots  from  Vienna,  1578 ; 
also  beans,  peas,  and  lettuce,  now  in  common  use,  1600. — See  Flowers  ;  Fruits. 

GARTER,  Order  of  the.  This  institution  outvies  all  other  similar  institutions  in 
the  world.  It  owes  its  origin  to  Edward  III.,  who  conquered  France  and  Scotland, 
and  brought  their  kings  prisoners  to  England.  Edward,  with  a  view  of  recovering 
France,  which  descended  to  him  by  right  of  his  mother,  was  eager  to  draw  the  best 
soldiers  of  Europe  into  his  interest,  and  thereupon  projecting  the  revival  of  king 
Arthur's  round  table,  he  proclaimed  a  solemn  tilting,  to  invite  foreigners  and  others 
of  quality  and  courage  to  the  exercise.  The  king,  upon  New  Year's  day,  1344, 
published  royal  letters  of  protection  for  the  safe  coming  and  returning  of  such  foreign 
knights  as  had  a  mind  to  venture  their  reputation  at  the  jousts  and  tournaments 
about  to  bp  held.  The  place  of  the  solemnity  was  Windsor ;  it  was  begun  by  a 
feast,  and  a  table  was  erected  in  the  castle  of  200  feet  diameter,  in  imitation  of  king 
Arthur's  at  Winchester,  and  the  knights  were  entertained  at  the  king's  own  expense 
of  100/.  a  week.  In  1346,  Edward  gave  his  garter  for  the  signal  of  a  battle  that  had 
been  crowned  with  success  (supposed  to  be  Cressy),  and  being  victorious  on  sea  and 
land,  and  having  David,  king  of  Scotland  a  prisoner ;  and  Edward  the  Black  Prince, 
his  son,  having  expelled  the  rebels  in  Castile,  and  enthroned  the  lawful  sovereign, 
Don  Pedro,  he,  in  memory  of  these  exploits,  instituted  this  order,  a.d.  April  23, 
1349-50.    The  following  were  the 


ORIGINAL  KNIGHTS,  1350. 

Edward,    prince  of   Wales, 

(oalled  the  Black  Prince) 
Henry,  duke  of  Lanoast^r 


Thomas,  earl  of  Warwick 
Piers,  captal  de  Bach 
Ralph,  earl  of  Stafford 
William,  earl  of  Salisbury 


Roger,  earl  of  Mortimer 
Sir  John  Lisle 
Barth.  lord  Burghersh 
John  lord  Beauchamp 

a2 


GAR  Q  228  ]  ORN 


GARTER,  Ordek  of  thb,  eontinued. 


John  lord  Hobim,  of  Dimstar 
Hugh  lord  Courtenay 
Thomas  lord  Holland 
Lord  Grey,  of  Codnoro 
Sir  Richard  Fitz-Simon 


Sir  Miles  Stapleton 
Sir  Thomas  Wale 
Sir  Hugh  Wrottealey 
Sir  Nele  Lorin 
John  lord  Chandos 


Sir  James  Andl^ 
Sir  Otho  Holland     ' 
Sir  Henry  Earn 
Sir  San.  Daubrichoourt 
Sir  Walter  Pavely 


Edward  gave  the  garter  pre-emiaence  among  the  ensigns  of  the  order  ;  it  is  of  blue 
Tel  vet  bordered  with  gold,  with  the  inscription  in  old  French — "  Honi  soil  qui  maly 
pense  ''—evil  to  him  who  evil  thinks.  The  knights  are  always  installed  at  Windsor ; 
and  were  styled  Eqmtes  aurea  Periseelidis,  knights  of  the  golder  garter. — Beatson, 

GARTER  KING  kt  ARMS.  This  office  was  instituted  by  king  Henry  V.  in  1420^ 
and  is  one  of  considerable  honour ;  he  carries  the  rod  and  sceptre  at  every  feast  of 
St.  Geoi^. — Spelman,  The  order  of  the  garter  in  Ireland,  to  which  a  similar 
functionary  was  attached,  was  instituted  in  imitation  of  that  of  England,  by 
Edward  I V'.  in  1466  ;  but  it  was  abolished  by  an  act  of  parliament,  10  Henry  VII. 
1494.— ^«Amofo'«  Imtit. 

GAS.  The  inflammable  aSriform  fluid  was  first  evolved  from  coal  by  Dr.  Clayton,  in 
1739. — Phil,  Trans,  Its  application  to  the  purposes  of  illumination  was  first  tried 
by  Mr.  Murdoch,  in  Cornwall,  in  1792.  The  first  display  of  gas-lights  was  made  at 
Boulton  and  Watt's  foundry,  in  Birmingham,  on  the  occasion  of  the  rejoicings  for 
peace,  in  1802.  Gas  was  permanently  used,  to  the  exclusion  of  lamps  and  candles, 
at  the  cotton  mills  of  Phillips  and  Lee,  Manchester,  where  1000  burners  were  lighted, 
1805.  Gas-lights  were  first  introduced  in  London,  at  Golden-lane>  August  16, 1807. 
They  were  used  in  lighting  Pall  Mall,  in  1809  ;  and  were  general  through  London 
in  1814.  They  were  first  used  in  Dublin  in  1816,  and  the  streets  there  generally 
lighted  in  October,  1825.    The  gas-pipes  in  and  round  London  extend  to  1100  miles. 

GAUGING  of  wine  and  other  liquids,  established  by  a  law,  27  Edward  III.,  1352. 

GAUNTLET.  An  iron  glove,  first  introduced  in  the  13th  century,  perhaps  about  1225. 
It  was  a  part  of  the  full  suit  of  armour,  being  the  armour  for  the  hand.  The 
gauntlet  was  of  thin  iron,  with  several  plates  jointed  for  the  fingers  ;  it  was  after- 
wards made  of  strong  and  thick  leather.  It  was  commonly  thrown  down  as  a  chal- 
lenge to  an  adversary,  like  the  glove. 

GAUZE.  This  fabric  was  much  prized  among  the  Romans,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
first  century.  **  Brocadoes  and  damasks,  and  tabbies  and  gauzes,  have  been  lately 
brought  over."— /)&an  Swift,  in  1698.  The  manufacture  of  gauze  at  Paisley,  in  Scot- 
land, where  it  maintains  great  repute,  was  commenced  about  1759. 

GAVEL-KIND.  The  custom  of  dividing  paternal  estates  in  land  equally  among  male 
children,  without  any  distinction,  is  derived  from  the  Saxons,  about  a.d.  550.  This 
usage  is  said  to  exist  in  parts  of  Kent,  where  it  was  first  practised.  By  the  Irish 
law  of  gavel-kind  even  bastards  inherited. — Davies.  Not  only  the  lands  of  the 
father  were  equally  divided  among  all  his  sons,  but  the  lands  of  the  brother  also 
among  all  his  brethren,  if  he  had  no  issue  of  his  own. — Law  Diet, 

GAZETTE.  A  paper  of  public  intelligence  and  news  of  divers  countries,  first  printed 
at  Venice  about  the  year  1620,  and  so  called  (some  say)  because  una  gazettOf  a,  amaU. 
piece  of  Venetian  coin,  was  given  to  buy  or  read  it  Others  derive  the  name  from 
gaza,  Italian  for  magpie,  i.  e,  chatterer. — Truster.  A  gazette  was  printed  in  France 
in  1631 ;  and  one  in  Germany  in  1715. — Nouv,  Diet,  Hist, 

GAZETTE,  THE  LONDON.  .  See  Newspapers,  The  first  English  gazette  was  pub- 
lished  at  Oxford,  the  court  being  then  there  on  account  of  the  plague,  Nov.  7, 1665. 
On  the  removal  of  the  court  to  the  capital,  the  title  was  chained  to  the  London  Ga- 
zette ^  Feb.  5,  1666.  London  Gazettes  Extraordinary  are  used  for  the  publication 
of  extraordinary  official  news.  One  of  these  latter  was  forged  with  a  view  of  affecting 
the  funds.  May  22,  1787.  .The  fraud  succeeded,  but  the  planners  of  it  were  never 
discovered. — Phillips,  The  Dublin  Gazette  was  first  published  in  an  official  form 
about  1767. 

GENS-D'ARMES,  or  GENDARMES^  These  were  anciently  the  French  king's 
horse-guards  only,  but  afterwards  the.  companies  of  the  king's  gardes-du-corps,  the 
musqueteers,  and  light-faorse,  were  reckoned  among  them.  There  was  also  a  com- 
pany of  gentlemen  (whose  number  was  about  250),  bearing  this  name.  Scots  guards 
were  about  the  person  of  the  kings  of  France  from  the  time  of  St.  Louis,  who 


GEN  Q  229  ]  GEO 

reigned  in  1226.  They  were  organised  as  a  royal  corps  by  Charles  VII.,  about  1441. 
The  younger  sons  of  Scottish  nobles  were  usually  the  captains  of  this  guard.  The 
gendarmerie  took  precedence  of  all  other  French  cavalry. 

GENERAL  ASSEMBLY  of  SCOTLAND.  The  first  General  Assembly  of  the 
church  was  held  December  20,  1560.  The  General  Assembly  constitutes  the  highest 
ecclesiastical  court  in  the  kingdom  ;  it  meets  annually  in  Edinburgh  in  May,  and 
sits  about  ten  days.  It  consists  of  a  grand  commissioner,  appointed  by  the  king, 
who  represents  his  majesty,  and  delegates  from  presbyteries,  royal  boroughs,  and 
universities,  some  being  laymen.  To  this  court  all  appeals  from  the  inferior  eccle- 
siastical courts  lie,  and  its  decision  is  final. — See  Church  of  Scotland. 

GENERALS.  This  rank  has  been  given  to  commanders  from  very  remote  times. 
Matthew  de  Montmorency  was  the  first  officer  honoured  with  the  title  of  General  of 
the  French  armies,  a.d.  1203.— Henault.  It  is  observed  by  M.  Balzac  that  cardinal 
Richelieu  first  coined  the  word  Generalissimo ^  upon  his  taking  the  supreme  com- 
mand of  the  French  armies  in  Italy,  in  1629. — See  Commanclers -in- Chief, 

GENEVA.  Part  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne,  about  a.d.  800.  The  Republic  was 
founded  in  1512.  It  became  allied  to  the  Svdss  Cantons  in  1584.  Memorable  in- 
surrection here,  February  1781 :  about  1000  Genevans,  in  consequence  of  it,  applied, 
in  1782,  to  earl  Temple,  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  for  permission  to  settle  in  that 
country  :  the  Irish  parliament  voted  50,000/.  to  defray  the  expense  of  their  journey, 
and  to  purchase  them  lands  near  Waterford,  called  New  Geneva.  Many  of  the 
fugitives  came  to  Ireland  in  July  1783,  but  they  soon  after  abandoned  it :  at  this 
period  many  Genevan  families  settled  in  England.  Another  revolution,  July  1794. 
Geneva  was  admitted  by  the  diet  into  the  Swiss  Confederation,  in  1813. 

GENOA.  Its  ancient  inhabitants  were  the  Ligures,  who  submitted  to  the  Romans, 
115  B.C.,  and  underwent  the  revolutions  of  the  Roman  empire  till  a.d.  950.  The 
Genoese  revolt  against  their  count,  choose  a  doge  and  other  magistrates  from  among 
their  nobility,  and  become  an  aristocratic  Republic,  1030  to  1034.  Several  revolu- 
tions occurred  up  to  1528,  when  the  celebrated  Andrew  Doria  rescued  his  country 
from  the  dominion  of  foreign  powers.  Bombarded  by  the  French  in  1684,  and  by 
the  British  in  1688  and  1745.  Genoa  was  taken  by  the  Imperialists,  Dec.  8,  1746  ; 
but  their  oppression  of  the  people  was  such,  that  the  latter  suddenly  rose,  and 
expelled  their  conquerors,  who  again  besieged  the  city  the  next  year,  August  17, 
without  effect.  Genoa  lost  Corsica  1 730.  The  celebrated  bank  failed  1 750.  The 
city  sustained  a  siege  by  a  British  fleet  and  Austrian  army,  until  literally  starved, 
and  was  evacuated  by  capitulation,  May  1800  ;  but  it  was  surrendered  to  the  French 
soon  after  their  victory  at  Marengo.  The  Ligurian  Republic  was  founded  upon  that 
of  Genoa,  in  1801,  and  the  doge  solemnly  invested,  August  10,  1802.  Genoa  an- 
nexed to  the  French  empire.  May  25,  1805.  It  surrendered  to  the  combined 
English  and  Sicilian  army,  April  18,  1814  ;  and  was  transferred  to  the  king  of  Sar- 
dinia in  1816. 

GENTLEMEN.  The  Gauls  observing  that,  during  the  empire>of  the  Romans,  the 
Scutarii  and  Gentiles  had  the  best  appointments  of  all  the  soldiers,  applied  to  them 
the  terms  ^cuyers  and  gentilshommes.  This  distinction  of  gentleman  was  much  in 
use  in  England,  and  was  given  to  the  well  descended,  about  a.d.  1430. — Sidney, 
See  article  Band  of  Gentlemen  Pensioners, 

GEOGRAPHY.  The  first  correct  record  we  have  of  geographical  knowledge  is  from 
Homer.  He  describes  the  shield  of  Achilles  as  representing  the  earth,  surrounded 
by  the  sea. — Iliad,  He  accurately  describes  the  countries  of  Greece,  islands  of  the 
Archipelago,  and  site  of  Troy.  The  priests  taught  that  the  temple  of  Apollo  at 
Delphos  was  the  centre  of  the  world.  Anaximander  of  Miletus  was  the  inventor  of 
geographical  maps,  about  568  b.c.  Hipparchus  attempted  to  reduce  geography  to 
ma&ematical  bases,  about  135  B.C.  It  was  first  brought  to  Europe  by  ti^e  Moors 
of  Barbary  and  Spain,  about  a.d.  1201. — Lenglet,  The  invention  of  the  mariner's 
compass  is  the  important  connecting  link  between  ancient  and  modem  geography. 
The  modem  maps  and  charts  were  introduced  into  England  by  Bartholomew  Co- 
lumbus to  illustrate  his  brother's  theory  respecting  a  western  continent,  a.d.  1489. 

GEOLOGY.  The  science  of  the  earth  has  been  the  subject  of  philosophical  specula* 
tion  from  the  time  of  Homer ;  and  this  science  is  said  to  have  been  cultivated  in 


GEO  [^  230  ]  GER 

China  many  ages  before  the  Christian  era.  When  the  theories  and  discoveries  of 
geologists  were  first  propounded,  they  were  condemned  as  being  opposed  to  the  state- 
ments of  the  Bible ;  but  in  this  enlightened  age  the  astronomer  and  geologist,  iu 
proportion  as  their  minds  are  expanded  by  scientific  investigation,  see  that  there  is 
no  collision  between  the  discoveries  in  the  natural  world,  and  the  inspired  record. 
We  are  not  called  upon  by  Scripture  to  admit,  neither  are  we  required  to  deny,  the 
supposition  that  the  matter  without  form  and  void,  out  of  which  this  globe  of  earth 
was  framed,  may  have  consisted  of  the  wrecks  and  relics  of  more  ancient  worlds, 
created  and  destroyed  by  the  same  Almighty  power  which  called  our  world  into 
being,  and  will  one  day  cause  it  to  pass  away.  Thus  while  the  Bible  reveals  to  us 
the  moral  history  and  destiny  of  our  race,  and  teaches  us  that  man  and  other  living 
things  have  been  placed  but  a  few  thousand  years  upon  the  earth,  the  physical  mo- 
numents of  our  globe  bear  witness  to  the  same  truth ;  and  as  astronomy  unfolds  to 
us  myriads  of  worlds,  not  spoken  of  in  the  sacred  records,  geology  in  like  manner 
proves,  not  by  arguments  drawn  from  analogy,  but  by  the  incontrovertible  evidence 
of  physical  phenomena,  that  there  were  former  conditions  of  our  planet,  separated 
from  each  other  by  vast  intervals  of  time,  during  which  this  world  was  teeming  with 
life,  ere  man,  and  the  animals  which  are  his  contemporaries,  had  been  called  into 
being. — Dr,  Mantell,  and  Bishop  Blomfield. 

GEOMETRY.  Its  origin  is  ascribed  to  the  Egyptians  ;  the  annual  inundations  of  the 
Nile  having  given  rise  to  it  by  carrying  away  the  landmarks,  and  the  boundaries  of 
farms.  Thales  introduced  geometry  into  Greece  about  600  b.c.  Eaclid^s  elements 
were  compiled  about  280  b.c.  The  doctrine  of  curves  originally  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  geometricians  from  the  conic  sections,  which  were  introduced  by  Plato  about 
390  B.C.  The  conchoid  curve  was  invented  by  Nicomedes,  220  b.c.  The  science 
of  geometry  was  taught  in  Europe  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Books  on  the  subject 
of  geometry  and  astronomy  were  destroyed  in  England,  being  regarded  as  infected 
with  magic,  7  Edward  VI.,  \fih2,~-Siowe. 

GEORGE.  A  gold  coin  current  at  6j.  8<f.  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. — Leake.  Also 
a  figure  of  St.  George  on  horseback,  worn  by  knights  of  the  Garter. 

GEORGE,  St.  The  patron  saint  of  England.  The  order  which  is  now  called  the 
Order  of  the  Garter,  was,  until  king  Edward  VI. 's  time,  called  the  Order  of  St. 
George.  The  figure  of  St.  George  on  horseback,  represented  as  holding  a  spear, 
and  killing  the  dragon,  was  first  worn  by  the  knights  of  the  Garter  on  the  institution 
of  that  order  in  1349-50.  It  is  suspended  by  a  blue  ribbon  across  the  body  from  the 
shoulder.  This  patron  saint  of  England  was  a  tribune  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian , 
and  being  a  man  of  great  courage,  was  a  favourite  with  the  emperor;  but  St.  George 
complaining  to  the  emperor  of  his  severities  towards  the  Christians,  and  arguing  in 
their  defence,  he  was  put  in  prison,  and  beheaded,  April  23,  a.d.  290. — See  Garter. 

GEORGES'  CONSPIRACY.  The  memorable  conspiracy  in  France  ;  general  Moreau, 
general  Pichegru,  Georges  Cadoudal,  who  was  commonly  known  by  the  name  of 
Georges,  and  others,  arrested  at  Paris,  charged  with  a  conspiracy  against  the  life  of 
Buonaparte,  and  for  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.,  Feb.  23,  1804.  The  conspi- 
rators were  tried,  June  9,  when  seventeen  were  sentenced  to  death,  and  many  to 
imprisonment.  Moreau  was  suffered  to  leave  France,  and  was  escorted  from  the 
Temple  to  embark  for  America,  June  22.  In  1813  he  received  his  mortal  wound 
before  Dresden,  which  see. 

GEORGIA.  The  colony  was  settled  by  general  Oglethorpe  in  1 732.  Relinquishing 
the  obedience  it  had  previously  acknowledged  to  the  Congress  of  America,  it  sur- 
rendered to  the  British,  December  1778 ;  and  its  possession  was  of  vast  importance 
to  the  royalists  in  the  then  war.  Count  d'Estaing  joined  the  American  general 
Lincoln,  and  made  a  desperate  attack  on  Georgia,  which  failed,  and  the  French 
fieet  returned  home  :  the  colony  was  given  up  by  the  British  in  1783. — See  America, 
Georgia,  in  the  Pacific,  was  visited  by  captain  Cook  in  1775.  Georgia,  in  Asia,  was 
ceded  to  Russia  by  its  last  reigning  prince  in  1800. 

GEORGIUM  SIDUS.  Discovered  by  Herschel,  and  so  named  by  him  in  honour  of 
George  III.,  March  13,  1781.  This  planet  is  sometimes  called  Herschel,  and  by 
foreigners  Uranus  ;  its  distance  from  us  is  ascertained  to  be  1800  millions  of  miles. 

GERANIUM.  Several  varieties  of  it  were  in  England  in  1534,  some  of  them  intro- 
duced by  Cromwell,  lord   Essex.     It  is  an  Eastern  tradition,  that  the  prophet 


0£R 


C231] 


GKR 


Mahomet  having  one  day  washed  his  garment,  threw  it  upon  a  plant  of  the  mallow 
for  the  purpose  of  drying ;  and  when  the  garment  was  taken  away,  the  mallow  was 
found  to  have  been  transformed  by  contact  with  so  sacred  an  object  into  a  magni- 
ficent geranium,  a  plant  which  had  never  previously  existed. 

GERMANIC  CONFEDERATION.  Napoleon  had  determined  that  the  German,  or 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  as  it  was  called,  should  no  longer  exist ;  but  that  instead 
thereof,  a  confederation  of  states  should  be  formed ;  and  this  arrangement  was 
adopted  in  1815,  by  the  allied  sovereigns  ;  and  Germany  is  now  governed  by  a  diet, 
consisting  of  seventeen  voices,  and  in  case  any  alteration  be  requisite  in  the  consti- 
tution, they  are  then  to  take  a  new  division,  and  the  general  assembly  then  to  be 
formed  is  to  contain  sixty-five  votes,  divided  according  to  the  relative  consequence 
of  the  states. 

GERMANY.  From  Germannat  warlike  men.  First  mentioned  by  the  Roman  historians 
about  211  B.C. ;  it  was  anciently  divided  into  several  independent  states,  until  25 
B.C.,  when  the  Germans  withstood  the  attempt  of  the  Romans  to  subdue  them, 
although  they  conquered  some  parts  ;  but  by  the  repeated  efforts  of  the  Germans 
they  were  entirely  expelled,  about  a.d.  290.  In  432,  the  Huns,  driven  from  China, 
conquered  the  greatest  part  of  this  extensive  country ;  but  it  was  not  totally  sub- 
dued till  Charlemagne,  the  first  emperor,  became  master  of  the  whole,  a.d.  802. 


Charlemagne  crowned  emperor  of  the 
West  at  Rome       .        .        .        a.d. 

He  adds  a  second  head  to  the  eagle,  to 
denote  that  the  empires  of  Rome  and 
Germany  are  united  in  him 

Louis  {Debonnaire)  separates  Germany 
from  France  

Charles  m.  was  the  first  sovereign  who 
added  **  in  the  year  of  our  Lord"  to 
his  reign 

The  German  princes  assert  their  inde> 
pendence,  and  Conrad  reigns  . 

£The  electoral  charactei  assumed  ahout 
this  time.    See  Electors."] 

Reign  of  Henry  I.  (king),  sumamed  the 
Fowler;  he  vanquishea  the  Huns, 
Danes,  Vandals,  and  Bohemians 

Otho  L  extends  bis  dominions,  and  is 
crowned  emperor  by  the  pope 

Henry  HL  conquers  Bohemia,  wasting 
it  with  fire  and  sword 

Peter  the  Hermit  leads  the  crusaders 
through  Germany,  where  they  mas- 
sacre the  Jews  .... 

Henry  IV.  excommunicated  by  {tope 
Pascal  I.  (Hildebrand)  about  .    . 

Disputes  relating  to  ecclesiastical  inves- 
titures, with  the  pope         .        .        . 

The  Guelph  and  Ghibeline  feuds  begin   . 

Conrad  HI.  leads  a  large  army  to  the 
holy  wars,  where  it  is  destroyed  by 
the  treachery  of  the  Greeks 

Teutonic  order  of  Icnighthood  .    . 

Reign  of  Rodolph,  count  of  Hapsburgh, 
chosen  by  the  electors 

The  famous  edict,  called  the  Golden  Bull, 
by  Charles  IV. 1366 

Sigismond,  king  of  Bohemia,  elected 
emperor.  He  betrays  John  Hubs  and 
Jerome  of  Prague,  who  are  burned 
alive  (see  Bohemia) 

Sigismond  being  driven  from  the  throne, 
Albert  n,  duke  of  Austria,  succeeds. 
(In  his  family  the  crown  resides  for 
three  centuries)  .        .    . 

The  Pragmatic  sanction  (which  tee) 


800 


802 


814 


879 


912 


912 


919 


962 


1042 


1095 

1106 

1122 
1140 


1147 
1190 

1273 


A.D. 


1512 
1517 
1556 


1414 


1438 
1439 


1618 

1620 
1648 


1683 
1699 
1701 
1704 
1709 
1719 
1722 

1729 


The  empire  divided  into  circles 

Era  of  the  Reformation  (Luther) 

Abdication  of  Charles  V.    .  .         . 

War  of  the  two  parties,  the  Evangelic 
union  under  Frederick,  elector  pala- 
tine, and  the  Catholic  league  under 
the  duke  of  Bavaria 

Battle  of  Prague,  which  lost  the  elector 
palatine  the  crown  .        .    . 

Treaty  of  Westphalia 

John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland,  defeats 
the  Turks  in  many  battles,  and  obliges 
them  to  raise  the  siege  of  Vienna 

The  peace  of  Caxlowitz  .         •    . 

Order  of  St.  Rupert  instituted 

Order  of  the  Noble  Passion        .        .    . 

Female  order  of  Death's  head 

Orderof  the  Chase  instituted  .    • 

The  Pragmatic  Sanction  (which  tee) 

Order  of  St.  George,  the  defender  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception 

The  reign  of  Charles  VI.  is  chiefly  occu- 
pied with  wars  against  the  Turks,  and 
in  establishing  the  Pragmatic  sanction, 
in  favour  of  the  succession  of  his 
daughter  Bfaria  Theresa,  married  to 
the  duke  of  Lorraine  .      1711  to  1742 

Francis  I.,  duke  of  Lorraine,  marries  the 
heiress  of  Austria,  the  celebrated 
Maria  Theresa,  queen  of  Hungary ;  and 
is  elected  emperor      .... 

Joseph  II.  extends  his  dominions  by  the 
dismemberment  of  Poland 

Agam,  by  the  final  partition  of  that  de- 
voted kingdom  .  .         .    . 

[In  the  ruinous  wars  between  Germany 
and  France,  the  emperor  loses  the 
Netherlands,  all  his  territories  west  of 
the  Rhine,  and  his  estates  in  Italy, 
1793,  et  teq.] 

Francis  L  assumes  the  title  of  emperor 
of  Austria  .  .  Aug.  II, 

Dissolution  of  the  Gennan  empire ;  for- 
mation of  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine       ....      July  12,  1806 
See  Auttria, 


1745 
1772 
1795 


1804 


GEU 


C  232  ] 


GIA 


GERMANY,  continued. 

BMPCRORS  or  OKRHANV. 

-    A.D.  800.  Charlemagne  the  Great 
814.  LooiB  the  Debonnaire. 
840.  Lothario. 
855.  Louis  n. 
875.  Charles  n„  the  Bald ;  poisoned. 

878.  Louis  in.,  the  Stammerer. 

879.  Charles  IIL,  the  Gross. 
887*  Amould. 

899.  Louis  IV. 

913.  Otho,  duke  of  Saxony ;  he  refused  the 
dignity  on  account  of  his  age. 

912.  Conrad,  duke  of  Franoonia. 

919.  Henry  I.,  the  Fowler. 

936.  Otho  I.,  the  Great 

973.  Otho  IL,  the  Bloody. 

983.  Otho  m.,  the  Red ;  poisoned. 
1002.  Henry  H.,  duke  of  Bavaria ;  the  Holy 

and  Lame. 
1024.  Conrad  H.,  the  Salique. 
1039.  Henry  m.,  the  Black. 
1055.  Henry  IV.  ;  deposed. 
1077-  Rodolphus ;  killed  in  battle. 
1080.  Henry  IV. ;  re-instated. 
1105.  Henry  V. 
1125.  Lothario  II. 
1138.  Conrad  m. 

1152.  Frederick  Barbarossa;  drowned  in  Bo- 
hemia. 
1191.  Henry  VI.,  the  Sharp. 
119a  FhUip :  kUIed  at  Bamberg. 
1208.  Otho  V. ;  deposed. 
1211.  Frederick  II. ;  deposed. 

1245.  Henry  VU. ;  killed. 

1246.  WiUiam ;  killed  in  battle. 

1273.  Rodolphus,  count  of  Hapsburg,  the  first 


1291.  Adolphus ;  deposed. 

1296.  Albert  I. ;  killed  by  his  nephew. 

1308.  Hairy  VIH. ;  poisoned  by  a  priest,  in 

the  consecrated  wafer. 
1314.  Louis  IV.,  of  Bavaria ;  killed  by  a  fall 

from  his  horse. 
1347.  Charles  IV.,  of  Luxemburg. 
1378.  Wenceslaus,  king  of  Bohemia. 

1399.  Frederick,  duke  of  Brunswick. 

1400.  Robert,  palatine  of  the  Rhinet. 
1410.  Sigismond,  king  of  Himgary. 

1437.  Albert  U.,  duke  of  Austria  and  king  of 

Bohemia. 
1440.  Frederick  HI.,  archduke  of  Austria. 
1493.  Maximilian  I. ;  he  married  the  heiress 

of  Burgundy. 
1519.  Charles  V.,  king  of  Spain. 
1558.  Ferdinand  L,  king  of  Hungary. 
1564.  Maximilian  U. 
1576.  Rodolphus  IL 
1612.  Matthias  L 

1619.  Ferdinand  IL,  king  of  Hungary. 
1637.  Ferdinand  m.,  ditto. 
1658.  Leopold  I.,  ditto. 
1705.  Joseph  II.,  ditto,  and  of  Bohonia. 
1711.  Charles  VI. 
1742.  Charles  VH. 
1745.  Francis  I. ;  husband  to  Maria  Theresa, 

queen  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia. 
1765.  Joseph  n. 
1790.  Leopold  H. 
1792.  Francis  n. ;  he  takes  the  title  of  emperor 

of  Austria  only,  in  1806. 
1806.  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  (which  tee). 
1815.  Germanic  Confederation. 
1835.  Ferdinand  I.  of  Austria. 
See  Auttria. 


of  the  Austrian  family. 

There  are  about  20  German  principalities  with  territories  eqaal  to  English  counties. 
The  free  towns  are  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Frankfort  on  the  Maine  (one  of  the  greatest 
trading  places  in  Europe),  and  Lubeck,  which  was  the  head  of  the  famous  Hanseatic 
League,  formed  in  that  city  in  1164. — See  Hanse  Towns, 

GHENT.  Anciently  the  capital  of  the  Nervii.  Prince  John,  third  son  of  Edward  III. 
of  England,  was  bom  here,  and  hence  named  John  of  Gaunt,  Pacification  of 
Ghent,  November  8,  1576.  Ghent  was  taken  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough  in  a.o. 
1 706,  and  several  times  taken  and  retaken  by  the  contending  armies  during  the  late 
wars.  The  peace  of  Ghent,  between  Great  Britain  an4  the  United  States,  was  signed 
here,  December  24,  1814. 

GHIZNY,  Battle  of.  The  British  under  Sir  J.  Keane  attacked  the  citadel  of 
Ghizny,  at  two  o'clock  in  the  morning :  it  is  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Asia, 
and  was  commanded  by  a  son  of  the  ex-king  of  Cabul.  At  three  o'clock  the  gates 
were  blown  in  by  the  artillery,  and  under  cover  of  a  heavy  fire  the  infantry  forced 
their  way  into  the  place,  and  succeeded  at  five  o* clock  in  fixing  the  British  colours 
on  its  towers,  July  23, 1839. 

GIANTS.  The  emperor  Maximus  was  eight  feet  and  a  half  in  height ;  he  was  also  of 
great  bulk,  and  used  the  bracelet  of  his  wife  as  a  ring  for  his  thumb,  and  his  shoe 
was  longer  by  a  foot  than  that  of  an  ordinary  man, •^Zuiimlitu.  **  The  tallest  man 
that  hath  been  seen  in  our  age  was  one  named  Gabara,  who  in  the  days  of  Claudius 
the  late  emperor,  was  brought  out  of  Arabia.  He  was  nine  feet  nine  inches  high." — 
Pliny,  Jolin  Middleton,  of  Hale,  in  Lancashire,  born  in  1578,  was  nine  feet  three 
inches  high*.     Patrick  Cotter,  the  celebrated  Irish  giant, bom  in  1761,  was  eight 

*  In  the  chapelry  of  Hale,  in  Lancashire,  was  bom,  in  the  year  1578,  John  Middleton,  oommonly 
called  the  *'  Child  of  Hale>"  who  was  remarkable  for  his  largeness  of  stature  and  extraordinary 
strength.    It  is  traditionally  reported  that  one  of  the  Irelands  took  him  to  London,  and  introduced 


GIB 


[  233  ] 


GIN 


feet  seven  inches  in  height ;  his  hand,  from  the  commencement  of  the  palm  to  the 
extremity  of  the  middle  finger,  measured  twelve  inches,  and  his  shoe  was  seventeen 
inches  long;  he  died  in  September  1806,  in  his  46th  year.  Big  Sam,  the  porter  of 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  at  Carlton-palace,  was  near  eight  feet  high,  and  performed  as  a 
giant  in  the  romance  of  Cymon^  at  the  Opera-house,  while  the  Drnry-lane  company 
had  the  use  of  that  theatre  until  their  own  was  rebuilt  in  1809.  Giants'  bones  17, 
18,  20,  and  30  feet  high  were  once  reported  to  have  been  found ;  but  there  is  now 
no  doubt  that  they  were  organic  remains  of  colossal  quadrupeds. 

GIBRALTAR.  A  British  fortress,  whose  immense  strength  excites  wonder  and 
admiration,  and  renders  it  impregnable :  it  is  the  ancient  Calpe,  which,  with  Abyla 
on  the  opposite  shore  of  Africa,  obtained  the  name  of  the  pillars  of  Hercules.  The 
height  of  the  rock,  according  to  Cuvier,  is  1437  English  feet :  it  was  taken  by  the 
Saracens  under  Tank  {Gihel-Tarikj  Mountain  of  Tarik,  whence  its  present  name) 
in  A.D.  712.  In  the  year  1462  the  king  of  Castile  took  Gibraltar  from  the  Moors ; 
and  the  English,  under  sir  George  Rooke,  the  prince  of  Hesse  Darmstadt,  sir  John 
Leake,  and  admiral  Byng,  bravely  won  it,  July  24,  1704.  It  was  surrendered,  alter 
a  dreadful  cannonade,  to  the  British,  by  the  governor  the  marquis  de  Salines  ;  and 
it  has  since  continued  a  brilliant  appendage  to  the  British  crown. 


Gibraltar  attacked  by  the  British  on  the 
21st  July,  and  taken  on  the  S4th,   A.n.  1704 

Besieged  by  the  Spanish  and  French ; 
they  lose  10,000  men,  and  the  victori- 
ous English  but  400  .         Oct.  11,  1704 

The  Spaniards  again  attack  Gibraltar, 
and  are  repulsed  with  great  loss  .  1720 

They  again  attack  it  with  a  force  of 
20,000  men,  and  lose  5000,  while  the 
loss  of  the  English  is  only  300  .    .  1727 

Memorable  siege  of  the  Spaniards  and 
French,  whose  prodigious  armamoits* 
(the  greatest  ever  brought  against  a 
fortress)  were  wholly  overthrown.  The 
siege  continued  from  July  1779,  to  Feb.  1783 

Royal  battery  destroyed  by  fire    .    Nov.  1800 


Engagemrait  between  the  French  and 
English  fleets  in  the  Bay ;  the  Hanni- 
bal ofJ^gwoAloai  .         July  6,  1801 

The  Royal  Carloi  and  St.  Hermeni§ildo 
Spanish  ships,  each  of  112  guns,  blew 
up,  with  their  crews,  at  night-time, 
in  the  Straits  here,  and  all  on  board 
perished  .  .        .     July  12,  1801 

A  malignant  disease  caused  a  great 
mortality  here,  in  ...  1804 

A  dreadful  plague  raged  .  •     .  180A 

A  malignant  fever  raged     .         .    Aug.  1814 

Again,  when  a  proclamation  issued  for 
closing  the  courts  of  Justice  and  places 
of  public  worship  .  Sept.  A,  1828 

The  fatal  epidemic  ceased        .    Jan.  12,  1829 


GILDING.  First  practised  at  Rome,  about  145  b.c.  The  capitol  was  the  first  build- 
ing on  which  this  enrichment  was  bestowed. — Pliny.  Of  gold  leaf  for  gilding 
the  Romans  made  but  750  leaves,  four  fingers  square,  out  of  a  whole  ounce. — Pliny » 
It  consequently  was  more  like  our  plating. — Truster,  A  single  grain  of  gold  may 
now  be  stretched  out  under  the  hammer  into  a  leaf  that  will  cover  a  house. — Dr, 
Halley.  Gilding  with  leaf  gold  on  bole  ammoniac  was  first  introduced  by  Margari- 
tone  in  1273.  The  art  of  gilding  on  wood,  previously  known,  was  improved  in  1680. 

GIN.  The  act  for  laying  an  excise  upon  gin  passed  July  14,  1736.  It  had  been 
found,  in  the  preceding  year,  that  in  London  only,  7044  houses  sold  gin  by  retail ; 
and  it  was  so  cheap,  that  the  poor  could  intoxicate  themselves,  and  be  disabled  from 
labour,  for  one  penny.  The  heavy  excise  of  five  shillings  per  gallon,  and  obliging  all 
retailers  to  take  out  a  license,  in  a  great  measure  put  a  stop  to  this  depopulating 
evil. — Salmon,    About  1700  of  these  houses  were  suppressed  in  London  in  1750. — 


him  to  the  presence  of  king  James  the  First,  dressed  up  in  a  very  fantastic  style.  On  his  return  from 
London,  a  portrait  was  taken  of  him,  which  is  preserved  in  the  library  of  Brazen-nose  College,  at 
Oxford :  and  Dr.  Plott  gives  the  following  account  of  him : — *'  John  Middleton,  commonly  called  the 
Child  of  Hale,  whose  hand,  from  the  carpus  to  the  end  of  the  middle  finger,  was  seventeen  inches ; 
his  palm  eight  inches  and  a  half ;  and  his  height  nine  feet  three  inches,  wanting  but  six  inches  of 
the  size  of  Goliah." 

*  The  army  amounted  to  40,000  men.  The  duke  of  Crillon  commanded  12,000  of  the  best  troops  of 
France.  1000  pieces  of  artillery  were  brought  to  bear  against  the  fortress,  besides  which,  there  were 
47  sail  of  the  line,  all  three-deckers ;  10  great  floating  batteries,  esteemed  invincible,  carrying  212 
guns;  innumerable  frigates,  xebeques,  bomb-ketches,  cutters,  and  gun  and  mortar  boats;  while 
small  craft  for  disembarking  the  forces  covered  the  bay.  For  weeks  together,  6000  shells  were  daily 
thrown  into  the  town ;  and  on  a  single  occasion,  8000  barrels  of  gunpowder  were  expended  by  the 
enemy.  Yet  in  one  night,  their  floating  batteries  were  destroyed  with  red-hot  balls,  and  their  whole 
line  of  works  annihilated  by  a  sortie  from  the  garrison,  commanded  by  general  Elliot,  November 
27*  1781.  The  enemy's  loss  in  munitions  of  war,  on  this  night  alone,  was  estimated  at  upwards  of 
2,000,000^.  sterling-    But  their  grand  defeat  by  a  garrison  of  only  7000  British,  occurred  Sept.  13,  J782. 


GIS  E  231  ]]  GLA 

Clarke,  The  number  of  houses  for  the  sale  of  spirits  in  London,  including  what 
are  denominated  *'  gin  palaces,"  was,  in  1810,  about  7000.  Varioas  acts  have  been 
passed  for  their  regulation. 

GISORS,  Battle  of,  in  France,  between  the  armies  of  France  and  England,  in  which 
the  former  was  signally  defeated  by  Richard  I.,  whose  parole  for  the  day  was  *'  Dieu 
et  man  droU** — **  God  and  my  right  ;*'  and  from  this  time  it  was  made  the  motto 
to  the  Royal  arms  of  England,  a.d.  1198. 

GLADIATORS.  They  were  originally  malefactors  who  foaght  for  their  lives,  or 
captives  who  foaght  for  freedom.  They  exhibited  at  the  funereal  ceremonies  of  the 
Romans,  263  B.C.,  probably  following  the  Greek  custom  of  sacrificing  to  the  manes  of 
deceased  warriors  the  prisoners  taken  in  battle.  Gladiator  fights  afterwards  exhibited 
at  festivals,  about  215  b.c.  When  Dacia  was  reduced  by  Trajan,  1000  gladiators 
fought  at  Rome  in  celebration  of  his  triumph  for  123  days,  a.d.  103.  Their  combats 
on  public  theatres  were  suppressed  in  the  East  by  Constantine  the  Great,  a.d.  325. 
Finally  suppressed  by  Theodoric,  in  the  year  500. — Lenglet, 

GLANDELAGH.  A  bishopric,  which  has  been  united  to  the  archprelacy  of  Dublin 
since  the  year  a.d.  1214.  St.  Keiven  seems  to  have  been  the  founder  of  this  see ; 
he  resigned  in  612.  Glandelagh  is  now  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  the  Seven 
Churches,  from  the  remains  of  so  many  buildings  contiguous  to  the  cathedral. 

GLASGOW.  Erected  into  a  burgh  in  a.d.  1 1 80.  Its  charter  was  obtained  from 
James  II.  in  1451,  at  which  period  the  University  was  founded.  A  great  part  of  the 
town  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1652.  A  charter  was  granted  to  Glasgow  by  William 
and  Mary  in  1690.  The  theatre  was  burnt  in  1780.  The  Trades'-hall  was  built  in 
1791.  The  new  College-buildings  were  erected  in  1811.  A  great  popular  commotion 
occurred  here  in  April  1820,  and  trials  for  treason  followed  in  July,  same  year. 
The  theatre  was  again  burnt  in  January  1829,  In  an  extensive  fire,  property  to  the 
amount  of  1 50,000/.  was  consumed,  Jan.  14,  1832. 

GLASGOW,  BiSHOP&ic  of.  With  regard  to  the  founder  of  this  see  few  historianB 
are  agreed.  Kennet,  in  his  Antiquities,  says  it  was  founded  by  St.  Kentigern,  ttlias 
Mungo,  in  560,  while  others  affirm,  that  Mungo  was  a  holy  man  who  had  a  cell 
here,  and  whose  sanctity  was  held  in  such  veneration,  that  the  church  was  dedicated 
to  him.  Dr.  Heylin,  speaking  of  the  see  of  St.  Asaph,  in  Wales,  says,  that  /Ao/  see 
was  founded  by  St.  Kentigern,  a  Scot,  then  bishop  of  Glasgow,  in  583.  From  this 
it  may  be  inferred,  that  St.  Kentigern  founded  the  see  of  Glasgow.  St.  David,  king 
of  Scotland,  who  was  well  versed  in  ecclesiastical  matters,  calls  St.  Kentigern,  bishop. 
This  prelacy  became  archiepiscopal  in  1491  ;  and  ceased  soon  after  the  Revolution. 

GLASGOW  LOTTERIES.  These  were  the  last  lotteries  drawn  in  Britain :  they 
were  by  license  of  parliament  to  the  commissioners  for  the  improvement  of  Glasgow ; 
and  the  third  and  final  lottery  was  drawn  in  London,  at  Cooper's  Hall,  August  28, 
1834.     Statute  passed  ending  these  lotteries  after  that  drawing,  4  William  IV.  1834. 

GLASS.  The  Egyptians  are  said  to  have  been  taught  the  art  of  making  glass  by 
Hermes.  The  discovery  of  glass  took  place  in  Syria. — Pliny,  Glass-houses  were 
erected  in  Tyre,  where  glass  was  a  staple  manufacture  for  many  ages.  This  article 
is  mentioned  among  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Tiberius  ;  and  we  know,  from  the 
ruins  of  Pompeii,  that  windows  were  formed  of  glass  before  a.d.  79.  Italy  had  the 
first  glass  windows,  next  France,  whence  they  came  to  England.  Used  for  windows 
in  private  houses  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  1177,  but  imported. — Anderson,  The 
manuiBcture  was  established  in  England  at  Crutched-friars,  and  in  the  Savoy,  in 
1557. — Stowe,  It  was  improved  in  1635,  and  was  brought  to  great  perfection  in 
the  reign  of  William  III. 

GLASS  PLATE.  For  coach-windows,  mirrors,  &c.  made  at  Lambeth  by  Venetisn 
artists,  a.d.  1673,— Salmon,  This  branch  of  the  manufacture  was  improved  by 
the  French,  who  made  very  large  plates ;  and  further  improvements  in  it  were  made 
in  Lancashire  in  1773.  There  are  now  several  large  factories  of  plate-glass  in 
England,  and  most  of  the  principal  shops  of  London  have  plate-glass  windows,  some 
windows  being  single  panes  of  vast  size. 

GLASS,  Painting  on.  This  was  a  very  early  art.  It  was  practised  at  Marseilles  in 
a  beautiful  style,  about  a.d.  1500.  It  is  said  we  had  the  art  in  England  towards 
the  12th  century.    It  reached  to  a  state  of  great  perfection  about  1530. 


H 


GLA  Q  235  2  OI^O 

GLASTONBURY.  Ihe  first  Christian  church  in  Britain  was,  according  to  monkish 
history,  erected  here  about  a.d.  60  ;  and,  according  to  the  like  authority,  this  place 
was  the  residence  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea  about  that  time.  A  church  was  built  here 
by  Ina,  about  708.  The  town  abbey  was  burnt  1184.  An  earthquake  did  great 
damage  in  1276.  Richard  Withing,  the  last  abbot,  who  had  100  monks  and  400 
domestics,  was  hanged  on  Torhill  in  hb  pontificals,  for  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of 
supremacy  to  Henry  VIII.  1539. 

GLENCOE,  Massacrb  of.  This  was  the  horrible  massacre  of  the  unoffending  and 
unsuspecting  inhabitants,  the  Macdonalds,  merely  for  not  surrendering  in  time  to 
king  William's  proclamation.  About  38  men  were  brutally  slain  ;  and  women  and 
children,  their  wives  and  offspring,  were  turned  out  naked  in  a  dark  and  freezing 
night,  and  perished  by  cold  and  hunger :  this  black  deed  was  perpetrated  by  the 
earl  of  Argyle's  regiment,  May  9,  1691. 

GLOBE.  The  globular  form  of  the  earth,  the  five  tones,  some  of  the  principal  circles 
of  the  sphere,  the  opacity  of  the  moon,  and  the  true  cause  of  lunar  eclipses,  were 
taught,  and  an  eclipse  predicted,  by  Thales  of  Miletus,  about  640  b.c.  Pythagoras 
demonstrated  from  the  varying  altitudes  of  the  stars  by  change  of  place,  that  the 
earth  must  be  round  ;  that  there  might  be  antipodes  on  the  opposite  part  of  the 
globe  ;  that  Venus  was  the  morning  and  evening  star ;  that  the  universe  consisted 
of  twelve  spheres— the  sphere  of  the  earth,  the  sphere  of  the  water,  the  sphere  of  the 
air,  the  sphere  of  fire,  the  spheres  of  the  moon,  the  sun,  Venus,  Mercury,  Mars, 
Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  the  sphere  of  the  stars,  about  506  b.c.  Aristarchus,  of  Samos, 
maintained  that  the  earth  turned  on  its  own  axis,  and  revolved  about  the  sun ; 
which  doctrine  was  held  by  his  contemporaries  as  so  absurd,  that  the  philosopher 
had  nearly  lost  his  life  to  his  theory,  280  b.c.  The  first  voyage  round  the  globe  was 
performed  by  Picaro,  commanding  a  ship  of  Magellan's  squadron,  1520^5.  The 
first  English  navigator  who  performed  the  same  enterprise  was  sir  Francis  Drake, 
1577. — See  Circumnavigation,  and  Earth. 

GLOBES,  Artificial.  The  most  remarkable  ones  are  those  of  Gottorp  and  of 
Pembroke-hall,  Cambridge.  The  first  is  a  concave  sphere,  eleven  feet  in  diameter, 
containing  a  table  and  seats  for  twelve  persons,  and  the  inside  representing  the 
visible  surface  of  the  heavens,  the  stars  and  constellations  all  distinguished  according 
to  their  respective  magnitudes,  and  being  turned  by  means  of  curious  mechanism, 
their  true  position,  rising,  and  setting  is  shown.  The  outside  is  a  terrestrial  globe. 
This  machine  is  called  the  globe  of  Gottorp,  from  the  original  one  of  that  name, 
which,  at  the  expense  of  Frederick  III.  Duke  of  Holstein,  was  erected  at  GK>ttorp 
under  the  direction  of  Adam  Olearius,  and  was  planned  after  a  design  found  among 
the  papers  of  the  celebrated  Tycho  Brahe.  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark  presented  it 
to  Peter  the  Great  in  1713 ;  it  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1757,  but  it  was 
afterwards  reconstructed. — Cojee,  The  globe  at  Pembroke-hall  was  erected  by  Dr. 
Long;  it  far  surpasses  the  other,  being  eighteen  feet  in  diameter,  and  thirty  persons 
can  sit  conveniently  within  it  while  it  is  in  motion. 

GLOBE  THEATRE,  SHAKSPEARE'S.  This  renowned  theatre  was  situated  near  the 
spot  still  called  Bankside,  at  the  commencement  of  the  17th  century.  Shakspeare 
was  himself  part  proprietor ;  here  some  of  his  plays  were  first  produced,  and  he 
himself  performed  in  them.  It  was  of  a  horse-shoe  form,  partly  covered  with 
thatch.  After  it  was  licensed,  the  thatch  took  fire  through  the  negligent  discharge 
of  a  piece  of  ordnance,  and  the  whole  building  was  consumed.  The  house  was 
crowded  to  excess  to  witness  the  play  of  Henry  VIII,,  but  the  audience  escaped 
unhurt.  This  was  the  end  of  Shakspeare's  connexion  with  this  theatre :  it  was 
rebuilt  the  following  year,  much  in  the  same  style,  about  a.d.  1603. 

GLORY.  The  glory  or  nimbus  drawn  by  painters  round  the  heads  of  saints,  angels, 
and  holy  men,  and  the  circle  of  rays  on  images,  were  adopted  from  the  Caesars  and 
their  flatterers,  by  whom  they  were  used  in  the  first  century.  The  doxology  of  the 
prayer  Gloria  Patri  was  ordained  in  the  church  of  Rome,  and  was  called  doxology 
because  it  began  with  8<S(a,  glory,  a.d.  382. 

GLOUCESTER.  Once  a  Roman  colony,  built  by  Arviragus,  a.d.  47,  in  honour  of 
Claudius  Csesar,  whose  daughter  he  had  married.  The  abbey,  which  was  founded 
in  700,  was  burnt  in  1102,  and  again  in  1122  ;  and  in  the  cathedral  are  the  tomba 
of  Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  and  Edward  II.  This  city  was  incorporated  by 
Henry  III. ;  it  was  fortified  by  a  strong  wall,  which  was  demolished,  after  the 


GLO  Q  236  ]  GOL 

Restoration  in  1660,  by  order  of  Charles  II.,  as  a  punishment  for  the  obstinate 
resbtance  of  the  city  to  Charles  I.  The  Gloucester  and  Berkeley  Canal  was  com- 
pleted in  April  1827. 

GLOUCESTER,  See  of.  One  of  the  six  bishoprics  erected  by  Henry  YIII.  in  1541, 
and  formerly  part  of  the  diocese  of  Worcester.  The  cathedral  church  which 
belonged  to  the  abbey  was  dissolved  by  that  king,  and  its  revenues  were  appro- 
priated to  the  maintenance  of  the  see.  In  the  king's  books,  this  bishopric  is  valued 
at  315/.  I7s.  2d,  per  annum.    It  was  united  to  that  of  Bristol  in  1836. 

GLOVES.  They  were  in  use  in  very  early  times.  In  the  middle  ages,  the  giving  of  a 
glove  was  a  ceremony  of  investiture  in  bestowing  lands  and  dignities ;  and  two 
bishops  were  put  in  possession  of  their  sees  by  each  receiving  a  glove,  a.d.  1002. 
In  England,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  the  deprivation  of  gloves  was  a  ceremony  of 
degradation.  The  Glovers'  company  of  London  was  incorporated  in  1556.  Em- 
broidered gloves  were  introduced  into  England  in  1580,  and  are  presented  to  judges 
at  maiden  assizes  to  this  day. 

GNOSTICS.  Ancient  heretics,  who  were  famous  from  the  first  rise  of  Christianity. 
The  tenets  of  this  sect  were  revived  in  Spain,  in  the  fourth  century,  by  the  Pris- 
cillianists ;  but  the  name,  which  was  once  glorious,  at  length  became  infamous. 
The  Gnostics  were  not  so  much  a  particular  sect  of  heretics,  as  a  complication  of 
many  sects  ;  and  were  so  called,  because  they  pretended  to  extraordinary  illumina- 
tions and  knowledge,  one  main  branch  of  which  consisted  in  their  pretended 
genealogies  or  attributes  of  the  Deity,  in  which  they  differed  among  themselves  as 
much  as  they  did  from  others. 

GOBELIN-TAPESTRY.  Tapestry  so  called  from  a  noted  house  at  Paris,  in  the 
suburb  of  St.  Marcel,  formerly  possessed  by  famous  wool-dyers,  whereof  the  chief, 
called  Giles  Gobelin,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  is  said  to  have  found  the 
secret  of  dyeing  scarlet,  which  was  from  him  called  the  scarlet  of  the  Gobelins ;  the 
house  and  river  that  runs  by  it  also  took  the  same  name.  This  house  was  purchased 
by  Louis  XIV.  for  a  manufactory  of  all  manner  of  curious  works  for  adorning  the 
royal  palaces,  under  the  direction  of  Mons.  Colbert,  especially  tapestry,  designs  for 
which  were  drawn  by  the  celebrated  Le  Brun,  by  appointment  of  the  king,  a.d. 
1666. — Du  Fresnoy, 

'<  GOD  BLESS  YOU  1''  We  are  told  that  in  the  time  of  pope  Pelagius  II.  a  plague 
raged  at  Rome,  of  so  fatal  a  nature,  that  persons  seized  with  it  died  sneezing  and 
gaping ;  whence  came  the  custom  of  saying  *'  God  bless  you  /"  when  a  person 
sneezes,  and  of  Catholics  making  the  sign  of  the  cross  upon  the  mouth  when  any 
one  gapes,  a.d.  582. — Nouv,  Diet, 

GODFATHERS  and  GODMOTHERS.  The  Jews  had  godfathers  in  the  circum- 
cision of  their  sons.  In  the  Christian  church  sponsion  in  baptism  arose  in  the 
desire  of  assuring  that  the  child  should  be  of  the  religion  of  Christ.  It  was  first 
ordained  to  be  used,  according  to  some,  by  pope  Alexander ;  according  to  others,  by 
Sixtus,  and  others  refer  it  to  Telesphorus,  about  a.d.  130.  In  Catholic  countries 
they  have  godfathers  and  godmothers  in  the  baptism  of  their  bells. 

GODWIN'S  OATH.  •*  Take  care  you  are  not  swearing  Godwin's  oath."  This  caution 
to  a  person  taking  a  voluntary  and  intemperate  oath,  or  making  violent  protestations, 
had  its  rise  in  the  following  circumstance :  Godwin,  brother  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor, was  tried  for  the  murder  of  prince  Alfred,  his  brother,  and  pardoned,  but 
died  at  the  king's  table  while  protesting,  with  oaths,  his  innocence  of  the  murder  ; 
supposed  by  the  historians  of  those  times  to  have  been  choked  with  a  piece  of 
bread,  as  a  judgment  from  heaven,  having  prayed  it  might  sUck  in  his  throat  if  he 
were  guilty  of  the  murder  ;  and  he  certainly  was,  a.d.  1053. — Guth.  Hist,  Eng, 

GODWIN  SANDS.  These  are  sand-banks  off  the  east  coast  of  Kent,  and  occupy  a 
space  that  was  formerly  a  large  tract  of  ground  belonging  to  Godwin,  earl  of  Kent, 
the  father  of  king  Harold.  This  ground  was  afterwards  given  to  the  monastery  of 
St.  Augustin,  at  Canterbury ;  but  the  abbot  neglecting  to  keep  in  repair  the  wall 
that  defended  it  from  the  sea,  the  whole  tract  was  drowned  in  the  year  1100,  leaving 
these  sands,  upon  which  many  ships  have  been  wrecked.^ — Salmon, 

GOLD.  The  purest  and  most  ductile  of  all  the  metals,  for  which  reason  it  has,  from 
the  earliest  ages,  been  considered  by  almost  all  nations  as  the  most  valuable.     It  is 


OOL  []  237  ]  GOL 

too  soft  to  be  used  pure,  and  to  harden  it  it  is  alloyed  with  copper  or  silver  :  in  its 
pure  state  it  is  twentj-four  carats  ;  that  used  in  our  coin  is  twenty-two  carats,  and  two 
parts  of  copper.  In  the  early  ages  no  metals  were  used  but  those  found  pure,  as 
gold,  silver,  and  copper.  The  smelting  of  ores  was  a  comparatively  late  invention^ 
and  ascribed  both  to  observations  on  volcanoes  and  to  the  burning  of  forests. 

GOLD  COIN.  The  first  certain  record  we  have  of  gold  being  coined  in  England,  is 
A.D.  1257.  The  first  regular  gold  pieces  were  struck  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III., 
1344.  The  English  florin  was  struck  in  1354  ;  in  which  year,  also,  the  method  of 
assaying  gold  was  established.  The  standard  was  altereid  in  1527.  All  the  gold 
money  was  called  in,  and  reooined,  and  the  first  window-tax  imposed  to  defray  the 
expense  and  deficiency  in  the  recolnage,  7  William  III.^  1695.  Guineas  were  first 
coined  in  1673  ;  they  were  reduced  in  currency  from  twenty-two  shillings  to  twenty- 
one,  in  171 7.  Broad-pieces  were  called  in,  and  recoined  into  guineas,  in  1732.  The 
gold  coin  which  was  brought  into  the  Mint  by  proclamation  in  1773-6,  amounted  to 
about  15,563,593/. ;  the  expense  of  collecting,  melting,  and  recoining  it,  was 
754,019/.  Act  for  weighing  gold  coin,  passed  June  13,  1774. — See  articles  Coin 
and  Guineas,  **  The  quantity  of  gold  that  passed  through  the  Mint,  since  the  ac- 
cession of  queen  Elizabeth  to  the  throne,  in  1558,  to  the  beginning  of  1840,  is 
3,353,561  pounds  weight  troy.  Of  this,  nearly  one  half  was  coined  in  the  reign  of 
George  III. — namely,  1,593,078  pounds  weight  troy.  The  value  of  the  gold  coined 
in  the  reign  of  that  sovereign  was  74,501,586/.  The  total  value  of  the  gold  coin 
issued  from  the  Mint  since  1558,  is  154,702,385/.'' — Professor  Faraday. 

GOLD  FISH,  long  called  Chinese  Gudgeons,  from  the  country  whence  they  were 
imported.   First  brought  to  England  in  1691 ;  but  not  generally  seen  here  until  1723. 

GOLD  MINES.  Gold  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the  earth,  but  is  most  abundant  in 
Africa,  Japan,  and  South  America,  in  which  last  gold  was  discovered  by  the  Spa- 
niards in  1492,  from  which  time  to  1731,  they  imported  into  Europe  6000  millions 
of  pieces  of  eight,  in  register  gold  and  silver,  exclusively  of  what  were  unregistered. 
In  1730,  a  piece  of  gold  weighing  ninety  marks,  equad  to  sixty  pounds  troy  (the 
mark  being  eight  ounces),  was  found  near  La  Paz,  a  town  of  Peru.  Gold  was  dis- 
covered in  Malacca  in  1731 ;  in  New  Andalusia  in  1785  ;  in  Ceylon  in  1800  ;  and 
it  has  been  found  in  Cornwall,  and  in  the  county  of  Wicklow,  in  Ireland. 

GOLD  WIRE,  LEAF,  &c.  Gold  wire  was  first  made  in  Italy,  about  a.d.  1350.  An 
ounce  of  gold  is  sufficient  to  gild  a  silver  wire  above  1300  miles  in  length  ;  and  such 
b  its  tenacity  that  a  wire  the  one-eighteenth  part  of  an  inch  thick  will  bear  the 
weight  of  500  lbs.  without  breaking. — Fourcroy.  A  single  grain  of  gold  may  be  ex- 
tended into  a  leaf  of  fifty-six  square  inches,  and  gold  le«J  can  be  reduced  to  the 
300,000th  part  of  an  inch,  and  gilding  to  the  ten-millionth  part. — Kelly* s  Cambist, 

GOLDEN  BULL.  A  decree  or  letter  of  the  popes,  or  emperor,  of  which  the  bull  is, 
properly  speaking,  the  seal^  and  has  been  made  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  wax. 
Among  the  incidents  which  mark  the  reign  of  Charles  IV.,  emperor  of  the  west,  is 
his  institution  of  the  celebrated  golden  bull  made  at  the  diet  of  Nuremberg,  a.d. 
1356,  and  which  became  the  fundamental  law  of  the  German  empire. — Robertson, 

GOLDEN  CHAIN.  The  plant  more  generally  known  as  the  Laburnum,  Cytistts 
Laburnum,  It  was  brought  to  these  countries  from  Austria  and  Hungary,  before 
A.D.  1576.  The  Gold  Plant,  or  Aucuba  Japonica,  was  brought  to  England  from 
Japan  and  China  about  1783. 

GOLDEN  FLEECE.  Jason,  the  Argonaut,  sailed  with  his  companions  from  lolchos 
to  Colchis  to  avenge  the  death  of  his  kinsman  Phryxus,  and  to  recover  his  treasures, 
which  the  perfidious '  ^etes,  king  of  Colchis,  had  seized,  after  murdering  their 
owner.  The  ship  in  which  Phryxus  had  sailed  to  Colchis,  was  adorned  with  the 
figure  of  a  ram  on  the  poop ;  which  gave  occasion  to  the  poets  to  pretend  that  the 
journey  of  Jason  was  for  the  recovery  of  the  golden  fleece,  1263  b.c. 

GOLDEN  NUMBER.  The  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  or  number  which  shows  the 
years  of  the  moon's  cycle  ;  its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Meton,  of  Athens,  about  432 
B.C. — Pliny,  To  find  the  golden  number  or  year  of  the  Lunar  cycle,  add  one  to  the 
date  and  divide  by  nineteen,  then  the  quotient  b  the  number  of  cycles  since  Christ, 
and  the  remainder  is  the  Golden  Number. 

GOLDSMITHS'  COMPANY  op  LONDON.  Incorporated  16  Richard  II.,  1392. 
The  mark  or  date  of  the  Goldsmiths'  company  to  stamp  standard  silver  and  gold 


GOO  Q  238  3  <^OS 

wares  ii  made  by  letters  from  A  to  U,  and  commenced  in  1796  ;  so  that  the  year 
1841  is  D  ;  the  year  1842  is  B  ;  the  year  1843  F,  &c.  The  old  hall  was  taken 
down  in  1829,  and  the  present  magnificent  edifice  was  opened  in  1835.— See  Assay, 

GOOD  FRIDAY.  From  the  earliest  records  of  Christianity,  this  day  has  been  held  as 
a  solemn  fast,  in  remembrance  of  the  cmcifixion  of  our  Saviour  on  Friday,  April  3, 
A.n.  33.  Its  appellation  of  ^fooc/  appears  to  be  peculiar  to  the  Church  of  England : 
our  Saxon  forefathers  denominated  it  Long  Friday^  on  account  of  the  great  length 
of  the  offices  observed,  and  fastings  enjoined  on  this  day. 

GOOSE  AT  MICHAELMA.S.  This  custom  has  been  thus  accounted  for,  and  though 
the  fact  has  been  contradicted  by  some,  it  is  yet  pertinaciously  maintained  by  others. 
Queen  Elizabeth,  on  her  way  to  Tilbury  Fort,  on  the  29th  September  158d,  dined 
at  the  ancient  seat  of  sir  Neville  Umfreyville,  near  that  place ;  and  among  the  good 
and  substantial  dishes  which  the  knight  had  provided  for  her  entertainment,  were 
two  fine  geese.  The  queen  ate  heartily,  and  asking  for  a  bumper  of  Burgundy, 
drank  "  Destruction  to  the  Spanish  Armada  !"  At  the  moment  that  she  returned 
the  tankard  to  the  knight,  news  arrived  that  the  Spanish  fleet  had  been  destroyed  by 
a  storm.  She  immediately  took  another  bumper,  and  was  so  much  pleased  with  the 
event,  that  every  year  after  on  that  day  she  had  a  goose  served  up.  The  court  made 
it  a  custom,  and  the  people  the  fashioo,  ever  since. 

GORDIAN  KNOT.  The  knot  made  of  the  thongs  that  served  as  harness  to  the 
waggon  of  Gordius,  a  husbandman,  who  was  afterwards  king  of  Phrygia.  Whosoever 
loosed  this  knot,  the  ends  of  which  were  not  discoverable,  the  oracle  declared  should 
be  emperor  of  Persia.  Alexander  the  Great  cut  away  the  knot  with  his  sword  until 
he  found  the  ends  of  it,  and  thus,  in  a  military  sense  nt  least,  this  *^  conqueror  of 
the  world"  interpreted  the  oracle,  330  B.C. 

GORDON'S  *•  NO  POPERY"  MOB  :  occasioned  by  the  zeal  of  lord  George  Gordon. 
It  consisted  of  40,000  persons,  who  assembled  in  St.  George's  Fields,  under  the 
name  of  the  Protestant  Association,  to  carry  up  a  petition  to  parliament  for  the  re- 
peal of  the  act  which  granted  certain  indulgences  to  the  Roman  Catholics.  The 
mob  once  raised,  could  not  be  dispersed,  but  proceeded  to  the  most  daring  outrages, 
pillaging,  burning,  and  pulling  down  the  chapels  and  private  houses  of  the  Catholics 
first,  but  afterwards  of  several  other  persons ;  breaking  open  prisons,  setting  the 
prisoners  free,  even  attempting  the  Bank  of  England,  and  in  a  word  totally  over- 
coming the  civil  power  for  nearly  six  days,  tit  length,  by  the  aid  of  armed  associa- 
tions of  the  citizens,  the  horse  and  foot  guards,  and  the  militia  of  several  counties, 
then  embodied  and  marched  to  London,  the  riot  was  quelled.  It  commenced  June 
2  ;  on  the  3d,  the  Catholic  chapels,  and  numerous  private  mansions,  were  destroyed, 
the  bank  attempted,  and  gaols  opened ;  among  these  were  the  King's  Bench,  Fleet, 
and  Bridewell  prisons ;  on  the  5th,  thirty-six  fires  were  seen  blazing  at  one  time. 
In  the  end,  210  of  the  rioters  were  killed,  and  248  wounded,  of  whom  75  died  after^ 
wards  in  the  hospitals.  Many  were  tried,  convicted,  and  executed.  Lord  George 
was  tried  the  year  after  for  high  treason,  but  acquitted,  June  2  to  7,  1780. — 
Annual  Register* 

GOREE,  near  Cape  Verd,  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  Planted  by  the  Dutch  in  a.d.  1617. 
It  was  taken  by  the  English  admiral  Holmes  in  1663  ;  and  was  ceded  to  France  by 
the  treaty  of  Nimeguen  in  1678.  Goree  was  again  taken  by  the  British  in  1758, 
1779,  1800,  and  1804.  Governor  Wall,  formerly  governor  of  this  island,  was  hanged 
in  London  Jan.  28,  1802,  for  the  murder  of  Serjeant  Armstrong,  committed  by  him 
while  in  command  at  Goree,  in  1782. 

GOREY,  Battle  of,  between  the  king's  troops  and  the  Irish  rebels,  in  which  the 
former,  after  a  desperate  engagement,  were  defeated  with  considerable  loss.  The 
king's  forces,  losing  several  pieces  of  artillery,  retreated  to  Gorey,  and  afterwards  to 
Arklow,  abandoning  both  towns,  the  insurgents  being  nearly  20,000  strong  ;  fought 
June  4,  1798. 

GORGET.  The  ancient  breast-plate,  or  gorget,  was  very  large,  and  extended  to  the 
body  and  limbs  of  the  warrior  or  knight  as  armour  ;  but  its  size  and  weight  varied 
at  different  periods.  The  present  modem  diminutive  breast-plate  was  in  use  at  the 
period  of  the  Restoration,  1660,  or  shortly  after. — See  Armour. 

GOSPELS.  St.  Mark  wrote  his  gospel  a.d.  44  ;  St.  Matthew  in  the  same  year ;  St. 
Luke  in  ^55 ;  and  St.  John  in  96-7.    The  gospel  of  Matthew  was  found  buried  in  the 


GOS  Q  239  2  ^^^ 

tomb  of  St.  Barbns,  and  was  conveyed  to  Constantinople  in  4Sb,^Builer.  John 
wrote  his  gospel  at  Ephesus  two  years  after  he  was  thrown  into  a  cauldron  of  burn- 
ing oil,  from  which  he  was  taken  out  unhurt,  and  banished  to  the  isle  of  Patmos. — 
Idem.  The  gospel  is  the  glad  tidings  of  the  actual  coming  of  the  Messiah,  and 
hence  the  eTangdical  history  of  Chriat,— Hammond.  Dr.  Robert  Bray  was  the  au- 
thor of  the  first  plan  for  propagating  the  gospel  in  foreign  parts.  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Countries,  incorporated  in  1701. 

GOSPELLERS.  The  name  which  was  given  to  the  followers  of  Wickliffe,  who  first 
attempted  the  reformation  of  the  Church  from  the  errors  of  popery :  it  was  affixed 
to  them  by  the  Roman  Catholics  in  derision,  on  account  of  their  professing  to  follow 
and  preach  only  the  gospel,  a.d.  1377. — Bishop  Burnet, 

GOTHS.  A  warlike  nation  that  inhabited  the  space  between  the  Caspian,  Pontus, 
Euzine,  and  Baltic  seas.  They  attacked  the  Roman  empire  a.d.  251.  They  were 
defeated  by  Claudius,  and  320,000  slain,  a.d.  269.  Affcer  the  destruction  of  the  Roman 
empire  by  the  Heruli,  the  Ostrogoths,  under  Theodoric,  became  masters  of  the 
greater  part  of  Italy,  where  they  retained  their  dominion  till  a.d.  553,  when  they 
were  finally  conquered  by  Narses,  Justinian's  general.  The  Visigoths  settled  in 
Spain,  and  founded  a  kingdom,  which  continued  until  the  country  was  subdued  by 
the  Saracens. 

GRACE  AT  MEAT.  The  table  was  considered  by  the  ancient  Greeks  as  the  altar  of 
friendship,  and  held  sacred  upon  that  account.  They  would  not  partake  of  any 
meat  until  they  had  first  offered  part  of  it,  as  the  first  fruits,  to  their  gods ;  and 
hence  came  the  short  prayer  said  before  and  after  meat  in  all  Christian  countries 
from  the  earliest  times. — Lenglet. 

GRACE,  THK  Title  of.  It  was  first  assumed  by  Henry  IV.  of  England,  on  his  ac- 
cession, in  1399.  The  title  of  Excellent  Grace  was  assumed  by  Henry  VI.  about 
1425.  Until  the  time  of  James  I.,  1603,  the  king  was  addressed  by  that  title,  and 
afterwards  by  the  title  of  Majetty  only.  "  Your  Grace"  is  the  manner  of  address- 
ing an  archbishop  and  a  duke  in  this  realm,  and  means  the  same  as  "  Your  Good- 
ness," **  Your  Clemency,''  &c. — Bacon, 

GRAHAM'S  DIKE,  a  wall  built  in  209,  by  Severus  Septimus,  the  Roman  emperor, 
or,  as  others  say,  by  Antoninus  Rus.  It  reached  from  the  Frith  of  Forth  to  the 
Clyde.  Buchanan  relates  that  there  were  considerable  remains  of  this  wall  in  his 
time ;  and  some  vestiges  of  it  are  still  to  be  seen. 

GRAMMARIANS,  o&  CRITICS.  Anciently,  the  most  eminent  men  in  literature 
were  denominated  grammarians.  A  society  of  grammarians  was  formed  at  Rome  so 
early  as  276  b.c. — Blair,  ApoUodoms  of  Athens,  Varro,  Cicero,  Messala,  Julius 
Caesar,  Nicias,  ^lius  Donatus,  Remmius  Palemon,  Tyrannion  of  Pontus,  Athenaeus, 
and  other  distinguished  men,  were  of  this  class.  Cobbett  declared  Mr.  Canning  to 
be  the  only  purely  grammatical  orator  of  his  time ;  and  Dr.  Parr,  speaking  of  a  speech 
of  Mr.  Pitt's,  said,  **  We  threw  our  whole  grammatical  mind  upon  it,  and  could  not 
discover  one  error." 

GRAMPIAN  HILLS,  Battlb  of,  between  the  Soots  and  Picts,  the  former  under 
Galgacus,  and  the  latter  under  Agricola,  fought  a.d.  79.  These  hills  take  their 
name  from  a  single  hill,  the  Mons  Grampius  of  Tacitus,  where  Galgacus  waited 
the  approach  of  Agricola,  and  where  the  battle  was  fought  so  fatal  to  the  brave 
Caledonians. 

GRAMPOUND,  B&ibert  at.  Memorable  case  of  bribery  and  other  corrupt  prac- 
tices in  this  borough,  when  several  persons  were  convicted,  and  among  them  sir 
,  Manasseh  Lopes,  who  was  sentenced  to  a  fine  of  10,000/.,  and  to  two  years'  impri- 
sonment, November  15,  1819. — Ann,  Reg, 

GRANARIES.  The  Romans  formed  granaries  in  seasons  of  plenty,  to  secure  food  for 
the  poorer  citizens ;  and  all  who  wanted  it  were  provided  with  corn  from  these  re- 
servoirs, in  necessitous  times,  at  the  cost  of  the  public  treasury.  There  were  three 
hundred  and  twenty-seven  granaries  at  Rome. — Univ,  Hist,  Twelve  new  granaries 
were  built  at  Bridewell  to  hold  6000  quarters  of  com,  and  two  store-houses  for  sea- 
coal  to  hold  4000  loads,  thereby  to  prevent  the  sudden  deamess  of  these  articles  by 
the  great  increase  of  inhabitants,  7  James  I.,  1610. — Stowe. 

GRAND  ALLIANCE  signed  at  Vienna  between  England,  the  Emperor,  and  the  States 
General ;  to  which  Spain  and  the  duke  of  Savoy  afterwards  acceded,  May  12,  1689. 


GRA  C  2*0  ]  ORE 

GRAND  JUNCTION  CANAL.  This  canal  joins  several  others  in  the  centre  of  the 
country,  which  thence  form  a  communication  between  the  rivers  Thames,  Severn, 
Mersey  and  Trent,  and,  consequently,  an  inland  navigation  to  the  four  principal  sea- 
ports, London,  Liverpool,  Bristol,  and  HuU.  This  canal  commences  at  Braunston, 
on  the  west  borders  of  Northamptonshire,  and  enters  the  Thames  near  London,  1790. 

GRAND  PENSIONARY.  A  title  held  by  chief  state  functionaries  in  Holland,  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  In  the  constitution  given  by  France  to  the  Batavian  Republic, 
previously  to  the  erection  of  that  state  into  a  kingdom,  the  title  of  Grand  Pensionary 
was  revived  and  given  to  the  head  of  the  government,  April  1805.  The  republic 
became  a  kingdom  under  Louis,  the  brother  of  Napoleon,  the  next  year. — See  Holland, 

GRANICUS,  Battlb  of,  in  which  Alexander  the  Great  signally  defeated  the  Persians. 
The  Macedonian  troops  crossed  the  Granicus  in  the  face  of  the  Persian  army, 
although  the  former  did  not  exceed  30,000  foot,  and  5000  horse,  while  the  Persian 
army  amounted  to  600,000  foot,  and  20,000  horse. — Justin,  Yet  the  victors  lost  in 
this  great  battle  but  fifty-five  foot  soldiers,  and  sixty  horse.  Sardis  capitulated, 
Miletus  and  Halicamassus  were  taken  by  storm,  and  numerous  other  great  towns 
submitted  to  the  conqueror,  334  b.c. — Bastuet. 

GRAPES.  The  fruit  of  the  vine.  Previously  to  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  grapes 
were  brought  to  England  in  large  quantities  from  Flanders,  where  they  were  first 
cultivated,  about  1276.  The  vine  was  introduced  into  England  in  1552 ;  and  was 
first  planted  at  Bloxhall,  in  Suffolk,  in  that  year,  and  in  other  places  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  London  soon  after.  In  the  gardens  of  Hampton-court  palace  is  a  celebrated 
vine,  allowed  to  surpass  any  in  Europe ;  it  is  72  feet  by  20,  and  has  in  one  season 
produced  2272  bunches  of  grapes,  weighing  18  cwt. ;  the  stem  is  13  inches  in  girth  ; 
it  was  planted  in  17 69. -^^  Leigh. 

GRATES.  The  hearths  of  the  early  Britons  were  fixed  in  the  centre  of  their  halls.  The 
fire-place  originally  was  perhaps  nothing  more  than  a  large  stone  depressed  below 
the  level  of  the  ground  to  receive  the  ashes.  There  were  arched  hearths  among  the 
Anglo-Saxons ;  and  chafing  dishes  were  most  in  use  until  the  general  introduction  of 
chimneys,  about  a.d.  1200. — See  Chimneys*  ^ 

GRAVITATION.  This,  as  a  supposed  innate  power,  was  noticed  by  the  Greeks,  and 
also  by  Seneca,  who  speaks  of  the  moon  attracting  the  waters,  about  a.d.  38.  Kepler 
enlarged  upon  it,  about  a.d.  1615 ;  and  Hook  published  it  as  a  system.  The  prin- 
ciples of  gravity  were  proved  by  Galileo,  at  Florence,  about  1633  ;  and  they  were 
subsequenUy  adopted  by  Newton;  about  1687. 

GREAT  SEAL  of  ENGLAND.  The  first  seal  used  was  by  Edward  the  Confessor, 
A.D.  1048.  The  most  ancient  seal  with  arms  on  it  is  that  of  Richard  I.  The  great 
seal  of  England  was  stolen  from  the  house  of  lord  chancellor  Thurlow,  in  Great 
Ormond-street,  into  which  some  thieves  broke,  and  carried  it,  with  other  property, 
away,  March  24,  1784,  a  day  before  the  dissolution  of  parliament:  it  was  never 
recovered.  A  new  seal  was  brought  into  use  on  the  union  with  Ireland,  Jan  1,  1801. 
A  new  seal  for  Ireland  was  brought  into  use,  and  the  old  one  defaced,  Jan.  21, 1832. 

GR^CIA  MAGNA.  That  part  of  Italy  where  the  Greeks  planted  colonies,  but  its  boun- 
daries are  very  uncertain.  Some  say  that  it  extended  to  the  southern  parts  of  Italy ; 
and  others  suppose  that  Magna  Grsecia  comprehended  only  Campania  and  Lucania. 
To  these  is  added  Sicily,  which  was  likewise  peopled  by  Greek  colonists. — Lempriere. 

GREECE.  The  first  inhabitants  of  this  justly-celebrated  country  of  the  ancient  world, 
were  the  progeny  of  Javan,  fourth  son  of  Japheth.  Greece  was  so  called  from  a 
very  ancient  king  named  Grsecus  ;  and  another  king  named  Hellen,  gave  his  subjects 
the  appellation  of  Hellenists.  Homer  calls  the  inhabitants,  indifferently,  Myrmidons, 
Hellenists,  and  Achaians. 

Sicyon  founded  (EusOfius)         .         B.C.  2089 

Uranus  arriyes  in  Greece  (Lenglel)         .  2042 

Revolt  of  the  Titans  .         .        .    .  *  * 

War  of  the  Giants         .  .  *  * 

Kingdom  of  Argos  begun  (Eusebius)      ,  1856 

Reign  of  Ogyges  in  Bceotia  (idem)  ■  1796 

Sacrifices  to  the  gods  first  introduced  in 
Greece  by  Phoroneus  .        .        .  1773 

Acoording  to  some  authors,  Sicyon  was 
now  begun  (Lenglet)       .        .        .    .  1773 


Deluge  of  Ogyges  (which  tee)  .    b.c.  1764 

A  colony  of  Arcadians  emigrate  to  Italy 

under   (Enotrus:    the  country   first 

called  (EnotriOf  afterwards  Ma^na 

Oracia  (Etuebius)  .        .        .    .  1710 

Chronology  of  the  Arundelian  marbles 

commences  (Eusebius)  .  .  .  1582 
Cecrops  comes  into  Attica  (idem)  .  .  1556 
The  Areopagus  instituted      .  .  1506 

Deluge  of  Deucalion  (Etuebius)     .        .  1503 


ORE 


[2*1] 


GRE 


GREECE,  continued. 

Reign  of  Hellen  (idem)  .       bjc  1469 

Panathenaean  games  instituted  .  .  1496 
Cadmus,  with  the  Phoenician  letters, 

settles  in  Boeotia 1493 

Lolex,  first  king  of  Laoonia,  afterwards 

called  Sparta 1490 

Arrival  of  Danaus,  with  the  first  ship 

ever  seen  in  Greece  .  .  .  .  1485 
He  introduces  the  use  of  pumps  .  .  1485 
He  gets  possession  of  Argos.    His  fifty 

daughters  (see  Flan^eaux)  ,  .  .  1475 
First  Olympic  games  celehrated  at  Elis, 

by  the  leUei  Dactpli  (EusOtiui)  .  1453 

Iron  discorered  by  the  Idai  Dactjfli  .  1406 
Ciorinth  rebuilt,  and  so  named  .    .  1384 

Ceres  arrives  in  Greece,  and  teaches  the 

art  of  making  bread  .  1383 

The  Isthmian  games  instituted  .    .  13:26 

Myoenc  created  out  of  Argos  .  .1313 
Argonautic  expedition  {which  see)  .  .  1963 
The  Pythian  games  by  Adrastus  .  1263 

War  of  the  seven  Greek  captains  .  .  1225 
The  Amazonian  war ;  these  martial  fe- 
males penetrate  into  Greece  .  .  1213 
Rape  of  Helen  by  Theseus  .  .  .  1213 
Rape  of  Helen  by  Paris  .  .  1198 

Commencement  of  the  Trojan  war  .1193 
Troy  taken  and  destroyed  on  the  night 

of  the  7th  of  the  month  Thargelion 

(27th  May,  or  11th  June)  .  1184 

^neas  sets  sail,  winters  in  Thrace,  and 

arrives  in  Italy  .        .    .  1181 

Migration  of  the  JSolian  colonies,  w^o 

build  Smyrna,  Ac.  .        .        .  1124 

Settlement  of  the  lonlans  from  Greece 

in  Asia  Minor  .         .    .  1044 

The  first  laws  of  navigation  originate 

with  the  Rhodians  .916 

Homer  flourishes  about  this  time  {Arun- 

delian  Marbles)  .  .    .    907 

Olympic  games  revived  at  Elis  .    884 

The  first  Messenian  war  .    .    743 

The  second  Messenian  war  .    685 

The  capture  of  Ira  .    .    670 

The  Messenians  emigrate  to  Sicily,  and 

give  their  own  name  Messene  to  Zaa- 

de  (now  called  Messina)  .    668 

Sea-fight,  the  first  on  record,  between 

the  Corinthians  and  the  inhabitants  of 

Corcjrra  .         .         .         .        ■    664 

Byzantium  built  by  the  Argives  .    658 

Sybaris,  in  Magna  Grccia,  destroyed, 

100,000  Crotonians  under  Milo  defeat 

300,000  Sybarians  .         .606 

Sardis  taken  and  burnt,  which  occasions 

the  Persian  invasion  .    .    504 

Thrace  and  Macedonia  conquered  .    496 

Rattle  of  Marathon  {which  see)  .    .    490 

Xerxes  invades  Greece,  but  is  checked 

at  Thermopylae  by  Leonidas  .    480 

Battle  of  Salamis  {which  see)  .     .    480 

MardonluB  defeated  at  Plataea  .    479 


Battle  of  Eurymedon        .        .        b.c.    470 
The  third  Messenian  war  .  .    465 

Athens  begins  to  tyrannise  over  the 

other  states  of  Greece  .        .    .    450 

Peloponnesus  overrun  by  Pericles  .    455 

The  first  sacred  war  .        .        .    448 

Herodotus  reads  his  history  in  the  Coun- 
cil at  Athens         ....        445 
The  sea-fight  at  Cnidus         .        .        .394 
Battle  of  Mantinea  •         .  .    .    633 

Sacred  war  ended  by  Philip,  who  takes 

all  the  cities  of  the  Phooeana  .    348 

Battle  of  Cbcronea  {which  tee)         .    .    338 
Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip,  enters 
Greece ;  subdues  the  Athenians,  and 
destroys  the  city  of  Thebes         .        .    335 
Commencement  of  the  Macedonian  or 

Grecian  Monarchy         .         .         .    .    331 
Alexander  goes  to  Susa,  and  sits  on  the 

throne  of  Darius        ....    330 

*         *        *         *         ^         *         * 

Alaric  invades  Greece                       a.d.    395 
The   empire  under  Nicephorus   com- 
menced          811 

Greece  mastered  by  the  Latins  .  1204 

Re-conquered  ....  1261 

Invaded  by  the  Turks       .         .         .    .  1350 
Its  final  overthrow.  Bee  Eastern  Empire  1353 
[This  country,  so  long  illustrious  for  the 
military  exploits,  the  learning,  and 
arts  of  its  people,  became  of  late  years 
the  scene  of  desperaie  c(nifliots  with 
theTurks,  in  order  to  r^ain  its  inde- 
pendence, and  the  councils  of  the 
great  powers  of  Europe  were  friendly 
to  the  design.] 
Great  struggle  for  independence  .  1770 

The  first  decided  movement  in  these 

latter  times,  by  the  Servians         .      .  1800 
The  Servians  defeat  the  Turks  at  Nyssa 

April  2,  1807 
100,000  Turks,  under  Chourshld  Pasha, 
overrun  the  country,  committing  the 
m^  dreadful  excesses  .         .    .  1813 

Murder  of  Czemi  George  .1817 

Insurrection  in  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 

in  which  the  Greeks  Join        .         .    .1821 
Proclamation  of  prince  Alexander  to 

shake  off  the  Turkish  yoke       March,  1821 
The  Greek  patriarch  put  to  death  at 

Constantinople  April  23,  1821 

10,000  Christians  perish  in  Cyprus,  al- 
though not  engaged  in  the  revolt        .  1821 
Massacre  of  the  inhabitants  of  Buchar 
rest ;  even  the  women  and  children 

not  spared 1821 

Independence  of  Greece  formally  pro- 
claimed .         .         .         Jan.  27»  1822 
Siege  of  Corinth  .        Feb.  1822 
Bombardment   of  Scio;   its  capture; 
most  horrible  massacre  recorded  in 
modem  history*  April  23,  1822 


*  The  slaughter  lasted  10  days :  40,000  of  both  sexes  falling  victims  to  the  sword,  or  to  the  fire  which 
raged  until  every  house,  save  those  of  the  foreign  consuls,  was  burned  to  the  ground.  7000  Greeks, 
who  had  fled  to  the  mountains,  were  induced  to  surrender  by  a  promise  of  amnesty,  guaranteed  by 
the  consuls  of  England,  France,  and  AnsMa,  yet  even  they  were,  every  man  of  them,  butchered  ! 
The  only  exception  made  during  the  massacre  was  in  fctvour  of  the  young  and  more  beautiful  women 

B. 


ORE 


[242] 


GRE 


GREECE,  eontinued. 

Tiotories  of  the  Oreeks  at   LarisBa,  Attack  on  Carabuaa,   by  sir  Thomas 

Thermopylc,  and  Salonica        July  8,  18S2  Staines,  in  the  Uis  frigate,  to  check 

National  Congress  at  Argos       AprillO,  1823  the  piracies                               Jan.  31,  1828 

Victories  of  Marco  Botzaris   .         June,  1823  The  Panhellenion  or  Grand  Council  of 

Lord  Byron  lands  in  Greece,  to  devote  State,  established                        Feb.  2,  1828 

himself  to  its  cause         .         August,  1823  National  Bank  founded          .     Feb.  14,  1828 

Lamented  death  of  lord  Byron  at  Mis-  Greece  divided  into  departments.  vi2., 

solonghi             .         .         .    April  19,  1824  Argoli8,Achaia,Elis,  Upper  Messenia, 

Signal  defeat  of  theCapitan  Pacha,  at  Lower  Messenia,  Laconia,  and  Arcadia 

Bamos            .         .                August  16,  1824  April  25,  1828 

The  Provisional  Government  of  Greece  The  islands  formed  also  into  departments 

instituted                     .         .     Oct.  12,  1824  April  26,  1828 

Landing  of  Ibrahim    Pacha  between  The  Greeks  are  defeated  in  an  attack  on 

Coron  and  Modon             .         Feb.  26,  1825  Anatolia         .                  .         Itfay  23.  1828 

The  Greek  fleet  defeats  that  of  the  Ca-  Convention    of   the  viceroy  of  Egypt 

pitan  Pacha             .         .         June  2,  1825  with    sir    Edward    Codrington,   for 

The  Provisional  Government  of  Greece  the  evacuation  of  the   Morea,    and 

determines  to  invite  the  protection  of  delivery    of    the     Greek     captives, 

England             .         .         .     July  24,  1826  Aug.  6,  1828 

Siege  of  Missolonghi ;  the  besieging  Turks  Conference  of  the  plenipotentiaries  held 

are  defeated  in  a  formidable  attack  at  Corfu                  .                 Aug  10,  1828 

upon  it    ....     August  1,  1826  Patras,  Navarino,  and  Modon  surrender 

The  Oreeks  disperse  the  Ottoman  fleet  to  the  French               .              Oct  6,  1828 

Jan.  28,  1826  Final  evacuation  of  the  Morea  by  the 

Ibrahim   Pacha  takes  Missolonghi  by  Turks                                       Oct.  SO,  1828 

assault           .         .         .         April  23,  1826  Missolonghi  surrenders            .    May  17,  1829 

The  Greeks  land  near  Salonica ;  battle  Greek  National  Assembly  commences 

A           with  Omer  Pacha             .         June  1,  1826  its  sittings  at  Argos                  July  23,  1829 

Ibrahim  Pacha  signally  defeated  by  the  The  Porte  acknowledges  the  independ- 

Mainotes            .          August  8  and  9,  1826  ence  of  Greece            .         .    April  25,  1830 

Lord  Cochrane  arrives  at  Messina,  on  Prince   Leopold    flnally    declines'  the 

his  way  to  Greece                     Aug.  12,  1826  .sovereignty         .         .         .     May  21,  1830 

National  Assembly  called  in  the  Isle  of  .Count  Capo  d'Istria,  Presidentof  Greece, 

Porus         ....    Aug.  14,  1826  assassinated  by  the  brother  and  son  of 

Reschid  Pacha  takes  Athens      Aug.  15,  1826  Maromichaelis,  a  Mainote  chief,  whom 

Treaty  of  London,  between  Great  Bri-  he  had  imprisoned                      Oct  9,  1831 

tain,  Russia,  and  France,  on  behalf  of  The  assassins  put  to  death  (see  article, 

Greece,  signed          .         .         July  6,  1827  Burying  Alive)            .         .     Oct  29,  1831 

Battle  of   Navarino   {which  see) ;    the  Otho  I.  elected  king  of  Greece,  Jan.  25,  1833 

Turkic  fleet  destroyed         .    Oct.  20,  1827  Colocotroni's  Conspiracy          .    Oct.  27,  1833 

Count  Capo  d'Istria arrives  as  President  [See  AthenSt  Macedon^  Sparta,  Thrace,  and 

of  Greece        .         .                  Jan.  18,  1828  other  states  of  Greece.] 

GREEK  CHURCH.  A  difference  arose  in  the  eighth  century  between  the  eastern 
and  western  churches,  which  in  the  course  of  two  centuries  and  a  half  terminated  in 
a  separation :  this  church  is  called  Greek  in  contradistinction  from  the  latter,  or 
Roman  church.  The  Greek  church  claims  priority  as  using  the  language  in  which 
the  Gospel  was  first  promulgated,  and  many  of  its  forms  and  ceremonies  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  Roman  Catholics  ;  but  it  disowns  the  supremacy  of  the  pope.  It  is 
the  established  religion  of  Russia. 

GREEK  FIRE.  A  composition  of  combustible  matter  invented  by  one  Callinicus,  an 
ingenious  engineer  of  Heliopolis,  in  Syria,  in  the  seventh  century,  in  order  to 
destroy  the  Saracens'  ships,  which  was  effected  by  the  general  of  the  emperor 
Pogonat*s  fleet,  and  30,000  men  were  killed.  The  property  of  this  fire  was  to  bum 
briskest  in  water,  to  diffuse  itself  on  all  sides,  according  to  the  impression  given  it. 
Nothing  but  oil,  or  a  mixture  of  vinegar,  urine,  and  sand,  could  quench  it.  It  was 
blown  out  of  long  tubes  of  copper,  and  shot  out  of  cross-bows,  and  other  spring 

and  boys,  30,000  of  whom  were  reserved  for  the  markets.  The  narrative  of  plunder,  violation,  and 
crime,  'while  the  .infidel  army  was  let  loose  upon  the  captured  city,  is  too  long  and  too  shocking  for 
transcription  here.  When  Scio,  until  now  so  great  an  object  o(  admiration  to  travellers,  was  entirely 
consumed,  the  Turks  fired  the  villages,  hemming  in  at  all  sides  the  innocent  inhabitants,  mostly 
women  and  children,  to  perish  amid  the  flames  of  their  dwellings,  or  to  fall  beneath  the  swords  and 
daggers  of  the  soldiers,  as  they  attempted  to  escape.  From  the  details  of  this  horrible  affair,  given  by 
Mr.  Blaquiere  and  other  writers,  and  their  descriptions  of  individual  woe,  it  is  not  wonderful  that  the 
heart  of  Byron  was  touched  by  them,  and  his  spirit  fired,  and  his  energies  devoted  to  the  cause  of  that 
classic  land,  in  which  he  so  meetly  died. 


GRE {]  243  ] GRE 

instruments.     The  invention  was  kept  a  secret  for  many  years  by  the  court  of  Con- 
stantinople ;  but  it  is  now  lost 

GREEK  LANGUAGE.  The  Greek  language  was  first  studied  in  Europe  about  a.d. 
1450 — in  France*  1473.  William  Groc3rn,  or  Grokeyn,  a  learned  English  professor 
of  this  language,  travelled  to  acquire  its  true  pronunciation,  and  introduced  it  at 
Oxford,  where  he  had  the  honour  to  teach  Erasmus,  1490. —  Wood's  Athen,  Ojpon. 

GREEN  BAG  INQUIRY.  The  famous  green  bag  full  of  documents  of  alleged 
seditions,  laid  before  parliament  by  lord  Sidmouth,  February  2,  1817.  Secret  com- 
mittees presented  their  reports,  February  19  ;  and  bills  were  brought  in  on  the  2 1  et, 
to  suspend  the  Habeas  Corpus  act,  and  prevent  seditious  meetings. 

GREEN  CLOTH,  Board  of.  This  is  a  court  in  the  deparment  of  the  lord  steward 
of  the  household  ;  it  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  courts  in  England,  and  has  jurisdic- 
tion of  all  offences  committed  in  the  king's  palaces,  and  verge  of  the  court.  It  is 
called  the  Green  Qoth,  from  the  table  whereat  they  sat  being  covered  with  a  green 
cloth ;  and  without  a  warrant  from  this  court,  none  of  the  king's  servants  can  be 
arrested  for  debt. 

GREENLAND.  Discovered  by  some  Norwegians  from  Iceland,  about  a.d.  980,  and 
thus  named  on  account  of  its  superior  verdure  compared  with  the  latter  country. 
It  was  visited  by  Frobisher,  in  1576.  The  first  ship  from  England  to  Greenland 
was  sent  for  the  whale  fishery  by  the  Muscovy  Company,  2  James  I.  1604.  In  a 
voyage  performed  in  1630,  eight  men  were  left  behind  by  accident,  and  suffered 
incredible  hardships  till  the  following  year,  when  the  company's  ships  brought 
them  home. —  Tindal.    The  Greenland  Fishing  Company  was  incorporated  in  1693. 

GREEN  PARK.  Forms  a  part  of  the  ground  inclosed  by  Henry  VIII. ;  and  is  united  to 
St.  James'  and  Hyde  parks  by  the  fine  road  named  Constitution -hill.  On  the  north 
side  is  a  reservoir  of  the  Chelsea  water-works.  It  was  re-constructed  in  1829,  with 
a  curious  filtering  apparatus.  The  promenade  round  this  basin,  and  other  parts  of 
this  small  but  beautiM  park,  possesses,  for  a  town  scene,  unequalled  attractions.  On 
the  Piccadilly  side,  the  old  wall  which  shut  up  the  view  of  the  park  a  great  length  of 
way,  was  thrown  down,  and  a  light  iron  railing  erected,  much  to  the  gratification  of 
passengers,  in  1839. — See  Paries. 

GREENWICH  HOSPITAL.  One  of  the  noblest  structures  of  the  kind  in  the  world : 
it  stands  upon  the  spot  where  formerly  stood  the  royal  palace  of  several  of  our 
monarchs.  The  palace  was  erected  by  Humphrey,  duke  of  Gloucester ;  was  enlarged 
by  Henry  VII.,  and  completed  by  Henry  VIII. ;  and  in  its  chambers  queen  Mary 
and  queen  Elizabeth  were  bom,  and  Edward  VI.  died.  Charles  II.  intended  to 
build  a  new  palace  here  on  a  very  grand  scale,  and  accordingly  erected  one  wing  of 
this  grand  edifice,  but  died  before  any  other  part  of  the  design  was  finished.  In  this 
state  it  remained  till  William  III.  formed  the  present  plan  of  making  the  palace 
useful  to  the  kingdom,  and  the  hospital  was  instituted  in  1694.  The  forfeited  estate 
of  the  attainted  earl  of  Der  went  water  was  bestowed  upon  it,  in  1716.  Sixpence  per 
month  was  first  contributed  by  every  seaman,  and  the  payment  was  advanced  to  one 
■hilling,  from  June,  1797.  This  hospital  lodges  about  3000  old  and  disabled  seamen, 
and  possesses  a  revenue  exceeding  70,000/.  per  annum.  A  charter  was  granted  to  it 
in  December,  1775.  The  chapel  (the  most  elegant  in  the  world),  with  the  S.E. 
dome,  the  great  dining-hall,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  buildings  appropriated  to  the 
pensioners,  was  destroyed  by  fire,  January  2,  1779.  The  chapel  was  rebuilt,  and 
opened,  September  20,  1789. 

GREENWICH  OBSERVATORY.  Built  at  the  solicitation  of  sir  Jonas  Moore  and 
sir  Christopher  Wren,  by  Charles  II.,  on  the  summit  of  Flamstead-hill,  so  called 
from  the  great  astronomer  of  that  name,  who  was  the  first  astronomer-royal  here. 
The  English  began  to  compute  the  longitude  from  the  meridian  of  this  place,  1675 ; 
some  make  the  date  1679.  This  observatory  contains  a  transept  circle  by  Troughton ; 
a  transit  instrument  of  eight  feet  by  Bird ;  two  mural  quadrants  of  eight  feet, 
and  Bradley's  zenith  sector.  The  telescopes  are  forty  and  sixty  inch  achromatics, 
and  a  six-feet  reflector  ;  and  among  other  fine  instruments  and  objects  is  a  famous 
camera  obscura. 

GREGORIAN  CALENDAR.  Ordained  to  be  adopted  by  pope  Gregory  XIII.,  from 
whom  it  derives  its  name,  a.d.  1582  ;  and  introduced  into  the  Catholic  states  of 
Europe  in  that  year;  into  most  other  states  in  1710  ;  and  adopted  by  England  in 

R  2 


GRB  C  ^^^  3  ^^^ 

1752.  To  the  time  of  Gregory,  the  deficiency  in  the  Julian  calendar  had  amounted 
to  ten  days ;  and  in  the  year  1752  it  had  amounted  to  eleven  days. — See  Calendar, 
and  New  Style, 

GRENADA.  Conquered  by  the  Moors,  a.d.  715  ;  it  was  the  last  kingdom  possessed 
by  them,  and  was  not  annexed  to  the  crown  of  Castile  until  1491 ;  the  capital  of 
this  province  is  magnificent  New  Grenada  was  conquered  by  the  Spaniards,  in 
1536.  Grenada,  in  the  West  Indies,  was  settled  by  the  French,  1650  ;  it  was  taken 
from  them  by  the  English,  in  1762,  and  was  ceded  to  England  in  1763.  The 
French  possessed  themselves  of  it  again  in  1779.;  but  it  was  restored  to  the  English 
at  the  peace  of  1783.  In  1795  the  French  landed  some  troops,  and  caused  an  in- 
surrection in  this  island,  which  was  not  finally  quelled  till  June,  1796. 

GRENADES.  From  Pomum  granatum,  a  small  hollow  globe,  or  ball  of  iron  about 
two  inches  in  diameter,  which  being  filled  with  fine  powder  and  set  on  fire,  the  case 
flies  into  shatters  to  the  damage  of  all  who  stand  near. — Harris.  This  shell  was 
invented  in  1594. — Idem, 

GRENADIERS.  A  tall  foot-soldiery,  of  whom  there  is  one  company  in  every  regiment. 
— Gay.  The  Grenadier  corps  was  a  company  armed  with  a  pouch  of  hand-grenades, 
estabUshed  in  France  in  1667  ;  and  in  England  in  1685. — Brown. 

GRESHAM  COLLEGE.  Founded  and  endowed  by  sir  Thomas  Gresham,  but  the 
building  no  longer  exists.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Royal  Exchange,  and  left  a 
portion  of  his  property  in  trust  to  the  city  and  the  Mercers*  Company  to  endow  this 
college  for,  among  other  uses,  lectures  in  divinity,  astronomy,  mu^ic,  and  geometry, 
and  readers  in  civil  law,  physic*  and  rhetoric,  and  to  promote  general  instruction  ; 
he  died,  1579.  The  lectures  were  read  in  a  room  over  the  Royal  Exchange  for 
many  years ;  but  they  have  been  delivered  in  the  theatre  of  the  London  Institution 
since  1830. 

GRETNA-GREEN  MARRIAGES.  The  famous  parish  of  Graitney  is  the  nearest 
and  most  easibly  accessible  point  in  Scotland  from  the  sister  kingdom ;  and  in  its 
neighbourhood  fugitive  marriages  are  made.  The  trade  was  founded  by  a  tobacconist 
named  John  Paisley,  who  lived  to  a  great  age,  and  died  so  late  as  the  year  1814.  The 
common  phrase,  Gretna  Green,  arose  from  his  first  residence,  which  was  at  Megg's 
Hill,  on  the  common  or  green  betwixt  Graitney  and  Springfield,  to  the  last  of  which 
villages  he  removed,  in  ]  782.  A  man  named  Elliot  is  now,  or  lately  was,  the  prin- 
cipal oflSciating  priest ;  and  the  ceremony  is  brief  and  simple.  The  parson  (tobacconist 
or  blacksmith)  asks  the  anxious  lovers  whence  they  come,  and  what  parish  they 
belong  to,  in  order  to  register  their  answers  ;  they  are  next  asked  if  they  are  willing 
to  receive  each  other  for  better  for  worse,  &c.  This  being  ascertained,  and  a  wed- 
ding-ring passed  between  them,  they  are  declared  to  be  married  persons.  The  fees 
paid  to  the  parson  are  said  to  be  sometimes  very  handsome — so  much  as  a  hundred 
pounds  being  occasionally  paid  him  for  his  five  minutes'  work.  An  attempt  was 
made  in  the  General  Assembly,  in  1826,  to  have  this  system  suppressed,  but  without 
effect. — M*Diarmid. 

GREYHOUND.  This  dog,  like  the  shepherd's  dog,  is  mentioned  in  the  earb'est 
authors,  and  some  rare  instances  of  the  sagacity  of  dogs  are  recorded  of  this  species. 
The  Welsh  legend  of  Berth-gelert  is  thus  related  : — While  his  master  was  at  the 
chase,  a  greyhound  kept  watch  over  his  infant  heir  while  it  slept  in  an  arbour  on  a 
couch ;  it  was  attacked  by  a  wolf,  which  the  greyhound  killed,  and  then  stretched 
itself  beside  the  child  to  secure  it  from  further  harm.  The  parent,  on  his  return,  per- 
ceived the  blood,  but  not  the  child,  and  in  his  Aight  and  rage  plunged  his  sword  into 
the  faithful  dog,  which,  dying,  discovered  the  uninjured  heir  to  his  repentant  master. 
A  monument  of  the  Herbert  family,  near  Abergavenny,  represents  a  knight  with  his 
greyhound  at  his  feet,  in  memory  of  this  incident. — Spence. 

GRIST  MILLS.  They  were  invented  in  Ireland,  and  their  origin  is  thus  related : 
Ciemond,  the  fairest  woman  of  her  time,  and  concubine  of  Cormock  M'Kart, 
monarch  of  Ireland,  was  compelled  by  the  queen,  her  rival,  to  grind  nine  measures 
of  com  in  a  hand-mill.  But  the  monarch,  in  commiseration  of  that  hard  treatment 
of  her,  invented  the  grist-mill,  a.d.  214. — Hist,  of  Ireland.^ 

GROATS.  This  name  has  been  proverbial  for  a  small  coin. — Shdkspere.  It  is  from 
the  Dutch  groot^  and  is  a  coin  of  the  value  of  fourpence. — Ray.  Groats  were  the 
largest  silver  currency  in  England  until  after  1351,  and  were  coined  in  almost  all 


GRO  Q  245  ]  GUI 

reigns.    The  modern  fourpence  U  the  diminutive  groat.    Of  these  there  were  coined, 
in  1836,  to  the  value  of  70,884/. ;  in  1837,  16,038/. 

GROCERS.  One  of  the  oldest  trades  in  England.  The  word  ancientlj  meant  **  in- 
grossers  or  monopolizers,''  as  appears  by  a  statute,  37 Edward  III.  The  Grocers'  Com- 
pany is  one  of  the  twelve  chief  companies  of  the  city  of  London,  incoporated  in  1429. 

GROCHOW,  Battlb  of,  near  Praga,  a  suburb  of  Warsaw,  between  the  Poles  and 
Russians.  After  an  obstinate  contest,  continuing  the  whole  of  one  day,  and  great 
part  of  the  next,  the  Poles  remained  masters  of  the  field  of  battle.  The  Russians 
shortly  after  retreated,  having  been  foiled  in  their  attempt  to  take  Warsaw  by  this 
battle,  in  which  they  are  stated  to  havelost  7000  men^and  the  Poles  2000,  Feb.  20,1831. 

GROG.  The  sea  term  for  rum  and  water,  arose  from  admiral  Vernon,  who  was  called 
Old  Grog,  having  first  introduced  it  on  board  his  ship,  about  a.d.  1747. 

GRUB-STREET.  The  name  of  a  street  near  Moorfields,  London,  which  was  for- 
merly much  inhabited  by  writers  of  small  histories  and  temporary  poems. — Johnson. 
It  was  the  residence  of  the  lowest  class  of  literary  characters,  from  which  circum- 
stance the  epithet  Grub-sireei  is  applied  to  all  mean  productions  and  bad  com- 
positions.— Idem, 

GUADALOUPE.  Discovered  by  Columbus  a.d.  1493.  It  was  colonised  by  the 
French  in  1635.  Taken  by  the  English  in  1759,  and  restored  in  1763.  Again 
taken  by  the  English  in  1779,  1794,  and  1810;  and  in  order  to  allure  the  Swedes 
into  the  late  coalition  against  France,  gave  them  this  island.  It  was,  however,  by 
the  consent  of  Sweden,  restored  to  France,  in  1814. 

GUAIACUM.  John  Gonsalvo  Oviedo  was  the  discoverer  of  the  virtues  of  guaicum  in 
the  cure  of  venereal  complaints  (according  to  Fallopius)  about  a.d.  1490. — Moreri. 

GUARDS.  The  custom  of  having  guards  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  by  Saul, 
1093  B,c.^Eusebius.  Guards  about  the  persons  of  European  kings  is  of  early 
institution.  Body  guards  were  appointed  to  attend  the  kings  of  England,  2  Henry 
Vll.  1486.  Horse  Guards  were  raised  4  Edward  VI.  1550.  The  three  regiments, 
the  Ist,  2nd,  and  3rd  Foot  Guards  were  raised  a.d.  1660,  and  the  command  of 
them  given  to  colonel  Russell,  general  Monk,  and  lord  Linlithgow.  The  second 
regiment,  or  Coldstream,  was  the  first  raised. — See  Coldstream,  The  Horse 
Grenadier  Guards,  first  troop,  raised  in  1693,  was  commanded  by  general  Chol- 
mondeley  ;  the  second  troop  was  raised  in  1702,  and  was  commanded  by  lord 
Forbes ;  this  corps  was  reduced  in  1783,  the  officers  retiring  on  full  pay.— 
See  Horse  Guards. 

GUELPHS  AND  GHIBELINS.  These  were  party  names,  and  are  said  to  have  been 
derived  from  Hiewelf  and  Hiegibelin,  the  names  of  towns.  The  designation  began 
in  Italy,  a.d.  1139,  and  distinguished  the  contending  armies  during  the  civil  wars 
in  Germany  ;  the  Guelphs  were  for  the  pope,  and  the  Ghibelins  for  the  emperor. 
Guelph  is  the  name  of  the  present  royal  family  of  England. — See  Brunswick,  The 
Guelphic  order  of  knighthood  was  instituted  for  the  kingdom  of  Hanover,  by  the 
prince  regent,  afterwards  George  IV.,  in  1816. 

GUILDHALL.  This  celebrated  edifice  was  built  in  a.d.  1411 ;  it  was  so  damaged  by  the 
memorable  fire  of  1666,  that  its  re-erection  became  necessary,  an  undertaking  which 
was  completed  in  1669,  no  part  of  the  ancient  building  remaining,  except  the  interior 
of  the  porch  and  the  walls  of  the  hall.  The  front  was  not  erected  until  1789. 
Beneath  the  west  window  are  the  colossal  figures  of  Gog  and  Magog,  said  to  repre- 
sent a  Saxon  and  an  ancient  Britain.  ,  The  magnificent  hall  has  contained  7000 
persons,  and  is  used  for  city  feasts. 

GUILLOTINE.  An  engine  for  decapitation,  which  has  made  an  otherwise  obscure 
name  immortal.  A  similar  instrument,  but  of  ruder  form,  may  be  seen  in  an  en- 
graving accompanying  the  Symbolic^  Questiones  of  Achilles  Bocchius,  4to,  1555 
(see  the  Travels  of  Father  Labat  in  Italy)  ;  it  is  there  called  the  Mannaia.  In 
Scotland,  also  at  Halifax,  England  (see  Halifax  ;  Maiden),  soon  after  it  was  in  use, 
and  served  to  behead  its  introducer,  the  regent  Morton.  Dr.  Guillotin,  about  1785, 
recommended  its  use  in  France,  from  motives  of  humanity,  as  a  substitute  for  the 
more  cruel  gibbet,  and  his  name  was  applied  to  it,  at  first  from  mere  waggishness. 
Its  unwilling  godfather  was  imprisoned  during  the  revolutionary  troubles,  and  ran 
some  hazard  of  being  subjected  to  its  deadly  operation  ;  but  he  (contrary  to  a  pre- 
vailing opinion)  escaped,  and  lived  to  become  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of 


GUI  [  246  ]  GYM 

Medicine  at  Paris.     He  died  May  26,  1814,  aged  seventy-six,  enjoying  to  the  last 
the  esteem  of  all  who  knew  him,  for  his  mild  virtues. 

GUINEA  SLAVE  TRADE.  The  name  of  Hawkins  is,  unhappily  for  his  memory, 
branded  on  the  page  of  history  as  the  first  Englishman,  after  the  discovery  of 
America,  who  made  a  merchandise  of  the  human  species. — Bell,  The  first  opening 
of  the  slave  trade  on  this  coast  was  by  sir  John  Hawkins,  assisted  in  his  enterprise 
by  a  number  of  English  gentlemen,  who  subscribed  money  for  the  purpose.  Hawkins 
sailed  from  England  with  three  ships ;  purchased  negroes,  sold  them  at  Hispaniola, 
and  returned  home  richly  laden  with  hides,  sugar,  ginger,  and  other  merchandise,  5 
Elizabeth,  1563.  This  voyage  led  to  other  similar  enterprises. — Hcuikluyt,  The 
slave  trade,  so  long  a  stigma  on  the  English  character,  was  abolished  by  act  of 
parliament,  March  25,  1807. — See  Slave  Trade, 

GUINEAS.  An  English  gold  coin,  so  named  from  their  having  been  first  coined  of 
gold  brought  from  the  coast  of  Guinea,  a.o.  1673.  They  were  then  valued  at  30«. 
and  were  worth  that  sum  in  1696.  They  were  reduced  in  currency  from  22*.  to  2I«. 
by  parliament  in  1717.  Broad  pieces  were  coined  into  guineas  in  1732.  The 
original  guineas  bore  the  impression  of  an  elephant,  on  account  of  their  having  been 
coined  of  this  African  gold. 

GUNPOWDER.  The  invention  of  gunpowder  is  generally  ascribed  to  Bertholdns  or 
Michael  Schwartz,  a  Cordelier  monk  of  Goslar,  south  of  Brunswick,  in  Germany, 
about  A.D.  1320.  But  many  writers  maintain  that  it  was  known  much  earlier  in 
various  parts  of  the  world.  Some  say  that  the  Chinese  possessed  the  art  a  number 
of  centuries  before.  Its  composition,  moreover,  is  expressly  mentioned  by  our  own 
famous  Roger  Bacon,  in  his  treatise  De  Nullitate  Magia,  which  was  published  at 
Oxford,  in  1216. 

GUNPOWDER  PLOT.  The  memorable  conspiracy  known  by  this  name,  for 
springing  a  mine  under  the  houses  of  parliament,  and  destroying  the  three  estates 
of  the  realm — king,  lords,  and  commons — there  assembled,  was  discovered  on  Nov. 
5,  1605.  This  diabolical  scheme  was  projected  by  Robert  Catesby,  and  many  high 
persons  were  leagued  in  the  enterprise.  Guy  Faux  was  detected  in  the  vaults  under 
the  House  of  Lords,  preparing  the  train  for  being  fired  on  the  next  day.  Catesby 
and  Percy  (of  the  family  of  Northumberland)  were  killed;  sir  Everard  Digby,  Rock- 
wood,  Winter,  Garnet,  a  Jesuit,  and  others,  died  by  the  hands  of  the  executioner,  as 
did  Guy  Faux,  January  31,  1606.  The  vault  called  Guy  Faux  cellar,  in  which  the 
conspirators  lodged  the  barrels  of  gunpowder,  remained  in  the  late  houses  of  parlia- 
ment till  1825,  when  it  was  converted  into  offices. 

GUY'S  HOSPITAL.  This  celebrated  London  hospital  is  indebted  for  its  origin  to 
Thomas  Guy,  an  eminent  and  wealthy  bookseller,  who,  after  having  bestowed 
immense  sums  on  St.  Thomas's,  determined  to  be  the  sole  founder  of  another 
hospital.  At  the  age  of  seventy-six,  in  1721,  he  commenced  the  erection  of  the 
present  building,  and  lived  to  see  it  nearly  completed.  It  cost  him  18,793/.,  in 
addition  to  which  he  left,  to  endow  it,  the  immense  sum  of  219,499/.  A  splendid 
bequest,  amounting  to  200,000/.  was  made  to  this  hospital  by  Mr.  Hunt,  to  provide 
additional  accommodation  for  100  patients  ;  his  will  was  proved  Sept.  24,  1829. 

GYMNASIUM,  a  place  among  the  Greeks,  where  all  the  public  exercises  were  per- 
formed, and  where  not  only  wrestlers  and  dancers  exhibited,  but  also  philosophers, 
poets,  and  rhetoricians  repeated  their  compositions.  In  wrestling  and  boxing,  the 
athletes  were  often  naked,  whence  the  word  Gymnasium — gumnost  nudug.  They 
anointed  themselves  with  oil  to  brace  th^ir  limbs,  and  to  render  their  bodies  slippery, 
and  more  difficult  to  be  grasped.  The  first  modem  treatise  on  the  subject  of 
Gymnastics  was  published  in  Germany  in  1793.     London  society  formed,  1826. 

GYMNOSOPHIST^.  A  sect  of  philosophers  in  India.  The  Gymnosophistse  lived 
naked,  as  their  name  implies ;  for  thirty-seven  years  they  exposed  themselves  in 
the  open  air,  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  the  inclemency  of  the  seasons,  and  the  coldness 
of  the  night.  They  were  often  seen  in  the  fields  fixing  their  eyes  fiill  upon  the 
disc  of  the  sun  from  the  time  of  its  rising  till  the  hour  of  its  setting.  Sometimes 
they  stood  whole  days  upon  one  foot  in  burning  sand.  Alexander  was  astonished 
at  the  sight  of  a  sect  of  men  who  seemed  to  despise  bodily  pain,  and  who  inured 
themselves  to  suffer  the  greatest  tortures  without  uttering  a  groan,  or  expressing 
any  marks  of  fear.  The  Brachmans  were  a  branch  of  the  sect  of  the  Gymnoso- 
phistee,  334  b.c— P/i»y. 


GYP  [_  247  ]  HAG 

GYPSI£S,  OR  EGYPTIANS.  A  strange  commonwealth  of  wanderers  and  peculiar 
race  of  people,  who  made  their  appearance  first  in  Germany,  about  a.d.  1517, 
having  quitted  Egypt  when  attacked  by  the  Turks.  They  are  the  descendants  of  a 
great  body  of  Egyptians  who  revolted  from  the  Turkish  yoke,  and  being  defeated, 
dispersed  in  small  parties  all  over  the  world,  while  their  supposed  skill  in  the  black 
art  gave  them  an  universal  reception  in  that  age  of  credulity  and  superstition. 
Although  expelled  from  France  in  1560,  and  from  most  countries  soon  after,  they 
are  yet  found  in  every  part  of  Europe,  as  well  as  in  Asia  and  Africa.  Having 
recovered  their  footing,  they  have  contrived  to  maintain  it  to  this  day.  In  England 
an  act  was  made  against  their  itinerancy,  in  1530  ;  and  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 
thirteen  persons  were  executed  at  one  assizes  for  having  associated  with  gypsies  for 
about  a  month,  contrary  to  the  statute.  The  gypsy  settlement  at  Norwood  was 
broken  up,  and  they  were  treated  as  vagrants,  May  1797.  There  were  in  Spain  alone, 
previously  to  the  year  1800,  more  than  120,000  gypsies,  and  many  communities  of 
them  yet  exist  in  England  ;  and  notwithstanding  their  intercourse  with  other  nations, 
they  are  still,  like  the  JewS)  in  their  manners,  customs,  visage,  and  appearance, 
wholly  unchanged. 


H. 

HABEAS  CORPUS.  The  subjects'  Writ  of  Right,  passed  for  the  security  and  liberty 
of  individuals,  May  27,  1679.  This  act  is  next  in  importance  to  Magna  Charta, 
for  so  long  as  the  statute  remains  in  force,  no  subject  of  England  can  be  detained  in 
prison,  except  in  cases  wherein  the  detention  is  shown  to  be  justified  by  the  law. 
The  Habeas  Corpus  Act  can  alone  be  suspended  by  the  authority  of  parliament, 
and  then  for  a  short  time  only,  and  when  the  emergency  is  extreme.  In  such  a  case, 
the  nation  parts  with  a  portion  of  its  liberty  to  secure  its  own  permanent  welfare, 
and  suspected  persons  may  then  be  arrested  without  cause  or  purpose  being 
assigned. — Blacks  tone. 


Act  suspended  for  six  months  during 

the  Scots*  rebellion        .         .         a.d.  1715 
Sa^>ended  for  six  months  owing  to  the 

same  cause 1716 

Suspended  for  twelve  months  .  .  .  1722 
Suspended  for  six  months  .  .  .  1744 
Suspended  for  one  year  .  .  .  .  1745 
Suspended  for  six  months  .  .  .  1779 
Again  by  Mr.  Pitt,  owing  to  a  message 
from  the  king 1794 


Suspended  in  Ireland,  on  account  of  the 

great  rebellion  ....  A.n.  1796 
Again,  and  in  England  .  Aug.  28,  1799 
Suspended  on  a  division,  189  against  42, 

majority  147  .         •    April  19,  1801 

Again  on  accoimtof  the  Irish  insurrection  180:) 
Again,  owing  to  alleged  secret  meetings 

(see  Green  Bag)  .  .  Feb.  21,  1817 
Bill  to  restore  the  Habecu  Corpus  brought 

into  parliament  .    January  28,  1818 


HACKNEY  COACHES  are  of  French  origin.  In  France,  a  strong  kind  of  cob-horse 
(haquen^e)  was  let  out  on  hire  for  short  journeys :  these  were  latterly  harnessed  (to 
accommodate  several  wayfarers  at  once)  to  a  plain  vehicle  called  coche-h-haquenee : 
hence  the  name.  The  legend  that  traces  their  origin  to  Hackney,  near  London, 
is  a  vulgar  error.  They  were  first  licensed  in  1662,  and  subjected  to  regulations, 
6  William  and  Mary,  1694. — Survey  of  London.  The  number  plying  in  London 
fixed  at  1000,  and  their  fares  raised,  1771.  The  number  increased  in  1799,  and 
frequently  since.  Office  removed  to  Somerset-house,  1782.  Coach-makers  made 
subject  to  a  licence,  1785.  Hackney  chariots  and  cabriolets  licensed  in  1814.  Lost- 
and-Found  office,  for  the  recovery  of  property  left  in  hackney-coaches,  established 
by  act  55  George  III.  1815.  This  office  has  caused  the  restoration  of  a  vast  amount 
of  property,  and  is  held  at  Somerset-house.  The  number  of  hackney  coaches  to 
cease  being  limited  after  5th  January,  1833,  by  statute  2  William  IV.  1831.  The 
cabriolets  are  of  Parisian  origin  ;  but  the  aristocratic  taste  of  Englishmen  suggested 
the  propriety  of  obliging  the  driver  to  be  seated  on  the  outside  of  the  vehicle. 

HAGUE.  Once  called  the  finest  village  in  Europe  :  the  place  of  meeting  of  the  States- 
General,  and  residence  of  the  former  earls  of  Holland,  the  princes  of  Holland,  &c. 
Here  the  States,  in  1586,  abrogated  the  authority  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  held  a 
conference  in  1 610,  upon  the  five  articles  of  the  remonstrants,  which  occasioned  the 
synod  of  Dort.  Treaty  of  the  Hague,  entered  into  with  a  view  to  preserve  the 
equilibrium  of  the  North,  signed  by  England,  France,  and  Holland,  May  21,  1659. 
De  Witt  was  torn  in  pieces  here,  August  20,  1672.    The  French  took  possession  of 


HAI  [^  248  ]]  HAM 

th^  Hague  in  Jannarj  1795 ;  favoured  by  a  hard  frost,  thej  marched  into  Holland, 
where  the  inhabitants  and  troops  declared  in  their  favour ;  a  general  revolution 
ensued,  and  the  stadtholder  and  his  family  were  compelled  to  leave  the  country  and 
escape  to  England.  The  Hague  was  evacuated  in  November  1813,  shortly  after 
the  battle  of  Leipsic,  and  the  stadtholder  returned  to  his  dominions  and  arrived  here 
in  December,  that  year.  Treaty  of  Commerce  between  England  and  Holland, 
December  16, 1837. 
HAILEYBURY  COLLEGE.  An  institution  of  the  East  India  Company,  wherein 
students  are  prepared  for  the  Company's  service  in  India.  It  was  founded  in  1800, 
and  has  been  regulated  by  various  acts  of  parliament.  By  statute  1  Victoria,  July 
1837,  it  is  enacted  **  that  no  person  is  to  be  admitted  to  the  college  as  a  student 
whose  age  shall  exceed  twenty-one  years,  nor  any  person  appointed  or  sent  out  to 
Indiaas  a  writer  in  the  Company's  service  whose  age  shall  exceed  23  years.'' — Statutes. 

HAIR.  By  the  northern  nations,  and  in  Gaul,  hair  was  much  esteemed,  and  hence 
the  appellation  Gallia  comtiia  ;  and  cutting  off  the  hair  was  inflicted  as  a  punish- 
ment among  them.  The  royal  fiimily  of  France  had  it  as  a  particular  mark  and 
privilege  of  the  kings  and  princes  of  the  blood,  to  wear  long  hair,  artfully  dressed 
and  curled.  The  clerical  tonsure  is  of  apostolic  institution. — Isidorus  Hispalensis, 
Pope  Anicetus  forbade  the  clergy  to  wear  long  hair,  a.d.  155.  Long  hair  was  out 
of  fashion  during  the  Protectorate  of  Cromwell,  and  hence  the  term  Round-heads. 
It  was  again  out  of  fashion  in  1795  ;  and  very  short  hair  was  the  mode  in  1801. 
Hair-powder  came  into  use  in  1590;  and  in  1795  a  tax  was  laid  upon  persons 
using  it,  which  yielded  20,000/.  per  annum, 

HALCYON  DAYS,  in  antiquity,  implied  seven  days  before  and  as  many  after  the 
winter  solstice,  because  the  halcyon  laid  her  eggs  at  this  time  of  the  year,  and  the 
weather  during  her  incubation  was  always  calm.  The  phrase  was  afterwsu-ds 
employed  to  express  any  season  of  transient  prosperity,  or  of  brief  tranquillity,  the 
septem  placidi  dies  of  human  life. — Butler, 

HALIDON-HILL,  Battle  of,  near  Berwick,  between  the  English  and  Scots,  in 
which  the  latter  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  13,000  slain,  while  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  the  English  suffered,  reign  of  Edward  III.,  July  19,  1333.  After 
this  victory,  Edward  placed  Edward  Baliol  on  the  throne  of  Scotland. — Robertson. 

HALIFAX,  Yorkshire.  Here  prevailed  a  remarkable  law.  The  woollen  manu- 
facture being  very  great,  and  prodigious  quantities  of  cloths,  kerseys,  shalloons,  &c. 
being  continually  on  the  tenters  and  liable  to  be  stolen,  the  town,  at  its  first  incor- 
poration, was  empowered  to  punish  capitally  any  criminal  convicted  of  stealing  to 
the  value  of  upwards  of  thirteen  pence  hal^enny,  by  a  peculiar  engine,  which 
beheaded  the  offender  in  a  moment ;  but  king  James  I.  in  the  year  1620,  took  this 
power  away  ;  and  the  town  is  now  under  the  ordinary  course  of  justice. — See  Maiden. 

HALLELUJAH  and  AMEN.  Hebrew  expressions  frequently  used  in  the  Jewish 
hymns  :  from  the  Jewish  they  came  into  the  Christian  church.  The  meaning  of  the 
first  is  Praise  the  Lord,  and  of  the  second  So  be  it.  They  were  first  introduced  by 
Haggai,  the  prophet,  about  584  b.c.  ;  and  their  introduction  from  the  Jewish  into  the 
Christian  church  is  ascribed  to  St.  Jerome,  one  of  the  primitive  Latin  fathers,  about 
A.D.  390. — Cavers  Hist.  Lit. 

HALYS,  Battle  of.  A  battle  upon  the  river  Halys  between  the  Lydians  and  Medes, 
interrupted  by  an  almost  total  eclipse  of  the  sun,  on  the  28th  May  ;  which  occasions 
a  conclusion  of  the  war  between  the  two  kingdoms. — Blair,  [lliis  eclipse  had  been 
predicted  many  years  before  by  Thales  of  Miletus,  585  b.c.] 

HAMBURGH.  The  company  of  Hambro'  merchants  was  incorporated  in  1296. 
France  declared  war  upon  Hamburgh  for  its  treachery  in  giving  up  Napper  Tandy, 
(see  Napper  Tandy,)  October  1799.  British  property  sequestrated,  March  1801. 
Hamburgh  taken  by  the  French  after  the  battle  of  Jena  in  1806.  Incorporated  with 
France,  January  1810.  Evacuated  by  the  French  on  the  advance  of  the  Russians 
into  Germany  in  1813  ;  and  restored  to  its  independence  by  the  allied  sovereigns, 
May  1814. 

HAMMERCLOTH.  The  use  of  this  appendage  to  a  coach  arose  in  the  coachman 
formerly  carrying  a  hammer,  a  pair  of  pincers,  and  a  few  nails,  to  guard  against 
accidents,  in  his  coach-box,  and  this  doth  was  used  to  hide  them  from  public  view. 
— Pegge. 


HAM  [^  249  ]  HAN 

HAMPTON-COURT  PALACE.  Built  by  Cardinal  Wolsey  on  the  site  of  the  manor- 
hoQse  of  the  knights-hospitallers.  In  1526,  the  cardinal  presented  it  to  his  royal 
master,  Henry  YIII.  Here  Edward  VI.  was  born,  and  his  mother^  Jane  Seymour, 
died ;  and  Mary,  Elizabeth,  Charles,  and  others  of  our  sovereigns,  resided.  Most  of 
the  old  apartments  were  pulled  down,  and  the  grand  inner  court  built,  by  William 
III.  in  1694.  In  this  palace  was  held,  in  1604,  the  celebrated  conference  between 
the  Presbyterians  and  the  members  of  the  Established  Church,  which  led  to  a  new 
translation  of  the  Bible. — See  Conference, 

HANAPER  OFFICE.  An  office  of  the  court  of  chancery,  where  writs  relating  to 
the  business  of  the  subject,  and  their  returns,  were  anciently  kept  in  hanaperio  (in 
a  hamper) ;  and  those  relating  to  the  crown  were  kept  m  parva  baga  (a  little  bag). 
Hence  arose  the  names  Hanaper  and  Petty  Bag  Office* 

HANAU,  Battle  of,  between  a  division  of  the  combined  armies  of  Austria  and 
Bavaria  of  30,000  men,  under  general  Wrede ;  and  the  French,  70,000  strong,  under 
Napoleon.  The  French  were  on  their  retreat  from  Leipsic  when  encountered  by 
the  allies  at  Hanau.  The  French  suffered  very  severely,  though  the  allies,  who 
displayed  great  military  skill  and  bravery,  were  compelled  to  retire,  Oct.  29,  1813. 

HANDEL'S  COMMEMORATION.  The  first  musical  festival  in  commemoration 
of  this  illustrious  composer  was  held  in  Westminster  Abbey,  May  26,  1784.  It 
was  the  grandest  display  of  the  kind  ever  attempted  in  any  nation,  and  afforded  one 
of  the  most  magnificent  spectacles  which  the  imagination  can  delineate;  their 
majesties,  most  of  the  first  personages  in  the  kingdom,  and  between  3  and  4,000  of 
the  public  being  present.  The  musical  band  contained  600  vocal  and  instrumental 
performers,  and  the  receipts  of  three  successive  days  were  12,746/. 

HANDKERCHIEFS.  Handkerchiefs,  wrought  and  edged  with  gold,  used  to  be  worn 
in  England  by  gentlemen  in  their  hats,  as  favours  from  young  ladies,  the  value  of 
them  being  from  five  to  twelve  pence  for  each,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  1558. — 
Stowe*8  Chron.  Handkerchiefs  were  of  early  manufacture,  and  are  mentioned  in 
our  oldest  works.  Handkerchiefs  of  the  celebrated  Paisley  manufacture  were  first 
made  in  that  town  in  1743. 

HANGED,  DRAWN,  and  QUARTERED.  The  first  infliction  of  this  barbarous 
punishment  took  place  upon  a  pirate  named  William  Marise,  a  nobleman's  son,  25 
Henry  III.  1241 .  Five  gentlemen  attached  to  the  duke  of  Gloucester  were  arraigned 
and  condemned  for  treason,  and  at  the  place  of  execution  were  hanged,  cut  down 
alive  instantly,  then  stript  naked,  and  their  bodies  marked  for  quartering,  and  then 
pardoned,  25  Henry  VI.  1447. — Stowe.  The  punishment  of  death  by  hanging  has 
been  abolished  in  numerous  cases  by  various  statutes.  See  Death,  Punishment  of. 
Hanging  in  chains  was  abolished  4  William  IV.  1834. 

HANOVER.  This  country  had  no  great  rank,  although  a  duchy,  until  George  I.  got 
possession  of  Zell,  Saxe,  Bremen,  Verden,  and  other  duchies  and  principalities. 
Hanover  became  the  ninth  electorate,  a.d.  1692.  It  was  seized  by  Prussia,  April  3, 
1801 ;  was  occupied  by  the  French,  June  5,  1803  ;  and  annexed  to  Westphalia, 
March  1,  1810.  Regained  to  England  by  the  Crown  Prince  of  Sweden,  November 
6,  1813,  and  erected  into  a  kingdom,  October  13,  1814.  The  duke  of  Cambridge 
appointed  lieutenant-governor,  in  November  1816.  Visited  by  George  IV.  in 
October  1821.     Ernest,  duke  of  Cumberland,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  June  20, 1 837. 

HANOVERIAN  SUCCESSION,  established  by  law,  June  12,  1701,  when  an  act 
passed  limiting  the  succession  of  the  crown  of  England,  after  the  demise  of  William 
III.  and  of  queen  Anne  (without  issue),  to  the  princess  Sophia  of  Hanover,  and  the 
heirs  of  her  body,  being  protestants,  she  being  the  grand-daughter  of  James  I. 
George  I.  the  son  of  Ernest  Augustus,  duke  of  Brunswick  Lunenburgh,  elector  of 
Hanover,  and  of  Sophia,  ascended  the  throne,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  exiled  family 
of  the  Stuarts,  August  1,  1714. 

HANSB  TOWNS.  A  commercial  union  called  the  Hanseatic  league,  was  formed  by 
a  number  of  port  towns  in  Germany,  in  support  of  each  other  against  the  piracies  of 
the  Swedes  and  Danes :  this  association  began  in  1164,  and  the  league  was  signed  in 
1241.  At  first  it  consisted  only  of  towns  situate  on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  sea,  but 
its  strength  and  reputation  increasing,  there  was  scarce  any  trading  city  in  Europe 
but  desired  to  be  admitted  into  it,  and  in  process  of  time  it  consisted  of  sixty-six 
cities.    They  grew  so  formidable  as  to  proclaim  war  against  Waldemar,  king  of 


HAP  [_  250  ]  HAR 

Denmark,  about  the  year  1348|  and  against  Brick  in  1428,  with  forty  ships,  and 
12,000  reipilar  troops  besides  seamen.  This  gave  umbrage  to  several  princes,  who 
ordered  the  merchants  of  their  respective  kingdoms  to  withdraw  their  effects,  and 
so  broke  up  the  greatest  part  and  strength  of  the  association.  In  1630,  the  only 
towns  of  note  of  this  once  powerful  league  retaining  the  name,  were  Lubeck,  Ham- 
bui^,  and  Bremen. 

HAPSBUR6H,  House  op.  One  of  the  most  illustrious  families  in  Europe.  Haps- 
burgh  was  an  ancient  castle  of  Switzerland,  on  a  lofty  eminence,  near  Schintznach. 
This  castle  was  the  cradle,  as  it  were,  of  the  house  of  Austria,  whose  ancestors  may 
be  traced  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  ]  3th  century,  when  Rodolph,  count  of  Haps- 
burgh,  was  elevated  to  the  empire  of  Germany  and  archduchy  of  Austria,  a.d.  1273. 
See  Germany, 

HARDY,  HORNE  TOOKE,  THELWALL,  &c.  The  trial  of  Messrs.  Hardy,  Tooke, 
Joyce,  Thelwall,  and  others,  on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  caused  a  great  sensation  in 
England.  The  first,  Mr.  Hardy,  was  put  to  the  bar  Oct.  29,  1794 ;  and  after  a 
trial  which  lasted  eight  days  was  honourably  acquitted.  John  Home  Tooke  was 
next  tried,  and  was  acquitted,  Nov.  20 ;  and  Mr.  Thelwall  was  acquitted  Dec.  5  ; 
when  all  the  other  accused  parties  were  discharged. — See  Thelwall, 

HARLEIAN  LIBRARY,  containing  7000  manuscripts,  was  bought  by  the  right  hon. 
Mr.  Secretary  Harley,  afterwards  earl  of  Oxford  and  Mortimer,  and  is  now  in  the 
British  Museum.  A  large  portion  of  this  nobleman's  life  was  spent  in  adding  to  his 
literary  stores,  in  the  collection  of  which  he  expended  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
wealth  which  his  public  employments  had  enabled  him  to  accumulate.  He  died 
May  21,  1724. 

HARLEQUIN.  This  term  is  derived  from  a  famous  and  droll  comedian,  who  so 
much  frequented  Mr.  Harley's  house,  that  his  friends  and  acquaintances  used  to 
call  him  Harlequino,  little  Harley. — Menage,  Originally  the  name  implied  a  merry 
andrew,  or  buffoon  ;  but  it  now  means  an  expert  dancer  at  a  play-house. — Pardon. 

HARLOTS.  Women  who  were  called  by  synonyma  conveying  the  meaning  of  harlot, 
were  tolerated  among  the  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  The  celebrated  Lais  of  Co- 
rinth, a  beautiful  courtesan,  but  remarkable  for  her  vicious  amours,  was  assassinated 
in  the  temple  of  Venus,  by  the  women  of  Thessaly,  in  order  to  prevent  her  from  cor- 
rupting the  fidelity  of  their  husbands,  about  350  b.c.  It  is  affirmed  that  the  mother 
of  William  I.  of  England,  a  furrier's  daughter  of  Falaise,  and  whose  name  was 
Arlotta,  was  of  so  infamous  a  character,  that  our  odious  term  harlot  is  derived  from 
her  name. — Dr.  Johnson.  In  England,  harlots  were  obliged  to  wear  striped  hoods 
of  party  colours,  and  their  garments  the  wrong  side  outwards,  by  statute  27  Edward 
III.,  1352. — See  Courtesans. 

HARMONIC  STRINGS.  Pythagoras  is  said  to  have  invented  harmonic  strings,  in 
consequence  of  hearing  four  blacksmiths  working  with  hammers  in  harmony,  whose 
weights  he  found  to  be  six,  eight,  nine,  and  twelve  ;  or  rather,  by  squares,  as  thirty- 
six,  sixty-four,  eighty-one,  and  one  hundred  and  forty-four.  The  harmonica,  or  mu- 
sical glasses,  airs  from  the  tones  of  them  were  first  formed  by  an  Irish  gentleman 
named  Puckeridge. — Franklin.  The  invention  was  improved  by  Dr.  Franklin  in 
1760. — See  Mitsicat  Glasses. 

HARMONY  TOWN,  America.  A  society  was  formed  here  by  one  Rapp,  with  a 
number  of  German  and  other  families,  some  of  them  from  England,  who,  calling 
themselves  Harmonists,  held  their  property  in  common.  The  well-known  visionary 
and  enthusiast,  Robert  Owen,  purchased  this  town ;  but  he  ultimately  failed  in  his 
scheme  of  a  ''social"  community,  and  returned  to  England  to  propagate  infamous 
doctrines  with,  however,  little  success. — See  Socialists. 

HARNESS,  for  horses  to  draw  chariots,  and  also  chariots,  are  said  to  have  been  the 
invention  of  Ericthonius  of  Athens,  who  was  made  a  constellation  after  his  death, 
under  the  name  of  Bootes t  about  1487  B.C. 

HARP.  It  is  traced  to  the  earliest  nations.  David  played  the  harp  before  Saul. — 
1  Sam,  xvi.  23.  The  lyre  of  the  Greeks  is  the  harp  of  the  modems.  The  Romans 
had  their  harp  ;  so  had  the  Jews,  but  it  had  very  few  strings.  The  Cimbri  or  En- 
glish Saxons  had  this  instmment.  The  celebrated  Welsh  harp  was  strung  with  gut ; 
and  the  Irish  harp,  like  the  more  ancient  harps,  with  wire.  One  of  the  most  ancient 
harps  existing  is  that  of  Bryan  Boiroimhe,  monarch  of  Ireland  :  it  was  given  by  his 


IIAII  [_  251  ]  HAW 

son  Donagh  to  pope  John  XVill.,  together  with  the  crown  and  other  regalia  of  his 
father,  in  order  to  obtain  absolution  for  the  murder  of  his  brother  Teig.  Adrian  IV. 
alleged  this  as  being  one  of  his  principal  titles  to  the  kingdom  of  Ireland  in  his  btdl 
transferring  it  to  Henry  II.  This  harp  was  given  by  Leo  X.  to  Henry  VIII.,  who 
presented  it  to  the  first  earl  of  Clanricarde :  it  then  came  into  possession  of  the 
family  of  De  Burgh  ;  next  into  that  of  MacMahon  of  Clenagh,  county  of  Clare  ; 
afterwards  into  that  of  MacNamara  of  Limerick ;  and  was  at  length  deposited  by  the 
right  hon.  William  Conyngham  in  the  College  Museum,  Dublin,  in  1782. 

HARRISON'S  TIME-PIECE.  Mr.  Harrison's  first  instrument  was  invented  in 
1735  ;  his  second  in  1739 ;  his  third  in  1749  ;  and  his  fourth,  which  procured  him 
the  reward  of  20,000/.,  advertised  12th  Anne  by  the  Board  of  Longitude,  was  pro- 
duced a  few  years  after.     His  celebrated  time-piece  was  perfected  in  1772. 

HARTWELL.  This  place  is  famous  as  the  retreat  of  Louis  XVIII.,  king  of  France. 
He  had  had  an  asylum  in  Russia,  and  had  resided  also  at  Warsaw.  He  landed  in 
England,  at  Yarmouth,  Oct.  6,  1807,  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Gosfield-hall,  in 
Essex,  and  afterwards  came  to  Hartwell,  living  in  retirement,  as  the  count  de  LUle, 
at  this  village  for  several  years.  His  consort  died  here  in  1810.  On  his  family's 
restoration  to  the  throne,  Louis,  on  April  20,  1814,  entered  London  in  much  state 
from  his  retreat  at  Hartwell,  attended  by  the  life-guards,  and  many  of  the  king's 
carriages,  and  accompanied  by  the  prince  regent.  He  stopped  at  Grillon's  hotel, 
where  he  kept  his  court  for  some  days,  receiving  the  congratulations  of  the  lord 
mayor,  citizens,  and  nobility  ;  and  embarked  at  Dover,  for  France,  April  24,  1814. 

HASTINGS,  Battle  of,  one  of  the  most  memorable  and  bloody,  and  in  which  more 
than  thirty  thousand  were  slain,  fought  between  Harold  II.  of  England,  and  William, 
duke  of  Normandy,  in  which  the  former  lost  his  life  and  kingdom.  William,  hence 
sumamed  the  Conqueror,  was  soon  after  crowned  king  of  England,  and  introduced  a 
memorable  epoch,  known  as  the  Conquest,  in  the  annals  of  the  country,  Oct.  14, 1066. 

HASTINGS,  WARREN,  Trial  of.  Mr.  Hastings,  governor-general  of  India,  tried 
by  the  peers  of  Great  Britain  for  high  crimes  and  misdemeanours,  but  acquitted, 
•  although  he  had  committed  many  acts  during  his  government  which,  it  was  thought, 
ought  to  have  led  to  a  different  result.  Among  other  charges  against  him,  was  his 
acceptance  of  a  present  of  100,000/.  from  the  nabob  of  Oude  (see  Chunar,  Treaty 
of) ;  and  this  was  not  a  solitary  instance  of  his  irregular  means  of  accumulating 
wealth.  The  trial  lasted  seven  years  and  three  months  ;  it  commenced  February 
13,  1788,  and  terminated  April  25,  1795.  Mr.  Sheridan's  celebrated  speech,  on  the 
impeachment  of  Mr.  Hastings,  attracted  universal  and  merited  admiration. 

HATFIELD'S  ATTEMPT  on  thb  LIFE  of  GEORGE  III.  May  11,  1800,  was  at 
a  field-day  in  Hyde-park  ;  and  during  a  review  of  the  troops  a  shot  from  an  undis- 
covered hand  was  fired,  which  wounded  a  young  gentleman  who  stood  near  the  king. 
On  the  evening  of  the  same  day,  his  majesty  was  at  Drury-lane  theatre,  when  a  man 
from  the  pit  fired  a  pistol  at  him  ;  his  name  was  Hatfield ;  but  he  was  found  upon  his 
trial  to  be  deranged,  and  was  sentenced  to  be  confined  as  a  lunatic  during  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life.     Hatfield  died  January  23,  1841,  aged  69  years. 

HATS.  See  article  Ca<ps.  First  made  by  a  Swiss  at  Paris,  a.d.  1404.  They  are  men. 
tioned  in  history  at  the  period  when  Charles  VII.  made  his  triumphal  entry  into 
Rouen,  in  1449.  He  wore  a  hat  lined  with  red  velvet,  and  surmounted  with  a  rich 
plume  of  feathers.  It  is  from  this  reign  that  the  use  of  hats  and  caps  is  to  be  dated, 
which  henceforward  began  to  take  place  of  the  chaperoons  and  hoods  that  had  been 
worn  before  in  France.  Hats  were  first  manufactured  in  England  by  Spaniards  in 
1510  ;  before  this  time  both  men  and  women  wore  close-knit  woollen  caps. — Stowe, 
Very  high  crowned  hats  were  worn  by  queen  Elizabeth's  courtiers ;  and  high  crowns 
were  again  introduced  in  1783.  A  stamp-duty  was  laid  upon  hats  in  1784,  and 
again  in  1796 ;  it  was  repealed  in  1811. 

HAVRE-DE-GRACE.  This  place  was  defended  for  the  Huguenots  by  the  English, 
in  1562.  It  has  been  bombarded  several  times  by  the  British  navy.  It  was  suc- 
cessfully attacked  for  three  days  from  July  6  to  9,  1759.  Again  bombarded  in  1794 
and  1795.  Bombarded  by  sir  Richard  Strachan,  May  25,  1798.  Declared  to  be 
in  a  state  of  blockade,  Sept.  6,  1803.  The  attempts  to  burn  the  shipping  here 
failed,  Aug.  7, 1804. 

HAWKERS  AND  PEDLARS.     First  licensed  to  sell  their  commodities  in   1697. 


HAY  (^  252  ]  HEO 

They  were  anciently  esteemed  fraudulent  persons^  who  went  from  place  to  place  to 
sell  or  buy  any  commodity  in  a  clandestine  or  unfair  and  unlicensed  manner ;  but 
now  they  are  those  who  sell  about  the  streets  by  virtue  of  a  licence  from  the  commis- 
sioners who  are  appointed  for  that  purpose. 

HAYMARKET,  London.  The  hay-market  In  this  street  was  opened  1664,  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  II. — Stowe,  The  Haymarket-theatre  was  originally  opened  in  1702.  The 
bottle-conjuror's  dupery  of  the  public  occurred  at  this  theatre,  Jan.  16,  1748. — See 
Bottle  Conjuror,  Mr.  Foote's  patent,  1747.  The  theatre  purchased  by  the  late 
Mr.  Coleman  of  Mr.  Foote  for  a  life  annuity,  Jan.  1 ,  1777.  Rebuilt  1767 ;  again  by 
Mr.  Nash,  the  present  structure,  in  1821.  A  fatal  accident  occurred  in  endeavour- 
ing to  gain  admission,  Feb.  3,  1794 ;  sixteen  persons  were  trodden  to  death,  and 
numbers  bruised  and  wounded,  many  of  whom  afterwards  died. — See  Theatres. 
The  late  market  here  for  hay  was  removed  to  Cumberland-market^  Jan.  1,  1831. 

HAYTI,  or  Haiti,  the  Indian  name  of  St.  Domingo,  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1492. 
Before  the  Spaniards  finally  conquered  it,  they  are  said  to  have  destroyed  in  battle  or 
cold  blood,  3,000,000  of  its  inhabitants,  including  women  and  children.  Toussaint 
established  an  independent  republic  in  St.  Domingo,  July  22,  1801.  He  surren- 
dered to  the  French,  May  7,  1802.  Dessalines  made  a  proclamation  for  the  mas- 
sacre of  all  the  whites,  March  29,  1804. — See  St.  Domingo.  Dessalines  was 
crowned  king  by  the  tide  of  Jacques  I.,  Oct.  8,  1804.  He  died  Sept.  21,  1805. 
Henry  Christophe,  a  man  of  colour,  became  president  in  Feb.  1807,  and  was 
crowned  emperor  by  the  title  of  Henry  I.,  in  March  1811  ;  while  Petion  ruled  as 
president  at  .Port-au-Prince.  Numerous  black  nobility  and  prelates  were  created 
same  year.  Petion  died,  and  fioyer  was  elected  in  his  room,  in  May  1818.  Chris- 
tophe committed  suicide  in  Oct.  1820.  Independence  declared  at  St.  Domingo  in 
Dec.  1821.     Decree  of  the  king  of  France  confirming  it,  April  1825. 

HEAD  ACT.  The  most  iniquitous  and  merciless  statute  ever  passed  by  a  parliament. 
It  was  enacted  in  Ireland  by  the  Junto  of  the  Pale,  at  the  town  of  Trim,  the  earl  of 
Desmond  being  lord  deputy,  5  Edward  IV.,  1465.  For  the  nature  and  objects  of 
this  act,  see  note  to  article  Ireland. 

HEARTH  OR  CHIMNEY  TAX.  An  oppressive  and  unpopular  tax  upon  every  fire- 
place or  hearth  in  England,  imposed  by  Charles  II.  in  1662;  it  was  abolished  by 
William  and  Mary  at  the  Revolution.  This  tax  was  levied  in  Ireland,  but  was 
abolished,  with  a  number  of  other  imposts,  since  the  termination  of  the  late  war. 

HEATHEN  TEMPLES  were  erected  in  the  earliest  times :  the  Egyptian  temples  are 
described  by  Strabo  as  having  been  of  great  magnitude  and  extent  The  construc- 
tion of  temples  was  adapted  by  the  ancients  to  the  nature  and  functions  of  the  deities 
to  whose  worship  they  were  raised  :  those  of  Jupiter  Fulminans,  Coelum,  the  Sun, 
Moon,  and  Deus-Fidius,  were  uncovered.  The  temples  of  Minerva,  Mars,  and  Her- 
cules, were  of  the  Doric  order,  which  suited  the  robust  virtue  of  these  divinities. 
The  Corinthian  was  employed  for  Venus,  Flora,  Proserpine,  and  the  aquatic  Nymphs. 
The  Ionic  was  used  in  the  temples  of  Juno,  Diana,  and  Bacchus,  as  a  just  mixture 
of  elegance  and  majesty.  The  heathen  temples  were  ordered  to  be  destroyed  by 
Constantine,  a.d.  331 — See  Temples. 

HEBRIDES,  NEW,  discovered  by  the  navigator  Quiros,  a.d.  1606.  Bourgainville 
visited  them  in  1768,  and  found  that  the  land  was  not  connected,  but  composed  of 
islands,  which  he  called  the  Great  Cyclades.  Cook,  in  1774,  ascertained  the  extent 
and  situation  of  the  whole  group,  and  gave  them  the  name  they  now  bear. 

HECATOMB.  This  was  a  sacrifice  among  the  ancients  of  a  hundred  oxen ;  but  it  was 
more  particularly  observed  by  the  Lacedemonians  when  they  possessed  a  hundred 
capital  cities.  In  the  course  of  time  this  sacrifice  was  reduced  to  twenty-three 
oxen  ;  and  in  the  end,  to  lessen  the  expense,  goats  and  lambs  were  substituted  for 
oxen. — Potter. 

HECLA.  Its  first  eruption  is  recorded  as  having  occurred  a.d.  1004.  About  twenty- 
two  eruptions  have  taken  place,  according  to  Olasson  and  Paulson.  The  most 
dreadful  and  multiplied  convulsions  of  this  great  volcanic  mountain  occurred  in  1 783. 
— See  Iceland, 

HEGIRA,  Era  of  the,  dates  from  the  flight  of  Mahomet  from  Mecca  to  Medina, 
which  event  took  place  in  the  night  of  Thursday  the  15th  July,  a.d.  622  ;  the  era 


HEI  [_  253  ]  HEL 

commences  on  the  following  day,  viz : — ^the  16th  of  July.  Many  chronologists  have 
computed  this  era  from  the  1 5th  July;  but  Cantemir  has  given  examples  proving 
that,  in  most  ancient  times,  the  16th  was  the  first  day  of  the  era ;  and  there  is  now 
no  doubt  it  is  so. — See  Mahometism,  and  Medina, 

HEIDELBERG,  and  HEIDELBERG  TUN.  Heidelberg,  in  Germany,  on  the  river 
Neckar,  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Palatinate  :  the  protestaut  electoral  house 
becoming  extinct  in  1693,  a  bloody  war  ensued,  in  which  the  famous  castle  was 
ruined,  and  the  elector  removed  his  residence  to  Mannheim.  Here  was  the  celebrated 
Heidelberg  Tnn,  constructed  in  1343,  when  it  contained  twenty-one  pipes  of  wine. 
Another  was  made  in  1664,  which  held  600  hogsheads.  This  was  emptied  and 
knocked  to  pieces  by  the  French  in  1688  ;  but  a  new  and  a  larger  one  was  after- 
wards fabricatedi  which  held  800  hogsheads,  and  was  formerly  kept  full  of  the  best 
Rhenish  wine ;  and  the  electors  have  given  many  entertainments  on  its  platform  ;  bat 
this  convivial  monument  of  ancient  hospitality  is  now  mouldering  in  a  damp  vault, 
quite  empty. —  Walker, 

HEIGHTS  OF  ROMAINYILLE.  On  the  Heights  of  RomainviUe  and  BelleviUe,  the 
French  army  out  of  Paris,  under  Joseph  Buonaparte,  Marmont,  and  Mortier,  was 
defeated  by  the  allied  army,  which  entered  Paris  the  next  day,  and  thus  completed 
the  memorable  and  glorious  campaign  of  this  year  March  30,  1814. 

HELDER  POINT,  in  Holland.  The  fort  and  the  whole  of  the  Dutch  fleet  lying 
in  the  Texel,  surrendered  to  the  British  forces  under  the  duke  of  York,  for  the 
service  of  the  prince  of  Orange.  In  the  action,  540  British  were  killed,  Aug.  30, 
1799.     The  place  was  relinquished  in  October  following. — See  Bergen. 

HELEN,  Rape  of,  which  caused  the  Trojan  war,  1204  b.c.  Helen  was  the  most 
beautiful  woman  in  the  world,  and  even  in  her  childhood  was  so  very  lovely,  that 
Theseus  stole  her  away  in  her  tenth  year.  From  him,  however,  she  was  released, 
yet  innocent,  by  her  brothers ;  and  after  her  return  to  the  court  of  Sparta  she  was 
eagerly  sought  in  marriage  by  the  princes  of  Greece ;  and  Ulysses  persuaded  the 
suitors  to  bind  themselves  on  oath  to  abide  by  the  uninfluenced  choice  of  Helen,  and 
to  defend  her  person  and  character  from  that  time.  The  princes  took  the  oath,  and 
Helen  then  made  choice  of  Meneiaus.  Paris  coming  soon  after  to  the  court  of  this 
king,  abused  his  hospitality  by  corrupting  the  fidelity  of  Helen ;  carrying  her  away, 
though  not  an  unwilling  captive,  to  Asia  Minor.  At  Troy,  the  fiEither  of  Paris,  Priam, 
received  her  in  his  palace  without  difficulty  ;  and  Meneiaus,  assembling  the  princes 
of  Greece,  reminded  them  of  their  oath  ;  and  the  siege  and  destruction  of  Troy  fol- 
followed,  1184  b.c.  Paris  was  previously  married,  his  vrife  being  CEnone,  who  lived 
with  him  in  happiness  on  Mount  Ida ;  and  at  his  death  by  one  of  the  arrows  of 
Hercules,  then  in  the  possession  of  Philoctetes,  he  desired  in  his  dying  moments  to 
be  carried  to  CEnone,  whom  he  had  so  basely  deserted ;  but  he  expired  on  the  way. 
The  nymph,  however,  still  mindful  of  their  former  happiness,  threw  herself  upon  the 
body,  bathed  it  with  her  tears,  and  then  plunged  a  dagger  in  her  heart. 

HELENA,  St.  This  island  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  on  the  festival  of  St. 
Helena,  a.d.  1502.  The  Dutch  were  afterwards  in  possession  of  it  until  1600,  when 
they  were  expelled  by  the  English.  The  British  East  India  Company  settled  here 
in  1651 ;  and  the  island  was  alternately  possessed  by  the  English  and  Dutch,  until 
1673,  when  Charles  II.  on  Dec.  12,  assigned  it  to  the  company  once  more.  St. 
Helena  was  made  the  place  of  Napoleon's  captivity,  Oct.  16, 1815,  and  it  became 
the  scene  of  his  death,  May  5,  1821.  It  being  decreed  by  the  government  and  French 
Chambers  at  Paris  (with  the  consent  of  England),  that  the  ashes  of  Napoleon  should 
be  removed  to  France,  the  expedition  for  that  purpose,  under  the  prince  de  Joinville, 
sailed  from  Toulon,  July  7  ;  it  arrived  at  St.  Helena,  and  the  body  was  exhumed, 
Oct.  16  ;  the  expedition  returned  to  France,  Nov.  30  ;  and  Napoleon's  remains  were 
interred  in  the  Hospital  des  Invalides,  Dec.  15,  1840. — See  Buonaparte. 

HELIGOLAND.  This  island  formerly  belonged  to  the  Danes,  from  whom  it  was 
taken  by  the  British,  Sept.  5,  1807*  and  formed  a  depdt  for  British  merchandise 
intended  for  the  Continent  during  the  war.  Confirmed  to  England  by  the  treaty  of 
Kiel,  Jan.  14,  1814,  the  same  treaty  by  which  Norway  was  ceded  to  Sweden. 
Though  a  mere  rock,  this  is  an  important  possession  of  the  British  crown. 

HELIOMETER.  A  valuable  scientific  instrument  for  measuring  the  stars,  invented 
by  M.  Bouguer,  in  1774.  The  helioscope  was  invented  by  Christopher  Scheiner 
in  1625. 


UEL  Q  254  '}  HER 

HELL-FIRE  CLUBS.  These  were  impioas  associations  in  London,  which  existed 
for  some  time,  but  were  ultimately  suppressed  by  an  Order  in  Council.  There  were 
three,  to  which  upwards  of  forty  persons  of  quality  of  both  sexes  belonged.  They 
met  at  Somerset-house,  at  a  house  in  Westminster,  and  at  another  in  Conduit-street, 
Hanover-square.  They  assumed  the  names  of  the  patriarchs,  prophets,  and  martyrs, 
in  derision  ;  and  ridiculed,  at  their  meetings,  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  the 
mysteries  of  the  Christian  religion,  7  George  1.,  1721. — Salmon, 

HELMETS.  They  were  worn,  it  is  said,  by  the  most  savage  tribes.  Among  the 
Romans  the  helmet  was  provided  with  a  vizor  of  grated  bars,  to  raise  above  the 
eyes,  and  a  bever  to  lower  for  eating  ;  the  helmet  of  the  Greeks  was  round,  and  that 
of  the  Romans  square.  Richard  I.  of  England  wore  a  plain  round  helmet ;  and 
after  this  monarch  s  reign  most  of  the  English  kings  had  crowns  above  their  helmets. 
Alexander  III.  of  Scotland,  1249,  had  a  flat  helmet,  with  a  square  grated  vizor,  and 
the  helmet  of  Robert  I.  was  surmounted  by  a  crown,  1306. — Gwiliim. 

HELOTS.  The  people  of  Helos,  against  whom  the  Spartans  bore  desperate  resentment 
for  refusing  to  pay  tribute,  883  B.C.  The  Spartans,  not  satisfied  with  the  ruin  of 
their  city,  reduced  the  Helots  to  the  most  debasing  slavery ;  and  to  complete  their 
infamy,  they  called  all  the  slaves  of  the  state,  and  the  prisoners  of  war,  by  the 
degrading  name  of  HeloitSf  and  further  exposed  them  to  every  species  of  contempt 
and  ridicule,  669  b.c.  But  in  the  Peloponnesian  war  the  Helots  behaved  with 
uncommon  bravery,  and  were  rewarded  with  their  liberty,  431  b.c.  But  this  act  of 
justice  did  not  last  long  ;  and  the  sudden  disappearance  of  2000  manumitted  slaves 
was  attributed  to  the  Lacedemonians. — Herodotus, 

HEMP  AND  FLAX.  Flax  was  first  planted  in  England,  when  it  was  directed  to  be  sown 
for  fishing-nets,  a.d.  1 533.  Bounties  were  paid  to  encourage  its  cultivation  in  1783 ; 
and  every  exertion  should  be  made  by  the  government  and  legislature  to  accomplish  such 
a  national  good.  In  1785  there  were  imported  from  Russia  in  British  ships,  17,695 
tons  of  hemp  and  flaz. — Sir  John  Sinclair*,  The  annual  importation  of  these 
articles  now  amount  to  about  100,000  tons.  More  than  180,000  lbs.  of  rough  hemp 
are  used  in  the  cordage  of  a  first-rate  man-of-war,  including  rigging  and  sails. 

HEPTARCHY.  The  Heptarchy  (or  government  of  seven  kings)  in  England  was  gra. 
dually  formed  from  a.d.  455,  when  Hengist  became  the  king  of  Kent,  and  that 
kingdom  was  erected.  The  Heptarchy  terminated  in  a.d.  828,  when  Egbert  reduced 
the  other  kingdoms,  and  became  sole  monarch  of  England.  For  the  several  king- 
doms of  the  Heptarchy,  see  Britain,  and  Octarchy, 

HERACLIDiE,  The,  or  Return  of  the  Heraclidse  into  the  Peloponnesus :  a  famous 
epoch  in  chronology  that  constitutes  the  beginning  of  profane  history,  all  the  time 
preceding  that  period  being  accounted  fabulous.  This  return  happened  100  years 
after  they  were  expelled,  and  eighty  years  after  the  destruction  of  Troy,  1104  b.c. 

HERALDRY.  Signs  and  marks  of  honour  were  made  use  of  in  the  first  ages  of  the 
world. — Nisbet.  The  Phrygians  had  a  sow  ;  the  Thracians,  Mars  ;  the  Romans,  an 
eagle ;  the  Goths,  a  bear ;  the  Flemings,  a  bull ;  the  Saxons,  a  horse ;  and  the 
ancient  French,  a  lion,  and  afterwards  the  fleur-de-lis,  which  see.  Heraldry,  as 
digested  into  an  art,  and  subjected  to  rules,  may  be  ascribed  in  the  first  instance, 
to  Charlemagne,  about  the  year  800  ;  and  in  the  next,  to  Frederick  Barbarossa,  about 
the  year  1152  ;  it  began  and  grew  with  the  feudal  law. — Sir  George  Mackenzie, 
It  was  at  length  methodised  and  perfected  by  the  crusades  and  tournaments,  the 
former  commencing  in  1095. 

HERALDS'  COLLEGE.  We  trace  its  institution  to  Edward  III.,  1340.  Richard 
III.  endowed  the  college  in  1484  ;  and  Philip  and  Mary  enlarged  its  privileges,  and 
confirmed  them  by  letters  patent.  Formerly  in  many  ceremonies  the  herald  repre- 
sented the  king's  person,  and  therefore  wore  a  crown,  and  was  always  a  knight. 
This  college  has  an  earl  marshal,  3  kings  at  arms  (Garter,  Clarencieux,  and  Norroy), 
6  heralds  (Richmond,  Lancaster,  Chester,  Windsor,  Somerset,  and  York),  4  pur- 
suivants, and  2  extra  heralds. — See  Earl  Marshal, 

*  Five  acres  are  employed  in  the  production  of  a  single  ton  of  flax  or  hemp  ;  so  that  our  present 
exports  would  warrant  our  appropriation  of  500,000  acres  to  this  purpose.  We  should  thereby  add  to 
the  profit  of  the  land— a  sure  employment  to  many  thousands  of  the  peasantry ;  and,  instead  of  enrich- 
ing Russia,  a  country  with  which  we  are  so  frequently  at  war,  usefully  dispense  at  home  the  several 
millions  of  pounds  sterling  per  imnum  now  sent  to  Russia  for  these  articles,— Sir  John  Sinclair. 


HER  [^  255  ]  HER 

HERARAi  Battle  of,  ia  Arragon  :  in  which  Don  Carlos,  at  the  head  of  12,000  men, 
defeated  general  Buerens,  who  had  not  much  above  half  that  nnmber  of  the  queen's 
troops.     Buerens  lost  about  1000  in  killed  and  wounded,  Aug.  24,  1837. 

HERCULANEUM.  An  ancient  city  of  Campania,  overwhelmed,  together  with  Pom- 
peii, by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  Aug.  24,  a.d.  79.  Herculaneum  was  buried  under 
streams  of  lava,  and  successive  eruptions  laid  it  still  deeper  under  the  surface. 
All  traces  of  them  were  lost  until  a.d.  1711»  from  which  year  many  curiosities, 
works  of  art,  and  monuments  and  memorials  of  civilised  life  have  been  discovered 
to  the  present  time.  150  volumes  of  MSS.  were  found  in  a  chest,  in  1754  ;  and 
many  antiquities  were  purchased  by  sir  William  Hamilton,  and  re-purchased  by  the 
trustees  of  the  British  museum,  where  they  are  deposited ;  but  the  principal  anti- 
quities are  preserved  in  the  museum  of  Fortici. 

HEREFORD,  Bishopric  of.  Formerly  suffragant  to  St.  David's  ;  but  when  the  coun- 
try was  conquered  by  the  Saxons  it  came  to  the  province  of  Canterbury.  The 
cathedral  was  founded  by  a. nobleman  named  Milfride,  in  honour  of  Ethelbert,  king 
of  the  East  Saxons,  treacherously  made  away  with  by  his  intended  mother-in-law,  the 
queen  of  Mercia.     The  see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  768/.  per  annum. 

HERETICS.  Formerly  the  term  heresy  denoted  a  particular  sect ;  now  heretics  are 
those  who  propagate  their  private  opinions  in  opposition  to  the  Catholic  church. — 
Bacon,  Tens  of  thousands  of  them  have  suffered  death  by  torture  in  Roman  Catholic 
countries. — Burnet.  See  Inquitition.  Simon  Magus  was  the  first  heretic ;  he 
came  to  Rome  a.d.  41.  Thirty  heretics  came  from  Germany  to  England  to  propa- 
gate their  opinions,  and  were  branded  in  the  forehead,  whipped,  and  thrust  naked 
into  the  streets  in  the  depth  of  winter,  where,  none  daring  to  relieve  them,  they  died 
of  hunger  and  cold,  1160. — Speed,  In  the  reign  of  Henry  YIII.  to  be  in  possession 
of  Tindal's  Bible  constituted  heresy.  The  laws  against  heretics  were  repealed,  25 
Henry  VIII.,  1534-5. 

HERITABLE  RIGHTS  (and  Movable  Rights),  in  the  Scottish  law  denoting  wbat 
in  England  is  meant  oy  real  and  personal  property  ;  real  property  in  England 
answering  nearly  to  the  heritable  rights  in  Scotland,  and  personal  property  to 
tbe  movable  rights.  Scotch  heritable  jurisdictions  (t.  e.  feudal  rights)  were  bought 
up  and  abolished,  valued  at  164,232/.  in  1747. 

HERMITS.  The  name  first  given  to  those  that  retired  to  desert  places,  to  avoid  per- 
secution, where  they  gave  themselves  up  to  prayers,  fasting,  and  meditation.  They 
were  also  called  anchorets  ;  and  commonly  lodged  in  dark  caves,  where  their  food 
was  such  roots  as  nature  bestowed  freely  without  culture.  From  these  came  the 
monks,  and  almost  all  the  sorts  of  religious  assemblies  tbat'live  in  monasteries.  In 
the  seventh  persecution  of  the  Christians,  one  Paul,  to  avoid  the  enemies  of  his  faith, 
retired  into  Thebais,  and  became  the  first  example  of  a  monastic  life,  about  a.d.  250. 

HERO  AND  LEANDER  :  their  amour.  The  fidelity  of  these  lovers  was  so  great,  and 
their  attachment  to  each  other  so  strong,  that  Leander  in  the  night  frequently  swam 
across  the  Hellespont,  from  Abydos  to  Sestos,  to  have  secret  interviews  with  Hero, 
a  beautiful  priestess  of  Venus,  she  directing  his  course  by  a  burning  flambeaux. 
After  many  stolen  interviews,  Leander  was  drowned  in  a  tempestuous  night,  and 
Hero  threw  herself  from  her  tower,  and  perished  in  the  sea,  627  B.C. — Livy^ 
Herodotus, 

HERO,  British  man-of-war,  of  74  guns,  lost  in  a  tremendous  storm  (with  several 
other  ships)  off  the  Texel,  when  the  whole  of  her  crew,  amounting  to  nearly  600 
men,  perished,  Dec.  24,  1811.  The  English  were  this  year  very  successful  in  their 
various  expeditions  by  sea ;  but  the  fleet,  by  staying  too  late  in  the  Baltic,  in  its  return 
suffered  severely  :  three  sail  of  the  line  and  a  frigate,  with  2000  men  on  board, 
perished  in  this  storm. 

HERRING-FISHERY.  It  was  largely  encouraged  by  the  Scotch  so  early  as  the  ninth 
century.  The  herring  statute  was  passed  in  1367.  The  mode  of  preserving  her- 
rings by  pickling  was  discovered  about  1390,  and  gave  rise  to  the  herring  fishery  as 
a  branch  of  commerce. — Anderson.  The  British  Herring  Fishery  Company  was 
instituted  Sept.  2,  1750. 

HERSCHEL  TELESCOPE,  The.  Herschell's  seven,  ten,  and  twenty-feet  reflectors 
were  made  about  1779.  He  discovers  the  Georgium  Sidus  {which  see),  March  21, 
1781.     He  discovers  a  volcanic  mountain  in  the  moon,  in  1783;  and  about  this 


HES  C  256  2  HIG 

time  laid  the  plan  of  his  great  forty-feet  telescope,  which  he  completed  in  1787,  when 
he  discovered  two  other  volcanic  mountains,  emitting  fire  from  their  sommits.  In 
1802,  he,  by  means  of  his  telescopes,  was  enabled  to  lay  before  the  Royal  Society  a 
catalogue  of  5000  new  nebulae,  nebulous  stars^  planetary  nebulae,  and  dusters  of 
stars  which  he  had  discovered. 

HESSE.  This  house  is  very  illustrious  :  its  various  branches  derive  their  origin  from 
Gerberge,  daughter  of  Charles  of  Lorraine,  uncle  of  Louis  V.  of  France,  who  was 
descended  from  Louis  the  Courteous.  She  was  married  to  Lambert  II.  earl  of  Lou- 
vain,  from  whom  the  present  landgraves  of  Hesse-Cassel,  by  Henry  V.,  first  of  the 
family  who  bore  the  title  of  landgrave,  are  descended.  Henry,  sumamed  the  Infant 
of  Brabant,  was  succeeded  by  Otho,  in  1308.  There  is  no  family  in  Germany  more 
noble  by  their  alliances  than  this ;  and  it  gives  place  to  none  for  the  heroes  and 
statesmen  it  has  produced.  Six  thousand  Hessian  troops  arrived  in  England,  in 
consequence  of  an  invasion  being  expected,  in  1756.  The  sum  of  471,000/,  three 
per  cent,  stock,  was  transferred  to  the  landgrave  of  Hesse,  for  Hessian  auxiliaries 
lost  in  the  American  war,  at  30/.  per  man,  Nov.  1786.  The  Hessian  soldiers  were 
again  brought  to  this  realm  at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  and  served  in  Ireland 
during  the  memorable  rebellion  there  in  1798. 

HEXHAM.  The  see  of  Hexham  was  founded  in  the  infancy  of  the  Saxon  church  ;  it 
had  ten  bishops  successively,  but  by  reason  of  the  spoil  and  rapine  of  the  Danes,  it 
was  discontinued ;  the  last  prelate  was  appointed  in  a.d.  810.  The  battle  of  Hex- 
ham, in  which  the  Yorkists  (army  of  Edward  IV.)  obtained  a  complete  victory  over 
the  Lancastrians,  the  army  of  Henry  yi.,'foaght  May  15,  1463. 

HIBERNIA,  The  Ship,  captain  Brenn :  bound  from  Liverpool  to  New  South  Wales, 
with  232  persons  on  board,  of  whom  208  were  passengers  going  out  as  settlers, 
destroyed  at  sea  by  fire,  kindled  through  the  negligence  of  the  second  mate,  in  W. 
long.  22^  andS.  lat.  4^.  150  lives  lost  through  the  insufficiency  of  the  boats  to 
contain  more  than  a  third  of  the  people  on  board,  Feb.  5,  1833. 

HIDE,  Death  by  the.  This  barbarons  and  dreadful  punishment  is  practised  by  some 
nations  of  South  America.  At  Monte  Video,  they  sew  up  their  prisoners  in  a  wet 
hide,  leaving  out  the  head  and  neck  only,  and  then  lay  them  on  the  ground  in  the 
sun  to  dry.  In  the  process  of  drying,  which  the  hide  soon  does,  by  the  powerful 
effects  of  the  sun,  it  becomes  contracted,  and  produces  the  most  excruciating  tor- 
ments on  the  unfortunate  prisoner  by  the  increase  of  pressure ;  but  if  night  arrives 
before  he  dies  from  its  effects,  the  hide  relaxes  again  with  the  moisture  from  the  air, 
only  to  prolong  his  suffering  on  the  next  day,  which  generally  is  his  last —  Webster's 
Foyage  to  the  South  Seas. 

HIEROGLYPHICS.  The  first  writing  men  used  was  only  the  single  pictures  and 
eng^vings  of  the  things  they  would  represent. —  Woodward,  Hieroglyphics  charac- 
ters were  invented  by  Athothes,  2112  b.c. — Usher.  The  earliest  records  of  them 
were  the  Egyptian,  the  first  step  towards  letters,  and  some  monumeots  whose  objects 
were  described  by  exaggerated  tradition,  or  when  forgotten,  imagined. — Phillips. 

HIGH  CHURCH  and  LOW  CHURCH  PARTIES.  These  were  occasioned  by 
the  prosecution  of  Dr.  Sacheverel,  preacher  at  St.  Saviour's  Southwark,  for  two 
seditious  sermons,  the  object  of  which  was  to  rouse  the  apprehensions  of  the  people 
for  the  safety  of  the  Church,  and  to  excite  hostility  against  the  dissenters.  His  friends 
were  called  High  Church,  and  his  opponents  Low  Church,  or  moderate  men,  8  Anne, 
1710.  The  queen,  who  favoured  Sacheverel,  presented  him  with  the  valuable  rectory 
of  St.  Andrew's,  Holbom.     He  died  in  1724. 

HIGH  TREASON.  The  highest  offence  known  to  the  law,  and  in  regulating  the 
trials,  for  which  was  enacted  the  memorable  statute,  so  favourable  to  British  li^rty, 
the  25th  of  Edward  III.  1552.  By  this  statute  two  living  witnesses  are  required  in 
cases  of  high  treason  ;  and  it  arose  in  the  refusal  of  parliament  to  sanction  the  sen- 
tence of  death  against  the  duke  of  Somerset — it  is  that  which  regulates  indictments  for 
treason  at  the  present  day.  By  the  40th  George  III.  1800,  it  was  enacted  that  where 
there  was  a  trial  for  high  treason  in  which  the  overt  act  was  a  direct  attempt  upon 
the  life  of  the  sovereign,  such  trial  should  be  conducted  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
case  of  an  indictment  for  murder. — See  Trials. 

HIGHNESS.  The  title  of  Highness  was  given  to  Henry  YII. ;  and  this,  and  sometimes 
Your  Grace,  was  the  manner  of  addressing  Henry  YIII. ;  but  about  the  close  of  the 


HIN 


C  257  ] 


BOL 


reign  of  the  latter  mentioned  king,  the  title  of  Highness  and  '*  Yoar  Grace"  were 
absorbed  in  that  of  Majesty. 

HINDOO  ERA,  or  Era  of  the  Caliyug,  began  3101  B.C.  or  756  before  the  Deluge,  in 
2348  :  and  the  Hindoos  count  their  months  by  the  progress  of  the  sun  through  the 
zodiac.  The  Samoat  era  begins  57  B.C. ;  and  the  Saca  era,  a.d.  77  :  they  are  all 
used. — See  Caliyug  Era. 

HISTORY.  Previously  to  the  invention  of  letters  the  records  of  history  are  vague, 
traditionary,  and  erroneous.  The  chronicles  of  the  Jews,  the  Parian  Chronicle,  the 
histories  of  Herodotus  and  Ctesias,  and  the  poems  of  Homer,  are  the  foundations  of 
early  ancient  history.  Later  ancient  history  is  considered  as  ending  with  the 
destruction  of  the  Roman  empire  in  Italy,  a.d.  476  ;  and  modern  history  dates  from 
the  age  of  Charlemagne,  about  a.d.  800.  There  was  not  a  professorship  of  modern 
history  in  either  of  our  universities  until  the  years  1724  and  1736,  when  Regius  pro- 
fessorships were  established  by  George  I.  and  George  II. 

HOB  ART  TOWN.  A  sea-port,  and  the  capital  of  Van  Diemen's  Land.  It  stands  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Derwent.  at  the  foot  of  the  Table  Mountain,  and  was  established 
in  1804,  by  colonel  Collins,  the  first  lieutenant-governor  of  the  island,  who  died 
herein  1810. 

HOBSON'S  CHOICE,  '*  This  or  none/'  is  derived  from  a  celebrated  carrier  of  Cam. 
bridge,  whose  name  was  Hobson,  and  who  let  out  horses  to  hire,  both  there  and  in 
London,  and  obliged  such  as  wanted  one  to  take  the  horse  next  to  the  stable  door, 
being  the  one  which  had  had  the  most  rest,  or  to  have  no  horse  at  all.  Hobson  was 
a  very  benevolent  man,  and  it  was  an  invariable  rule  with  him  that  each  of  his 
horses  should  have  an  equal  portion  of  rest,  as  well  as  labour.  His  inn  in  London 
was  the  Bull,  in  Bishopgate-street. 

HOCHKIRCHEN,  Battlb  of,  between  the  Prussian  army  commanded  by  Frederick 
II.,  and  the  Austrians  commanded  by  count  Daun.  The  king  was  surprised  in  his 
camp,  and  defeated  by  the  Imperial  general.  In  this  battle  an  illustrious  Scotsman, 
field-marshal  Keith,  in  the  service  of  Prussia,  was  killed  ;  and  such  was  the  respect 
and  admiration  which  his  name  inspired,  that  count  Daun  and  Lacy,  the  Austrian 
generals,  shed  tears  on  beholding  his  corpse,  and  ordered  its  interment  with  military 
honours,  October  14,  1758. 

HOHENLINDEN,  Battle  of,  between  the  Austrian  and  French  armies,  the  latter 
commanded  by  general  Moreau.  The  Imperialists  were  defeated  with  great  loss, 
their  killed  and  wounded  amounting  to  10,000  men,  and  their  loss  in  prisoners  to 
10,000  more,  November  3,  1800. 

HOLLAND.  The  original  inhabitants  of  this  country  were  the  Batavians,~who  derived 
their  origin  from  the  Catti,  a  people  of  Germany.  Having  been  obliged  to  abandon 
their  country  on  account  of  civil  wars,  they  came  and  established  themselves  in  a 
morass,  formed  by  the  waters  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Waal,  which  they  named  Bet- 
tuive,  or  Batavia,  from  Batton,  the  son  of  their  chieftain.  To  these  have  since  been 
added  a  pretty  large  proportion  of  Francs  and  Frisians. — See  Nassau^  House  of. 

After  a  struggle  of  thirty  years,  the  king 
of  Spain  is  obliged  to  declare  the  Ba- 
tavians  free  ....       a.d.  1609 

The  Republic  wars  against  Spain  in  the 
East,  and  in  America ;  the  Dutch  ad- 
miral, Peter  Hen,  takes  several  Spa- 
nish galleons,  value  20,000,000/.  sterling  1635 

Cromwell  declares  war  against  Holland, 
and  many  naval  battles  are  fought ; 
Blake  signally  defeats  Van  Tromp 

William,  prince  of  Orange,  having  mar- 
ried Mary,  daughter  of  James  U.,  is 
called  to  the  British  throne 

The  office  of  Stadtholder  is  made  here- 
ditary in  the  Orange  family   .        .    . 

Era  of  the  Civil  war     .        .      '  . 

The  French  Republican  army  march 
into  Holland ;  the  people  declare  in 
their  favour 1793 

The  Stadtholder  expelled      .      Jan.  15,  1795 
s 


Sovereignty  founded  by  Thierry,  first 

count  of  Holland  .        .  a.d. 

The  county  of  Holland  devolves  to  the 

counts  of  Hainault    .         .         .         . 
It  falls  to  the  crown  of  Philip  the  Good, 

duke  of  Burgundy  .        .    . 

100,000  persons  are  drowned  by  the  sea 

breaking  in  at  Dort   .... 
Burgundy  and  its  dependencies  become 

a  circle  of  the  empire    .        .        .    . 
They  fall  to  Spain,  whose  tyranny  and 

religious  persecution  cause  a  revolt  in 

Batavia    ...... 

The  revolted  states  with  William,  prince 

of  Orange,  at  their  head,  enter  into  a 

treaty  at  Utrecht 

They  elect  William  as  Stadtholder 
The  Stadtholder,  William,  is  assassin- 

ateci  ..... 


868 


1299 


1436 


1446 


1521 


1566 


1579 
1579 

1584 


The  Dutch  East-India  company  founded  1602 


1653 


1688 

1747 
1787 


HOL 


[258] 


HOM 


1797 


HOLLAND,  continued. 

He  arrives  in  England      .  Jan.  21,  1795 

Battle  of  Camperdown,  Dnncan  signally 
defeats  the  Dutch  .  .  Oct.  11, 
The  Texel  fleet,  of  twelve  ships  of  the 
line,  with  thirteen  Indiamen,  surren- 
ders to  the  British  admiral  Duncan, 
without  firing  a  gun  Aug.SS,  1799 

A  new  constitution  is  given  to  the  Ba- 
tavian  republic ;  the  chief  ofiBcer  (R.  J. 
Schimmelpennick)  takes  the  title  of 
Grand  Pensionary     .         .    April  26,  1805 
Holland  erected  into  a  kingdom,  and 

Louis  Bonaparte  declared  king,  Junes,  1806 
Louis  abdicates         .         .         .  July  1,  1810 
Holland  united  to  France      .       July  9,  1810 
Redtwed  to  the  House  of  Orange,  and 
Belgium  annexed  to  its  dominions 

Nov.  18, 
The  prince  of  Orange  is  proclaimed  so- 
vereign prince  of  the  United  Nether- 
lands   Dec  6, 


1813 


1813 


He  receives  the  oath  of  allegiance  from 
his  subjects  .         .  March  3D,  1814 

And  takes  the  title  of  king  as  William  L 

March  16,  1815 

The  revolution  in  Belgium  {which  see) 
commenced  .        .  Aug.  25,  1830 

The  Belgians  take  the  city  of  Antwerp 
(which  see)       .         .        .       Oct.  27,  1830 

Belgium  is  separated  from  Holland,  and 
Leopold  of  Ck>bourg  is  elected   king 

July  12,  1831 

Holland  renews  the  war  against  Belgium 

Aug.  3,  1831 

Conference  in  London  on  the  affairs  of 
Holland  and  the  Netherlands  termin- 
ates, see  Belgium    .         .         Nov.  15,  IQSl 

Treaty  between  Holland  and  Belgium, 
signed  in  London        .         .   April  19,  1839 

Abdication  of  William  I.  in  favour  of 
his  son  ....  Oct.  8,  1840 

Bee  Belgium. 


STADTHOLnSIlS,  &0. 


1702.  John  William  Frizo,  drowned  in  passing 

a  ferry  in  Holland. 
1711.  Charles  Henry  Frizo. 
1747.  Wmiam  IV.,    first  hereditary  stadt- 

holder. 
1751.  WUliamV. 


1813.  William  L 
1840.  William  IL 


A.D.  1554.  William  the  Great  succeeds  his  cousin, 

Rene,  to  whom  the  United  Provinces 

owe  their   foundation    and    gloxy : 

killed  by  an  assassin,  hired  by  Philip 

of  Spain. 
1584.  Henry  Philip  William. 
1618.  Maurice,  a  consummate  general. 

1625.  Frederick  Henry.  kinob. 

1647.  WiUiam  H. 
1650.  William  lU.  made  stadtholder  in  1672, 

and  king  of  England  in  1689. 

HOLLAND,  NEW.  It  is  not  clearly  ascertained  when  this  country  was  first  discovered. 
In  1605 1  ei  seq,,  various  parts  of  the  coast  were  traced  by  the  Spanish,  Portuguese , 
Dutch,  and  English.  What  was  deemed  till  lately  the  south  extremity,  was  dis- 
covered by  Tasman,  in  1642.  The  eastern  coast,  called  New  South  Wales,  was 
taken  possession  of,  in  his  Britannic  majesty's  name,  by  captain  Cook^  in  1770. — See 
Botany-Bay  f  New  South  Wales,  and  Van  Diemen*s  Land. 

HOLY  ALLIANCE.  A  league  so  called  between  the  emperors  of  Russia  and  Austria, 
and  the  king  of  Prussia,  by  which  they  ostensibly  bound  themselves,  among  other 
things,  to  be  governed  by  Christian  principles  in  all  their  political  transactions. 
This  alliance  was  ratified  at  Paris,  September  26,  1815. 

HOLY  MAID  OF  KENT.  Elizabeth  Barton,  so  styled,  was  spirited  up  by  the 
Catholic  party  to  hinder  the  Reformation,  by  pretending  to  inspirations  from 
Heaven  ;  foretelling  that  the  king,  Henry  VIII.,  would  die  a  speedy  and  violent 
death  if  he  divorced  Catherine  of  Spain,  and  married  Anne  Boleyn ;  and  predicting 
many  direful  calamities  to  the  nation.  Barton  and  her  confederates  were  hanged  at 
Tyburn,  24  Henry  VIII.,  April  20,  IbU.—Rapin. 

HOLY-ROOD.  The  festival  of  the  Holy-cross ;  this  feast  is  called  also  Holy-cross 
day :  it  was  instituted  on  account  of  the  recovery  of  a  large  piece  of  the  Cross,  by 
the  emperor  Heraclios,  after  it  had  been  taken  away,  on  the  plundering  of  Jerusalem, 
about  the  year  of  Christ  615,  on  the  14th  September. — Brand. 

HOLY  WARS.  The  wars  of  the  Christians  against  the  Infidels.  Peter,  the  Hermit,  a 
priest  of  the  diocese  of  Amiens,  in  France,  was  the  author  of  these  cruel,  bloody,  and 
unjust  religious  wars.  He  himself  led  the  way  through  Hungary,  at  the  head  of  an 
undisciplined  multitude  of  more  than  300,000  men,  a  comparatively  small  number 
of  whom  survived  to  reach  the  holy  city.  He  roused  Europe  to  the  first  crusade, 
A.D.  1094. — See  Crusades. 

HOLY  WATER,  is  said  to  have  been  used  in  churches  as  early  as  a.d.  120. — AsJie. 

HOMER'S  ILIAD,  &c.  were  written  about  915  b.c.  Among  the  thousands  of  volumes 
of  MSS.  burned  at  Constantinople,  a.d.  477,  were  the  works  of  Homer,  said  to  have 


HOM  [_  259  ]  HOR 

been  written  in  golden  letters  on  the  great  gut  of  a  dragon,  120  feet  long. — Univ. 
Hist.  The  works  of  Homer  are  supposed  to  have  done  great  injury  to  muikind,  by 
inspiring  the  love  of  military  glory.  Alexander  was  said  to  sleep  with  them  always  on 
his  pillow.— Dartotn. 

HOMILIES.  A  homily  signified  a  sermon  or  discourse  upon  some  head  or  point  of 
religion,  commonly  done  in  a  plain  manner,  for  its  being  more  easily  understood 
by  the  common  people.  At  the  time  of  the  Reformation  in  England  there  were 
several  made  and  printed,  and  ordered  to  be  read  in  those  churches  that  were  not 
furnished  with  a  sufficiently  learned  minister  to  compose  proper  discourses  them- 
selves, and  also  as  a  prevention  of  unsound  doctrine  being  taught  in  the  more  remote 
and  less  frequented  country  places.  But  in  the  primitive  Church  it  rather  meant  a 
plain  conference  by  way  of  question  and  answer,  which  was  commonly  done  by  the 
bishop,  till  the  fifth  century ;  when  the  learned  priests  were  allowed  to  preach, 
catechise,  Sec,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  bishops  used  to  do.  A  book  of  homilies 
was  drawn  up  by  archbishop  Cranmer,  1  Edward  VI.  1547 ;  and  another  was  pre- 
pared  by  an  order  of  Convocation,  5  Elizabeth  Ib^Z.—Stowe, 

<'  HONI  SOIT  QUI  MAL  Y  PENSE."  It  is  said  that  the  countess  of  SalUbury, 
at  a  ball  at  court,  happening  to  drop  her  garter,  the  king,  Edward  III.,  took  it  up, 
and  presented  it  to  her  with  these  words  :  "  Honi  soit  qui  mal  y  pensej**  <<evil  be  to 
him  who  evil  thinks.''  They  afterwards  became  the  motto  of  the  Garter ;  but  this 
statement  of  the  origin  of  the  motto  is  unsupported  by  sufficient  authority. — Goldsmith. 

HOPS.  Introduced  into  England,  a.d.  1524,  and  were  used  in  brewing ;  but  the 
physicians  having  represented  that  they  were  unwholesome,  parliament  was  petitioned 
against  them  as  being  a  wicked  weed,  and  their  use  was  prohibited  in  1528. — 
Anderson.  At  present  there  are  between  fifty  and  sixty  thousand  acres  under  the 
culture  of  hops  in  England. 

HORATII  AND  CURIATII,  Thb  Combat  of  the,  669  b.c.  The  Romans  and  the 
Albans  contesting  for  superiority,  agreed  to  choose  three  champions  on  each  side  to 
determine  to  which  it  belonged ;  and  the  three  Horatii,  Roman  knights,  and  the  three 
Curiatii,  Albans,  being  elected  by  their  respective  countries,  engaged  in  the  cele- 
brated combat,  which,  by  the  victory  of  the  Horatii,  united  Alba  to  Rome. 

HORNPIPE.  This  dance  is  supposed  to  be  so  named  from  its  having  been  performed 
to  the  Welsh  pib-corn^  that  is  horn-pipe,  about  a.d.  1300. — Spencer. 

HORSE.  The  people  of  Thessaly  were  excellent  equestrians,  a^d  probably  were  the 
first,  among  the  Greeks  at  least,  who  rode  upon  horses,  and  broke  them  in  for 
service  in  war ;  whence  arose  the  fable  that  Thessaly  was  originally  inhabited  by 
centaurs.  And  Solomon  had  40,000  stalls  of  horses  for  his  chariots,  and  12,000 
horsemen. — 1  Kings,  iv.  26.  The  power  of  the  horse  is  equal  to  that  of  five  men. 
— Smeaton.  A  horse  can  perform  the  work  of  six  men. — Bossuei.  The  Greeks  and 
Romans  had  some  covering  to  secure  their  horses'  hoofs  from  injury.  In  the  ninth 
century,  horses  were  only  shod  in  the  time  of  frost.  The  practice  of  shoeing  was 
introduced  into  England  by  William  I.  1066.  In  England  there  are  two  millions  of 
draft  and  pleasure  horses,  and  one  hundred  thousand  agricultural  horses,  v^bich  con- 
sume tiie  produce  of  seven  millions  of  acres.  The  horse-tax  was  imposed  in  1784, 
and  was  then  levied  on  all  saddle  and  coach  horses  in  England.  Its  operation  was 
extended,  and  its  amount  increased  in  1796  ;  and  again  in  1808.  The  existing 
duty  upon  ''horses  for  riding " only,  in  England,  amounts  to  about  350,000/.  per 
year. — See  Bace  Horses, 

HORSE  GUARDS.  Tbey  were  instituted  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  1 550. —Salmon.  Th 
first  troop  of  the  Horse  Grenadier  Guards  was  raised  in  1693,  and  was  commanded  by 
general  Cholmondeley ;  and  the  second  troop,  commanded  by  lord  Forbes,  was  raised 
in  1702.  There  was  a  reduction  of  the  Horse  and  Grenadier  Guards,  and  Life  Guards 
as  now  established  were  raised  in  their  room.  May  26,  1788. — Phillips.  The  pre- 
sent edifice  called  the  Horse  Guards  was  erected  by  Ware,  about  1730.  In  the  front 
are  two  small  arches,  where  horse-soldiers,  in  full  uniform,  daily  mount  guard. 
In  a  part  of  the  building  is  the  office  of  the  commander-in-chief. 

HORTICULTURAL  SOCIETIES.  The  society  in  London  was  founded  in  1804, 
and  was  incorporated  April  17,  1808.  The  Edinburgh  society,  in  1809  ;  and  that 
of  Dublin  in  January,  1817.  The  transactions  of  the  London  society  have  attracted 
great  attention,  on  account  of  the  many  valuable  discoveries  it  has  made. 

s2 


H08  Q  260  ]  HUM 

HOSPITALLERS.  Military  knigbU  of  the  order  of  St.  John,  of  Jerusalem,  who  were 
under  religions  tows  ;  instituted  bj  opening  a  hospital  for  the  reception  of  pilgrims 
at  Jerusalem,  in  a.d.  1048.  They  became  a  monastic  order  in  1092  ;  and  a  mili- 
tary order  in  1 1 1 8. — See  Malta, 

HOSPITALS  OF  LONDON.  Several  of  these  most  valuable  and  merciful  institations 
are  of  ancient  date,  and  richly  endowed.  One  of  the  most  munificent  erections  by 
a  single  individual  is  that  of  Guy's  Hospital,  Southwark,  a  London  bookseller  of 
that  name  having  built  it  at  the  cost  of  18,793/.,  and  endowed  it,  in  1724,  by  a 
bequest  of  219,499/.  See  Guy*8  HotpUal,  Among  the  foundations  of  this  kind, 
the  following  are  the  principal : — 


London  hospital  .  .  ,  a.d.  1759 
Lying-in  hospital,  British  .  .  .  1749 
Lying-in  hospital.  City-road  .  .  .  1750 
Middlesex  hospital  ....  1747 
Queoi  Charlotte's  Lying-in  hospital  .  1752 
St  Bartholomew's  hospital ;   see  Bar- 

tholometo,  St.    .  .        .        .  1546 

St  George's  hospital  .  .  .  .  1785 
St  Luke's  hospital  ....  1732 
St  Thomas'  hospital  .  .  .  .  1553 
Seamen's  hospital  (C?rampt<«)  .  .  ]821 
Westminster  hospital       .  .    .  1719 


Bethlehem  hospital,  founded  .  A.n.  1546 
Charing-cross  hospital,  founded  1818; 

new  hospital  built  ....  1831 
City  of  London  hospital,  for  Lying-in 

women 1750 

General  Lying-in  hospital  .  1755 

Guy's  hospital 17^1 

HOpital  Franfais  ....  1716 

Hospital  of  Surgery  .         .    .  1827 

Jews*  hospital 1797 

King's  College  hospital  .  .  .  1839 
Lock  hospital 1746 

HOST^  Elevation  of  the.  Introduced  in  Roman  Catholic  worship,  and  prostration 
enjoined,  in  a.d.  1201.  Pope  Gregory  IX.  was  the  first  pontiflf  who  decreed  a  bell 
to  be  rung  as  a  signal  for  the  people  to  betake  themselves  to  the  adoration  of  the 
host,  which  is  done  to  this  day,  1228. — Dr,  A,  Rees. 

HOURS.  The  day  began  to  be  divided  into  hours  from  the  year  293  B.C.,  when 
L.  Papirius  Cursor  erected  a  sun-dial  in  the  temple  of  Quirinus  at  Rome.  Pre- 
viously to  the  invention  of  water-clocks  ( which  seejj  158  b.c,  the  time  was  called 
at  Rome  by  public  criers.  The  Chinese  divide  the  day  into  twelve  parts  of  two  hours 
each.  The  Italians  reckon  twenty-four  hours  round,  instead  of  two  divisions  of 
twelve  hours  each,  as  we  do.  In  England,  the  measurement  of  time  was  alike  uncer- 
tain and  difficult :  one  expedient  was  by  wax  candles,  three  inches  burning  an  hour, 
and  six  wax-candles  burning  twenty-four  hours :  these  candles  were  invented  by 
Alfred,  clocks  and  hour-glasses  not  being  then  known  in  England,  a.d.  886. 

HOWL.  Women  w«re  hired  among  the  ancient  Romans  to  weep  at  funerals,  which 
they  did  aloud  ;  they  were  called  prafica.  The  Irish  howl,  which  is  still  common 
among  the  lower  classes  of  the  people,  originated  from  this  Roman  outcry  at  the 
decease  of  relatives  and  friends ;  and  by  which  they  hoped  to  awaken  the  soul,  which 
they  supposed  might  lie  inactive. 

HUDSON'S  BAY.  Discovered  by  captain  Henry  Hudson,  when  in  search  of  a  North- 
West  passage  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  a.d.  1610  ;  but,  in  fact,  this  part  of  North  America 
may  more  properly  be  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  Frobisher  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  although  Hudson  ventured  further  north.  The  latter,  passing  the  winter 
in  this  bay  on  his  fourth  voyage,  was,  with  four  others,  thrown  by  his  sailors  into  a 
boat,  and  left  to  perish.  The  Hudson- Bay  Company  obtained  chartered  possessions 
here,  in  1670.    The  forts  were  destroyed  by  the  French  in  1686  and  1782. 

HUE  AND  CRY.  The  old  common-law  process  of  pursuing  ''with  horn  and  with 
voice,''  from  hundred  to  hundred,  and  county  to  county,  all  robbers  and  felons. 
Formerly,  the  hundred  was  bound  to  make  good  all  loss  occasioned  by  the  robberies 
therein  committed,  unless  the  felon  were  taken  ;  but  by  subsequent  laws  it  is  made 
answerable  only  for  damage  committed  by  riotous  assemblies. 

HUGUENOTS.  This  word  is  of  uncertain  derivation.  It  was  used,  as  a  term  of  re- 
proach, by  the  French  Catholics,  to  nickname  their  countrymen  of  the  reformed 
churches,  or  Protestants  of  France,  and  had  its  rise  in  1560.  The  memorable  mas- 
sacre of  the  Huguenots  of  France,  on  the  festival  of  St.  Bartholomew,  took  place  on 
Aug.  24, 1572.— See  Bartholomew^  St. 

HUMILIATI.  A  congregation  of  religious  in  the  church  of  Rome,  which  was  formed 
by  some  Milanese  who  had  been  imprisoned  under  Frederick  I.,  1)62.  This  order 
had  ninety  monasteries ;  but  it  was  abolished  for  luxury  and  cruelty  by  pope  Pius  V-, 
and  their  houses  were  given  to  the  Dominicans  and  Cordeliers,  in  1570. 


HDN 


[261] 


HUN 


HUNDREDS.  A  Danish  institution  ;  a  hundred  being  a  part  or  division  of  a  shire,  so 
called,  as  is  supposed,  from  its  having  been  composed  of  a  hundred  families,  at  the 
time  the  counties  were  originally  divided  by  king  Alfred,  about  a.d.  897.  The 
hundred-court  is  a  court-baron  held  for  all  the  inhabitants  of  a  hundred,  instead  of  a 
manor. — Law  Dictionary. 

HUNGARY.  The  Pannonia  of  the  ancients,  and  subject  to  the 'Romans,  11  b.c,  and 
kept  possession  of  by  them  until,  in  the  fourth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  the 
Vandals  drove  them  out  of  it.  About  forty  years  afterwards,  the  Vandals  migrated 
towards  Gaul,  and  their  deserted  settlements  were  occupied  by  the  Goth»,  who  in 
the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century>were  expelled  by  the  Huns,  a  ferocious  tribe  of 
Scythians,  headed  by  Attila,  whose  dreadful  ravages  obtained  him  the  appellation  of 
"  The  Scourge  of  God." — In  more  recent  times,  the  Hungarians  have  been  much 
intermixed  with  Sclavonic  nations,  as  Bohemians,  Croats,  Russians,  and  Vandals ; 
besides  German  settlers,  as  Austrians,  Styrians,  Bavarians,  Franks,  Swabians,  Saxons, 
&c«  Hungary  was  annexed  to  the  empire  of  Germany  under  Charlemagne,  but  it 
became  an  independent  kingdom  in  920. 


Stephen  receives  the  title  of  Apostolic 
king  from  the  pope        .        .        a.d.    997 

The  Poles  overrun  Hungary  .        .  10(jl 

Dreadful  ravages  of  the  Tartars  under 
the  sons  of  Jenghls  Khan,  throughout 
Hungary,  Bohemia,  and  Russia,  1226  etteq. 

Victories  of  Louis  the  Great  in  Bulgaria* 
Servia,  and  Dalmatia    .        .         .    .  1342 

Louis  carries  his  arms  into  Italy   .        .  1342 

He  dies,  and  the  history  of  Hungary  now 
presents  a  frightful  catalogue  of  crimes  1378 

Charles  Buras  is  murdered;  Elizabeth, 
queen  of  Louis,  is  drowned,  and  king* 
Mary,  their  daughter,  marries  Sigis- 
mond,  marquis  of  Brandenburg,  and 
causes  the  rivers  of  Hungary  to  flow 
with  blood 1378 

The  unhappy  Hungarians  call  the  Turks 
to  their  assistance     ....  1380 

Sultan  Bajazet  vanquishes  Sigismond  in 
battle 1389 

Sigismond  recovers  from  this  blow,  and 
makes  Wallachia  and  Moldavia  tribu- 
tary to  him 1390 

He  obtains  the  crown  of  Bohemia,  and 
is  elected  emperor  of  Germany       .    .  1410 

Albert  of  Austria  succeeds  to  the  throne 


A.n.  997. 
1038. 
1041. 
1044. 

1047. 

1059. 
1063. 
1073. 
1076. 
1096. 
1114. 

1131. 


1141. 
1161. 


KINOS  OF 

Stephen,  duke,  assumes  the  title  of  king. 

Peter  I.,  deposed. 

Otta,  killed  in  battle. 

Peter  again  ascends  the  thrrne;  is  again 

deposed,  and  has  his  eyes  put  out. 
Andrew,   assassinated  by  his  brother 

Bela. 
Bela,  killed  by  the  fall  of  a  ruinous  tower. 
Solomon,  deposed  by  his  son. 
Geiga  L 
St.  Ladislaus. 
Coloman. 
Stephen  II.,  sumamed  Thunder ;  turned 

monk. 
Bela  IL ;  he  had  his  eyes  put  out  by  his 

uncle  Coloman,  so  that  his  queen 

ruled  the  kingdom. 
Geiga  II. 
Stephen  m. 


of  Hungary,  thus  laying  the  founda- 
tion  of  the  subsequent  power  and 
greatness  of  the  house  of  Austria  a.d.  1437 
It  passes  to  the  king  of  Poland      .        .  1439 
Solyman  II.,  emperor  of  the  Turks,  in- 
vades Hungary,  and  takes  Buda ;  bat- 
tle of  Mohatz,  (which  see)  .    .  1526 
Buda  sacked  a  second  time  by  the  Turks, 
and  all  the  inhabitants  put  to  the 

sword 1540 

Sclavonia  taken  by  the  Turks    .        .    .  1540 
Temeswar  taken  by  them     .         .         .  1552 
Transylvania  seized  by  Solyman        .    .  1656 
The  duke  of  Lorraine  loses  30,000  men  in 
a  fruitless  attempt  to  take  Buda  from 

the  Turks 1684 

Be  at  length  carries  Buda  by  storm,  and 
delivers  up  the  Mahometans  to  the 
fury  of  the  soldiers        .  .    .  1686 

Temeswar  wrested  from  the  Turks  by 

prince  Eugene  .....  1716 
Servia  and  Wallachia  ceded  to  Turkey 

at  the  peace  of  Belgrade         .         .    .  1739 
Temeswar  incorporated  with  the  king- 
dom of  Hungary        ....  1778 

See  Germany* 

HUNGARY. 

1173.  BelallL 
1191.  Emeric. 

1200.  Ladislaus  II. 

1201.  Andrew  U. ; 
1235.  Bela  lY; 
1276.  Stephen  lY. 
1278.  Ladislaus  III.,  murdered. 
1:^91.  Andrew  IIL 
1.301.  Wenceslaus. 
1304.  Otho. 
1309.  Charles  Robert 
1342.  Louis  I.  the  Great. 
1383.  Mary. 

1389.  Mary,  and  her  husband  Sigismond. 
1437.  Albert ;  he  died  of  a  surfeit  of  melons. 
1440.  Ladislaus  lY.,  killed  in  battle  with  the 

Turks. 
1444.  Ladislaus  Y.,  poisoned  while  an  infant. 
1458.  Matthias  I.,  son  of  Huniades,  late  repent. 


*  The  BungarHiD  people  have  an  irreconcilable  aversion  to  the  name  of  queen  ;  and  consequently, 
whenever  a  female  Eucceeds  to  the  throne  of  Hungary,  she  reigns  with  the  title  of  king.  Thus,  in 
1383,  when  Mary,  the  daughter  of  Charles  Duras,  came  to  the  crown,  she  was  styled  King  Mary. 


1G09.  Matthias  n. 

1618.  Ferdinand  IL,  emperor  of  Germany. 

1625.  Ferdinand  III.,  ditto. 

1647.  Ferdinand  lY. 

1656.  Leopold,  emperor  of  Germany. 

1687.  Joseph,  ditto. 

1711.  Charles  TI.,  ditto. 

1740.  Maria  Theresa. 

1780.  Joseph,  her  son,  emperor  of  Germany. 


HUN  []  262  ]  HYM 

HUNGARY,  continued. 
A.D.1490.  LadislausYL 

1516.  Louis  n.  drowned  whilst  fighting  the 
Turks. 

1526.  John  Sepusius,  deposed. 

1527.  Ferdinand,  king  of  Bohemia. 
1534.  John  Sepudins,  again. 
1539.  John  IL 

1561.  Maximilian,  <^/Urv>ardt  emperor  of  Ger- 
many. 

1573.  Rodolphus.  {  See  Germany. 

On  the  death  of  Charles  VI.,  in  1740,  his  daughter,  Maria  Theresa,  who  had  married 
into  the  house  of  Lorraine,  was  in  danger  of  being  deprived  of  her  father's  hereditary 
dominions  by  France,  and  also  by  Bavaria  ;  bat  at  length  oyercoming  all  difficulties, 
her  husband  was  elected  emperor,  and  Hungary,  Austria,  and  Bohemia  are  at  this 
time  governed  by  their  descendants. — See  Germany. 

HUNS.  A  fierce  and  warlike  nation,  occupying  Eastern  Tartary  nearly  1200  years  ;  they 
were  almost  wholly  exterminated  by  the  Chinese,  in  a.d.  93,  and  the  remnants  settled 
on  the  Volga,  and  attacked  the  Roman  allies  on  the  Danube,  in  376  ;  but  having 
been  subsidised  under  Attila,  they  turned  their  arms  towards  Germany.  This  latter 
country  and  Scythia  were  conquered  by  them,  about  a.d.  433.  100,000  of  them 
were  slain  on  the  plains  of  Champagne  in  447.  They  were  defeated  by  Charles  the 
Oreat  in  several  battles  during  eight  years,  and  were  almost  extirpated,  and  soon 
ceased  to  appear  as  a  distinct  nation  after  780.  When  they  settled  in  Pannonia,  they 
gave  it  the  name  of  Hungary,  which  aee ;  see  also  Attila. 

HURLY-BURLY  is  said  to  owe  its  origin  to  Hurleigh  and  Burleigh,  two  neighbouring 
families,  that  filled  the  country  around  them  with  contest  and  violence. 

HUSTINGS,  Court  of.  A  very  ancient  court  of  the  city  of  London.  It  is  the 
supreme  court  of  judicature,  as  the  court  of  common-council  is  of  legislature,  of  that 
metropolis.  The  court  of  Hustynga  was  granted  to  the  city  of  London,  to  be  holden 
and  kept  weekly,  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  a.d.  1052. — Bohun*8  Privilegia  Londini. 
Winchester,  Lincoln,  York,  &c.,  were  also  granted  Hustings  courts. 

HUTCHINSONIANS.  The  followers  of  the  opinions  of  Mr.  John  Hutchinson,  of 
Yorkshire ;  whose  notion  was,  that  a  plenum  and  the  air  are  the  principles  of  the 
Scripture  philosophy,  and  whose  scheme  of  reformation  related  to  the  original  lan- 
guage of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  true  sense  of  the  Bible. — Heathcote. 

HYACINTH.  The  poets  assign  a  romantic  origin  to  this  beautiful  flower.  Apollo 
was  extremely  fond  of  the  youth  Hyacinthus,  and  was  entrusted  with  his  education. 
As  he  was  once  playing  at  quoit  with  his  pupil,  Zephyrus  blew  the  quoit,  as  soon  as  it 
was  thrown  by  Apollo,  upon  the  head  of  Hyacinthus,  and  he  was  killed  with  the 
blow.  Apollo  was  so  disconsolate  at  the  death  of  Hyacinthus,  that  he  changed  his 
blood  into  a  flower  which  bore  his  name. 

HYDRAULIC  CHEMISTRY.  It  became  a  science  in  1746.  The  hydraulic  press, 
whose  power  may  be  500  or  5000  tons,  is  merely  a  practical  application  of  the  hydro- 
static paradox,  by  which  the  pressure  of  a  fluid  is  as  the  base  by  the  height,  whatever 
may  be  the  volume  of  height. 

HYDROSTATICS  were  probably  first  studied  in  the  Alexandrian  school,  about  300 
B.C.  The  pressure  of  fluids  was  discovered  by  Archimedes,  about  250  B.C.  The 
forcing-pump  and  air-fountain  were  invented  by  Hero,  about  120  B.C.  Water-mills 
were  known  about  the  time  of  the  birth  of  Christ.  The  science  was  revived  by 
Galileo,  about  A.D.  1600.  The  theory  of  rivers  was  scientifically  understood  In 
1697.  The  correct  theory  of  fluids  and  oscillation  of  waves,  explained  by  Newton, 
in  1714.  A  scientific  form  was  given  to  hydrodynamics,  by  Bernoulli,  1738;  and 
the  resistance  of  fluids  shown,  1752. 

HYMNS.  Religious  songs,  or  odes,  at  first  used  by  the  heathens  in  praise  of  their 
false  deities,  and  afterwards  introduced  both  into  the  Jewish  and  Christian  church. 
St.  Hilary,  the  bishop  of  Aries,  in  France,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  com- 
posed hymns  to.be  sung  in  Christian  churches,  about  a.d.  431.  The  hymns  of  the 
Jews  were  usually  accompanied  with  trumpets,  drums,  and  cymbals. 


lAM  Q  263  ]  ILI 


I. 

IAMBIC  VERSE.  Invented  by  Archilochus,  about  700  B.C.  He  had  courted 
Neobule,  the  daughter  of  Lycambes,  and  after  receiving  a  promise  of  marriage,  the 
father  preferred  another  suitor,  who  was  richer  than  the  poet ;  whereupon  Archi- 
lochus  wrote  so  bitter  a  satire  on  the  old  man's  avarice,  that  he  hanged  him- 
self.— Herodotus,  Archilochus  was  banished,  in  consequence,  from  Sparta,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  afterwards  assassinated. 

ICE.  Galileo  was  the  first  who  observed  ice  to  be  lighter  than  the  water  which  com- 
posed it,  and  hence  ice  floats,  about  1597.  Ice  produced  in  summer  by  means  of 
chemical  mixtures,  prepared  by  Mr.  Walker  and  others,  in  1782.  Leslie  froze 
water  under  the  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  by  placing  under  it  a  vessel  full  of  oil  of 
vitriol.  One  part  of  sal-ammoniac  and  two  of  common  salt,  with  five  of  snow,  pro- 
duce a  degree  of  cold  twelve  degrees  below  the  zero  of  Fahrenheit.  Five  parts  of 
muriate  of  lime  and  four  of  snow  freeze  mercury  ;  and  mercury  can  be  solidified  by 
preparations  of  sulphuric  acid,  so  as  to  bear  the  stroke  of  a  hammer. — See  Cold, 

ICELAND.  Discovered  by  some  Norwegian  chiefs  who  were  compelled  to  leave  their 
native  country,  a.d.  871 ;  according  to  some  accounts,  it  had  been  previously  visited  by 
a  Scandinavian  pirate.  It  was  peopled  by  the  Norwegians,  in  874.  In  1783,  there 
occurred  here  the  most  tremendous  volcanic  eruption  on  record  ;  it  was  accompanied 
by  violent  wind  and  rain,  and  a  darkness  of  the  heavens  ;  and  it  was  feared  that  the 
island  would  fall  to  pieces.  Three  fire  spouts  broke  out  on  Mount  Skapta,  which,  after 
rising  to  a  considerable  height  in  the  air,  formed  a  torrent  of  red-hot  lava  that  flowed 
for  six  weeks,  and  ran  a  distance  of  sixty  miles  to  the  sea,  in  a  broken  breadth  of  nearly 
twelve  miles  :  twelve  rivers  were  dried  up ;  twenty-one  villages  totally  overwhelmed 
by  fire  or  water  ;  and  thirty.four  others  were  materially  injured. 

ICH  DIEN,  **  I  serve."  The  motto  under  the  plume  of  ostrich  feathers  found  in  the 
helmet  of  the  king  of  Bohemia  after  he  was  slain,  at  the  battle  of  Cressy,  at  which  he 
served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  French  army.  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  in  veneration 
of  his  father,  Edward  III.,  who  commanded  that  day,  though  the  prince  won  the 
battle,  adopted  this  motto,  which  has  ever  since  been  borne  with  the  feathers,  by  the 
heirs  to  the  crown  of  England,  but  not  as  princes  of  Wales,  which  many  have  erro- 
neously maintained,  Aug.  26,  1346. 

IDES.  In  the  Roman  calendar,  the  ides  meant  the  thirteenth  day  of  each  month, 
except  in  March,  May,  July  and  October,  in  which  months  it  was  the  fifteenth  day, 
because  in  these  four  it  was  six  days  before  the  nones,  and  in  the  other  months  four 
days.  The  Ides  of  March  was  the  day  on  which  Julius  Csesar  was  assassinated  in 
the  senate  house  by  Casca  and  other  conspirators,  44  B.C. 

IDIOTS.  It  is  shown  by  the  latest  returns,  that  exclusively  of  lunatics  (see  Insanity), 
there  are  in  England,  pauper  idiots,  or  idiots  protected  in  national  institutions, 
males,  3372  ;  females,  3893  ;  total,  7265.  In  England  there  is  one  lunatic  or  idiot 
in  every  1033  individuals  ;  in  Wales,  there  is  one  in  every  807  ;  in  Scotland,  one  to 
every  731  ;  and  in  Ireland,  one  to  every  812.   For  laws  relating  to  idiots,  see  Lunacy, 

IDOLATRY.  The  public  worship  of  idols  was  introduced  by  Ninus,  king  of  Assyria, 
2059  B.C. —  Vossius.  Idols  are  supposed  to  have  originated  in  the  pillar  set  up  by 
Jacob  at  Bethel,  about  1800  B.C. — Dufresnoy,  Constantine,  emperor  of  Rome, 
ordered  all  the  heathen  temples  to  be  destroyed,  and  all  sacrifices  to  cease,  330 
A.D. — Dufreanoy, 

ILIUM.  A  city  was  built  here  by  Dardanus,  and  called  Dardania,  1480  b.c.  Troy 
{which  see),  another  city,  was  founded  by  Troas,  about  1341  b.c.  ;  and  Ilus,  his 
successor,  called  the  country  Ilium,  This  kingdom  existed  296  years  from  the 
ireign  of  Dardanus,  Priam  being  the  sixth  and  last  king.  The  Trojan  war  wasunder- 
taken  by  the  united  states  of  Greece  to  recover  Helen,  whom  Paris,  son  of 
Priam,  had  borne  away  from  her  husband,  Menelaus  king  of  Sparta,  1204  B.C. — See 
Helen,  More  than  100,000  warriors  engaged  in  this  expedition  ;  and  the  invaders 
having  wasted  many  defenceless  towns  and  villages,  laid  siege  to  the  capital  1193 
B.C.  Troy  was  taken  after  ten  years'  war  by  stratagem,  and  burnt  to  ashes  by  the 
conquerors,  who  put  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword,  or  carried  them  off  as  slaves, 
1 184  B.  c.—^Apoliodorus, 


ILL  {^  264  ]  IMP 

ILLUMINATI.  These  were  heretics  who  sprang  up  in  Spain,  where  they  were  called 
AlumbradoB,  about  a.d.  1575 ;  and  after  their  suppression  in  Spain,  they  appeared 
in  France.  One  of  their  leaders  was  friar  Anthony  Bouchet.  The  chief  doctrine  of 
this  sect  was.  that  they  obtained  grace,  and  attained  perfection,  by  their  own  sublime 
manner  of  prayer.  A  secret  society  bearing  this  name  was  founded  by  Dr.  Adam 
Weishaupt,  in  May,  1776. 

ILLUMINATED  BOOKS  and  PAGES.  The  practice  of  adopting  ornaments,  draw- 
ings, and  emblematical  figures,  and  even  portraits,  to  enrich  MSS.  is  of  great  anti- 
quity ;  and  illuminated  pages  are,  many  of  them,  exquisitely  painted.  Varro  wrote 
the  lives  of  700  illustrious  Romans,  which  he  embellished  with  their  likenesses, 
about  70  B.C. — Plin.  Hint,  Nat, 

IMPEACHMENT.  The  first  impeachment  by  the  commons  house  of  parliament,  and 
the  first  of  a  lord  chancellor,  was  in  1386.  By  statute  of  the  12th  and  1 3th  of  William 
and  Mary,  it  was  enacted,  that  no  pardon  under  the  great  seal  shall  be  pleaded  to 
an  impeachment  by  the  commons  in  parliament,  1699  and  1700.  Memorable 
impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings,  Feb.  13,  1788  ;  the  trial  lasted  seven  years,  end- 
ing April  25,  1795,  in  an  acquittal.  Impeachment  of  lord  Melville,  April  29,  and  ' 
his  acquittal,  June  12,  1806.  Inquiry  into  the  charges  preferred  by  colonel  Wardle 
against  the  duke  of  York,  commenced  January  26,  and  ended  March  20,  1809,  in  his 
acquittal.  Trial  of  Caroline,  queen  of  George  IV.,  by  bill  of  pains  and  penalties, 
before  the  house  of  lords,  commenced  Aug.  16  ;  Mr.  Brougham  entered  on  her  ma- 
jesty's defence,  Oct.  3  ;  and  the  last  debate  on  the  bill  took  place,  Nov.  10, 1820.— «• 
See  Queen  of  George  IV, 

IMPERIAL  PARLIAMENT.  By  the  Union  with  Ireland,  the  parliament  of  Great 
Britain  became  Imperial;  and  the  first  Imperial  parliament,  admitting  100  Irish  mem- 
bers into  the  commons,  and  28  temporal,  and  4  spiritual  peers  into  the  house  of  lords, 
was  held  at  Westmiuster,  January  22,  1801.  The  Imperial  parliament  is  now  consti- 
tuted thus :  in  the  Commons,  since  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  {which  see),  in  1832, 
there  are  471  English  ;  29  Welsh  ;  105  Irish  ;  and  53  Scotch  members — in  all  658. 
In  the  Lords,  459  members,  of  whom  28  are  temporal,  and  4  spiritual  representative 
'  peers  of  Ireland  ;  atid  16  representative  peers  of  Scotland. — See  Commons,  Lords, 
Parliament,  and  Rpform. 

IMPORTS  OF  MERCHANDISE.  The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  amount  of 
imports  into  Great  Britain,  at  different  periods  in  the  last  and  present  century.  It 
shows,  with  the  statement  of  the  value  of  British  exports  (see  Exiaorts)^  the  pro- 
gressive and  vast  improvement  of  our  commercial  intercourse  with  ouer  countries : 

VALUf  OF  IMPORTS  INTO  GREAT  BRFtAIN,   FROM  ALL  PARTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


In  1710    .      . 

.    £4,763.777 

In  1800    .      . 

.  £30.570,606 

In  1830    .      . 

.  £46,245,241 

1750      . 

.      .     7.2«9,682 

1810       . 

.      .  41,136,135 

1835       . 

.       .  47.9084)31 

177S    .     . 

.      14,815,855 

1820    .      . 

.      36,514,564 

1840    .      . 

.      62.004,000 

IMPOSTORS.  The  names  and  pretensions  of  religious,  political,  and  other  impos- 
tors, would  fill  a  volume  ;  they  have  been,  of  course,  found  in  every  country,  and 
have  existed  in  every  age.  The  following  are  selected  from  various  authorities,  as 
being  among  the  most  extraordinary  :  — 

Demetrius  Griska  Eutropeia.  a  friar,  pre- 
tended to  be  the  son  of  Basilowitz.  czar  of 
Muscovy,  whom  the  usurper  Boris  had  put 
to  death ;  but  he  maintained  that  another 
child  had  been  substituted  in  his  place ;  he 
was  supported  by  the  arms  of  Poland ;  his 
success  astonished  the  Russiaus.  who  in- 
vited him  to  the  throne,  and  delivered  into 
his  hands  Fedor,  the  reigning  czar,  and  all 
his  family,  whom  he  cruelly  put  to  death  : 
his  imposition  being  discovered,  he  was  as- 
sassinated in  his  palace.  1606. — VAlembert't 
Revolution*  cf  Russia. 

8abbata  Levi,  a  Jew  of  Smyrna,  amused  the 
Turks  and  Jews  a  long  time  at  Constanti- 
nople and  other  places,  by  i>ersonating  our 
Saviour.  16C6, 


Aldebert,  who,  in  the  eighth  century,  pre- 
tended he  had  a  letter  from  the  Redeemer, 
which  fell  from  heaven  at  Jerusalem ;  he 
seduced  multitudes  to  follow  him  into 
woods  and  deserts,  and  to  live  in  imitation 
of  John  the  Baptist. 

Gonsalvo  Martin,  a  Spaniard,  pretended  to 
be  the  angel  Michael ;  he  was  burnt  by  the 
inquisition  in  Spain,  in  1360. 

George  David,  son  of  a  waterman  at  Ghent, 
styled  himself  the  nephew  of  God,  sent  iuto 
the  world  to  adopt  children  worthy  of  hea- 
ven ;  he  denied  the  resurrection,  preached 
against  marriage,  in  favour  of  a  community 
of  women,  and  taught  that  the  body  only 
could  be  defiled  by  sin ;  he  had  many  fol- 
lowers ;  died  at  Basle.  1556. 


IMP 


[265  ] 


INC 


IMPOSTORS,  continued, 

IMP0STOB8    EXTRAORDINARY    IN    BRITISH 
HISTORY. 

Two  men  crucified,  both  pretending  to  be  the 
Messiah ;  and  two  women  executed  for  as- 
suming the  characters  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
and  Mary  Magdalen,  5  Henry  m.,  1231. 

Elizabeth  Barton,  styled  the  Holy  maid  of 
Kent,  spirited  up  to  hinder  the  Reformation, 
by  pretending  to  inspirations  from  heaven, 
foretelling  that  the  king  would  have  an 
early  and  violent  death  if  he  divorced  Ca- 
therine of  Spain,  and  married  Anne  Boleyn. 
She  and  her  confederates  were  hanged  at 
Tyburn,  24  Hemy  VIH.,  1534.— itopm. 

In  the  first  year  of  Mary's  reign,  after  her 
marriage  with  Philip  of  Spain,  Elizabeth 
Croft,  a  girl  of  18  years  of  age,  was  secreted 
in  a  wall,  and  with  a  whistle,  made  for  the 
purpose,  uttered  many  seditious  speeches 
agamst  the  queen  and  the  prince,  and  also 
against  the  mass  and  confession,  for  which 
Ae  was  sentenced  to  stand  upon  a  scaffold 
at  St.  Paul's  cross,  during  sermon-time,  and 
make  public  confession  of  her  imposture, 
1553 :  she  was  called  the  Spirit  of  the  Wall. 
— Baker's  Chronicle. 

William  Hacket,  a  fanatic,  personated  our 
Saviour,  and  was  executed  for  blasphemy, 
34  Eliz.,  1591. 

James  Kaylor,  personated  our  Saviour ;  he 
was  convicted  of  blasphemy,  scourged,  and 
his  tongue  bored  through  with  a  hot  iron 


Commons,  under  Cromwell's  administra- 
tion, 1656. 

Valentine  Greatrakes,  an  Irish  impostor,  who 
pretended  to  cure  all  diseases  by  stroking 
the  patient';  his  imposture  deceived  the  cre- 
dulous, and  occasioned  very  warm  disputes 
in  Ireland  in  1665,  and  in  England,  where 
it  fell  into  disrepute,  in  1666,  upon  his  exa- 
mination before  the  Royal  Society,  after 
which  we  hear  no  more  of  him.— Birch's 
Memoirs  of  the  Roy.  Society. 

Dr.  Titus  Oates.    See  Conspiracies. 

Young,  a  prisoner  in  Newgate,  forges  the 
hands  of  the  earls  of  Marlborough,  Salis- 
bury, and  other  nobility,  to  a  pretraided  as- 
sociation for  restoringking  James :  the  lords 
were  imprisoned^  but  the  imposture  being 
detected.  Young  was  afterwards  fined  lOOOI. 
and  put  in  the  pillory,  1692. 

Three  French  refugees  pretend  to  be  prophets;, 
and  raise  tumults,^  6  Anne  IT^fl-— Morti- 
mer's Annals. 

Mary  Tofts,  of  Godalming,  by  pretending  she 
bred  rabbits  within  her,  so  imposed  upon 
many  persons  (among  others,  Mr.  St.  Andre, 
surgeon  to  the  king),  that  they  espoused 
her  cause,  17S6. 

The  Cock-lane  ghost  imposture  by  William 
Parsons,  his  wife,  and  daughter,  1762«— See 
Cock-lane  Ghost. 

Johanna  Southcote,  who  proclaimed  her  con- 
ception of  the  Messiah,  and  had  a  multitude 
of  followers;  she  died  in  Deo.  1814. 


on  the  pillory,  by  sentence  of  the  House  of 

IMPRESSMENT  of  SEAMEN.  Aflfirmed  by  SirM.  Foster  to  be  of  ancient  practice. 
Tlie  statute  2  Richard  II .  speaks  of  impressment  as  a  matter  well  known ,  1378.  The  first 
commission  for  it  was  issued  29  Edward  III.  1355.  Pressing,  either  for  the  sea  or 
land  service,  declared  to  be  illegal  by  the  British  parliament,  Dec.  1641.  None  can  be 
pressed  into  the  king's  naval  service  above  55,  nor  under  18.  No  apprentice  nor 
landsmen  who  have  not  served  at  sea  for  3  or  2  years.  No  masters  of  merchants' 
ships,  first-mates  of  50  tons,  and  boatswains  and  carpenters  of  100  tons.  No  men 
employed  by  the  public  boards,  and  none  except  by  an  officer  with  a  press-warrant. 

IMPRISONMENT  for  DEBT,— See  articles,  Arrest^  Debtors,  and  Ferrars'  Arrest. 

IMPROPRIATIONS.  Before  the  suppression  of  the  monasteries  by  Henry  YIII.,  at 
the  period  of  the  Reformation,  the  abbots  and  superiors  of  them  had  many  rich  liv- 
ings in  their  possession.  The  great  tithes  they  kept  to  themselves,  allowing  the  small 
ones  to  the  vicar  or  substitute  who  served  in  the  church.  On  the  suppression  of 
abbeys,  their  incomes  from  the  great  tithes  were  distributed  among  his  courtiers 
by  Henry  VIII.,  and  these  persons  and  their  successors,  by  inheritance  or  purchase, 
constitute  the  7597  lay  impropriators,  who  have  made  and  still  make  a  traffic  of  these 
ecclesiastical  benefices. 

INCARNATION.  The  act  whereby  the  Son  of  God  assumed  the  human  nature.  At 
Rome,  they  reckon  the  years  from  the  birth  of  Christ,  on  the  25th  Dec. ;  and  this 
custom  (adopted  also  by  other  countries)  has  obtained  since  the  year  1431. 

INCENDIARIES.  The  punishment  for  arson  was  death  by  the  Saxon  laws  and  Gothic 
constitutions.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  incendiaries  were  burnt  to  death.  This 
crime  was  made  high  treason,  by  statute  8  Henry  VI.,  1429;  and  it  was  denied  benefit 
of  clergy,  21  Henry  VIII.,  1528.  Great  incendiary  fires  occurred  in  England,  in 
various  parts,  of  late  years ;  they  commenced  in  and  about  Kent,  in  August,  1830. 
See  Arson. 

INCEST.  It  has  been  looked  upon  with  horror  by  most  nations,  but  Persia  and  Egypt 
are  exceptions.  The  history  of  the  latter  country  abounds  with  instances  of  inces- 
tuous marriages  among  its  sovereigns.  Physcon  married  his  brother's  queen  ;  then 
repudiated  her,  and  married  her  daughter  by  his  brother,  and  murdered  his  children 


INC 


[266] 


IND 


^  by  both  wives,  129  b.c. — See  Egypt.  In  our  own  country,  Vortigem,  a  king  of 
South  Britain,  married  his  own  daughter,  a.d.  446.  The  instances  are  numerous 
in  Portugal.  Maria,  queen  of  Portugal,  married  her  uncle,  the  prince  of  Brazil, 
June,  1760 ;  and  the  son  of  that  incestuous  marriage,  Joseph,  then  in  his  sixteenth 
year,  married  his  aunt,  the  princess  Mary,  Feb.  1777.  The  present  Don  Miguel  of 
Portugal  was  betrothed  to  his  niece.  Donna  Maria,  by  procuration  at  Vienna,  in  Oct. 
1826,  she  being  then  only  seven  years  of  age.  Incest  was  early  punished  with  death 
in  England  ;  and  was  again  made  capital  by  a  law  of  the  Commonwealth,  in  1650. 

INCOME  TAX.  This  is  not,  as  some  suppose,  a  new  impost.  In  1512,  parliament 
granted  a  subsidy  of  two-fifteenths  from  the  commons,  and  two-tenths  from  the 
clergy,  to  enable  the  king  to  enter  on  a  war  with  France.— l?apt».  This  tax  was 
attempted  in  1793,  and  1799 ;  and  again  in  1802 :  and  was  afterwards  abandoned. 
In  1803,  it  was  revived,  at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent,  on  all  incomes  above  150/.  per 
annum f  and  lower  rates  on  smaller  incomes.  In  1805,  it  was  increased  to  6^  per 
cent. ;  and  in  1806  was  raised  to  the  original  rate  of  10  per  cent,  embracing  the 
dividends  at  the  bank.     It  produced — 

In  1804,  at  It.  in  the  pound    .       .  £4>650,U00  I  In  1806,  at  2s.  in  the  pound    .        £11,500.000 
In  1805,  at  Is.  3d.  ditto      .  54)37*500  I  And  subsequently     .         .         .       16,548,985 

The  income  tax  produced  from  lands,  houses,  rentages,  &c.,  8,657,937/. ;  from 
funded  and  stock  properties,  2,885,505/. ;  from  the  profits  and  gains  of  trade, 
3,831,088/.  ;  and  from  salaries  and  pensions,  1,174,456/. ;  amounting  to  sixteen 
millions  and  a  half,  and  upwards.    The  tax  was  repealed  in  March  1816. 

INDEMNITY  BILL.  A  bill  by  which  the  minister  of  the  crown,  or  the  government 
generally  is  relieved  from  the  responsibility  of  measures  adopted  in  extreme  and 
urgent  cases  without  the  previous  sanction  of  Parliament.  A  memorable  bill  of  this 
kind  was  passed,  April  19,  1801.  A  memorable  bill  to  indemnify  ministers  against 
their  abuses  of  power,  during  the  suspension  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  act  was  carried 
in  the  Commons  (principal  divisions  190  to  64) ;  and  in  the  Lords,  93  to  27  ; 
March  10,  1818. 

INDEPENDENTS.  Sects  of  Protestants,  chiefly  in  England  and  Holland.  They  are 
such  as  hold  the  independency  of  the  church,  or  that  each  congregation  may  govern 
itself  in  religious  matters.  They  say  there  is  no  absolute  occasion  for  synods  or 
councils,  whose  resolutions  may  be  taken  to  be  wise  and  prudent  advice,  but  not  as 
decisions  to  be  peremptorily  obeyed ;  they  affirm  that  one  church  may  advise  or 
reprove  another,  but  has  no  authority  to  excommunicate  or  censure.  Their  first 
meeting-house  founded  in  England  was  that  by  Henry  Jacobs,  1616. 

INDEX  EXPURGATORY.  A  catalogue  of  prohibited  books  in  the  Church  of  Rome, 
first  made  by  the  inquisitors,  and  approved  by  the  council  of  Trent.  The  index 
of  heretical  books,  by  which  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  was  forbidden  (with 
certain  exceptions)  to  the  laity,  was  confirmed  by  a  bull  of  pope  Clement  VIII.  in 
1595.  It  enumerated  most  of  the  celebrated  works  of  France,  Spain,  Germany, 
and  England,  and  which  are  still  prohibited. — Ashe, 

INDIA.  Known  to  the  ancients,  many  of  whose  nations,  particularly  the  Tyrians  and 
Egyptians,  carried  on  much  commerce  with  it.  It  was  conquered  by  Alexander,  327 
B.C.,  and  subsequently  the  intercourse  between  India  and  the  Roman  empire  was  very 
great.  The  authentic  history  of  Hindoostan  is  reckoned  to  commence  with  the 
conquests  of  Mahmud  Gazni,  a.d.  ]QOO,—RenneL 


Irruption  of  the  Mahometans,  under 
Mahmud  Gazni     .         .         .        a.d.  1000 

Patna,  or  Afghan  empire  founded         .  1205 

Reign  of  Jenghis  Khan,  one  of  the  most 
hloody  conquerors  of  the  world ; 
14,000,000  of  the  human  race  x>eri8h 
by  his  sword,  under  the  pretence  of  es- 
tablishing the  wordiip  of  one  god ;  he 
died 1237 

The  Mogul  Tartars,  under  the  conduct 
of  the  celebrated  Timour,  or  Tamer- 
lane, invade  Hindostan  .  1398 

Tamerlane  takes  the  city  of  Delhi ;  de- 
feats the  Indian  army,  makes  a  con- 


quest of  Hindostan,  and  butchers 
100,000  of  its  people         .         .        a.d.  1399 

The  passage  to  India  discovered  by  Yasco 
daGama 1497 

Conquest  of  the  country  completed  by 
the  sultan  Baber,  founder  of  the  Mo- 
gul empire     .         .         .         .         .    •  1525 

Reign  of  the  iUustrious  Acbar,  the  great- 
est prince  of  Hindostan      .        .        .  1555 

Reign  of  Aurungzebe;  his  dominions 
extending  from  10  to  35  degrees  in  la- 
titude, and  nearly  as  much  in  longi- 
tude, and  his  revenue  amounting  to' 
32,000,0002.  sterling  .         .         .    .  1660 


IND 


[267] 


IND 


INDIA,  continued. 

Invasion  of  the  Pcnrsian,  Nadir  Shah,  or 
Kouli  Khan       ....   a.d.  1738 

At  Delhi,  he  orders  a  general  massacre, 
and  150,000  persons  perish  .    .  1738 

He  carries  away  treasure  amounting  to 
125,000,000;.  sterling  .         •         .         .  1739 

Defeat  of  the  last  imperial  army  by  the 
Rohillas 1749 

[The  Mogul  empire  now  became  merely 
nominal,  distinct  and  independent  so- 
vereignties being  formed  by  numerous 
petty  princes.  The  emperors  were  of  no 
political  consequence  from  this  period, 
otherwise  than  as  they  were  made  use 
of  by  different  parties  to  promote  their 
own  views.] 

KirnsH  POWKR  m  india. 
Attempt  made  to  reach  India  by  the 

north-east  and  north-west  passages     .  1528 
First  British  ship  sailed  to  attack  the 

Portuguese 1541 

Portuguese  factories  established         .    .  1579 
Sir  Francis  Drake's  expeditions ;    he 

lands  at  Temate        ....  1579 
Levant  company  make  a  land  expedition 

to  India 1589 

First  adventure  from  England  .  1591 

First  charter  to  the  London  company  of 

merchants                       .         *         .    .  1600 
Second  charter  to  the  E.  India  company  1609 
Factories  established  at  Surat    .        .    .  1612 
Sir  Thomas  Roe,  first  English  ambassa- 
dor, arrives 1615 

English  first  send  ships  regularly  to 

China 1634 

They  establish  a  factory  at  Amoy,  and 

trade  to  Canton  ....  1677 
Bengal  made  a  distinst  agency  .  .  .  1680 
English  factory  at  Calcutta  .  .  .  1690 
New  company  established  ;  .  .  1696 
Calcutta  purchased  ....  1698 
The  companies  united  .  .  .  .  1702 
Mayor's  court  establl^ed  at  Madras  .  1726 
Also  at  Calcutta  and  Bombay  .  .  •  1726 
English  besiege  Pondicherry.  the  seat  of 
the  French  government,  without  suc- 
cess   1748 

Geriah  and  other  strongholds  of  the  pi- 
rate  Angria   are   taken   by  admiral 
Watson.    Bee  Angria     .         .         .    .  1756 
Capture  of  Calcutta  by  Berajah  Dowla. 

Bee  Calcutta 1756 

He  orders  146  British  subjects  to  be  im- 
prisoned in  the  Black-hole,  of  whom 
123  perish  in  one  night.    See  Black- 
hole       ....  May  19,  1756 
Calcutta  retaken  by  colonel,  afterwards 
lord  Clive;  he  defeats  the  soubah,  at 
Plassey     ....     June  20,  1757 
[Colonel  Clive's  force  was  but  3000  men, 
and  the  soubah's  50,000.    By  this  vic- 
tory he  acquired  all  Bengal,  and  nu- 
merous conquests  followed.] 
Fort  William,   the    strongest  fort  in 

India,  built 1757 

Conquest  of  Patna         <  Nov.  6,  1763 

Great  battle  of  Buxard ;  the  English  de- 


feat 50,000  Indians,  kill  6000,  and  take 
130  pieces  of  cannon ;  their  own  loss 
being  trifling  .         .         Oct.  22,  1764 

Lord  Clive  obtains  the  Dewanny  by  an 
imperial  grant,  which  constitutes  the 
company  the  receivers  of  the  revenue 
of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa,and  gives 
the  British  the  virtual  sovereignty  of 
ttiese  countries    .        .         .    Aug.  12,  1765 
Treaty  with  Nizam  All         .     Nov.  12,  1766 
Frightful  famine  in  Bengal        .        .    .  1770 
Warren  Hastings,  governor  of  bengal 

April  13,  1772 
India  Bill,  see  India  Bill      .     June  16,  1773 
Supreme  court  established         .        .    .  1773 
Accusations  commence  against  Warren 
Hastings ;  he  is  accused  of  taking  a 
bribe  from  a  concubine  of  Mir  JaflSer, 
aeeHcutings         .         .  May  30,  1775 

Lord  Pigot,  governor  of  Madras  Dec.  11,  1775 
Warren  Hastings  accused  of  receiving 

more  bribes  and  presents  March  11,  1776 
Lord  Pigot  is  arrested ;  he  is  taken  to 

prison,  where  he  dies  .  April  17,  1777 
Pondicherry  taken  .        .    Oct.  11,  1778 

The  strong  fortress  of  Gualior  taken  by 

major  Popham  .         .        Aug.  4,  1778 

Hyder  Ali  overruns  the  Camatic,  and 

defeats  the  British  .  .  Sept.  10,  1780 
He  takes  Arcot  .  .  .  Oct.  31,  1780 
Lord  Macartney  governor  of  Madras 

June  22,  1781 
Hyder  Ali  signally  defeated  by  sir  Eyre 

Coote      ....  July  1,  1781 

Agahi  signally  defeated   .        .  Aug.  27.  1781 
Treaty  of  Chunar;   Warren  Hastings 

takes  more  bribes,  see  (Tbunar  Sept.  19,  1781 
Hyder    Ali    is    decisively   overthrown 

June  2,  1782 
Death  of  Hyder,  and  accession  of  Tippoo 

Saib        ....        Dec.  11,  1782 
Tippoo  (son  of  Hyder)  who  had  taken 
Cuddalore  previously,  now  takes  Bed- 
nore         ....      April  30,  1783 

Mr.  Fox's  Bill 1783 

Mr.  Pitt's  Bill,  see  Board  of  Control, 

and  East  India  Bill  .       Aug.  13,  1784 

Warren  Hastings  resigns,  and  returns 

home  ....    Feb.  8,  1785 

Lord  Comwallis*  government       .   Sept.  1786 
Trial  of  Warren  Hastings,  see  Hastings, 

Trial  of  .  ,  .  .  Feb.  13,  1788 
Siege  of  Bangalore  .  .  March  6,  1791 
Bangalore  taken,  see  J?anpa2ore  Mar.  21,  1791 
Definitive  treaty  with  Tippoo ;  his  two 

sons  hostages    .         .         .    March  19,  1792 
Criminal  courts  erected              .         .    .  1793 
Civil  courts  erected,  and  circuits  ap- 
pointed      1793 

Government  of  Sir  John  Shore,  after- 
wards lord  Teignmouth  .       .    Aug.  6,  1793 
Tippoo's  sons  restored   .         .  March  29,  1794 
First  dispute  with  the   Burmese;  ad- 
justed by  general  Erskine        .        .    .  1795 
Government  of  the  earl  of  Momington, 

afterwards  marquis  Wellesley,  May  17,  1798 
Scringapatam  stormed,  and  Tippoo  Saib 
killed         ....        May  4,  1799 


IND 


[268] 


IND 


INDIA,  continued. 

Victories  of  the  BritiBh ;  the  Camatic 

conquered  ....  a.o.  1800 
Victories  of  6ir  Arthur  Welleeley  .  .  1803 
Victories  of  general  Lake  .  .  .  .  1803 
Capture  of  Bhurtpore,  and  complete  de- 
feat of  Holkar  .  .  .  April  2,  1805 
Marquis  Ck>mwalll8  resumes  the  govem- 


JulydO,  1805 
Oct.5»  1805 


1805 
Nov.  23,  1805 
Dec.  24,  1805 
July  31.  1807 


ment     .         .        •        « 
The  marquis  dies  . 
The  Mahratta  chief,  Scindia,  defeated 

by  the  British         .         .         .         .    . 
Treaty  of  peace  with  Scindia 
Tre&ty  with  Holkar  . 
Lord  Minto  governor-general 
CumoonaBurrender8totheBriti8hNov21, 1807 
Act  by  which  the  trade  to  India  was 

thrown  open;  that  to  China  remaining 

with  the  company  .  .  July  31,  1813 
Marquis  of  Hastings  takes  possession  of 

the  government  .  .  .  Oct.  4,  1813 
War  declared  against  Nepaul  Nov.  1,  1814 
Holkar  defeated  by  sir  T.  Hislop  Dec  21«  1817 
Peace  with  Holkar  .  .  .  Jan.  6,  1818 
Marquis  of  Hastings  resigns  Jan.  9,  1823 
Lord  Amherst's  government  .  Aug.  1,  1823 
The  British  take  Rangoon  .  May  5,  1824 
Lord  Combermere  commands  in  India  .  1824 
General  Campbell  defeats  the  Burmese 

near  Proome  .  .  .  Dec  25,  1825 
Bhurtpore  stormed  by  lord  Combermere, 

and  taken  ....  Jan.  3,  1826 
Peace  with  the  Burmese  .  Feb.  24,  1826 
[They  pay  1,000,000/.  sterling  and  cede  a 

great  extent  of  territory.] 
Lord  William  Bentinck  arrives  as  gover- 


Earlof  Dalhousie  appointed  commander- 
in-chief       ....    Feb.  25,  1829 

Abolition  of  suttees,  or  the  burning  of 
widows      ....         Dec.  7t  1829 

Act  to  regulate  the  Trade  to  China  and 
India,   and    intercourse  with   India, 

Aug.  28,  1833 

Another  act,  throwing  open  the  trade  to 
India,  and  the  tea  trade,  dfcc  to  China, 
forming  a  new  era  in  British  com- 
merce   ....         Aug.  28,  1833 

Rajah  of  Coorg  deposed  .    April  10,  l&'VI 

The  natives  first  admitted  to  the  magis- 
tracy     May  1,  1834 

Lord  William  Boitinck  returns  to  Eng- 
land from  India  .         .         .    July  14,  1835 

Lord  Auckland,  governor-general;  he 
leaves  England        .         .  Sept.  1835 

The  Newab  Bhimsoodden  put  to  death 
for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Frazer,  British 
resident         ....    Oct  8,  1885 

The  Company's  troops  occupy  Arden, 

Jan.  20,  1839 

The  British  occupy  Candahar    April  21,  1839 

Battle  of  Ghizny ;  victory  of  sir  John, 
now  lord  Keane.  See  Ghizny    July  23,  1839 

Shah  Soi;Oah  restored  to  his  sovereignty, 
and  he  and  the  British  army  enter 
Cabul       ....         Aug.  7,  1839 

Death  of  Kumick  Singh,  king  of  Lahore 

Nov.  5,  1840 

[During  his  funeral  ceremony  his  suo- 
cessor  is  killed  by  accident ;  and  Dost 
Mahomed,  next  heir,  surrenders  to 
England,  whereby  peace  is  assured.] 


nor-general       .         .         .         July  4,  1828 

I NDIA  COMPANY,  the  East.  The  first  commercial  intercourse  of  the  English 
with  the  East  Indies,  was  a  private  adventure  of  three  ships  fitted  out  in  1591  ;  only 
one  of  them  reached  India^and  after  a  voyage  of  three  years,  the  commander,  captain 
Lancaster,  was  brought  home  in  another  ship,  the  sailors  having  seized  on  his  own ; 
but  his  information  gave  rise  to  a  capital  mercantile  voyage,  and  the  East  India 
Compauy's  first  charter,  in  December,  1600.  The  company's  stock  then  consisted 
of  72,000/.,  and  they  fitted  out  four  ships,  and  meeting  with  success,  have  continued 
to  trade  ever  since.  India  stock  sold  at  500/.  for  a  share  of  100/.,  in  1683.  Anew 
company  was  formed  in  1698  ;  and  the  two  companies  were  united  in  1702.  The 
I  ndia-house  was  built  in  1726,  and  was  enlarged  in  1799.  The  Board  of  Control 
was  instituted  in  1784. — See  Board  of  Control, 

INDIA  BILL.  The  bill  placing  the  company's  affairs  under  the  control  of  the  British 
government,  and  re-organising  the  various  departments  in  India,  passed  June  16, 
1773.  See  East  India  Bill,  Mr.  Fox's  celebrated  bill  passed  in  the  commons,  but 
was  throvm  out  in  the  lords'  house,  1783.  Mr.  Pitt's  bill  constituting  the  Board  of 
Control  passed  August  ]3,  1784.^See  Board  of  Control, 

INDIA  RUBBER.  This  substance,  also  called  caoutchouc,  was  first  brought  to 
Europe  from  South  America,  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Several 
plants  produce  various  kinds  of  elastic  gum  ;  but  that  in  commerce  is  chiefly  the 
juice  of  the  Siphonia  elastica  or  syringe-tree.  Incisions  in  the  bark  of  this  tree  give 
vent  to  a  liquid  which  forms  Indian  rubber.  No  substance  is  so  pliable  and  so 
elastic  as  this  gum,  which  is  remarkable  for  resisting  the  action  of  some  of  the  most 
powerful  menstrua. — M,  Macquer, 

IN  DICTION.  Instituted  by  Constantine  the  Great :  a  cycle  of  tributes  orderly  dis- 
posed for  fifteen  years,  and  by  it  accounts  of  that  kind  were  kept.  Afterwards,  in 
memory  of  the  great  victory  obtained  by  Constantine  over  Mezentius,  8  Cal.  Oct., 
312,  the  council  of  Nice  ordained  that  the  accounts  of  years  should  be  no  longer  kept 
by  the  Olympiads,  but  by  the  Indiction,  which  hath  its  epocha  a.d.  313,  Jan.  1 .  Gregory. 


IND  Q  269  ]  INQ 

INDULGENCES.  They  were  commeaced  by  Leo  IIL,  about  a.o.  800;  were  much 
used  by  Urban  II.  1090 ;  and  were  subsequently  conferred  by  the  Roman  pontiffs 
in  the  twelfth  century  as  rewards  to  the  crusaders.  Clement  V.  was  the  first  pope 
who  made  public  sale  of  indulgences,  1313.  In  1517,  Leo  X.  published  general 
indulgences  throughout  Europe,  when  the  practice  led  to  the  Reformation  in  Germany, 
in  1517,  and  to  the  Reformation  in  England,  in  1534. — Bower* s  Lives  of  the  Popes, 
Indulgences  were  for  the  pardon  of  sins,  and  were  sometimes  so  extensive  as  to 
be  for  the  past,  present,  and  to  come.  They  were  written  upon  parchment,  and 
sealed  and  signed  by  the  pope  or  his  delegates. 

INFORMERS.  This  tribe  was  once  very  numerous  in  Greece  and  Rome,  they  being 
countenanced  by  wicked  princes.  The  emperor  Titus  punished  informers  by  ban- 
ishment, and  sometimes  death  ;  and  Pliny  gives  praise  to  Trajan  for  the  like  good 
policy.  In  England,  and  particularly  in  London,  numbers  of  unprincipled  men 
obtain  large  gains  as  informers  against  persons  whose  slightest  infractions  of  the 
law,  often  unconsciously  committed,  subject  them  to  the  power  and  exactions  of  this 
despised  class. 

'*  IN  HOC  SIGNO  VINCES."  In  this  sign  thou  shalt  conquer.  During  Constan- 
tine^s  campaign  in  Italy,  he  saw,  it  is  said,  a  flaming  cross  in  the  heavens,  beneath 
..  the  sun,  bearing  the  inscription  **  In  hoc  sipno  vifices,*'  The  next  night,  as  we  are  told, 
Christ  himself  appeared  to  him,  and  commanded  him  to  take  for  his  standard  an 
imitation  of  the  fiery  cross  which  he  had  seen.  He  accordingly  caused  a  standard 
to  be  made  in  this  form,  which  was  called  the  labarutn.  Some  days  after  he 
vanquished  the  army  of  Maxentius,  under  the  walls  of  Rome,  and  drove  it  into  the 
Tiber,  a.d.  312. 

INNS  OF  COURT.  A  number  of  inns  of  court  were  established  at  different  periods, 
in  some  degree  as  colleges  for  teaching  the  law.  The  Temple  (of  which  there  were 
three  societies,  namely,  the  Inner,  the  Middle,  and  the  Outer)  was  originally  founded, 
and  the  Temple  church  built,. by  the  knights  Templars,  32  Henry  II.  1185.  The 
Inner  and  Middle  Temple  were  made  inns  of  law  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  about 
1340  ;  the  Outer  not  until  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  about  1560. — Siowe's  Survey, 
The  following  inns  were  founded,  viz.  : — 

Barnard's  Imi,  an  inn  of  Chancery  a.d.  1446 
Clement's  Inn.  18  Edward  lY.  .  .  1478 
Cliffurd'fl  Inn,  20  Edward  m.  .  .  .  1345 
Fomivars  Inn,  5  Elizabeth  .  .  .  1563 
Gray's  Inn,  33  Edward  III.  .  .  .  1357 
Lincoln's  Inn,  4  Edward  IL    .  .  1310 

INOCULATION.  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montague  introduced  inoculation  to  England 
from  Turkey.  In  1718  she  had  her  own  son  inoculated  at  Adrianople,  with  perfect 
success;  and  she  was  allowed  to  have  it  tried,  for  the  first  time  in  England, 
on  seven  condemned  criminals,  7  George  I.  1721.  The  practice  was  preached 
against  by  many  of  the  bishops  and  other  clergy  from  that  period  until  1760  *. 
Vaccine  inoculation  was  introduced  by  Dr.  Jenner,  January  21,  1799  ;  he  had  dis- 
covered its  virtue  in  1796,  and  had  been  making  experiments  during  the  intermediate 
three  years.  He  was  voted  10,000/.  as  a  reward  by  parliament,  June  2, 1802.  The 
emperor  Napoleon  valued  this  service  of  Dr.  Jenner  to  mankind  so  highly  that  he 
liberated  Dr.  Wickhara,  when  a  prisoner  of  war,  at  Jenner's  request,  and  sub- 
sequently the  emperor  liberated  whole  families  of  English,  making  it  a  point  to  refuse 
him  nothing  that  he  asked.  The  Royal  Jennerian  Institution  was  founded  January 
19,  1803. — See  Small  Poje,  and  Vaccination, 

INQUISITION.  Before  the  conversion  of  Constantino  the  Great,  the  bishops  only 
examined  into  doctrines,  and  punished  heresy -with  excommunication  ;  but  after  the 
emperors  became  Christians,  they  ordained  that  such  as  were  excommunicated  should 
be  also  banished  and  forfeit  their  estates.  This  continued  till  about  the  year  800, 
when  the  western  bishops'  power  was  enlarged  to  the  authority  of  citing  persons  to 
their  courts,  both  to  convict  and  punish  them  by  imprisonment,  penances,  or  death. 

*  Inoculation  was  deemed  a  very  precarious  affair  by  our  grandfathers.  The  London  Daily  Adver- 
tiser (Nov.  7, 1751 )  has  this  paragraph:—**  We  hear  that  the  son  and  daughter  of  Thomas  Davison, 
esq.,  of  Blakeston  have  been  inoculated  in  this  town  (Newcastle),  and  that  they  are  both  well  reco- 
vered." Dr.  Mead  practised  inoculation  very  successfully  up  to  1754,  and  Dr.  Dimsdale  of  London 
inoculated  Catharine  II.,  empress  of  Russia,  in  1768.— ^e  Sm(ill  Pox. 


Lyon's  Inn,  12  Henry  YIII.  a.d.  1520 

New  Inn,  1  Henry  VH.          .  .         .  1485 

Sergeants*  Inn,  Fleet-street  .         .    .  1429 

Sergeants'  Inn,  Chancery-lane  .         .  1666 

Staples  Inn,  4  Henry  V.    .  .         .    .  1415 

Thavies' Inn,  10  Henry  Vm.  .         .1519 


DrunkenneflB 

110 

Old  age 

.    69 

Consequences  of  disease . 

100 

Chagrin 

.    54 

Epilepsy    .        .        .    . 

78 

Love  \  . 

.    47 

Ambition 

73 

Accidents 

.    39 

Excessive  labour        .    . 

73 

Religious  enthusiasm 

.    29 

Bom  idiots    . 

71 

Unnatural  practices    . 

.    27 

Misfortunes                 .    . 

69 

Political  events 

.    26 

INS  Q  270  ]  INT 

In  the  twelfth  century,  heresy,  as  it  was  then  called,  was  much  increased ;  and  the 
inquisition  arose  in  the  persecution  of  the  Albigenses  and  Waldenses.  It  was  in- 
stituted by  pope  Innocent  III.,  in  1203 ;  and  Gregory  IX.  in  a  council  held  at 
Toulouse  in  1229,  gave  it  its  final  form,  committing  the  management  of  it  to  the 
bishops  ;  but  afterwards  thinking  these  too  indulgent,  he  gave  tibe  direction  of  his 
inquisition  to  the  Dominicans.  It  was  established  in  France,  by  St.  Louis,  in  1226 ; 
and  in  the  four  Christian  kingdoms  of  Spain.  It  was  established  in  Portugal  in  1536. 
The  last  great  Auto  da  Fe  was  celebrated  in  1781 ;  and  although  the  rack  and  faggot 
are  not  now  employed  in  the  work  of  torture  and  death,  yet  the  power  of  the  Holy 
office  is  still  exercised  in  encouraging  vexations  ;  enjoining  ridiculous  penances 
and  privations  ;  prohibiting  liberal  institutions  ;  and  interdicting  useful  books. 

INSANITY.  Within  twenty  years,  insanity  has  more  than  tripled.  In  France  it  is 
more  extensive  in  proportion  to  its  population  than  it  is  in  most  other  countries. 
The  total  number  of  lunatics  and  idiots  in  England  is  as  follows :  lunatics  6806-^ 
idiots  5741 — ^together  12,547 ;  but  allowing  for  defective  returns,  the  number  may 
be  taken  at  14,000 — an  average  of  one  to  every  thousand  of  the  population.  In 
Wales :  lunatics  133 — idiots  763 — total  896  ;  and  addiog  for  parishes  that  have  made 
no  returns,  they  may  be  set  down  at  1000— a  proportion  of  one  to  eight  hundred. 
Scotland  has  3652  insane  persons — or  one  to  about  seven  hundred.  In  Ireland 
the  number  of  lunatics  and  idiots  exceeds  8000,  as  shown  by  returns,  which,  however, 
were  not  completed. — Sir  Andrew  Halliday. 

09  OirS  THOUSAND  UAIM  PATIKNTB,  INSANfTY  WAS  SUPFOSBO*  BY  AN  XMINSNT  AUTHORITY,  TO 

BB  TRACBABLB  TO  THK  POLIOWINO  CAUSBS,  IUCLATIVKI.Y : 

Poisonous  effluvia  .  .  17 
111  usage  .  .  .13 
Crimes ;  remorse  dfc  despair  9 
Pretended  insanity  .      5 

Malconformation  of  the 

skull  .         .         .4 

Other  dc  unknown  causes    88 

INSOLVENCY.  The  first  Insolvent  Act  was  passed  in  1649,  but  it  was  of  limited 
operation ;  a  number  of  acts  of  more  extensive  operation  were  passed  at  various 
periods,  and  particularly  in  the  reign  of  George  III.  The  benefit  of  the  act,  known 
as  the  Great  Insolvent  Act,  was  taken  in  England  by  50,733  insolvents,  from  the 
time  of  its  passing  in  1814,  to  March  1827,  a  period  of  thirteen  years.  Since  then, 
the  acts  relating  to  insolvency  have  been  several  times  amended,  and  every  year  re- 
newed ;  and  between  four  and  five  thousand  persons  annually  are  relieved  in  this 
country  by  their  provisions. 

INSURANCE  ON  SHIPS  and  MERCHANDISE.  Suetonius  conjectures  that  Clau- 
dius was  the  first  contriver  of  it,  a.d.  43.  Insurance  was  in  general  use  in  Italy  in 
1194  ;  and  in  England  in  1560.  Insurance  policies  were  first  used  in  Florence  in 
1523.  The  first  law  relating  to  insurance  was  enacted  in  1601.  Insurance  of  houses 
and  goods  in  London,  began  in  1 667.  This  was  the  year  following  that  of  the  Great 
Fire  of  London.  An  office  was  then  set  up  for  insuring  houses  and  buildings,  prin- 
cipally contrived  by  Dr.  Barbon,  one  of  the  first  and  most  considerable  builders  of 
the  city  of  London.  The  first  regular  office  set  up  in  London  was  the  Hand-in- 
Handf  in  1696.  A  duty  was  first  laid  on  insurance  of  \s.  6d.  per  hundred  pounds 
insured,  in  1782  ;  this  duty  was  increased  in  1797,  and  was  variously  altered  in  sub- 
sequent years. 

INSURRECTIONS.  See  the  accounts  of  Conspiracies^  Massacres,  Rebellions,  Riots,  Sfc. 

INTENDMENT  of  CRIMES.  In  cases  of  treason,  wounding,  bui-glary,  &c.,  where 
the  intention  is  proved  by  circumstances,  the  oifence  is  made  punishable  as  if  put 
into  execution,  and  the  designed  crime  completed,  by  statute  7  George  II.,  1734. 
The  rigour  of  this  act  was  modified  by  Mr.  (now  sir  Robert)  Peel's  revision  of  the 
statutes,  4-10  George  IV.,  1823-29.— See  Acts  of  Parliament. 

INTERDICT,  oa  ECCLESIASTICAL  CENSURE.  This  was  little  practised  tiU 
the  time  of  Gregory  YII.,  1073.  Interdicts  were  often  executed  in  Italy,  France, 
and  Germany.  When  a  prince  was  excommunicated,  all  his  subjects  retaining  their 
allegiance  were  excommunicated  also,  and  the  clergy  were  forbidden  to  perform  any 
part  of  divine  service,  or  any  clerical  duties  save  the  baptism  of  infants,  and  the 
taking  the  confessions  of  dying  penitents.    In  1170,  pope  Alexander  put  all  England 


INT 


[271] 


IND 


under  an  interdict ;  and  when  king  John  was  excommonicated,  in  1208,  the  kingdom 
lay  under  a  papal  interdict  for  six  years.  England  was  put  under  an  interdict  on 
Henry  VIII.  shaking  off  the  pope's  supremacy,  1535.  Pope  Siztus  Y.  published  a 
crusade,  or  holy  war,  against  the  heretic  queen  of  England  (Elizabeth),  and  offered 
plenary  indulgence  to  all  who  should  assist  in  deposing  her,  1588,  the  year  of  the 
Spanish  Armada.— See  Excommunication. 

INTEREST  OF  MONEY.  It  was  twenty  per  cent,  in  Europe  in  the  twelfth  century. 
Fixed  at  twelve  per  cent,  in  Spain,  Germany,  and  Flanders,  by  Charles  V.  in  1560. — 
Robertson.  Till  the  fifteenth  century,  no  Christians  were  allowed  to  receive  interest 
of  money,  and  Jews  were  the  only  usurers,  and,  therefore,  often  banished  and  per- 
secuted. Interest  was  first  settled  by  law  in  England  at  ten  per  eent.^  37  Henry 
VIII.,  1546.  This  law  was  repealed  by  Edward  YI. ;  but  it  was  restored  by  Eliza- 
beth. In  those  days  the  monarch  could  not  borrow  without  the  collateral  security 
of  the  metropolis.  Interest  was  reduced  to  eight  per  cent.,  and  the  word  first  used 
instead  of  usury,  21  James  I.,  1624.  Reduced  by  the  Rump-parliament  to  six  per 
cent.,  and  so  confirmed  at  the  Restoration.  Reduced  to  five  per  cent,,  13  Anne, 
1714,  at  which  rate  it  remains.  The  rate  in  Ireland  is  six  per  cent. ;  regulated  14 
Gieorge  III.,  1773.  In  the  United  States,  bylaw,  eight  per  cent.  All  interest  above 
the  legal  standard  of  Britain  is  usury,  and  punishable  by  the  statute. — Blacksione. 
The  law  does  not  now  apply  to  bills  having  only  60  days  to  run. — See  Usury  Laws. 

INUNDATIONS.  It  would  be  impossible  to  record  in  this  volume  the  numerous 
catastrophes  which  class  under  this  head :  the  following  are  among  the  most  remark- 
able relating  to  our  own  and  other  countries  : — 


An  inundation  of  the  sea  in  Lincolnshire,  laid 
underwater  many  thousand  acres,  which 
have  not  heen  recovered  to  this  time,  a.d. 
245. — Camden. 

Another  in  Cheshire,  by  which  0000  persons, 
and  an  innumerahle  quantity  of  cattle,  i>e- 
rished,  SM. 

An  inundation  at  Glasgow,  which  drowned 
more  than  400  families,  738.— l^ordtin. 

The  Tweed  overflowed  its  banks,  and  laid 
waste  the  country  for  30  miles  round,  836. 

A  prodigious  inundation  of  the  sea  on  the 
English  coasts,  which  demolished  a  number 
of  sea-port  towns,  and  their  inhabitants, 
\(i\5.— Speed. 

Earl  Godwin's  lands,  exceeding  4000  acres, 
overflowed  by  the  sea,  and  an  immense 
sand-bank  formed  on  the  coast  of  Kent, 
now  known  by  the  name  of  the  Godwin 
Sands,  1100.— Camden. 

Flanders  inundated  by  the  sea,  and  the  town 
and  harbour  of  Ostend  totally  immersed, 
1106.  The  present  city  was  built  above  a 
league  from  the  channel  where  the  old  one 
lies  submerged.— ffiffotr«  de  Flandre. 

More  than  300  houses  overwhelmed  at  Win- 
chelsea  by  an  inundation  of  the  sea,  1380. 

At  the  Texel,  which  first  raised  the  com- 
merce of  Amsterdam,  1400. 

The  sea  broke  in  at  Dort,  and  drowned  73 
villages,  and  100,000  people,  and  formed 
the  Zuyder  Sea  (see  Dort),  April  17,  1446. 

The  Severn  overflowed  during  ten  days,  and 
carried  away  men,  women,  and  children,  in 
their  beds,  and  covered  the  tops  of  many 
mountains;  the  waters  settled  upon  the 
lands,  and  were  called  The  Great  Waters  for 
100  years  after,  1  Richard  III.  1483.— ffo^ 
liruhed.  Again,  4  James  L  1607>  the  waters 
rose  above  the  tops  of  the  houses,  and  above 
100  persons  perished  in  Somerset^ire  and 
Gloucestershire.- £um#. 

A  general  inundation  by  the  failure  of  the 


dykes  in  Holland,  1530:   the  number  of 
drowned  said  to  have  been  400,000. 

At  Catalonia,  where  50,000  persons  perished, 
1617. 

An  inundation  in  Yorkshire,  when  a  rock 
opened,  and  poured  out  water  to  the  height 
of  a  church  steeple,  1686—  Vide  Phil.  Trans. 

Part  of  Zealand  overflowed,  1300  inhabitants 
were  drowned,  and  incredible  damage  was 
done  at  Hamburgh,  1717* 

At  Madrid,  several  of  the  Spanish  nobility 
and  other  persons  of  distinction  perished, 
1723.— Dtt  Freenop. 

In  Yorkshire,  a  dreadful  inundation,  called 
Ripon  flood,  1771* 

In  Navarre,  where  SOOO  persons  lost  their  lives 
by  the  torrents  trota.  the  mountains,  Sept. 
1787. 

An  inundation  of  the  Liffey,  which  did  im- 
mense damage  in  Dublin,  Nov.  12, 1787- 

Again  in  Dublin,  and  parts  adjaooit,  Dec.  2 
and  3, 1802. 

Loroa,  a  city  of  Murcia,  in  Spain,  destroyed 
by  the  bursting  of  a  reservoir,  which  inun- 
dated more  than  20  leagues,  and  killed 
1000  persons,  besides  cattle,  April  14, 1808. 

At  Pest,  near  Presburg,  the  overflow  of  the 
Danube,  by  which  24  villages  and  their  in- 
habitants were  swept  away,  April  1811. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Salop,  by  the  bursting  of  a 
cloud  during  a  storm,  by  which  many  per- 
sons and  much  stock  perished.  May  1811. 

Dreadful  inundation  in  Hungary,  Austria, 
and  Poland,  in  the  summer  of  1813. 

By  the  overflow  of  the  Danube,  a  Turkish 
corps  of  9000  men,  on  a  small  island  near 
Widdin,  were  surprised,  and  met  instant 
death,  Sept.  14, 1813. 

In  Silesia,  6000  inhabitants  perished,  and  the 
ruin  of  the  French  army  under  Macdonald 
was  accelerated  by  the  floods ;  also  in  Po- 
land 4000  lives  were  supposed  to  have  been 
lost,  same  year. 


INU 


[272  ] 


ION 


INUNDATIONS,  eorUinued. 

At  Strabane,  Ireland,  by  the  melting  of  the 
snow  on  the  surrounding  mountains,  most 
destructive  floods  were  occasioned,  Jan.  2, 
1816. 

In  Germany,  119  villages  were  laid  under 
water,  and  great  loss  of  life  and  property 
was  sustained,  in  March  1816. 

In  England,  5000  acres  were  deluged  in  the 
Fen  countries,  in  June  1819. 

Awful  inundation  at  Dantsic,  occasioned  by 
the  Vistula  breaking  through  some  of  its 
dikes,  by  which  10,000  head  of  cattle  and 
4000  houses  were  destroyed,  and  numerous 
Uves  lost,  April  9,  1829. 

At  Vienna,  the  dwellings  of  50,000  of  its  inha- 
bitants laid  under  water,  Feb.  1830. 

10,000  houses  swept  away,  and  about  1000 


persons  perished,  at  Canton  in  China,  in 
consequoioe  of  an  inundation,  occasioned 
by  incessant  rains.  Equal  or  greater  cala- 
mity was  produced  by  the  same  cause  in 
other  parts  of  China,  Oct  1833L 

Awful  inundation  in  France;  the  Saone 
poured  its  waters  into  the  Rhone,  broke 
through  its  banks,  and  covered 60,000  acres; 
Lyons  was  inundated,  in  Avignon  100 
houses  were  swept  away ;  218  houses  were 
carried  away  at  La  Guillotiero;  and  up- 
wards of  300  at  Vaise,  Marseilles,  and 
Nismes ;  the  Saone  had  not  attained  such  a 
height  for  238  years,  Oct.  31  to  Nov.  4,  184a 

Lamentable  inimdation  at  Brraitford  and  the 
surrounding  country,  several  lives  lost,  and 
immense  proi)erty  destroyed,  Jan.  16,  1841. 


INVASIONS  OF  THE  BRITISH  ISLANDS.  The  Romans,  under  Julius  Csesar, 
invaded  Britain,  August  26,  55  B.C.  It  was  again  invaded  by  Plautius,  a.d.  43 ;  by 
the  Saxons  in  447  ;  and  by  the  Danes  in  787,  832,  851,  866,  979,  and  1012.  From 
the  death  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  the  following  invasions  have  been  effected: — 


Successful,  by  William  the  Conqueror, 

of  Normandy  .         Sept  29,  a.d.  1066 

Unsuccessful,  by  the  Irish  .         .    .  1069 

Unsuccessful,  by  the  Scots  .  .  .  1071 
Unsuccessful,  by  the  Soots ;  their  king, 

Malcolm,  killed 1093 

Unsuccessful,  Robert  of  Normandy  .  1101 
Unsuccessful,  by  the  Scots  .        .    .  1136 

Unsuccessful,  Maud  ....  11^ 
Successful,  Ireland,  Fitz-Stephen  .  .1169 
Unsuccessful,  Ireland,  Edward  Bruce  .  1315 
Successful,  Isabel,  queen  of  Edward  IL  .  1326 
Successful,  duke  of  Lancaster  .  .  1399 
Unsuccessful,  by  the  French  .  .  .  1416 
Unsuccessful,  queen  of  Henry  VL  .  .  1462 
Successful,  earl  of  Warwick  .  .  .  1470 
Successful,  Edward  IV.  .  .  .  1471 
Unsuccessful,  queen  of  Henry  VL      .    .  1471 


Successful,  earl  of  Richmond  .  .  1485 
Unsuccessful,  Lambert  Simnel  .  .  .  1487 
Unsuccessful,  Perkin  Warbeck  •  .1495 
Unsuccessful,  Italians,  Ireland  .  .  .  1580 
Uusuocessful,  Spanish  Armada  .  .  1588 
Unsucces^ul,  Ireland,  Spaniards  .  .  1601 
Unsuccessful,  duke  of  Monmouth  .  .  1685 
Successful,  William  of  Orange  .  .  .  1688 
Unsuccessful,  James  II.  .  •  .  1689 
Unsuccessful,  old  Pretender  .  .  .  1708 
Unsuccessful,  Pretender,  again  .  .  1715 
Unsuccessful,  young  Pretender  .  .  .  1745 
Unsuccessful,  Ireland,invasionof  Thnrot 

See  Thurot  .  ,  .  .  .  1760 
Unsuccessful,  Wales,  the  French  .  .  1797 
Unsuccessful,  Irelsmd,  the  French  land 

at  Killala,  tohich  tee  ...  1798 


INVINCIBLE,  The.  A  British  ship  of  the  line,  of  74  guns,  lost  near  Winterton,  on 
the  coast  of  Norfolk,  when  the  captain,  with  the  greater  part  of  his  officers,  and 
nearly  the  whole  of  his  crew,  amounting  to  upwards  of  four  hundred  raen^  perished, 
March  20,  1801. 

INVOCATION  OP  THE  VIRGIN  and  SAINTS.  The  practice  of  the  Romish  church 
of  invoking  the  intercession  of  saints  with  God,  particularly  the  prayers  to  the  Virgin, 
has  heen  traced  to  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  about  a.d.  593. — Ashe.  The 
Eastern  church  begun  (in  the  fifth  century)  by  calling  upon  the  dead,  and  demanding 
their  suffrage  as  present  in  the  divine  offices ;  but  the  Western  church  carried  it  so 
far  as  frequently  to  canonize  those  they  had  any  regard  for,  though  the  wickedness 
of  their  lives  gave  them  no  title  to  any  such  honour,  to  make  processions,  masses, 
litanies,  prayers  and  oblations  for  and  to  them. 

IODINE.  This  most  important  substance  vras  discovered  by  M.  de  Courtois,  a  manufac- 
turer of  saltpetre  at  Paris,  in  1812;  the  discovery  was  pursued  with  great  advantage 
by  M.  Clement,  in  I8I3.  Iodine  is  very  active ;  it  is  of  a  violet  hue,  easily  evapor- 
ates, and  melts  at  220  degrees ;  changes  vegetable  blues  to  yellow,  and  a  seven- 
thousandth  part  converts  water  to  a  deep  yellow  colour,  and  starch  into  a  purple. 
Five  volumes  of  oxygen  and  one  of  iodine  form  iodic  acid. 

IONIAN  ISLANDS.  They  were  subject  to  Venice  until  ceded  by  the  treaty  of 
Campo-Formio  to  France,  in  1797.  By  a  treaty  between  Russia  and  Great  Britain 
they  were  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  latter  power,  November  5,  1815.  A 
constitution  was  ratified  by  the  prince  regent  of  England  for  the  government  of 
these  islands  in  1818.  The  Ionian  Islands  are  now  among  the  free  states  of  Europe. 
Corfu  is  the  principal,  and  the  seat  of  government. 


ION 


[273] 


IRE 


IONIC  ORDER  OF  ARCHITECTURE.  This  order,  which  is  an  improTement  on 
the  Doric,  was  foonded  by  the  lonians,  about  J  350  b.c. —  Vitruviua  by  Perrault, 

IONIC  SECT  OF  PHILOSOPHERS.  Founded  by  Thales  of  Miletus,  570  b.c.  This 
sect  distiDguished  itself  for  its  deep  and  abstruse  speculatious,  under  the  successors 
and  pupils  of  the  Milesian  philosopher,  Anaximander,  Anaximenes,  Anazagoras, 
and  Archelaus,  the  master  of  Socrates. 

IPSUS,  Battle  of,  by  which  Seleucus  is  confirmed  in  his  kingdom  by  the  defeat  and 
death  of  Antigonus,  king  of  Asia.  On  the  one  side  were  Antigonus  and  his  son  ; 
on  the  other  Seleucus,  Ptolemy,  Lysimachus,  and  Cassander.  The  former  led  into 
the  field  an  army  of  above  70,000  foot,  and  10,000  horse,  with  75  elephants.  The 
iatter's  forces  consisted  of  64,000  infantry,  besides  10,500  horse,  400  elephants,  and 
120  armed  chariots.    Antigonus  and  his  son  were  defeated,  301  b.c. — Plutarch, 

IRELAND.  It  is  disputed  by  historians  from  what  nation  this  country  was  originally 
peopled.  It  seems,  however,  to  be  satisfactorily  shown  that  the  first  colonists  were 
Phoenicians.  The  Partholani  landed  in  Ireland  about  2048  B.C.  The  descent  of  the 
Damnonii  was  made  about  1463  b.  c.  This  was  followed  by  the  descent  of  Heber 
and  Heremon,  Milesian  princes,  from  Galicia,  in  Spain,  who  conquered  Ireland,  and 
gave  to  its  throne  a  race  of  171  kings. 

1070 
768 


B.C. 


Arrival  of  Heremon 

Reign  of  the  renowned  01am  Fodls 

A  colony  from  Spain  bring  with  them 
the  Phoenician  letters,  about 

[Few  of  the  kings  of  Ireland,  during  a 
thousand  years,  did  more  than  involve 
the  country  in  scenes  of  blood.] 

Arrival  of  St  Patrick  .         a.d. 

Lugary  IL  establishes  Christianity 

The  Danes  and  Normans,  known  by  the 
name  of  Easterlings,  invade  Ireland    . 

They  erect  solid  edifices  in  the  country, 
the  common  habitations  of  the  natives 
being  made  of  hurdles,  covered  with 
straw  and  rushes,  about         .         .    . 

[The  Easterlings  build  Dublin  solidly, 
and  other  cities,  about  this  time.] 

The  renowned  Brian  fioiroimhe  is 
crowned  at  Tara        .... 

Battle  of  Clontarf ,  which  terminates  the 
power  of  the  Danes  .    . 

[In  the  twelfth  century  Ireland  is  di- 
vided into  five  kingdoms,  viz :  Ulster, 
Leinster,  Meath,  Connaught,  and 
Munster;  besides  a  number  of  petty 
principalities,  whose  sovereigns  conti- 
nually war  with  each  other  ] 

Adrian  lY.  permitted  Henry  II.  to  in- 
vade Ireland,  on  condition  that  he 
compelled  every  Irish  family  to  pay  a 
carolus  to  the  Holy  See,  and  held  it  as 
a  fief  of  the  church    .... 

Dermot  MacMurrough,  king  of  Leinster, 
is  driven  from  his  throne  for  his  op- 
pression, and  takes  refuge  in  England, 
where  he  takes  an  oath  of  fidelity  to 
Henry  H.  who  promises  to  restore  him  1168 


500 


448 
448 

798 


800 


1002 


1039 


1167 


Invasion  of  the  English  under  Fitz  Ste-* 
phen A.D.  1169 

Landing  of  Strongbow  at  Waterford       .  1170 

Henry  II.  lands  near  Waterford,  and  re- 
ceives the  submissions  of  the  kings 
and  princes  of  the  country,  settles  the| 
government  upon  a  footing  similar  to 
that  of  England,  and  makes  his  son 
John  lord  of  Ireland  .         .         .         .1172 

Ireland  wholly  subdued    .         .         .    .  1210 

English  laws  and  customs  introduced  by 
king  John 1210 

Charter  of  liberties  granted  to  the  Irish 
by  John 1210 

And  by  Henry  HI 1216 

Invasion  of  Edward  Bruce,  who  is 
crowned  king 1315 

He  is  defeated  at  Armagh,  and  is  be- 
headed at  Dundalk,  and  with  him 
6200  Scots  lose  their  lives.  See  Armagh  1318 

Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence,  third  son  of  Ed- 
ward III.  marries  Elizabeth  de  Burgh, 
heiress  of  Ulster,  which  had  not  hi- 
therto submitted  to  the  English  au- 
thority       1361 

Richard  H.  lands  at  Waterford  with  a 
train  of  nobles,  4000  men  at  arms,  and 
30,000  archers,  and  gains  the  affection 
of  the  people  by  his  mimificence,  and 
confers  the  honour  of  knighthood  on 
their  chiefs 1394 

Richard  again  lands  in  Ireland       .         .  1399 

The  infamous  and  sanguinary  Head  Act, 
passed  at  Trim  * 1465 

Apparel  and  surname  Act,  compelling 
the  Irish  to  dress  like  the  English,  and 
to  adopt  surnames     ....  1478 


*  This  act  ordained,  "  That  it  be  lawful  to  all  manner  of  men  who  find  any  thieves  robbing  by  day 
or  night,  or  going  or  coming  to  rob  or  steal ;  or  any  persons  going  or  coming,  having  no  faithful  man 
of  good  name  and  fame  in  their  company  in  English  apparell,  that  it  shall  be  lawful  to  take  and  kill 
those,  and  to  cut  off  their  heads,  without  any  impeachment  of  our  sovereign  lord  the  king.  And  of 
any  head  so  cut  off  in  the  county  of  Meath,  that  the  cutter  and  his  ayders  there  to  him,  cause  the 
said  head  so  cut  off  to  be  brought  to  the  portreffe  to  put  it  upon  a  stake  or  spear,  upon  the  castle  of 
Trim ;  and  that  the  said  portreffe  shall  testify  the  bringing  of  the  same  to  him.  And  that  it  shall  be 
lawful  for  the  said  bringer  of  the  said  head  to  distrain  and  levy  by  his  own  hands  (as  his  reward)  of 
every  msun  having  one  ploughland  in  the  barony,  twopence ;  and  of  every  man  having  half  a  plough- 
land,  onepeny;  and  of  every  man  having  one  house  and  goods,  value  forty  shillings,  one  peny; 

T 


IRE 


C274] 


IRE 


1547 
1562 


1671 


1580 


1601 
1602 


IRELAND,  eontinued. 

Henxy  Yin.  aaiomes  the  title  of  kingt 

instead  of  tord  of  Ireland  aj>.  1542 

The  Refonned  religion  embraced  by  the 
Engllah  settlers  in  the  reign  of  Edward 

vA*e  ■  •  •  •  •  • 

Ireland  divided  into  shires  .    . 

Printing  in  Irish  characters  introduced 
by  N.  Walsh,  ChanoeUor  of  St  Pat- 
rick's         

700  Italians  headed  by  Fitzmaorice,  land 
in  Kerry ;  they  are  treacherously  but- 
chered by  the  earl  of  Onnond     . 

The  insurrection  of  Tyrone,  who  invites 
over  the  Spaniards,  and  settles  them 
in  Kinsale ;  but  they  are  defeated  by 
the  lord  deputy  Monntjoy       .         .    . 

This  rebellion  entirely  suppressed  in 

In  consequence  of  repeated  rebellions 
and  forfeitures  of  estates,  51 1 ,465  acres 
of  land  in  the  province  of  Ulster  be- 
come vested  in  the  crown,  and  James 
I.  after  removing  the  Irish  from  their 
hills  and  fastnesses,  divides  the  land 
among  such  of  his  English  and  Scottish 
protestant  subjects  as  choose  to  settle 
there,  1609  to 1612 

Magulre's  rebellion 1641 

The  Catholics  enter  into  a  conspiracy  to 
expel  the  English,  and  cruelly  mas- 
sacre the  protestant  settlers  in  Ulster, 
to  the  number  of  40,000  persons,  com- 
menced on  St  Ignatius'  day,  Oct  23,  1641 

Cromwell  and  Ireton  reduce  'the  whole 
island  to  obedience  between  1649  and  1666 

Landing  of  James  II 1688 

SOOO  Protestants  attainted  .    .  1689 


Landing  of  the  duke  of  Schombeig  near 
Carrickfergus    ....   a.d.  1689 

Landing  of  king  WUUam  IIL  at  Carrick- 
fergus  ....         June  14,  1690 

Battle  of  the  Boyne ;  the  duke  of  Schom- 
berg  kiUed         .         .         .       July  I,  1690 

Celebrated  treaty  of  Limerick,  see  Lime- 
rick     Oct.  3,  1691 

Linen  manufacture  encouraged  .    .  1696 

Thurot's  invasion.    See  Thurot  .  1760 

Indulgences  granted  to  the  Catholics  by 
parliamrait 1778 

Ireland  admitted  to  a  free  trade    .         .  1779 

Released  from  submission  to  an  English 
council 1782 

The  Oenevese  refugees  are  received  in 
Ireland,  and  have  an  asylum  given 
them  in  the  county  of  Waterford         .  1783 

Order  of  St  Patrick 1783 

Memorable  Irish  rebellion  commenced 
May  4,  1798,  and  was  not  finally  sup- 
pressed until  the  next  year         .         .  1799 

Legislative  union  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  ....  Jan.  1,  1801 

Emmet's  insurrection   .         .      July  23,  1803 

The  English  and  Irish  Exchequers  con- 
solidated       ....  Jan.  5,  1817 

Visit  to  Ireland  of  George  IV.    Aug.  12,  1821 

Assimilation  of  the  currency  of  the  two 
coimtries  ....        Jan.l,  1826 

Roman  Catholic  Emancipation.  See  Ca- 
tholics ....         April  13,  1829 

The  English  and  Irish  customs  conso- 
lidated .....       Jan.  6,  1830 

Poor  laws  introduced  into  Ireland,  by 
bUl  passed  2  Victoria       .         July  31,  1838 


KIM08  OF 

IRBLAND. 

From  the  Milesian  Conqtiest. 

A/ter  Christ. 

B.C.  1070.  Heremon. 

65.  Lngad  L,  killed  himself. 

1047.  Eithrial,  kUled  in  battle. 

74.  Crimthan,  killed. 

993.  Tlghermas. 

90.  Carbery  I. 

963.  Achy  I.,  killed  in  battle. 

95.  Feredach. 

919.  Achy  H.  ditto. 

116.  Fiatach,  murdered. 

876.  Angus  I.,  killed  in  battle,  as  were  four 

119  Fiacha,  killed. 

more  of  his  successors,  till 

126.  Elim,  kiUed  in  battle. 

768.  Olam  FodU. 

130.  Tuathal,  ditto. 

72a  Finnoota. 

164.  Fiedlim. 

70a  SlanoU,  killed  in  battle,  as  were  all  of 

174.  Cathir,  killed  in  battle. 

his  successors  in  civil  wars  and  broils 

177-  Conn,  ditta 

for  263  yeara 

212.  Conary  II.,  assassinated. 

408.  Kimbath,  murdered. 

220.  Arthur  the  Melancholy,  killed  by  the 

385.  Hugory  the  Great,  killed  by  liis  brother. 

Welch. 

365.  Logary  I.,  murdered  by  his  brother. 

250.  MacConn,  assassinated. 

339.  Cobthach,  murdered. 

263.  Fergus,  kiUed  in  battle. 

3S2.  Labra  Longeach. 

264.  Cormac  O'Conn,  resigned. 

.[From  this  time  for  nearly  220  years. 

278.  Achy  Gunad,  assastinated. 

only  two  of  the  kings  of  Ireland  died 

279.  Carbry  Liffecar,  murdered. 

natural  deaths.] 

297.  Fiacha  n.,  kUled  in  battle. 

82.  Achy  III.,  murdered. 

327.  Colla,  deposed. 

70.  Achy  IV ,  killed  in  battle. 

331.  Muredach  Tireach,  kUled  in  batUe. 

60.  Edersgol,  murdered.] 

366.  Colbach,  murdered. 

57.  Conary  L,  burned  in  his  palace:   he 

367.  Achy  Moimedin. 

reigned  sixty  years,  and  after  his 

366.  Crimthan  II.,  poisoned  by  his  sister. 

death  was  an  interregnum. 

379.  NiaU  I.,  killed  in  France. 

and  of  every  other  cottier  having  house  and  smoak,  one  half-peny,"  &c.  Here  was  a  fruitful  source 
of  murder !  All  the  evidence  required  from  the  cutter  of  the  head  was,  that  it  was  the  head  of  a 
Milesian  or  Irishman ;  that  the  man  was  not  in  company  with  any  of  the  English  settlers ;  and  that 
in  his  opinion  he  was  going  to,  or  coming  from,  some  bad  errands— Tac^e's  History  qf  Ireland- 


IRE 


[275] 


IRU 


IRELAND,  continued, 

A.D,   405.  Dathy,  killed  near  the  Alps. 
42S.  Logary  IL 

463.  OlUoll  Molt,  killed  in  battle. 
483.  Lagad  IT,  killed  by  lightning. 
512.  Murkertagh. 
533.  Tuathal  IL 

544.  Dermond  I.,  killed  himself.  « 

565.  Fergus  n.  and  Donald.    The  next  four 

monarchs  were  all  murdered  till 
572.  Hugh  I.,  killed  in  battle. 
599.  Hugh  n.  and  Colman,  both  murdered. 
605.  Hugh  HI.,  killed  in  battle. 
612.  Donald  II. 
642.  Ck)nall  and  KelUch :  the  former  killed 

in  battle,  and  the  latter  lost  in  a  bog. 
658.  Dermond  II.  and  Blathmac,  both  died 

of  the  plague. 
665.  Sachnasach,  murdered. 
671.  Kinfaola.  ditto. 
675.  Finnachta,  ditto. 
695.  Longseach,  killed  in  battle. 
704.  CongAll. 

711.  Feargall,  killed  in  battle. 
722.  Fogarth,  ditto. 
724.  Keneth,  ditto. 


727.  Flaithertach,  turned  monk. 

734.  Hugh  IV.,  killed  in  battle. 

74a  Donald  in.,  died  on  pilgrimage  at  Joppa. 

753.  Niall  n.,  turned  monk. 

760.  Donogh. 

797.  Hugh  Y.,  kiUed  in  batUe. 

819.  Connor. 

833.  Niall  III.,  drowned  in  passing  a  rirer. 

846.  MalachyL 

863.  Hugh  VI. 

879.  Flan. 

916.  Niall  IV.,  killed  in  battle. 

919.  Donogh  U. 

944.  Congall  JL,  killed  in  battle. 

956.  Donald  IV.  O'Neil,  turned  monk. 

980.  Malachy  H.,  forced  to  resign. 
1002.  Brian  Boromy,  assassinated. 
1039.  Malachy  II.  again,  turned  monk. 
1064.  Tarlogh  I. 

1094.  Mortogh  I.,  turned  monk. 
1121.  Tarlogh  H.  the  Great. 
1156.  Mortagh  H.  O'Lachlin,  killed  in  battle. 
1066.  Roderic. 

1172.  Henry  H.,  king  of  England,  conquers 
Ireland. 


IRON.  It  was  found  on  Mount  Ida  by  the  Dactyles,  owing  to  the  forests  of  the 
mount  having  been  burnt  by  lightning,  1432  b.c. — Arundelian  Marbles,  The 
Greeks  ascribed  the  discovery  of  iron  to  themselves  and  referred  glass  to  the 
Phoenicians ;  but  Moses  relates  that  iron  was  wrought  by  TubaUCain.  Iron 
furnaces  among  the  Romans  were  unprovided  with  bellows,  but  were  placed  on 
eminences  with  the  grate  in  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds.  Swedish  iron 
is  very  celebrated,  and  Daunemora  is  the  greatest  mine  of  Sweden.  British  iron  was 
cast  by  Ralph  Page  and  Peter  Baude,  in  Sussex,  in  1543. — Rymer^a  Fcedera,  Iron- 
mills  were  first  used  for  slitting  iron  into  bars  for  smiths  by  Godfrey  Boch8,in  1590. 
Tinning  of  iron  was  first  introduced  from  Bohemia  in  1681.  There  are  upwards  of 
800,000  tons  of  iron  produced  annually  in  England.*  For  iron  vessels,  iron  war- 
steamers,  &c.,  see  Steamers. 

IRON-MASK,  THE  MAN  of  the.  A  mysterious  prisoner  in  France,  wearing  a 
mask,  and  closely  confined,  under  M.  de  St.  Mars,  at  Pigpnerol,  Sainte  Marguerite, 
and  afterwards  at  the  Bastile.  He  was  of  noble  mien,  and  was  treated  with  profound 
respect;  but  his  keepers  had  orders  to  despatch  him  if  he  uncovered.  M.  de  St. 
Mars  himself  always  placed  the  dishes  on  his  table,  and  stood  in  his  presence.  Some 
conjecture  him  to  have  been  an  Armenian  patriarch  forcibly  carried  from  Constan- 
tinople, although  he  died  ten  years  before  the  mask ;  others  that  he  was  the  count 
de  Vennandois,  son  of  Louis  XIV.,  although  he  was  reported  to  have  perished  in 
the  camp  before  Dizmude.  More  believe  him  to  have  been  the  celebrated  duke  of 
Beaufort,  whose  head  is  recorded  to  have  been  taken  off  before  Candia  ;  while  still 
more  assert  that  he  was  the  unfortunate  James,  duke  of  Monmouth,  who,  in  the 
imagination  of  the  Londoners,  at  least,  was  executed  on  Tower-hilL  But  there  are 
two  better  conjectures :  he  is  said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Anne  of  Austria,  queen  of 
Louis  XIII.,  his  father  being  the  duke  of  Buckingham ;  or  the  twin-brother  of  Louis 
XIV.,  whose  birth  was  concealed  to  prevent  civil  dissensions  in  France,  which  it 
might  one  day  have  caused.  The  mask  died,  after  a  long  imprisonment,  Nov.  19, 1703. 

IRUN,  Battle  of,  between  the  British  auxiliary  legion,  under  general  Evans,  and  the 
Carlist  forces.  On  the  16th  May,  the  legion  marched  from  St.  Sebastian  to  attack 
Irun,  which,  after  a  desperate  resistance,  they  carried  by  assault.  May  17,  1837. 
Great  exertions  were  made  by  the  British  officers  to  save  the  lives  of  the  prisoners 


*  There  is  iron  enough  in  the  blood  of  forty-two  men  to  make  a  ploughshare  weighing  twenty-four 
pounds.— .^non.  In  reference  to  this,  a  clever  Scotch  writer  remarks,  that  such  a  fact  is  not  so  won- 
derful, when  it  is  considered  that  there  is  as  rmich  flint  in  the  hearts  of  some  men  as  would  serve  the 
firelocks  of  forty-two  soldiers ! 

t2 


I6L  Q  276  2  ITA 

from  the  fury  of  the  soldiers  of  the  legion,  their  minds  having  been  exasperated  bj 
the  freqnent  massacre  of  sach  of  their  comrades  as  had  ^m  time  to  time  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  the  Carlists.    The  town  was  pillaged. 

I  SLAM  ISM.  The  religion  of  Mahomet,  planned  by  him  in  a  cave  near  Mecca,  where 
he  employed  a  Persian  Jew,  well  versed  in  history  and  laws,  and  two  Christians,  to 
assist  him.  One  of  these  latter  was  of  the  Jacobite,  and  the  other  of  the  Nestorian 
sect.  With  the  help  of  these  men  he  framed  his  Koran,  or  the  book  which  he 
pretended  to  have  received  at  different  times  from  heaven  by  the  hands  of  the  angel 
Gabriel.  At  the  age  of  forty  he  publicly  assumed  the  prophetical  character,  calling 
himself  the  apostle  of  God,  a.d.  604. — See  Koran,  Mecca,  ^c. 

ISLE  OF  FRANCE.  Discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1500 ;  but  the  Dutch  were  the 
first  settlers  in  1598.  The  French  formed  their  establishment  at  Port  Louis  in  1715. 
This  island,  together  with  six  French  frigates  and  many  Indiamen,  was  taken  by  the 
British,  Dec.  2,  1810.  They  retain  possession  of  it,  and  it  is  now  a  fixed  British 
colony. 

ISLES,  BiSROPRic  OF  THK.  TMs  see  contained  not  only  the  iEbudse  or  Western 
Isles,  but  the  Isle  of  Man,  which  for  nearly  400  years  had  been  a  separate  bishopnc. 
The  Isle  of  Ily  was  in  former  ages  a  place  fismous  for  sanctity  and  learning,  and 
early  the  seat  of  a  bishop ;  it  was  denominated  Icolumkill,  from  St.  Columba,  the 
companion  of  St.  Patrick,  founding  [a  monastery  here  in  the  sixth  century,  which 
was  the  parent  of  above  100  other  monasteries  in  England  and  Ireland. 

ISMAEL,  SiBOB  OF,  in  Bessarabia.  After  a  long  siege  by  the  Russians,  who  lost 
20,000  men  before  the  place,  the  town  was  taken  by  storm,  December  22,  1790  ; 
when  the  Russian  general  Suwarrow,  the  most  merciless  and  savage  warrior  of 
modem  times,  put  the  brave  Turkish  garrison,  consisting  of  30,000  men,  to  the 
sword ;  every  man  was  butchered  ;  and  Suwarrow,  not  satisfied  with  this  vengeance, 
delivered  up  Ismael  to  the  pillage  of  his  ferocious  soldiery,  and  ordered  the  massacre 
of  6000  women,  who  were  murdered  in  cold  blood. 

ISSUS,  Battlr  of.  Alexander  defeats  Darius  in  this,  his  second  great  battle  with 
him ;  Darius  loses  100,000  men,  and  his  queen  and  family  are  captured,  333  b.c. — 
Plutarch.  The  Persians  lost  100,000  foot  and  10,000  horse  in  the  field  ;  and  the 
Macedonians  only  300  foot  and  150  horse. — Diodorus  Sicvlus.  The  Persian  army, 
according  to  Justin,  consisted  of  400,000  foot  and  100,000  horse,  and  61,000  of  the 
former,  and  10,000  of  the  latter,  were  left  dead  on  the  spot,  and  40,000  were  taken 
prisoners. — Justin. 

ISTHMIAN  GAMES.  These  were  combats  among  the  Greeks,  and  received  their 
name  from  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  where  they  were  observed,  instituted  in  honour 
of  Melicerta,  1326  b.c — Lenglet.  They  were  re -instituted  in  honour  of  Neptune 
by  Theseus,  and  their  celebration  was  held  so  sacred  and  inviolable  that  even  a 
public  calamity  could  not  prevent  it,  1259  B.C. — Arundelian  Marbles. 

ITALY.  The  garden  of  Earope,  and  the  nurse  of  arts  as  well  as  arms.  It  received  its 
name  from  I  talus,  a  king  of  the  country,  or  from  Italos,  a  Greek  word,  signifying 
an  ox.  The  aborigines  of  Italy  were  the  progeny  of  Meshech,  the  sixth  son  of 
Japheth.  In  process  of  time,  the  Gonierites  or  Celts,  who  inhabited  the  greatest 
part  of  Gaul,  sent  several  colonies  into  Italy,  while  other  colonists  arrived  from 
Greece,  and  the  country  was  divided  into  three  grand  parts,  viz. — Cisalpine  Gaul, 
the  settlement  of  the  Celts ;  Italia  Propria,  the  residence  of  the  first  inhabitants ; 
and  Magna  Grsecia,  the  seat  of  the  Grecian  colonists.  The  modem  inhabitants  of 
Italy  may  be  derived  from  the  Goths  and  Lombards,  who  contributed  so  largely  to 
the  overthrow  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  who  founded  on  its  ruins  the  kingdoms  of 
Italy  and  Lombardy. 


Rome  taken  and  plundered  by  the  Visi- 
goths  under  Alarlc.  See  Rome      .  a.d.    410 

The  Huns  ravage  the  Roman  empire 
under  Attila,  "  the  Scourge  of  Ood"    .    447 

The  Western  Roman  empire  is  destroyed 
by  the  Hemli,  whose  leader,  Odoaoer, 
erects  the  kingdom  of  Italy  .    476 

The  reign  of  Totila,  who  twice  pillages 
Rome,  and  reduces  the  inhabitants  to 
such  distress,  that  the  ladies  and  people 


of  quality  are  obliged  to  beg  for  bread 

at  the  doors  of  the  Ooths      a.d.  541  to    652 

The  power  of  the  Goths  destroyed,  and 
their  kingdom  overthrown  by  the  ge- 
nerals of  the  Eastern  empire  .    .    553 

Narses,  governor  of  Italy,  invites  the 
Lombards  from  Germany  into  this 
country 568 

The  Lombards  overrun  Italy      .        .    .    596 

y^iice  first  governed  by  a  doge     .         .    697 


ITA 


t  277  ] 


JAF 


800 


1053 


1076 


ITALY,  continued, 

Charlemagne  invades  Italy  .  a.d.  774 

He  repairs  to  Rome,  and  is  crowned  em- 
peror of  the  West       .... 

[During  the  reign"  of  Charlemagne,  the 
pope  of  Rome,  who  had  hitherto  heen 
merely  a  spiritual  minister,  finds 
means  to  assume  a  temporal  power,  not 
only  independent  of,  but  superior  to 
all  others.] 

Pope  Damasius  n.  is  the  first  who  causes 
himself  to  be  crowned  with  a  tiara 

Pope  Gregory  VIL  sumamed  Hildebrand, 
pretends  to  universal  soverdgnty,  in 
which  he  is  assisted  by  the  countess 
Matilda,  mistress  of  the  greater  part 
of  Italy,  who  makes  a  donation  of  all 
her  estates  to  the  Church   . 

Disputes  between  the  popes  and  empe- 
rors, relative  to  the  appointment  of 
bishops,  begin  about  1106,  and  agitate 
Italy  and  Germany  during  several  cen- 
turies. 

The  Venetians  obtain  many  victories 
over  the  Eastern  emperors 

Tuscany  becomes  independent  .        .    . 

The  duchies  of  Ferrara,  Modena,  and 
Reggio,  are  created    .... 

Milan  erected  intD'a  duchy        .         .    .'1277 

The  papal  seat  removed  for  seventy  years 
to  Avignon,  in  France 

The  cardinals  not  agreeing  in  the  elec- 
tion of  a  pope,  they  set  fire  to  the  con- 
clave, and  separate,  and  the  papal  chair 
is  left  vacant  for  two  years  ', 

Louis  Qonzaga  makes  himself  master  of 
Mantua,  with  the  title  of  imperial  vicar  1328 


1125 
1206 

1228 


1308 


1314 


Lucca  becomes  an  independent  republic  1370 

Naples  conquered  by  Charles  VUL     .    .  1492 

The  republic  of  Venice  loses  all  itsltalian 
provinces  in  a  single  campaign,  assailed 
by  the  pope,  the  emperor,  and  the 
kings  of  Spain  and  France  .         .  1M9 

Leo  X.  having  exhausted  all  his  finances, 
opens  the  sale  of  indulgences  and  abso- 
lutions, which  soon  replenishes  his 
treasury 1517 

ParmaandPlaoentia  made  a  duchy    .    .  1545 

Cosmo  de  Mediois  made  grand-duke  of 
Tuscany  by  Pius  V 1569 

Pope  Gregory  XIII.  reforms  the  calendar. 
See  Calendar 1682 

Ambassadors  from  Japan  to  the  pope. 
BeeJeddo 1619 

The  Corsicans  revolt  from  the  C^oese, 
and  choose  Theodore  for  their  king. — 
See  Cortica 1736 

Milan  vested  in  the  house  of  Austria  by 
the  treaty  of  Aix-la-ChapeUe  .    .  1748 

Division  of  the  V^ietian  states  by  France 
and  Austria 1797 

Italy  overrun,  and  Pius  VL  deposed  by 
Buonaparte 1796 

The  Italian  republic      ....  1802 

Italy  formed  into  a  kingdom,  and  Napo- 
leon crowned  1805 

Eugene  Beauhamois  made  viceroy  of  Italy  1805 

The  kingdom  ceases  on  the  overthrow  of 
Napoleon 1814 

[The  various  other  events  relating  to 
Italy,  will  be  found  under  the  respec- 
tive heads  of  Oenoa,  Lombardp,  Milan, 
Naples,  Rome,  Venice,  4'^0 


J. 

J.  This  consonant,  and  also  V,  were  first  introduced  into  the  alphabet  by  Giles  Beys, 
of  Paris,  a  celebrated  printer,  who  flourished  there  in  1550. — Du  Fresnoy. 

JACOBINS.  The  name  given  to  one  of  the  principal  parties  in  the  French  reyolu- 
tion.  The  Jacobin  club  originated  from  a  small  and  secret  association  of  about 
forty  gentlemen  and  men  of  letters,  who  had  united  to  disseminate  political  and 
other  opinions  ;  the  members  were  called  Jacobins  from  their  meeting  in  the  hall  of 
the  Jacobin  friars  at  Paris.  The  club  became  numerous  and  popular,  and  fraternal 
societies  were  instituted  in  all  the  principal  towns  of  the  kingdom.  From  its  insti- 
tution, one  principal  object  was,  to  discuss  such  political  questions  as  seemed  likely 
to  be  agitated  in  the  national  assembly,  in  order  that  the  members  might  act  in 
concert.  They  are  represented  as  having  been  determined  enemies  of  monarchy, 
aristocracy,  and  the  Christian  religion,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  grand  spring 
of  the  revolution.  They  were  suppressed  October  18,  1794.  The  religious  sect 
called  Jacobins  are  those  of  both  sexes  who  follow  the  rules  of  St.  Dominick.— 
See  Dominicans, 

JACOBITES.  A  sect  among  the  eastern  Christians,  so  called  from  Jacob  Baradieus,'  a 
Syrian,  whose  heresy  spread  to  a  great  extent  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries.  In 
England  existed  a  political  party  called  Jacobites.  They  were  the  partisans  of  James 
II.,  and  were  so  named  after  his  expulsion  in  1688.  Those  who  openly  appeared  in 
arms  for,  or  who  expressed  their  wishes  to  restore  the  abdicated  family,  were  called 
Jacobites  ;  the  distinction  is  now  entirely  lost. 

JACOBUS.  A  gold  coin  of  the  value  of  twenty-five  shillings,  so  called  from  king 
James  I.  of  England,  in  whose  reign  it  was  struck. — V Estrange, 

JkWk,  Celebrated  in  Scripture  as  Joppa,  the  port  whence  Jonah  embarked,  and  the 
place  where  Peter  raised  Tabitha  from  the  dead.    In  profane  history,  the  place 


JAM  1^  278  ]  JAP 

whence  Perseus  delivered  Andromeda.  Jaffa  was  taken  by  Buonaparte  in  February 
1 799  ;  and  the  French  were  driven  out  by  the  British  in  June,  same  year.  Here, 
according  to  sir  Robert  Wilson,  were  massacred  3800  prisoners  by  Buonaparte  :  but 
this  is  reasonably  doubted. 

JAMAICA.  Discovered  by  Columbus,  May  3,  1495.  It  was  conquered  from  the 
Spaniards  by  admiral  Penn,  and  the  land  forces  commanded  by  Venables  in  1655  ; 
the  expedition  had  been  planned  by  Oliver  Cromwell  against  St.  Domingo.  An 
awful  cauthquake  occurred  here  in  1692  ;  and  the  island  was  desolated  by  a  furious 
hurricane  in  1722  ;  and  again  in  1734  and  1751.  In  June  1795,  the  Maroons,  or 
original  natives^  who  inhabit  the  mountains,  rose  against  the  English,  and  were  not 
quelled  till  March  1796.  Tremendous  hurricane,  by  which  the  whole  island  was 
deluged,  hundreds  of  houses  washed  l^ay,  vessels  wrecked,  and  a  thousand  persons 
drowned,  October  1815.  An  alarming  insurrection,  commenced  by  the  negro  slaves, 
in  which  numerous  plantations  were  burned,  and  property  of  immense  value 
destroyed.  Before  they  were  overpowered,  the  governor,  lord  Belmore,  had  to 
declare  the  island  under  martial  law,  December  22,  1831. 

JANISSARIES.  This  order  of  infantry  in  the  Turkish  army  was  formerly  reputed  to 
be  the  grand  seignor*s  foot  guards.  They  were  first  raised  by  Amurath  I.  in  1361 ; 
and  have  several  times  deposed  the  sultan.  Owing  to  an  insurrection  of  these 
troops  on  the  14th  June,  1826,  when  3000  of  them  were  killed  upon  the  spot,  the 
Ottoman  army  was  reorganised,  and  a  firman  was  issued  declaring  the  aboUtion  of 
the  Janissaries  two  days  afterwards. 

JANSENISM.  This  sect  was  founded  by  Cornelius  Jansen,  bishop  of  Ypres,  about 
1625.  Jansen  was  a  prelate  of  piety  and  morals,  but  his  "  Auguatinus"  a  book 
in  which  he  maintained  the  Augustine  doctrine  of  free  grace,  and  recommended  it 
as  the  true  orthodox  belief,  kindled  a  fierce  controversy  on  its  publication  in  1640, 
and  was  condemned  by  a  bull  of  pope  Urban  VIII. 

JANUARY.  This  month,  the  first  in  our  'year,  derives  its  name  from  Janus,  a 
divinity  among  the  early  Romans.  See  next  article.  January  was  added  to  the 
Roman  calendar  by  Numa,  713  b.c.  He  placed  it  about  the  winter  solstice,  and 
made  it  the  first  month,  because  Janus  was  supposed  to  preside  over  the  beginning 
of  all  business.  This  god  was  painted  with  two  faces,  because,  as  some  persons  have 
it,  on  the  one  side  the  first  of  January  looked  towards  the  new  year,  and  on  the 
other  towards  the  old  one.  On  the  first  day,  it  was  customary  for  friends  and 
acquaintance  to  make  each  other  presents,  from  whence  the  custom  of  new-year's 
gifts,  still  retained  among  us,  was  originally  taken. 

JANUS,  Temple  of,  at  Rome.  Was  erected  by  Romulus,  and  kept  open  in  time  of 
war  and  closed  in  time  of  peace.  It  was  shut  only  three  times,  during  above  700 
years,  under  Numa,  234  b.c.  and  under  Augustus ;  and  during  that  long  period  of 
time,  the  Romans  were  continually  employed  in  war  *. 

JANVILLIERS,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  and  Prussians,  in  which,  after  an 
obstinate  engagement,  Blucher,  who  commanded  the  latter  army,  was  driven  back 
to  Chalons  with  considerable  loss,  February  14,  1814.  About  this  period  there  were 
many  battles  fought  between  Napoleon  and  Blucher,  and  Napoleon  and  prince 
Schwartzenberg,  until  the  capitulation  of  Paris,  March  31,  1814. 

JAPAN.  This  island  was  first  made  known  to  Europe  by  Marco  Paulo ;  and  was 
visited  by  the  Portuguese  about  1535.  The  Japanese  are  as  fabulous  as  the 
Chinese  in  the  antiquity  of  their  empire,  but  the  certain  period  begins  with  the 
hereditary  succession  of  the  ecclesiastical  emperors,  from  the  year  660  B.C.  The 
English  visited  Japan  in  1612.  There  was  once  a  great  number  of  Christians  in 
different  parts  of  the  empire ;  but,  in  1622,  they  underwent  great  persecutions, 
insomuch  that  they  were  all  extirpated. — See  Jeddo. 

JARNAC,  Battle  of.  The  duke  of  Anjou,  afterwards  Henry  III.  of  France,  defeated 
the  Huguenots  under  Louis,  prince  of  Conde,  who  was  killed  ;  the  victor  was  but 

*  According  to  the  ancient  mytlioiogy,  Janus  was  the  god  of  gates  and  avenues,  and  in  thai  cha> 
racter  held  a  key  in  his  right  hand,  and  a  rod  in  his  left,  to  symbolise  his  opening  and  ruling  the  year ; 
sometimes  he  bore  the  number  900  in  one  hand  and  65  in  the  other,  the  number  of  its  days.  At  other 
times  he  was  represented  with  four  heads,  and  placed  in  a  temple  with  four  equal  sides,  with  a  door 
and  three  windows  on  each  side,  as  emblems  of  the  four  seasons,  and  the  twelve  months  over  which 
he  presided 


-  ■■■■■■  I    ■         ■       ^^»^^—      ■  ■  ■       ■    I      I  -      —   I  ■  ^ 

JAR  Q  279  ]  JES 

seventeen  years  of  age,  and  on  account  of  this  success,  and  his  triumph  at  Moncon- 
tour,  the  Poles  chose  him  for  their  king,  March  13, 1569. 

JASMINE.  Jasminum  officinale,  called  also  jessamine.  This  much-esteemed  flower 
was  brought  hither  from  Circassia,  before  a.d.  1548.  The  Catalonian  jasmine  came 
to  England  from  the  East  Indies,  in  1629.  The  yellow  Indian  jasmine  was  brought 
to  these  countries  in  1 656. 

JAVA.  The  atrocious  massacre  of  20,000  of  the  unarmed  natives  by  the  Dutch,  sparing 
neither  women  nor  children,  to  possess  their  effects,  took  place  in  1740,  and  for  its 
cruelty  and  cowardice  iiies  an  indelible  stain  not  only  upon  their  nation,  but  on 
man.  The  island  capitulated  to  the  British,  August  8,  1811.  The  sultan  was 
dethroned  by  the  English,  and  the  hereditary  prince  raised  to  the  throne,  in  June 
1813.    Java  was  restored  to  Holland  in  1844. 

JEDDO.  The  capital  of  Japan,  containing  about  1,680,000  inhabitants,  a  number 
nearly  equal  to  London.  In  1619,  ambassadors  from  Japan  arrived  at  the  court  of 
pope  Paul  v.  to  do  him  homage  as  the  head  of  the  Christian  religion,  which  their 
master  had  embraced  through  the  preaching  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries ;  but  the 
misconduct  of  the  Jesuits,  who  were  endeavouring  to  overturn  the  Japanese  govern- 
ment, caused  them  to  be  expelled  in  1622,  and  the  inhabitants  relapsed  into  their 
former  idolatry.  The  emperor's  palace  is  of  indescribable  magnificence ;  its  hall 
of  audience  is  supported  by  many  pillars  of  massive  gold,  and  plates  of  gold  cover 
its  three  towers,  each  nine  stories  high.  Several  other  costly  palaces,  belonging  to 
the  emperor,  empress,  concubines,  and  vassal  kings,  enrich  this  great  eastern  city. 

"  JE  MAINTIENDRAI."  When  WilUam  III.  came  to  the  throne  of  England,  he 
adopted  as  the  Royal  motto  the  words  **  Je  maintiendrai  " — *'  I  will  maintain  ;" 
but  he  at  the  same  time  ordered  that  the  old  motto  of  the  royal  arms,  **  Dieu  et  mon 
droit,*'  should  be  retained  on  the  great  seal,  1689. 

JEMMAPPES,  Battle  of,  one  of  the  most  obstinate  and  bloody  of  modem  times ; 
40,000  French  troops  forced  28,000  Austrians,  who  were  entrenched  in  woods  and 
mountains,  defended  by  forty  redoubts,  and  an  immense  number  of  cannon  ;  the 
revolutionary  general  Uumouriez  was  the  victor  in  this  battle,  which  lasted  four  days. 
According  to  the  most  authentic  accounts,  the  number  of  killed  on  the  side  of  the 
Austrians  amounted  to  10,000,  on  that  of  the  French  to  12,000,  Nov.  6,  1792. 

J  ENA,  Battle  of,  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  of  modern  times,  between  the  French 
and  Prussian  armies ;  the  one  commanded  by  the  emperor  Napoleon,  and  the  other 
by  the  Prussian  king,  who  was  signally  defeated,  with  the  loss  of  30,000  slain,  and 
nearly  as  many  thousands  made  prisoners.  In  this  battle  the  Prussians  lost  200 
field-pieces,  and  Napoleon  advanced  to  Berlin,  Oct.  14,  1806. 

JERSEY,  GUERNSEY,  SARK,  and  ALDERNEY,  appendages  to  the  duchy  of 
Normandy,  were  united  to  the  crown  of  England,  by  William  the  Conqueror,  in  1066. 
Jersey  was  attempted  by  the  French  in  1779  and  1781.  A  body  of  French  troops 
surprised  the  governor,  made  him  prisoner,  and  compelled  him  to  sign  a  capitula- 
tion ;  but  major  Pierson,  the  commander  of  the  English  troops,  refusing  to  abide  by 
this  forced  capitulation,  attacked  the  French,  and  compelled  them  to  surrender 
prisoners  of  war ;  but  he  was  killed  in  the  moment  of  victory,  January  6,  1781. 

JERUSALEM.  Built  1800  b.c.  The  first  and  most  famed  Temple  was  founded  by 
Solomon.  1015  B.C.  ;  and  was  solemnly  dedicated  on  Friday,  October  30,  1004  B.C. 
being  one  thousand  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ. — Blair  ;  Usher  ;  Bible.  Jeru- 
salem was  taken  by  the  Israelites,  1048  B.C.  and  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  587  b.c. 
Itazed  to  the  ground  by  Titus,  a.d.  70,  after  one  of  the  most  remarkable  sieges  in 
history.  More  than  1,100,000  of  the  Jews  perished  on  this  occasion.  A  city  was 
built  on  the  ruins  of  the  former  by  the  emperor  Adrian,  a.d.  130.  The  walls  were 
rebuilt  by  the  empress  Eudoxia  in  437.  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  Persians  in 
614 ;  by  the  Saracens  in  636  ;  and  by  the  crusaders,  when  70,000  infidels  were  put 
to  the  sword,  1099.  A  new  kingdom  was  founded,  which  lasted  88  years.  Taken 
from  the  Christians  by  Saladin,  in  1187  ;  and  by  the  Turks,  who  drove  away  the 
Saracens  in  1217.  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  French  under  Buonaparte  in 
February  1799.     See  Jeufs. 

JESTER.  In  some  ancient  works,  a  jester  is  described  as  '*  a  witty  and  jocose  person, 
kept  by  princes  to  inform  them  of  their  faults,  and  those  of  other  men,  under  the 


I  ■---■■  — ■■■  -- 

JBS  [[  280  ]  JEW 

disgaise  of  a  waggish  story.''  Several  of  our  aacient  kings  kept  jesters,  and  parti- 
cularly the  Tudors.  There  was  a  jester  at  court  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  but  we 
hear  of  no  licenced  jester  afterwards. 

JESUITS.  The  order  was  founded  by  Ignatius  Loyola  (who  was  canonised),  a  page  to 
Ferdinand  V.  of  Spain,  and  subsequently  an  officer  of  his  army.  Loyola  having 
been  wounded  at  the  siege  of  Pampeluna,  in  both  legs,  a.d.  1521,  devoted  himself 
to  theology  while  under  cure,  and  renounced  the  military  for  the  ecclesiastical  pro- 
fession. His  first  devout  exercise  was  to  dedicate  his  life  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  as 
her  knight ;  he  next  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  and  on  his  return  laid 
the  foundation  for  his  new  order  in  France.  He  presented  the  institutes  of  it  in 
1539,  to  pope  Paul  III.  who  made  many  objections  to  them  ;  but  Ignatius  adding 
to  the  three  vows  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience,  a  fourth  of  implicit  submission 
to  the  holy  see,  the  institution  was  confirmed  by  a  bull,  September  27,  1540,  by 
which  their  number  was  not  to  exceed  60.  That  clog,  however,  was  taken  off  by 
another  bull,  March  14,  1543  ;  and  popes  Julius  III.,  Pius  V.,  and  Gregory  XIII., 
granted  them  such  great  privileges  as  rendered  them  powerful  and  numerous.  But 
'though  Francois  Xavier,  and  other  missionaries,  the  first  brothers  of  the  order,  carried 
it  to  the  extremities  of  the  habitable  globe,  it  met  with  great  opposition  in  Europe, 
particularly  at  Paris.  The  Sorbonne  issued  a  decree  in  1554,  by  which  they  con- 
demned the  institution,  as  being  calculated  rather  for  the  ruin  than  the  edification  of 
the  faithful.  Even  in  Romish  countries,  the  intrigues  and  seditious  writings  of  this 
order,  have  occasioned  it  to  be  discountenanced.  The  Jesuits  were  expelled  Eng- 
land by  proclamation,  2  James  I.  1604,  and  Venice  1606.  They  were  put  down  in 
France  by  an  edict  from  the  king,  and  their  revenues  confiscated,  1764  ;  and  were 
banished  Spain  1767.  Suppressed  by  pope  Clement  XIV.  in  1773.  Restored  by 
Pius  VII.  in  1814 ;  and  since  tolerated  in  other  states,  and  even  where  not  tole- 
rated, the  body,  as  now  in  England,  possess  a  secret  and  extensive  existence. 

JESUITS'  BARK.  Cortex  Peruvianns  ;  called  by  the  Spaniards  Fever-wood  ;  disco- 
vered, it  is  said,  by  a  Jesuit,  about  1535.  Its  virtues  were  not  generally  known  till 
1633,  when  it  cured  of  fever  the  lady  of  the  viceroy  at  Peru.  The  Jesuits  gave  it 
to  the  sick,  and  hence  its  name.  It  sold  at  one  period  for  its  weight  in  silver.  It 
was  introduced  into  France  as  a  medicine  in  1650  ;  and  cured  Louis  XIV.  of  fever 
when  he  was  dauphin  of  France.     This  bark  came  into  general  use  in  1680. 

JESUS  CHRIST.  Bom  on  Monday,  December  25,  a.m.  4004,  in  the  year  of  Rome 
752 ;  but  this  event  should  be  dated  four  years  before  the  commencement  of  the 
common  era.  See  Nativity,  Christ's  baptism  by  John,  and  his  first  ministry, 
A.D.  30.  He  celebrated  the  last  passover,  and  instituted  the  sacrament  in  its  room, 
on  Thursday,  April  2.  He  was  crucified  on  Friday,  April  3,  at  three  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon.  He  arose,  April  5  ;  ascended  to  heaven  from  Mount  Olivet,  on  Thursday, 
May  14 ,  following ;  and  his  spirit  descended  on  his  disciples  on  Sunday,  the  day  of 
Pentecost,  May  24,  a.d.  33. 

JEWELLERY.  Worn  by  most  of  the  early  nations.  So  prodigious  was  the  extrava- 
gance of  the  Roman  ladies,  that  Pliny  the  elder  says,  he  saw  LoUia  Paulina  wearing 
ornaments  which  were  valued  at  322,916/.  sterling.  Jewels  were  worn  in  France  by 
Agnes  Sorel,  in  1434.  The  manufacture  was  extensively  encouraged  in  England  in 
1685 — See  article  Dress, 

JEWISH  ERA.  The  Jews  usually  employed  the  era  of  the  Seleucidse  until  the 
fifteenth  century,  when  a  new  mode  of  computing  was  adopted  by  them.  They 
date  from  the  creation,  which  they  consider  to  have  been  3760  years  and  three 
months  before  the  commencement  of  our  era.  To  reduce  Jewish  time  to  ours, 
subtract  3761  years. 

JEWS.  A  people  universally  known  both  in  ancient  and  modem  times.  They  derive 
their  origin  from  Abraham,  with  whom,  according  to  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
Jewish  writers,  God  made  a  covenant,  1921  B.C. — Bktir  ;  lenglet;   Usher. 


Isaac  born  to  Abraham  •    b.c.  1896 

Birth  of  Esau  and  Jacob     .         .  .1836 

Joseph  sold  into  Egypt      .  .    .  1728 

The  male  children  of  thelaraeli tes  thrown 

into  the  Nile;  Moses  .         .1573 

The  Passover  instituted     .         .         .    .  1491 
The  law  promulgated  from  Mount  Sinai  1491 


The  tabernacle  set  up         .         .         Bjn.  1490 
Joshua  leads  the  Israelites  through  the 

river  Jordan 1451 

The  first  bondage 1413 

The  second  bondage       .  .         .  1343 

The  third  bondage     ...  .  1305 

The  fomth  bondage       .        .        .  1252 


JEW 


[281] 


JEW 


J  EWS,  continued. 

The  fifth  bondage  .  .  .  b.c.  1206 
The  sixth  bondage  ....  1157 
Samson  slays  the  Philistines  .  .  .  1136 
He  pulls  down  the  temple  of  Dagon        .  1117 

David  slays  Goliah 1094 

Deathof  Saul 1055 

David  besieges  and  takes  Jerusalem,  and 

makes  it  his  capital  .  .  .  .  1048 
Solomon    lays  the  foundation  of  the 

temple 1015 

It  is  dedicated  1004 

Death  of  Solomon,  the  kingdom  divided 

into  Judah  and  Israel         .        .        .    975 

KINGDOM  OF  IBHAKL. 

Jeroboam  rules  the  ten  tribes  .  .  .  975 
Bethel  taken  from  Jeroboam ;  500,0001s-' 

raelites  slain 957 

Israel  afiQicted  with  the  famine  predicted 

byEUjah 906 

The  Syrians  besiege  Samaria  .         .    901 

Elijah  translated  to  heaven  .    .    896 

The  reign  of  Jehu  ....    884 

Jonah,  Hosea,  and  Amos  live  .  .  .  808 
The  Assyrian  invasion  under  Phul  .  770 
Pekah   besieges  Jerusalem ;    ho  slays 

120,000men,  taking  200.000           .         .    741 
Samaria  taken  by  the  king  of  Assyria ; 
the  ten  tribes  are  carried  into  capti- 
vity, and  a  period  is  put  to  the  king- 
dom of  Israel 721 

KINGDOM  OF  JUDAH. 

Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  takes  Jerusalem, 
and  pillages  the  temple       .         .         .971 

Abi jah  defeats  the  king  of  Israel ;  50,000 
men  are  slain  in  battle    .        .        .    .    957 

Ilazael  desolates  Judah         .         .         .    839 

The  reign  of  Jotham  .    .    757 

Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  lays  siege  to  Jeru- 
salem ;  120,000  of  the  men  of  Judah 
are  sl^  in  one  day    .         .         .         .741 

Sennacherib  invades  Judea,  but  the  de- 
stroying angel  enters  the  camp  of  the 
Assyrians,  and  in  one  night  destroys 
185,000  of  them  .         .         .         .710 

[It  is  conjectured  by  commentators  that 
this  messenger  of  death  was  the  fatal 
blast  known  in  Eastern  countries  by 
the  name  of  Satniel.^ 

Holofemes  is  killed  at  the  siege  of  Be- 
th ulia  by  Judith     676 

In  repairing  the  temple,  Hilkiah  disco- 
vers the  book  of  the  law,  and  Josiah 
keeps  a  solemn  Passover     .        .         .    623 

Nebuchadnezzar  invades  Judea  .    .    605 

He  besieges  Jerusalem  ....    597 

He  again  invades  Judea,  and  takes  Jeru- 
salem after  a  long  siege  .         ^    .    587 

Jerusalem  fired,  the  temple  burnt,  the 
walls  razed  to  the  ground,  and  the  city 
reduced  to  ashes        ....    587 

BABYLONISH  CAPTTTITV. 

Daniel  prophesies  at  Babylon    .        .    .    603 
Shadrach,   Meshach,    and   Abed-Nego, 
refusing  to  worship  the  golden  image, 
are  cast  into  a  fiery  furnace,  but  are 
delivered  by  the  angel  .        .    .    587 


Daniel  declares  the  meaning  of  thehand- 
writing  against  Belshazzar  .    b.c    538 

He  is  cast  into  the  lions'  den ;  he  pro- 
phesies the  coming  of  the  Messiah       .    538 

RETURN  FROM  CAPTIVITY. 

Cyrus,  sovereign  of  all  Asia,  publishes 
an  edict  for  the  return  of  the  Jews* 
and  rebuilding  of  the  temple       .         .536 
The  temple  finished  .         March  10,  515 

Ezra,  the  priest,  anives  in  Jerusalem 

to  reform  abuses 458 

Here  begin  the  seventy  weeks  of  years 
predicted  by  Daniel,  being  490  years 
before  the  crucifixion  of  theRedeemer .  457 
The  walls  of  Jerusalem  built  .  .  445 
[The  Scripture  history  of  the  Jews  ends, 
according  to  Eutebius,  in  442;  and 
from  this  time,  Josephus  and  the  Ro- 
man historians  give  the  best  account 
of  the  Jews.] 

THE  GRECIAN  EMPIRE. 

Alexander  the  Great  passes  out  of  Europe 
into  Asia 335 

He  marches  against  Jerusalem  to  besiege 
it,  but  on  seeing  Jaddus,  the  high 
priest,  clad  in  his  robes,  he  declares  he 
had  seen  such  a  figiu-e  in  a  vision  in 
Macedonia,  inviting  him  to  Asia,  and 
promising  to  deliver  the  Persian  em- 
pire into  his  hands  ;  he  now  goes  to 
the  temple,  and  oflfers  sacrifices  to  the 
God  of  the  Jews 332 

Ptolemy  Philadelphus  employs  72  Jews 
to  translate  the  Scriptures  .        .    284 

Antlochus  takes  Jerusalem,  pillages  the 
temple,  and  slays  40,000  of  the  inha- 
bitants   170 

Treaty  with  the  Romans ;  the  first  on    • 
record  with  the  Jews  .         .        .161 

The  Jews  take  Joppa  .        .        .    .    150 

Samaria  besieged  and  taken  .         .        .109 

Judas  Hyrcanus  assumes  the  title  of 
<*  King  of  the  Jews"        .        .        .    .    107 

Jerusalem  taken  by  the  Roman  legions 
under  Pompey  «...      63 

THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

Antipater  made  intendant  of  Judea  by 

Julius  Cfl^sar 49 

Herod,  son  of  Antipater,  marries  Ma- 

riamne,  daughter  of  the  king  .      42 

Invasion  of  the  Parthians  .    .     40 

Herod  Implores  the  aid  of  the  senate; 

they  decree  him  to  be  king  .  .  40 
Jerusalem  taken  by  Herod,  and  by  the 

Roman  general  Socius  .  .  .37 
Herod  rebuilds  the  temple  .  .  .  18 
Jesus,  the  long-expected  Messiah,  is  bom 

on  Monday,  Dec.  25,  four  years  before 

the  common  era  ....  5 
Jesus  is  circumcised  .  .  Jan.  1,  4 
The  flight  into  Egypt  .  .  .'  .  3 
Joseph  and  Mary  return  to  Nazareth 

with  Christ 3 

Pontius  Pilate  is  made  procurator  of 

Judea A.D.     26 

John  the  Baptist  begins  to  preach  in  the 

desert  of  Judea 26 


JEW 


[_  282  J 


JEW 


30 
31 

33 


70 


115 


130 


136 


JEWS,  continued. 

John  the  BapUst  is  imprisoned  .       a.d. 

And  is  beheaded 

The  crucifixion  and  resurrection  of  the 
Redeemer* 

Titus  takes  Jerusalem ;  the  city  and 
temple  are  sacked  and  burnt,  and 
1,100,000  of  the  Jews  perish, multitudes 
destroying  themselves 

100,000  Greeks  and  Romans  aremurdered 
by  the  Jews  about  Cyrene  . 

Adrian  rebuilds  Jerusalem,  and  erects  a 
temple  to  Jupiter      .... 

More  than  580,000  of  the  Jews  are  slain 
by  the  Romans,  in  135  and 

[They  are  now  banished  from  Judea  by 
an  edict  of  the  emperor,  and  are  for- 
bidden to  return,  or  even  to  look  back 
upon  their  once  flourishing  and  beloved 
city,  on  pain  of  death.  From  this 
period,  the  Jews  have  been  scattered 
among  all  other  nations.] 

OJENSRAL  HISTORY. 

Jews  first  arrive  in  England  .        .        .  1078 

Thinking  to  invoke  the  divine  mercy,  at 
a  solemnization  of  the  Passover,  they 
sacrifice  a  youth,  the  son  of  a  rich 
tradesman  at  Paris,  for  which  the  cri- 
minals are  executed,  and  all  Jews 
banished  Franco         ....  1080 

The  Jews  massacred  in  London,  on  the 
coronation-day  of  Richard  I.,  at  the 
instigation  of  the  priests    .         .         .  1089 

600  being  besieged  in  York  castle  by  the 
mob,  they  cut  each  other's  throats  to 
avoid  their  fury         .         .         .         .1190 

Jews  of  both  sexes  imprisoned;  their 
eyes  or  teeth  plucked  out,  and  numbers 
inhumanly  butchered,  by  king  John  .  1204 

They  circumcise  and  attempt  to  crucify 
a  child  at  Norwich ;  the  offenders  are 
condemned  in  a  fine  of  20,000  marks    .  1235 

They  crucify  a  child  at  Lincoln,  for  which 
eighteen  are  hanged  ....  1255 

700  Jews  are  slain  in  London,  a  Jew 
having  forced  a  Christian  to  pay  him 
more  than  2s.  ];>er  week  as  interest  upon 
a  loan  of  20s.— Stawe ....  1262 

Statute  that  no  Jew  should  enjoy  a  firee* 
hold,  passed      .....  1269 

Every  Jew  lending  money  on  interest 
compelled  to  wear  a  plate  on  his  breast 
signifying  that  he  was  a  usurer,  or  to 
quit  the  realm 1274 

267  Jews  hanged  and  quartered  for  clip- 
ping coin  1277 

They  crucify  a  child  at  Northampton, 


for  which  fifty  are  drawn  at  horses' 
tails  and  hanged  .        .   a.d.  1282 

15,660  Jews  are  apprehended  in  one  day, 
and  are  all  banished  England. — Rapin  1287 

Massacre  of  the  Jews  at  Verdim  by  the 
peasantry ;  500  defend  themselves  in  a 
castle,  where,  for  want  of  weapons, 
they  throw  their  children  at  their  ene* 
mies,  and  then  destroy  one  another     .  1317 

A  fatal  distemper  raging  in  Europe,  they 
are  suspected  of  having  poisoned  the 
springs,  and  1,500,000  are  maasaored. 
—Lenglet 1348 

500,000  Jews  are  banished  Spain,  and 
150,000  from  Portugal     . 

They  are  banished  France     . 

After  having  been  banished  England  365 
years,  they  are  re-admitted  by  Crom- 
well, in  virtue  of  a  treaty  with  Man- 
nasseh  Ben  Israel  .         .         ... 

Statute  to  compel  them  to  maintain  their 
protestant  children,  enacted  2  Anne 

Bill  to  naturalise  the  professors  of  the 
Jewish  religion  in  Ireland  (where  200 
Jews  then  resided)  refused  the  royal 
assent 

Statute  to  naturalise  them,  passed 

This  act  repealed  on  the  petition  of  all 
the  cities  in  England 

The  Jewsof  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Avignon 
are  declared  to  be  citizens  of  France   . 

Sitting  of  the  great  Sanhedrim,  of  Paris, 
convened  by  the  emperor  Naiwleon 

Jan.  20, 

London  Society  for  promoting  Christi- 
anity among  the  Jews 

Alexander  of  Russia  grants  land  on  the 
seaof  Azoph  to  converted  Jews,  Sept  1, 

BiU  for  Jewish  emancipation  in  Eng- 
land, lost  on  the  second  reading,  by  a 
majoritytin  the  Commons,  228  against 
1G5         .         .         .         .  May  17,  1830 

Moses  Montefiore,  esq.,  a  very  esteemed 
Jew,  is  elected  high  sheriff  of  London 
for  1837-3 ;  and  is  knighted  at  Guild- 
hall by  the  queen,  being  the  first  Jew 
upon  whom  that  honour  has  been  con- 
ferred in  Britain       .         .         Nov.  9,  1837 

Ukase  of  the  emperor  of  Russia,  permit- 
ting the  title  of  citizen  of  the  first  class 
to  be  held  by  any  Jew  who  renders 
himself  worthy  of  it  by  services  to  the 
state,  or  to  arts,  scioice,  trade,  dec.      .  1839 

Owing  to  the  disappearance  of  a  Greek 
priest, 'a  persecution  of  the  Jewsbegun^ 
at  Damascus.— See  Damascus .  Feb.  1,  1840 


1493 
1494 


165S 


1703 


1746 
1753 

1754 

1790 


1807 


1808 


1820 


*  The  Jewish  women  are  handsomer  than  the  men,  because  they  have  escaped  the  curse  which 
has  alighted  upon  their  fathers,  husbands,  and  sons.  Not  a  Jewess  was  to  be  seen  among  the  crowd 
of  priests  and  rabble  who  insulted  the  Son  of  Man,  scourged  him,  crowned  him  with  thorns,  and 
subjected  him  to  the  ignominy  of  the  cross.  The  women  of  Judea  believed  in  the  Saviour ;  they  loved 
and  followed  him.  A  woman  of  Bethany  x>oured  on  his  head  the  precious  ointment,  which  she  kept 
in  a  vase  of  alabaster :  the  sinner  anointed  his  feet  with  a  perfumed  oil,  and  wiped  them  with  her 
hair.  The  daughters  of  Jerusalem  wept  over  him ;  the  holy  women  accompanied  him  to  Calvary, 
brought  balm  and  spices,  and,  weeping,  sought  him  at  the  sepulchre. — ' '  Woman,  why  weepest  thou  ?  ** 
His  first  appearance  after  his  resurrection  was  to  Magdalen.  He  said  to  her,  "  Mary ! "  At  the 
sound  of  that  voice  Magdalen's  eyes  were  opened,  and  she  answered,  *'  Master."  The  reflection  of 
some  very  beautiful  ray  must  have  rested  on  the  brow  of  the  Jewess.— /'ontone*. 


JOA  Q  283  "I  JUD  • 

JOAN  OF  ARC,  OB  MAID  OF  ORLEANS.  The  young  and  celebrated  heroine  of 
France.  The  English  under  Bedford  closely  besieging  Orleans,  Joan  of  Arc  pretended 
she  had  a  divine  commission  to  expel  them,  and  Charles  VII.  entrusted  her  with  the 
command  of  the  French  troops.  She  raised  the  siege,  and  entered  Orleans  with 
supplies,  April  29,  1429,  and  the  English  who  were  before  the  place  from  October 
12,  preceding,  abandoned  the  enterprise.  May  8,  following.  She  captured  several 
towns  in  the  possession  of  the  English,  whom  she  defeated  in  a  battle  near  Patay, 
June  10,  1429.  In  her  various  achievements  no  unfeminine  cruelty  ever  stafned 
her  conduct.  She  was  wounded  several  times  herself,  but  never  killed  any  one,  or 
shed  any  blood  with  her  own  hand.  She  was  taken  at  the  siege  of  Compiegne,  May 
25,  1431  ;  and,  to  the  great  disgrace  of  the  English,  was  burnt  for  a  witch  five  days 
afterwards  at  Rouen,  in  the  22d  (some  say  29th)  year  of  her  age. —  VoUaire'tt  Pucelle 
d' Orleans. 

JOHN  DOE  AND  RICHARD  ROE.  Names,  as  pledges  to  prosecute,  well  known 
in  the  law.  Magna  Charia  demanded  witnesses  before  trial,  and  since  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.  the  fictitious  names  of  John  Doe  and  Richard  Roe  are  put  into  writs, 
as  pretended  witnesses. 

JOHN  O'GROAT'S  HOUSE.  An  ancient  house  formerly  situated  on  Duncan's  Bay 
Head,  remarkable  for  being  the  most  northerly  point  in  Great  Britain.  John  of 
Groat  and  his  brothers,  originally  from  Holland,  settled  here,  about  1489.  This 
house  was  of  an  octagon  shape,  being  one  room,  with  eight  windows,  and  eight  doors, 
to  admit  eight  members  of  the  family,  the  beads  of  different  branches  of  it,  to  prevent 
their  quarrels  for  precedency  at  table,  which  on  a  previous  occasion  had  nigh  proved 
fatal.  Each  came  in,  by  this  contrivance,  at  his  own  door,  and  sat  at  an  octagon 
table,  at  which,  of  course,  there  was  no  chief  place  or  head. 

JOURNALS  OF  THE  HOUSE  of  COMMONS.  First  ordered  to  be  printed,  and 
5000/.  allowed  to  Mr.  Hardinge  for  the  execution  of  the  work,  by  which  means 
the  journals  can  now  be  searched  for  precedents  in  parliamentary  transactions. 
Strangers  as  well  as  members  may  refer  to  them,  and  have  extracts  made  from  them, 
on  paying  the  fees,  1752.  The  journals  of  the  House  of  Peers  are  also  printed  with 
the  same  object.  The  printing  of  acts  of  parliament  commenced  with  the  reign 
of  Henry  VII. ;  and  they  have  been  printed  consecutively  from  a.d.  1509  to  the 
present  day. 

JUAN  FERNANDEZ,  Island  of,  where  Alexander  Selkirk,  a  native  of  Scotland, 
was  left  on  shore  by  his  captain,  for  mutiny,  in  1705.  In  this  solitary  place  he  lived 
more  than  four  years,  till  he  was  discovered  by  captain  Rogers,  in  1709.  From  the 
narrative  of  his  proceedings  in  this  island,  Daniel  De  Foe  is  said  to  have  derived  the 
hints  which  produced  the  celebrated  Adventures  of  Robinson  Crusoe,  A  settlement 
was  made  here  by  the  Spaniards  at  Cumberland  Bay,  in  1766. 

JUBILEE.  By  Mosaic  institution  the  Jews  celebrate  a  jubilee  every  fifty  years. 
Among  the  Christians  a  jubilee  every  century  was  instituted  by  pope  Boniface  VIII., 
in  the  year  1300.  It  was  celebrated  every  fifty  years  by  command  of  pope  Clement 
VI. ;  and  was  afterwards  reduced  by  Urban  VI.  to  every  thirty-third  year ;  and 
Sixtus  V.  to  every  twenty-fifth  year,  at  which  period  it  is  now  fixed. 

JUBILEES.  A  memorable  and  delightful  festival,  called  Shakspeare's  Jubilee,  pro- 
jected by  the  inimitable  Garrick,  was  celebrated  in  honour  of  our  great  national  poet 
and  dramatist  in  his  native  town,  Stratford-on-Avon,  April  23,  1769.  The  me- 
morable  jubilee  in  England,  on  account  of  George  III.  entering  into  the  fiftieth  year  of 
his  reign,  was  celebrated  October  25,  1809.  The  Jubilee  in  celebration  of  the 
general  peace,  and  also  of  the  centennary  commemoration  of  the  accession  of  the 
family  of  Brunswick  to  the  throne  of  these  kingdoms,  August  1,  1814. 

JUDGES.  On  the  Norman  conquest  the  judges  had  the  style  of  Justioiarius  Anglia : 
these  judges  continued  until  the  erection  of  the  Courts  of  King's  Bench  and  Common 
Pleas.  The  last  who  had  the  office  of  Jusiiciarius  Angliat  was  Philip  Basset,  in 
1261.  See  the  several  Courts.  Judges  punished  for  bribery,  17  Edward  I.  1288, 
when  Thomas  de  Weyland  was  banished  the  land  ;  and  in  1351,  William  de  Thorp 
was  hanged.  See  Bribery.  John  de  Cavendish  was  beheaded  by  the  Kentish  rebels, 
1382.  Tresylian,  chief  justice,  was  executed  for  favouring  despotism,  and  other 
judges  were  seized  and  condemned,  1388.  The  prince  of  Wales  was  committed  by 
judge  Gascoigne  for  assaulting  him  on  the  bench,  1412.     Sir  Thomas  More,  lord 


JUD  [  284  ]  JUP 

chancellory  was  beheaded,  July  6,  1535.  Judges  threatened  with  impeachment,  and 
Berkeley  taken  off  the  bench  and  committed  by  the  commonsi  1641.  Three  im- 
peached, 1 680.  Most  of  them  dismissed  for  not  allowing  the  legality  of  a  dispensing 
power  in  the  crown,  3  James  II.  1687.  The  celebrated  judge  Jefferies  was  committed 
by  the  lord  mayor  to  the  Tower,  where  he  died,  1689.  The  independence  of  the 
judges  was  established  by  making  their  appointments  patents  for  life,  1 761 .  Judges 
were  sent  to  India,  1773.  Three  additioned  judges,  one  to  each  court,  were  appointed, 
T784.    A  new  judge  took  his  seat  as  vice-chancellor,  May  5,  1813. 

JUDICIAL  COMMITTEE  of  thb  PRIVY  COUNCIL,  in  Ueu  of  the  Court  of 
Delegates,  for  appeals  from  the  Lord  Chancellors  of  England  and  Ireland  in  cases  of 
lunacy — from  the  Ecclesiastical  and  Admiralty  Courts  of  England,  and  Vice  Admiralty 
Courts  abroad— from  the  Courts  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  the  Colonial  Courts,  &c,  fixed 
by  sUtute  3  and  4  William  IV.  1833. 

JUGGERNAUT,  or  *'  Lord  of  the  world.'*  The  first  object  of  Hindoo  yeneration, 
is  a  celebrated  idol  of  an  irregular  pyramidal  black  stone,  with  two  rich  diamonds 
to  represent  eyes  ;  the  nose  and  mouth  are  painted  vermilion,  and  the  visage  is 
frightful.  The  number  of  pilgrims  that  visit  the  god  is  stated  at  1 ,200,000  an- 
nually ;  of  these  a  great  many  never  return,  and  to  the  distance  of  fifty  miles  the  way 
is  strewed  with  human  bones  :  the  temple  of  Juggernaut  has  existed  above  800  years. 

JUGURTHA,  THE  War  with.  A  memorable  war  against  the  Numidian  to  reduce 
his  kingdom,  commenced  111  b.c.  and  continued  five  years.  Cecilius  Metellus  was 
first  sent  against  him,  and  defeated  him  in  two  battles ;  and  afterwards  Sylla  and 
Marius ;  the  latter  of  whom  dragged  him  in  chains  to  Rome  to  adorn  his  triumph. 
The  name  and  wars  of  Jugurtha  have  been  immortalised  by  the  pen  of  Sallust. 

JULIAN  PERIOD.  A  term  of  years  produced  by  the  multiplication  of  the  lunar 
cycle  19,  solar  cycle  28,  and  Roman  indiction  15.  It  consists  of  7980  years,  and 
began  4713  years  before  our  era.  It  has  been  employed  in  computing  time,  to 
avoid  the  puzzling  ambiguity  attendant  on  reckoning  any  period  antecedent  to  our 
era,  an  advantage  which  it  has  in  common  with  the  mundane  eras  used  at  different 
times.  By  subtracting  4713  from  the  Julian  period,  our  year  is  found ;  if  before 
Christ,  subtract  the  Julian  period  from  4714.  For  Julian  year,  see  Calendar  &nd  Year, 

JULY.  The  seventh  month  of  the  year,  from  the  Latin  JulitUt  the  surname  of  C.  Caesar, 
the  dictator  of  Rome,  who  was  bom  in  it.  It  was  the  fifth  month  in  the  Roman 
calendar  until  Numa  added  January  and  February  to  the  year,  713  b.c — See  those 
months  severally,  and  article  Year, 

JUNE.  The  sixth  month,  but  originally  the  fourth  month  of  the  Roman  year.  It  had 
its  name  JuniuSt  which  some  derive  a  Junone^  and  others  a  JunioribuSf  this  being  for 
the  young,  as  the  month  of  May  was  for  aged  persons.  When  Numa  added  two  months 
before  March,  this  month  became,  as  it  is  now,  the  sixth  of  the  calendar,  713  b.c. 
— See  Year. 

JUNIUS'S  LETTERS.  Junius  was  the  assumed  name  of  a  concealed  political  writer, 
who  published  his  letters  in  the  Public  Advertiser,  in  1769.  They  were  written  in 
a  nervous,  sarcastic,  and  clear  style,  and  produced  a  powerful  impression,  and  the 
volume  is  now  one  of  the  most  admired  in  British  literature.  These  letters  have  been 
» ascribed  to  Mr.  Burke,  Mr.  William  Gerard  Hamilton,  commonly  called  single-speech 
Hamilton,  John  Wilkes.  Mr.  Dunning  (afterwards  lord  Ashburton),  Mr.  serjeant 
Adair,  the  rev.  J.  Rosenhagen,  John  Roberts,  esq.,  Mr.  Charles  Lloyd,  Mr.  Samuel 
Dyer,  general  Lee,  Hugh  Boyd,  esq.,  and  sir  Philip  Francis  ;  but  the  matter  is  still 
hidden  in  obscurity.  ^  I  am  the  depositary  of  my  own  secret,  and  it  shall  perish 
with  me.*' — Juniiis. 

JUNONIA.  Festivals  in  honour  of  Juno  celebrated  at  Rome,  and  instituted  431  b.c. 
At  these  festivals  the  young  maids  ran  races,  and  petitioned  Juno  to  give  them 
husbands  ;  at  Rome  an  altar  was  erected  to  her  as  the  goddess  of  marriage,  where 
the  new-married  couple  offered  either  a  white  cow,  geese,  or  ravens,  from  which  they 
took  the  gall  before  they  sacrificed,  and  threw  it  behind  the  altar,  to  intimate  that  in 
that  state  of  life  no  bitterness  of  spirit  shall  remain. 

JUPITER.  Known  as  a  planet  to  the  Chinese  and  the  Chaldeans  ;  to  the  former,  it  is 
said,  3000  b.c  ;  and  correctly  inserted  in  a  chart  of  the  heavens,  made  about  600 
B.C.,  and  in  which  1460  stars  are  accurately  described ;  this  chart  is  said  to  be  in 


JUR Q  285  2 KAL 

the  royal  library  at  Paris.  The  satellites  of  Jupiter  were  discovered  by  Galileo,  a.d. 
1610;  but  Janssen,  it  is  affirmed,  claimed  some  acquaintance  with  them  about 
twenty  years  before. 

JURIES.  Trial  by  jury  was  introduced  into  England  during  the  Saxon  Heptarchy, 
mention  being  made  of  six  Welsh  and  six  Anglo-Saxon  freemen  appointed  to  try 
causes  between  the  English  and  Welsh  men  of  property,  and  made  responsible,  with 
their  whole  estates,  real  and  personal,  for  false  yerdicts. — Lombard.  But  by  most 
authorities  their  institution  is  ascribed  to  Alfred.  In  Magna  Charta,  juries  are 
insisted  on  as  the  great  bulwark  of  the  people's  liberty.  When  either  party  is 
an  alien  bom,  the  jury  shall  be  one-half  denizens,  and  the  other  half  aliens,  statute 
28  Edward  III.  1353.  By  the  common  law  a  prisoner  upon  indictment  or  appeal, 
might  challenge  peremptorily  thirty-five,  being  under  three  juries ;  but  a  lord  of 
parliament,  and  a  peer  of  the  realm  that  is  to  be  tried  by  his  peers,  cannot  challenge 
any  of  his  peers.  An  act  for  the  trial  by  jury  in  civil  cases  in  Scotland,  was  passed 
in  1815.  An  act  to  consolidate  and  amend  the  laws  relating  to  juries  in  Ireland  was 
passed  4  William  IV.  1833. 

JURIES,  Coercion  of.  About  the  year  927,  the  plaintiff  and  defendant  used  to  feed 
the  jury  empanelled  in  their  action,  and  hence  arose  the  common  law  of  denying 
sustenance  to  a  jury  after  the  hearing  of  the  evidence.  A  jury  may  be  detained 
during  the  pleasure  of  the  judge  if  they  cannot  agree  upon  a  verdict;  and  may  be 
confined  without  meat,  drink,  or  candle,  till  they  are  unanimous.  Some  jurors  have 
been  fined  for  having  fruit  in  their  pockets,  when  they  were  withdrawn  to  consider 
of  their  verdict,  though  they  did  not  eat  it. — Leon.  Dyer,  137.  A  jury  at  Sudbury 
not  being  able  to  agree,  and  having  been  some  time  under  duress,  forcibly  broke  from 
the  court  where  they  were  locked  up,  and  went  home,  October  9,  1791. — Phillips. 

JUSTICES  OF  THE  PEACE.  These  are  local  magistrates,  invested  with  extensive 
powers  in  minor  cases,  but  subject  to  supercession  and  punishment  by  the  king's 
bench  for  an  abuse  of  their  authority.  Justices  of  the  peace  in  every  county  first 
nominated  by  William  the  Conqueror,  in  1076. — Stowe.  Called  guardians  of  the 
peace  till  36  Edward  III.,  1361.  The  form  of  a  commission  of  the  peace  settled  by 
the  judges  23  Eliz.,  1580.— /TawArtwa. 

JUSTICIARS.  In  ancient  times  the  kings  of  England  used  to  hear  and  determine 
causes  ;  but  it  is  declared  by  law  that  if  the  king  cannot  determine  every  controversy, 
he,  to  ease  himself,  may  divide  the  labour  among  persons,  men  of  wisdom,  and 
fearing  God,  and  out  of  such  to  appoint  judges.  The  Saxon  kings  of  England 
appointed  a  judge  after  this  manner,  who  was,  in  fact,  the  king's  deputy.  After  the 
Norman  Conquest,  the  person  invested  with  that  power  had  the  style  of  Capitalis 
JttsticuB,  or  JusHciariua  Anglits.  These  judges  continued  until  the  erection  of  the 
Courts  of  King's  Bench  and  the  Common  Pleas.  The  first  justiciars  of  England 
were  Odo,  bishop  of  Bayeux,  and  William  Fitzosbom,  in  1067  ;  and  the  last  was 
PhUip  Basset,  in  1261. 

JUSTINIAN  CODE.  Wherein  was  written  what  may  be  termed  the  statute  law, 
scattered  through  2000  volumes*  reduced  to  fifty,  completed  a.d.  529.  To  this  code 
of  la«v8  Justinian  added  the  Pandects,  the  Institutes,  and  Novels.  These  compila- 
tions have  since  been  called,  collectively,  the  body  of  civil  law  {corpus  juris  civilis). 
A  digest  was  made  in  533. — Blair. 

JUVENILE  OFFENDERS.  Statute  instituting  a  prison  wherein  juvenile  offenders 
may  be  detained  and  corrected,  and  may  receive  such  instruction  and  be  subject  to 
such  discipline  as  shall  appear  most  conducive  to  their  reformation  and  to  tiie  re- 
pression of  crime  ;  and  appropriation  of  the  military  hospital  at  Packhurst,  in  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  for  this  salutary  purpose,  2  Victoria,  Aug.  10,  1838. 


K. 

KALEIDOSCOPE.  This  optical  instrument,  which  combines  mirrors,  and  produces 
a  symmetrical  reflection  of  beautiful  images,  was  invented  by  Dr.  Brewster  of  Edin- 
burgh ;  it  was  first  suggested  in  1814,  and  the  instrument  perfected  in  1817,  when 
it  found  its  way  into  everybody's  hands.  It  is  intended  to  assist  jewellers,  glass- 
painters,  and  other  ornamental  artists,  in  the  formation  of  patterns,  of  which  it  pro- 
duces an  infinite  number. 


KAL  Q  286  ]  KET 

KAXiITSCH,  Battle  of,  between  the  Saxons,  under  the  French  general  Regnier,  and 
the  Russians  under  Winzingerode ;  an  obstinate  engagement,  in  which  the  French 
were  defeated  with  mnch  loss,  2000  being  slain  on  the  field,  and  some  thousands 
wounded,  February  13, 1813. 

KALUN6A  FORT.  A  fort  in  the  East  Indies,  unsucocessfuUj  attacked  by  the  Com- 
pany's forces,  and  gen.  Gillespie  killed,  Oct.  31,  1814.  It  was  again  unsuccessfully 
attacked.  Not.  25,  following;  and  was  eyacuated  by  the  Nepaulese,  Nov.  30,  same  year. 

KAMTSCHATKA.  The  peninsula  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia.  It  was  discovered 
by  Morosco,  a  Cossack  chief,  a.d.  1690 ;  and  was  taken  possession  of  by  Russia  in 
1697  ;  it  was  not  ascertained  to  be  a  peninsula  until  visited  by  Behring,  in  1728. 

KEEPER  OF  THE  KING'S  CONSCIENCE.  The  origin  of  this  office,  which  at- 
taches to  the  lord  chancellor,  is  supposed  to  reside  in  that  dark  period  of  our  history 
'*  whereof  the  memory  of  man  is  not  to  the  contrary,"  and  no  records  exist.  The 
early  chancellors  were  priests,  and  their  jurisdiction  extended  over  the  king's  con- 
science ;  and  out  of  this  moral  control  of  the  king's  mind,  grew  up  the  idea  of  an 
equity  court  in  contradistinction  to  the  law  courts.  A  bill  in  Chancery  is  a  petition 
through  the  lord  chancellor  to  the  king's  conscience  for  remedy  in  matters  for  which 
the  king's  common  law  courts  afford  no  redress.  The  keeper  of  the  king's  conscience, 
therefore,  in  the  present  day,  is  the  officer  who  presides  in  the  Court  of  Chancery. 

KELLS.  Called  also  Cenanus,  and  anciently  reckoned  among  the  cities  of  the  first 
rank  in  Ireland.  St.  Columba,  called  also  Colutnb  Cille,  founded  a  great  monastery 
here  in  the  year  550,  and  an  episcopal  see  was  erected  soon  afterwards. — See 
Meaiht  Bishopric  of. 

KENILWORTH  CASTLE.  Built  in  1120,  but  much  of  the  pile  was  erected  sub- 
sequently by  John  of  Gaunt ;  and  its  remains  now  form  one  of  the  most  picturesque 
objects  in  the  kingdom.  This  celebrated  castle  was  conferred  on  Dudley,  earl  of 
Leicester,  by  queen  Elizabeth,  whom  he  afterwards  entertained  within  its  walls  for 
seventeen  days.  His  sumptuons  entertainment  of  the  queen  commenced  July  19, 
1575,  and  cost  the  earl  daily  1000/.,  a  vast  expenditure  in  those  times. 

KENSINGTON  PALACE.  Originally  the  residence  of  lord  chancellor  Finch,  from 
whom  it  was  purchased  by  William  III.,  who  made  the  road  through  its  parks. 
The  gardens  were  successively  improved  by  queen  Mary,  queen  Anne,  and  queen 
Caroline,  who  died  within  the  walls  of  the  palace.  George  II.  and  George  prince  of 
Denmark  likewise  expired  here. — Leigh. 

KENT.  The  kingdom  of  Kent,  one  of  the  kingdoms  of  the  Heptarchy, 'began  under 
Hengist,  a.d.  457 ;  existed  370  years ;  and  ended  with  Baldred,  who  lost  both  his 
life. and  dominions  to  Egbert,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  827. — See  Britain, 

KENT  EAST  INDIAMAN,  Captain  Cobb.  The  fate  of  this  ship  affords  an  interest- 
ing record.  She  was  of  1850  tons  burthen,  and  left  the  Downs  February  19, 1825, 
bound  for  Bombay,  experiencing  bad  weather  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Here  she  en- 
countered a  dreadful  storm,  by  which  she  was  very  much  shattered,  February  28. 
On  the  next  day  she  accidentally  took  fire,  and  having  to  contend  against  the  two- 
fold calamity,  every  soul  on  board  was  in  expectation  of  perishing  either  by  the 
tempest  or  the  flames.  In  this  awful  exigency,  the  Cambria,  captain  Cook,  bound 
to  Vera  Cruz,  providentially  hove  in  sight,  and  through  the  heroism  and  humanity  of 
her  commander  nearly  all  on  board  were  saved,  viz.,  301  officers  and  men  of  the 
3lBt  Regt.,  66  women,  45  children,  and  139  seamen.  The  Kent  shortly  afterwards 
blew  up,  March  1,  1825. 

KENT,  Holy  Maid  of.  A  country  girl  who  was  used  as  an  instrument  by  the 
Catholics  and  the  adherenta  of  queen  Catherine  to  excite  the  nation  against  the 
divorce  then  proposed  of  Henry  VIII.  from  his  first  wife,  and  the  apprehended 
separation  of  the  English  Church  from  that  of  Rome.  In  her  delirium  during  a 
nervous  illness,  she  was  persuaded  to  believe  herself  a  prophetess,  and  she  denounced 
the  king,  and  the  prevailing  heresies,  and  excited  such  a  ferment  among  the  people 
that  she  and  her  accomplices  were  seized,  and  ultimately  were  adjudged  gulty  of 
high  treason,  for  a  conspiracy  against  the  king,  and  executed,  April  30,  1534. 

KET'S  REBELLION.  A  revolt  instigated  by  William  Ket,  a  tanner,  of  Norfolk. 
The  insurgents  amounted  to  20,000  men,  but  they  were  quickly  encountered  and 
defeated  by  the  earl  of  Warwick.  More  than  2000  fell  in  the  action  or  the  pursuit, 
and  Ket  was  taken  and  hanged,  in  August,  1549.— ^/otre'«  Chron. 


KEW  Q  287  ]  KIL 

KEW  ROYAL  PALACE.  It  was  successively  occupied  by  the  Capel  family,  Mr. 
Molyneux,  Frederick  prince  of  Wales,  Thomson  the  poet,  and  George  III.  Queen 
Charlotte  died  here,  1818.  The  gardens  contain  the  finest  collection  of  plants  in  the 
world,  and  are  decorated  with  omamentd  buildings,  most  of  them  erected  by  sir 
William  Chambers,  about  1760.  Here  are  a  temple  of  the  Sun,  a  temple  of  Eolus, 
of  Bellona,  of  Solitude,  of  Arethusa,  and  of  Victory ;  the  last  in  commemoration  of 
the  yictory  of  Minden,  August  1, 1759.  A  new  palace  was  erected  at  Kew  by 
George  III.,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Wyatt,  but  it  was  pulled  down  in  1827. 

KEYS.  The  invention  of  them  is  ascribed  to  Theodore,  of  Samos,  by  Pliny,  about 
730  B.C.  But  this  is  an  error,  as  keys  are  mentioned  in  the  siege  of  Troy,  1193  b.c. 
Keys  were  originally  made  of  wood,  and  the  earliest  form  was  a  simple  crook  similar 
to  the  common  picklock  now  in  use.  The  ancient  keys  now  to  be  found  in  the 
cabinets  of  the  curious  are  mostly  of  bronze.  The  late  Francis  Douce,  esq.,  had 
some 'of  remarkable  shapes,  the  shaft  terminating  on  one  side  by  the  works,  on  the 
the  other  by  a  ring.  Keys  of  this  description  were  presented  by  husbands  to  wives, 
and  were  returned  again  upon  divorce  or  separation. 

KIDDERMINSTER.  The  carpet  manufacture  for  which  this  town  is  now  famous, 
was  established  in  1735  ;  and  the  silk  manufacture  in  1754.  In  these  articles  it 
carries  on  a  considerable  and  very  flourishing  trade. — See  article  Carpets, 

KIDNEY-BEANS,  or  French  Beans.  They  were  introduced  into  England  about  a.d. 
1633.  The  kidney-bean  tree,  Glycine  frutesoensy  was  brought  to  these  countries 
from  South  Carolina,  in  1724. 

KIEL,  Treaty  of.  Between  Great  Britain,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  signed  January 
14,  1814.  By  this  treaty  Norway  was  ceded  to  Sweden.  Previously  the  Norwegians 
had  been  deserted  by  the  king  of  Denmark,  and  had  sent  a  deputation  to  England, 
to  interest  that  country  in  their  favour.  The  mission  was  fruitless.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  English  blockaded  the  ports  of  Norway,  and  the  Swedes  entered  by  land. 
The  Norwegians  fought  some  brave  actions,  but  they  were  defeated.  The  prince  of 
Denmark  quitted  Norway,  and  the  diet  elected  the  king  of  Sweden  to  be  their  king. 

KILCULLEN,  Battle  of,  between  a  vast  body  of  the  insurgent  Irish  and  the  British 
forces  commanded  by  general  Dundas  ;  the  latter  defeated,  May  23,  1798.  General 
Dundas  in  a  subsequent  engagement  with  the  rebels  overthrew  them  near  Kilcullen- 
bridge,  when  300  were  slain,  and  several  hundreds  wounded  and  taken  prisoners. 

KILDARE.  The  celebrated  Curragh  here  was  once  a  forest  of  oaks ;  and  here  was 
the  fameus  nunnery  of  St.  Bridget,  founded  by  her  in  a.d.  584.  The  insurrection 
in  Kildare,  which  swelled  into  the  great  and  memorable  rebellion,  commenced  in 
Kildare,  May  23,  1798.  On  the  night  of  that  day,  lieut.  Gifford,  of  Dublin,  and  a 
number  of  other  gentlemen  of  respectability,  were  murdered  by  the  insurgents. 
This  rebellion  was  not  finally  quelled  until  the  following  year. 

KILDARE,  Bishopric  of.  One  of  the  earliest  episcopal  foundations  in  Ireland,  of 
which  St.  Conlseth,  who  died  a.d.  519,  was  the  first  prelate.  The  first  Protestant 
bishop  was  Thomas  Lancaster,  in  1550.  In  this  diocese  was  an  old  small  building 
called  the  fire-house,  where,  it  is  supposed,  the  nuns  of  St.  Bridget  kept  the  inex- 
tinguishable fire.  The  see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books,  by  an  extent  returned,  30 
Henry  VIII.,  at  69/.  11«.  4rf.,  Irish,  per  year. 

KILFENORA,  Bishopric  of.  It  is  supposed  that  St.  Fachnan  was  its  founder.  In 
the  ancient  distribution  of  the  bishoprics  of  Ireland,  made  by  cardinal  Paparo,  in 
1152,  it  was  rendered  as  a  suffragan  see  to  Cashel,  but  on  the  restoration  of  Charles 
II.  it  was  annexed  to  Tuam,  and  was  afterwards  united  to  KiUaloe. — See  Killaloe. 

KILKENNY.  Named  from  the  cell  of  Canic,  an  ancient  hermit  of  this  county.  The 
castle  of  Kilkenny  was  built  in  a.d.  1173.  Two  ancient  and  extraordinary  par- 
liaments were  held  here.  In  the  parliament  which  was  holden  in  1346,  a  large 
subsidy  was  granted  to  Edward  III.  for  the  exigencies  of  the  state.  The  city  was 
incorporated  in  1609. 

KILKENNY,  Statutes  of.  These  famous  statutes  enacted,  among  other  things, 
**  that  the  alliaunce  of  the  English  by  marriage  with  any  Irish,  the  nurture  of  infantes, 
and  gossipted  with  the  Irish,  be  deemed  high  treason.^'  And  again,  "  if  anie  man  of 
English  race  use  an  Irish  name,  Irish  apparell,  or  anie  other  guize  or  fashion  of  the 
Irish,  his  lands  shall  be  seized,  and  his  bodie  imprisoned,  till  he  shall  conform  to 
English  modes  and  customs.''   40  Edward  III.  1364. — See  Penal  Laws, 


KIL  Q  238  ]  KIN 

KILLALA.  Its  invasion  by  a  French  force  landing  from  three  frigates,  under  general 
Humbert,  August  22, 1798.  The  invaders  were  joined  by  the  Irish  insurgents,  and 
the  battles  of  Castlebar,  Colooney,  and  Ballynamuck  followedi  but  the  French  were 
ultimately  subdued,  September  8,  same  year.  At  the  battle  of  Killala  the  insurgents 
were  defeated,  with  great  slaughter,  by  the  royalist  forces,  September  23,  1798. 

KILLALA,  See  of.  An  early  episcopal  foundation,  of  which  St.  Muredach  was  the 
first  bishop,  and  was  consecrated  by  St.  Patrick.  The  author  of  the  tripartite  life 
of  St.  Patrick,  in  giving  an  account  of  that  saint's  progress  through  Connaught,  in 
434,  says,  **  That  he  came  to  a  pleasant  place  where  the  river  Muadas  (Moy)  empties 
itself  into  the  ocean  ;  and  on  the  south  banks  of  said  river  he  built  a  noble  church, 
called  Kill-Aladh,  of  which  he  made  one  of  his  disciples,  Muredach,  the  first  bishop." 
The  see  of  Achonry  was  united  to  Killala,  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Killala  was 
valued  by  an  extent,  28  Elizabeth,  1 585,  at  23/.  6«.  %d,  sterling. 

KILLALOE,  See  of.  Supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  St.  Molua,  whose  disciple, 
St.  Flannan,  son  to  king  Theodoric  (and  who  was  consecrated  at  Rome  by  pope  John 
IV.,  in  639),  was  also  bishop.  While  he  sat  here,  his  father  endowed  the  church  with 
many  estates,  and  dying  fall  of  years,  was  magnificently  interred  in  this  church  by  his 
son  Flannan.  The  church  of  KiUaloe  was  esteemed  of  great  sanctity,  and  was  anciently 
much  resorted  to  in  pilgrimage,  of  which  there  are  many  instances ;  among  others 
Conor  Mac  Dermod  O'Brien,  king  of  Thomand  and  Desmond,  died  here  in  pilgrimage, 
in  1142.  At  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century  the  ancient  see  of  Roscrea  was  an- 
nexed to  Killaioe,  and  that  of  Kilfenora  has  been  held  in  commendam  with  it.  '  It 
was  valued,  28  Elizabeth,  at  20/.  a  year. 

KILMACDUA6H.  This  see  was  held  in  commendam  with  Clonfert,  from  1602.  St. 
Coleman,  its  first  bishop,  flourished  early  in  the  seventh  century,  and  being  fond  of 
an  ascetic  life,  he  lived  in  a  wilderness  in  the  south  part  of  Connaught,  seven  years 
previous  to  his  being  made  bishop  of  this  see.  It  was  valued,  29  Elizabeth,  1586,  at 
13/.  6«.  8(/.  per  annum, 

KILMAINHAM  HOSPITAL.  The  asylum  of  aged  and  disabled  soldiers  in  Ireland, 
and  one  of  the  noblest  institutions  of  the  kind  in  Great  Britain.  It  owes  its  founda- 
tion to  Arthur,  earl  of  Granard,  then  marshal-general  of  the  army  in  Ireland,  1675  ; 
and  the  duke  of  Ormond  perfected  the  plan,  in  1679.  Kilmainham  is  an  ancient 
town,  and  was  the  seat  of  government  before  the  castle  of  Dublin  was  appropriated 
to  that  purpose. 

KILLMALLOCK.  An  abbey  was  founded  here  by  St.  Mochoallog,  about  the  year 
645  ;  and  an  abbey  of  Dominicans  was  built  in  the  thirteenth  century. — Sir  James 
Ware,  A  charter  was  granted  to  Killmallock  by  Edward  VI.,  and  another  by 
Elizabeth,  in  1584.  The  town  was  invested  by  the  Irish  forces  in  1598,  but  the 
siege  was  raised  by  the  duke  of  Ormond,  This  place  was  the  scene  of  much  contest 
in  the  rebellion,  1641,  and  1642. 

KILMORE.  The  name  signifies  a  great  church.  Kilmore  is  an  ancient  town,  whose 
bishops  were  sometimes  called  Brefinienses  from  Brefhey,  and  sometimes  Tribumen- 
ses,  bishops  of  Tribuma,  from  a  village  of  that  name  ;  but  in  1454,  the  bishop  of 
Triburna,  by  assent  of  pope  Nicholas  V.,  erected  the  parish  church  of  St.  Fedlemid, 
as  a  more  commodious  situation,  into  a  cathedral.  Florence  O'Connacty,  the  first 
bishop,  died  in  1231.  The  see  was  valued,  30  Elizabeth,  at  26/.  13«.  4</. ;  and  by 
an  extent,  15  James  I.,  together  with  Ardagh,  at  100/.  per  annum. 

KING.  The  Latin  Rex^  the  Scythian  Reis,  the  Spanish  Rey,  and  French  Roi^  all 
come  from  the  Hebrew  Rosch,  chief,  or  head.  Nimrod  was  the  first  founder  of  a 
kingdom,  2245  B.C. — Du  Fresnoy.  Misraim  built  cities  in  Egypt,  and  was  the  first 
who  assumed  the  title  of  king  in  that  division  of  the  earth.  Saul  was  the  first  king 
of  Israel,  1095  B.C.  Most  of  the  Grecian  states  were  governed  by  kings ;  and  kings 
first  ruled  in  Rome.  The  Egyptians  understood  the  only  just  principle  of  govern- 
ment, namely,  to  render  the  people  happy ;  and  although  among  them  the  monarchy 
was  hereditary,  the  sovereign  was  as  much  bound  by  the  laws  as  his  meanest  subject : 
there  was  a  peculiar  code  for  his  direction  in  the  most  minute  particulars  of  public 
and  private  life.  The  king's  hour  of  rising,  the  portion  of  time  he  should  devote  each 
day  to  the  exercises  of  religion,  the  administration  of  justice,  the  quality  of  his  food, 
and  the  rank  of  persons  by  whom  he  was  served,  were  all  prescribed. 

G  OF  ENGLAND.     The  style  "  king  of  England,"  was  first  used  by  Egbert,  a.d. 


KIN  [^  289  ]  KIN 

828  ;  but  the  title  Rea  genHs  Ahghrum,  king  of  the  English  nation,  existed  daring 
the  Heptarchy.  See  Britain.  The  plural  phraseology  of  we,  us,  our,  was  first 
adopted  among  our  English  kings  by  king  John,  in  1207.  The  title  of  **  king  of 
Ireland,'*  by  British  soyereigns,  was  not  assumed  until  1542,  when  Henry  VIII. 
changed  lord  of  Ireland  into  king.  The  style  **  Great  Britain  **  was  adopted  at  the 
union  of  England  and  Scotland,  6  Anne,  1707 ;  and  of  the  **  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  "  at  the  union  of  these  countries,  January  1,  1801,  when 
the  royal  style  and  title  was  appointed  to  run  thus  : — **Georgiiu  Teriitu,  Dei  Gratia 
Britanniarum  Bex,  Fidei  Defensor f**  **  George  the  third,  by  the  Grace  of  God  of 
the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  King,  Defender  of  the  Faith." 

KING  OF  FRANCE.  This  title  was  first  given  to  Pharamond,  a.d.  420  ;  it  was  first 
assumed  by  the  soyereigns  of  England,  and  the  French  arms  quartered,  February, 
1340,  when  Edward  III.  took  the  title  in  right  of  his  mother,  the  sister  of  Charles, 
the  last  king,  who  died  without  issue ;  and  the  right  to  this  title  was  yindicated 
subsequently  by  conquest.  Neither  the  style  nor  the  arms  were  formally  relinquished 
until  January  1,  1801,  when  the  alteration  mentioned  in  the  preceding  article  took 
place,  up  to  which  time  the  English  monarchs  had  the  style  of  "  king  of  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  Ireland.'' 

KING  OF  THE  FRENCH.  Decreed  by  the  National  Assembly  that  the  title  of  ^'  king 
of  France  "  should  be  changed  in  the  person  of  Louis  XVI.  to  that  of  '*  king  of  the 
French,"  October  16,  1789.  The  royal  title  was  abolished  in  1792  ;  but  restored  in 
the  Bourbon  family,  in  1814.  Louis- Philippe  I.,  the  present  sovereign,  was  invited 
to  the  monarchy  under  the  style  of  the  ''king  of  the  French,"  August  9,  1830. — 
See  France. 

KING  OF  HUNGARY.  Theaversenessof  the  Hungarian  people  to  the  term^ue^n,  hasled 
to  the  custom  among  them,  that  whenever  a  female  succeeds  to  the  throne,  she  shall 
be  called  king.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  in  the  annals  of  Hungary,  that  the  daughter  of 
Louis  I.  reigned  as  king  Marg,  in  1383. — See  Hungary. 

KING  OF  THE  ROMANS.  The  emperors  of  Germany,  in  order  that  their  eldest  sons 
might  be  chosen  their  successors,  in  their  own  life-time  politically  obtained  them  the 
title  of  **  king  of  the  Romans,"  this  people  being  comprehended  in  that  sovereignty. 
The  first  emperor  so  elected  was  Henry  lY.,  in  1055.  Richard,  brother  of  Henry  IH. 
of  England,  was  induced  to  go  to  Germany,  where  he  disbursed  vast  sums  under  the 
promise  of  being  elected  next  emperor  ;  he  obtained  the  title  of  **  king  of  the 
Romans,"  but  failed  in  succeeding  to  the  Imperial  crown.  The  style  **  king  of 
Rome  "  was  revived  by  Buonaparte,  who  conferred  it  on  his  son,  upon  his  birth,  in 
April,  1811 ;  but  the  title  ceased  with  the  extinction  of  the  dynasty  of  Napoleon, 
April  5,  1814. 

KING- AT- ARMS.  There  are  three  for  England, — Garter,  Clarencieux,  and  Norroy  ; 
and  Lyon,  king  at  arms  for  Scotland,  and  Ulster  for  Ireland.  These  officers  are 
very  ancient :  Clarencieux  is  so  named  from  Lionel,  third  son  of  Edward  III.,  the 
sovereign  who  founded  the  order  of  the  Garter.  See  Garter.  Lionel  having  by  his 
wife  the  honour  of  Clare,  was  made  duke  of  Clarence  ;  which  dukedom  afterwards 
escheating  to  Edward  lY.  he  made  this  earl  king-at-arms.  Ulster  was  substituted, 
it  is  said,  in  lieu  of  Ireland  king-at-arms,  by  Edward  YI.,  1552  ;  but  the  monarch 
himself  named  it  as  a  new  institution. 

KING'S  BENCH,  Court  of.  Obtained  its  name  from  the  king  sometimes  sitting 
here  on  a  high  bench,  and  the  judges,  to  whom  the  judicature  belongs  in  his  absence, 
on  a  low  bench  at  his  feet.  This  court  in  ancient  times  was  called  Curia  Domini 
Regis  :  and  in  the  reign  of  king  Edward  I.  a  statute  passed  by  which  it  was  enacted 
that  the  judges  should  attend  the  king,  and  follow  him,  so  that  he  might  have  at  all 
times  near  him,  men  learned  in  the  laws,  to  dispense  justice.  The  judges  used  to 
ride  to  Westminster  Hall  on  mules ;  sir  John  Whiddon,  in  the  reign  of  queen 
Elizabeth,  first  introduced  horses  ;  but  of  late  years  they  go  in  coaches. — Beatson. 
The  jurisdiction  of  this  court  extends  all  over  England,  and  is  not  so  subject  to  control 
as  others,  because  the  law  presumes  the  king  to  be  here  in  person. — Idem. 

LIST  OF  THK  CHrXP  JU&TfCBS  OF  THE  KINO's  BKMCH. 

▲.D.  1258.  Nicholas  Hanlow,  October  3.  1296.  Roger  Brabason. 

126&  Robert  Brun.  1317-  William  Inge. 

1278.  Ralph  de  Hengham.  Henry  le  Scroop. 

1290.  Gilbert  de  Thornton.  1323.  Hervey  de  Stanton. 

u 


KIN 


[290] 


KIN 


KING'S  BENCH,  omHnmed. 

AJ>.  19M.  Ctaoflkvy  1b  8cn)op0. 
1330.  Robort  de  Ifalberthorpe. 

Henry  le  Scfoope. 
1931.  Geoffr^  le  Scroops 
1334.  RichATd  de  WUloughby. 
1341.  Robert  Faming. 
1347.  Wniiam  de  Thorpe. 
1351.  William  de  Sharashan. 
135a  Tbomaa  de  SeatoB. 

1365.  Sir  Henry  Green,  knt. 

1366.  John  Knyret 

John  de  Cavendish,  beheaded  by  the 
Kentish  rebels 
138i.  Robert  Tresylian. 
138&  Walter  de  CUpton. 
1401.  William  Gascoigne. 
1414.  William  Hankfoid. 
1424.  William  Cheyne. 

1439.  John  Irya. 

1440.  John  Hody. 
1468.  John  Markham. 
1469L  Thomas  BUltng. 
1482.  WilUam  Husea 
1496.  John  Finux. 
1526.  John  Fit^amea. 
1539.  Sir  Edward  Montagu. 
1546.  8ir  Richard  Lister,  knt 

1552.  Sir  Roger  Cholmley,  knt 

1553.  Sir  Thomas  Bromley,  knt. 

1554.  Sir  William  Portraan.  knt 
1556.  Sir  Edward  Samiders,  knt 
1559.  Robert  Catlin. 

1574.  Sir  Christopher  Wray,  knt. 
1603L  Sir  John  Popham,  knt. 
1607.  Thomas  Fleming. 
161a  Sir  Edward  Coke,  knt. 


1620L  John  Ley,  January  29. 

1684.  Sir  Randolph  Ciane,  knt 
1626.  Sir  Nicholas  Hyde,  knt 
1631.  Sir  Thomas  Richardatm. 
1635.  Sir  John  Bramstone,  knt. 
1643.  Sir  Robert  Heath,  knt. 
166a  Sir  Robert  Forster,  knt 
166a  Sir  Robert  Hyde,  knt 
less.  Sir  John  K^ling,  knt 
1671.  Sir  Matthew  Hale,  knt. 
167&  Sir  Richard  Rainsford.  knt 
167ft.  Sir  WUliam  Scroggs,  knt 

1681.  Sir  Francis  Pemberton,  knt 

1682.  Sir  Edmund  Saunders,  knt 

1683.  Sir  George  Jefferies,  knt.,  a/Uneards 

Lord  Chancellor.    See  Judges. 

1685.  ffir  Edward  Herbert,  knt 
1687.  Sir  Robert  Wright,  knt. 
1689.  Sir  John  Holt,  knt 

1710.  Sir  Thomas  Parker,  knt,  a/lerward* 

lord  Parker,  and  Lord  Chancellor. 
1718.  Sir  John  Pratt,  knt 
1724.  Sir  Robert  Raymond,  knt,  t^ftenoardt 

lord  Raymond. 
1733.  Sir  Philip  Yorke,  knt,  aJUrvtarda  lord 

Hardwicke,  and  Lord  Chancellor. 
1737.  Sir  William  Lee,  knt 
1754.  Sir  Dudley  Ryder,  knt 
1756.  William  Murray,  lord  Mansfield,  and 

then  earl  of  Mansfield. 
1788.  Lloyd,  lord  Kenyon. 
1802.  Edward,  lord  EUenborough. 
181&  Sir   Charles  Abbott,   ajtervoardt  lord 

Tenterden. 
1834.  Sir  Thomas  Denman,  afterwards  lord 

Denman. 


The  name  of  this  court  has  been  altered  to  that  of  Qtteen*s  Benchf  since  the  acces- 
sion of  Victoria,  in  Jane,  1837,  as  is  the  case  with  all  institutions  in  immediate 
connexion  with,  or  dependent  upon  the  sovereign. 

KING'S  BENCH  PRISON.  One  of  the  chief  prisons  of  London  for  the  confinement 
of  debtors;  the  present  edifice  was  built  in  1781,  and  contains  about  230  rooms, 
and  besides  this  accommodation,  the  debtors  are  allowed  to  purchase  the  liberties,  to 
enable  them  to  have  houses  or  lodgings  without  the  wails,  or  to  purchase  day-rules, 
to  go  out  of  the  prison  under  certain  regulations.  The  rules  include  the  whole  of 
St.  George^s  Fields,  one  side  of  Blackman.4treet,  and  part  of  High-street  The 
prison,  which  was  built  in  1751,  was  burnt  down  by  the  London  rioters,  June  3, 
1780 See  Gordon's  No-Popery  Mob. 

KING'S  COLLEGES.  That  of  Aberdeen,  founded  in  1500.  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, the  pride  of  that  uniyersity,  was  founded  by  Henry  VI.,  in  1441. 
King's  College,  Halifax,  chartered  in  May,  1802.  King's  College,  London,  in- 
corporated August  14,  1829,  and  opened  October  8,  1831 ;  when  an  address  was 
delivered  by  the  bishop  of  London.  Its  object  is  to  secure  to  the  rising  generation 
in  the  metropolis  and  its  vicinity  the  benefits  of  an  economicali  scientific,  and  re- 
ligious course  of  instruction,  according  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  England. 

KING'S  COUNSEL.  The  first  king's  counsel  under  the  degree  of  serjeant,  was  sir 
Francis  Bacon,  made  so  honoris  causat  without  patent  or  fee,  in  1604,  when  James 
I.  bestowed  upon  him  knighthood,  and  a  pension.  The  first  king*s  counsel  of  the 
modem  order,  was  sir  Francis  North,  afterwards  lord-keeper  to  Charles  II.,  in  1663. 

KING'S  COUNTY,  Ireland.  This  county  was  so  named  from  Philip,  king  of  Spain, 
the  husband  of  queen  Mary  of  England,  in  1555. — BurrCs  Annals. 

KING'S  EVIL.  Supposed  to  be  cured  by  the  touch  of  the  kings  of  England.  The 
first  who  touched  for  it  was  Edward  the  Confessor,  in  1058.  This  vulgar  creduUty 
had  in  the  age  of  Charles  II.  arisen  to  such  a  height,  that  in  fourteen  yean,  92,107 


KIN  []  291  ]  KNI 

persons  were  touched  ;  and,  according  to  Wiseman,  the  king's  physician,  they  were 
nearly  all  cured  !  Queen  Anne  officially  announced  in  the  London  Gaxettet  March 
1*2,  1712,  her  royal  intention  to  touch  publicly  for  the  cure  of  the  evil ;  and  touching 
for  it  continued  a  custom  until  it  was  wisely  discouraged,  and  ultimately  dropped 
by  George  I.  1714. 
KING'S  SPEECH.  The  first  royal  speech  from  the  throne  was  delirered  by  Henry  I. 
in  1107.  A  late  celebrated  writer,  after  remarking  with  his  accustomed  harshness 
upon  Mr.  Canning,  who  had  just  then  (April  1827)  become  chief  of  a  new  adminis- 
tration, said — "  Canning  being  now  minister,  of  one  thing,  and  one  thing  only,  we 
are  certain,  we  shall  have  no  more  grammatical  blunders  in  king's  speeches ;  these 
things  will  still  be  written  in  the  same  meagre  way,  in  point  of  matter,  as  before ; 
but  we  shall  have  them  in  a  perspicuous  and  pure  style." — Cobbeti. 

KINGDOMS.  The  origin  of  kingdoms  may  be  referred  to  Belus,  supposed  to  have 
been  the  Nimrod  of  Holy  Writ ;  he  was  the  founder  of  the  Babylonian  monarchy, 
2245  B.C. —  Usher,  Men^s,  or  MisraTm,  makes  his  son  Atholas,  sumamed  the  first 
Mercury,  king  of  Upper  Egypt ;  and  another  son,  Tosothrus,  he  establishes  at  Mem- 
phis, 2188  B.C. — Blair,    Ninus  founds  the  Assyrian  monarchy,  2059  B.c-^Lenglet. 

KINGSTON,  Duchess  of.  Trial  of  the.  The  most  celebrated  trial  of  a  peeress  upon 
record ;  she  was  arraigned  before  the  Lords  in  Westminster-hall  on  a  charge  of 
bigamy,  having  married  captain  Hervey,  afterwards  earl  of  Bristol,  and  during  his 
lifetime,  Evelyn  Pierrepoint,  duke  of  Kingston  ;  she  was  found  guilty,  but,  on  her 
pleading  the  privilege  of  peerage,  the  usual  punishment  of  burning  in  the  hand  was 
remitted,  and  she  was  discharged  on  paying  the  fees  of  offic'e,  April  15,  1776. 

KINGSTON,  Jamaica,  founded  after  the  great  earthquake,  which  destroyed  Port 
Royal  in  1692,  since  when  it  has  continued  to  increase  in  size  and  opulence.  An 
awful  fire  here  ravaged  a  vast  portion  of  the  town,  and  consumed  500,000/.  of  pro- 
perty, Feb.  8,  1782.    For  various  occurrences  see  Jamaica, 

KINGSTON,  Surrey.  A  national  council  was  held  here  a.d.  838,  at  which  Egbert, 
the  first  king  of  all  England,  and  his  son  Athelwolf,  were  present ;  and  several  of 
the  Saxon  monarchs  were  crowned  here.  This  town  sent  members  to  parliament  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  II.  A  new  town  of  considerable  promise,  called  New  Kingston, 
contiguously  situated,  has  been  in  course  of  erection,  and  many  buildings  completed, 
since  1839. 

KINGSTOWN,  Dublin.  The  fine  harbour  here  was  commenced  in  June  1817.  The 
place  was  originally  called  Dunleary,  but  the  name  was  changed  in  compliment  to 
George  IV.  Here  George  IV.  embarked  for  England  at  the  close  of  his  visit  to 
Ireland,  September  3,  1821.  The  opposite  harbour  of  Howth  was  commenced  in 
September  1807.     The  Kingstown  railway  from  Dublin  was  opened  Dec.  17,  1834. 

KISSING.  Kissing  the  hands  of  great  men  was  a  Grecian  custom.  Kissing  was  a 
mode  of  salutation  among  the  Jews,  as  we  may  coUect  from  Judas  approaching  his 
master  with  a  kiss ;  it  was  also  customary  in  Rome.  Kissing  the  pope's  foot  took 
its  rise  from  the  custom  of  kneeling  to  sovereigns,  and  began  with  Adrian  I.  or  Leo 
III.  at  the  close  of  the  eighth  century.  From  kneeling  to  sovereigns  came  also  the 
ceremony  of  a  vassal  kneeling  to  his  lord  in  homage,  first  practised,  a.d.  709. 

KIT-KAT  CLUB.  A  society  which  consisted  of  about  thirty  noblemen  and  gentlemen 
of  distinguished  abilities,  instituted  in  1703,  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the  Pro- 
testant succession  in  the  house  of  Hanover,  which  they  effected  by  spirited  publica- 
tions as  well  as  other  measures.  Addison,  Steele,  and  Dr.  Garth  were  members, 
and  made  several  epigrams  upon  the  toasts  of  the  club.  The  club  took  its  name 
from  one  Christopher  Kat,  a  pastry-cook,  who  lived  near  the  tavern  where  they  met, 
in  King-street,  Westminster,  and  who  served  them  with  pastry. — Bowyer^s  Life  of 
Queen  Anne, 

KNEELING.  See  Kissing.  The  knee  was  ordered  to  be  bent  at  the  name  of  Jesus, 
about  the  year  1275,  either  by  the  order  of  pope  Gregory  X.  or  Innocent  V.  This 
custom  is  observed  not  only  in  divine  worship,  but  on  all  occasions,  in  Catholic 
countries.  — Ashe, 

KNIGHT.  The  origin  of  this  title  as  a  military  honour  is  said  to  be  derived  Arom  the 
siege  of  Troy,  but  this  solely  depends  upon  a  passage  or  two  in  Homer.  With 
certainty  we  may  trace  the  distinction  to  the  Romans,  who  after  their  union  with 
the  Sabines  created  three  centuries  of  knights,  about  750  b.c. — Livy, 

u2 


KNI 


[292] 


KNI 


KNIGHT  ERRANTRY.  Took  its  rise  in  the  combats  of  the  Celtic  nations,  parti, 
cularly  the  judicial  combats,  and  much  prevailed  in  Spain,  France,  and  Germany. 
Tilts  and  tournaments  commenced  with  the  return  of  the  crusaders  from  the  Holy 
wars,  and  for  about  300  years  they  were  the  chief  amusements  of  courts,  and  the 
successful  combatants  acquired  knighthood,  and  the  favour  of  the  ladies.  When 
public  combats  declined,  the  knights  travelled  in  quest  of  adventures,  to  correct 
injustice,  and  fight  in  the  cause  of  the  fair ;  and  the  consequent  follies  gave  rise  to 
the  novel  of  Don  Quixote. 

KNIGHTHOOD.  Was  conferred  in  England  by  the  priest  at  the  altar,  after  confession 
and  consecration  of  the  sword,  during  the  Saxon  Heptarchy.  The  first  knight  made 
by  the  sovereign  with  the  sword  of  state  was  Athelstan,  on  whom  Alfred  bestowed 
this  new  dignity,  a.d.  900. — Spelman.  The  custom  of  ecclesiastics  conferring  the 
honour  of  knighthood  was  suppressed  in  a  synod  held  at  Westminster  in  1100. — 
Ashmole*s  Institutes,  All  persons  having  ten  pounds  yearly  income  were  obliged  to 
be  knighted,  or  pay  a  fine,  38  Henry  III.  1254. — Salmon, 

KNIGHTHOOD  in  EUROPE.  As  a  system,  under  the  denomination  of  chivalry, 
knighthood  is  to  be  dated  from  the  eleventh  century.  On  the  decline  of  the 
empire  of  Charlemagne,  all  Europe  being  reduced  to  a  state  of  anarchy,  the  pro- 
prietor of  every  manor  became  a  petty  sovereign  ;  his  mansion  was  fortified  by  a 
moat,  and  defended  by  a  guard,  and  called  a  castle.  Excursions  were  made  by  one 
petty  lord  against  another,  and  the  women  and  treasure  were  carried  off  by  the 
conqueror.  At  length  the  owners  of  rich  fiefs  associated  to  repress  these  marauders, 
and  to  make  property  secure,  and  to  protect  the  ladies ;  binding  themselves  to  these 
duties  by  a  solemn  vow,  and  the  sanction  of  a  religious  ceremony.  The  first  knights 
being  men  of  the  highest  rank  and  largest  possessions,  admission  into  the  order  was 
deemed  a  great  honour. 

miLITAaV,  RKLTOIOUS,  AND  HONOAART  ORDCRS  OP  KNIOHTROOD. 

Dove  of  Castile     ....  a.d.  1379 

Dragon,  Hungary 1439 

Ear  of  Com,  Brittany  ....  1050 
Elephant,  Denmark,  by  Christian  I.  .  1478 
Ermine,  France  .  .  .  »  .  1450 
Garter  {which  tee)  England  .  .  .  1350 
Generosity,  Brandenburg  .    .  1685 

Golden  Fleece,  instituted  at  Bruges  by 

Philip,  Bumamed  the  Good        .        .  1429 
Golden  Lion,  Hesae-Cassel  .        •    .  1785 

Golden  Shield  and  Thistle  .  .  .  1370 
Golden  Spur,  by  Pius  lY.  ...  1559 

Guelphio,  Hanover       .         .  .1816 

Holy  Ghost,  France,  1468.    Revived       .  1559 

Holy  Ghost,  Rome 1196 

Holy  Trinity 1211 

Hospitallers  (which  see)  .  .  .  .  1092 
Januarius,  Naples  ....  1738 
Jerusalem.    See  Malta     .        .         .    .  1048 

Jesus,  France 1206 

Jesus  Christ,  Rome,  instituted  by  John 

XXn.,  1415.    Refonned  by  Paul  Y.    .  1610 

Knot,  Naples 1351 

La  Calza,  Yenioe 1400 

Legion  of  Honour,  France,  instituted  by 

Napoleon  Buonaparte        .         .        .  1802 

Lilyof  Arragon 1403 

Lily  of  Navarre 1048 

Loretto,  Lady  of 1587 

Malta.    See  Malta        ....  1531 

Martyrs,  Palestine 1319 

Mary-Theresa,  Order  of  Ladies,  Spain    .  1792 

Mauritians,  Savoy 1430 

Merit,  instituted  by  the  landgrave  of 

Hesse  Cassel 1785 

Merit,  Prussia  1740 

Noble  Passion,  Germany  .  .  .  1704 
Oak  of  Navarre,  Spain  .    .    722 


Alcantara,  Instituted    . 

.    A.D.  1160 

Alexander  Nevskol,  Russia 

.    .  1700 

Amaranta,  Sweden 

.  1645 

Angelic  Knights,  Greece  . 

.    •    456 

Annunciada,  Mantua   . 

.  1618 

Annunciation,  Savoy 

.    .  1355 

Argonauts,  Naples 

.  1382 

Avis,  Portugal 

.    .  1147 

Band,  Spain 

.  1232 

Bannerets,  England,   1360.     Renewed. 

See  Bannerets        ,         .         .         .    .  1485 
Bath,  England,  1399.  Renewed.  Bee  Bath  1725 
Bear,  Switzerland         ....  1213 
Black  Eagle,  Prussia,  instituted  by  Fre- 
derick!  1701 

Blood  of  Christ,  Mantua        .        .        .  1608 
Brotherly  Love,  instituted  .        .    .  1708 

Burgundian  Cross  ....  1535 

Calatrava,  Castile,  instituted  by  Sancho 


ni. 


1156 

Carpet,  England 1553 

Catharine*  Russia 1698 

Chase,  instituted  by  the  duke  of  Wir- 

temberg 1719 

Christ,  Livonia 1203 

Christ,  Portugfa 1319 

Christian  Charity,  France  .        .    .  1590 

Cincinnatus,  America  ....  1783 
Conception  of  the  Yirgin  .  .  .  .  1619 
Concord,  Prussia,  instituted  by  Christian 

Ernest,  elector  of  Brandenburgh         .  1660 

Crescent,  Naples 1448 

Crown  Royal,  France    .         .  .802 

Daneburgh,  Denmark,  instituted  by  Wal- 

demarU.,  1219;  revived  by  ChristianY.  1671 
Death's  Head,  Female  Order,  by  the 

widow  Louisa  Elizabeth  of  Saze  Mers- 

burgh 1709 


KNI 


C  293  ] 


KM 


KNIGHTHOOD  in  EUROPE,  continued. 

Paaaioii  of  Jesos  Christ,  France     .   a.d.  1382 

^  Pius,  founded  by  Pius  IV.  ...  1559 

Porcupine,  France         ....  1393 

Red  Eagle,  Prussia 1792 

Redemption,  instituted         .  .  1212 

Rosary,  Spain 1172 

Round  Table,  England.-- See  Knighti  cf 
iht  Round  Table         .... 
St.  Andrew,  Russia  (tradition  ascribes  to 
this  saint  the  introduction  of  Christi- 
anity into  Muscovy)       .        .        .    . 
St  Andrew,  Scotland,  809 ;  renewed  1452; 

and  again  by  James  YL 
St.  Anthony,  Ethiopia  .         .    . 

St.  Anthony,  Hainault 

St  Blaze,  Aeon 

St  Catharine,  Palestine        . 

St.  Catharine,  Ruasia       .... 

St.  Denis,  France 

St  George,  Austria       .... 
St  George,  Carinthia         .  .    . 

St  George,  Defender  of  the  Imznaoulate 
Conception,  Bavaria  .... 
St  George,  England ;  instituted  by  Ed- 
ward lU.    See  Chirter  ,   . 
St  George;  tutelary  saint  of  Genoa,  by 

Frederick  in.    . 
St  George,  Rome 
St  George,  Russia 
St.  George,  Spain 
St  George,  Venice 
St  Hubert,  Germany, 
Juliers  and  Cleves     ....  1447 

St  James,  Holland 1290 

St  James,  Portugal      .        .        .  '      .  1310 

St  James,  Spain 1030 

St  Jerome,  Germany  .        .    .  1154 

St  John  of  Aeon 1370 

St  John  of  Jerusalem  .  .  .  .  1048 
St.  John  of  Malta  .  .  .1522 
St  John  of  Rhodes 1300 


by  tiie  duke  of 


528 


1696 

leof 

357 
1382 
1250 
1163 
1698 
1267 
1470 
1279 

1729 

1349 

1460 
1496 
1782 
1318 
1200 


St.  Julian  of  Alcantara 


1176 


St.  Lasarus,and  St  Maurice,  by  Emanuel 

Philibert,  duke  of  Savoy         .       a.d.  1572 
St  Louis,  France  ....  1693 

St  Mark,  Venice,  830 ;  renewed  .  .  1562 
St  Mary  the  Glorious  ....  1233 
St  Mary  de  Merced,  Spain  .  .  .  1218 
St  Michael,  France  ....  1469 
St.  Michael,  Germany  .  .  .  .  1618 
St  Patrick,  Ireland      ....  1783 

St  Paul,  Rome 1540 

St.  Peter,  Rome 1520 

St  Rupert,  Germany,  by  th®  archbishop 


1701 
.  1002 
Medid*. 

.    .  1561 

.  1370 

.  June  1,  1833 

.  1334 

.     ...  1269 


of  Saltxburgh        . 
St  Sepulchre,  Palestine 
St  Stephen,  by  Casimir  de 

grand-duke  of  Tuscany 
St.  Thomas  of  Aeon 
Saviour,  Greece 

Beraphims,  Sweden  .... 
Ship  and  Crescent,  France  .  •  .  . 
Sincerity,  instituted  by  the  elector  of 

Saxony 1690 

Slaves  of  Virtue,  Germany  .    .  1662 

Swan,  Cleves 960 

Sword,  Cyprus 1195 

Sword,  Sweden,  1523 ;  revived  .  .  1772 
Templars.— See  Templar t  .    .  1118 

Teste  Morte,  Wurtemburg    .  .  1652 

Teutonic,  1190 ;  renewed  in  Prussia  .  .  1522 
Thistle  of  Bourbon  ....  1370 
Thistle  of  Scotland,  812;  revived  (see 

ThUUe) 1540 

Trinitarians,  Spain 1594 

Truxillo,  Spain 1227 

United  Ladies  for  the  honour  of  the  Crosse 

in  Germany 1666 

Vii^in  Mary 1233 

Virgin  of  Mount  Carmel,  France  .  .  1607 
Warfare  of  Christ,  Pohmd  .  .  .  1706 
Warfare  of  Christ,  Russia     .  .  1325 

Wing  of  St  Michael,  Portugal  .  .  .  1165 
Wladixnir,  Russia  .  .1682 


KNIGHTS,  Female.  The  title  of  knight,  which  was  given  to  men  of  superior  worth, 
ability,  and  fortune,  in  former  times,  was  sometimes  given  to  women  also.  As  an 
instance,  it  was  conferred  on  the  women  who  preserved  the  city  of  Tortosa  from 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Moors  in  1149,  by  their  stout  resistance  and  vigorous 
attack  of  the  besiegers,  by  which  means  the  Moors  were  forced  to  raise  the  siege. 
Large  immunities  and  favours  were  graxfted  to  them  and  their  descendants  for  their 
heroism  on  this  occasion. 

KNIGHTS  OF  GLYN  and  KERRY.  The  heads  of  two  ancient  families  in  Ireland, 
to  whom  are  still  permitted  the  distinctions  bestowed  on  their  ancestors  by  the 
ancient  sovereigns  of  their  country ;  these  titles  are  of  very  remote  date. 

KNIGHTS  OF  THE  ROUND  TABLE.  Instituted  by  king  Arthur  about  a.d.  528.— 
A88er*s  Life  of  Alfred,  This  ancient  order  was  revived  by  Edward  III.  at  Windsor, 
upon  New  Year's  day,  1344.  The  king,  with  a  view  to  the  recovery  of  France, 
which  descended  to  him  in  right  of  his  mother,  became  anxious  to  draw  the  best 
soldiers  of  Europe  into  his  interest,  and  thereupon  projecting  and  setting  up  king 
Arthur's  Round  Table,  he  proclaimed  a  solemn  tilting,  to  invite  foreigners  of  quality 
and  courage  to  the  exercise.  He  published  his  royal  letters  of  protection,  for  the 
safe  coming  and  return  of  such  foreign  knights  as  had  a  mind  to  venture  their  repu- 
tation at  those  jousts  and  tournaments. — Beatson, 

KNIGHTS  OF  THE  SHIRE.  The  barons,  or  tenants  in  chief,  or  freeholders  by 
Doomsday-book,  were  700  in  number,  but  being  split  into  small  parts,  were  greater 


KNI  ^  294  ]  LA 

and  lesser,  all  of  whom  were  entitled  to  sit  in  parliament ;  but  the  latter,  or  lesser 
barons,  were  allowed  to  chooae  two  representatives,  hence  called  knights  of  the 
shire,  a.d.  1307. 

KNIGHTS  TEMPLARS.  A  religious  and  military  order,  instituted  a.d.  1118.  They 
came  to  England  early  in  Stephen's  reign,  and  settled  at  the  Temple  in  London  ; 
and  at  other  places  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  All  the  knights  were  arrested  in 
France  in  one  day,  being  charged  with  great  crimes,  and  possessing  great  riches  ; 
fifty-nine  of  them  were  bnrnt  alive  at  Paris  in  October  1307.  Those  in  England 
were  all  seized  the  same  year.  Their  order  was  abolished  by  Philip  the  Fair  of 
France,  at  the  council  of  Vienne,  in  1312  ;  and  many  thousands  were  subsequently 
massacred,  their  wealth  being  given  to  the  knights  of  Malta. — See  Malta, 

KNITTING.     First  of  stockings  was  introduced  from  Spain  about  5  Elizabeth,  1562. 

KNIVES.  First  made  in  England  in  1563.  They  were  the  earliest  branch  of  cutlery, 
and  were  first  manufactured  by  one  Mathews,  of  Fleet-bridge,  London,  5th  Elizabeth. 
— Chamberlain's  Present  State  of  England ^  edit,  1683. — See  Forks. 

KONIAH,  Battlr  of,  fought  on  the  plains  of  Koniah,  formerly  Iconium,  between  the 
army  of  the  sultan  and  that  of  the  pacha  of  Egypt,  in  which,  after  a  dreadful  and 
sanguinary  fight  that  continued  all  tiie  day,  the  Turkish  army  was  defeated,  and  the 
grand-vizier  himself  wounded  and  taken  prisoner,  Dec.  21,  1833. 

KONIGSTEIN  TUN.  This  tun,  one  of  the  most  capacious  in  the  world,  was  built  by 
Frederick  Augustus,  king  of  Poland,  in  1725.  It  was  made  to  hold  233,667  gallons 
of  wine ;  and  on  the  top,  which  was  railed  in,  was  accommodation  for  twenty 
persons  to  regale  themselves.  The  famous  tun  of  St.  Bernard's  holds  eight  hundred 
tuns. — See  Heidelberg  Tun, 

KORAN,  OR  ALCORAN  of  MAHOMET,  written  about  a.d.  610.  Its  general  aim 
was,  to  unite  the  professors  of  Idolatry  and  the  Jews  and  Christians  in  the  worship 
of  one  God  (whose  unity  was  the  chief  point  inculcated),  under  certain  laws  and 
ceremonies,  exacting  obedience  to  Mahomet  as  the  prophet.  It  was  written  in  the 
Koreish  Arabic,  and  this  language,  which  certainly  possesses  every  fine  quality,  was 
said  to  be  that  of  paradise.  Mahomet  asserted  that  the  Koran  was  revealed  to  him, 
during  a  period  of  twenty-three  years,  by  the  angel  Gabriel.  The  style  of  this 
volume  is  beautiful,  fluent,  and  concise,  and  where  the  majesty  and  attributes  of 
God  are  described,  it  is  sublime  and  magnificent.  Mahomet  admitted  the  divine 
mission  both  of  Moses  and  Jesus  Christ. — Dr.  Jortin.  The  leading  article  of  faith 
which  this  impostor  preached,  is  compounded  of  an  eternal  truth,  and  a  necessary 
fiction,  namely,  that  there  is  only  one  God,  and  that  Mahomet  is  the  apostle  of 
God. — Gibbon,  The  Koran  was  translated  into  Latin  in  1143;  and  into  English - 
and  other  European  languages  about  1763,  et  seq.  It  is  a  rhapsody  of  3000  verses, 
divided  into  114  sections.     See  Alcoran  ;  Islamism  ;  Mecca  ;  Mahometism,  ^c. 

KOWNO,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  and  Russian  armies,  in  which  the  former 
was  defeated  by  the  latter,  with  great  slaughter,  and  the  loss  of  6000  prisoners  and 
21  pieces  of  cannon,  and  many  thousands  slain,  Dec.  14,  1812. 

KRASNOI,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  army  under  Davoust,  prince  of  Eckmuhl, 
and  the  Russian  army  commanded  by  Kutusoff ;  in  this  sanguinary  contest  Davoust 
was  entirely  overthrown,  and  his  army  dispersed,  leaving  many  thousands  slain 
upon  the  field,  Nov.  16,  1812. 

KUNNERSDORF,  or  Cunnkrsdorf,  Battle  of,  one  of  the  most  bloody  on  record, 
fought  between  the  Prussian  and  Russian  armies  :  the  king  of  Prussia,  aflter  a  great 
slaughter  of  the  enemy  for  upwards  of  six  hours,  had  gained  many  advantages,  and 
had  nearly  accomplished  victory,  but  too  eager  in  pursuing  the  retreating  Russians, 
the  latter  rallied,  and  in  the  end  the  Prussians  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  20,000, 
men,  and  200  pieces  of  cannon,  August  12,  1759. 

L. 
LA  HOGUE,  Battle  of,  between  the  English  and  Dutch  combined  fleets,  under 
admirals  Russell  and  Rooke,  and  the  French  fleet  commanded  by  admiral  Tourville. 
The  English  attacked  the  French  near  La  Hogue,  gaining  a  splendid  victory,  burning 
thirteen  of  the  enemy's  ships,  destroying  eight  more,  forcing  the  rest  to  fly,*  and 
thus  preventing  a  threatened  descent  upon  England,  May  19,  1G92. 


LA  Q  295  2  I'AD 

LA  PEROUSE'S  VOYAGE.  It  was  commenced  in  1785,  when  Perouse  sailed  from 
France  for  the  Pacific,  with  the  Boiissole  and  Astrolabe  under  his  command.  The 
last  direct  intelligence  received  from  him  was  from  Botany  Bay,  in  March  1788. 
Several  expeditions  were  subsequently  despatched  in  search  of  Perouse,  but  no 
certain  information  was  had  until  captain  Dillon,  of  the  East  India  ship  Researchf 
ascertained  that  the  French  ships  had  been  cast  away  on  two  different  islands  of  the 
New  Hebrides — a  fate  authenticated  by  various  articles  of  the  wreck  of  these  vessels, 
which  capt.  Dillon  brought  with  him  to  Calcutta,  April  9,  1828,  40  years  afterwards. 

LA  ROTHIERE,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  commanded  by  Napoleon,  and  the 
Prussian  and  Russian  armies,  which  were  defeated  after  a  desperate  engagement, 
with  the  loss  of  some  thousands  slain,  3000  prisoners,  and  30  pieces  of  cannon, 
February  1,  1814.     This  was  one  of  the  last  victories  whicb  Napoleon  achieved. 

LA  VENDEE,  War  of.  The  French  Royalists  here  took  to  arms,  and  were  success- 
ful in  a  number  of  battles  with  the  Republican  armies,  fought  between  July  12, 
1793,  and  January  1,  1794,  when  they  experienced  a  severe  reverse.  Numerous 
other  engagements  were  fought,  with  various  success,  until  this  war  terminated, 
January  10,  1800. 

LABURNUM.  A  handsome  and  wide-spreading  shrub,  called  also  the  Gold-chain 
and  Cytiaus  Laburnum^  brought  to  these  countries  from  Hungary,  Austria,  &c. 
about  a.d.  1596. 

LABYRINTH.  There  were  four  most  famous  in  history:  the  first  was  built  by 
Dsedalus,  in  the  island  of  Crete,  to  secure  the  Minotaur,  about  1210  B.C. ;  the 
second  in  Egypt  in  the  Isle  of  Moeris,  by  Psammeticus,  king  of  that  place,  683  b.c.  ; 
the  third  at  Lemnos,  and  remarkable  for  its  sumptuous  pillars ;  and  the  fourth  in 
Italy,  erected  by  Porsenna,  king  of  the  Hetrurise,  about  520  b.c. — Pliny.  The 
beauty  and  art  of  the  labyrinth  of  Egypt  were  almost  beyond  belief ;  it  had  12  halls 
and  3000  chambers,  with  pillars,  was  encrusted  with  marble,  and  adorned  with 
sculpture. — Herodotus.  The  labyrinth  of  Woodstock  is  famous  from  its  connexion 
with  the  story  of  Fair  Rosamond,  mistress  of  Henry  II.  ;  see  Rosamond.  There  is 
a  curious  Maze  at  Hampton  Court  that  is  much  visited. 

LACE.  Mention  is  made  of  it  as  being  of  very  delicate  texture  in  France  and  Flanders 
in  1320 ;  and  fine  laces  were  much  in  use  for  ruffles  and  frills  for  the  men,  and 
head-dresses  for  the  women,  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Lace  was  general  in  the  court 
costume  of  Elizabeth's  reign.  Dresden,  Valenciennes,  Mechlin,  and  Brussels,  have 
long  been  famous  for  their  fine  lace.  An  ounce  weight  of  Flanders  thread  has  been 
frequently  sold  for  four  pounds  in  London,  and  its  value  when  manufactured  has 
been  increased  to  forty  pounds,  ten  times  the  price  of  standard  gold. 

LACEDiBMON.  See  Sparta.  Lelex  begins  the  kingdom  of  Lelegia,  in  Laconia, 
1516  B.C.  Eurotas  gives  his  daughter  Sparta  in  marriage  to  Lacedsemon,  and  makes 
him  partner  on  the  throne,  1490  b.c.  The  city  of  Sparta  was  built  about  this  time, 
and  hence  the  name  by  which  the  country  is  most  known.  The  Lacedaemonian 
republic  became  famous  in  history  after  700  b.c.  particularly  by  the  conquest  of 
Athens.  It  was  made  a  Roman  province  71  B.C.  The  territory  now  belongs  to 
the  Turks. — Thucydides  ;  Priestley. 

LACTEAL  VEINS.  These  were  discovered  by  chance  by  Jasper  Asellius  of  Cremona, 
in  opening  a  dog,  1627.  They  were  discovered  in  birds,  fish,  and  other  animals,  by 
Mr.  Hewson  of  London,  about  1770,  and  subsequently  by  other  eminent  men. 

LADIES.  The  mistresses  of  manor-houses,  in  former  times,  served  out  to  the  poor 
weekly  with  their  own  hands  certain  quantities  of  bread,  and  were  therefore  called 
Zef-days — two  Saxon  words  signifying  bread-giver,  and  the  words  were  at  length 
corrupted,  and  the  mistress  is  ceilled  to  this  day  Lady,  that  is,  Lef-day.  The  intro- 
duction of  ladies  to  court,  was  first  to  that  of  Louis  XII.  of  France  in  1499.  As  a 
title  of  honour,  the  title  of  lady  properly  belongs  only  to  the  daughters  of  earls,  and 
all  of  higher  rank  ;  but  custom  has  made  it  a  term  of  complaisance  for  the  wives  of 
knights,  and  all  women  of  eminence  or  gentility. — See  Lord. 

LADRONE  ISLES.  Discovered  by  Magellan,  in  1520  ;  they  are  eleven  in  number  ; 
at  the  island  of  Guam  he  first  touched.  Here,  some  of  the  natives  having  stolen 
some  of  his  goods,  and  showing  a  great  disposition  to  theft,  he  named  the  islands 
the  Ladrones,  or  Islands  of  Thieves,  which  they  are  called  to  this  day. 


LAD  [^  296  ]  LAN 

LADY  DAY.  This  festival,  the  25th  March,  was  institated  about  a.d.  350,  according 
to  some  aathorities,  and  not  before  the  seventh  centory  according  to  others.  On 
this  day,  the  25th  of  March,  the  angel  Gabriel  brought  to  the  Virgin  Mary  the 
message  concerning  her  son  Jesus;  hence  it  is  call^  the  Annunciation,  and  is 
celebrated  in  the  Catholic  church  as  one  of  its  chief  feasts ;  and  in  the  Reformed 
church  also,  on  account  of  the  connexion  between  the  circumstance  commemorated 
and  the  Incarnation.  In  England,  before  the  alteration  of  the  style,  our  new  year 
began  on  the  25th  of  March ;  and  in  some  ecclesiastical  computations,  that  order  U 
still  preserved  ;  particularly  in  reckoning  the  number  of  years  from  the  incarnation 
of  our  Saviour.  In  Scotland,  the  1st  of  January  was  ordered  by  proclamation 
(Nov.  27,  1599)  to  be  the  beginning  of  the  year  there,  instead  of  the  25th  of  March. 

LAKES,  CHAMPLAIN,  ERIE,  AND  ONTARIO.  These  lakes  were  the  scenes  of 
many  actions  between  the  British  and  Americans  in  the  War  of  Independence,  and 
late  war.  The  latter  were  defeated  by  the  British  in  several  engagements,  among 
others,  the  provincial  squadron  was  defeated  by  lord  Howe,  and  the  American  genercd 
Arnold  was  defeated  by  general  Carleton,  October  11  and  13,  1776,  and  July  5, 
1777.  In  the  last  war,  the  English  fleet  was  all  captured  or  destroyed  by  the 
Americans  after  a  severe  action,  September  11,  1813;  but  on  Lake  Ontario  the 
British  at  this  period  fought  with  success.  • 

LAMBETH  PALACE.  A  considerable  portion  of  this  palace  was  built  in  the  12th 
and  13th  centuries,  by  Hubert  Walter,  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  chapel  was 
erected  in  1196. — Northouck,  The  tower  of  the  church  was  erected  about  1375  ; 
and  other  parts  of  the  edifice  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Owing  to  the  munificence 
and  taste  of  Dr.  Howley,  the  domestic  portion  of  the  palace  has  been  greatly 
enlarged ;  a  new  Gothic  wing  of  considerable  beauty  having  been  constructed  from 
designs  by  Mr.  Blore,  at  an  expense  of  52,000/. — Leigh, 

LAMMAS-DAY.  The  first  of  August,  one  of  our  four  cross  quarter-days  of  the  year, 
as  they  are  now  denominated.  Whitsuntide  was  formerly  the  first  of  these  quarters, 
Lammas  the  second,  Martinmas  the  third,  and  Candlemas  the  last ;  and  such 
partition  of  the  year  was  once  equally  common  with  the  present  divisions  of  Lady- 
day,  Midsummer,  Michaelmas,  and  Christmas.  Some  rents  are  yet  payable  at  each 
of  these  quarterly  days  in  England,  and  very  generally  in  Scotland.  Lammas  is  so 
named  because  formerly  upon  that  day  our*  ancestors  offered  bread  made  of  new 
wheat ;  and  anciently  those  tenants  that  held  lands  of  the  cathedral  church  of  York, 
were  by  tenure  to  bring  a  lamb  aUve  into  the  church  at  high  mass. 

LAMPS.  See  Lanterns.  Lamps  are  mentioned  in  all  the  early  ages :  they  were  in 
use  in  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome.  The  earthen  lamp  which  Epictetus  the  philo- 
sopher had  in  his  study  sold,  after  his  death,  for  3000  drachmas,  a.d.  161.  Lamps 
with  horn  sides  were  the  invention  of  Alfred.  Lamps  were  in  general  use  through 
the  streets  of  London  up  to  the  close  of  the  1 8th  century,  as  were  flambeaux,  which 
were  carried  by  link -boys.  London  streets  were  first  lighted  by  oil  lamps  in  1681  ; 
and  with  gas  lamps  in  1814.  The  domestic  lamp  is  now  of  elegant  manufacture; 
of  this  kind  is  the  Argand  lamp,  brought  into  general  use  in  England  in  1785,  et 
seq.  Sir  Humphrey  Davy's  wire-gauze  safety-lamp  was  perfected  in  1817,  after 
various  previous  experiments.  The  invention  of  it  was  for  giving  light  in  explosive 
atmospheres  :  in  the  working  models  sent  by  him  to  the  mines  are  748  apertures  to 
the  square  inch. 

LANCASTER  CASTLE.  Built  by  Agricola,  a.d.  124.  Lancaster  was  granted  by 
William  I.  or  II.  to  Roger  de  Poitou,  who  erected  a  castle  upon  its  hill.  Lancaster 
was  created  a  county  palatine  by  Edward  III.  in  favour  of  his  son  John  of  Gaunt, 
duke  of  Lancaster,  in  1356. — Pardon.  The  court  of  the  Duchy  Chamber  of 
Lancaster  was  instituted  in  1356,  and  grew  out  of  the  grant  of  Edward  III. — Gwyn. 

LANCASTERIAN  SCHOOLS.  On  a  system  of  education  by  means  of  mutual 
instruction,  propagated  by  Joseph  Lancaster  and  Dr.  Bell ;  they  were  not  much 
patronised  till  about  1808,  when  Lancaster's  system  attracted  general  attention, 
notwithstanding  the  prejudices  that  existed  against  the  founder,  who  had  been 
labouring  to  introduce  schools  upon  his  economic  plan  from  1798.  They  became 
general  in  1818,  and  there  are  now  some  hundreds  of  them  in  England,  and  ia 
London  more  than  forty.  They  were  founded  in  Senegal,  and  were  extensively 
instituted  in  Russia,  in  1819. 


LAN  [_  297  ]  LAN 

LAND.  Was  let  generally  in  England  for  Is.  per  acre,  36  Henry  VIII.  1544.  The 
whole  rental  of  the  kingdom  was  about  6,000,000/.  in  1600.  It  was  about 
14,000,000/.  in  1688.  In  1798  Mr.  Pitt  proposed  his  Income  Tax  of  10  per  cent. 
on  an  estimate  of  100  millions,  taking  the  rent  of  land  at  50  millions,  the  rent  of 
houses  at  10  millions,  and  the  profits  of  trade  at  40  millions;  but  in  this  estimate 
were  exempted  much  land,  and  the  inferior  class  of  houses.  See  Income  Tax.  The 
rental  of  the  United  Kingdom  has  been  recently  estimated  in  parliament  at  127 
miUions,  but  authorities  vary  much  on  the  amount. 

LAND-TAX.  A  species  of  land-tax  was  exacted  in  England  in  the  tenth  century, 
which  produced  82,000/.  in  1018. — See  Danegelt,  A  land-tax  was  levied  in  one 
shape  or  another,  at  various  periods.  The  tax  under  this  name  was  imposed,  2 
•William  and  Mary,  1689-90.  There  was  a  tax  of  4«.  in  the  pound,  in  1692.  From 
the  Revolution  to  the  year  1800,  the  land-tax  had  yielded  227,000,000/.  Ministers 
were  left  in  a  minority  in  the  House  of  Commons,  on  the  land-tax  bill  of  1767 ;  it 
being  the  first  instance  of  the  kind  on  a  money  bill  since  the  Revolution.  Mr. 
Pitt  introduced  his  plan  for  the  redemption  of  the  land-tax,  April  2,  1798.  The  tax 
in  1810,  produced  1,418,337/. ;  it  produced  in  1820,  the  sum  of  1,338,400/. ;  in  1830, 
it  produced  1,423,618/. ;  and  in  1840,  1,298,622/. 

LANDEA,  Battle  of  ;  between  the  allies  and  French,  in  which  William  III.  of 
£ngland  commanded.  Owing  chiefly  to  the  cowardice  of  the  Dutch  horse,  this 
bloody  battle  ended  in  favour  of  the  French,  who  were  commanded  by  marshal  Lux- 
embourg, July  19,  1693.  The  duke  of  Berwick,  illegitimate  son  of  James  II.,  who 
was  fighting  on  the  side  of  France,  was  taken  prisoner  by  brigadier  Churchill,  after- 
wards the  great  duke  of  Marlborough. 

LANDGRAVE.  This  is  from  land^  and  grave  a  count,  a  German  title  of  dominion, 
which  appears  to  have  commenced  in  the  eleventh  century  ;  it  became  the  title  of 
the  house  of  Hesse  Cassel,  about  the  year  1300 ;  and  the  rank  was  subsequently 
assumed  by  the  branches  of  Hesse  Homburg,  Hesse  Philipsthal,  Hesse  Darm- 
stadt, &c. — See  Hesse, 

L\NGSI-DE,  Battle  of  ;  between  the  forces  of  the  regent  of  Scotland,  the  earl  of 
Murray,  and  the  army  of  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  in  which  the  latter  suffered  a  com- 
plete defeat,  May  15,  1568.  Immediately  after  this  last  fatal  battle,  the  unfortunate 
Mary  fled  to  England,  and  landed  at  Workington,  in  Cumberland,  on  May  16  *,  and 
was  soon  afterwards  imprisoned  by  Elizabeth. 

LANGUAGE.  Language  must  either  have  been  revealed  originally  from  heaven,  or  it 
is  the  fruit  of  human  invention.  The  latter  opinion  is  embraced  by  Horace,  Lucre- 
tius, Cicero,  and  most  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers  ;  the  former  opinion  by  the 
great  majority  of  the  Jews  and  Christians,  and  the  profoundest  philosophers  of 
France  and  England.  It  has  been  aflSrmed  that  Hebrew  was  the  language  spoken 
by  Adam  ;  but  others  deny  this,  and  say  that  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and  Arabic,  are 
only  dialects  of  the  original,  which  has  for  many  ages  been  lost  and  unknown. 
Psammeticus  the  Powerful,  desiring  to  know  the  most  ancient  people  and  language 
on  the  earth,  caused  two  children  to  be  kept  from  all  knowledge  of  the  use  of  speech, 
until  they  were  two  years  old  :  they  were  then  brought  into  his  presence,  and  they 
both  pronounced  the  sound  beccos,  the  Phoenician  term  for  bread.  He  therefore  gave 
the  Phoenician  the  precedence,  in  point  of  antiquity,  to  all  other  nations,  647  b.c.^ 
Herodotus,  Polyan.,  Strabo. 

LANGUAGES.  Of  the  Hebrew,  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac  are  dialects.  The  original 
European  ones  were  thirteen,  viz. :  Greek,  Latin,  Dutch,  Sclavonian,  spoken  in 
the  east ;  Welsh,  Biscayan,  spoken  in  Spain  ;  Irish,  Albanian,  in  the  mountains  of 
Epirus,  Tartarian,  the  old  Illyrian,  the  Jazygian,  remaining  yet  in  Libumia  ;  the 
Chaucin,  in  the  north  of  Hungary  ;  and  the  Finnic,  in  East  Friesland.  Arabic  is 
the  mother  tongue  of  Africa.  From  the  Latin  sprang  the  Italian,  French,  and 
Spanish  ;  and  from  the  Spanish  the  Portuguese.  The  Turkish  is  a  mixed  dialect 
of  the  Tartarian.  From  the  High  Dutch,  or  Teutonic,  sprang  the  Danish,  Swedish, 
Norwegian,  English,  Scotch,  &c.  There  are  3664  known  languages  now  used  in 
the  world.  Of  these,  937  are  Asiatic ;  587  European ;  276  African ;  and  1624 
American  languages  and  dialects. — Professor  Adelung. 

LANGUAGES,  Professors  of.  Regius  professors  of  modem  languages  and  of  his- 
tory, were  appointed  to  each  of  the  universities  of  England  (a  department  which  had 


LAN  Q  298  ]  LAT 

been  previously  most  strangely  and  impmdently  overlooked,  although  such  professors 
had  been  long  before  appointed  in  all  the  other  universities  of  Europe)  by  George 
I.,  in  1724  ;  and  George  II.,  in  1736. 

LANTERNS.  In  general  use  from  a  very  early  date.  Those  of  scraped  horn  were 
invented  in  England,  it  is  said,  by  Alfred,  and  it  is  supposed  that  horn  was  used  for 
window-lights  also,  as  glass  was  not  known  in  Alfired's  reign,  a.d.  872-901. — Stowe^s 
Chron,  London  was  lighted  by  suspended  lanterns,  with  glass  sides,  a.d.  1415. 
The  pellucid  laminie  of  the  ox  horn  has  served  for  ages  for  the  sides  of  lanterns 
instead  of  glass,  and  for  many  uses  are  preferred.     See  article,  Lamps, 

LAOCOON.  This  exquisite  work  of  art,  executed  in  marble,  is  universally  allowed  to 
be  the  triumph  of  Grecian  sculpture.  It  was  modelled  by  Agesander,  Athenodorus, 
and  Polydorus,  all  of  Rhodes,  and  of  great  eminence  as  statuaries  ;  and  in  all  ages, 
and  by  all  nations,  this  beautiful  group  is  allowed  to  be  the  greatest  victory  of  art 
that  has  ever  been  achieved  by  human  hands. 

LAON,  Battle  of,  between  the  allies,  chiefly  the  Prussian  army,  and  the  French  ; 
fought  under  the  walls  of  the  town,  and  ending,  after  a  sanguinary  and  obstinate  con- 
test, in  the  defeat  of  the  latter  with  great  loss,  March  9, 1814. 

LATERAN,  COUNCILS  of  the.  They  were  held  in  the  Basilica  of  the  Lateran,  at 
Rome.  Of  these  councils  there  were  five :  by  the  first,  the  right  of  investitures  was 
settled  between  pope  Calixtas  II.  and  the  emperor  Henry  V.,  1122  ;  by  the  second 
council  was  secured  the  temporalities  of  ecclesiastics,  1139  ;  the  third  was  to  denounce 
schismatics,  1179;  the  fourth  on  church  affairs,  attended  by  400  bishops  and  1000 
abbots ;  and  the  fifth  was  the  famous  council  of  Julius  II.,  1512. 

Lathe,  for  turning  ivory,  wood,  iron,  and  other  substances,  so  as  to  shape  them  to 
the  views  of  the  artist,  was  originally  an  instrument  of  rude  construction,  invented 
by  Talus,  a  grandson  of  Daedalus,  about  1240  B.C.  Pliny  ascribes  the  invention  to 
Theodore  of  Samos.     Modern  lathe  engines  frequently  cost  thousands  of  pounds. 

LATIN  LANGUAGE.  One  of  the  thirteen  original  languages  of  Europe,  and  from 
which  sprang  the  Italian,  French,  and  Spanish.  It  is  named  after  the  Latini,  and 
the  Latini  from  Latinus,  their  king.  A  vast  portion  of  our  most  beautiful  and 
expressive  words  are  derived  from  the  Latin.  It  ceased  to  be  spoken  in  Italy,  about 
A.D.  581 ;  and  was  first  taught  in  England  by  Adelmus,  brother  of  Ina,  in  the  seventh 
century.  During  six  or  seven  hundred  years  the  Latin  tongue  prevailed  in  all 
public  proceedings  from  the  Tweed  to  the  Euphrates,  and  from  the  Danube  to  Mount 
Atlas,  and  has  been  more  or  less  retained  even  to  this  day.  In  England  it  was 
ordered  to  be  discontinued  in  conveyancing,  and  in  courts  of  law,  in  1731. 

LATITAT.  The  writ  by  which  persons  are  usually  called  to  the  King's  Bench  court ; 
and  it  has  this  name  from  its  being  supposed  that  the  defendant  is  lurking,  or  lying 
hid,  and  cannot  be  found  in  the  county  to  be  'taken  by  bill,  and  the  writ  is  directed 
to  the  sheriff  to  apprehend  him.  This  process  of  law  is  of  an  old  and  undefined 
date. — Cowel, 

LATITUDE.  First  determined  by  Hipparchus  of  Nice,  about  170  b.c.  It  is  the  extent 
of  the  earth,  or  of  the  heavens,  reckoned  from  the  equator  to  either  pole.  Mau- 
pertuis,  in  latitude  66.20,  measured  a  degree  of  latitude,  and  made  it  69.493 ;  he 
measured  it  in  1737.  Swanberg,  in  1803,  made  It  69.292.  At  the  equator,  in  1744, 
four  astronomers  made  it  68.732;  and  Lambton,  in  latitude  12,  made  it  68.743. 
Mudge,  in  England,  made  it  69.148.  Cassini,  in  France,  in  1718  and  1740,  made 
it  69.12  ;  and  Biot,  68.769  ;  while  a  recent  meastire  in  Spain  makes  it  but  68.63 — 
less  than  at  the  equator  ;  and  contradicts  all  the  others,  proving  the  earth  to  be  a 
prolate  spheroid,  which  was  the  opinion  of  Cassini,  Bernoulli,  Euler,  and  others, 
while  it  has  more  generally  been  regarded  as  an  oblate  spheroid. 

LATIUM.  Now  the  city  of  Romania;  built  by  Latinus,  king  of  Janiculum,  who  gave 
his  name  to  the  country,  calling  his  subjects  Latines,  904  b.c  Laurentum  was  the 
capital  of  the  country  in  the  reign  of  Latinus,  Lavinium  under  ^neas,  and  Alba 
under  Ascanius.  The  Latins,  though  originally  known  only  among  their  neighbours, 
soon  rose  in  consequence  when  Romulus  had  founded  tJie  city  of  Rome  in  their 
country. — See  Rome, 

LATTER-DAY  SAINTS.  A  new  sect,  whose  principles  are  variously  represented. 
By  some  we  are  told  that  their  tenets  do  not  vary  much  from  those  of  the  Church 


LAU  [_  299  ]  LAW 

of  England,  the  Scriptures,  without  mysticism,  being  the  foundation  of  them.  By 
others  it  is  said  that  they  assume  the  power  of  curing  tiie  sick,  resisting  the  operations 
of  the  deadliest  poisons,  and  working  miracles  of  several  kinds ;  and  maintain  that 
this  is  the  last  generation  of  men.  They  have  appeared  in  Hertfordshire,  Lancashire, 
and  Yorkshire ;  and  an  address  was  published  by  them  at  Manchester,  in  May,  1840. 
Great  numbers  of  these  fanatics  hare  lately  emigrated  to  the  United  States. 

LAUREATE.— See  Poet  Laureate.  The  precise  date  of  this  office  cannot  be  traced. — 
Selden.  There  existed  the  king's  -versifier  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  1251,  when 
we  have  the  first  record  of  him,  with  the  annual  stipend  of  100  shillings. — Warton, 
In  king  Edward  the  IVth'a  time,  the  king's  poet  was  first  so  called,  and  the  laureate 
still  continues  to  be  the  title  of  his  successors. — Pope,  It  is  said  that  the  office  of 
laureate  exists  in  England  alone.  The  abolition  of  it  was  strenuously  recommended 
by  Gibbon. — See  Poet  Laureate. 

LAUREL.  It  was  sacred  to  Apollo,  and  from  the  earliest  times  the  poets  and  generals 
of  armies,  when  victors,  were  crowned  with  laurel.  Apollo  being  the  god  of  poetry, 
led  to  its  use  among  the  poets*  ;  and  the  Roman  victors  sent  home  their  accounts 
of  successful  enterprises  to  the  senate,  wrapped  up  in  the  leaves  of  this  tree.  Petrarch 
was  crowned  with  laurel,  April  8, 1341.  The  laurel  called  Prunui  Laurocerasus  was 
brougfit  to  Britain  from  the  Levant,  before  a.d.  1529.  The  Portugal  laurel  was 
brought  from  that  country,  and  is  known  as  the  Prunus  lusitanica^  before  1648. 
The  royal  bay,  Laurua  indica,  was  brought  from  Madeira,  in  1665.  The  Alexan- 
drian laurel,  Ruscus  racemosus,  was  brought  from  Spain  before  1713.  The  glaucous 
laurel,  Laurus  aggregata,  was  brought  hither  from  China,  in  1806. 

LAURENTALIA.  Festivals  celebrated  at  Rome  in  honour  of  Acca  Laurentia,  which 
commenced  about  621  b.c,  and  were  held  on  the  last  day  of  April  and  the  23rd  of 
December.     They  were  in  process  of  time  part  of  the  Saturnalia. — Ovid. 

LAURESTINE,  Viburnum  Tinfis.  The  evergreen  shrub  which  blooms  about  Michael- 
mas, and  holds  its  flowers  and  foliage  through  the  winter  ;  it  was  brought  to  England 
from  the  south  of  Europe,  before  1596.    There  are  other  varieties  of  this  shrub. 

LAVALETTE'S  ESCAPE.  Count  Lavalette's  escape  from  prison  in  France,  affords  a 
striking  instance  and  memorable  record  of  British  humanity,  gallantry,  and  courage. 
He  was  condemned  at  Paris  for  high  treason,  but  escaped  from  prison  in  the  clothes 
of  Madame  Lavalette :  the  husband  and  wife  exchanging  their  dresses,  on  the  eve  of 
the  execution,  during  an  interview  afforded  them  for  a  last  farewell,  Dec.  20,  1815. 
In  this  generous  enterprise  three  Britons  assisted,  Sir  Robert  Wilson,  Michael 
Bruce,  esq.,  and  captain  J.  H.  Hutchinson,  who  were  convicted  of  aiding  the  escape, 
and  sentenced  to  three  months'  imprisonment  in  the  French  capital,  April  24,  1816. 
These  gentlemen,  enemies  to  Bourbon  oppression,  procured  for  Lavalette  the  uniform 
of  a  general  officer  in  the  British  service,  and  he  then  got  into  a  cabriolet  with  sir 
Robert  Wilson,  passed  the  barriers  without  being  recognised,  and  arrived  at  Mons, 
where  his  generous  guide  took  leave  of  him.  He  then  took  the  road  to  Munich, 
where  he  found  an  asylum  among  powerful  friends. 

LAVENDER,  Lavandula  spica.     Brought  from  the  south  of  Europe,  before  1568. 

LAWS,  ANCIENT.  The  laws  of  Phoroneus,  in  the  kingdom  of  Argos,  1807  b.c.  were 
the  first  Attic  laws,  reduced  to  a  system  by  Draco,  for  the  Athenians,  623  b.c  ;  but 
the  latter  code  was  afterwards  superseded  by  that  of  Solon,  578  b.c.  The  Spartan 
laws  of  Lycurgus  were  made  884  b.c  ;  they  remained  in  full  force  for  700  years,  and 
are  calculated  to  raise  our  admiration,  as  well  by  their  singularity,  as  by  the  effect 
they  had  in  forming  a  race  of  men  totally  different  from  all  others  living  in  civilised 
society.  The  Roman  laws  were  founded  on  those  of  Phoroneus.  The  Gregorian 
and  Hermoginian  codes  were  published  in  a.d.  290.  The  Theodosian  code,  in  435. 
The  Justinian  code,  in  529,  and  the  digest,  in  533. — Blair.     See  Civil  Law, 

LAWS,  BRITISH.     The  British  laws  of  earliest  date  were  translated  into  the  Saxon, 

*  The  laui'el  was  also  dedicated  to  Jupiter :  and  chosen  for  this  purpose,  because  the  lightning^s  do 
not  blast  it,  as  they  do  other  trees.  It  signified  honour,  conquest,  triumph,  favour,  and  preservation. 
Daphne  was  changed  into  a  laurel  by  the  gods,  with  a  view  to  preserve  her  from  the  pursuit  of 
Apollo,  whose  addresses,  the  poets  feign,  she  heard  with  horror ;  and  Apollo,  running  along  the 
banks  of  the  Peneus,  exclaimed,  "  Since  you  will  not  be  my  mistress,  you  shall  be  my  laurel : "  from 
which  time  it  became  the  custom  to  encircle  the  heads  of  poets  with  its  leaves.~Ot'id ;  Livj/. 


LAW  [  300  ]  LEA 

in  A.D.  590.  The  Saxon  laws  of  Ina  were  published  in  709.  Alfred's  code  of  laws, 
which  is  the  foundation  of  the  common  law  of  England,  was  compiled  in  887,  but  in 
use  previously.  Edward  the  Confessor  promulgated  his  laws,  in  1065.  Stephen's 
charter  of  general  liberties,  1136 ;  Henry  II.'s  confirmation  of  it,  1154  and  1175. 
The  maritime  laws  of  Richard  I.,  1194. — See  article,  Oleron.  Magna  Charta,  by 
King  John,  1215.  Its  confirmation  by  Henry  III.,  1216,  et  seq, — See  Magna 
Charta  and  Forests,  Charter  qf  the.  Celebrated  dedaratiou  made  by  the  lord  chief 
justice  of  the  King's  Bench,  *'  That  no  fiction  of  law  shall  ever  so  far  prevail  against 
the  real  truth  of  the  fact,  as  to  prevent  the  execution  of  justice,"  May  21, 1784. — 
Lord  Mansfield, 

LAW'S  BUBBLE.  The  most  ruinous  speculation  of  modern  times.  The  projector, 
John  Law,  of  Edinburgh,  raised  himself  to  the  dignity  of  comptroller-general  of  the 
finances  of  France,  upon  the  strength  of  a  scheme  for  establishing  a  bank,  an  East 
India,  and  a  Mississippi  company,  by  the  profits  of  which  the  national  debt  of  France 
was  to  be  paid  off.  He  first  offered  his  plan  to  Victor  Amadeus,  king  of  Sardinia, 
who  told  him  he  was  not  powerful  enough  to  ruin  himself.  The  French  ministry 
accepted  it  in  1710  ;  and  in  1716,  he  opened  a  bank  in  his  own  name,  under  the 
protection  of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  regent  of  France  ;  and  most  of  the  people  of  pro- 
perty of  every  rank  in  that  kingdom,  seduced  by  the  prospect  of  immense  gains, 
subscribed  for  shares  both  in  the  bank  and  the  companies.  In  1718  Law's  was 
declared  a  royal  bank,  and  the  shares  rose  to  upwards  of  twenty-fold  the  original 
value,  so  that  in  1719,  they  were  worth  more  than  eighty  times  the  amount  of  all 
the  current  specie  in  France.  Bot  the  following  year  this  great  fabric  of  false  credit 
fell  to  the  ground,  and  almost  overthrew  the  French  government,  ruining  tens  of 
thousands  of  families.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  same  desperate  game  was  played 
by  the  South  Sea  directors  in  England,  in  the  same  fatal  year,  1720. — Hist*  of 
France^  Nouv,  Diet, 

LAWYERS.  The  pleaders  of  the  bar,  called  barristers,  are  said  to  have  been  first 
appointed  by  Edward  I.  or  in  his  reign,  1291.  Serjeants,  the  highest  members  of 
the  bar,  are  alone  permitted  to  plead  in  the  court  of  Common  Pleas.  The  first 
king's  counsel  under  the  degree  of  Serjeant  was  sir  Francis  Bacon,  in  1604.  There 
are  about  1200  barristers  in  England ;  and  the  number  of  lawyers  in  England  and 
Wales,  counting  London  and  country  attorneys,  solicitors,  &c.,  is  about  14,000. 
The  Law  Association  charity  was  founded  in  1817.  The  Law  Institution  formed  in 
1825  ;  and  obtained  a  charter,  Feb.  16,  1827  ;  the  building,  from  the  designs  of 
VuUiamy,  was  commenced  in  1829. — See  Barristers,  Counsel,  and  the  several 
Courts  of  Law. 

LAYBACH,  Congress  of.  This  congress  was  attended  for  some  time  by  the  sove- 
reigns of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  and  finally  broke  up  after  having  issued  two 
circulars,  stating  it  to  be  their  resolution  to  occupy  Naples  with  Austrian  troops, 
and  proscribing  popular  insurrections,  May  6,  1821. 

LAYER'S  CONSPIRACY.  Mr.  Layer,  a  barrister,  conspired  with  a  number  of  other 
persons  to  seize  Geoi^  I.,  the  prince  of  Wales,  lord  Cadogan,  and  most  of  the 
principal  officers  of  state,  to  take  the  Tower  by  surprise,  to  plunder  the  Bank,  and 
finally,  to  bring  in  the  Pretender.  This  infatuated  delinquent  was  tried  and  convicted, 
and  was  hanged,  March  17,  1722. — Ann4ils  of  England, 

LEAD.  Is  found  in  various  countries,  and  is  abundant  in  various  parts  of  Britain,  and 
in  some  places  richly  mixed  with  silver  ore.  The  famous  Clydesdale  mines  were 
discovered  in  1513.  The  lead  mines  of  Cumberland  and  Derbyshire  yield  about 
15,000  tons  per  annum.  The  finest  sort  of  black  lead,  that  most  fit  for  pencils,  is 
produced  only  at  Borrowdale,  but  there  in  great  quantities.  Leaden  pipes  for  the 
conveyance  of  water  were  brought  into  use  in  1236. 

LEAGUES,  POLITICAL  and  RELIGIOUS.  The  League  of  the  PubHc  Good  was 
one  between  the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  Brittany,  and  Bourbon,  and  other  princes  against 
Louis  XI.  of  France,  in  1464.  The  League  of  Cambray  was  entered  into  in  1508. 
The  Holy  League  against  Louis  XII.,  1510.  The  League  of  Smalcald,  1529.  '  The 
League  of  the  Beggars  (the  Protestants  so  called,  though  Catholics  joined  the  league) 
to  oppose  the  institution  of  the  Inquisition  in  Flanders,  1560.  The  League,  so 
denominated  by  way  of  eminence,  to  prevent  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  of  France, 
who  was  then  of  the  reformed  religion,  was  commenced  in  1576.    The  League  of 


LISA  .  L  3^1  D  ^^^^ 

Wartzburg,  1610.  League  against  the  Emperor,  1626.  Solemn  League  and  Cove- 
nant in  Scotland,  against  the  episcopal  gOYemment  of  the  church,  and  the  regal 
authority,  13  Charles  I.,  1638.     League  of  Augsburg,  1686. 

LEAP-YEAR,  or  BISSEXTILE.  The  Leap-year  originated  with  the  astronomers  of 
Julius  Csesar,  45  b.c.  They  fixed  the  solar  year  at  365  days,  6  hours,  comprising, 
as  they  thought,  the  period  from  one  vernal  equinox  to  another  ;  the  six  hours  were 
set  aside,  and  at  the  end  of  four,  years,  forming  a  day,  the  fourth  year  was  made  to 
consist  of  366  days.  The  day  thus  added  was  called  intercalary,  and  was  added  to 
February. — See  Bissextile.  This  almost  perfect  arrangement  was  denominated  the 
Julian  style,  and  prevailed  throughout  die  Christian  world  till  the  time  of  pope 
Gregory  XIII.,  in  1582,  when  the  calendar  was  altered  to  its  present  state. — See 
CaUndar,  The  difference  between  365  days  6  hours,  and  365  days  5  hours,  48 
minutes,  51  seconds,  and  6  decimals,  which  last  is  the  true  length  of  the  astronomical 
year,  in  the  course  of  years  caused  1700  and  1800  not  to  be  leap-years,  nor  will 
1900  be  a  leap-year  ;  but  the  year  2000  will  be  one. — See  Julian  Year,  Gregorian 
Calendar^  &c. 

LEARNING  and  thb  ARTS.  These  were  carried  to  their  height  among  the  Greeks 
during  the  fourth  century  B.C. ;  and  with  the  Romans  at  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era.  On  the  death  of  Augustus  they  declined,  until  the  refugees  from 
Greece  caused  them  to  revive  in  Italy,  about  a.d.  1250.  Learning  had  been  found 
so  to  obstruct  the  tyranny  of  the  emperors,  that  mathematicians  and  philosophers 
were,  by  several  decrees,  banished  from  Rome,  a.d.  16,  and  89,  et  seq.  After  the 
dark  ages,  came  Brunette,  Latini,  and  numerous  enlightened  men ;  and  Leo  X., 
about  1513,  gave  vast  encouragement  to  literature  and  the  arts  : 

**  But  see !  each  Muse  in  Leo's  golden  days 
Starts  from  her  trance,  and  trims  her  wither'd  hays ; 
Rome's  ancient  genius,  o'er  its  ruins  spread. 
Shakes  off  the  dust,  and  rears  his  rev'rend  head. 
Then  Sculpture  and  her  sister  arts  revive ; 
Stones  leap  to  form,  and  rocks  begin  to  live ; 
With  sweeter  notes  each  rising  temple  rung : 
A  Raphael  painted,  and  a  Vida  sung."— Pop«. 

The  illustrious  Medici  family  greatly  promoted  learning  in  Italy,  about  1550.^ 
Fontana.  And  about  this  time  literature  began  to  flourish  in  France,  Germany, 
and  England.  The  reign  of  Anne  has  been  called  by  some  our  "  golden,*'  by  others, 
our  '*  Augustan  age''  of  literature ;  it  produced  many  of  our  greatest  and  most 
learned  men. 

LEASE.  This  kind  of  conveyance  was  invented  by  serjeant  Moore,  soon  after  the 
Statute  ofUses^  which  law  was  enacted  27  Henry  VIII.,  1535.  A  question  at  law, 
which  had  been  held  doubtful  by  the  lawyers  for  200  years,  was  determined  by  the 
Court  of  King's  Bench,  who  agreed  that  the  words  in  a  lease,  of  and  from  the  date, 
and /rom  the  date,  had  the  same  meaning,  Nov.  21,  1777. — Phillips. 

LEATHER.  It  was  very  early  known  in  Egypt  and  Greece,  and  the  thongs  of  manu- 
factured hides  were  used  for  ropes,  harness,  &c.,  by  all  ancient  nations.  The 
Gordian  knot  was  made  of  leathern  thongs,  330  b.c.  The  ancients  understood  the  art 
of  tanning  leather,  and  it  was  practised  early  in  England,  and  great  improvements 
made  in  it  up  to  1795.  Leather  is  converted  into  many  uses:  a  leathern  cannon  was 
proved  at  Edinburgh,  fired  three  times,  and  found  to  answer,  Oct.  23,  1788.— 
Phillips,  The  duty  on  leather  produced  annually  in  England,  450,000/.,  and  in 
Ireland,  about  50,000/.     It  was  abolished  in  both  countries,  May  29,  1830. 

LECTURES.  Those  on  physic  were  instituted  by  Dr.  Thomas  Linacre,  the  projector 
of  the  College  of  Physicians  (founded  by  Henry  VIII.)  about  1502. — Freind*s  Hist, 
of  Physic,  Medical  and  other  lectures  became  general  in  private  theatres,  in  different 
parts  of  the  realm  shortly  after,  and  are  now  held  in  the  theatres  of  most  of  the  hos- 
pitals and  medical  schools.  Clinical  lectures  or  discourses  made  by  the  bed-side  of 
the  patient,  combining  practice  with  the  theory  of  physic,  were  commenced  about 
the  same  period,  and  have  materially  advanced  this  branch  of  human  knowledge. 
Moral,  divinity,  and  other  lectures  have  since  become  general  in  colleges,  churches^ 
and  public  halls. — See  Gresham  College,  Boyle's  Lectures^  &c.  Among  the  most 
remarkable  political  lectures  were  those  of  the  celebrated  Thelwall,  which  were  com- 


LF.E  Q  302  2  I-EI 

menced  in  January,  1795. — See  Thelwall.  The  lectures  of  Mr.  Thelwall  continued 
to  draw  prodigious  audiences,  till  they  were  interdicted  by  acts  of  parliament,  passed 
avowedly  for  the  purpose. ~PAi//tp«. 

LEECHES.  The  physicians  of  France  and  Germany  say  that  the  English  doctor  has 
but  two  general  remedies  for  every  human  disease — mercury  and  bleeding  ;  and  that 
they  give  the  first  to  the  new-bom  infant,  and  bleed  it  also.  The  leech  was  used  for 
drawing  blood  in  very  early  times,  and  there  ace  now  in  England  numerous  traders, 
"  leech-merchants,"  of  considerable  opulence.  A  leech  of  three  drachms  takes  three 
and  a  half  drachms  of  blood,  and  as  much  more  escapes  after.  Those  of  smaller 
size  in  less  proportion ;  so  that  twenty-four  large  leeches  take  seventeen  ounces,  and 
twenty-four  small  ones  but  three.^ — Reece. 

LEEKS.  The  Welcb  emblem  of  the  leek  is  in  consequence  of  a  command  from  Dewi, 
or  David,  afterwards  canonised,  archbishop  of  St.  David's,  in  the  year  519.  This 
prelate,  on  the  day  that  king  Arthur  won  a  great  victory  over  the  Saxons,  ordered 
every  one  of  his  soldiers  to  place  a  leek  in  his  cap,  for  the  sake  of  distinction ;  in 
memory  of  which  the  Welch  wear  the  leek  on  the  Ist  of  March. 

LEGACIES.  The  bequests  or  gifts  made  by  a  last  will  and  testament,  were  taxed  by 
parliament  in  1780.  The  impost  was  increased  several  times  subsequently,  parti- 
cularly in  1796, 1805,  and  1808.  The  revenue  derived  from  it  varies  considerably 
in  amount  in  consecutive  years ;  but  it  may  be  said  to  average  about  one  and  a  half 
to  two  millions  annually. 

LEGATE,  COURT  of  thb.  This  was  an  ecclesiastical  court  in  England,  erected  by 
cardinal  Wolsey,  to  prove  wills,  and  try  offences  against  the  spiritual  laws,  founded 
8th  Henry  VIIL,  1516. — Law  Diet,     It  was  discontinued  in  the  same  reign. 

LEGHORN,  Livomo.  This  city  suffered  dreadfully  by  an  earthquake  in  1741.  It 
was  entered  by  the  French  army  in  the  revolutionary  war,  July  27,  1796,  but  the 
immense  amount  of  British  property  then  there  had  been  previously  removed.  Leg- 
horn was  evacuated  by  the  French  in  1799,  and  was  retaken  the  following  year.  It 
was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  the  British  and  Italian  allied  forces,  in  Dec.  1814. 

LEGION.  The  Le^io  was  a  corps  of  soldiers  in  the  Roman  armies,  and  was  first 
formed  by  Romulus,  under  whom  it  consisted  of  3000  foot,  and  300  horse,  about 
750  B.C.  When  Hannibal  was  in  Italy,  216  B.C.,  the  legion  consisted  of  5Qk)0  sol- 
diers ;  and  under  Marius,  in  88  B.C.  it  was  6200  soldiers,  besides  700  horse.  There 
were*  ten,  and  sometimes  as  many  as  eighteen  legions  kept  at  Rome.  Augustus 
maintained  a  standing  army  of  twenty-five  legions,  about  5  B.C. ;  and  the  peace- 
establishment  of  Adrian  was  thirty  of  these  formidable  brigades.  The  peace  of  Britain 
was  protected  by  three  legions.  A  legion  was  divided  into  10  cohorts,  and  every 
cohort  into  6  centuries,  with  a  vexillum,  or  standard,  guarded  by  10  men. 

LEGION  OF  HONOUR.  A  military  order  in  France,  embracing  all  distinctions  in  the 
army,  and  including  in  its  incorporation  civil  officers,  and  all  such  individuals  as  have 
eminently  distinguished  themselves  for  services  to  the  state,  military  deeds,  and 
for  public  virtue  ;  instituted  by  Napoleon  Buonaparte,  when  First  Consul,  May  18, 
1802.  On  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbon  family,  Louis  XVIIL  confirmed  this 
order,  April  1814. 

LEIGH  LIN,  Sbb  of.  Founded  by  St.  Laserian,  about  a.d.  628.  Burchard,  the  Nor- 
wegian, the  son  of  Garmond,  founded  or  endowed  the  priory  of  St.  Stephen  of 
Leighlin.  Bishop  Doran,  a  worthy  prelate,  appointed  in  1523,  was  murdered  by 
his  archdeacon,  Maurice  Cavenagh,  who  was  hanged  for  the  crime  on  the  spot 
where  he  had  committed  the  murder.  In  1600  Leighlin  was  united  to  Ferns. — 
See  Ferns. 

LEINlSTER.  One  of  the  four  provinces  of  Ireland,  ecclesiastically  divided  by  pope 
Eugenius  III.,  at  a  national  synod,  held  at  Kells,  March  9,  1151-2,  and  in  which  his 
holiness  was  represented  by  cardinal  Paparo.  This  cardinal  at  the  same  time  con- 
stituted the  four  archbishoprics.  The  province  of  Leinster  gave  the  title  of  duke  to 
Schomberg's  son,  in  1690  ;  the  title  became  extinct  in  1719  ;  and  it  was  conferred  on 
the  family  of  Fitzgerald,  in  1666. 

LEIPSIC.  Famous  for  its  university  and  its  fair.  Here  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of 
Sweden,  defeated  the  Imperialists,  Sept.  7, 1 631.  The  siege  of  Leipsic  was  sustained 
in  1637.    Leipsic  was  taken  by  the  Prussian  army,  1756.     In  the  same  year,  the 


LEI  [  303   ]  LEV 

Aastriaos  laid  siege  to  Leipsic  in  Tain,  but  they  took  it  two  years  afterwards,  though 
they  did  not  retain  it  long.  In  the  late  wars  it  has  frequently  fallen  into  adverse 
hands.     See  next  article. 

LEIPSIC,  Battle  of.  One  of  the  greatest,  most  sanguinary,  and  decisive  of  modern 
times,  between  the  French  army,  commanded  by  Napoleon,  on  the  one  side,  and  the 
Austrian,  Russian,  and  Prussian  armies  on  the  other  ;  the  former  160,000,  and  the 
latter  240,000  strong.  This  great  battle  was  lost  by  the  French,  chiefly  owing  to 
17  Grerman  battalions,  their  Saxon  allies,  turning  upon  them  in  the  heat  of  the 
engagement.  80,000  men  perished  in  the  field,  of  whom  more  than  40,000  were 
French,  who  also  lost  65  pieces  of  artillery,  and  many  standards.  The  victory  of 
the  allies  was  followed  by  the  capture,  next  day,  of  Leipsic,  and  of  the  rear-guard  of 
the  French  army.  The  king  of  Saxony  and  his  family  were  also  made  prisoners  ; 
and  the  emperor  of  Austria  and  Russia,  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  crown  prince  of 
Sweden,  entered  Leipsic  immediately  after  the  battle,  Oct.  16  and  18,  1813. 

LEMURES.  The  manes  of  the  dead.  The  ancients  supposed  that  the  soul,  after 
death,  wandered  all  over  the  world,  and  disturbed  the  peace  of  the  living.  The  good 
spirits  were  called  Lares  familiareSf  and  the  evil  spirits,  Lemurea  ;  they  terrified 
the  good,  and  haunted  the  wicked,  and  the  Romans  celebrated  festivals  in  their 
honour,  called  Lemuriaf  or  Lemuraliaf  in  the  month  of  May ;  instituted  by  Romulus, 
about  747  B.C. — Horace. 

LENT.  The  quadragesimal  fast  observed  in  the  Catholic  church,  from  Ash-Wednesday 
(which  see)  to  Easter-day,  and  supposed  to  be  of  apostolic  institution.  The  pri- 
mitive Christians  did  not  commence  their  Lent  until  the  Sunday  which  is  now  called 
the  first  Sunday  of  Lent :  and  the  four  days  beginning  with  Ash- Wednesday  were 
added  by  pope  Felix  III.,  in  the  year  487,  in  order  that  the  number  of  fasting  days 
should  amount  to  forty.  Lent  was  first  observed  in  England  by  command  of  Ercom- 
bert,  king  of  Kent,  in  640. — Baker* s  Chron, 

LEPANTO,  Battle  of.  The  great  naval  engagement  between  the  combined  fleets  of 
Spain,  Venice,  and  Pius  Y.,  and  the  whole  maritime  force  of  the  Turks.  Don  John 
of  Austria  commanded  the  Christian  fleet,  which  consisted  of  206  galleys,  and 
30,000  men,  while  the  Turks  had  250  galleys,  of  which,  after  a  dreadful  conflict, 
they  saved  but  100,  losing  30,000  men  in  killed  and  prisoners ;  and  thus  was  pro- 
strated for  a  time  the  naval  power  of  Turkey,  Oct.  7,  1571. —  Voltaire, 

LETTERS.  Those  of  the  alphabet  were  invented  by  Memnon,  the  Egyptian,  1822  b.c. 
— Usher,  Blair,  The  first  letter  of  the  Phoenician  and  Hebrew  alphabet  was  aleph, 
called  by  the  Greeks,  alpha,  and  abbreviated  by  other  nations  to  A.  The  letters, 
both  in  the  ancient  and  modem  languages,  so  vary  in  number  and  sound,  that  a  volume 
might  be  written  in  describing  the  alphabets  which  are  known. — See  Alphabet. 

LETTERS  OF  MARQUE  and  REPRISAL.  These  are  licenses,  first  issued  in  Eng- 
land by  Edward  I.,  for  the  seizure  of  the  enemy's  vessels,  and  for  reprisal  and 
retaliation  upon  the  enemy  on  the  sea. — Rymer*M  Fasdera.  They  were  first  granted 
in  1295. — Baker^s  Chron.  They  are  usually  granted  in  time  of  war  to  private  armed 
ships,  and  do  great  mischief  to  the  commerce  of  belligerent  nations. — Powel. 

LETTRES  DE  CACHET.  These  instruments  of  oppression  were  so  much  in  use  by 
the  French  government  previously  to  the  Revolution,  that  one  of  the  earliest  acts  of 
the  National  Assembly  was  to  denounce  them,  and  decree  their  abolition,  and  the 
abolition  of  arbitrary  imprisonment,  Nov.  1 ,  1789. — Hist,  of  the  French  Revol. 

LETTUCE.  Introduced  into  England  from  Flanders,  in  1520.  A  salad  was  a  rare 
treat  in  Henry  the  Vlllth's  reign  ;  in  the  earlier  part  of  which,  when  queen  Cathe- 
rine, this  king's  first  consort,  wished  for  a  salad,  she  despatched  a  messenger  for  let- 
tuce to  Holland  or  Flanders. — See  article.  Gardening. 

LEUCTRA,  Battle  of.  One  of  the  most  famous  of  ancient  history,  fought  at  the 
village  of  Leuctra,  between  Platea  and  Thespia,  between  the  Thebans,  under  Epami- 
nondas,  and  the  superior  force  of  Cleombrotus,  king  of  Sparta,  the  victory  being 
with  the  former.  In  this  battle,  4000  Spartans,  with  their  king,  were  slain,  and  not 
more  than  300  Thebans  ;  July  8,  371  b.c  From  this  day,  the  Spartans  lost  their 
preponderance  in  Greece,  which  they  had  maintained  for  about  500  years,. and  it 
passed  to  the  Thebans. — Plutarch. 

LEVELLERS.  Men  whose  purpose  is  to  destroy  superiority,  and  bring  all  things  to 
a  level  or  equality. — Collier,     There  were  various  associations  of  this  kind.     The 


LEV  [  304   1  LTB 

most  extraordinary  was  that  of  which  Muncer  and  Storck  were  the  chiefs.  These 
two  began  by  puUing  down  all  the  images  in  the  churches  which  Luther  had  left 
standing ;  and  then,  finding  an  army  in  their  followers,  they  became  levellers,^  and 
Moncer  openly  tanght  that  all  distinctions  of  rank  were  usurpations  on  the  rights 
of  mankind.  At  the  head  of  40,000  men,  he  wrote  to  the  sovereign  princes  of  Ger- 
many, and  to  the  magistrates  of  cities  to  resign  their  authority ;  and  on  his  march 
to  enforce  these  principles  of  equality  and  reformation,  his  followers  ravaged  the 
country.  The  landgrave  of  Hesse  at  length  defeated  him  ;  7000  of  the  enthusiasts 
fell  in  battle,  and  the  rest,  with  their  leader,  fled ;  he  was  taken,  and  beheaded  at 
Mulhausen,  in  1525. — Nouv.  Diet,  Hist,  At  the  period  of  the  French  Revolution 
some  knots  of  persons,  styled  levellers,  appeared  in  England.  An  association  was 
formed  against  them  and  republicans,  by  Mr.  John  Reeves,  Nov.  6,  1792;  and 
similar  conservative  associations  spread  for  a  similar  purpose,  with  much  benefit, 
through  the  kingdom. — Phillips, 

mVERIAN  MUSEUM.  The  magnificent  collection  of  sir  Ashton  Lever,  exhibited 
to  the  public  at  Leicester-house,  London.  It  was  offered  to  the  public  by  the  chance 
of  a  guinea  lottery,  in  1785  ;  but  only  8000  tickets  out  of  36,000  were  sold  ;  and 
this  almost  unparalleled  collection  came  into  the  possession  of  the  holder  of  two 
tickets,  Mr.  Parkinson,  by  whom  it  was  in  the  end  sold  by  auction,  in  lots,  Sept. 
20,  et  seq,  1806. 

LEWES,  Battle  of.  Between  Henry  III.,  king  of  England,  and  Montfort,  earl  of 
Leicester,  and  the  rebellions  barons,  fought  May  14,  1264.  In  this  battle  the  royal 
army  was  overthrown,  and  the  king,  his  brother,  Richard  king  of  the  Romans,  his  son, 
and  prince  Edward,  afterwards  Edward  I.,  were  taken  prisoners.  One  division  of 
four  of  Montfort's  army,  a  body  of  Londoners,  gave  way  to  the  furious  attack  of 
prince  Edward,  who  pursuing  the  fugitives  too  far,  caused  the  battle  to  be  lost. 
From  this  time  Montfort  used  his  power  so  despotically  as  to  be  in  the  end  the 
cause  of  his  own  destruction. — See  Evesham, 

LEXICOGRAPHY.  Morrison  mentions  a  standard  dictionary  in  the  Chinese  lan- 
guage of  40,000  hieroglyphic  characters,  as  having  been  compiled  1100  b.c.  Nu- 
merous dictionaries  appeared  in  Europe  about  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  and  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  Calapini's  dictionary  appeared  about  a.d.  1500.  The 
Lexicon  Heptaglotton  was  published  in  1759. — See  article.  Dictionary. 

LEXINGTON,  Battle  of.  This  battle  claims  distinction,  as  being  the  first  fought 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  of  America,  in  the  war  of  independence. 
The  British  obtained  the  advantage,  and  destroyed  the  stores  of  the  revolted  colo- 
nists, but  they  lost  in  the  battle  273  men,  killed  and  wounded,  April  19,  1775.  The 
hostilities  thus  commenced  at  Lexington,  continued  to  the  peace  of  1783. — See 
United  States, 

LEYDEN,  Siege  of.  A  memorable  siege  sustained  against  the  armies  of  Spain,  and 
during  which  6000  of  the  inhabitants  died  of  famine  and  pestilence,  a.d.  1574.  In 
commemoration  of  this  long  siege,  a  university  was  founded,  celebrated  for  its  col- 
leges and  medicinal  garden,  and  valuable  library,  1575.  The  university  was  almost 
destroyed  by  the  catastrophe  of  a  vessel  laden  with  10,000  lbs.  weight  of  gunpowder 
blowing  up,  and  demolishing  a  large  part  of  the  town,  and  killing  numbers  of 
people,  Jan.  1807. 

LIBEL.  By  the  laws  of  Rome  (those  of  the  XII.  Tables),  libels  which  affected  the  repu- 
tation of  another,  were  made  capital  offences.  In  the  British  law,  whatever  renders 
a  man  ridiculous,  or  lowers  a  man  in  the  opinion  and  esteem  of  the  world,  is  deemed 
a  libel.  **  The  greater  the  truth,  the  greater  the  libel,''  the  well-known  law  maxim 
of  a  high  authority,  is  now  disputed.  Among  the  most  remarkable  cases  of  libel 
were,  viz. :  Lord  George  Gordon's  libel  on  the  queen  of  France,  for  which  he  was 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  five  years  and  fined  500/.,  Jan.  28, 1788.  Dr.  Wither's 
libel  on  Mrs.  Fitzherbert,  July  14,  1789.  The  Times*  libel  on  the  prince  of  Wales, 
afterwards  George  IV.,  Feb.  1790.  The  Morning  PosVs  libel  on  lady  Elizabeth 
Lambert,  damages  4000/.,  July  9,  1792.  Peltier's  libel  on  Napoleon  Buonaparte, 
in  L^Ambigu,  of  which  he  was  found  guilty,  FeS.  21, 1803.  Act  against  blasphemous 
and.  seditious  libels,  punishing  the  offender  by  banishment  for  the  second  offence,  60 
George  III.,  1820.     Act  regulating  the  law  of  libel,  1  William  IV.  July  1830*. 

*  An  action  for  libel  was  brought  in  the  Court  of  King'e  Bench  by  a  bookneller  named  Stock  dale, 
atcainst  Messrs.  Hansard,  the  printers  to  the  House  of  Commons.    This  action  related  to  an  opinion 


LIB  Q  305  ]  LIB 

LIBERTINES.  A  sect  distinguished  by  its  monstrous  doctrines.  Its  heads  were 
persons  named  Quintin  and  Corin.  They  maintained  that  whatever  was  done  by 
men  was  done  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  that  there  was  no  sin  but  to  those  who 
thought  so  ;  that  to  live  without  any  doubt  or  scruple  was  to  return  to  the  state  of 
innocency  ;  that  the  soul  died  with  the  body  ;  that  heaven  was  a  dream,  and  hell  a 
phantom  ;  religion  a  mere  state  trick ;  with  many  other  monstrous  opinions.  This 
sect  arose  in  a.d.  1525  ;  and  the  term  libertine  has  been  held  in  a  bad  sense  ever  since. 

LIBRARY.  The  first  public  library  of  which  we  have  any  certain  account  in  history 
was  founded  at  Athens,  by  Pisistratus,  544  B.C.  The  second  of  any  note  was  founded 
by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  284  b.c.  It  was  nearly  destroyed  when  Julius  Cesar  set 
fire  to  Alexandria,  47  b.c.  400,000  valuable  books  in  MS.  are  said  to  have  been 
lost  by  this  catastrophe. — Blair.  The  first  private  library  was  the  property  of 
Aristotle,  334  b,c. —Slrabo.  The  first  library  at  Rome  was  instituted  167  B.C.  ;  it 
was  brought  from  Macedonia.  The  library  of  i^pellicon  was  sent  to  Rome,  by  Sylla, 
from  Athens,  86  b.c  This  library  was  enriched  by  the  original  roauascripts  of 
Aristotle's  works.  A  library  was  founded  at  Constantinople  by  Constantine  the 
Great,  about  a.d.  335  ;  it  was  destroyed  in  477.  A  second  library  was  formed  from 
the  remains  of  the  first,  at  Alexandria,  by  Ptolemy's  successors,  consisting  of  700,000 
volumes,  which  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  Saracens,  who  heated  the  water  of  their 
baths  for  six  months,  by  burning  books  instead  of  wood,  by  command  of  Omar, 
caliph  of  the  Saracens,  in  642. — Nouv.  Did.  Hist.  Pope  Gregory  I.  ordered  that 
the  library  of  the  Palatine  Apollo  should  be  committed  to  the  flames,  under  the 
notion  of  confining  the  clergy  to  the  attention  of  the  Scriptures.  From  that  time, 
all  ancient  learning  which  was  not  sanctioned  by  the  authority  of  the  church,  has 
been  emphatically  distinguished  as  profane  in  opposition  to  sacred.  The  early 
Chinese  literature  suffered  a  similar  misfortune  to  that  of  the  west  in  the  destruction 
of  the  Alexandrian  library ;  their  emperor,  Chee-whang-tee,  ordered  all  writings  to 
be  destroyed,  that  everything  might  begin  anew  as  from  his  reign  ;  and  books  and 
records  were  afterwards  recovered  by  succeeding  emperors  with  great  difiiculty. 

LIBRARIES  OF  EUROPE.  The  first  public  library  in  Italy  was  founded  by  Nicholas 
Niccoli,  one  of  the  great  restorers  of  learning.  At  his  death,  he  left  his  library  for 
the  use  of  the  public,  a.d.  1436.  Cosmo  de'  Medici  enriched  it,  after  the  death  of 
Niccoli,  with  the  invaluable  Greek,  Hebrew,  Arabic,  Chaldaic,  and  Indian  MSS. 
Among  the  great  libraries  of  Europe  are  the  following : — That  of  the  Vatican,  at 
Rome,  founded  by  pope  Nicholas  V.,  in  1446 ;  improved  by  Sixtus  V.,  1588 ;  it 
contains  150,000  volumes,  and  40,000  manuscripts.  The  Imperial  Library  of 
Vienna,  founded  by  Maximilian  I.,  about  1500 ;  and  one  of  the  most  choice  existing. 
The  Royal  Library  of  Paris,  by  Francis  I.,  about  1520  ;  it  contains  500,000  volumes, 
and  77,000  manuscripts.  The  Escurial,  at  Madrid,  commenced  with  the  founda- 
tion of  that  sumptuous  palace,  by  Philip  II.,  in  1562  ;  the  Spaniards  regard  it  as 
matchless.  The  Library  of  Florence,  by  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  1560,  of  great  value 
in  illustrated  and  illuminated  works.  The  Library  of  the  University  of  Munich 
contains  400,000  volumes,  and  10,000  manuscripts  ;  and  that  of  Gottingen,  300,000 
volumes,  and  6000  manuscripts. 

LIBRARIES  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN.  Richard  de  Bury,  chancellor  and  high  trea- 
surer  of  England,  so  early  as  1341,  raised  the  first  private  library  in  Europe.  He 
purchased  thirty  or  forty  volumes  of  the  abbot  of  St.  Alban's,  for  fifty  pounds'  weight 
of  silver.  Our  national  libraries  are  of  great  number  and  extent ;  the  following  are 
among  the  principal : — The  Bodleian,  at  Oxford,  founded  40  Elixabeth,  1598  ;  opened 
in  1602  :  this  library  contains  nearly  400,000  volumes,  and  upwards  of  30,000 
manuscripts.  The  Cottonian  Library,  founded  by  sir  Robert  Cotton,  about  1600  ; 
appropriated  to  the  public,  13  William  III.,  1701  ;  partly  destroyed  by  fire,  1731 ; 
removed  to  the  British  Museum,  1753.  The  Radcliffeian,  at  Oxford,  founded  by 
the  will  of  Dr.  Radcliffe,  who  left  40,000/.  to  the  University,  1714 ;  opened,  174^. 
The  Library  at  Cambridge,  1720,  whe.n  George  I.  gave  5000/.  to  purchase  Dr. 
Moore's  collection.     The  fine  library  of  George  III.,  presented  to  the  nation  by 

expressed  in  a  parliamentary  Report  of  a  book  published  by  Stockdale.  Lord  Denman,  in  giving  Judg* 
ment,  said,  he  was  not  aware  that  the  authority  of  the  House  of  Commons  oould  justify  the  publica- 
tion of  a  libel, — an  opinion  which  led  to  some  proceedings  on  the  part  of  the  House,  and  to  other 
actions  by  Btockdale{  and  in  the  session  of  1840  (April  14),  a  law  was  passed  giving  summary  protection 
to  persons  employed  by  parliament  in  the  publioatiun  of  itb  reports  and  papers. 


Lie  Q  306  ]  LIO 

George  IV.,  in  1827.  The  library  of  the  Royal  Institation.  That  of  the  London 
Institation,  of  Sion  College,  &c.,  and  the  great  library  of  the  British  Maseum,  con- 
taining about  500,000  ▼olumes,  and  100,000  manuscriptB,  including  the  Cottonian, 
the  Harleian,  and  other  collections,  which  see.  The  Library  of  the  University  of 
Dublin,  and  the  Advocates'  Library  in  Edinburgh,  are  among  the  most  extensive 
and  valuable  in  these  countries. 

LICENCES.  This  mode  of  levying  money  on  the  subject  was  introduced  in  the  reign 
of  our  first  Richard,  about  the  year  1190  ;  but  it  was  then  confined  to  such  of  the 
nobility  as  desired  to  enter  the  lists  at  tilts  and  tournaments,  who  were  many  at  this 
time. — Sinclair* 8  Hist,  of  the  Brit.  Revenue,  Licences  for  public-houses  were 
first  granted  in  1551.  Games  and  gaming-houses  were  licensed  in  London  in  1620. 
The  licence  system  for  various  ezciseable  articles  was  enforced  in  various  reigns, 
from  the  12th  Charles  II.,  1660,  and  has  been  productive  of  much  good.  A  remark- 
able restraining  effect  of  licences  is  this  :  that  the  act  which  obliged  lottery  office- 
keepers  to  take  out  licences,  and  pay  50/.  for  each,  at  once  reduced  the  number  of 
these  offices  from  400  to  51,  Aug.  1778.— JPAt//t;7«. 

LICHFIELD  AND  COVENTRY,  Bishopric  of.  See  Coventry,  Lichfield  cathedral 
was  first  built,  so  early  as  656  a.d.  In  Lichfield  castle,  king  Richard  II.  kept  his 
sumptuous  Christmas  festival,  1397,  when  were  consumed  200  tuns  of  wine,  and 
2000  oxen.  A  charter  was  granted  to  Lichfield,  constituting  it  a  city,  by  Ed- 
ward VI.,  1549. 

LICINIA  LEX  forbade  any  person  to  possess  more  than  500  acres  of  land,  or  more 
than  100  head  of  large  cattle,  or  500  of  small,  in  the  Roman  states ;  and  another 
law  of  this  name  imposed  a  severe  penalty  on  party  clubs,  or  societies  assembled  for 
election  purposes.  A  third  law,  limiting  the  expenses  of  the  table,  and  the  quantity 
of  animal  food,  but  not  forbidding  fruits,  was  enacted  110  b.c. 

LIE.  The  very  odious  affront  of  giving  the  lie,  arose  from  the  phrase,  *'  Thou  liest," 
in  the  oath  taken  by  the  defendant  in  judicial  combats  before  engaging,  when  charged 
with  any  crime  by  the  plaintiff ;  and  Francis  I.  of  France,  to  make  current  his  giv- 
ing the  lie  to  the  emperor,  first  stamped  it  with  infamy,  by  saying,  in  a  solemn  assem- 
bly, that  "  he  was  no  honest  man  who  would  bear  the  lie,"  a.d.  1527. 

LIEGE.  Formerly  called,  on  account  of  the  number  of  its  churches  and  convents, 
"  the  paradise  of  priests,  the  purgatory  of  men,  and  the  hell  of  women."  Taken  by 
the  English  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  in  1702  ;  and  by  the  French  and  other 
powers,  at  various  times,  up  to  1796,  when  it  was  annexed  to  France.  Liege  was 
incorporated  with  the  Netherlands,  in  1814. 

LTFE-BOAT.  The  invention  of  Mr.  Henry  Greathead,  of  South  Shields,  in  1789.  It 
was  first  put  to  sea  January  30,  1790 ;  and  Mr.  Greathead  received  a  reward  of 
1200/.  from  parliament,  for  this  great  means  of  saving  life  in  cases  of  shipwreck.  Its 
principle,  and  that  of  other  inventions  and  improvements  which  have  followed,  ia 
such  an  elevation  of  the  two  extremities,  as  that,  if  overset,  these  elevated  ends  would 
be  as  light  as  the  body  of  the  boat ;  and,  to  add  to  the  effect,  several  pounds  of  cork 
are  attached  to  the  ends.  The  shape  of  the  boat  is  curvilinear,  approaching  that 
of  a  crescent. 

LIFE-PRESERVER.  The  apparatus  of  captain  Manby,  to  mitigate  the  horrors  of 
shipwreck,  is  of  a  construction  equally  simple  and  admirable.  It  effects  a  commu- 
.  nication  with  the  distressed  vessel  by  a  rope,  by  which  it  is  afterwards  easy  to  send 
on  board,  or  from  the  ship,  anything  else.  The  rope  is  thrown  by  a  shot  from  a 
mortar,  with  a  line  attached  to  it.  For  the  night,  a  night-ball  is  provided  with  a 
hollow  case  of  thick  pasteboard,  and  a  fuze  and  quick  match,  and  charged  with  fifty 
balls,  and  a  sufficiency  of  powder  to  inflame  them.  The  fuze  is  so  graduated  that  the 
shell  shall  explode  at  the  height  of  300  yards.  The  balls  spread  a  brilliant  light  for 
nearly  a  minute,  and  give  a  clear  view  of  every  surrounding  object.  This  apparatus 
was  brought  into  use  in  February,  1808  ;  and  in  the  first  twenty  yeArs  it  had  been 
the  means  of  saving  fifty-eight  vessels,  many  of  them  with  valuable  cargoes,  and  410 
of  their  crews  and  passengers  from  a  watery  grave. 

LTG  HT.  The  law  of  refraction  discovered  by  Snellius,  about  a.d.  1 624.  The  motion  and 
velocity  of  light  discovered  by  Reaumur,  and  after  him  by  Cassini.  Its  velocity 
ascertained  to  be  190,000,000  of  miles  in  sixteen  minutes,  or  nearly  200,000  miles 
in  a  second,  which  is  a  million  of  tiuies  swifter  than  the  velocity  of  a  cannon-balU 


LIG  [  307  ]  LIM 

aboat  1667.  The  light  of  the  sun  is  eight  minutes  and  eight  seconds  in  its  trans- 
mission through  the  space  ftrom  that  orb  to  the  earth.  Light  is  the  effect  of 
various  excitements,  besides  combustion  ;  friction  produces  it,  and  phosphorus  pro- 
duces it ;  and  the  diamond  and  snow  appear  to  absorb  and  radiate  it ;  some  com- 
binations evolve  it,  and  some  plants  give  flashes.  On  rubbing  the  eyes  in  the  dark, 
their  inflammation  produces  flashes  of  light.  Slacking  lime  produces  light  and  great 
heat...~See  Optics. 

LIGHT-HOUSES.  They  were  erected  by  all  the  ancient  commercial  people,  and  called 
TorSf  or  pillars,  as  those  of  Hercules,  near  Gibraltar  ;  that  of  Pharos,  at  Alexandria, 
550  feet  high,  and  visible  forty-two  miles;  the  Pharos  of  Messina  ;  the  Colossus  of 
Rhodes,  &c.  There  are  forty-two  round  the  coasts  of  England,  fifteen  on  the  east 
coast,  thirteen  in  the  English  channel,  and  fourteen  in  the  Irish  chanoel.  There  are 
seventeen  on  the  Scottish  coasts,  and  twenty-six  on  the  Irish  coasts. — See  Bell-rock, 
EddysionCt  &c. 

LIGHTS.  At  the  religious  assemblies  of  Christians,  lights  were  first  used,  it  is  said, 
in  order  thereby  to  avoid  the  scandal  of  their  meeting  in  the  dark  at  night,  during  times 
of  persecution.  They  were  introduced  into  churches  about  the  middle  of  the  first 
century,  and  were  continued  afterwards  in  the  Romish  churches  at  noon-day.  Lamps 
were  in  use  previously  to  candles. — See  Candlemas, 

LIGNY,  Battle  of,  fought  just  previously  to  the  memorable  battle  of  Waterloo, 
between  the  Prussian  army  under  Blucher,  and  the  French  army  commanded  by 
Napoleon,  in  which  the  former  was  defeated,  June  16,  1815.  The  result  of  this 
battle  did  not,  however,  prevent  Blucher  arriving  on  the  field  of  Waterloo,  in  the 
evening  of  that  great  engagement,  at  the  most  critical  and  decisive  moment  of  it. 

LIGURIAN  REPUBLIC.  Founded  in  June,  1802,  upon  the  ruin  of  that  of  Genoa. 
The  doge  of  this  new  republic  was  solemnly  invested  at  Genoa,  August  10,  1802. 
The  Ligurian  republic  was  incorporated  with  France,  it  having  demanded  a  union 
with  the  latter  country,  May  25, 1805.     It  merged  into  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

LILAC  TREE.  St/ringa.  The  Persian  lilac  tree,  a  native  of  Persia,  was  cultivated 
in  Britain,  about  a.d.  1638.  The  common  lilac  tree  was  cultivated  in  England  by 
Mr.  John  Gerard,  about  1697. — See    Flowers,  and  Gardening. 

LILY.  The  mistress  of  the  field. — Shakspeare.  The  most  exalted  of  flowers. — 
Klopstock.  An  emblem  of  France.  See  Fleur-de-lis.  "  Consider  the  lilies  of  the 
field,  how  they  grow  ;  and  yet  I  say  unto  you  that  even  Solomon,  in  all  his  glory, 
was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  these." — Matthew,  vi.  28, 29.  The  lily  of  the  Scriptures 
is  of  Persian  origin  ;  the  lily  also  is  a  native  of  Syria  and  Italy,  and  some  varieties 
of  it  were  brought  to  England  before  1460.  The  Guernsey  lily  came  from  Japan  ; 
the  Red-coloured  from  South  America  ;  the  Gigantic  lily,  Doryanthes  excelsa,  was 
brought  from  N.  S.  Wales,  in  1800. 

LIMA.  See  America  and  Columbia.  In  1534,  Pizarro,  marching  through  Peru,  was 
struck  with  the  beauty  of  the  valley  of  Rimac,  and  there  he  founded  a  city,  and  gave  it 
the  name  of  Ciudad  de  los  Reyes^  or  City  of  the  Kings.  This  Spanish  name  it 
retains  in  all  legal  deeds,  but  it  is  better  known  as  Lima.  Awful  earthquakes 
occurred  here,  since  solemnly  commemorated  by  annual  festivals,  a.d.  1586,  1630, 
1687,  and  October  28,  1746.  In  the  last  it  was  almost  totally  destroyed,  as  well  as 
Callao,  which  see. 

LIMERICK.  Anciently  Lunneach ;  about  the  year  550,  St  Munchin  is  said  to  have 
founded  a  bishopric  and  built  a  church  here,  which  latter  was  destroyed  by  the 
Danes,  in  853.  Limerick  obtained  its  charter  in  1 195,  when  John  Stafford  was 
made  first  provost;  and  its  first  mayor  was  Adam  Servant,  in  1198.  In  August, 
1691,  Limerick  was  invested  by  the  English  and  Dutch,  and  surrendered  on  most 
honourable  terms,  October  3,  same  year.  See  next  article.  An  awful  explosion  of 
218  barrels  of  gunpowder  greatly  shattered  the  town,  killing  100  persons,  February 
1,  1694.  Another  explosion  of  gunpowder  here  killed  many  persons,  January  2, 
1837.     Awful  and  destructive  tempest,  January  6 — 7,  1839. 

LIMERICK,  Treaty  of.  The  celebrated  civil  and  military  articles  of  Limerick 
(including  the  other  forts  and  places  then  in  possession  of  the  Irish)  were  agreed 
upon  by  the  following  persons :  sir  Charles  Porter,  and  Thomas  Coningsby,  esq., 
lords  justices  of  Ireland,  and  baron  Ginckle,  commander  of  the  English  army,  on  the 
one  part ;  and  Patrick,  earl  of  Lucan,  Piercy,  viscount  Galmoy,  colonels  Purcell  and 

X  2 


LTM  Q  308  ]  LIN 

Casack,  sir  Toby  Butler,  colonel  Garret  Dillon,  colonel  Browne,  and  lieutenant- 
generals  D*Usson  and  De  Tesse,* commanders-in-chief  of  the  Irish  army,  on  the 
other  part,  October  3,  169 1.  It  was  agreed  that  all  arms,  property,  and  estates 
should  be  restored ;  all  attainders  annulled,  and  all  outlawries  reversed ;  and  that  do 
oath  but  that  of  alliance  should  be  required  of  high  or  low :  the  freedotn  of  the 
Catholic  religion  was  secured  ;  relief  from  pecuniary  claims  incurred  by  hostilities 
was  guaranteed  ;  permission  to  leave  the  kingdom  was  extended  to  all  who  desired  it ; 
and  a  general  pardon  proclaimed  to  all  then  in  arms  ;  ratified  under  the  great  seal  by 
their  majesties  king  William  and  queen  Mary.  — Burns. 

LIMERICK,  Seb  of.  Said  to  have  been  originally  founded  by  saint  Munchin,  about 
A.D.  550.  See  Limerick,  Donald  O'Brien,  king  of  Limerick,  founded  the  cathedral 
about  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  English.  The  see  of  Inis  Scattery  was  united  to 
Limerick,  about  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  or  close  of  the  twelfth  ; 
but  according  to  Usher,  its  possessions  were  divided  among  the  sees  of  Limerick, 
Killaloe,  and  Ardfert.  By  an  extent  returned,  5  Charles  I.,  this  prelacy  was  valued 
at  40/.  sterling  :  and  Ardfert  (united  to  it),  26  Elizabeth,  at  12/.  I3s,  4d,  per  annum. 

LINCELLES,  Battle  of,  between  the  allied  English  and  Dutch  armies  and  the 
French,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeated,  August  18,  1793.  In  this  engagement 
general  Lake  commanded  the  three  battalions  of  Foot  Guards,  who  so  much  dis- 
tinguished themselves  ;  colonel  Bosville,  of  the  Coldstream,  was  killed :  the  French 
lost  eleven  pieces  of  cannon. 

LINCOLN.  Once  a  Roman  colony,  and  at  the  period  of  the  Conquest  one  of  the 
richest  and  most  populous  cities  in  England.  Louis,  dauphin  of  France,  having  been 
invited  over  by  the  discontented  barons  in  the  last  year  of  king  John's  reign,  was 
acknowledged  by  them  as  king  of  England,  here  ;  but  the  nobility  in  general  were 
summoned  by  the  earl  of  Pembroke  to  Gloucester,  to  crown  Henry  III.,  and  they 
afterwards  marched  against  the  dauphin's  and  barons'  army.  See  nejpt  article. 
Newport-gate  is  the  richest  remnant  of  Roman  architecture  left  in  Britain  ;  the  castle 
is  a  venerable  ruin  ;  and  the  ruins  of  religious  houses  are  so  numerous,  that  the  very 
barns,  stables,  &c.,  are  built  with  arched  doors  and  windows. 

LINCOLN,  Battles  of.  Without  Newport-gate  was  fought  upon  Lincoln  plain  the 
memorable  battle  between  the  partisans  of  the  empress  Maud,  commanded  by  the 
earl  of  Gloucester,  and  the  army  of  Stephen,  commanded  by  himself,  in  which  the 
king  was  overthrown  and  taken  prisoner,  February  2, 1141.  Battle  between  the 
adherents  of  the  dauphin  of  France  (see  previous  article')^  and  the  army  of  Henry  III. 
of  England,  a  most  sanguinary  fight,  which  ended  in  the  defeat  of  Louis,  who  with- 
drew his  absurd  pretensions  to  the  English  crown,  and  Henry  was  firmly  established 
on  the  throne,  May  19, 1217.  This  latter  battle  obtained  the  name  of  the  fair  of  Lincoln. 

LINCOLN,  Bishopric  and  Cathedral  of.  Anciently  Sidnacester  and  Dorchester 
were  two  distinct  sees ;  they  were  united,  and  about  a.d.  1075,  were  removed  to 
Lincoln,  by  bishop  Remigius  de  Fescamp,  who  built  a  cathedral,  afterwards  destroyed 
by  fire,  but  rebuilt  by  Alexander,  the  twenty-third  bishop,  and  made  the  beautiful 
pile  it  now  appears  by  Hugh  of  Burgundy,  the  twenty-fifth  bishop.  It  is  dedicated  to 
the  Virgin  Mary  and  All  Saints.  This  diocese  is  the  largest  in  the  whole  kingdom, 
notwithstanding  that  the  dioceses  of  Ely,  Oxford,  and  Peterborough,  were  formerly 
parts  of  it,  although  they  are  now  distinct  sees.  Lincoln  was  valued  at  the  dissolu- 
tion of  monasteries  at  2065/.  per  annum  ;  and  after  many  of  its  manors  had  been 
seized  upon,  it  was  rated  in  the  king's  books  at  894/.  \^s.\d.  It  has  given  three 
saints  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  to  the  civil  state  of  England  six  lord  chancellors. 
St.  Birinus  was  the  first  bishop,  in  625.  The  great  bell  of  the  cathedral,  called  Great 
Tom  of  Lincoln,  weighs  9894  lbs. 

LINCOLN'S- INN.  Derives  its  name  from  Henry  de  Lacy,  earl  of  Lincoln,  who  erected 
a  mansion  on  this  spot  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  Converted  from  the  bishop  of 
Chichester's  palace  to  an  inn  of  court,  1310.  The  gardens  of  Lincoln's-Inn  Fields 
were  laid  out  by  Inigo  Jones,  about  1620,  and  occupy  the  same  space  as  the  largest 
pyramid  of  Egypt  The  virtuous  lord  Russel  was  beheaded  in  Lincoln's-Inn  Fields, 
July  21,  1683.  The  square  was  inclosed  with  iron  railings,  in  1737.  The  theatre 
in  Lincoln's-Inn  Fields  was  built  in  1695  ;  and  from  it  sprung  the  Theatre-Royal, 
Covent  Garden. 

LINEN.    A  fabric  of  very  remote  antiquity.     Pharaoh  arrayed  Joseph  in  vestures  of 
fine  linen. — Gen.  xli.  42.    This  article  was  first  manufactured  in  England  by  Flemish 


LIN  [_  309  ]  LIT 

weavers,  ander  the  protection  of  Henry  III.,  1253.  Before  this  period  woollen 
shirts  were  generally  worn.  A  company  of  linen  weavers  established  itself  in  London, 
in  1368 ;  and  the  art  of  staining  linen  became  known  in  1579.  A  colony  of  Scots  in  the 
reign  of  James  I.,  and  other  Presbyterians  who  fled  from  persecation  in  that  country 
in  the  succeeding  inglorious  reigns,  planted  themselves  in  the  north-east  part  of 
Ireland,  and  there  established  the  linen  manufacture.  It  was  liberally  encouraged 
by  the  lord  deputy  Wentworth,  in  1634.  Hemp,  flax,  linen,  thread,  and  yam,  from 
Ireland,  were  permitted  to  be  exported  duty  free,  1696.  This  law  gave  rise  to 
the  subsequently  improved  state  of  the  manufacture  there.  The  Irish  Linen  Board  was 
established  in  1711 ;  the  Linen-hall,  Dublin,  was  opened,  1728  ;  the  Board  was 
abolished  in  1828.  Dunfermline  in  Fifeshire,  Dundee  in  Angusshire,  and  Bamsley 
in  Yorkshire,  are,  in  Great  Britain,  chief  seats  of  our  linen  manufacture. 

LINNiEAN  SYSTEM.  The  system  of  botany  of  the  eminent  Linn^,  a  Swede,  or,  as 
his  name  is  Latinised,  Linnseus,  was  commenced  about  1725-30  ;  and  his  first  great 
work  was  a  dictionary  of  7300  plants  arranged  in  classes,  orders,  and  genera ;  he 
classed  the  plants  according  to  the  number  and  situation  of  the  sexual  parts,  and 
made  the  flower  and  fruit  the  test  of  his  various  genera.  The  Linnsean  Society  in 
London  was  instituted  in  1788,  and  was  incorporated  March  26,  1802. 

LIPPSTADT,  Battle  of.  One  of  the  most  bloody  to  be  found  in  history,  fought 
between  the  Swedish  and  Austrian  armies,  in  which  the  king  of  Sweden  and  the 
Austrian  general  were  both  killed,  the  former  foully,  and  in  the  moment  of  victory, 
November  6,  1632.  The  king,  Gustavus  Adolphus  II.,  had  previously  distinguished 
himself  as  a  warrior  in  several  previous  battles  against  the  Germans. 

LISBON.  The  Moors  are  said  to  have  given  the  name  of  Lisboa  to  this  city  when 
they  conqured  it,  a.d.  716.  It  was  made  the  capital  of  Portugal  by  Emanuel,  1506. 
Lisbon  was  almost  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  November  1,  1755.  See  Earth, 
quakes.  It  became  a  point  of  the  late  war,  and  the  court  fled  to  the  Brazils, 
November,  1807,  in  which  month  (the  30th)  the  French  army  under  Junot  entered 
Lisbon,  and  held  possession  of  it  until  the  battle  of  Vimeira,  in  which  they  were 
defeated  by  the  British,  under  sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  August  21, 1808.  Insurrection 
at  Lisbon,  August  21,  1831.     Massacre  at  Lisbon,  June  9,  1834. — See  Portugal, 

LISLE,  Siege  of.  Lisle  was  besieged  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and  the  allies  ;  and 
though  its  immense  fortifications  were  deemed  impregnable,  it  was  taken  after  a 
three  months'  siege,  in  1708.  It  was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  in 
consideration  of  the  demolition  of  the  fortifications  of  Dunkirk :  this  siege  is 
reckoned  one  of  the  most  famous  in  modem  history.  In  the  revolutionary  war, 
Lisle  sustained  a  severe  bombardment  from  the  Austrians,  who  were  obliged  to  raise 
the  siege,  October  7,  1792. 

LISMORE.  Of  the  ancient  fame  of  this  once  great  town,  an  olden  writer  of  the  life 
of  St.  Carthage  says  :  **  Lismore  is  a  famous  and  holy  city,  of  which  nearly  one-half 
is  an  asylum  where  no  woman  dare  enter  ;  it  is  full  of  cells  and  holy  monasteries, 
and  religious  men  in  great  number  abide  here  :  hither  holy  men  flock  from  every 
part  of  Ireland,  and  from  England,  and  Britain,  being  desirous  to  live  in  Christ.'' 
The  celebrated  castle  of  Lismore  was  burnt  in  the  Irish  war,  1645  ;  but  was  rebuilt 
with  great  magnificence  by  the  duke  of  Devonshire. 

LISMORE,  See  of.  St.  Carthage,  promoted  in  a.d.  636,  was  its  first  prelate,  as  well 
as  founder,  and  the  first  cathedral  was  then  built.  It  was  repaired  by  Cormac, 
son  of  Muretus,  king  of  Munster,  about  1130  ;  and  the  bishopric  was  united  to  that 
of  Waterford,  about  1363.     No  valuation  is  made  of  Lismore  in  the  king's  books. 

LISSA,  Battle  of,  in  Silesia,  closing  a  memorable  campaign,  and  in  which  the  king 
of  Prussia  vanquished  prince  Charles  of  Lorraine ;  6000  Austrians  were  slain  in  this 
battle,  December  5,  1757.  Lissa,  in  Poland,  was  laid  in  ruins  by  the  Russian  army 
in  the  campaign  of  1707. 

LITANIES.  They  were  first  used  in  processions  and  other  devotions,  about  a.d.  400. 
Litanies  to  the  Virgin  Mary  were  first  introduced  by  pope  Gregory  I.,  in  or  about 
595. — Newton  on  the  Prophecies.  The  first  English  litany  was  commanded  to  be 
used  in  the  Reformed  Churches  by  Henry  VIII.,  in  1543. —  Collier* s  Ecc.  History. 

LITERARY  PROPERTY.  See  Copyright,  The  statute  of  queen  Anne,  1709-10, 
securing  literary  property,  was  confirmed  by  a  memorable  decision  at  the  bar  of  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  the  claim  of  perpetual  copyright  was  overruled,  February  22, 


LIT  Q  310  ]  LTV 

1774.  The  statute  declares  the  author  and  his  assigns  to  have  an  exclusive  right  for 
fourteen  years,  and  if  at  the  end  of  that  term  the  author  be  living,  the  right  shall 
again  return  to  him  for  the  same  term  of  years.  A  later  act  extends  the  author's 
r^^t  to  twenty-eight  years,  and  should  he  be  living  at  the  end  of  that  term,  it  is  then 
extended  to  the  remainder  of  his  life.  The  Dramatic  Authors'  Protection  act  passed 
3  W.  IV.,  June,  1833.    The  International  Copyright  bill  passed  July,  1  Vic,  1838. 

LITERARY  SOCIETIES,  CLUB,  FUND,  &c  There  are  various  societies  con- 
nected with  literature  in  London,  some  of  them  of  early  institution  ;  they  will  be 
found  in  their  respective  places  through  the  volume.  The  celebrated  Literary  Club 
was  instituted  by  Dr.  Johnson,  and  included  many  of  the  illustrious  men  in  litera- 
ture of  the  age,  a.d.  1765.  The  Literary  Fund,  in  Lincoln's-Inn  Fields,  was  founded 
in  1790,  the  design  being  to  relieve  authors  and  literary  men  who  by  age  or  infirmi- 
ties are  reduced  to  poverty:  this  society  was  incorporated  in  1818.  The  magnificent 
bequest  of  6700/.  was  made  by  T.  Newton,  esq.  to  this  excellent  fund,  in  1807. 
The  Royal  Society  of  Literature  was  established  Sept.  15,  1825. 

LITHOGRAPHY.  The  invention  of  it  is  ascribed  to  Alois  Sennefelder,  whose  first 
essays  were  executed  about  1 796  ;  and  shortly  afterwards  the  art  was  announced  in 
Germany,  and  was  known  as  poly  autography.  It  became  partially  known  in  England 
in  1801  et  seq,,  but  its  general  introduction  may  be  referred  to  Mr.  Ackermann,  of 
London,  about  1817.     Sennefelder  died  in  1841. 

LITHOTOMY.  The  surgical  operation  of  cutting  for  the  stone  was  performed  by  the 
ancients.  The  small  apparatus,  so  called  from  the  few  instruments  used  in  the 
operation,  was  practised  by  Celsus,  about  a.d.  17.  The  operation  called  the  high 
apparatus,  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  De  Franco,  and  is  thought  to  be  the 
most  ancient.     The  great  apparatus  was  invented  by  John  de  Romanis,  about  1520, 

LITURGY.  In  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  churches  the  word  Liturgy  was 
restrained  to  signify  the  mass  only.  The  present  English  Liturgy  was  first  com- 
posed, and  was  approved  and  confirmed  by  parliament,  in  1547-8.  The  offices  for 
morning  and  evening  prayer  were  then  put  into  nearly  the  same  form  in  which  we 
now  have  them,  but  other  parts  were  different.  Upon  the  solicitation  of  Calvin  and 
others,  the  liturgy  was  reviewed  and  altered  to  very  nearly  its  present  state,  1551.  It 
was  first  read  in  Ireland  in  the  English  language  in  1550,  and  in  Scotland,  where  it 
occasioned  a  tumult,  in  1637.  Again  altered  in  1661.  The  Liturgy  was  revised  by 
Whitehead,  formerly  chaplain  to  Anna  Boleyn,  and  by  bishops  Parker,  Grindall, 
Cox,  and  Pilkington,  and  dean  May,  and  secretary  Smith.  The  name  of  Caroline 
the  queen  of  George  IV.  was  erased  from  it  in  the  privy  council,  Feb.  15,  1820. 

LIVERIES.  In  England  they  originated  with  our  ancestors,  who  clothed  their  vassals 
in  uniform,  thereby  to  distinguish  families ;  they  were  originally  a  single  article  of 
dress,  or  a  particular  colour  used  on  a  part  of  some  one  garment ;  in  the  end  they 
became  rich  suits  and  gaudy  trappings. — Asfie, 

LIVERY  OP  LONDON See  Companies  of  London.    The  term  "  Livery  "  is  derived 

from  the  custom  of  the  retainers  and  followers  of  the  lord  mayor  and  sheriffs,  bearing 
habiliments  of  the  form  and  colour  displayed  by  those  functionaries.  It  was  usual 
for  the  wardens  of  companies  to  deliver  a  purse  containing  20s,  to  the  lord  mayor 
on  the  Ist  Dec,  to  obtain  for  individuals,  so  desiring,  sufficient  cloth  to  make  a  suit, 
and  the  privilege  of  wearing  the  livery.  This  circumstance  added  to  the  splendour  of 
the  mayor's  train  when  the  civic  court  went  forth  to  meet  the  sovereign  on  his  return 
from  a  *'  progress  "  or  a  successful  expedition. 

LIVERPOOL  was  incorporated  by  king  John  a.d.  1199,  and  the  castle  built  about  the 
same  period.  Liverpool  is  noticed  by  Leland,  1540,  and  by  Camden,  1586,  for  its 
trade  and  intercourse  with  Ireland.  It  had  but  one  church  in  1699,  when  an  act  was 
passed  to  make  the  town  a  distinct  parish ;  it  has  now  many  fine  churches,  and  its 
public  buildings,  particularly  its  Exchange,  are  very  splendid.  A  memorable  and 
destructive  fire  occurred  here  in  1762.  The  theatre  was  licensed,  1771.  The  town 
suffered  from  a  devastating  storm  in  1789.  The  Exchange  was  burnt,  1795,  and 
rebuilt  soon  afterwards.  The  Athenseum  was  opened  Jan.  1.  1799.  A  fire,  whose 
ravages  amounted  to  a  million  sterling,  occurred  Sept.  14,  1802.  Fall  of  St.  Nicho- 
las' tower,  which  killed  twenty  persons,  Feb.  11,  1810.  Royal  Institution  opened, 
by  a  speech  from  Mr.  Roscoe,  Nov.  2,  1818.  Great  fire,  when  property  to  the  amount 
of  300,000/.  was  destroyed,  Jan.  1,  1833.    The  awful  storm  Jan.  6  and  7,  1839. 


LIV  f  311  ]  LOC 

LIVERPOOL  RAILWAY.  The  first  grand  work  of  this  kind  was  the  Liverpool  and 
Manchester  Railway,  about  thirty-one  miles  long,  connecting  these,  two  of  the  most 
important  towns  in  the  empire.  The  first  shaft  was  commenced  in  Oct.  1826, 
and  the  excavation  of  the  tunnel,  one  mile  and  a  quarter  long,  Jan.  1827  ;  and  the 
tunnel  was  completed  in  Sept.  1828,  and  was  opened  July  30,  1829.  At  the  open- 
ing of  the  railroad,  the  duke  of  Wellington  and  a  number  of  other  illustrious  persons 
were  present ;  and  Mr.  Huskisson,  who  alighted  during  a  stoppage  of  the  engines, 
was  knocked  down  by  one  of  them,  which  went  over  his  thigh,  and  caused  his  death, 
Sept.  15,  1830.  The  Liverpool  and  Birmingham  railway  was  opened  its  entire 
length,  as  the  Grand  Junction,  July  4,  1837  ;  and  the  railway  to  London  was  opened 
its  entire  length,  Sept.  17 1  1838. 

LLANDAFF,  See  of;  an  ancient  bishopric  whose  first  known  prelate  was  St. 
Dubritius,  in  522.  The  church  takes  its  name  from  its  situation,  LaUf  in  Welch, 
signifying  a  church,  and  it  having  been  erected  close  to  the  river  Tafff  or  Taffet  in 
Glamorganshire. — Dugdale.  The  see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  154/.  14«.  Id. 
per  annum* 

LLOYD'S.  The  coffee-house  in  connexion  with  the  Royal  Exchange,  and  held  pre- 
viously to  the  late  fire  (see  Exchange)  on  the  northern  side  of  that  building. 
Lloyd's  was  established  in  1772,  and  is  the  resort  of  eminent  merchants,  under- 
writers, insurance  brokers,  &c.;  and  here  are  effected  insurances  for  all  the  world  on 
ships  and  merchandise.  The  books  kept  here  contain  an  account  of  the  arrival  and 
sailing  of  vessels,  and  are  remarkable  for  their  early  intelligence  of  maritime  affairs. 
In  1803,  the  subscribers  instituted  the  Patriotic  Fund,  for  the  purpose  of  affording 
relief  to  the  relatives  of  those  who  had  died  in  the  service  of  their  country.  They 
likewise  subscribe  liberally  in  almost  every  instance  where  public  subscriptions  are 
deemed  necessary. 

LOADSTONE.  One  of  the  most  wonderful  productions  of  the  earth.  Its  virtues 
were  but  indistinctly  known  to  the  ancients,  yet  its  attractive  quality  had  been  taken 
notice  of  from  very  remote  times. — Sturmiua,  Aristotle  assures  us  that  Thales 
made  mention  of  it,  and  Hippocrates  speaks  of  it  under  the  name  of  stone  that 
attracts  iron,  and  Pliny  was  struck  with  its  attractive  power.  The  polar  attraction 
of  the  loadstone  was,  it  is  said,  known  in  France  before  a.d.  1180 ;  but  this  honour 
is  accorded  to  Roger  Bacon  about  12fi7.  The  Italians  discovered  that  it  could 
communicate  its  virtues  to  steel  or  iron ;  and  Flavio  Gioja  of  Fasitano,  was  the 
inventor  of  the  mariner's  compass. — See  Compass, 

LOANS.  Those  for  the  service  of  the  crown  of  England  were  generally  borrowed  at 
Antwerp  until  after  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  In  1559,  that  queen  borrowed  200,000/. 
of  the  city  of  Antwerp,  to  enable  her  to  reform  her  own  coin,  and  Sir  Thomas 
Gresham  and  the  city  of  London  joined  in  the  security. — Rapin.  The  amount  of 
the  English  loans,  during  four  late  memorable  periods,  was,  viz. : 

Seven  years'  war ....  from  17S5  to  1763  .  .  jff62,100,000 

American  war          .         .         .    .  from  1776  to  1784  .           75,500,000 

French  revolutionary  war    .         .  from  1793  to  1802  .  .    168,500,000 

War  against  Buonaparte  .         .    .  from  1803  to  1814  .         206,300,000 

Besides  the  property  tax.  In  1813,  were  raised  two  loans  of  twenty-one  millions 
and  twenty-two  millions  ;  and  it  deserves  to  be  recorded  that  a  subscription  loan  to 
carry  on  the  war  against  France  was  filled  up  in  London  in  fifteen  hours  and  twenty 
minutes,  to  the  amount  of  eighteen  millions,  Dec.  5, 1796. 

LOCKS.  Those  of  the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans  were  clumsy  contrivances. 
Denon  has  engraved  an  Egyptian  lock  of  wood.  Du  Caage  mentions  locks  and 
padlocks  as  early  as  a.d.  1381.  The  French  are  accounted  the  worst  locksmiths  in 
Europe,  and  the  English  the  best  Bramah's  celebrated  patent  locks  were  registered 
in  1 784.  Locks  have  been  made  at  Wolverhampton  in  suits  of  eight,  ten,  or  more, 
of  exquisite  workmanship,  all  with  different  keys,  so  that  none  of  them  can  open  any 
but  its  own  lock,  yet  a  master  key  will  open  all. — See  Keys. 

LOCUSTS.  The  visits  of  these  animals  in  Eastern  countries  have  frequently  super- 
induced pestilence  and  death,  and  many  instances  are  recorded  of  these  consequences. 
Owing  to  the  putrefaction  of  vast  swarms  in  Egypt  and  Lybia,  upwards  of  800,000 
persons  perished,  128  B.C.  The  country  of  Palestine  was  infested  with  such  swarms 
that  they  darkened  the  air,  and  after  devouring  the  fruits  of  the  earth  they  died,  and 


LOD  Q  312  ]  LOM 

their  intolerable  stench  caused  a  pestilential  fever,  a.d.  406.  A  similar  catastrophe 
occurred  in  France  in  873.  A  remarkable  swarm  of  locusts  settled  upon  the  ground 
about  London,  and  consumed  the  vegetables  ;  great  numbers  fell  in  the  streets,  and 
were  preserved  by  the  curious  ;  they  resembled  grasshoppers,  but  were  three  times 
the  size,  and  their  colours  more  variegated,  Aug.  4,  1748.  They  infested  Germany 
in  1749,  Poland  in  1750,  and  Warsaw  in  June  1816. 

LODT,  Battle  of  the  Bridge  of.  One  of  the  great  early  achievements  in  Italy  of 
Buonaparte.  He  commanded  the  French  ariny,  which  was  opposed  to  the  Austrians 
commanded  by  general  Beaulieu,  and  obtained  a  brilliant  and  decisive  victory 
after  a  bloody  engagement  in  which  several  thousands  of  the  Imperialists  perished 
on  the  field,  and  many  thousands  were  made  prisoners,  May  10, 1796.  The  conqueror 
pursued  his  advantage  with  wonderful  rapidity,  as  after  this  battle  all  Ijombardy  lay 
open  to  his  army,  and  the  republican  flag  floated  in  Milan  a  few  days  afterwards. 

LOG-LINE,  used  in  navigation,  a.d.  1570 ;  and  first  mentioned  by  Bourne  in  1577. 
The  log-  line  is  divided  into  spaces  of  fifty  feet,  and  the  way  which  the  ship  makes  is 
measured  by  a  half-minute  sand  glass,  which  bears  nearly  the  same  proportion  to  an 
hour  that  fifty  feet  bear  to  a  mile  :  the  line  used  in  the  royal  navy  is  forty -eight  feet. 

LOGARITHMS,  so  useful  in  mathematics,  are  the  indexes  of  the  ratio  of  numbers 
one  to  another.  They  were  invented  by  baron  Merchiston,  an  eminent  Scotchman 
(sir  John  Napier)  in  1614.  The  method  of  computing  by  means  of  marked 
pieces  of  ivory  was  discovered  about  the  same  time,  and  hence  called  Napier's  bones. 
The  invention  was  afterwards  completed  by  Mr.  Briggs,  at  Oxford. 

LOG  I  BRIAN  SYSTEM.  A  system  of  musical  education  commenced  by  J.  B.  Logier 
in  January  1815,  and  by  him  introduced  into  the  chief  towns  of  the  United  BCingdom, 
tlie  Prussian  states,  &c.  First  taught  in  Dublin  with  eminent  success  by  Mr.  Logier 
and  Mr.  E.  C.  Allen,  and  in  London  by  most  of  the  high  musical  professors. 

LOGWOOD,  a  species  of  wood  of  a  dense  and  firm],texture,  and  deep  strong  red  colour ; 
it  is  the  heart  only  of  the  tree  that  produces  it ;  it  was  first  cut  by  the  English  in 
the  bays  of  Honduras  and  Campeachy,  in  1662.  Its  use  in  dyeing  shortly  afterwards 
became  general,  and  was  encouraged  by  a  law. — Burns'  Annals, 

LOLLARDS.  The  name  given  to  the  first  reformers  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion 
in  England,  and  a  reproachful  appellation  of  the  followers  of  Wickliffe. — Chaucer, 
The  original  sect  was  founded  by  Walter  Lollard  in  1315  ;  he  was  burned  for  heresy 
at  Cologne  in  1322.  After  his  death  the  disciples  of  Wickliffe  were  called  Lollards. 
The  first  martyr  in  England  on  account  of  religious  opinions  was  William  Sawtree, 
the  parish  priest  of  St.  Osith,  London,  Feb.  19,  1401,  reign  of  Henry  lY.  The 
Lollards  were  proscribed  by  the  English  parliament  in  1416,  and  about  1414,  numbers 
of  them,  or  persons  to  whom  the  name  was  given,  were  burnt  alive*. — Moreii;  Carte. 

LOMBARD  MERCHANTS.  In  England  they  were  understood  to  be  composed  of 
natives  of  some  one  of  the  four  republics  of  Genoa,  Lucca,  Florence,  or  Venice. — 
Anderson  on  Commerce,  Lombard  usurers  were  sent  to  England  by  pope  Gregory 
IX.  to  lend  money  to  convents,  communities,  and  private  persons,  who  were  not  able 
to  pay  down  the  tenths  which  were  collected  throughout  the  kingdom  with  great 
rigour  that  year,  13  Henry  III.,  1229.  They  had  offices  in  Lombard-street,  which 
great  banking  street  is  called  after  them  to  this  day.  Their  usurious  transactions 
caused  their  expulsion  from  the  kingdom  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 

LOM  BARD  Y.  The  Lombards  were  a  detachment  of  Alemanni  from  the  marches  of 
Brandenburgh,  famous  for  their  bravery.  They  were  invited  into  Italy  by  Justinian, 
to  serve  against  the  Goths.  To  reward  their  services,  the  emperor  gave  them  part 
of  Upper  Pannonia,  a.d.  548.  They  passed  into  Italy,  and  their  chief  was  proclaimed 
king  by  his  army  at  Milan,  in  570.  The  kingdom  of  Lombardy  supported  itself  and 
made  considerable  conquests  till  772,  when  Charlemagne  took  Desiderius,  the  last 
king,  and  annexed  his  territories  to  the  German  empire. — La  Combe, 

*  Among  others,  sir  John  Oldcastle,  baron  Cobham,  was  cruelly  put  to  death  in  St.  Oiles's-in-tbe- 
Fields.  His  crime  was  his  adoption  of  the  tenets  of  the  great  reformer  Wyoliffe.  He  was  misrepre- 
sented to  our  heroic  prince  Henry  V.  by  the  bigoted  clergy,  as  a  heretic  and  traitor,  who  was  actually 
at  the  head  of  30,000  Lollards,  in  these  fields.  About  100  inoffensive  people  were  found  there.  Cob- 
ham  escaped ;  but  was  taken  some  time  after  in  Wales.  He  suffered  death  on  this  spot ;  being  hung 
on  a  gullows,  by  a  chain  fastened  round  his  body,  and,  thus  suspended,  burnt  alive,  in  IA17.— Butler  / 
Pennant's  London. 


LON 


11313] 


LON 


LONDON*.  The  greatest  and  richest  city  in  the  world.  Some  will  have  it  that  a  city 
existed  on  the  spot  1107  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  354  years  before  the 
foundation  of  Rome.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  Trinobantes  54  b.c.  and  long  pre- 
viously the  royal  seat  of  their  kings.  In  a.d.  61 ,  it  was  known  to  the  Romans  as 
Lundiniam.  Lundinium  or  Colonia  Augusta  was  the  chief  residence  of  merchants  at 
that  period,  and  the  great  mart  of  trade  and  commerce,  though  not  dignified  with 
the  name  of  a  colony. — Taoiius.  It  is  said,  but  not  truly,  to  have  derived  its  name 
from  Lud,  an  old  British  king,  who  was  buried  near  where  Ludgate  formerly  stood  ; 
but  its  name  is  fi'om  Llyn-Din,  the  "  town  on  the  lake." 


London  enlarged  by  the  Romans  .   a.d.      49 
Boadioea,  queen  of  the  Iceni,  reduces 
London  to  ashes,  and  puts  70,000  Ro- 
mans and  strangers  to  the  sword         .     61 
She  is  defeated  by  Suetonius,  80,000  Bri- 

tonsaremassacredjandshetakespoison  61 
London  is  walled  in,  and  a  palace  built  306 
800  vessels  are  employed  in  the  .port  of 

London  for  the  export  of  com  alone  .  309 
London  made  a  bishop's  see,  and  Resti- 

tutus  first  bishop  ....  614 
Tiieonius,  second  bishop  .  .  .  .  653 
St.  Melitus   (afterwards  translated   to 

Canterbury),  third  bishop  .  .  .  604 
Westminster  abbey  built  by  Sebert — See 

Westminster  Abbey  ....  604 
St.  Paul's  built  by  Sebert-fiee  Paul's,  St.  604 
A  plague  ravages  London  .  .  .  664 
Gi-eat  fire,  which  nearly  consumed  the 

city 798 

London  destroyed  by  the  Danes  .    .    839 

Alfred  repairs  and  strengthens  London  .  884 
Another  great  fire  ....  982 
Tower  built  by  William  L  .         .    .  1078 

First  charter  granted  to  the  city  by  the 

same  king.— See  London  Citizens  .  1079 
Another  devastating  fire  .  .  .  1086 
600  houses  thrown  down  by  a  tempest  .  1090 
Charter  granted  by  Henry  I.  .         .1100 

Henry  Fitz  Alwyn,  the  first  mayor,  serv- 
ing twenty-four  years         .         .         .1189 
Charter  relating  to  weirs   .         .         .    .  1196 
Charter  of  king  John ;  mayor  and  com- 
mon council  elected  annually. t — Stotoe  1209 

Charter  of  Henry  ni 1233 

Aldermen  appointed  in  the  city,  with 

important  privileges  ....  1242 
Watch  in  London,  38  Henry  IH.         .    .  1253 


Tax  called  murage,  to  keep  the  walls  and 
ditches  in  repair         .         .         .   a  j>. 

City  divided  info  wards     .         .         .    . 

Cheapaide  stotnl  outside  the  city;  the 
houses  built  of  wood 

Charter  granted  by  Edward  III.         .    . 

Terrible  pestilence,  in  which  60,000  citi- 
zens perish^      

William  of  Walworth,  lord  mayor      .    . 

Wat  Tyler's  rebellion.   See  Tyler 

Aldermen  elected  for  life  .         .    . 

City  first  lighted  at  night  by  lantwns 

Guildhall  commenced  1411,  finished    .    . 

Whittington  thrice  lord  mayor,  viz.  1397, 
1406,  and 

He  entertains  Henry  V.  at  Guildhall, 
and  throws  into  a  fire  of  spices,  bonds 
of  that  monarch  for  moneys  lent  him 
to  the  value  of  60,0002 

Jack  Cade's  rebellion.   See  Cade   . 

First  civic  procession  on  the  water;  sir 
John  Norman  lord  mayor       .         .    . 

Faloonbridge  attempts  the  city 

Sweating  sickness  rages     .         .        .    . 

The  fatal  sweat.  Sudor  Anglicus    . 

MemorableEvil  May-day.  Sc^  Evil  May- 
day        

Streets  first  paved  ( Viner's  Stat.)  . 

Forty  taverns  and  public  houses  allowed 
in  the  city,  and  three  in  Westminster, 
act  7  Edward  YI.  (there  are  now  7000) 

Royal  Exchange  built.    See  Exchange  . 

Thames  water  conveyed  into  the  city  by 
leaden  pipes    ...  .    . 

New  buildings  in  London  forbidden  in 
any  places  where  none  had  previously 
been  erected,  to  prev^itthe  increasing 
size  of  the  city  {  .         .         .        . 


1279 
1286 

1300 
1328 

1348 
1380 
1381 
1394 
1416 
1416 

1419 


1419 
1460 

1453 
1471 
1485 
1617 

1617 
1633 


1563 
1566 

1682 


1680 


*  The  fables  of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  with  regard  to  the  origin  of  London,  are  unworthy  of  the 
attention  of  the  antiquary.  That  London  was  founded  by  Brute,  a  descendant  of  the  Trojan  JSneas, 
and  called  New  Troy,  or  Troy-novant,  until  the  time  of  Lud,  who  surrounded  it  with  walls,  and  gave 
it  the  name  of  Caer  Lud,  or  Lud's  Town,  &c.,  may  be  considered  as  mere  romance — Leigti. 

t  Stowe  mcorrectly  states  this  charter  to  have  been  given  in  1209,  but  it  bears  date  May  19th,  in 
the  16th  year  of  king  John's  reign-  John  began  his  reign  in  1199.  This  charter  was  acted  on  at 
that  period  in  various  instances,  as  many  of  the  mayors  were  afterwards  continued  in  their  ofBces 
for  several  years  together;  and  the  same  right  was  exerted  in  the  case  of  Mr.  Alderman  Wood,  who 
filled  the  ofllce  of  lord  mayor  during  two  succeeding  years,  those  of  1816  and  1817 — Idem. 

i  This  terrible  pestilence  broke  out  in  India,  and  spreading  itself  westward  through  every  country 
on  the  globe,  reached  England.  Its  ravages  in  London  were  so  great,  that  the  common  cemeteries 
were  not  sufficient  for  the  interment  of  the  dead ;  and  various  pieces  of  ground  without  the  walls 
were  assigned  for  burial-places.  Amongst  these  was  the  waste  land  now  forming  the  precincts  of  the 
Charter-house,  where  upwards  of  50,000  bodies  were  then  deposited.  This  destructive  disorder  did 
not  entirely  subside  till  1357  —Idem. 

f  This  proclamation  or  decree  was  dated  from  Nonesuch,  7th  July  1680,  and  it  was  forbidden  to 
erect  new  buildings  where  none  had  before  existed  in  the  memory  of  man.  This  extension  of  the 
metropolis  was  deemed  calculated  to  encourage  the  increase  of  the  plague ;  created  a  trouble  in 
governing  such  multitudes ;  a  dearth  of  victuals ;  multiplying  of  beggars,  and  inability  to  relieve 
them ;  an  increase  of  ai-tisans  more  than  could  live  together ;  impoveribhing  of  other  cities  for  lack 
of  inhabitants  The  decree  stated  that  lack  of  air,  lack  of  room  to  walk  and  shoot,  &c.,  arose  out 
of  too  crowded  a  city.    A  proclamation  to  the  same  effect  was  also  issued  by  James  I. 


LON 


:3u] 


LON 


LONDON,  continued, 

Nearlyall  London  yet  built  of  wood  .  .  1600 
30,678  persons  perish  by  the  plague  .  1G02 
Gunpowder  plot,  which  tee  .  .  .  1605 
New  River  water  brought  to  London  .  1613 
Hackney  coaches  first  plied.  See  Hack- 
ney Coaches 1GS5 

68,596  persons  perish  by  the  great  plague. 

SeePlaguei 1665 

Great  Fire  of  London.    See  article  Fires   1666 
Act  for  a  "  new  model  of  building*'  of 

the  city     .         .         .         i         .         .  161)6 
Monument  erected,  begun  1671 ;  finished 

1677«    Bee  Monument     .  .    .  1677 

London  streets  first  lighted  by  lamps      .  1681 
Charter  declared  forfeited,  1682;  taken 

away,  1688 ;  but  restored  .    .  1689 

Awful  and   devastating  storm,  called 

"  the  high  wind"        ....  1703 
Act  for  the  erection  of  50  new  churches 

in  and  near  London  .        .    .  1711 

South  Sea  bubble  commenced  1710,  ex- 
ploded 1720.    See  South  Sea  Company  .  1720 
Chelsea  water-works  formed  .  1722 

'*  Great  Frost,"  Dec.  25,  1739,  to  Feb.  8,  1740 
New  Mansion  House  completed      .        .  1753 
The  lord  mayor  committed  to  the  Tower 
by  the  House  of  Commans  for  a  breach 

ofprivilege 1771 

Lord  Geoi^e  Gordon's  No-popery  mob. 

See  Gordon's  Mob      ....  1780 
Memorable  storm  of  rain  and  thunder 
over  London  .  June  26,  1788 


Thanksgiving  of  George  UL  at  St.  Paul's 

April  23,  1789 
London  Missionary  Society    .  .  1794 

Horae  patrol  in  London     .         .         .    .  1805 
Lord  Nelson's  funeral  .         Jan.  9,  1806 

Riots  on  the  committal  of  sir  F.  Burdett 

to  the  Tower  .  .  .  April  6,  1810 
Civic  banquet  to  the  allied  sovereigns  at 

Guildhall  .  .  .  June  18,  1814 
Gas  lights  used  in  London,  Aug.  1807; 

Fall  MaU  Ughted  in  1809 ;  and  the  city 

generally  lighted  ....  1814 
Queen  Caroline's  funeral  passes  through 

London  .         .         .         Aug.  14,  1821 

London  University  chartered.    See  Lon- 
don University         .         .        Feb.  11,  1826 
Metropolitan   police  commoioed   duty 

Sept  29,  1829 
Memorable  political  panic,  Nov.  5 ;  and 

no  lord  mayor's  show  .  Nov.  9,  1830 
General  Fast  on  account  of  the  cholera 

in  England  .  .  .  Feb.  6,  1832 
The  cholera  officially  announced  to  exist 

in  London  .  .  .  Feb  14,  1832 
Queen's  feast  at  Guildhall,  .  Nov.  9,  1837 
Oxford  fires  at  the  queen.    See  Oa^ord's 

Attempt f  S[C.  .         .         .         June  10,  1840 

[See  England  ;  and  the  oocnrrenoes  not 
noticed  here  under  their  respective 
heads.] 


LONDON,  Bishopric  of.  A  most  ancient  see,  archiepiscopal  in  the  time  of  the 
Britons,  founded  about  a.d.  514,  when  Restitutus  was  first  bishop.  Pope  Gregory 
intended  London  to  continue  archiepiscopal,  but  St.  Augustin,  whom  his  holiness 
had  sent  over  to  convert  the  Saxons,  was  so  pleased  with  his  reception  from  Ethel- 
bert,  king  of  Kent,  that  he  set  up  his  staff  at  Canterbury,  the  capital  of  Ethelbert's 
dominions^  which  continues  the  metropolitan  see  of  England  to  this  day.  London, 
however,  remained  a  bishopric,  and  has  yielded  to  the  church  of  Rome  five  saints,  and 
to  the  realm  sixteen  lord  chancellors  and  lord  treasurers  ;  it  was  valued  in  the  king's 
books  at  1119/.  8«.  ^d,  per  annum, 

LONDON  BRIDGE,  Old.  Some  kind  of  structure  is  said  to  have  existed  a.d.  978. 
A  bridge  was  built  of  wood,  1014,  which  was  partly  burnt  in  1136,  and  afterwards 
repaired.  The  late  old  bridge  was  commenced  about  1176,  and  completed  in  1209, 
with  houses  on  each  side,  connected  together  by  large  arches  of  timber,  which  crossed 
the  street.  This  bridge  was  the  scene  of  an  awful  catastrophe  in  1212.  A  fire  hap- 
pened at  the  Southwark  end,  which  brought  immense  crowds  from  London  to  see, 
and  to  extinguish  it :  but  the  houses  at  the  north  end  of  the  bridge  caught  fire  like- 
wise, which  prevented  their  return,  and  the  fire  at  the  south  end  prevented  their 
advancing  ;  several  vessels  that  approached  to  take  them  off  were  sunk  by  overcrowd- 
ing, and  it  is  said  that  upwards  of  3000  persons  lost  their  lives,  either  by  being  killed, 
burnt,  or  drowned.  The  bridge  was  restored  in  1 300,  and  again  suffered  by  fires  in 
1471,  1632,  and  Sept.  1725 ;  and  in  1756,  all  the  houses  were  pulled  down.  The 
waterworks  were  begun  in  1582,  and  caught  fire  and  were  destroyed  in  1774.  The 
toll  was  discontinued  March  27,  1 782. 

LONDON  BRIDGE,  New.  The  first  pile  was  driven  200  feet  to  the  west  of  the 
old  bridge,  March  15,  1824  ;  and  the  first  stone  was  laid  by  the  lord  mayor,  alderman 
Garratt,  June  15,  1825.  The  bridge  was  opened  by  William  IV.  and  his  queen, 
going  by  water,  attended  by  a  crowd  of  nobility,  and  amid  great  festivities,  Aug.  1, 
1831.  Its  length  is  928  feet,  and  within  the  abutments,  782  feet ;  the  span  of  the 
centre  arch  is  1 52  feet,  and  of  the  side  arches  (of  which  there  are  two  on  each  side) 
140  and  130  feet ;  the  width  of  the  carriage-way  is  33^  feet,  and  of  the  abutments  at 
the  base,  73  feet.     The  cost  of  this  great  structure  was  506,000/. 

LONDON  CITIZENS  have  been  granted  many  privileges  and  immunities  from  the 


LON  [^  315  ]  LON 

time  of  William  the  CoDqaeror,  whose  first  charter,  granted  in  a.d.  1079,  is  still 
preserved  in  the  city  archives.  This  charter  is  written  in  beautiful  Saxon  charac- 
ters, on  a  slip  of  parchment  six  inches  long,  and  one  broad,  and  is  in  English  as 
follows  : — '*  William  the  king  greeteth  WiUiam  the  bishop,  and  Godfrey  the  port- 
reye,  and  all  the  burgesses  within  London,  friendly.  And  I  acquaint  you,  that  I 
will  that  ye  be  all  there  law-worthy,  as  ye  were  in  king  Edward's  days.  And  I  will 
that  every  child  be  his  father's  heir,  after  his  father's  days.  And  I  will  not  suffer 
that  any  man  do  you  any  wrong.  God  preserve  you."  This  is  the  first  of  nine 
charters  granted  to  London.  The  citizens  have  the  privilege  of  pleading  their  own 
cause  in  the  courts  of  judicature,  without  employing  lawyers  or  counsel,  except  in 
pleas  of  the  crown,  by  statute  40  Henry  III.,  1257. — Stowe. 

LONDON  GATES.  The  original  walls  of  London  were  the  work  of  the  Romans. 
Theodosius,  governor  of  Britain,  is  said  to  have  raised  them  a.d.  379  ;  but  they  are 
supposed  to  have  been  built  about  306.  There  were  originally  four  principal  gates  ; 
but  in  process  of  time,  as  new  roads  were  made,  the  number  increased  ;  and  among 
others  were  the  Prsetorian-way,  Newgate,  Dowgate,  Cripplegate  (so  called  from 
lame  beggars  that  sat  there),  Aldgate,  Aldersgate,  Ludgate,  Bridgegate,  Moorgate, 
Bishopsgate,  the  Postern  on  Tower-hill,  and  Temple-bar,  rebuilt  1670-2,  the  only 
one  of  the  city  boundaries  now  remaining.  Cripplegate  was  rebuilt  by  the  brewers, 
in  1244,  and  was  pulled  down  in  July  17G0.  Aldgate,  rebuilt  1608,  was  taken 
down  1760;  Aldersgate,  rebuilt  1716,  was  taken  down  April  1661  ;  Bishopsgate, 
rebuilt  1733,  was  taken  down  1761  ;  as  was  Moorgate,  same  year. 

LONDON  STONE.  A  stone  placed  in  Cannon-street  by  the  Romans,  the  spot  being 
then  the  centre  of  the  city,  15  B.C.  Cheapside  was  at  this  period  in  the  suburbs. — 
Burns.  London  Stone  is  one  of  the  greatest  antiquities  of  the  city,  having  been 
koown  before  the  time  of  William  I.  It  formerly  stood  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
way  ;  but  the  time  and  purpose  of  its  erection  are  alike  unknown.  Some  have 
supposed  it  to  be  the  spot  whence  the  Romans  measured  the  distance  of  their  several 
stations.  It  was  against  this  stone  that  Jack  Cade  struck  his  sword,  exclaiming, 
**  Now  is  Mortimer  lord  of  London,*'  1450. — Leigh, 

LONDON  UNIVERSITY  obtained  its  charter,  Feb.  11,  1826;  the  building  was 
commenced  April  30,  1827,  and  the  college  opened  by  the  introductory  lectures  of 
professor  Bell,  Oct.  1,  1828.  The  plan  comprehends  lectures  with  examinations  by 
the  professors ;  mutual  instruction  among  the  pupils  ;  and  the  aid  of  tutors  in 
those  parts  of  knowledge  which  most  require  to  be  minutely  and  repeatedly  impressed 
on  the  memory.  The  professors  derive  their  income  principally  from  the  fees  paid 
by  their  pupils.  The  course  of  instruction  consists  of  languages,  mathematics, 
physics,  the  mental  and  the  moral  sciences,  together  with  the  law  of  England,  his- 
tory, and  political  economy,  and  the  various  branches  of  knowledge  which  are  the 
objects  of  medical  education. 

LONDONDERRY.  Mentioned  in  a.d.  546.  An  abbey  here  was  burnt  by  the  Danes, 
in  783.  A  charter  was  granted  to  the  London  companies,  in  1615.  The  town  was 
surprised,  and  sir  George  Powlett,  the  governor,  and  the  entire  garrison  were  put 
to  the  sword,  1606.  Londonderry  was  besieged  in  I64I.  A  grant  was  made  of  Lon- 
donderry, with  210,000  acres  of  land,  to  various  companies  in  London,  in  1689. 
Memorable  siege  oif  Londonderry,  sustained  against  the  army  of  James  II.,  who 
for  a  time  commanded  in  person.  The  heroic  garrison  and  inhabitants  were,  on 
this  memorable  occasion,  driven  to  the  extremity  of  famine  ;  but  under  the  direction 
of  the  Rev.  George  Walker,  they  defended  the  place  against  the  enemy  until  the 
siege  was  raised  by  the  force  of  tj^e  duke  of  Schomberg.  James's  army,  under  the 
French  general  Rosene,  retired  with  the  loss  of  about  9000  men,  after  having  prac- 
tised almost  unparalleled  cruelties  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the  villages  around, 
April  20,  1689. 

LONG  ISLAND,  Battle  of,  between  the  British  troops,  under  sir  William  Howe, 
and  the  revolted  Americans,  who  suffered  a  severe  defeat,  after  a  well-fought  action, 
losing  2000  men  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  1000  prisoners.  The  Americans  were 
pursued  by  the  victors  in  their  retreat  to  New  York,  but  were  saved  under  cover  of 
a  thick  fog  from  further  discomfiture,  Aug.  27,  1776. 

LONGEVITY.  In  these  countries  the  instances  of  it  are  remarkable,  though  rare. 
Golour  M'Crain,  of  the  Isle  of  Jura,  one  of  the  Hebrides,  is  said  to  have  kept  180 


LON  Q  316  ]  LOR 

Cbristmases  in  his  own  house,  and  died  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  being  the  oldest 
man  on  anything  approaching  to  authentip  record  for  upwards  of  3000  years. — 
Greig.  Thomas  Parr»  a  labooring  man  of  Shropshire,  was  brought  to  London  by 
the  earl  of  Arundel,  in  1635,  and  considered  the  wonder  of  his  time,  being  then  in 
his  153rd  year,  and  in  perfect  health ;  but  the  journey  and  change  of  air  and  diet 
killed  him,  Nov.  15,  the  same  year.  Henry  Jenkins,  of  Yorkshire,  died  in  1670, 
and  was  buried  in  Bolton  church-yard,  Dec.  6,  in  that  year,  aged  169  years. 

1780«  Louisa  Truzo,  a  negresB,  was  yet 
living  in  this  year,  at  Tucuman, 


OTHSB  SXTRAORDIKARY  mSTANCSB. 

1656.  James  Bowles,  Killingworth,  aged  .  152 
1691.  Lady  Eocleston,  Irtfand  .         .143 

1749.  A  man  named  Collier,  Dublin      .    .137 
1757*  An    Englishman   named  Eccleson 

{Phil.  Tram.)  .         ,         .144 

1759.  James  Shiel,  Irish  yeoman  .  .  .  136 
1766.  Colonel  Thomas  Winslow,  Ireland  .  146 
1766.  John  Mount,  Scotland  .  .  .136 
1768.  Francis  Conceist,  Burythorpe  .  .  150. 
1772.  Mrs.  Clun.  Lichfield        .        .         .138 

1774.  William  Beeby,  Dungarvon         .    .  130 
[He  had  been  an  ensign,  and  served 

at  the  battles  of  the  Boyne  and 
Augb  rim. — Burm,'] 

1775.  Peter  Gordon,  Aucfaterless      .         .  1<?1 

1775.  Mary  Paton,  Lochwinnoch  .         .    .  138 

1776.  Mr.  Movet,  surgeon,  Dumfries  .  139 
1776.  Sarah  Brookman,  Glastonbury    .    .  166 

1778.  Thomas  Cockey,  Blechingley  .         .  132 

1779.  M.  Laurence,  Orkney  .         .    .  140 

1780.  Robert  Mac  Bride,  Herries  .  .  130 
]780.'Mr.  William  Ellis,  Liverpool       .    .  130 


South  America  .  .  .  .175 
1782.  Evan  Williams,  Carmarthen  .  *  145 
1786  Cardinal  de  Soils  .  .  .  .110 
1787.  Mary  Brook,  of  Leek  .  .    .  148 

1792.  Mr.  Johnson,  of  Birmingham  .  .  120 
1792.  Mrs.  Judith  Scott,  Islington  .  .  162 
1806.  Mr.  Creeke,  of  Thurlow  .  .  .125 
1806.  Mr.  J.  Tucker,  Ildiing-ferry  .  .  131 
1806.  Catherine  Loi)ez,  of  Jamaica  .  .  134 
1806.  Sarah  Anderson,  a  free  black       .    .  140 

1813.  Mrs.  Meighan,  Donoughmore  .         .  130 

1814.  Mary  lunes.  Isle  of  Skye  .  .  .  137 
1814.  Mrs.  Judith  Crawford,  Spanishtown  151 
1840.  Mrs    Martha   Rorke,  of  Dromore, 

County  of  Kildare,  August  27  .  133 
When  James  L  visited  Hereford- 
shire, a  dance  called  the  Morice 
was  performed  in  his  presence  by 
five  men  and  five  women,  whose 
united  ages  amounted  to  upwards 
of  a  thousand  yeara 


There  are  some  extraordinary  instances  of  great  age  in  Russia ;  and  at  Dantzic 
a  man  is  said  to  have  died  at  184  ;  and  another  to  be  living  in  Wallachia,  aged  186 
years.  In  Holy  Writ,  Methuselah  is  stated  to  have  lived  969  years,  the  greatest 
age  of  any  on  record,  according  to  the  reckoning  before  the  Flood  ;  but  the  length 
of  the  years  of  that  time  is  not  ascertained ;  hence  there  is  no  fixed  principle  to 
determine  the  real  ages  of  that  epoch. 

LONGITUDE,  determined  by  Hipparchus  at  Nice,  who  fixed  the  first  degree  in  the 
Canaries,  162  b.c.  Harrison  made  a  time-keeper,  in  a.d.  1759,  which  in  two  voy- 
ages was  found  to  correct  the  longitude  within  the  limits  required  by  the  act  of  par- 
liament, 12th  Anne,  1714;  and  in  1763,  he  applied  for  the  reward  of  20,000/. 
offered  by  that  act,  which  he  received.  The  celebrated  Le  Roi  of  Paris,  in  1776, 
invented  a  watch  that  keeps  time  better ;  and  the  chronometers  of  Arnold,  Eamshaw, 
and  Br^guet  bring  the  longitude  almost  to  the  truth.  Philosophers  have  sought  the 
longitude  in  vain  ;  but  Newton  has  said  it  will  yet  be  discovered  by  a  fool.  Maps 
which  reckon  the  longitude  frq^  Ferro  require  18°  6'  to  be  added,  and  from  Paris  2f 
25''  to  be  deducted,  to  reconcile  them  to  British  maps.  Act  repealing  the  act 
relating  to  the  discovery  of  the  longitude  at  sea,  9  George  IV.,  July  1828. 

LOOKING-GLASSES.  Made  only  at  Venice  in  1300.  They  were  made  in  England, 
by  Venetian  artists,  some  of  whom  took  up  their  abode  in  Lambeth,  in  1 673. — Sal- 
mon. The  French  excelled  in  their  manufacture  of  them  in  the  last  century  ;  but 
the  English  have  brought  their  factories  to  great  perfection  of  late  years,  and  now 
make  looking-glasses  to  cover,  in  a  single  plate,  the  walls  of  large  rooms. 

LOOM-ENGINE.  The  weaver's,  otherwise  called  the  Dutch  loom,  was  brought  into 
use  in  London  from  Holland,  in  or  about  the  year  1676,  since  when  the  general 
principle  of  the  loom  has  been  infinitely  varied  by  mechanical  ingenuity.  There 
are  about  250,000  hand-looms  in  Great  Britain,  and  75,000  power-looms,  each  being 
equal  to  three  hand-looms,  making  twenty-two  yards  each  per  day.  The  steam- 
loom  was  introduced  in  1807. 

LORD.  In  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  Lord  is  a  particular  appellation  for  the  supreme 
majesty  of  God  and  Christ,  and  in  that  sense  cannot  be  applied  to  any  other  being. 
With  us,  it  is  a  term  of  nobility. — See  Lords  and  Baron,  The  word  lord  is 
abbreviated  from  two  syllables :  it  was  originally  Hlaford^  which,  by  dropping  the 
aspirate  became  Lafordy  and  afterwards  by  contraction  Lord,  *'  The  etymology  of  this 


LOR £  317  ] LOR 

word,"  a  writer  observes,  **  is  worth  observing,  for  it  was  composed  of  hlaf,  a  loaf 
of  bread,  and  fordt  to  give  or  afford  ;  so  that  Hlaford,  now  Lord,  implies  a  giver 
of  bread  ;  becaase  in  those  ages,  such  great  men  kept  extraordinary  houses,  and  fed 
the  poor;  for  which  reason  they  were  called  givers  of  breads — See  Ladies.  The 
nickname  of  '^  My  Lord,"  given  by  vulgar  people  to  hunchbacked  persons,  is  from 
the  Greek  word  lordos,  crooked. 

LORD  CHAMBERLAIN  of  the  HOUSEHOLD.  An  office  of  antiquity  and  rank. 
The  title  is  from  the  French  word  Chambellan,  and  in  Latin  it  is  called  Camerario 
Hospitii,  He  has  the  oversight  of  the  king's  chaplains,  notwithstanding  he  is  a  lay- 
man ;  also  of  the  officers  of  the  standing  and  removing  wardrobes,  beds,  tents,  revels, 
music,  comedians,  hunting,  and  of  all  the  physicians,  apothecaries,  surgeons,  barbers, 
messengers,  trumpeters,  drummers,  tradesmen,  and  artisans,  retained  in  his  majesty's 
service.  Sir  William  Stanley,  knt.,  afterwards  beheaded,  was  lord  chamberlain,  1 
Henry  VII.,  1485.  A  vice-chamberlain  acts  in  the  absence  of  the  chief;  the  offices 
are  co-existent. — Beatson, 

LORD  DANE.  This  was  a  distinction  exacted  by  the  Danes,  about  the  time  of  Ethel- 
red  IL,  991.  It  was  in  the  reigns  immediately  subsequent  corrupted  into  Lordan, 
and  given  as  a  name  of  ignominy  to  the  lazy  Danes,  who  lived  on  the  sweat  of  the 
Englishmen's  brows  ;  though  in  the  days  of  Canute  and  others,  a  private  fellow  quar- 
tered  on  your  house  exacted  the  title  of  Lord  Dane. — Burns. 

LORD  GREAT  CHAMBERLAIN  of  England.  The  sixth  great  officer  of  state,  whose 
duties,  among  others,  relate  to  coronations  and  public  solemnities.  The  rank  apper- 
tained for  many  centuries  to  the  fai^ily  of  De  Vere,  earls  of  Oxford,  granted  to  it  by 
Henry  I.  in  1101.  On  the  death  of  John  de  Vere,  the  16th  earl,  Mary,  his  sole 
daughter,  marrying  lord  Willoughby  of  Eresby,  the  right  was  established  by  a  judg- 
ment of  the  house  of  peers  in  that  nobleman's  family,  2  Charles  1.  1626.  On  the 
death  of  his  descendant,  unmarried,  in  July  1779,  the  house  of  lords  and  twelve 
judges  concurred  that  the  office  devolved  to  lady  Willoughby  of  Eresby,  and  her 
sister  the  lady  Georgina  Charlotte  Bertie,  as  heirs  to  their  brother  Robert,  duke  of 
Ancaster,  deceased  ;  and  that  they  had  powers  to  appoint  a  deputy  to  act  for  them, 
not  under  the  degree  of  a  knight,  who,  if  his  majesty  approved  of  him,  might  officiate 
accordingly. 

LORD  HIGH  ADMIRAL  of  ENGLAND.     See  article  Admiral. 

LORD  HIGH  CHANCELLOR  of  ENGLAND.     See  Chancellor,  Lord  High. 

LORD  HIGH  CONSTABLE  of  ENGLAND.  The  seventh  great  officer  of  the 
crown,  and,  with  the  earl  marshal,  formerly  a  judge  of  the  court  of  chivalry,  called, 
in  the  time  of  Henry  IV.  curia  militarise  and  subsequently  the  court  of  honour. 
It  is  the  fountain  of  the  marshal  law  ;  and  the  power  of  this  officer  was  so  great,  and 
such  improper  use  was  made  of  it,  that  in  the  13th  Richard  II.  a  statute  passed  for 
abridging  it,  and  also  the  power  af  the  earl  marshal,  which  see.  The  office  existed 
before  the  Conquest,  after  which  it  went  by  inheritance  to  the  earls  of  Hereford  and 
Essex,  and  next  in  the  line  of  Stafford.  In  1521,  it  became  forfeited  to  the  king  in 
the  person  of  Edward  Stafford,  duke  of  Buckingham,  that  year  attainted  for  high 
treason,  and  has  never  been  since  granted  to  any  person,  otherwise  than  pro  hac  vice, 
and  that  to  attend  at  a  coronation,  or  trial  by  combat.  The  only  instance  of  a  trial 
by  combat  being  ordered  since  this  office  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  crown,  was  that 
commanded  between  lord  Reay  and  sir  David  Ramsay  in  November  1631 ;  but  the 
king  afterwards  prevented  the  trial.     See  Constable  of  Scotland,  and  Combat. 

LORD  HIGH  CONSTABLE  of  SCOTLAND.  The  office  of  lord  high  constable  of 
Scotland  is  of  great  antiquity  and  dignity,  and  the  nobleman  holding  it  obtained  two 
grand  prerogatives,  viz.  the  first,  the  keeping  of  the  king's  sword,  which  the  king, 
at  his  promotion,  delivers  to  him  naked  (and  hence  the  badge  of  the  lord  high  con- 
stable is  a  naked  sword)  ;  and  secondly,  the  absolute  command  of  the  king's  armies 
while  in  the  field,  in  the  absence  of  the  king.  The  jurisdiction  of  this  office  came  at 
last  to  be  exercised  only  as  to  crimes  during  the  time  of  parliament,  which  some 
extended  likewise  to  all  general  conventions.  The  office  was  conferred  heritably 
upon  the  noble  family  of  Errol,  by  king  Robert  Bruce,  and  with  them  it  still 
remains,  being  expressly  reserved  by  the  treaty  of  Union  in  1707.  It  was  instituted 
by  king  David  I.  about  1147. 


LOR 


Csis] 


LOR 


LORD  HIGH  STEWARD  of  ENGLAND.  The  first  great  officer  of  the  crown. 
This  office  was  established  prior  to  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  was 
formerly  annexed  to  the  lordiship  of  Hinkley,  belonging  to  the  family  of  Montfort, 
earls  of  Leicester,  who  were,  in  right  thereof,  lord  high  stewards  of  England  ;  but 
Simon  de  Montfort,  the  last  earl  of  this  family,  making  a  bad  use  of  the  great  power 
this  office  gave  him,  raised  a  rebellion  against  his  sovereign,  Henry  III.,  and  was 
attainted,  and  his  estate  forfeited  to  the  king.  That  prince  wisely  judging  the  power 
too  vast,  in  a  great  measure  abolished  the  office  (as  in  the  hands  of  an  ambitious 
subject  it  might  be  made  subservient  to  the  worst  purposes),  a.d.  1265.  It  is 
therefore  now  revived  only  pro  hoc  vice  to  officiate  at  a  coronation,  or  the  trial  of  a 
peer.  The  first  afterwards  appointed  was  Thomas,  second  son  of  Henry  IV.  The 
first  for  the  trial  of  a  peer  was  Edward,  earl  of  Devon,  on  the  arraignment  of  the 
earl  of  Huntingdon,  in  1400.    See  Lord  Steward, 

LORD  KEEPER.  The  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  differs  only  from  the  lord 
chancellor  in  this  point,  that  the  latter  hath  letters  patent,  whereas  the  lord  keeper 
has  none.  Richard,  a  chaplain,  was  the  first  keeper  under  Ranulph,  in  1116.  The 
lord  keeper  has  the  like  jurisdiction,  and  all  other  advantages,  in  the  same  degree  as 
the  lord  high  chancellor  of  England,  5  Elizabeth,  1562. — Cowell, 

LORD  LIEUTENANT,  or  CHIEF  GOVERNOR,  or  VICEROY  of  IRELAND. 
The  first  formal  appointment,  as  lord  justice,  was  of  Hugh  de  Lacy,  lord  of  Meath, 
under  Henry  II.  in  1173.  Richard  de  Clare,  earl  of  Pembroke,  was  appointed,  as 
lord  warden,  same  year.  Raymond  le  Gros  was  elected  by  the  council,  with  the 
style  of  procurator.  May  1177.  John,  earl  of  Moreton,  son  of  the  king,  was 
appointed  as  lord  of  Ireland  soon  afterwards.  William  Fitzadelm  de  Burgo  was 
appointed,  under  the  title  of  seneschal,  also  in  1177.  The  earl  of  Morton  was 
appointed  as  governor  in  1185.  Peter  Pipard  was  appointed  lord  deputy  by  Richard 
Lin  1191.  Geoffry  de  Mariscis  was  appointed  governor,  under  the  title  of  custos, 
16  king  John,  1215.  Piers  de  Gaveston,  earl  of  Cornwall,  was  appointed,  by  the 
style  of  lord  lieutenant,  2  Edward  II.  1308. 


LORD  LIBirrXNANTS. 

A.D.  1308.  Piers  de  Gaveston,  eaxl  of  ComwalL 
1329.  James,  earl  of  Ormond. 
1331.  Sir  Anthony  Lucy. 
1361.  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence. 
1369.  Sir  William  de  Windsor. 
1380.  Edmund  Mortimer,  earl  of  March. 
1382.  Philip  Courtney.lord  Birmingham,6enL 
1384.  Robert  de  Yere,  earl  of  Oxford. 

1394.  King  Richard  II.  in  person. 

1395.  Roger  Mortimer,  earl  of    March  and 

Ulster. 
1399.  King  Richard  II.  in  person  (second  time). 
1401.  Thomas,  earl  of  Lancaster. 
1410.  John,  duke  of  Bedford. 

1413.  Edward,  earl  of  March. 

1414.  Sir  John  Talbot. 

1416.  Thomas,  earl  of  Lancaster. 

1427.  Sir  John  de  Grey. 

1428.  Sir  J.  Sutton,  lord  Dudley. 
1432.  Sir  Thomas  Stanley. 
1438.  Lion,  lord  Wells. 

1440.  James,  earl  of  Ormond. 

1446.  J.  Earl  of  Shrewsbury. 

1449.  Richard,  duke  of  York. 

1461 .  George,  duke  of  Clarence,  for  life. 

1479.  Richard,  duke  of  York. 

1483.  Gerald,  earl  of  Kildare,  and  in  1496. 

1485.  John  de  la  Pole,  earl  of  Lincoln. 

1490.  Jasper,  duke  of  Bedford 

1496.  Gerald,  earl  of  Kildare,  and  in  1504. 

1501.  Henry,  duke  of  York,  afterwards  Henry 

VIU. 
1504.  Gerald,  earl  of  Kildare. 
1520.  Thomas  Howard,  earl  of  Surrey. 
1530.  Henry,  duke  of  Richmond. 


1558.  Thomas,  earl  of  Sussex. 

1598.  Robert,  earl  of  Essex. 

1599.  Sir  Charles  Blunt,  lord  Mountjoy. 
1639.  Thomas,  lord  viscount  Went  worth,  earl 

of  Strafford. 
1643   James,  marquess  of  Ormond. 
1649.  Oliver  CromweU. 
1660.  James  Butler,  duke,  marquess,  and  earl 

of  Ormond. 

1669.  John  Roberts,  lord  Roberts. 

1670.  J.  Berkeley,  lord  Berkeley. 
1672.  Arthur  Capel,  earl  of  Essex. 
1677'  James  Butler,  duke  of  Ormond. 

1685.  Henry  Hyde,  earl  of  Clarendon. 

1686.  Richard  Talbot,  earl  of  Tyrconnell. 
169a  Henry  Sidney,  lord  Sidney. 

1695.  Henry  Capel,  lord  Capel. 
1701.  Lau.  Hyde,  earl  of  Rochester. 
1703.  James  Butler,  duke  of  Ormond. 
1707*  Thomas,  earl  of  Pembroke. 
1709.  Thomas,  earl  of  Wharton. 
1711*  James,  duke  of  Ormond,  again. 
1713.  Charles,  duke  of  Shrewsbury. 
1717*  Charles,  duke  of  Bolton. 
1721.  Charles,  duke  of  Grafton. 
1724.  John,  lord  Carteret. 
1731.  Lionel,  duke  of  Dorset. 
1737.  William,  duke  of  Devonshire. 
1745.  Philip,  earl  of  Chesterfield. 
1747.  William,  earl  of  Harrington. 
1751.  Lionel,  duke  of  Dorset,  again. 
1755.  William,  marquess  of  Hartington. 
1757.  John,  duke  of  Bedford. 
1761.  George,  earl  of  Halifax. 
1763.  Hugh,  earl  of  Northumberland. 
1765.  Francis,  earl  of  Hertford. 


LOR  C  319  ]  LOR 

LORD  LIEUTENANTS,  &c.  op  IRELAND,  continued. 


1806.  John,  duke  of  Bedford,  March  18. 
1807-  Charles,  duke  of  Richmond,  April  19. 
1813.  Charles,  earl  Whitworth,  Aug.  26. 
1817.  Charles,  earl  Talhot,  Oct  9. 
1821   Richard,  marquess  Wellesley,  Dec.  29. 
182S.  Henry,  marquess  of  Anglesey,  March  1. 

1829.  Hugh,  duke  of  Northumberland,  Mar.  6. 

1830.  Henry,  marquess  of  Anglesey,  again, 

December  23. 

1833.  Richard,  marquess  Wellesley,    again, 

September  26. 

1834.  Thomas,  earl  of  Haddington,  Dec.  29. 

1835.  Henry  Constantino,  earl  of  Mulgrave, 

April  23. 
1839.  Viscount  Ebrington,  created  lord  For- 
tescue. 


A.D.  1767.  George  viscount  Townshend,  Oct.  14. 
1772.  Simon,  earl  of  Harcourt,  Nov.  30. 
1777.  John,  earl  of  Buckinghamshire,  Jan.  25. 
1780.  Fred.,  earl  of  Carlisle,  Dec.  23. 
1782.  Wm.  Henry,  duke  of  Portland,  April  14. 

1782.  George,  earl  Temple,  Sept  15. 

1783.  Robert,  earl  of  Northington,  June  3. 

1784.  Charles,  duke  of  Rutland,  Feb.  24. 
[He  died  Oct  24, 1787.] 

1787*  George,  marquess  of  Buckingham  (late 

earl  Temple,  again),  Dec  16. 
1790.  John,  earl  of  Westmorland,  Jan.  5. 
1795.  WiUiam,  earl  Fitzwilliam,  Jan.  4. 
1795.  John,  earl  Camden,  March  31. 
1798.  Charles,  marquess  Comwallis,  June  20. 
1801.  Philip,  earl  of  Hardwicke,  May  25. 

LORD  LIEUTENANTS  of  COUNTIES.  The  dmsion  of  England  into  counties 
(as  well  as  into  hundreds  and  ty things)  is  ascribed  to  Alfred  ;  but  there  is  evidence 
that  some  counties  bore  their  names  and  had  those  divisions  150  years  earlier. 
Lord  lieutenants  for  counties  were  instituted  in  England  3  Edward  VI.  1549. — 
Rymer's  Fcedera,  Act  for  the  constitution  of  lord  lieutenants  of  counties  in  Ireland, 
passed  2  WilUam  IV.  1831. 

LORD  MAYOR  op  LONDON.  At  the  time  of  the  defeat  of  Harold  by  William  I. 
(see  Hastings)^  the  chief  officer  of  London  was  called  port- reeve,  from  Saxon  words 
signifying  chief  governor  of  a  harbour.  He  was  afterwards  called  provost ;  but  in 
Henry  II.'s  reign,  the  Norman  title  of  maire  was  brought  into  use,  and  soon 
rendered  English  by  spelling  it  **  mayor.''  Appointed  annually,  18  Henry  III.  1233. 
First  presented  to  the  barons  of  the  exchequer,  37  Henry  III.  1251.  The  prefix  of 
lord  was  granted  by  Edward  III.  with  the  style  of  Right  Honourable,  in  1354.  Sir 
John  Norman  was  the  first  lord  mayor  who  went  by  water  to  be  sworn  at  West- 
minster, 1453-4.  Lord  mayor's  show  was  instituted  same  year  ;  but  the  more  costly 
pageants  and  triumphs  of  the  show  were  laid  aside  in  1685*. — See  London, 

LORD  MAYOR  op  DUBLIN.  John  le  Decer  was  appointed  first  provost  in  i308. 
A  gilded  sword  granted  to  the  chief  magistrate  to  be  borne  before  him,  by  Henry 
IV.  1407.  Thomas  Cusack  appointed  first  mayor,  1409.  The  collar  of  S.S.  and  a 
foot  company  granted  by  Charles  II.  to  the  mayors,  1660.  Sir  Daniel  Bellingham, 
the  first  mayor,  honoured  with  the  title  of  lord^  by  Charles  II.  who  granted  500/.  per 
annum  in  lieu  of  the  company  of  foot,  1665.  A  new  collar  of  S.S.  granted  by  William 
III.  to  the  mayor,  value  1000/.,  the  former  having  been  lost  in  James  IL's  time,  1697. 

LORD  MAYOR  op  YORK.  The  title  of  lord  to  the  first  civic  magistrate  is  one 
peculiar  to  London,  Dublin,  and  York.  The  prefix  of  lord  was  given  to  the  mayor 
of  York,  which  city  is  a  county  in  itself,  by  Richard  II.  York  enjoys  large  privi- 
leges, confirmed  to  it  by  a  long  succession  of  kings. 

LORD  STEWARD  op  the  KING'S  HOUSEHOLD.  An  officer  of  great  antiquity, 
having  the  sole  direction  of  the  king's  house  below  stairs  :  he  has  no  formal  grant  of 
his  office,  but  receives  his  charge  from  the  sovereign  in  person,  who,  delivering  to 
him  a  white  wand,  the  symbol  of  his  office,  says,  "  Seneschalf  tenez  le  b&ton  de  notre 
maisonJ*  This  officer  has  been  called  lord  steward  since  a.d.  1540  ;  he  was  pre- 
viously to  the  31st  of  Henry  VIII.  styled  grand  master  of  the  household.  The 
lord  high  steward  is  an  officer  granted  for  many  centuries  past,  pro  hcto  vice  only, 
for  a  coronation,  or  the  trial  of  a  peer.     See  Lord  High  Steward  of  England, 

LORDS.  The  now  recognised  nobility  of  England  take  their  creation  from  the  1st  of 
William  the  Conqueror,  1066,  when  William  Fitzosborn,  the  first  peer,  was  made 
earl  of  Hereford  ;  Walter  Devereux  made  earl  of  Salisbury  ;  Copsi,  earl  of  Northum- 

*Sir  Henry  Pickard,  who,  in  1357,  had  been  lord  mayor  of  London,  most  sumptuously  entertained 
in  one  day,  in  the  year  1363,  four  monarchs:  namely,  Edward,  king  of  England;  John,  king  of 
France ;  the  king  of  Cyprus  ;  and  David,  king  of  Scotland.  The  celebrated  Black  Prince,  and  many 
of  the  nobility,  were  also  present  at  the  feoBt.'—Stowe,  A  superb  entertainment  was  given  at  Guild- 
hall, by  the  lord  mayor,  at  which  the  prince  r^ent  of  England,  the  emperor  of  Russia,  and  king  of 
Prussia,  and  numerous  foreigners  of  high  rank,  as  well  as  a  multitude  of  our  own  nobility,  were 
present,  June  18, 1814.' 


LOR  Q  320  ]  LOT 

berland  ;  Henry  de  Ferrers  made  earl  of  Derby,  and  Gerbodus  (a  Fleming)  made 
earl  of  Chester.  Twenty-two  other  peers  were  made  in  this  sovereign's  reign.  Peers 
of  England  are  free  from  all  arrests  for  debts,  as  being  the  king's  hereditary 
counsellors.  Therefore  a  peer  cannot  be  outlawed  in  any  civil  action,  and  no 
attachment  lies  against  his  person  ;  but  execution  may  be  taken  upon  his  lands  and 
goods.  For  the  same  reason,  they  are  free  frpm  all  attendance  at  courts  leet  or 
sheriff's  turns;  or,  in  case  of  a  riot,  from  attending  the  posse  comitatus, — See 
Baron  ;  Earl ;  Marquess^  ^c, 

LORDS,  HousB  OF.  The  peers  of  England  were  summoned  ad  consulendum,  to 
consult,  in  early  reigns,  and  were  summoned  by  writ  6  and  7  John,  1205.  The 
commons  did  not  form  a  part  of  the  great  council  of  the  nation  until  some  ages  after 
the  Conquest. — Humn,  Deputies  from  certain  boroughs  were  returned  to  meet  the 
barons  and  clergy  in  1258. — Goldsmith.  And  writs  are  extant  of  the  date  of  Jan. 
23,  1265  ;  but  several  historians  maintain  that  the  first  regular  parliament  of  the 
three  estates,  as  now  constituted,  was  held  22  Edward  1. 1293-4.  The  house  of  lords 
includes  the  spiritual  as  well  as  temporal  peers  of  England.  The  bishops  are  supposed 
to  hold  certain  ancient  baronies  under  the  king,  in  right  whereof  they  have  seats  in  this 
house.  The  temporal  lords  consist  of  the  several  degrees  of  nobility  :  some  sit  by 
descent,  as  do  all  ancient  peers ;  some  by  creation,  as  all  new-made  peers ;  and 
others  by  election,  since  the  union  with  Scotland  in  1707,  and  with  Ireland  in  1801. 
Scotland  elects  16  representative  peers,  and  Ireland  4  spiritual  lords  by  rotation  of 
sessions,  and  28  temporal  peers  for  life.  The  house  of  lords  now  consists  of  3 
princes,  21  dukes,  20  marquesses,  1 14  earls,  20  viscounts,  207  barons,  16  Scotch 
lords,  28  Irish  lords,  26  English  prelates,  and  4  Irish  bishops — ^in  all  459  peers. 

LORRAINE.  It  took  its  name  from  Lotharius,  son  of  the  emperor  Lotharius,  and  was 
given  to  the  prince  as  an  independent  duchy,  a.d.  851.  It  continued  under  its 
princes  until  1670,  when  it  was  seized  by  Louis  XIV.  and  annexed  to  France. 

LORETTO.  Here  is  the  Casa  Santa,  or  Holy  House,  in  which  it  is  pretended  the 
Virgin  Mary  lived  at  Nazareth.  According  to  the  legend,  it  was  carried  by  angels 
into  Dalmatia  from  Galilee,  and  next  brought  here.  The  famous  lady  of  Loretto 
stands  upon  an  altar,  holding  the  infant  Jesus  in  her  arms,  and  is  surrounded  with 
gold  lamps,  whose  glare  conceals  her  face.  She  is  clothed  with  cloth  of  gold,  set 
off  with  jewels,  with  which  the  little  Jesus,  though  in  a  shirt,  is  covered  also. 
Loretto  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1 796,  and  the  holy  image  carried  to  France  ; 
but  it  was  brought  back  with  pious  pomp,  and  welcomed  with  the  discharge  of 
cannon  and  the  ringing  of  bells,  borne  in  procession  to  the  holy  house  on  a  rich 
frame,  resting  on  the  shoulders  of  eight  bishops,  January  5,  1803. 

LOT'S  WIFE.  Josephus  asserts  that  he  saw  the  pillar  of  Lot's  wife;  and  Justin, 
Irenseus,  and  TertuUian,  allege  its  existence  in  their  time,  and  that  it  still  gavq 
periodical  evidence  of  her  feminine  nature.  Professor  Daubeny  supposes  that 
volcanic  agency  was  the  physical  instrument  employed  by  the  Almighty  to  destroy 
the  five  cities  of  the  plain  ;  that  the  Salt  or  the  Dead  Sea  arose  either  from  the 
subsidence  of  the  plain,  or  from  the  damming  of  the  Jordan  by  a  current  of  lava ; 
that  the  showers  of  fire  and  brimstone  were  occasioned  by  the  fall  of  volcanic  ejec- 
tions ;  and  that  Lot  s  wife,  lingering  behind  her  friends,  may  have  been  first  suffocated, 
and  then  incrusted  with  saline  and  other  volcanic  materials.— 2)au6eny  on  Volcanoes. 

LOTTERY,  STATE.  The  first  mentioned  in  English  history  began  drawing  at  the 
western  door  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  January  11,  1569,  and  continued  day  and 
night  until  May  6  following.  Its  profits  were  for  repairing  the  fortifications  on  the 
coast  of  England,  and  the  prizes  were  pieces  of  plate.  The  first  lottery  mentioned 
for  sums  of  money  took  place  in  1630.  Lotteries  were  established  in  1693,  and 
for  mure  than  130  years  yielded  a  large  annual  revenue  to  the  crown.  The  Irish 
state  lottery  was  drawn  in  Dublin  in  1780.  All  lotteries  were  suppressed  in  France 
by  a  decree  of  the  national  convention,  Nov.  15,  1793.  They  were  abolished  in 
October  1826  ;  and  an  act  was  passed  imposing  a  penalty  of  50/.  for  advertising 
foreign  or  any  lotteries  in  the  British  newspapers,  6  and  7  William  IV.  Aug.  18:i6. — 
See  next  article, 

LOTTERIES.  That  for  the  British  Museum  took  place  in  1753.  Cox's  valuable 
museum,  containing  many  rare  specimens  of  art  and  articles  of  vertu,  was  disposed 
of  by  lottery,  under  an  act  passed  June  16,  1773.     An  act  passed  for  the  sale  of  the 


LOU [^  321  ] LUN 

buildings  of  tbc  Adelphi  by  lottery,  June  16,  1773.  Lottery  for  tbe  Leverian 
Museum,  1784-5.*  For  the  Pigot  diamond,  permitted  January  2,  1801;  it  after- 
wards sold  at  Christie's  auction  for  9500  guineas,  May  10,  1802.  For  the  collection 
of  alderman  Boydell,  a  great  encourager  of  tbe  arts,  and  who  had  been  a  popular 
lord  mayor  of  London,  by  act  1804-5.  The  last  lotteries  drawn  in  Great  Britain  were 
the  Glasgow  lotteries  in  1834,  see  Glasgow,  An  act  was  passed  4  and  5  William 
IV.,  declaring  that  the  then  pending  Glasgow  lottery  should  be  the  last  permitted 
to  be  drawn,  July  25, 1834. 

LOUIS-D'OR.  The  Louis  of  gold,  a  French  coin  of  24  francs,  was  first  struck  by 
Louis  XIII.  in  1640.  The  value  of  this  coin  was  originally  about  twenty  shillings. 
— Spectator,  Its  value  has  fluctuated  with  the  storms  of  revolution  and  the  inci- 
dents of  time,  between  \hs.  ^d,  and  22«.  Sd. — Ashe, 

LOUISIANA.  Discovered  by  Ferdinand  de  Sota  in  1541.  It  was  traversed  by  M.  de 
Salle  in  1682,  and  settled  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1718.  Ceded  to  Spain  at  the  peace  of 
1 763,  when  all  east  of  the  Mississippi  was  given  to  England.  Rastored  to  France  in 
1802  ;  and  sold  by  France  to  the  Americans  in  1803.  Louisiana  became  a  member 
of  the  United  States,  in  1812. 

LOUVRE.  This  renowned  edifice  in  Paris  was  a  royal  residence  in  the  reign  of  Dago- 
bert,  A.D.  628  ;  but  Francis  I.  laid  the  foundation  of  what  is  now  called  the  Old 
Louvre,  1522.  Here  were  deposited  the  finest  collection  of  paintings,  of  statues, 
and  treasures  of  art  known  in  the  world.  The  chief  of  them  were  brought  from 
Italy  during  the  triumph  of  Buonaparte's  arms,  but  most  of  them  have  since  been 
restored  to  the  rightful  possessors. 

LOVE  INTRIGUES.  This  species  of  drama  was  first  introduced  upon  the  stage  by 
Anaxandrides,  a  Rhodian,  whose  pieces  gave  him  rank  as  a  true  dramatic  poet,  354  b.c. 
Suidas.    Anaxandrides  was  starved  to  death  by  the  Athenians  for  his  satires. — Idem. 

LOYALTY  LOANS.  There  were  several  of  these  raised  during  the  revolutionary  and 
Bnonapartean  wars  ;  but  one  instance  so  peculiarly  marked  the  spirit  and  devotion 
of  the  British  people,  that  it  is  referred  to  as  the  Loyalty  loan  :  a  subscription  loan 
was  opened  in  London  on  the  5th  December,  1796,  and  in  fifteen  hours  and  twenty 
minutes  the  sum  of  eighteen  millions  sterling  was  subscribed,  thus  demonstrating  the 
wealth  and  patriotism  of  England,  and  hearty  concurrence  of  her  people  in  the  war. 

LUCIA,  St.  First  settled  by  the  French  in  1650.  Taken  by  the  British  several 
times  in  the  subsequent  wars.  Memorable  insurrection  of  the  French  negroes, 
April  1795.  In  this  year  Guadaloupe,  St.  Vincent,  Grenada,  Dominica,  St.  Eustatia, 
and  St.  Lucie,  were  taken  by  the  British.  St  Lucia  was  restored  to  France  at  the 
peace  of  1802  ;  but  was  again  seized  on  by  England  the  next  year,  and  confirmed  to 
her  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1814. — See  Colonies, 

LUCRETIA,  Rape  of,  by  Sextus,  son  of  Tarquin,  who  in  the  dead  of  night  intro- 
duced himself  to  Lucretia,  breaking  in  upon  the  sanctity  of  her  chamber,  in  the 
absence  of  her  husband,  Collatinus.  She  yielded  to  her  ravisher  when  he  threatened 
to  murder  her,  and  to  slay  one  of  her  sieves,  and  put  him  in  her  bed,  that  this 
apparent  adultery  might  seem  to  have  met  with  the  punishment  it  deserved.  Lucretia 
in  the  morning  sent  for  her  husband  and  her  father,  and  after  she  had  revealed  to 
them  the  indignities  she  had  suffered  from  the  son  of  Tarquin,  and  entreated  thera 
to  avenge  her  wrongs,  she  stabbed  herself  with  a  dagger.  This  fatal  blow  was  the 
signal  of  rebellion :  the  body  of  Lucretia  was  shown  to  the  incensed  people,  who 
expelled  the  family  of  Tarquin  from  Rome  for  ever,  and  the  commonwealth  was 
established,  509  b.c. — Livy, 

LUDDITES.  Large  parties  of  men,  under  this  designation,  commence  their  depredations 
at  Nottingham,  breaking  frames  and  machinery.  Skirmish  with  the  military 
there,  January  29,  1812.  Several  serious  riots  occurred  again  Jn  1814  ;  and 
numerous  bodies  of  these  people,  chiefly  unemployed  artisans,  committed  great 
excesses  in  1816,  et  seq. 

LUNATICS.  See  article  Insanity.  Statutes  were  enacted  regarding  the  care  and 
property  of  lunatics,  17  Edward  II.  1323,  et  seq.  Statutes  of  George  II.  1731  and 
1741,  by  the  latter  of  which  the  marriages  of  lunatics  were  declared  void.  Statutes 
of  George  III.  1770,  1773,  et  seq.  Statutes  regarding  the  care  and  treatment  of 
confined  persons,  9  and  10  George  IV.  July  1828,  and  May  1829.     Richmond 

Y 


LOT  [_  322  ]  LUX 

Lunatic  Asylum  Act,  1  William  IV.  1831.  In  the  late  parliamentary  returns  of  the 
lunatics  of  England  and  Wales,  it  is  shown  that  in  436  unions,  the  number  of 
pauper  lunatics  is  3841,  all  of  whom  are  helicTed  to  be  incurable  ;  and  that  of  5259 

gauper  idiots,  2602  have  been  in  that  state  since  birth.    The  number  of  lunatics  in 
oth  countries,  it  is  said,  increases. 

LUNEVILLE,  Peace  of,  concluded  between  the  French  republic  and  the  emperor  of 

Grermany,  confirming  the  cessions  made  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  stipulating 

,  that  the  Rhine,  to  the  Dutch  territories,  should  form  the  boundary  of  France,  and 

recognising  the  independence  of  the  Batayian,  Helvetic,  Ligurian,  and  Cisalpine 

republics,  Feb.  9,  1801. 

LUPERCALIA.  A  yearly  festival  obsenred  at  Rome,  on  February  15,  in  honour  of 
Pan,  first  instituted  by  the  Romans,  according  to  Plutarch  ;  but  according  to  Liyy, 
brought  by  Evander  into  Italy.  Naked  youths  ran  through  the  streets  with  whips, 
lashing  aU  whom  they  encountered,  even  women,  who  received  the  stripes  with 
inclination,  believing  that  they  removed  barrenness  and  eased  the  pains  of  child- 
birth. Augustus  forbade  all  persons  above  the  age  of  fourteen  to  appear  naked 
during  this  festival.  Cicero,  in  his  Philippics  t  reproaches  Anthony  for  having 
disgraced  the  dignity  of  the  consulship  by  appearing  naked  on  one  of  these  occa- 
sions.—  Varro.  These  feasts  were  continued  till  a.c.  496,  when  pope  Gelasius 
wholly  abolished  them,  upon  account  of  the  great  disorders  and  indecencies  that 
were  committed  in  their  celebration. — Pardon, 

LUSTRUM.  An  expiatory  sacrifice  made  for  the  whole  body  of  the  Roman  people, 
at  the  end  of  every  five  years,  after  the  census  had  been  taken,  572  b.c.  Every  five 
years  were  called  a  Itulrum  ;  and  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty  years  were  commonly- 
expressed  by  two,  three,  or  four  lustra, 

LUTHERANISM.  Sprung  up  in  Germany  in  1517,  in  which  year  Leo  X.  published 
his  indulgences  for  money  ;  and  Iccelius,  a  Dominican  friar,  who  was  deputed  with 
others  of  his  order  to  collect  in  Saxony,  carried  his  zeal  to  such  a  height  as  to 
declare  his  commission  unbounded ;  that  no  crime  could  be  committed  too  great  to 
be  pardoned :  and  that  by  purchasing  indulgences,  not  only  past  sins,  but  those 
which  were  intended,  were  to  be  forgiven.  Against  these  practices  Luther  openly- 
preached  with  wonderful  success,  and  thus  began  the  Reformation  in  Germany.-— 
Melchior  A<lam,  in  Vila  Lutheri, 

LUTZEN,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  army  commanded  by  Napoleon  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  combined  armies  of  Russia  and  Prussia,  commanded  by  general 
Wittgenstein,  fought  May  2,  1813.  This  sanguinary  battle  opened  the  campaign  of 
that  year ;  and  though  each  of  the  adversaries  claimed  the  victory,  it  was  manifestly 
on  the  side  of  France  ;  but  in  this  engagement  marshal  Duroc  was  mortally  wounded. 
The  battles  of  Bautzen  and  Wurtzen  immediately  followed  (May  20  and  26),  both 
in  favour  of  Napoleon,  when  the  allies  were  compelled  to  pass  the  Oder,  and  an 
armistice  was  agreed  to,  and  afterwards  prolonged,  but  unfortunately  for  the  French 
emperor  it  did  not  produce  peace. 

LUTZENGEN,  or  LUTZEN,  Battle  of  ;  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden, 
against  the  emperor.  In  this  sanguinary  and  memorable  battle,  Gustavus,  the  most 
illustrious  hero  of  his  time,  and  the  chief  support  of  the  Protestant  interests  in  Ger- 
many, and  in  alliance  with  Charles  I.  of  England,  was  foully  kUled  in  the  moment 
of  victory,  Nov.  6,  1632.    This  is  also  called  the  battle  of  lippstadt 

LUXEMBURG.  Considered  the  strongest  fortress  in  the  world.  It  was  taken  and 
pillaged  by  the  French  in  1543 ;  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1544  ;  by  the  French 
in  1684 ;  and  restored  to  Spain  in  1697.  It  was  again  taken  by  the  French  in  1701 ; 
and  afterwards  given  to  the  Dutch  as  a  barrier  town,  and  ceded  to  the  emperor  at 
the  peace  in  1713.  These  are  among  the  chief  occurrences.  Luxemburg  withstood 
several  sieges  in  the  last  century ;  it  surrendered  to  the  French  after  a  long  and 
memorable  siege,  June  7,  1795.  The  garrison,  on  their  capitulation,  took  an  oath 
not  to  serve  against  the  republic  of  France  until  exchanged,  and  were  conducted  to 
the  right  side  of  the  Rhine  immediately  after. 

LUXURY.  The  instances  of  extravagance  and  luxury  are  numerous  in  the  history  of 
almost  all  countries,  ancient  and  modem,  and  many  laws  have  been  enforced  to  re- 
press them.    Horace  mentions  fowls  dressed  in  Falemian  wine,  muscles  and  oysters 


LYC 


[323] 


LYI 


from  the  Lucrine  lake  and  Circean  promontory,  and  black  game  from  the  Umbrian 
forests. — Lardner.  LucuUus,  at  Rome,  was  distinguished  for  the  immoderate  ex- 
penses of  his  meals  ;  his  halls  were  named  from  the  different  gods  ;  and  when  Cicero 
and  Pompey  attempted  to  surprise  him,  they  were  amazed  by  the  costliness  of  a 
sapper  which  had  been  prepared  upon  the  word  of  Lucullus,  who  merely  ordered  his 
attendants  to  serve  it  in  the  hall  of  Apollo  :  this  feast  for  three  persons  casually  met, 
would  have  sufficed  for  three  hundred  nobles  specially  invited.  In  England,  luxury 
was  restricted  by  a  law  wherein  the  prelates  and  nobility  were  confined  to  two 
courses  every  meal,  and  two  kinds  of  food  in  every  course,  except  on  great  festivals. 
The  law  also  prohibited  all  who  did  not  enjoy  a  free  estate  of  100/.  per  anjiumf  from 
wearing  furs,  (see  Furs)  skins,  or  silk ;  and  the  use  of  foreign  cloth  was  confined  to 
the  royal  family  alone  ;  to  all  others  it  was  prohibited,  a.d.  1337.  An  edict  was 
issued  by  Charles  VI.  of  France,  which  said,  '*  Let  no  man  presume  to  treat  with 
more  than  a  soup  and  two  dishes,"  1340. 

LYCEUM.  The  Lyceum  took  its^name  from  its  having  been  originally  a  temple  of 
Apollo  Lyceus ;  or  rather,  a  portico,  or  gallery,  built  by  Lyceus,  son  of  Apollo. 
The  Lyceum  was  a  celebrated  spot  near  the  banks  of  the  ilissus  in  Attica,  where 
Aristotle  taught  philosophy ;  and  as  he  generally  taught  his  pupils  while  he  walked, 
hence  they  were  called  pertpeUelieSf  and  his  philosophy  was  called  from  this  place, 
the  philosophy  of  the  Lyceum,  342  B,c.^-Sianley» 

LYDIA.  A  very  ancient  kingdom  under  a  long  dynasty  of  kings,  the  last  of  whom 
was  Croesus,  whose  riches  became  a  proverb  :  he  was  conquered  by  Cyrus,  548  b.c. 
The  coinage  of  money  of  gold  and  silver  (together  with  many  other  useful  inventions, 
and  the  encouragement  of  commerce)  is  ascribed  to  the  Lydians.  A  number  of 
illustrious  men  flourished  here. — Herodotus. 


Argon,  a  descendant  of  Hercules,  reigns 

in  Lydia.— i7«rod.       .         .         .    b.c.  1223 
The  kingdom  of  Lydia,  properly  so  called, 
begins  under  Ardysus  I.— ftotr       .    .    797 

Alyattes  reigns 761 

Melea  commences  his  rule  .         .    .    747 

Reign  of  Candaules        ....    735 
Oyges,  first  of  the  race  called  Mermnadc 
.  puts  Candaules  to  death,  marries  his 
queen,  usurps  the  throne,  and  makes 

great  conquests 718 

Ardysus  11.  reigns ;  the  Cimbri  besiege 

Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydia  ,         .    680 

The  Milesian  war  commenced  under 
Gyges,  Is  continued  by  Sadyattes,  who 

reigns 631 

Reign  of  Alyattes  n 619 

Battle  upon  the  river  Halys  between  the 
Lydians  and  Modes,  intercepted  by  an 
almost  total  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which 
superstitiously  occasions  a  conclusion 
of  the  war.— ftoir  .  .  May2Q,  E»6 
[This  eclipse  had  been  predicted  many 
years  b^ore  by  Thales,  of  Miletus. — 


Croesus,  son  of  Alyattes,  succeeds  to  the 
throne,  and  becomes  celebrated  for  his 
victories  and  conquests       .         .    b.c. 

Ephesus  falls  into  his  hands ;  the  lonians, 
^olians,  and  other  parts  of  Asia  Minor 
are  subjected  to  his  dominion .         .    . 

All  the  nations  west  of  theHalys  are  con- 
quered, and  that  river  becomes  the 
boundary  of  the  kingdom — Blair 

Croesus,  dreading  the  power  of  Cyrus, 
whose  conquests  had  reached  to  the 
borders  of  Lydia,  crosses  the  Halys  to 
attack  the  Medes,  with  an  army  of 
420,000  men,  and  60,000  horse  .        .    . 

He  is  defeated  by  Cyrus,  piursued,  be- 
sieged in  his  capital,  and  taken  . 

The  conqueror  orders  Croesus  to  be  burned 
alive,  and  the  pile  is  already  on  fire, 
when  he  calls  on  the  name  of  Solon  in 
agony  of  mind,  and  Cyrus  hearing  him 
pronounce  it,  ^ares  his  life    .        .    . 

Lydia,  the  kingdom  of  the  *'  richest  of 
mankind,**  is  made  a  province  of  the 
Persian  empire.         .... 


562 


554 


550 


548 


54» 


548 


.548 


Blair.1 

^sop,  the  Phrygian  fabulist,  Alcman,  the  first  Greek  poet  who  wrote  in  a  style  of 
gallantry,  Thales  of  Miletus,  Anazimenes,  Xenophanes,  Anacreon  of  Teos,  Hera- 
clitus  of  Ephesus,  &c.,  flourished  in  Lydia.  The  country  remained  subject  to  the 
Persian  empire  until  the  latter  was  conquered  by  Alexander,  about  330  b.c.  It  next 
became  part  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Per^unus,  founded  by  Phileeterus,  the  eunuch  ; 
Attains  afterwards  bequeathed  it  to  the  Romans,  and  finsdly  the  Turks  conquered  it 
from  the  Eastern  Empire,  a.d.  1326. — Priestley, 

LYING-IN  HOSPITALS.  The  first  of  these  valuable  institutions,  of  a  public  and 
general  kind,  was  established  in  Dublin  by  Dr.  Bartholomew  Mosse,  an  eminent 
physician,  who,  notwithstanding  he  had  to  contend  against  the  strongest  prejudices, 
avowed  opposition,  and  great  public  clamour,  pushed  his  benevolent  purpose  to  suc- 
cess, and  achieved  a  victory  for  humanity  by  building  the  fine  hospital  in  Dublin, 
under  this  name.    The  first  institution  was  opened  March  1745  ;  and  the  present 

y2 


LYM  [^  324  ]  MAC 

hospital  in  December  1757.  The  British  Lying-in  hospital  was  founded  in  1749  ; 
Qneen  Charlotte's  Lying-in  hospital  in  1752 ;  the  General  Lying-in  hospital  in 
1765  ;  and  besides  these,  are  other  similar  charities  in  London. 

LYMPHATIC  VESSELS.  The  slender  pellucid  tabes  carried  into  the  glands  of  the 
mesentery,  receiving  first  a  fine  thin  lymph  from  the  lymphatic  ducts,  which  dilute 
the  chylous  fluid. — Cheyne,  These  Tcssels  were  found  by  Jaspar  Asellius  in  1622  ; 
he  published  his  dissertations  on  the  subject  in  1627. — Nouv.  Diet.  Discovered  in 
oviparous  animals  by  Dr.  Hewson,  who  disputed  the  honour  of  the  discovery  with 
Dr.  Munro,  1762. 

LYONS.  Founded  by  L.  Plancus,  43  b.c.  The  city  was  reduced  to  ashes  in  a  single 
night  by  lightning,  and  was  rebuilt  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  Two  general  councils 
were  held  here  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries.  The  silk  manufacture  commenced 
in  the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  1515.  Lyons  was  besieged  in  1793  by  the  Convention 
army  of  60,000  men,  and  surrendered  Oct  7,  when  awful  scenes  of  blood  and  rapice 
followed.  The  National  Convention  decreed  ^e  demolition  of  the  city,  Oct.  12, 
same  year.  It  capitulated  to  the  Austrians,  March  1814,  and  July  1815.  An  in- 
surrection among  the  artisans,  which  led  to  great  popular  excesses  for  many  days, 
broke  out,  Nov.  21,  1831.  Dreadful  riots,  April  15,  1834.  A  dreadful  inundation 
occurred  at  Lyons,  Nov.  4,  1840. — See  Inundations. 

LYRE.  Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  the  Grecian  Mercury,  who,  according  to  Homer, 
gave  it  to  Apollo,  the  first  that  played  upon  it  with  method,  and  accompanied  it  with 
poetry.  The  invention  of  the  primitive  lyre  with  three  strings,  is  due  to  the  first 
Egyptian  Hermes.  Terpander  added  several  strings  to  the  lyre,  making  the  number 
seven,  673  b.c.  Phrynis,  a  musician  of  Mitylene,  added  two  more,  making  nine, 
438  B.C. 

M. 

MACARONI.  This  name  was  given  to  a  poem  by  Theop.  Folengio,  and  it  continues 
to  designate  trifling  performances,  as  buffoonery,  puns,  anagrams,  '*  wit  without 
wisdom,  and  humour  without  sense."  His  poem  was  so  called  from  an  Italian  cake 
of  the  same  name,  pleasant  to  the  taste,  but  without  any  alimentary  virtue.  These 
poems  became  the  reigning  taste  in  Italy  and  France,  where  they  gave  birth  to  Jlfa- 
caroni  academieSf  and  reaching  England  to  Macaroni  clubs,  till,  in  the  end,  every- 
thing ridiculous  in  dress  and  manners  was  called  *'  Macaroni,''  about  a.d.  1520. — 
Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. 

MACE.  Anciently  used  by  the  cavalry  of  most  nations  ;  this  weapon  was  originally  a 
club  fixed  in  the  saddle,  and  was  usually  blunt,  and  of  metal.  Maces  were  also  early 
ensigns  of  authority  borne  before  officers  of  state,  the  top  being  made  in  the  form  of 
an  open  crown»  and  commonly  of  silver  gilt.  The  lord  chancellor  and  speaker  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  have  maces  borne  before  them.  Edward  III.  granted  to 
London  the  privilege  of  having  gold  or  silver  maces  carried  before  the  lord  mayor, 
sheriffs,  aldermen,  and  corporation,  1354.  It  was  with  the  mace  usually  carried 
before  the  lord  mayor  on  state  occasions,  that  Walworth,  lord  mayor  of  London, 
knocked  the  rebel  Wat  Tyler  off  bis  horse,  a  courtier  afterwards  despatching  him 
with  his  dagger,  for  rudely  approaching  Richard  II.,  1381.  Cromwell  entering  the 
House  of  Commons  to  disperse  its  members  and  dissolve  the  parliament,  ordered  one 
of  his  soldiers  to  '*  take  away  that  fool's  bauble*  the  mace,"  which  was  done,  and  the 
doors  of  the  house  locked,  April  20, 1653. 

MACEDON.  The  first  kingdom  was  founded  by  Caranus,  about  814  b.c.  It  was  an 
inconsiderable  country,  sometimes  under  the  protection  of  Athens,  sometimes  of 
Thebes,  and  sometimes  of  Sparta,  until  the  reign  of  Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  who  by  his  wisdom  as  a  politician,  and  exploits  as  a  general,  made  it  a 
powerful  kingdom,  and  paved  the  way  to  his  son's  greatness.  Macedon  had  twenty- 
one  kings,  from  Caranus  to  Alexander  inclusive :  after  the  conqueror's  death,  when 
his  dominions  were  divided  among  his  generals,  Cassander  seized  Macedon,  and 
established  a  new  kingdom. 


Reign  of  Caranus      .         .         .         b.c.  814 

Reign  of  Perdiocas  1 729 

Reign  of  Argaeus  1 678 

Reign  of  Philip  1 640 


Reign  of  JBropas ;  be  conquers  the  11- 

lyrians  .         *         .        .        b.c.  602 

Reign  of  Amyntas         ....  547 

Reign  of  Alexander  I.  4£i7 


MAC 


[325  ] 


MAG 


MACEDON,  continued. 

Reign  of  Perdiooas  II.  .  .    b.c.    454 

Archelaus,  natural  son  of  Perdiooas, 
murders  the  legitimate  heirs  of  his 
father,  and  seizes  the  throne  .  .  .  413 
He  is  sumamed  the ' '  Patron  of  Learning  **  411 
He  is  murdered  by  a  favourite  to  whom 
he  promised  his  daughter  in  marriage, 
yet  gave  her  to  another      .  .    399 

Reign  of  Amyntas  II.  .  .  .  .  399 
He  is  driven  from  the  throne  .  .  396 
Recovers  his  crown,  and  puts  Pausanias 

to  death 397 

The  Ulyrians  enter  Macedonia,  expel 
Amyntas,  and  put  Argaeus,  brother  of 
Pausanias,  on  the  throne   .         .         .    39S 
Amyntas  again  recovers  bis  kingdom     .    39U 
Reign  of  Alexander  IL       .        . '       .    .    371 
He  is  assassinated  ....    370 

Reign  of  Perdiccas  IIL  .  .  .  .  366 
He  is  kUled  in  batUe  ....  360 
Reign  of  Philip  II.  and  institution  of  the 

Macedonian  phalanx      .  .    .    360 

Philip  gains  the  batUe  of  Methon  over 

the  Athenians 360 

He  defeats  the  Illyrians  in  a  desperate 

engagement 3fi9 

He  takes  Amphipolis,  and  receives  an 

arrow  in  his  right  eye. — See  Archery  .  358 
He  conquers  Thrace  and  lUyria  .  .  356 
Birth  of  Alexander  the  Great  .  .  356 
Philip  adds  to  his  conquests  .  .  .  348 
Closeof  the  first  Sacred  war  .  .    348 

niyrioum  overrun  by  the  army  of  Philip  344 
Thrace  made  tributary  to  Macedon  .  .  343 
Aristotle  appointed  tutor  to  the  young 

prince  Alexander  ....  343 
War  against  the  Athenians  .  .  .  341 
Philip  besi^res  Byzantium    .  .341 

Battle  of  Chaeronea;  Philip  conquers. 

— See  Chteronea 338 

Philip  is  assassinated  by  Pausanias,  at 
Egaea,  during  the  celebration  of  games 
in  honour  of  his  daughter's  nuptials    .    336 
Alexander  III.,  sumamed   the   Great, 
succeeds  his  father    ....    336 

He  enters  Greece 335 

The  Greeks  appoint  him  general  of  their 

armies  against  the  Persians  «    335 

The  Thebans  revolt ;  he  levels  Thebes  to 
the  ground;  the  house  of  Pindar  is 
alone  left  standing  •    •    336 

The  Almighty  favours  Alexander  with  a 
vision,  in  which  the  high-priest  of  the 
Jews  appears  to  him,  exhorting  him 
to  pass  into  Asia.— See  Jei{!«  .  .  334 
He  passes  into  Asia,  and  gains  his  first 
battle   over   Darius. — Bee    Oranictu, 

Battled/ 334 

Sardis  surrenders  to  the  conqueror  ;  Ha- 
lioamassus  is  taken,  and  numerous 
cities  in  Asia  Minor    ....    334 
Memnon  ravages  the  Cyclades ;  Darius 
takes  the  field  with  460,000  infantry, 
and  100,000  cavalry          .         .         .    .    333 
Battle  of  Issus  {which  tee)      .        .         .    333 
Alexander  in  his  way  to  Egypt,  lays  siege 
to  Tyre,  which  is  destroyed  after  seven 
months 332 


Damascus  is  taken,  and  the  vast  treasures 
of  Darius  come  into  the  possession  of  the 

victor fi.c.    332 

Gaza  surrenders 332 

Alexander  enters  Jerusalem ;  and  Egypt 

conquered 332 

Alexandria  founded  .         .    .    332 

Great  battle  of  Arbela,  the  third  and  last 
between  Alexander  and  Darius ;  the 
Persian  army  totally  defeated.'-fiee 

Arbela 331 

Alexander  proclaimed  master  of  Asia ; 
he  enters  Babylon  in  triumph        .    .    331 

ORACIAN  OR  MACBDONIAN  BMPIIUE. 

Alexander  sits  on  the  throne  of  Darius, 

atSusa 330 

Parthia  and  Hyrcania  are  overrun  by 

Alexander 329 

Thalestris,  queen  of  the  Amazons,  visits 
him,  attendedby  a  retinue  of  300  wo- 
men.— See  Amazon*  ....    329 
He  puts  his  friend  Parmenio  to  death,  on 
a  charge  of  conspiracy,  supi)OBed  to  be 

false 329 

Alexander  makes  more  conquests  .    328 

His  expedition  to  India  ;  Poms,  king  of 
India,  is  defeated  and  taken ;  and  the 
country  as  far  as  the  Ganges  is  overrun.    327 
Callisthenes  is  put  to  the  torture  for  re- 
fusing to  render  divine  homage  to 

Alexander 328 

Suljection  of  the'.Cosseans    .        .        .    326 
Death  of  Alexander  .         .         .    .    323 

His  conquests  are  divided  among  his 

generals 323 

His  remains  are  transported  to  Alexan- 
dria, and  buried  by  Ptolemy  .         .    .    322 
The  Greeks  defeated  by  sea  and  land  near 

Cranon,  which  see  .  ,  .  .  322 
Thebes  rebuilt  by  Cassander  .  .  .  315 
Seleucus  recovers  Babylon  .  .  .  312 
Cassander  puts  Roxana  and  her  son  to 

death,  and  usurps  the  throne  .    .311 

Battle  of  Ipsus,  which  see       .        .         .301 
New  division  of  the  empire        .        .    .    301 

MACBOON  II. 

Death  of  Cassander       ...        .298 

Reign  of  Alexander  and  Antipater    .    .  298 
Demetrius  murders  Alexander,  and  seizes 

the  orown  of  Macedon  .  .  .  294 
Irruption  of  the  Gauls  .  .  .  .  279 
Reign  of  Antigonus  Gonatus  .  277 
Pyrrhus  invades  Macedon,  defeats  Anti- 
gonus, and  is  proclaimed  king  .  .  274 
Pyrrhus  slain ;  Antigonus  restored  .  272 
Antigonus  takes  Athens  .  .  .  268 
The  Gauls  again  invade  Macedon  .  .  268 
Revolt  of  the  Parthians  .  .  .  .  250 
Reign  of  Demetrius  U.  .  .  .  242 
Reign  of  Philip,  his  son  .  .  .  .  232 
His  war  against  the  Rhodians  .  .  202 
Philip  is  defeated  by  the  Romans  .  .  198 
He  is  totally  subdued  ....  196 
The  reign  of  Perseus  .  .  .  .  179 
Perseus  defeated  by  the  Romans    .  17 1 


MAC 


[  326  J 


MAD 


The  ooosal  JBatuiUm  Panlns  cnten  Macedon,  and  pronomioes  it  a  Roman  province. 
Peneos  and  hia  tons  are  made  prisonen,  168  b.c.,  and  next  year  walk  in  chains  be- 
fore the  chariot  of  ^milios  in  his  triumph  fw  the  oonqnest  of  Macedon.  The 
eonntry  is  finally  oonqoered  by  the  Tnrks  nnder  Amnrath  II.  in  a.d.  1429. — PrtetUe^. 

MACHIAYELIAN  PRINCIPLES.  These  are  prindples  laid  down  by  Nicholas 
Machiavel,  of  Florence,  in  his  Praetiee  of  PoUdcs,  and  7!^  Prince.  By  some  they 
are  stigmatised  as  "  the  most  pemicions  maxims  of  gOTcmmenty  founded  on.  the 
▼ilest  policy ;"  and  by  others  as  "  sound  doctrines,  notwithstanding  the  prejudice 
enoneooaly  raised  against  them."  The  work  speared  in  1517 ;  and  was  translated 
into  English  in  1761*. 

MACKEREL.  Formally  permitted  to  be  cried  in  the  streets  of  London  on  Sundays, 
A.D.  1698 ;  although  it  is  beliered  that  the  priTilege  allowed  to  it  in  this  respect,  on 
account  of  its  perishable  nature,  as  well  as  to  milk,  is  of  the  earliest  date. 

MADAGASCAR.  One  of  the  largest  islands  in  the  world,  disooTcred  by  Lorenzo  Al- 
meida, A.D.  1506.  In  the  centre  of  the  island  is  said  to  exist  a  race  of  dwarfs,  with 
a  strange  peculiarity  of  form ;  but  this  rests  on  the  unsupported  statement  of  a 
French  traTcller  who  was  in  possession  of  a  preserred  pigmy  which  he  had  brought 
from  Madagascar.  A  paper  describing  the  pigmy  was  presented  to  the  Royal  So- 
ciety by  an  eminent  physician,  in  1809. 

MADEIRA.  So  called  on  account  of  its  woods ;  it  was  disoorered,  it  is  said,  by  Mr. 
Macham,  an  English  gentleman,  or  mariner,  who  fled  from  England  for  an  illicit 
amour.  He  was  driven  here  by  a  storm,  and  his  mistress,  a  French  lady,  dying,  he 
made  a  canoe,  and  carried  the  news  of  lus  discovery  to  Pedro,  king  of  Arragon, 
which  occasioned  the  report  that  the  island  was  discovered  by  a  Portuguese,  a.d. 
1345.  But  it  is  maintained  that  the  Portuguese  did  not  visit  this  island  until  1419, 
nor  did  they  colonise  it  until  1431.  It  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  British  in 
July  1801.  And  again,  by  admiral  Hood  and  general  (now  viscount)  Beresford, 
Dec.  24,  1807,  and  retained  in  trust  for  the  royal  family  of  Portugal,  which  had  just 
then  emigrated  to  the  Brazils.    It  was  subsequently  restored  to  the  Portuguese  crown. 

MADRAS.  Colonised  by  the  English,  and  Fort  George  built  by  permission  of  the 
king  of  Golconda,  17  James  I.,  1620.  Madras  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1746, 
and  was  restored  in  1749,  immediately  after  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  For  oc- 
currences not  mentioned  below,  see  article  India, 


1701 

.  1726 

.    .  1746 

.  1749 

Dec  IS,  1758 

April  1769 

July  1770 


Fort  St.  George  made  a  presidency     .    .  1654 

Bengal  placed  under  Madias  .  1658 

Calcutta,  which  was  hitherto  subordinate 
to  Madras,  is  now  made  a  presidency 

Mayor's  court  founded  . 

Madras  taken  by  the  French 

Restored  to  the  English 

Besieged  by  the  French     . 

Hyder  marches  to  Madras     . 

Sir  John  Lindsay  arrives  . 

He  is  succeeded  here  by  sir  R.  Hartland, 

Sept.  1771 

Sir  Eyre  Coote  arrives         .         Nov.  5,  1780 

He  defeats  Hyder   .         .         .     July  1,  1781 

Lord  Macartney  arrives  as  gay&mar  of 
Madras        ....  June  22,  1781 

The  Mildras  government  arrests  general 
Stoart,  who  is  forthwith  sent  to  Eng- 
land   1783 

Lord  Comwallis  visits  here     .     Dec  12,  1790 

Sir  Chas.  Oakley  succeeds  gen.  Meadowcs 
as  governor  of  this  presidency,  Aug.  1,  1792 

Assizes  ordered  twice  yearly  .         .  1793 

Lord  Momington  (now  the  marquess 
Wellesley)  visits  here      .         .      Dec.  1796 

General  Harris  with  the  Madras  army 
enters  Mysore        .         .         March  5,  1799 


He  arrives  with  his  torcea  at  Seringa- 
patam April  5,  1799 

Seringapatam  is  stormed  by  the  British 
under  major-general  Baiid,  and  Tippoo 
Saib  killed  .        May  4,  1799 

A  fire  consumes  upwards  of  1000  houses 
in  Madras     ....      Febu  1803 

The  Madras  army  under  general  Arthur 
WeUedey  (now  duke  of  Wellington) 
marches  for  Poonah  .     March  1803 

General  Wellesley's  victories  foUow. — 
See  India,  &c 1803 

Mutiny  among  the  British  forces  at  Tel- 
lore;   near  800  sepoys  are  executed 

Jan.  31,  1807 

Mutiny  of  the  troops  at  Madras     .         .  1809 

Arrival  of  lord  Minto  at  Madras,  who 
publishes  a  general  amnesty   Sept.  29,  1809 

Awful  hurricane,  by  which  the  ships  at 
anchor  were  driven  into  the  town,  and 
seventy  sail  sunk,  many  of  them  with 
their  crews         .  .         May  181 1 

Madras  attacked  by  the  Pindarees         .  1817 

[For  subsequent  events  in  connexion 
with  this  presidency,  see  article  India."] 


*  The  ¥rriting8  of  this  celebrated  politician  countenanced  (another  commentator  says)  '*  the  doing 
of  any  act  to  compass  or  bring  about  those  things  which  are  neiUier  honourable  nor  just,  whereby 
ambitious  sovereigns  or  evil  ministers  may  accomplish  what  their  extravagant  dedres  prompt  them 
*o,  at  the  expense  of  their  subjects'  peace,  or  their  country's  saieiy.*'— Ferguson 


MAD Q  327  ] MAG 

MADRID.  Mentioned  in  history  as  a  castle  belonging  to  the  Moors.  It  was  sacked 
A.D.  1109.  It  was  made  the  seat  of  the  Spanish  court  in  1516.  The  Escurial  was 
built  in  1557,  et  aeq.  The  old  palace  was  burnt  down  in  1734.  The  French  took 
possession  of  this  city  in  March  1808,  after  the  royal  family  had  retired  into  France ; 
and  on  May  2,  the  citizens  rose  up  in  arms  to  expel  them,  when  a  dreadful  conflict 
and  carnage  took  place.  Joseph  Buonaparte  entered  Madrid  as  king  of  Spain, 
July  20,  1808  ;  but  soon  retired.  Retaken  by  the  French,  Dec.  2,  same  year ;  and 
retained  till  Aug.  12,  1812,  when  Madrid  was  entered  by  the  British  army.  Fer- 
dinand YII.  was  restored,  May  14,  1814.  Madrid  was  the  scene  of  various  occur- 
rences during  the  late  civil  war,  for  which  see  Spain, 

MAESTRICHT.  This  city  revolted  from  Spain  1570,  and  was  taken  by  the  prince  of 
Parma  in  1579.  In  1632,  the  prince  of  Orange  reduced  it  after  a  memorable  siege, 
and  it  was  confirmed  to  the  Dutch  in  1648.  Lewis  XIV.  took  it  in  1673  ;  WUliam 
prince  of  Orange  invested  it  in  vain,  in  1676 ;  but  in  1678,  it  was  restored  to  the 
Dutch.  In  1748,  it  was  besieged  by  the  French,  who  were  permitted  to  take  pos- 
session of  the  city  on  condition  of  its  being  restored  at  the  peace  then  negotiating. 
At  the  commencement  of  1793,  Maestricht  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  the 
French,  but  they  became  masters  of  it  toward  the  end  of  the  following  year.  In 
1814,  it  was  delivered  up  to  the  allied  forces. 

MA6DALENS  and  MAGDALENETTES.  Communities  of  nuns  and  women,  the 
latter  class  consisting  chiefly  of  penitent  courtesans.  The  convent  of  Naples  was 
endowed  by  queen  Sancha  a.d.  1324.  That  at  Metz  was  instituted  in  1452.  At 
Paris,  1492.  The  Magdalen  at  Rome  was  endowed  by  pope  Leo  X.,  in  1515  ;  and 
Clement  YIII.  settled  a  revenue  on  the  nuns,  and  further  ordained  that  the  effects 
of  all  public  prostitutes  who  died  without  will  should  fall  to  them,  and  that  those 
who  made  wills  should  not  have  their  bequests  sanctioned  by  the  law  unless  they  be- 
queathed a  pari  of  their  effects  to  the  Magdalen  institutions,  which  part  was  to  be 
at  least  one-fifth,  1594.  The  Magdalen  hospital,  London,  was  founded  in  1758, 
principally  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Dodd.  The  Asylum  in  Dublin  was  opened 
in  June  1766. 

MAGELLAN,  Straits  of.  They  were  passed  by  Ferdinand  Magellan  (Fernando  de 
Magelha^ns).  a  Portuguese,  with  a  fleet  of  discovery  fitted  out  by  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  in  1519.  The  first  voyage  round  the  world  was  undertaken  by  this  illus- 
trious navigator ;  and  his  vessel  performed  the  enterprise  although  the  commander 
perished.  The  Spaniards  had  a  fort  here,  since  called  Cape  Famine,  because  the 
garrison  had  all  perished  for  want  of  food. 

MAGI,  OR  WORSHIPPERS  OF  FIRE.  The  prime  object  of  the  adoration  of  the 
Persians  was  the  invisible  and  incomprehensible  God,  whom,  not  knowing,  they 
worshipped  as  the  principle  of  all  good,  and  they  paid  particular  homage  to  fire,  as 
the  emblem  of  his  power  and  purity.  They  built  no  altars  nor  temples,  as  they 
deemed  it  absurd  to  pretend  to  confine  an  omnipresent  God  within  walls  ;  accord- 
ingly their  sacred  fires  blazed  in  the  open  air,  and  their  offerings  were  made  upon 
the  earth.  The  Magi  were  their  priests,  and  their  skill  in  astronomy  rendered  the 
secrets  of  nature  familiar  to  them,  so  that  the  term  Magi  was  at  length  applied  to  all 
learned  men,  till  they  were  finally  confounded  with  the  magicians.  Zoroaster,  king 
of  Bactria,  was  the  reformer  of  the  sect  of  the  Magi :  he  flourished  1080  b.c. — 
Du  Fresnoy, 

MAGIC  LANTERN.  This  was  the  invention  of  the  illustrious  Roger  Bacon,  Eng- 
land's great  philosopher,  about  a.d.  1260.  Bacon  first  invented  the  convex  magni- 
fying glasses  in  1252 ;  and  he  afterwards,  in  his  many  experiments,  applied  them  to 
this  use. 

MAGNA  CHARTA.  The  great  charter  of  English  liberty  may  be  said  to  have  been 
derived  from  Edward  the  Confessor,  continued  by  Henry  I.  and  his  successors,  Ste- 
phen, Henry  II.  and  John.  But  the  Charter  more  particularly  meant,  was  a  body 
of  laws,  the  great  charter  of  our  rights  granted  by  John,  and  signed  at  Runnymede, 
near  Windsor,  June  15,  1215.  The  barons  took  arms  to  enforce  this  sacred  posses- 
sion, which  was  many  times  confirmed,  and  as  frequently  violated,  by  Henry  III. 
This  last  king's  grand  charter  was  granted  in  the  9th  year  of  his  reign,  1224,  and 
was  assured  by  Edward  I.  It  is  remarked,  that  when  Henry  III.  granted  it,  he 
swore  on  the  word  and  faith  of  a  king,  a  Christian,  and  a  knight,  to  observe  it.     For 


HAG  |_  328  2  ^^I 

i  this  grant  a  fifteenth  of  all  moveable  goods  were  given  to  the  king,  whether  they 
were  temporals  or  spiritnals ;  yet  sir  Edward  Coke  says  that  even  in  his  days  it  had 
been  confirmed  above  thirty  times. — See  Foreata^  Charter  of  the, 

MAGNET.  Sturmins,  in  his  Episiola^  dated  at  Altorf,  1682,  observes,  that  the  at- 
tractive quality  of  the  magnet  has  been  taken  notice  of  from  time  immemorial ;  but, 
that  it  was  our  countryman,  Roger  Bacon,  of  Uchester,  in  Somersetshire  (he  died 
the  17th  of  June,  1294),  who  first  discovered  its  property  of  pointing  to  the  north 
pole.  The  Italians  discovered  that  it  could  communicate  its  virtue  to  steel  or 
iron.  The  variation  not  being  always  the  same  was  taken  notice  of  by  Hevelius, 
Petil,  and  others.  Flavio  Gioja,  of  Naples,  invented  or  improved  the  mariner's 
compass,  in  1302.  The  important  discovery  of  the  inclination  or  dip  of  the  magnetic 
needle  was  made  about  1576  (published  1580)  by  Robert  Norman,  of  London.  Dr. 
Gilbert's  experiment  was  made  in  1600.  Artificial  magnets  were  invented,  or  rather 
improved,  in  1751. 

MAGNESIA.  It  was  in  use  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  it  was 
sold  by  a  Roman  canon  as  Magnesia  Alba.     Some  state  that  it  was  known  some 

»  time  before.  The  properties  of  this  substance  were  fully  developed  by  Dr.  Black, 
about  1755. 

MAGNOLIA.  The  Magnolia  glauoa  was  brought  to  these  countries  from  N.  America 
in  A.D.  1688.  The  laurel-leaved  Magnolia,  Magnolia  grandiftorat  was  brought 
from  N.  America  about  1734.  The  dwarf  Magnolia,  Magnolia  pumila,  was  brought 
from  China  in  1789.  And  the  following  varieties  also  from  China,  viz.,  the  brown- 
stalked,  1789  ;  the  purple,  1790  ;  and  the  slender,  1804. 

MAHOMETISM. — See  Alcoran  and  Koran.  The  creed  of  Mahomet  was  promul- 
gated  A.D.  604,  by  Mahomet,  styled  by  some  writers  as  a  renowned  general  and 
politician ;  and  by  others  as  a  successful  impostor  and  tyrant.  Mahomet  asserted 
that  the  Koran  was  revealed  to  him  by  the  angel  Gabriel  during  a  period  of  twenty- 
three  years.  It  was  written  in  the  Koreish  Arabic,  which  he  asserted  was  the 
language  of  Paradise,  and  it  is  considered  as  possessing  every  fine  quality  of  a  lan- 
guage. It  has  1000  terms  for  sword,  500  for  lion,  200  for  serpent,  and  80  for  honey. 
It  is  spoken  and  written  in  various  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  Mahomet  died  in  631, 
of  the  effects,  it  is  said,  of  a  slow  poison,  given  to  him  in  a  piece  of  mutton  three 
years  before,  by  a  Jew,  who  took  this  method  to  discover  if  he  was  a  true  prophet, 
and  immortal,  as  he  had  declared  himself  to  be. —  Frideaux, 

MAIDA,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  commanded  by  general  Regnier,  and  the 
British  under  major-general  sir  John  Stuart.  The  French  were  nearly  double  the 
number  of  the  British,  yet  the  latter  gained  a  glorious  victory  on  the  **  Plains  of 
Maida,"  a  village  in  Calabria,  the  loss  of  the  enemy  being  most  severe,  July  4, 1806. 

MAIDEN.  An  instrument  for  executing  criminals,  in  some  respects  similar  to  a  later 
invention,  the  guillotine,  first  known  at  Halifax  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. — See 
Halifax.  This  instrument  was  introduced  into  Scotland  by  the  regent  Morton,  for 
the  decapitation  of  his  political  opponents,  but  he  himself  suffered  by  it  on  a  very 
doubtful  charge  of  high  treason,  in  1581. — See  Guillotine. 

MAIMING  AND  WOUNDING.  Made  capital  by  statute  22  Charles  II.  1670.  This 
is  called  the  Coventry  Act,  it  having  been  occasioned  by  an  assault  on  sir  John 
Coventry,  M.P.  who  was  cut  and  maimed,  and  his  nose  slit  up  in  the  streets,  by  sir 
John  Saunders  and  others,  in  revenge,  it  is  supposed,  for  some  obnoxious  words 
uttered  by  him  in  debate.  This  was  one  of  the  laws  revised  by  Mr.  (now  sir  Robert 
Peel)  in  his  digest  of  the  statutes,  between  4  and  9  Geo.  lY.  1823-9. 

MAIL-COACHES.  They  were  first  set  up  at  Bristol  in  1784  ;  and  were  extended  to 
other  routes  in  1785,  at  the  end  of  which  year  they  became  general  in  England. 
This  plan  for  the  conveyance  of  letters  was  the  invention  of  Mr.  Palmer  of  Bath ; 
the  mails  had  been  previously  conveyed  by  carts  with  a  single  horse,  or  by  boys  on 
horseback.  Mail-coaches  were  exempted  from  tolls  in  1785.  From  the  establish- 
ment of  these  mails  the  prosperity  of  the  post-office  commenced  ;  and  the  revenue, 
which  at  first  was  not  more  than  5000/.  a  year,  and  which  after  the  revolution  of  two 
centuries,  only  produced,  in  1783,  146,000/.  annually,  yielded  thirty  years  afterwards, 
nearly  1,700,000/.  The  later  amount  of  the  annual  receipts  of  the  post-office  was 
about  2,400,000/.  until  the  recent  reduction  of  the  postage. 


MAJ 


[_  329  3  **^^ 


MAJESTY.  Among  the  Romans,  the  emperor  and  imperial  family  were  addressed  by 
this  title,  which  was  previously  given  to  their  great  officers  of  stote.  Popes  also  had 
the  title  of  majesty.  The  emperors  of  Germany  took  the  title,  and  endeavoured  to 
keep  it  and  the  dosed  crown  to  themselves.  It  was  first  given  to  Louis  XI.  of 
France,  in  1461.— Fo/tetrtf.  Upon  Charles  V.  being  chosen  emperor  of  Germany  in 
1519,  the  kings  of  Spain  took  the  style  of  Majesty.  Francis  I.  of  France  at  the 
interview  with  Henry  VIII.  of  England  on  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  addressed 
the  latter  as  Your  Majesty,  1520. — See  Field  of  the  Cloth  ofG<M,  James  I.  coupled 
this  title  with  the  term  **  Sacred,"  and  "  Most  Excellent  Majesty.*'— See  Titles. 

MAJORCA  AND  MINORCA.     For  occurrences  relating  to  these  islands,  see  Minorca. 

MALDON,  Essex.  This  town  was  built  28  B.C.  Some  suppose  it  to  have  been  the 
first  Roman  colony  in  Britain.  •  It  was  burnt  by  queen  Boadicea,  and  was  rebuilt  by 
the  Romans  in  the  first  century.  It  was  burnt  by  the  Danes,  and  was  rebuilt  by  the 
Saxons.  Maldon  was  incorporated  by  Philip  and  Mary.  The  singular  custom  of 
borottgh-English  is  kept  up  here,  by  which  the  youngest  son,  and  not  the  eldest, 
succeeds  to  the  burgage  tenure,  on  the  death  of  his  father. — See  Borough- English. 

MALPLAQUET,  Battle  of.  The  allies  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and  prince 
Eugene,  against  the  arms  of  France  commanded  by  marshal  Yiiiars.  The  armies 
consisted  on  each  side  of  nearly  120,000  choice  soldiers,  and  the  victory  was  with  the 
allies  ;  but  this  action  was  attended  with  great  slaughter  on  both  sides,  the  allies 
losing  18,000  men,  which  loss  was  but  ill^repaid  by  the  capture  of  Mons  ;  fought 
Sept.  11,  1709. 

MALT.  Barley  prepared  by  malting  for  brewing  and  distillation.  A  duty  was  laid  upon 
this  article  in  1667,  1697,  et  seq.  ;  and  the  statutes  relating  to  it,  and  to  its  prepara- 
tion, are  very  numerous.  Important  acts  for  the  regulation  of  malt  duties  were 
passed  8  Geo.  IV.  1827,  and  11  Geo.  IV.  1830.  Act  regulating  the  business  of 
maltsters  passed  1  Victoria,  July  12,  1837. 

BUSHKLS  OF  MALT  BLADK  IN  THB  UNITIED  KfKODOM  IN  THB  FOIXOWINO  VBARA,  VIZ. : 


49,892,012 


39.666,632 

MALTA,  Knights  of.   A  military-religious  order,  called  also  Hospitallers  of  St.  John 
of  Jerusalem,  Knights  of  St.  John,  and  Knights  of  Rhodes.     Some  merchants  of  ' 
Melphis,  trading  to  the  Levant,  obtained  leave  of  the  caliph  of  Egypt  to  build  a 
house  for  those  who  came  on  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and  whom  they  received  with 
zeal  and  charity,  a.d.  1048.    They  afterwards  founded  an  hospital  for  the  sick,  from 
whence  they  were  called  Hospitallers.    This  foundation  was  laid  in  a.d.  1104,  in  the 
reign*of  Baldwin,  and  they  now  became  a  military  order  in  1118,  into  which  many 
personages  of  quality  entered,  and  changed  their  name  into  knights'.     After  the 
Christians  had  lost  their  interest  in  the  East,  and  Jerusalem  was  taken,  the  knights 
retired  to  Margett,  and  then  to  Acre,  which  they  defended  valiantly  in  1 290  ;  then 
they  followed  John,  king  of  Cyprus,  who  gave  them  Limisson  in  his  dominions,  where 
they  staid  till  1310,  and  that  same  year  they  took  Rhodes,  under  the  grand  master 
Foulques  de  Vallaret,  and  next  year  defended  it  under  the  duke  of  Savoy,  against 
an  army  of  Saracens ;  since  when,  his  successors  have  used  F.  E.  R.  T.  for  their 
device,  that  is,  Foriitudo  ejus  Rhodum  tenuity  or,  he  kept  Rhodes  by  his  valour ; 
from  this  they  were  called  knights  of  Rhodes ;  but  Rhodes  being  taken  by  Solyman  in 
1522,  they  retired  into  Candia,  thence  into  Sicily.      Pope  Adrian  VI.  granted  them 
the  city  of  Viterbo  for  their  retreat;  and  in  1530,  the  emperor  Charles  V.  gave  them 
the  isle  of  Malta.    The  emperor  Paul  of  Russia  declared  himself  grand-master  of  the 
order  in  June,  1799. 

MALTA.  The  memorable  siege  by  the  Turks,  who  were  obliged  to  abandon  the  enterprise 
after  the  loss  of  30,000  men,  1566.  The  island  was  taken  by  general  Buonaparte  in 
the  outset  of  his  expedition  to  Egypt,  June  12,  1798.  He  found  in  it  1200  cannons, 
200,000  lbs.  of  powder,  two  ships  of  the  line,  a  frigate,  four  galleys,  and  40,000  mus- 
kets :  besides  an  immense  treasure  collected  by  superstition ;    and  4500  Turkish 


1825.  England  .  Buih.  29,572,742 

1835.  England  .  Bush.  36.078,856 

Scotland        .      .    3,925.847 

Scotland     .      .  .    4,459.552 

Ireland      .      .   .    2,706,862 

36,205.451 

Ireland    .      .      .    2,353,604 

1830.  England  .      .      .  23.428,074 

1840.  England  .      .      .  33,376.720 

Scotland     .      .   .    3,712.964 

Scotland    .      .  .    4,374.328 

Ireland    .      .      .    2,012,639 

2fl-lia.lW7 

Ireland    .     .      .    1.915,584 

1 


MAM  Q  330  3  MAN 

prisoners,  whom  he  set  at  liberty.     Malta  was  blockaded  by  the  British  firom  the 
aatamn  of  1798,  and  was  taken  by  major-general  Pigot,  Sept.  5,  1800 ;  bat  at  the 

Esace  of  Amiens  it  was  stipulated  that  it  should  be  restored  to  the  knights.     The 
ritish,  however,  retained  possession,  and  the  war  recommenced  between  the  two  na- 
tions :  but,  by  the  treaty  of  Puis,  in  1814,  the  island  was  guaranteed  to  Great  Britain. 

MAMELUKES.  The  name  of  a  dynasty  which  reigned  a  considerable  time  in  Egypt. 
They  were  originally  Turkish  and  Circassian  slaves,  and  were  established  by  the 
sultan  Saladtn  as  a  kind  of  body-guard,  a.d.  1246.  They  advanced  one  of  their  own 
corps  to  the  throne,  and  oontinu^  to  do  so  until  Egypt  became  a  Turkish  province 
in  1517,  when  the  beys  took  them  into  pay,  and  filled  up  their  ranks  with  ren^ades 
from  Tarious  countries.  On  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Buonaparte  in  1798,  they 
retreated  into  Nubia.  Assisted  by  the  Amauts,  who  were  introduced  into  the  country 
in  the  war,  the  Mamelukes  once  more  wrested  Egypt  from  the  Turkish  government. 
In  1811,  they  were  decoyed  into  the  power  of  the  Turkish  pacha,  and  skdn. 

MAN,  Isle  of.  Conquered  from  the  Scots  in  1314,  by  Montacute,  earl  of  Samm,  to 
whom  Edward  III.  gave  the  title  of  king  of  Man.  In  1341  it  was  subjected  to  the 
earl  of  Northumberland,  on  whose  attainder  Henry  lY.  granted  it  in  fee  to  sir  John 
Stanley,  1406 ;  it  was  taken  from  this  family  by  Elizabeth,  and  conferred  by  the 
crown,  in  1608,  on  the  earl  of  Derby,  through  whom  it  fell  by  inheritance  to  the  duke 
of  Athol,  1735.  He  received  70,000/.  from  parliament  for  the  sovereignty  in  1765; 
and  the  national  expenditure  was  charged  with  the  further  sum  of  132,944/.  for  the 
purchase  of  the  duke's  interest  in  the  revenues  of  the  island  in  Jan.  1829. 

MAN,  Bishopric  of.  Erected  by  pope  Gregory  IV.  It  had,  united  to  its  diocese, 
the  Western  Isles  of  Scotland,  which,  when  Man  became  dependent  upon  England, 
withdrew  their  obedience  and  had  a  bishop  of  their  own.  The  patronage  of  the 
diocese  was  given,  together  with  the  island,  to  the  Stanleys,  (see  preceding  article,) 
and  it  ultimately  came,  by  an  heir-female,  to  the  duke  of  Athol.  llie  duke  nominates 
the  bishop  to  the  king,  who  sends  him  to  the  archbishop  of  York  for  consecration. 
This  prelate  is  not  a  lord  of  parliament,  not  holding  from  the  king  himself.  This 
bishopric  is  united  to  that  of  Sodor,  a  village  of  Icolmkill,  one  of  the  Hebrides  of 
Scotland  ;  this  latter  was  formerly  a  bishop's  see,  which  comprehended  all  the  islands 
together  with  the  isle  of  Man  ;  and  the  bishop  of  Man  is  called  Bishop  of  Sodor 
and  Man. 

MANCHESTER.  An  ancient  British  station,  it  is  said,  500  years  before  the  Christian 
era. —  Whitaker,  It  was  one  of  the  eight  places  of  sanctuary,  which  privilege  was 
removed  to  Chester  a.d.  1541. — Idem.  Cbetham  college  was  founded  about  1651. 
The  Manchester  navigation  was  opened  in  1761.  The  lunatic  hospital  was  founded 
1766.  The  Agricultural  society  was  instituted  1767.  The  new  bridge  completed 
1785.  The  fine  exchange  built  1808.  At  the  launch  of  a  vessel,  which  keeled  and 
upset,  upwards  of  200  persons,  then  on  deck,  were  precipitated  into  the  river,  and 
fiffcy-one  perished,  Feb.  29,  1828.  In  a  riot  here  a  factory  was  burnt,  and  a  vast  quan- 
tity of  machinery  was  destroyed,  May  3, 1829.  The  railway  to  Liverpool  was  opened 
Sept.  15,  1830,  when  Mr.  Huskisson  lost  his  life. — See  Liverpool.  The  Manchester 
police  act  passed,  3  Yictoria,  Aug.  26,  1839. 

MANCHESTER,  Bishopric  of.  An  order  in  council  was  published  in  the  London 
Gazette  in  October,  1838,  declaring  that  the  sees  of  St.  Asaph  and  Bangor  shall  be 
united  on  the  next  vacancy  in  either,  and  that  upon  the  occurrence  of  that  event  the 
bishopric  of  Manchester  shall  be  immediately  created  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
archiepiscopai  see  of  York  ;  and  that  the  county  of  Lancaster  shall  form  the  see  of 
the  new  bishop,  being  for  that  purpose  detached  from  the  diocese  of  Chester. 

MANCHESTER  REFORM  MEETING.  Memorable  for  its  fatal  termination.  The 
assembly  consisted  of  from  60  to  100,000  persons,  men,  women,  and  children,  all  in 
holiday  spirits.  Mr.  Hunt,  who  took  the  chair,  had  spoken  a  few  words,  when  the 
meeting  was  suddenly  assailed  by  a  charge  of  the  Manchester  cavalry,  assisted  by  a 
Cheshire  regiment  of  yeomanry,  and  a  regiment  of  hussars,  the  outlets  being  occu- 
pied by  other  military  detachments.  The  unarmed  multitude  were  in  consequence 
driven  one  upon  another,  by  which  many  were  killed,  while  others  were  rode  over  by 
the  horses,  or  cut  down  by  their  riders.  The  deaths  were  11  men,  women,  and 
children  ;  and  the  wounded  about  600,  Aug.  16,  1819. — Phillips, 

MANNHEIM.   First  built  in  a.d.  1606 ;  and  became  the  court  residence  in  1719 ;  but 


MAN  [_  331  ]  MAP 

the  extinction  of  the  palatinate  family  in  1777  caused  the  removal  of  the  court  to 
Munich.  Battle  of  Mannheim,  between  the  armies  of  the  allies  and  the  French, 
fought  May  30,  1793.  Mannheim  surrendered  to  the  French,  under  command  of 
general  Pichegru,  Sept.  20,  1795.  On  the  25th  of  the  same  month,  the  Austrians 
under  general  Wurmser,  defeated  the  French  near  the  city.  Several  battles  were 
fought  with  various  success  in  the  neighbourhood  during  the  late  wars.  Kotzebue, 
the  popular  dramatist,  was  assassinated  at  Mannheim,  by  a  student  of  Wurtzburg, 
named  Sandt,  April  2,  1819. 

MANICHEANS.  An  ancient  sect,  founded  by  Manes,  which  began  to  infest  the  East, 
about  A.D.  277.  It  spread  into  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Africa,  and  particularly  into 
Persia.  A  rich  widow,  whose  servant  Manes  had  been,  left  him  a  store  of  wealth, 
after  which  he  assumed  the  title  of  apostle,  or  envoy  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  announced 
that  he  was  the  paraclete  or  comforter  that  Christ  had  promised  to  send.  He  main- 
tained two  principles,  the  one  good,  and  the  other  bad ;  the  first  he  called  light, 
which  did  nothing  but  good,  and  the  second  he  called  darkness,  which  did  nothing  but 
evil.  Several  other  sects  sprung  from  the  Manicheans.  Manes  was  put  to  death 
by  Sapor,  king  of  Persia,  in  290.  His  offence  against  this  prince  was,  his  having 
dismissed  the  physicians  of  the  court,  pretending  he  could  cure  one  of  the  royal  family 
by  his  prayers,  instead  of  which  the  patient  died  in  his  arms. — Nouv,  Diet,  Hist. 

MANILLA.  Capital  of  the  Philippine  Isles ;  a  great  mart  of  Spanish  commerce. 
3000  persons  persons  perished  here  by  an  earthquake  in  1645.  Manilla  was  taken  by 
the  English  in  1 757  ;  and  again  in  Oct.  1762,  by  storm.  The  captors  humanely  suf- 
fered the  archbishop  to  ransom  it  for  about  a  million  sterling ;  but  great  part  of 
the  ransom  never  was  paid.  Since  the  establishment  of  a  free  trade  in  the  Spanish 
colonies,  which  took  place  in  1783,  the  usual  Acapulco  ships  and  other  government 
traders  have  been  discontinued  ;  and  the  commerce  to  the  Manillas  and  other  parts, 
is  carried  on  in  private  bottoms  by  free  companies  of  merchants. — Butler, 

MANSION-HOUSE,  London.  The  residence  of  the  first  magistrate  of  the  first  city 
in  the  world.  This  great  pile  of  building  is  situated  at  the  east  end  of  the  Poultry, 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Stocks'-market.  It  was  built  by  Dance  the  elder.  Its 
erection  was  commenced  in  1739,  but  not  completed  till  1753;  it  is  of  an  oblong 
form,  and  constructed  of  Portland  stone.  From  its  massive  style,  and  vast  extent, 
it  is  calculated  to  make  a  magnificent  appearance  ;  but  the  effect  is,  in  a  great  mea- 
sure, destroyed  by  its  still  confined  situation,  and  the  heavy  superstructure  over  the 
pediment. — Leigh, 

MANTINEA,  Battle  of,  between  Epaminondas,  at  the  head  of  the  Thebans, 
and  the  combined  forces  of  Lacedsemon,  Achaia,  Elis,  Athens,  and  Arcadia.  The 
Theban  general  was  killed  in  the  engagement,  and  from  that  time  Thebes  lost  its 
power  and  consequence  among  the  Grecian  states,  363  B.C. — Strabo, 

MANTUA.  Virgil  was  bom  at  a  village  near  this  city.  Mantua  surrendered  to  the 
French,  Jan.  7,  1797,  after  a  siege  of  eight  months  ;  and  it  was  attacked  by  the 
Austrian  and  Russian  army,  July  30,  1799,  to  which  it  surrendered  after  a  short 
siege.  In  1800,  after  the  battle  of  Marengo,  the  French  again  obtained  possession 
of  it ;  but  they  delivered  it  up  to  the  Austrians  in  1814. 

MANTUA-MAKER.  The  word  is  supposed  by  some,  and  we  think  rightly,  to  be  a 
corruption  from  manteaUf  French.  Others  assert  that  a  court-dress  was  early  known 
in  England  by  the  name  of  Mantua,  either  on  account  of  its  having  been  invented  at 
Mantua,  or  from  t}ie  celebrated  Manto,  in  honour  of  whom  that  famous  city  was 
built  by  her  son  Bianor,  or  Ochnus,  about  1000  b.c. — Butler, 

MAPLE-TREE  :  Acer  rubruMf  or  scarlet  Maple,  was  brought  to  these  countries 
from  N.  America,  before  a.d.  1656.  The  Acer  Negundoy  or  the  ash-leaved  maple, 
was  brought  to  England  before  1688. 

MAPS  AND  CHARTS.  They  were  invented  by  Anazimander,  the  Milesian  philosopher, 
a  disciple  of  Thales,  and  the  earliest  philosophical  astronomer  on  record,  570  b.c. 
He  was  also  the  first  who  constructed  spheres.  A  celestial  chart  was,  it  is  said,  con- 
structed in  China,  in  the  sixth  century. — Freret,  And  sea-charts  were  first  brought 
to  England,  by  Bartholomew  Columbus,  to  illustrate  his  brother's  theory  respecting 
a  western  continent,  a.d.  1489.  The  earliest  map  of  England  was  drawn  by  George 
Lilly  in  1520.  Mercator*s  charts,  in  which  the  world  was  taken  as  a  plane,  was 
invented  in  1556.  A  map  of  the  moon's  surface  was  first  drawn  at  Dantzic,  in 
1647 See  Charts, 


MAR  12  332  3  MAR 

MARATHON,  Battlb  of.  One  of  the  most  extraordinary  in  ancient  history.  The 
Greeks  were  only  10,000  strong,  and  the  Persians  amounted  to  500,000.  The'former 
were  commanded  by  Miltiades,  Aristides,  and  Themistocles,  who  defeated  the  Per- 
sians, leaving  200,000  dead  npon  the  field.  Among  the  number  of  the  slain  was 
Hippias,  the  instigator  of  the  war  ;  the  remainder  of  the  Persian  army  were  forced 
to  re-embark  for  Asia,  Sept  28,  490  b.c. 

MARBLE.  Dipsenus  and  Scyllis,  statuaries  of  Crete,  were  the  first  artists  who  sculp- 
tured marble,  and  polished  their  works  ;  all  statues  previously  to  their  time  being  of 
wood,  568  B.C. — Pliny.  Marble  afterwards  came  into  use  for  statues,  and  the 
columns  and  ornaments  of  fine  buildings,  and  the  edifices  and  monuments  of  Rome, 
were  constructed  of,  or  ornamented  with,  fine  marble.  The  ruins  of  Palmyra  prove 
that  its  magnificent  structures,  which  were  chiefly  of  white  marble,  were  far  more 
extensive  and  splendid  than  those  of  even  Rome  itself.  These  latter  were  discovered 
by  some  English  travellers  from  Aleppo,  a.d.  1678. — See  Palmyra, 

MARCH.  This  was  the  first  month  of  the  year,  until  Numa  added  January  and  Feb- 
ruary, 713  B.C.  Romulus,  who  divided  the  year  into  months,  gave  to  this  month  the 
name  of  his  supposed  father  Mars ;  though  Ovid  observes,  that  the  people  of  Italy 
had  the  month  of  March  before  the  time  of  Romulus,  but  that  they  placed  it  very 
differently  in  the  calendar.  The  year  formerly  commenced  on  the  25th  day  of  this 
month. — See  Year. 

MARCHERS.  The  name  which  distinguished  noblemen  who  lived  on  the  marches  of 
Wales  or  Scotland,  boundaries  formerly  settled  between  England  and  Wales,  and 
England  and  Scothmd  ;  and  who,  according  to  Camden,  had  their  laws  and  poles' 
ias  vita,  j;c.,  like  petty  princes.  They  were  abolished  by  statutes  27  Henry  VIII. 
1535,  and  1  Edward  VI.  1546. 

MARCIONITES.  These  were  heretics,  whose  founder  was  Marcion.  They  differed 
very  little  from  the  Manichees,  except  that  they  worshipped  a  brazen  serpent.  The 
Marcionites  preceded  the  Manichees  or  Manicbeans,  and  taught  their  doctrines 
about  140  A.D. — Cave's  Hist,  Lit. 

MARCOU,  St.,  Isles  of,  in  the  English  Channel,  near  the  coast  of  France.  They 
were  taken  by  sir  Sidney  Smith,  in  July,  1795  ;  and  were  ably  defended  by  lieut. 
Price  against  the  French  troops.  May  7,  1798. 

MARENGO,  Battle  of.  In  this  ever-memorable  engagement  the  French  army  was 
commanded  by  Buonaparte,  against  the  Austriaus,  and  after  prodigies  of  valour,  his 
army  was  retreating,  when  the  timely  arrival  of  general  Dessaix  (who  was  afterwards 
mortally  wounded  in  this  battle)  turned  the  fortunes  of  the  day.  The  slaughter  on 
both  sides  was  dreadful :  the  Austrians  lost  6000  in  killed,  12,000  in  prisoners,  and 
45  pieces  of  cannon ;  and  though  the  French  boasted  that  the  loss  on  their  side  did 
not  much  exceed  3000  men,  it  was  afterwards  known  to  be  vastly  more,  June  14, 
1800.  By  a  treaty  between  the  Austrian  general  Melas  and  the  conqueror,  Buona- 
parte, signed  on  the  next  day,  twelve  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Italy  were  put  into 
possession  of  the  latter  :  and  he  became,  in  fact,  the  master  of  Italy. 

MARESCHAL,  or  MARSHAL.  In  France,  marshals  were  the  ancient  esquires  of 
the  king  ;  and  by  their  first  institution  they  had  the  command  of  the  van-guard,  to 
observe  the  enemy,  and  to  choose  proper  places  for  its  encampment.  TiU  the  time 
of  Francis  I.  in  a.d.  1515,  there  were  but  two  French  marshals,  who  had  500  livres 
per  annum  in  war,  but  no  stipend  in  time  of  peace.  The  rank  afterwards  became  of 
the  highest  military  importance,  the  number  was  without  limit,  and  the  command 
supreme.  During  the  empire  of  Napoleon,  the  marshals  of  France  filled  the  world 
with  their  renown.— See  Marshal,  Field, 

MARIGNAN,  Battb  of,  near  Milan,  in  Italy,  one  of  the  most  furious  engagements 
of  modem  times.  In  this  sanguinary  conflict,  which  happened  between  the  heroic 
Swiss  and  the  French  under  Francis  the  First,  upwards  of  twenty  thousand  men 
were  slain ;  the  former,  after  losing  all  their  bravest  troops,  were  compelled  to  retire, 
September  13,  1515. 

MARINE  FORCES.  The  first  authentic  account  we  have  of  a  regular  corps  of  this 
description,  appears  in  the  Army  List  of  1 684  ;  but  the  era  of  the  formation  of  this 
species  of  force  has  not  been  well  ascertained.  A  new  establishment  of  marine 
officers,  consisting  of  a  general,  lieutenant-general,  and  three  colonels  of  marines,  one 


MAR  £  333  ]  MAR 

for  each  dmsioa,  was  formed  by  George  II.,  in  the  last  year  of  his  reign,  1760  ; 
about  which  period  it  amounted  to  9138  men.  In  the  last  years  of  the  war,  ending 
in  1815,  it  amounted  to  35,668  officers  and  men. 

MARINER'S  COMPASS.  The  Chinese  ascribe  the  invention  of  the  compass  to  their 
emperor  Hong-Ti,  who  they  say  was  a  grandson  of  Noah  ;  and  some  of  their  his- 
torians  refer  the  invention  of  it  to  a  later  date,  1115  B.C.  See  Compass,  The 
honour  of  its  discovery,  though  much  disputed,  is  generally  given  to  Flavio  de 
Gioja,  or  Giovia,  a  native  of  Amalfi,  an  ancient  commercial  city  of  Naples,  a.d. 
1302.  The  variation  of  the  needle  was  first  discovered  by  Columbus  in  his  voyages 
of  discovery,  1492  ;  and  it  was  observed  in  London  in  1580.  The  dipping-needle 
was  invented  by  Robert  Norman,  a  compass-maker  of  Ratcliffe,  in  that  year. 

MARK.  This  coin  originated  among  the  northern  nations,  and  the  name  mark-lubs  is 
still  retained  in  Denmark,  as  money  of  account.  In  Englaod,  the  mark  means  the 
sum  of  thirteen  shillings  and  fourpence  ;  and  here  the  name  is  also  retained  in  par- 
ticular cases  of  fines  being  adjudged  against  infractors  of  the  law  in  criminal 
courts. — Ashe, 

MARLBOROUGH,  Statutes  of.  These  were  the  celebrated  laws  which  were 
enacted  in  the  castle  of  Marlborough,  in  Wiltshire,  in  the  51st  year  of  Henry  III., 
1267.  All  these  laws  still  bear  the  title  of  the  Statutes  of  Marlborough,  and  some 
of  them  continue  to  be  referred  to,  to  this  day. 

MARQUE,  Letters  of.  Instruments  authorising  the  subjects  of  one  prince  to  make 
reprisals  upon,  and  capture  the  ships,  property,  and  subjects  of  another  prince  or 
country.  Some  such  instruments  are  said  to  have  been  first  used  by  the  Venetian 
government.  The  first  letters  of  marque  granted  in  England  were  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  I.,  against  the  Portuguese,  a.d.  1295. — Rymer's  Foedera, 

MARQUESS.  This  dignity,  called  by  the  Saxons  Markin-Reve,  and  by  the  Germans 
Markgrave,  took  its  original  from  Mark  or  March,  which,  in  the  language  of  the 
northern  nations,  is  a  limit  or  bound,  and  their  office  was  to  guard  or  govern  the 
frontiers  of  a  province.  It  has  the  next  place  of  honour  to  a  duke,  and  was  intro- 
duced several  years  after  that  title  had  been  established,  in  England.  The  first  on 
whom  it  was  conferred,  was  the  great  favourite  of  king  Richard  II.,  Robert  de  Vere, 
earl  of  Oxford,  who  was  created  marquess  of  Dublin,  and  by  him  placed  in  parliament 
between  the  dukes  and  earls,  a.d.  1385.  Alexander  Stewart,  second  son  of  James 
III.  of  Scotland,  was  made  marquess  of  that  kingdom,  as  marquess  of  Or- 
mond,  in  1480. 

MARRIAGE.  The  first  institution  of  this  union  between  man  and  woman  for  life, 
with  certain  ceremonies  of  a  binding  and  solemn  nature,  is  ascribed  to  Cecrops, 
king  of  Athens,  1554  b.c,  ^Eusebius  Pre/,  to  Chron,  The  prevailing  ceremony  in 
most  countries  was  that  of  a  man  leading  home  his  bride,  after  a  solemn  contract 
with  her  friends.  To  render  this  contract  the  more  sacred,  it  was  made  the  work  of 
the  priest,  instead  of  being  that  of  a  civil  magistrate  adopted  by  several  civilised  na- 
tions. The  celebration  of  marriage  in  churches  was  ordained  by  pope  Innocent  III., 
about  A.D.  1199.  Marriage  was  forbidden  in  Lent,  a.d.  364.  It  was  forbidden  to 
bishops  in  692,  and  to  priests  in  1015  ;  and  these  latter  were  obliged  to  take  the 
vow  of  celibacy  in  1073.  Marriages  were  solemnized  by  justices  of  the  peace  under 
an  act  of  the  Commons  in  Oliver  Cromwell's  administration,  1 653.  A  tax  was  laid 
on  marriages,  viz. :  on  the  marriage  of  a  duke  50/.,  of  a  common  person  2s,  6</.,  the 
8th  of  William  III.,  1695.  Marriages  were  again  taxed  in  1784.  There  have  been 
enacted  various  recent  statutes  relating  to  marriages ;  and  more  toleration  is  now 
given  to  marriages  by  Roman  Catholic  priests  in  Ireland.  A  statute  which  passed 
4  Will.  IV.,  July  1834,  repeals  all  former  acts  which  prohibited  marriages  by  Ro- 
man Catholic  priests  in  Scotland,  or  other  ministers  not  belonging  to  the  Church  of 
Scodand.  Act  to  render  the  children  of  certain  marriages  within  forbidden  degrees 
of  kindred  valid,  6  Will.  IV.,  Aug.  1835.  New  Marriage  Act  for  England,  passed 
7  Will.  IV.,  17  Aug.  1836.  Marriage  Registration  Act,  1  Victoria,  30  June,  1837. 
Amendment  Act,  4  Victoria,  7  Aug.,  1840. 

NUMBSR  OF  MARRIAGES  IN  BNOLAND  SOLBMNISED  AT  THB  FOLLOWING  PERIODS. 

1830.  Registered     .    .  102,437 
1840.  England    and. 

Wales    .         .  121,083 


1750.  Registered 

.    40,300 

1815.  Registered 

.    91,946 

1800.  Ditto 

.    73,228 

1820.  Ditto    . 

.    96,883 

1810.  Ditto    . 

84,473 

1825.  Ditto 

.    96,378 

MAR  Q  334  2  MAU 

In  France,  the  marriages  were  208,893  in  1820—243,674  in  1825— and  259,177  in 
1830.  As  respects  Paris,  the  statistics  of  that  city,  which  are  Tery  minute  and  cu- 
rious, furnish  the  following  classes  as  occurring  in  7754  marriages  :— 

Bachelors  and  maids    ....  6,456  I  Widowers  and  maids  ....     708 
Basholors  and  widows 368  I  Widowers  and  widows      .        .  222 

MARRIAGE  ACT,  Rotal.  This  statute  is  a  bill  of  restriction  with  respect  to  the 
marriages  of  the  royal  family  of  England ;  and  was  passed  into  a  law  12  George  III., 
1772.  It  became  expedient  because  just  preyionsly  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  the 
king's  brother,  had  married  the  widow  of  the  earl  Waldegraye,  and  the  duke  of 
Cumberland,  the  widow  of  colonel  Horton  and  daughter  of  lord  Imham.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  bill,  none  of  the  descendants  of  George  II.,  unless  of  foreign  birth, 
can  enter  into  the  matrimonial  state  under  the  age  of  twenty-fiTe,  unless  with  the 
consent  of  the  king,  and,  at  and  after  that  age,  the  consent  of  parliament  is  neces- 
sary to  render  the  marriage  Talid. 

MARRIAGES,  Doublb.  There  are  some  instances  of  a  husband  and  two  wives  (but 
they  are  very  rare)  in  countries  where  polygamy  was  interdicted  by  the  state.  The 
first  Lacediemonian  who  had  two  wives  was  Anazandrides,  the  son  of  Leon,  about 
510  B.C.  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  married  two  wives,  viz. :  Doris,  the  daughter  of 
Xenetus,  and  Aristomache,  sister  of  Dion,  398  b.c.  These  would  be  unnecessarily 
extended ;  but  the  most  remarkable  case  is  that  of  the  count  Gleichen,  a  German 
nobleman,  who  was  permitted,  under  interesting  and  peculiar  circumstances,  by 
Gregory  IX.,  in  a.d.  1237,  to  marry  and  live  with  two  wives. — Arnaud. 

MARRIAGES,  Forcbd.  The  statute  3  Henry  VII.,  1487,  made  the  principal  and 
abettors  in  marriages  with  heiresses,  &c.,  being  contrary  to  their  will,  equally  guilty 
as  felons.  By  the  39th  Elizabeth,  1596,  such  felons  were  denied  the  benefit  of 
clergy.  This  offence  was  made  punishable  by  transportation,  1  George  IV.,  1820. 
The  remarkable  case  of  Miss  Wharton,  heiress  of  the  house  of  Wharton,  whom  cap- 
tain Campbell  married  by  force,  occurred  in  William  III.'s  reign.  Sir  John  John- 
ston was  hanged  for  seizing  the  young  lady,  and  the  marriage  was  annulled  by  par- 
liament, 1690.  Edward  Gibbon  Wakefield,  William  Wakefield,  and  Frances 
Wakefield,  were  tried  at  Lancaster,  and  found  guilty  of  the  felonious  abduction  of 
Miss  Turner,  March  24, 1827  ;  and  the  marriage  of  the  first  of  these  persons  with  the 
young  lady  was  dissolved  by  an  immediate  act  of  parliament,  8  Geo.  IV.,  same  year. 

MARRIAGES  BY  SALE.  Among  the  Babylonians  at  a  certain  time  every  year,  the 
marriageable  females  were  assembled,  and  disposed  of  to  the  best  bidder,  by  the 
public  crier.  The  richest  citizens  purchased  such  as  pleased  them  at  a  high  price  ; 
and  the  money  thus  obtained  was  used  to  portion  off  those  females  to  whom  nature 
had  been  less  liberal  of  personal  charms.  When  the  beauties  were  disposed  of,  the 
crier  put  up  the  more  ordinary  lots,  beginning  with  the  most  ill-favoured  among 
those  that  remained,  announcing  a  premium  to  the  purchaser  of  each  :  the  bidders 
were  to  name  a  sum  below  the  given  premium,  at  which  they  would  be  willing  to 
take  the  maid  ;  and  he  who  bid  lowest  was  declared  the  purchaser.  By  these  means 
every  female  was  provided  for.  This  custom  originated  with  Atossa,  daughter  of 
Belochus,  about  1433  b.c.  In  Sparta,  when  the  females  were  marriageable,  they 
were  assembled  at  stated  times  in  a  dark  chamber,  where  the  young  men  who 
wanted  wives,  were  sent  into  them,  and  they  selected  one  each,  about  884  b.c 

MARSEILLES.  Is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Phoceans,  about  600  b.c. 
— Univ.  Hist,  Cicero  styled  it  the  Athens  of  Gaul.  It  was  taken  by  Julius 
Caesar  after  a  long  and  terrible  siege ;  and  it  was  sacked  by  the  Saracens,  a.d.  473. 
Marseilles  became  a  republic  in  1214.  It  was  subjected  to  the  counts  of  Provence 
in  1251 ;  and  was  again  united  to  the  crown  of  France  in  1482.  In  1649  the  plague 
raged  with  great  violence  in  Marseilles,  and  with  still  greater  in  1720,  when  it  car- 
ried off  50,000  of  the  inhabitants. 

MARSHALS.  Two  officers  called  marshals  were  appointed  in  the  city  of  London,  in 
order  to  keep  the  streeto  clear  of  vagrants,  and  to  send  the  sick,  blind,  and  lame  to 
asylums  and  hospitals  for  relief,  9  Elizabeth,  1567. — Northottck, 

MARSHALS,  FIELD,  in  the  British  Army.    The  rank  is  of  modem  date,  and  was 
preceded  by  that  of  captain-general,  and  that  also  of  commander-in-chief.    The  first 
military  chiefs  bearing  the  rank  of  marshal  were  those  of  France.    Geo.  II.  first  con- 
«d  the  rank  upon  John,  duke  of  Argyle,  and  Greorge,  earl  of  Orkney,  in  1736. 


MAR  [  335  ]  MAR 

MARSHALSEA  COURT.  The  court  of  Marshalsea  of  the  Queen's  house  is  a  very 
ancient  court,  one  of  high  dignity,  and  coeval  with  the  common  law.  Siuce  the  de- 
cision of  the  case  of  the  Marshalsea  (see  Lord  Coke's  10  Rep.  68),  no  business  has 
been  done  in  this  court ;  but  it  is  r^^larly  opened  and  adjourned  at  the  same  time 
with  the  Palace  court,  created  in  1665  ;  and  the  judges  and  other  officers  are  the 
same  as  in  the  Palace  court. — See  Palace  Court. 

MARSTON  MOOR,  Battle  of.  This  battle  was  the  beginning  of  the  misfortunes 
and  disgrace  of  the  unfortunate  Charles  I.  of  England.  The  Scots  and  parliamen- 
tarian army  had  joined,  and  were  besieging  York,  when  prince  Rupert,  joined^  by 
the  marquis  of  Newcastle,  determined  to  raise  the  siege.  Both  sides  drew  up  on 
Marston  Moor,  to  the  number  of  fifty  thousand,  and  the  victory  seemed  long  unde- 
cided between  them.  Rupert,  who  commanded  the  right  wing  of  the  royalists,  was 
opposed  by  Oliver  Cromwell,  who  now  first  came  into  notice,  at  the  head  of  a  body 
of  troops  whom  he  had  taken  care  to  levy  and  discipline.  Cromwell  was  victorious ; 
he  pushed  his  opponents  off  the  field,  followed  the  vanquished,  returned  to  a  se- 
cond engagement  and  a  second  victory.  The  prince's  whole  train  of  artillery  was 
taken,  and  the  royalists  never  afterwards  recovered  the  blow ;  fought  July  3,  1644. 

MARTINIQUE.  This  and  the  adjacent  isles  of  St.  Lucia  and  St.  Vincent,  and  the 
Grenadines,  were  taken  by  the  British  from  the  French  in  February  1762.  They 
were  restored  to  France  at  the  peace  of  the  following  year.  They  were  again  taken 
March  16,  1794;  were  restored  at  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1802;  and  were  again 
captured  February  23,  1809.  A  revolution  took  place  in  this  island  in  favour  of 
Napoleon,  but  it  was  finally  suppressed  by  the  British,  June  1,  1815  ;  and  Mar- 
tinique reverted  to  its  French  masters  at  the  late  general  peace. 

MARTINMAS.  This  day  is  named,  according  to  Dr.  Johnson,  from  Martin  and 
mass.  It  is  the  feast  of  St  Martin,  who  was  bishop  of  Tours  in  the  fourth  century. 
The  festival  is  observed  on  the  11th  of  November ;  and  in  many  parts  of  the  north 
of  England,  and  parts  of  Scotland,  it  continues  to  be  one  of  &e  quarter-days  for 
receiving  rents. 

MARTYRS.  The  Christian  Church,  Catholic  and  Protestant,  has  abounded  in  martyrs, 
and  history  is  filled  with  accounts  of  their  wonderful  constancy  to  their  faith.  The 
festivals  of  the  martyrs  are,  many  of  them,  of  very  ancient  date,  and  took  their  rise 
about  the  time  of  Polycarp,  who  suffered  martyrdom  a. d.  168.  England  has  had 
its  Christian  martyrs  ;  and  the  accounts  of  those  who  suffered  for  their  adherence  to 
the  Protestant  religion  would  fill  volumes.  The  following  documents  in  connexion 
with  the  fate  of  Cranmer,  Latimer,  and  Ridley,  are  of  melancholy  interest.  They 
are  taken  from  a  **  Book  of  the  Joint  Diet,  Dinner ^  and  Supper ^  and  the  charge 
thereoff  for  Cranmer,  Latimer f  and  Ridley,**  kept  by  the  bailiffs  of  Oxford,  while 
they  were  in  the  custody  of  those  officers,  previously  to  their  being  burnt  alive  : — 


1st  OCTOBBR,  1054.— OINNBIl. 

Bread  and  ale         .                 .          j^O  0    2 

Oysters 0  0    1 

Butter             0  0    2 

Eggs            0  0    2 

Lyng 0  0    8 

A  piece  of  fresh  salmon       .        .    .    0  0  10 

Wine 0  0    3 

Cherae  and  pears  .        ..002 


.£0 

1 

4 

.    0 

3 

4 

.    0 

0 

(> 

.    0 

2 

8 

Item,  a  post 
Item,  2  chains 
Item,  2  staples    . 
Item,  4  labourers 


£16    8 
[They  were  burnt  on  October  the  16th,  1555.] 

CHAROK    FOR   THE    BITRNINO    OF    THJfi    BODY  OF 
CRANMKR. 

Fur  100  of  wood  faggots  for  the  fire 
For  100  and  ^  of  furze 
For  the  carriage  of  them 
For  two  labourers 


The  three  dinners     .  XO    2    6 

TO  BURN  L.ATIMSR  AND  RIDLEY. 

For  3  load  of  wood  faggots  to  bum 

Latimer  and  Ridley  .         .    .    0  12    0 

Item,  1  load  of  furze  faggots    .         .034 
Item,  for  the  carriage  of  these  4  loads    0    2    6     [He  was  burnt  on  March  the  2l8t,  in  1556.] 

MARTYRS,  Era  of.  This  is  also  called  the  era  of  Diocletian,  and  was  used  by  the 
writers  of  ecclesiastical  history  until  the  Christian  era  was  introduced  in  the  sixth 
century  ;  and  it  still  continued  to  be  the  era  of  some  nations,  particularly  the  Abys- 
sinians  and  Copts.  It  commences  from  the  day  upon  which  Diocletian  was  pro- 
claimed emperor,  August  29,  a.d.  284  ;  and  the  persecutions  of  the  Christians  in  his 
reign  caused  it  to  be  so  called. 


0 

6 

0 

0 

3 

4 

0 

0 

8 

0 

2 

8 

£0  12 

8 

BIAS 


[  333  J 


MAS 


MASKS.  Poppiea,  the  wife  of  Nero,  is  said  to  have  invented  the  mask  to  guard  her 
complexion  from  the  aim.  Bat  theatrical  masks  were  in  use  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  Horace  attributes  them  to  .£schylus ;  yet  Aristotle  says  the  real  inventor 
and  time  of  their  introduction  were  unknown.  Modem  masks,  and  muffs,  fans,  and 
false  hair  for  the  women,  were  devised  by  the  harlots  of  Italy,  and  brought  to  Eng- 
land from  France  in  lb7 2,-^ Stowe* a  Chron, 

MASQUERADES.  They  were  in  fashion  in  the  court  of  Edward  III.  1340  ;  and  in 
the  reign  of  Charles,  1660,  masquerades  were  frequent  among  the  citizens.  The 
*bishops  preached  against  them,  and  made  such  representations  as  occasioned  their 
suppression,  9  Gfeorge  I.  1723.  [No  less  than  six  masquerades  were  subscribed  for 
in  a  month  at  this  time].  They  were  revived,  and  carried  to  shameful  excess  by 
connivance  of  the  government,  and  in  direct  violation  of  the  laws,  and  tickets  of 
admission  to  a  masquerade  at  Ranelagh  were  on  some  occasions  subscribed  for  at 
twenty-five  guineas  each,  1 776. — Mortimer. 

MASS.  In  the  Romish  church,  mass  is  the  office  or  prayers  used  at  the  celebration 
of  the  eucharist,  and  is  in  general  believed  to  be  a  representation  of  the  passion  of 
our  Saviour.  Hence  every  part  of  the  service  is  supposed  to  allude  to  the  particular 
circumstances  of  his  passion  and  death.  The  general  division  of  masses  consists  in 
high  and  low  :  the  first  is  that  sung  by  the  choristers,  and  celebrated  with  the 
assistance  of  a  deacon  and  sub-deacon  ;  low  masses  are  those  in  which  the  prayers 
are  barely  rehearsed  without  singing.  Mass  was  first  celebrated  in  Latin,  about  a.o. 
394.  Its  celebration  was  first  introduced  into  England  in  the  seventh  century. 
Prostration  was  enjoined  at  the  elevation  of  the  host  in  1201. 

MASSACRES.  Ancient  and  modem  history  abound  with  events  which  class  under 
this  head  ;  and  perhaps  the  most  frightful  and  unprovoked  enormities  of  this  kind 
have  been  perpetrated  by  opposing  Christian  sects,  one  upon  another,  in  vindication 
of  the  Christian  religion  1  The  following  are  among  the  most  remarkable  massacres 
recorded  by  various  authors  : — 


BBPORB  CHRIST. 

Of  all  the  Carthaffenians  in  Sicily,  which  took 
place  397  b.c. 

2000  Tyrians  crucified,  and  8000  put  to  the 
sword  for  not  surrendering  Tyre  to  Alex- 
ander, 331  &c. 

The  Jews  of  Antioch  fall  upon  the  other 
inhabitants,  and  massacre  100,000  of  them, 
for  refusing  to  surrender  their  arms  to  De- 
metrius Nicanor,  tyrant  of  Syria,  154  b.c. 

A  dreadful  slaughter  of  the  Teutones  and 
Ambrones,  near  Aiz,  by  Marius,  the  Roman 
general,  200,000  being  left  dead  on  the  spot, 
102  B.C. 

The  Romans,  throughout  Asia,  women  and 
children  not  excepted,  cruelly  massacred 
in  one  day,  by  order  of  Mithridates,  king  of 
Pontus,  88  B.C. 

A  great  number  of  Roman  senators  massacred 
by  Cinna,  Marius,  and  Sertorius.  Many 
patricians  despatch  themselves  to  avoid  their 
horrid  butcheries,  86  b.c. 

Again,  under  Sylla,  and  Catiline,  his  minister 
of  vengeance,  83  and  79  b  c. 

At  Praeneste,  Octavianus  Caesar  ordered  300 
Roman  senators  and  other  persons  of  dis- 
tinction, to  be  sacrificed  to  the  manes  of 
Julius  Caesar,  41  b.c. 

AFTER  CHRIST. 

At  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  1,100,000  of 
Jews  were  put  to  the  sword,  a.d.  70. 

The  Jews,  headed  by  one  Andrae,  put  to  death 
100,000  Greeks  and  Romans,  in  and  near 
Cyrene,  a.d.  115. 

Cassius,  a  Roman  general  under  the  emperor 
M.  Aurelius,  put  to  death  400,000  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Seleucia,  a.d.  167> 


At  Alexandria,  many  thousands  of  citizens 
are  massaored,  by  an  order  of  Antoninus, 
A.D.  213. 

The  emperor  Probus  put  to  death  700,000  of 
the  inhabitants  upon  his  reduction  of  Oaul, 
A.D.  277. 

Of  eighty  Christian  fathers,  by  order  of  the 
emperor  Gratian,  at  Nicomedia ;  they  were 
put  into  a  ship  which  was  set  on  fire,  and 
then  driven  out  to  sea,  a.d.  370. 

Of  Thessalonioa,  when  7000  persons,  invited 
into  the  circus,  were  put  to  the  sword,  by 
order  of  Theodosius,  a.d.  390. 

Belisarius  put  to  death  above  30,000  citizens 
of  Constantinople  for  a  revolt,  to  which  they 
were  impelled  by  the  tyranny  and  exactions 
of  two  rapacious  ministers  set  over  them, 
A.D.  552. 

Massacre  of  the  Latins  at  Constantinople,  by 
order  of  Andronicus,  a.d.  1184. 

Of  the  Albigenses  and  Waldenses,  commenced 
at  Toulouse,  a.d.  1209.  Tens  of  thousands 
perished  by  means  of  the  sword  and  gibbet. 

The  Sicilians  massacre  the  French  throughout 
the  whole  Island  of  Sicily,  without  distinc- 
tion of  sex  or  age,  on  Easter-day,  the  first 
bell  for  vespers  being  the  signal.  This 
horrid  affair  is  known  in  history  by  the 
name  of  the  Sicilian  vespers,  a.d.  1282. — 
Dm  Fresnoy. 

A  general  massacre  of  the  Jews  at  Verdun, 
by  the  peasants,  who,  from  a  pretended  pro- 
phecy, conceived  the  Holy  Land  was  to  be 
recovered  from  the  infidels  by  them.  500  of 
these  Jews  took  shelter  in  a  castle,  and  de- 
fended themselves  to  the  last  extremity, 
when,  for  want  of  weapons,  they  threw  their 


MAS 


Q  337  ] 


MAS 


MASSACRES,  continued. 

children,  at  the  enemy*  and  then  killed 
each  other,  a.d.  1317. 

At  Paris,  of  several  thousand  persons,  at  the 
instance  of  John,  duke  of  Burgundy, 
A.D.  1418. 

Of  the  Swedish  nobility,  at  a  feast,  by  order 
of  Christian  II.  a.d.  1520. 

Of  70,000  Huguenots,  or  French  Protestants 
throughout  the  kingdom  of  France,  at- 
tended with  circumstances  of  the  most 
horrid  treachery  and  cruelty.  It  began  at 
Paris,  in  the  night  of  the  festival  of  St. 
Bartholomew,  August  24,  1572,  by  secret 
orders  from  Charles  IX.,  king  of  France,  at 
the  instigation  of  the  queen  dowager,  Cath- 
erine de  Medicis,  his  mother.  It  is  styled  in 
history,  the  Massacre  of  St  Bartholomew. 

Of  the  Christians  in  Croatia,  by  the  Turks, 
when  65.000  were  slain,  a.d.  1592. 

Of  Protestants,  at  Thorn,  put  to  death  under 
a  pretended  legal  sentence  of  the  chancellor 
of  Poland,  for  being  concerned  in  a  tumult 
occasioned  by  a  Roman  Catholic  procession, 
A.O.  1724.  All  the  Protestant  powers  in 
Europe  interceded  to  have  this  unjust  sen- 
tence revoked,  but  unavailingly. 

At  Butavia,  12,000  Chinese  were  massacred 
by  the  natives,  October  1740,  under  the 
pretext  of  an  intended  insurrection. 

At  the  taking  of  Ismael  by  the  Russians, 
30,000  old  and  young  were  slain,  December, 
1790.— 6ee  Ismael. 

In  St.  Domingo,  where  Dessalines  made  pro- 
clamation for  the  massacre  of  all  the  whites. 
Mar.  29, 1804,  and  many  thousands  x)eriBhed. 

Insurrection  at  Madrid,  and  massacre  of  the 
French,  May  2, 1808. 

Massacre  of  the  Mamelukes,  in  the  citadel  of 
Cairo,  March  1, 1811. 

Massacre  at  Nismes,  perpetrated  by  the  Ca- 
tholics, May  1815. 

Massacre  of  vast  numbers  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Cadiz,  by  the  soldiery,  whose  ferocious 
disorders  oontinue  for  some  days,  March 


MASSACRCS  IN  BRITISH  HISTORY. 

Of  300  English  nobles  on  Salisbury  Plain, 
May  1,  A.D.  474. 

Of  the  monks  of  Bangor,  to  the  number  of 
1200,  by  Ethelfrid,  king  of  Northumberland, 
A.D.  580. 

Of  the  Danes  in  the  southern  counties  of 
England,  in  the  night  of  November  13, 1002, 
and  the  23  Ethelred  II.  At  London  it  was 
most  bloody,  the  churches  being  no  sanc- 
tuary. Amongst  the  rest  was  Gunilda, 
sister  of  Swein,  king  of  Denmark,  left  in 
hostage  for  the  performance  of  a  treaty  but 
newly  concluded.— Bafc«rV  Chronicle, 

Of  the  Jews,  in  England.  Some  few  pressing 
into  Westminster  Hall  at  Richard  I.'s  coro- 
nation, were  put  to  death  by  the  people ; 
and  a  false  alarm  being  given  that  the  king 
had  ordered  a  general  massacre  of  them,  the 
people  in  many  parts  of  England,  from  an 
aversion  to  them,  slew  all  they  met.  In 
York,  500,  who  had  taken  shelter  in  th« 
castle,  killed  themselves,  rather  than  fall 
into  the  hands  of  the  multitude,  a.d.  1189. 

Of  the  Bristol  colonists,  at  Cullen's  Wood, 
Ireland  (see  Cullen's  Wood),  a.d.  1209. 

Of  the  Englidi  factory  at  Amboyna,  in  order 
to  dispossess  its  members  of  the  Spice  Is- 
lands, A.D,  1623. 

Massacre  of  the  Protestants  in  Ireland,  in 
O'NeiU's  rebellion,  Oct.  23. 1641.  Upwards 
of  30,000  British  were  killed  in  the  com- 
mencement of  this  rebellion.^  Sir  William 
Petty.  In  the  first  two  or  three  days  of  it, 
forty  or  fifty  thousand  of  the  Protestants 
were  destroyed.— Xord  Clarendon.  Before 
the  rebellion  was  entirely  suppressed,  154,000 
Protestants  were  massacred. — Sir  J.  Temple. 

Of  the  unoffending  Macdonalds  of  Glencoe, 
May  9. 1691.— See  Olencoe. 

Of  184  men,  women,  and  children,  chiefly 
Protestants,  burnt,  shot,  or  pierced  to  death 
by  pikes,  perpetrated  by  the  insurgent 
Irish,  at  the  bam  of  ScuUabogue,  Ireland, 
in  179a— /S»r  Richard  Musgrave. 


6,1820. 

MASTER  OF  THE  CEREMONIES.  An  officer  in  several  of  the  principal  courU  of 
Europe.  Following  the  usage  in  other  countries,  a  master  of  the  ceremonies  was 
instituted  in  England  for  the  more  honourable  reception  of  the  ambassadors  ijind 
persons  of  quality  at  court,  1  James  I.  1603. — Baker, 

MASTER  IN  CHANCERY.  Owing  to  the  extreme  ignorance  of  Sir  Christopher 
Hatton,  lord  Chancellor  of  England,  the  first  reference  in  a  cause  was  made  to  a 
master,  a.d.  1588  ;  and  the  masters  have  been  since  chosen  from  among  the  most 
learned  equity  members  of  the  bar. 

MASTER  OF  THE  ROLLS.  An  equity  judge,  so  called  from  his  having  the  custody  of 
all  charters,  patents,  commissions,  deeds,  and  recognisances,  which  being  made  into 
rolls  of  parchment,  gave  occasion  for  that  name.  This  repository  of  public  papers, 
called  the  Rolls,  is  situated  in  Chancery  Lane,  and  was  formerly  a  chapel  founded  for 
the  converted  Jews,  but  after  their  having  been  expelled  the  kingdom,  it  was  annexed 
for  ever  to  the  office  of  the  mastership  of  the  rolls.  Here  are  kept  all  the  records 
since  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  king  Richard  IIL  1483  ;  all  prior  to  that  period 
being  kept  in  the  Tower  of  London.  The  Master  of  the  Rolls  is  always  of  the  Privy 
Council.  By  virtue  of  his  office,  he  keeps  a  court  at  the  rolls,  where  he  hears  and 
determines  causes  that  come  there  before  him  ;  but  his  decrees  are  appealable  to  the 
Court  of  Chancery.  The  first  master  of  the  rolls  was  Adam  de  Osgodeby,  appointed 
October  I,  1291. 


MAT  []  338  ]  MAY 

MATHEMATICS.  With  the  ancients  they  meant  all  sorts  of  learning  and  discipline  ; 
but  even  then,  as  now,  in  a  more  particidar  manner,  mathematics  were  restrained  to 
those  arts  that  more  immediately  related  to  numbers  and  quantity.  They  were  first 
taught  to  the  Jews,  and  by  them  to  the  Egyptians,  so  early  as  1950  b^c. —Josephus 
de  jintiq.  Jud, 

MATINS.  The  service  or  prayers  first  performed  in  the  morning  or  beginning  of  the 
day  in  the  Catholic  church.  Emphatically,  the  French  Matins  imply  the  massacre 
of  St.  Bartholomew,  August  24,  1572.  The  Matins  of  Moscow,  the  massacre  of 
prince  Demetrius,  and  iJl  the  Poles  his  adherents,  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning  of 
May  27,  1600. 

MAUNDY-THURSDAY.  Derived  by  Spelman  from  mande,  a  handbasket,  in  which 
the  king  was  accustomed  to  give  alms  to  the  poor  ;  by  others  from  dies  mandati, 
the  day  on  which  our  Saviour  gave  his  great  mandate,  that  we  should  love  one 
another.  The  Thursday  before  Good  Friday. —  Wheatly,  On  this  day  it  was  the 
custom  of  our  kings,  or  their  almoners,  to  give  alms,  and  feed  and  clothe  as  many 
poor  men  as  they  were  years  old.  It  was  begun  by  Edward  III.  at  a  jubilee  held 
by  him  when  he  was  fifty  years  of  age,  a.d.  1363. — Polyd.  VergiL 

MAURITIUS.  The  Isle  of  France  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  a.d.  1500  ;  but 
the  Dutch  were  the  first  settlers  in  1 598.  They  called  it  after  prince  Maurice,  their 
stadtholder,  but  on  their  acquisition  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  they  deserted  it ; 
and  it  continued  unsettled  until  the  French  landed,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  one  of 
the  finest  provinces  in  France.  This  island  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1810,  and 
confirmed  to  them  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1814. 

MAUSOLEUM.  Artemisia,  sister  and  wife  of  Mausolus,  married  her  own  brother^ 
famous  for  his  personal  beauty.  She  was  so  fond  of  her  husband,  that  at  his  death 
she  drank  in  her  liquor  his  ashes  after  his  body  had  been  burned,  and  erected  to  his 
memory  a  monument,  which,  for  its  grandeur  and  magnificence,  was  called  one  of 
the  seven  wonders  of  the  world.  Tlus  monument  she  called  Mausoleum,  a  name 
which  has  been  given  to  all  monuments  of  unusual  splendour.  She  invited  all  the 
literary  men  of  her  age,  and  proposed  rewards  to  him  who  composed  the  elegiac 
panegyric  upon  her  husband.    The  prize  was  adjudged  to  Theopompus,  357  B.C. 

MAY.  The  fifth  month  of  the  year,  and  the  confine  of  spring  and  summer,  received 
its  name,  say  some,  from  Romulus,  who  gave  it  this  appellation  in  respect  to  the 
senators  and  nobles  of  his  city,  who  were  denominated  majores  ;  though  others 
supposed  it  was  so  called  from  Maia,  the  mother  of  Mercury,  to  whom  they  offered 
sacrifices  on  the  first  day  of  it.  Numa  Pompilius,  by  adding  January  and  February 
to  the  year,  made  this  month  the  fifth,  which  before  was  the  third,  713  b.c. 

MAY-DAY.  The  ancient  Romans  used  to  go  in  procession  to  the  grotto  of  Egeria  on 
May-day.  May-day  has  also  been  immemorially  observed  in  England  as  a  rural 
festival ;  and  high  poles,  denominated  May-poles,  are  in  many  places  profusely 
decorated  with  garlands  wreathed  in  honour  of  the  day.  The  late  benevolent  Mrs. 
Montague  gave,  for  many  years,  on  May-day,  an  entertainment  at  her  house  in 
Portman-squarcy  to  that  unfortunate  class  the  chimney-sweepers  of  London.  They 
were  regaled  with  the  good  English  fare  of  roast-beef  and  plum-pudding,  and  a 
dance  succeeded.  Upon  their  departure,  each  guest  received  the  donation  of  a 
shilling  from  the  mistress  of  the  feast  *. 

MAYNOOTH  COLLEGE,  Ireland.  Founded  by  act  of  parliament,  and  endowed 
by  a  yearly  grant  voted  for  its  support,  and  the  education  of  students  who  are 
designed  for  the  priesthood  of  the  Catholic  church  in  Ireland,  35  George  III.  1795. 
It  contains  about  391  students. 

MAYOR.  The  office  of  mayor  arose  out  of  the  immunities  granted  to  free  cities  by 
the  emperors,  and  in  some  towns  they  had  considerable  power.  Mayor  of  the 
palace  was  a  high  office  in  France.     In  this  quality  Charles  Martel  ruled  with 

*  It  is  said,  though  the  statement  is  much  douhted,  that  this  entertainment  was  instituted  to 
commemorate  the  circumstance  of  Mrs.  Montague's  haring  once  found  aboy  of  herown,or  tliat  of  a 
relation,  among  the  sooty  tribe.  In  allusion  to  this  incident,  perhaps,  a  story  resembling  the  ad- 
ventures of  this  lost  child  is  i>athetically  related  by  Montgomery,  in  *•  The  Chimney-Sweeper's  Boy.** 
This  afifecting  poem  supposes  young  Edwin  to  have  been  stolen  about  three  years  old,  by  a  gipsy, 
who  sold  him  to  a  chimney-sweeper  for  five  guineas.  While  sweeping  the  chimneys  of  Alcander's 
house,  his  voice  discovered  him  to  his  mother. — BuiUr. 


MEA. 


C  339  ] 


MEC 


despotic  8way,  a.d.  735,  ei  seq,,  under  the  last  kings  of  the  Merovingian  dynasty  ; 
his  father  had  previoasly  held  this  office,  and  had  it  made  hereditary  in  his  family. 
Mayors  are  the  chief  magistrates  of  corporate  towns,  before  whose  institution  in 
England,  towns  were  generally  governed  by  portreeves.  The  office  of  mayor  may 
be  properly  said  to  date  from  the  reign  of  Richard  I.— See  Lord  Mayor. 

MEAL-TUB  PLOT. — A  forged  conspiracy  against  the  duke  of  York,  afterwards 
James  II.,  and  so  called  from  the  place  where  some  pretended  correspondence  lay 
concealed.  The  plot  was  contrived  by  one  Dangerfield,  who  secreted  a  bundle  of 
seditious  letters  in  the  lodgings  of  colonel  Maunsell,  and  then  gave  information  to 
the  custom-house  officers  to  search  for  smuggled  goods.  After  Dangerfield's  appre- 
hension on  suspicion  of  forging  these  letters,  papers  were  found  concealed  in  a  meal- 
tub  at  the  house  of  a  woman  with  whom  he  cohabited,  which  contained  the  scheme 
to  be  sworn  to,  accusing  the  most  eminent  persons  in  the  Protestant  interest^  and 
who  were  against  the  duke  of  York's  succession,  of  treason, — particularly  the  earls 
of  Shaftesbury,  Essex,  and  Halifax,  a.d.  1679.  On  Dangerfield  being  whipped 
the  last  time,  as  part  of  his  punishment,  one  of  his  eyes  was  struck  out,  which  caused 
his  death. 

MEASURES  AND  WEIGHTS.    They  were  invented  by  Phidon  of  Argos,  869  b.c 

Arund,  Marbles.  They  became  general  in  most  countries  soon  afterwards ;  and 
were  very  early  known  in  England.  Standards  of  weights  and  measures  were  pro- 
vided for  the  whole  kingdom  by  the  sheriffs  of  London,  8  Richard  I.  a.d.  1197. 
Standards  were  again  fixed  in  England,  1257.  They  were  equalised  for  the  United 
Kingdom  in  1825.  Various  acts  have  passed  relating  to  weights  and  measures.  A 
new  act,  passed  in  August  1834,  took  effect,  January  1,  1835. 

MEATH,  Seb  of.  There  were  formerly  many  Episcopal  sees  in  Meath,  as  Clonard, 
Dulick,  Kells,  Trim,  Ardbraccan,  Donshaghlin,  Slane,  and  Foure,  besides  others  of 
less  note ;  all  which,  except  Dulick  and  Kells,  were  consolidated,  and  their  common 
see  was  fixed  at  Clonard,  before  the  year  1151-2  ;  at  which  time  the  divisions  of 
the  bishoprics  in  Ireland  was  made  by  John  Paparo,  then  legate  from  pope  Eugene 
III.  to  the  Irish.  The  two  sees  of  Dulick  and  Kells  afterwards  submitted  to  the 
same  fate.     Meath  was  valued  30  Henry  VIII.  at  373/.  12«.  per  annum, 

MECCA.  This  city  is  famous  for  being  the  birth-place  of  Mahomet,  a.d.  571.  The 
temple  is  a  gorgeous  structure,  much  visited  by  pilgrims.  On  one  of  the  neigh- 
bouring hills  is  a  cave,  where  it  is  pretended  Mahomet  usually  retired  to  perform  his 
devotions ;  and  where  the  greatest  part  of  the  Koran  was  brought  to  him  by  the 
angel  Gabriel,  a.d.  604.  Two  miles  from  the  town  is  the  hill  where  they  say 
Abraham  went  to  offer  up  Isaac,  1871  b.c. 

MECHANICS.  The  time  when  the  simple  mechanical  powers  were  first  introduced  is 
so  uncertain,  and  perhaps  so  little  known,  that  they  have  been  ascribed  to  the 
Grecian  and  other  deities  of  the  heathen  mythology — for  instance,  the  axe,  wedge, 
wimble,  &c.  are  said  to  be  the  invention  of  Daedalus.  We  know  nothing  of  the 
machinery  by  which  the  immense  masses  of  stone  which  are  found  in  some  of  the 
ancient  edifices  were  moved  and  elevated. 


The  first  writing  on  mechanics,  was  by 
Aristotle,  about     .        .        .        b.c. 

The  Statera  Romana  invented  . 

The  fundamental  property  of  the  lever 
and  other  instnunents  was  demon- 
strated by  Archimedes  . 

The  hand-mill,  or  quern,  was  very  early 
in  use ;  the  Romans  found  one  in  York- 
shire        ...... 

Cattle  mills,  mohejununtaria,  were  also 
in  use  by  the  Romans,  and  hi  parts  of 
Europe 

The  water-mill  was  probably  invented 
in  Asia ;  the  first  that  was  described 
was  near  one  of  the  dwellings  of  Mith- 
ridates 70 

A  water-mill  is  said  to  have  been  erected 
on  the  river  Tiber,  at  Rome  .     50 


320 


20S 


*  * 


*  * 


Floating  mills  on  the  Tiber  a.d.    636 

Tide-mills  were,  many  of  them,  in  use 

in  Venice  about 1078 

Wind-mills  were  in  very  general  use  in 

the  twelfth  century  .  .  .  .  *  * 
Saw-mills  are  said  to  have  been  in  use  at 

Augsburg 1332 

Theory  of  the  inclined  planeinvestigated 

by  Cardan,  about  ,  .  .  .  1540 
Work  on  statics,  by  Stevinus  .  .  .  1586 
Theory  of  faUing  bodies,  Galileo  .  .  1638 
Theory  of  oscillation,  Huygens  .    .  1647 

LawsofcoUision,  Wallis,  Wren     .         .1662 
Epioycloidal  form  of  the  teeth  of  wheels, 

Roemer 1675 

Percussion  and  animal  mechanics,  Bo- 

relli ;  he  died 1679 

Application  of  mechanics  to  astronomy, 

z2 


MKC 


[340] 


MEN 


The  Mechanics'  Institute  in  London  was 
formed  in  ....    a.d.  1823 

A  Mechanics'  Institute  was  establi^ed 
with  great  success  in  Glasgow         .    .  1823 

[A  similar  establishment  was  attempted 
in  Dublin,  but  failed.] 


MECHANICS,  continued, 

parallelogism  of  forces,  laws  of  motion, 
&c.,  Newton  .         .        a.i>.  1679 

Problem  of  the  catenary  with  the  analy- 
sis. Dr.  Gr^ory  ....  1697 

Bpirit  level  (and  many  other  inventions), 
by  Dr,  Hooke,  from  1660  to     .         .    .  17Q8 

MEDALS.  There  is  hardly  any  record  of  medals  or  decorations  as  rewards  in  the 
army  or  navy  before  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth.  The  House  of  Commons 
resolved  to  grant  rewards  and  medals  to  the  fleet  whose  officers  (Blake,  Monk, 
Penn,  and  Lawson)  and  men  gained  the  glorious  victory  over  the  Dutch  fleet,  off 
the  Tezel,  in  1653.  In  1692,  an  act  was  passed  for  applying  the  tenth  part  of  the 
proceeds  of  {prizes  for  medals  and  other  rewards  for  officers,  seamen,  and  marines. 
Subsequent  to  Lord  Howe's  victory,  June  1,  1794,  it  was  thought  expedient  to 
institute  a  naval  medal.  Blake's  medal  of  1653,  was  bought  by  his  majesty  William 
IV.  for  150  guineas. 

MEDIA.  In  ancient  times  Media  was  a  province  of  the  Assyrian  empire.  It  revolted 
from  Arbaces  820  b.c.,  and  afterwards  became  an  independent  kingdom,  and  con- 
quered Persia;  but  Cyrus  having  vanquished  Darius  the  Mede,  536  b.c.,  Media  was 
from  that  time  united  to  the  Persian  empire,  and  shared  its  fate. — Blair;  Priestley. 


820 


766 
647 


626 


585 
585 


B.C. 


Cyrus  made  king  of  Persia    . 

Astyages  deposed  by  Cyrus        .         .    . 

Crcesus  king  of  Lydia  defeated,  and  his 
throne  seized  by  Cyrus  • 

Cyrus  takes  Babylon ;  puts  Belshaz- 
zar  to  death ;  and  makes  Astyages 
(or  Darius,  the  Mede)  viceroy        .    . 

By  the  death  of  Astyages*  Cyrus  becomes 
master  of  all  Persia  ;  and  this  era  is 
properly  the  commencement  of  the 
Persian  anpira — Lenglet  . 


559 
550 


648 


538 


357 


Revolt  of  the  Medes. — Blair  .         .   B.a 

The  country  was  subjected  to  the  Assy- 
rians. — Idem  .         .         .         .    . 

Phraortes  reigns  ;  he  conquers  Persia* 
Armenia,  and  other  countries    . 

Battle  of  Rages;  the  Assyrians  defeat 
the  Medes. — Blair  .    . 

War  with  the  Lydians ;  the  hostile  ar- 
mies meet ;  but  an  eclipse  of  the  sun 
so  alarms  them,  they  conclude  peace 
without  striking  a  blow     . 

The  reign  of  Astyages.— £totr   •         .    . 

The  Medes  were  a  brave  people,  but  they  degenerated,  and  introduced  luxury  into 
Persia.  They  admitted  polygamy,  and  a  man  was  deemed  infamous  who  had  less  than 
seven  wives,  as  was  also  a  woman  who  could  not  boast  of  at  least  five  husbands. — Aspin, 

MEDICINE.  The  art  of  preparing  simples  was  brought  into  Europe  from  the  East, 
about  A.D.  1150.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  practice,  the  preparation  was  principally 
confined  to  ecclesiastics  in  Europe  generally,  until  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
or  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth.  The  practice  of  medicine  is  now  one  of  the 
highest  sciences,  and  in  most  countries  is  in  the  hands  of  the  most  learned  and 
distinguished  men  ;  and  various  statutes  have  been  enacted  to  discourage  pretenders 
to  the  healing  art.  The  duty  on  advertised  or  quack  medicines  was  imposed  in  1783, 
and  subsequent  years. 

MEDINA,  IN  Arabia  Desbrta,  famous  for  the  tomb  of  Mahomet,  contained  in  a 
large  mosque,  closed  with  rich  curtains  and  lighted  by  a  vast  number  of  rich  lamps. 
Medina  was  called  the  City  of  the  Prophet,  because  here  Mahomet  was  protected 
when  he  fled  from  Mecca,  July  16,  a.d.  622.  This  flight  gave  rise  to  the  remarkable 
epocha  in  chronology,  called  the  Hegira,  a  word  that,  in  Arabic,  denotes,  to^Sy,  or 
quitf  one^s  country  or  friendt. 

MELO-DRAMA.  A  species  of  dramatic  entertainment  which,  if  it  did  not  actually 
originate  with  the  late  Mr.  Holcroft,  was  at  least  introduced  by  him  in  a  manner  so 
popular  and  interesting  as  to  entitle  him  to  the  honour  of  its  production  in  a  refined 
form  ;  Mr.  Holcroft's  Melodramas  were  first  represented  in  1 793. 

MEMORY.  That  faculty  of  the  mind  or  soul  whereby  past  things  are  represented  to 
us  as  if  they  were  present. — Pardon,  Simonides,  grandson  of  Simonides  the  elder, 
of  Cos,  poet  and  historian,  obtained  a  prize  at  Olympia,  for  teaching  artificial  memory, 
of  which  he  was  the  inventor,  477  b.c. — Arundelian  Marbles.  The  science  of  mne- 
monics was  made  known  in  Germany  in  1807. — See  Mnemonics. 

MENAI  STRAIT.  Suetonius  Paulinus,  when  he  invaded  Anglesey,  transported 
his  troops  across  this  strait  in  flat-bottomed  boats,  while  the  cavalry  swam  over 
on  horseback,  and  attacked  the  Druids    in  their  last  retreat.    Before  the  Romans 


MEN  Q  341  ]  MER 

bad  well  landed,  the  Druids  called  their  votaries  of  both  bexes  around  them ;  and  the 
women  were  seen  with  dishevelled  locks,  ronaing  wildly  about  with  torches  in  their 
hands,  echoing  the  imprecations  of  their  priests,  whose  followers  made  but  a  vain 
resistance.  Their  horrid  practice  of  sacrificing  their  captives,  and  the  opposition  he 
met  with,  so  incensed  the  Roman  general,  that  he  gave  the  Britons  no  quarter, 
throwing  all  that  escaped  from  the  battle  into  fires  which  they  had  prepared  for  the 
destruction  of  himself  and  his  army,  a.d.  59.  In  crossing  this  strait  a  ferry-boat 
was  lost,  and  fifty  persons,  chiefly  Irish,  perished,  Dec.  4,  1785. 

MENAI  CHAIN  SUSPENSION  BRIDGE.  This  bridge  over  the  Menai  Strait, 
called  also  Pameli's  Suspension-bridge,  is  one  of  the  most  surprising  works  of  mo- 
dem times.  It  is  100  feet  above  the  level  of  spring.tides,  with  560  feet  from  the 
points  of  suspension.  The  chains  are  16,  and  the  deflection  37  feet.  There  are  two 
carriage  ways  of  12  feet,  and  a  foot-path  in  the  middle  of  14  feet.  It  was  commenced 
by  Mr.  Telford,  in  July  1818,  and  was  completed  in  July  1825. 

MENDICANT  FRIARS.  The  term  was  applied  to  several  orders  of  religious  who 
commenced  their  alms-begging  in  the  thirteenth  century,  in  the  pontificate  of  Inno- 
cent III.  They  were  confined  by  a  general  council,  held  by  Gregory  X.  at  Lyons, 
in  1272,  to  the  following  four  orders — Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Carmelites,  and 
Augustines.     The  Capuchins  and  other  orders  subsequently  branched  from  them. 

MENSURATION.  The  various  properties  of  conic  sections  discovered  by  Archimedes^ 
to  whom  the  chief  advancement  in  mensuration  may  be  attributed.  He  also  deter- 
mined the  ratio  of  spheres,  spheroids,  &c.,  about  218  B.C. 

MERCATOR'S  CHARTS.  The  true  inventor  of  these  charts  is  said  to  have  been  a 
Mr.  Wright,  who  made  several  voyages  ;  and  in  his  absence  Mercator  published  the 
charts  in  his  own  name,  1556. — Pardon.  They  are,  however,  now  confidently 
ascribed  to  Mercator's  own  ingenuity.  In  these  charts  the  meridians  and  parallels 
of  latitude  cut  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  are  both  represented  by  straight  lines, 
which  has  the  effect  of  enlarging  the  degrees  of  latitude,  as  they  recede  from  the 
equator. 

MERCHANT — from  mercans.  The  name  given  to  high  commercial  citizens  who 
trade  abroad.  The  merchants  of  London  and  Amsterdam  are  accounted  the  most 
enterprising  and  richest  in  the  world.  An  attempt  was  made  by  queen  Anne's 
ministry  to  exclude  merchants  from  sitting  in  the  House  of  Commons,  in  1711 ;  but 
it  failed.  The  Merchant  Adventurers'  society  (see  AdventurerSf  Merchant)  was 
established  by  the  duke  of  Brabant,  in  1 296  ;  it  extended  to  England  in  Edward 
III.'s  reign  ;  and  was  formed  into  an  English  corporation  in  1564. 

MERCHANT  TAILORS.  A  rich  company  of  the  city  of  London,  of  which  seven 
kings  have  been  members,  viz.,  Richard  II.  and  III.,  Edward  IV.,  Henry  IV.,  V., 
VI.  and  VII.  They  were  called  Merchant-Tailors  from  the  admission  of  the  last- 
named  king  into  their  company  a.d.  1501 ;  but  they  were  incorporated  in  1466.  The 
Merchant  Tailors'  School  was  founded  in  1561. — Stowe, 

MERCURY.  This  substance  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  has  been  found  in  vast 
quantities  in  various  countries.  The  mines  in  Camiola  in  Germany  are  the  most 
productive  in  Europe,  and  have  yielded  in  some  years  1200  tons ;  they  were  disco- 
vered by  accident  in  1497.  The  anti-venereal  virtues  of  mercury  were  found  by 
James  Carpus,  an  Italian  surgeon,  a.o.  1512. — Nouv,  Diet.  The  compound  termed 
calomel  was  first  mentioned  by  Crollius  early  in  the  seventeenth  centnry  ;  the  first 
directions  for  its  preparation  were  given  by  Beguin,  1608.  It  was  given  to  patients 
under  inoculation  for  the  small-pox  in  1745.  Pallas  congealed  mercury  by  artificial 
cold  in  1772.  Its  malleable  qualities  were  discovered  by  M.  Orbelin,  of  Vienna,  1785. 

MERCY,  Order  of,  in  France,  established  with  the  object  of  accomplishing  the 
redemption  of  Christian  captives.  The  order  was  formed  into  a  regular  society  by 
Pere  Nolasque,  (who  was  canonised)  a.d.  1218. — Niceron, 

MERIDA,  Spain.  Taken  by  the  French  in  Januaiy  1811.  Near  this  town  the  British 
under  general  (now  lord)  Hill,  defeated  the  French  under  general  Girard,  after  a 
severe  engagement,  Oct.  28,  1811.    The  British  took  Merida  in  1812, 

MERRY  ANDREW.  The  name  was  first  given  to  a  droll  and  eccentric  physician, 
whose  name  was  Andrew  Borde,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI II.,  and  who, 
on  some  occasions,  on  account  of  his  facetious  manners  and  good  humour,  appeared^ 


MER  1^  342  2  MET 

at  oonrt,  1547.  He  nsed  to  attend  markets  and  fairs,  and  harangoe  the  people,  by 
whom  he  was  called  Merry  Andrew.  The  name  is  now  given  to  a  baflfoon,  a  zany, 
or  jack-pndding. — L'EMtrange.   Johnson. 

MERTHYR  TYDYIL.  A  town  of  Wales,  in  Glamorganshire,  in  which  very  alarming 
riots  commenced  June  3,  1831,  and  continued  for  several  days.  In  these  riots  a 
number  of  persons,  chiefly  the  rioters,  were  killed  and  wonnded.  The  riots  were 
suppressed  by  the  military  and  magistracy. 

MERTON,  Parliament  of.  In  the  village  of  Merton,  in  Surrey,  was  a  celebrated 
abbey,  wherein  the  barons  under  Henry  III.  held  a  parliament  .  In  this  parliament 
were  enacted  the  well-known  statutes  called  the  Provisions  of  Merton,  which  are 
now  the  most  ancient  body  of  laws  next  after  Magna  Charta.  Nothing  at  this  day 
remains  of  the  abbey,  with  the  exception  of  the  eastern  vrindow  of  a  chapel ;  but  the 
walls  that  still  surround  the  ancient  premises  include  many  acres.  The  parliament 
of  Merton  was  held  in  1236. 

MESSALIANS.  A  sect  whose^eligions  error  consisted  in  adhering  to  the  letter  of  the 
gospel.  Amongst  other  absurdities  they  refuse  to  work,  quoting  this  passage, 
"  Labour  not  for  the  food  that  perisheth ;"  about  a.d.  310. — Baronius  Annal. 

MESSENIA.     This  kingdom  was  commenced  by  Policaon,  1499  b.c.     It  is  celebrated 
'  for  its  long  and  sanguinary  wars  against  Sparta,  (see  neiPt  article)  and  once  contained 
a  hundred  cities,  most  of  whose  names  even  are  now  unknown. 

MESSENIAN  WARS.  The  celebrated  wars  between  Lacedemon  and  Messenia.  The 
first  began  743  B.C.,  and  was  occasioned  by  yiolence  having  been  offered  to  some 
Spartan  women  who  had  assembled  in  a  temple  of  devotion  common  to  both  nations; 
the  king  of  Sparta  being  killed  in  his  efforts  to  defend  the  females.  This  dreadful  war 
raged  for  nineteen  years,  and  at  one  period  made  so  great  a  carnage,  that  the  Spartan 
army  sent  orders  home  for  all  the  unmarried  women  to  prostitute  themselves  to 
recruit  the  population.  In  the  end  Ithome  was  taken,  and  the  Messenians  became 
slaves  to  the  conquerors.  The  second  war  was  commenced  685  b.c.  to  throw  off  the 
galling  Spartan  yoke,  and  lasted  fourteen  years,  ending  in  the  defeat  of  the  Messe- 
nians who  fled  to  Sicily.  The  third  took  place  465  b.c,  it  endured  ten  years,  when 
the  whole  nation  abandoned  the  Peloponnesus. 

MESSINA,  IN  Sicily.  So  named  by  the  Messinese,  who  seized  this  city,  then  called 
Zancle  671  b.c.  It  belonged  for  many  ages  to  the  Roman  empire,  but  fell  to  the 
Saracens  a.d.  829. — Priestley,  In  the  eleventh  century  Roger  the  Norman  took  it 
by  surprise,  and  delivered  it  from  Mahometan  oppression.  Great  Messinian  con- 
spiracy, 1282.  The  memorable  revolt  took  place  1672.  Almost  ruined  by  an 
earthquake  1693  ;  and  nearly  depopulated  by  a  plague  in  1743.  In  1780  Messina 
suffered  much  by  an  earthquake ;  and  in  Feb.  and  March  1 783,  was  half  destroyed 
by  the  same  calamity ;  since  which  it  has  been  handsomely  rebuilt. 

METALLURGY.  In  the  fourth  chapter  of  Genesis,  Tubal  Cain  is  mentioned  as  **  an 
instructor  of  every  artificer  in  brass  and  iron."  The  seven  metals  are  mentioned  by 
Moses  and  Homer.  Virgil  mentions  the  melting  of  steel  in  furnaces.  The  Phoeni- 
cians had  an  extraordinary  skill  in  working  metals.  The  various  properties  of 
metals,  and  their  application  to  human  uses,  would  form  too  large  a  subject  for  this 
place;  and  referring  to  them  severally  through  the  volume,  it  may  here  be  enough  to 
state  that  the  aggregate  value  of  metals  raised  in  the  United  Kingdom,  exceeds  five 
millions  sterling  annually ;  but  this  value  is  prodigiously  increased  by  their  manufacture. 

METAMORPHISTS.  A  name  given  to  certain  Sacramentflrians,  who  in  the  fifteenth 
century  afiSrmed,  that  Christ's  natural  body  with  which  he  ascended  into  heaven, 
was  wholly  deified,  not  considering  that  the  Deity  and  circumscription,  and  divisi- 
bility, are  incompatible. 

METAPHYSICS.  This  term,  literally  denoting  "  after  physics,"  originated  with  Aris- 
totle. What  may  be  denominated  the  modern  metaphysics,  cannot  be  traced  farther 
back  than  the  fifteenth  century-"— the  period  when  an  extraordinary  impulse  was  given 
in  Europe  to  the  human  mind,  and  commonly  called  the  revival  of  learning. 

METEMPSYCHOSIS.  A  doctrine  supposing  the  transmigration  of  the  soul  from  one 
body  to  another.  The  first  belief  in  it  is  ascribed  to  the  Egyptians,  who  would  eat 
no  animal  food,  lest  they  should  devour  the  body  into  which  the  soul  of  a  deceased 
'~-id  had  passed.     They  had  also  an  idea,  that  so  long  as  the  body  of  the  deceased 


MET  [^343  ]  MID 

was  kept  entire,  the  soul  would  not  transmigrate  ;  wiiich  accounts  for  the  extraor- 
dinary pains  they  were  at  in  embalming  the  dead  :  a  doctrine  of  Pythagoras,  528  b.c  . 

METHODISTS.  A  large  and  inpreasing  body  of  religionists,  whose  tenets,  discipline, 
and  designs,  are  often  misunderstood,  and  of  course  misrepresented.  *'  Our  end,'* 
says  Mr.  Benson,  in  his  Apology,  **  is  not  to  form  a  sect,  or  to  bring  people  to  this 
or  the  other  speculative  opinion,  mode  of  worship,  or  form  of  church-government, 
but  simply  to  make  them  Christians — Christians  in  heart  and  life,  in  temper,  word, 
and  work — such  as  lived  in  the  early  days  of  Christianity,  and  such  as  we  conceive 
may  still  live."  The  methodists  may  be  said  to  have  appeared  formally,  if  not  ori- 
ginally at  Oxford,  a.d.  1729  ;  the  reverend  John  Wesley  being  the  first  who  there 
introduced  methodifm.  John  and  Charles  Wesley,  and  Mr.  Whitfield,  commenced 
their  career  by  teaching  in  1734.  The  term  appears  to  have  been  brought  forward 
in  the  days  of  puritanism,  being  suggested  by  the  Latin  appellative  MethodisttBf 
given  to  a  college  of  physicians  in  ancient  Rome,  in  consequence  of  the  strict  regi- 
men under  which  they  placed  their  patients.  The  methodist  missions  were  com- 
menced and  superintended  by  Mr.  Wesley  and  Dr.  Coke  in  1769,  when  two  mis- 
sionaries were  sent  out  to  North  America.  But  these  missions  were  not  reduced  to 
a  system,  nor  were  societies  regularly  organised  for  their  support,  until  181 7* 

MEXICO.  Discovered  in  a.d.  1518.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Spaniards  under  Cortez, 
whose  name  is  infamous  on  account  of  his  cruelties  to  the  vanquished,  without  re- 
gard to  rank,  age,  or  sex,  a.d.  1521. — Mariana.  The  mint  of  Mexico,  the  richest 
in  the  world,  was  begun  in  1535.  This  country,  like  other  states  of  the  new  world, 
has  lately  recovered  its  independence.  Iturbide  was  made  emperor  in  May  1822. 
The  Mexican  constitution  was  proclaimed  by  the  president  Vittoria,  in  October 
1823.  Iturbide  was  shot  Jaly  19,  1824.  A  treaty  of  commerce  with  Great  Britain 
was  ratified  April  1825.  Titles  were  suppressed.  May  1826.  The  expulsion  of  the 
Spaniards  was  decreed,  March  1 829.  A  Spanish  expedition  against  Mexico  sur- 
rendered prisoners  Sept.  26,  same  year.  The  Mexican  revolution,  when  the  presi- 
dent Guerrero  was  deposed,  Dec.  23,  same  year.  The  independence  of  Mexico, 
which  was  previously  recognised  by  the  great  European  powers,  was  at  length  re- 
cognised by  the  emperor  of  Brazil  in  June  1830.  Declaration  of  war  against 
France,  Nov.  30,  1838.     This  war  terminated  March  9,  1839. 

MEZZOTINTO.  A  peculiar  manner  of  engraving  representing  figures  on  copper,  re- 
ceived its  name  from  its  resemblance  to  painting.  The  invention  of  it  is  generally 
ascribed  to  prince  Rupert,  a.d.  1648  ;  but  baron  Heinikin  states  that  colonel  de 
Siegen  engraved  a  large  and  admirable  print  of  Amelia  Elizabeth  of  Hesse  in  mez- 
zotinto  in  1643. — See  Engraving, 

MICHAELMAS.  The  feast  of  St.  Michael,  the  reputed  guardian  of  the  Roman  Ca- 
tholic church,  under  the  title  of  ''  St.  Michael  and  all  the  angels."  St.  Michael  is 
supposed  to  be  the  head  of  the  heavenly  host.  This  feast  is  celebrated  on  the  29th 
of  September,  and  the  institution  of  it  was  a.d.  487. 

MICROMETER.  This  is  an  astronomical  instrument  used  to  discover  and  measure 
any  small  distance,  and  minuter  objects  in  the  heavens,  such  as  the  apparent  diameters 
of  the  planets,  &c.  There  are  many  curious  improvements  that  render  this  instru- 
ment very  exact  and  useful ;  its  invention  is  ascribed  by  some  to  M.  Huygens,  a.d. 
1652 ;  but  our  countryman  Gascoyne's  instrument  is  prior  to  that  time. 

MICROSCOPES.  Invented  nearly  at  the  same  time  in  Italy  and  Holland,  a.d.  1621. 
Those  with  double  glasses  were  made  at  the  period  when  the  law  of  refraction  was 
discovered,  about  1624.  The  honour  of  this  invention  is  awarded  to  Drebel  and 
Torricelli.  Solar  microscopes  were  invented  by  Dr.  Hooke.  In  England,  great 
improvements  were  made  in  the  microscope  by  Henry  Baker,  F.  R.  S.,  who  wrote 
two  treatises  upon  it,  about  1763. — Biog,  Diet.     . 

MIDWIFERY.  Women  were  the  only  practitioners  of  this  art  among  the  Hebrews 
and  Egyptians.  Hippocrates,  who  practised  medicine  in  Greece,  460  b.c.,  is  styled 
by  some  the  father  of  midwifery,  as  well  as  of  physic*     It  advanced  under  Celsus, 

*  Agnodioe,  an  Athenian  virgin,  di^ruised  her  sex  to  learn  medicine.  She  was  taught  by  Hiero- 
pholus,  her  father,  the  art  of  midwifery,  and  when  employed,  always  discovered  her  sex  to  her 
patients.  This  brought  her  into  so  much  practice,  that  the  males  of  hejr  profession,  who  were  now 
out  of  employment,  accused  her,  before  .the  Areopagus,  of  corruption.  Bbe  confessed  her  sex  to  the 
judges,  and  a  law  was  immediately  made  to  empower  all  free-bom  women  to  learn  midwifery. — Hyff* 
fa,  274. 


MIL  |[  344  ]  MIL 

who  flourished  a.o.  37,  and  of  Galen,  who  lived  a.d.  131.  In  England  midwifery 
became  a  science  about  the  period  of  tbe  institution  of  the  College  of  Physicians,  10 
Henry  VII.,  1518.  The  celebrated  Dr.  Harvey  personally  engaged  in  the  practice 
of  it,  aboat  1603 ;  and  after  his  example  the  calling  in  of  men  in  all  difficult  cases 
followed.  Astruc  affirms  that  the  epoch  of  the  employment  of  men-midwives  goes 
no  farther  back  than  the  first  lying-in  of  Madame  de  la  Valliere,  mistress  of  Louis 
XIV.,  1663.  She  sent  for  Julian  Clement,  an  eminent  surgeon,  who  was  conducted 
with  great  secrecy  to  the  house.  The  same  surgeon  was  employed  in  the  subsequent 
labours  of  this  lady,  and  he  being  very  successful,  men-midwives  after  came  into  re- 
pute, the  name  of  accoucheur  being  given  to  them. 

MILAN.  The  capital  of  this  celebrated  dukedom,  the  ancient  Lignria,  is  reputed  to 
have  been  built  by  the  Gauls  about  408  b.c.  It  submitted  to  the  Romans  222  B.C. ; 
was  formed  into  a  republic  a.d.  1221  ;  and  lastly  was  governed  by  dukes  from  a.d. 
1395,  until  1505,  when  it  was  conquered  by  Louis  XII.  John  Galeazzo  was  the 
first  who  took  the  title  duke  of  Milan,  about  1390.  The  French  were  expelled  from 
Milan,  by  Charles  Y.  of  Germany,  about  1525  ;  and  this  emperor  gave  it  to  his  son, 
Philip  II.  Milan  was  given  to  Austria,  upon  Naples  and  Sicily  being  ceded  to 
Spain,  1748.  Seized  by  the  French  June  30,  1796.  Retaken  by  the  Austrians  in 
1799  ;  but  regained  by  the  French  May  31,  the  next  year.  This  city  was  made  the 
capital  of  the  late  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  Napoleon  Buonaparte  was  crowned  with 
the  Iron  crown  at  Milan,  May  26,  1805.  The  celebrated  Milan  decree  of  Napoleon 
against  all  Continental  intercourse  with  England,  declaring  England  in  a  state  of 
blockade,  was  issued  from  this  city,  Dec.  17,  1807. 

MILFORD  HAVEN,  Walks.  Here  the  eari  of  Richmond,  afterwards  Henry  VII. 
landed  on  his  enterprise  against  Richard  III.,  whom  he  defeated  at  Bosworth,  1485. 
The  packets  from  this  port  to  Ireland,  sailing  to  Waterford,  were  established  in  1787. 

MILITARY  OR  MARTIAL  LAW.  This  is  a  law  built  on  no  settled  principle,  but 
entirely  arbitrary,  and,  in  truth,  no  law;  but  sometimes  indulged,  rather  than 
allowed,  as  law. — Sir  Mathew  Hole,  Martial  law  was  several  times  proclaimed  in 
these  kingdoms  during  rebellions.  It  was  almost  general  throughout  Ireland  in 
1798.     The  last  proclamation  of  martial  law  was  in  that  country,  July  26,  1803. 

MILITIA.  A  force  of  this  kind  was  formed  in  Ireland  by  king  Cormac  O'Conn,  about 
A.D.  252.  The  standing  national  militia  of  these  realms  is  traced  by  most  historians 
to  king  Alfred,  who,  by  his  prudent  discipline,  made  all  his  subjects  soldiers,  a.d. 
872  to  901.  The  feudal  military  tenures  became  involved  in  this  force.  The  first 
commission  of  array  to  raise  a  militia  was  in  1422.  The  order  in  which  the  militia 
now  stands  by  law  was  principally  built  upon  the  statutes  13,  14,  and  15  Charles  II. 
1661  to  1663.  Various  other  enactments  followed  these.  The  supplemental 
militia  act  was  passed  in  1797.  The  Irish  militia  offered  its  services  in  England, 
March  28,  1804.  General  act,  reducing  into  one  all  the  laws  relating  to  the  militia, 
42  George  III.  for  England  and  Scotland,  and  49  George  111.  for  Ireland.  The 
acts  for  the  interchange  of  the  English  and  Irish  militia  passed  51  and  54  George 
\\l,  et  seq.  Enactment  authorising  courts-martial  to  inflict,  if  they  think  fit,  the 
punishment  of  imprisonment,  instead  of  flogging,  was  passed  in  1814. 

MILKY  WAY.  Ancient  poets  and  philosophers  speak  of  the  galaxy  as  the  road  by 
which  heroes  went  to  heaven.  The  Greeks  supposed  that  Juno  accidentally  gave 
suck  to  Mercury  when  an  infant,  or  to  the  infant  Hercules,  who,  while  she  slept, 
was  laid  by  her  side  ;  but  perceiving  who  he  was,  she  threw  him  from  her,  and  the 
heavens  were  thus  marked  by  the  wasted  milk.  Democritus  was  the  first  who  taught 
that  the  via  lactea  was  occasioned  by  a  confused  multitude  of  stars,  about  428  b.c. 

MILLENNIUM.  This  doctrine  supposed  that  the  world  would  end  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  seven  thousandth  year  from  the  creation  ;  and  that  during  the  last 
thousand  years  Christ  and  the  saints  would  reign  upon  earth.  It  was  very  generally 
inculcated  as  early  as  the  second  and  third  century.  It  was  propagated  by 
Papias,  Justin-Martyr,  and  many  others.  The  Millennium  was  grounded  upon  a 
doubtful  text  in  the  Apocalypse,  to  the  effect  that  our  blessed  Saviour  shall  reign 
with  the  faithful  upon  earth  after  the  resurrection,  before  the  final  completion  of 
beatitude. — Buniet. 

MILLINER.  Defined  by  Shakspeare  and  Johnson  as  a  seller  of  ribands  and  dresses 
for  women,   a    very  ancient  occupation ;   the  term  is    supposed   to   be   derived 


MIL  Q  345  ]  MIR 

from  Milan.  There  are  men-milliners  in  England,  and  the  adoption  of  sach  a  trade 
by  the  male  sex  has  been  strongly  and  justly  censured.  In  1810,  men-milliners 
and  other  classes  of  an  epicene  character  were  very  strongly  censured  in  the  Society 
of  Arts.  Young  females  are  employed  at  all  seasons,  and  in  all  weathers,  to  carry 
bandboxes  through  the  streets,  exposed  to  the  insolence  of  libertines,  and  the  perils 
of  vicious  example,  while  the  perfumed  coxcomb  ['*  He  was  perfumed  like  a 
milliner. '' — Shakspeare']  measures  ribands  safely  at  home,  or  folds  gauzes,  and 
lisps  the  while  in  lady  phrases  to  females  of  distinction*. — Butler, 

MILLS.  The  hand-mill  was  in  use  among  the  Britons  previously  to  the  conquest  by 
the  Romans.    The  Romans  introduced  the  water-mill. — See  article  Mechanics, 

MINDEN,  Battle  of,  between  the  English,  Hessians,  and  Hanoverians,  on  one 
side,  and  the  French  on  the  other.  The  first  army  was  commanded  by  prince 
Ferdinand  and  lord  George  Sackville,  who  gained  a  complete  victory,  pursuing  the 
enemy  to  the  very  ramparts  of  Minden ;  but  laurels  were  the  only  advantage  reaped 
from  this  battle,  August  I,  1759. 

MINES.  Those  of  Great  Britain  are  very  numerous,  rich,  and  of  various  kinds. 
Strabo  and  Tacitus  enumerate  gold  and  silver  as  among  the  products  of  England. 
The  earliest  instance  of  a  claim  to  a  mine  royal  being  enforced,  occurs  47  Henry  III. 
1262. — Ruding.  It  related  to  mines  containing  gold,  together  with  copper,  in 
Devonshire.  And  in  Edward  I.'s  reign,  according  to  Mr.  Ruding,  the  mines  in 
Ireland  which  produced  siWer,  were  supposed  to  be  so  rich,  that  the  king  directed  a 
writ  for  working  them  to  Robert  de  Ufford,  Lord  Justice,  1276.  The  lead  mines  of 
Cardiganshire,  from  which  silver  has  ever  since  been  extracted,  were  discovered  by 
sir  Hugh  Middleton  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  The  British  Mineralogical  Society  was 
established  in  1800. — See  Coal,  Copper,  Tin,  S[C. 

MINORCA.  This  island  and  Majorca  were  called  by  the  Greeks,  Balearides.  Minorca 
was  captured  by  lieutenant-general  Stanhope  and  sir  John  Leake  in  August  1708, 
and  was  confirmed  to  the  British  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  It  was  re-taken 
by  the  Spanish  and  French  in  June  1756.  Admiral  Byng  fell  a  victim  to  the  exas- 
peration of  the  public  mind,  and  to  the  safety  of  ministers,  for  not  relieving  it  with 
a  force  greatly  inferior  to  that  of  the  enemy. — See  Byng.  It  was  restored  to  the 
British  at  the  peace  in  1763.  Besieged  by  the  Spaniards,  and  taken,  Feb.  5,  1782. 
It  was  again  captured  by  the  British,  without  the  loss  of  a  man,  Nov.  15,  1798  ;  but 
was  given  up  at  the  peace  of  1802.  The  port  of  Mahon  gives  the  title  of  viscount  to 
the  earl  Stanhope. 

MINSTRELS.  They  were  originally  pipers  appointed  by  lords  of  manors  to  divert 
their  copyholders  while  at  work.  They  owed  their  origin  to  the  glee-men  or  harpers 
of  the  Saxons,  and  continued  till  about  a.d.  1560.  John  of  Gaunt  erected  a  court 
of  minstrels  at  Tutbury  in  1380.  So  late  as  the  reign  of  Henry  YIII.  they  intruded 
without  ceremony  into  all  companies,  even  at  the  houses  of  the  nobility.  In  Eliza- 
beth's reign  they  had,  however,  sunk  into  neglect. 

MINT.  Athelstan  first  enacted  regulations  for  the  government  of  the  mint,  about  a.d. 
928.  There  were  several  provincial  mints  under  the  controul  of  that  of  London. 
Stowe  says,  the  mint  was  kept  by  Italians,  the  English  being  ignorant  of  the  art  of 
coining,  7  Edward  I.,  1278.  The  operators  were  formed  into  a  corporation,  by  the 
charter  of  king  Edward  III.,  in  which  condition  it  still  continues,  and  consists  of  the 
warden,  master,  comptroller,  assay-master,  workers,  coiners,  &&  The  first  entry  of 
gold  brought  to  the  mint  for  coinage,  occurs  18  Edward  III.,  1343.  Tin  was  coined 
by  Charles  II.,  1684  ;  and  gun-metd  and  pewter  by  his  successor,  James.  Between 
1806  and  1810,  grants  amounting  to  262,000/.  were  made  by  parliament,  for  the 
erection  of  the  present  fine  structure.  The  new  constitution  of  the  mint,  founded  on 
the  report  of  Mr.  Wellesly  Pole,  took  effect  in  1815. 

MIRRORS.  In  ancient  times  mirrors  were  made  of  metal ;  and  from  a  passage  in  the 
Mosaic  writings  we  learn  that  the  mirrors  used  by  the  Jewish  women  were  made  of 
brass.  MuTors  in  silver  were  introduced  by  Praxiteles,  328  b.c. — See  Looking 
Glasses, 

*  I  look  upon  a  man-milliner  not  only  as  one  of  the  most  unworthy  members  of  society,  but  as  one 
of  the  most  injurious.  When  I  hear  one  of  these  persons  haranguing  upon  the  merits  of  muslin,  or 
the  becoming  colour  of  a  riband,  anger  will  mingle  itself  with  the  fueling  of  contempt ;  for  the  em- 
ployment that  degrades  this  man  might  have  preserved  a  woman  from  prostitution.— Dr.  Southey. 


MIS  Q  346  2  ^OI> 

MISS.  In  the  leTeDteeiith  century,  the  epithet  Mis8  applied  to  females  was  considered 
a  term  of  reproach.  Miss  Cross,  who  is  particularly  noticed  in  Haynes'  epilog:ue  to 
Farquhar's  Lave  in  a  Bottle,  about  1702,  was  the  first  actress  announced  as  Miss. — 
Gait' 9  Lives  of  the  Plafere. 

MISSIONS.  Among  the  Romanists,  the  religious  orders  of  St.  Dominick,  St.  Francis, 
St.  Augustin,  &c.,  had  missions  to  the  LeTant  and  to  America.  The  Jesuits  had 
missions  to  China  (which  tee),  and  to  most  other  parts  of  the  world.  Among  the 
Protestants,  an  early  undertaking  of  this  kind  was  a  Danish  mission,  planned  by 
Frederick  IV.,  in  1706.  But  the  Moravian  Brethren  may  be  said  to  have  led  the 
way  to  the  new  Christian  missions,  about  1 732.  The  Missionary  Society  held  their 
first  meeting,  November  4,  1794  ;  and  it  has  since  been  the  parent  of  many  bene- 
volent institutions. 

MISSISSIPPI  TRADE.  This  trade  was  begun  in  November,  1716.  The  celebrated 
Mississippi  scheme  or  bubble  in  France,  which  was  commenced  about  that  period, 
exploded  in  1720  ;  at  which  time,  the  nominal  capital  is  said  to  have  amounted  to 
100,000,000/.— See  Law*e  Bubble. 

MITHRIDATE.  A  physical  preparation  in  the  form  of  an  electuary,  supposed  to  be 
the  oldest  compound  known  to  us  at  the  present  day.  It  was  invented  by  Mithridates 
II.  the  king  of  Pontus,  about  70  B.C.  It  was  formerly  thought  to  be  a  great  anti- 
dote against  poison ;  but  though  it  is  now  out  of  date  for  that  purpose,  it  is  still  used 
as  an  opiate,  and  is  one  of  the  capital  medicines  of  our  shops. 

MITHRIDATIC  WAR.  Caused  by  the  massacre  of  100,000  Romans,  86  B.C.  and 
remarkable  for  its  duration,  its  many  battles,  the  devastation  of  human  life  it  occa- 
sioned, and  the  cruelties  of  its  commanders.  Mithridates  having  taken  the  consul 
Aquilius,  made  him  ride  on  an  ass  through,  a  great  part  of  Asia,  crying  out  as  he 
rode,  ^*  I  am  Aquilius,  consul  of  the  Romans.'*  He  ultimately  despatched  him,  by 
ordering  melted  gold  to  be  poured  down  his  throat,  which  was  done  in  derision  of 
his  avarice,  85  b.c. — Lenglet. 

MITRE.  The  cleft  cap  or  mitre  is  of  very  ancient  use,  having  been  worn  by  the  high- 
priest  among  the  Jews.  Among  the  primitive  Christians,  young  women  who  pro- 
fessed a  state  of  virginity,  and  solemnly  consecrated  thereto,  wore  a  purple  or  golden 
mitre.  The  pope  has  four  mitres,  which  according  to  the  solemnity  to  be  performed, 
or  festival  day  it  is  worn  on,  is  more  or  less  magnificent.  Anciently  the  cardinals 
wore  mitres,  but  at  the  council  of  Lyons,  in  1245,  they  were  appointed  to  wear  hats, 
which  remains  to  this  day. 

MNEMONICS.  Artificial  memory  had  its  professors  in  the  ancient  world.  The  art 
of  assisting  memory,  by  getting  by  heart,  was  introduced  by  Simonides  the 
younger  477  b.c. — Arund,  Marbles.  In  modem  times,  mnemonics  have  been 
elaborately  treated;  and  the  Memoria  Teehnica  of  Dr.  Grey  is  an  esteemed 
work  on  the  subject.  The  science  of  mnemonics,  as  we  now  have  it,  was  announced 
in  Germany,  in  1806-7  ;  but  it  had  been  previously  noticed  in  the  London  monthly 
periodicals. 

MOCKERN,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  army  under  Eugene  Beauhamais,  and 
the  allied  Russian  and  Prussian  army,  which  was  signally  defeated  with  great  loss, 
April,  1813.  Another  and  yet  more  desperate  battle  was  fought  here,  Oct.  14, 1813, 
between  the  French  and  the  allies.  In  this  latter  bloody  conflict  the  place  was  taken 
and  retaken  five  different  times. 

MODELS.  The  first  models  were  figures  of  living  persons,  and  Dibutades,  the  Co- 
rinthian, was  the  inventor  of  those  in  clay.  His  daughter,  known  by  the  appellation 
of  the  Corinthian  Maid,  being  about  to  be  separated  from  her  lover,  who  was  going 
on  a  distant  journey,  traced  his  profile,  by  his  shadow,  on  the  wall ;  her  father  filled 
up  the  outline  with  clay,  which  he  afterwards  baked,  and  thus  produced  a  figure  of 
the  object  of  her  affection,  giving  rise  to  an  art  till  then  unknown,  about  985  B.C. 
In  modem  times,  many  extraordinary  productions  of  this  kind  are  mentioned*. 

*  A  beautiful  model  of  the  new  town  of  Edinburgh  was  formed  in  wood  before  it  was  begun.  A 
model  was  made  of  a  bridge  over  the  Neva,  of  uncommon  strength  as  well  as  elegance ;  and  the 
mountains  of  Switzerland,  modelled  by  general  Pfiffer,  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  surprising  under- 
takings ever  achieved  by  human  industry.  This  last  was  begun  in  1766,  and  was  completed  August 
1785.    M.  Choffin's  model  of  Paris  also  merits  notice  for  its  labour  and  precision.    In  the  building. 


MOD  [^  347  "2  MON 

MODENA.  Erected  into  a  dachy  in  1451.  The  duke  was  expelled  by  the  French, 
1796.  By  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  the  Modenese  poBsessions  were  incorporated 
with  the  Cisalpine  republic,  1797.  The  archduke  Francis  of  Este  was  restored  in 
1814.  Insurrection  here,  Feb.  5,  1831.  The  archduke  escaped  ;  but  the  Austrian 
troops  soon  afterwards  entered  and  restored  the  deposed  authorities. 

MOGULS.  They  deduce  their  origin  from  Japhet,  son  of  Noah.  His  son,  Turk,  they 
say,  was  the  first  king  or  khan  of  those  nations  afterwards  known  as  Turks,  Tartars, 
and  Moguls.  The  first  conqueror  of  the  Mogul  empire  was  Jenghis  Khan,  a  Tartarian 
prince,  who  died  a.d.  1236.  Timour  Beg  became  Great  Mogul  by  conquest,  1399. 
Khouli  Khan,  the  famous  sophi  of  Persia,  considerably  diminished  the  power  of  the 
moguls,  carried  away  immense  treasures  from  Delhi,  and  since  that  event  many  of  the 
nabobs  have  made  themselves  independent. — See  India. 

MOHATZ,  Battles  of,  in  lower  Hungary.  In  a  great  battle  here,  Louis,  king  of 
Hungary,  was  defeated  by  the  Turks  under  Soliman  II.,  with  the  loss  of  22,000 
men,  and  after  the  battle,  suffocated  by  the  fall  of  his  horse  in  a  muddy  brook,  1526. 
Another  battle  was  fought  here  between  the  Christians,  commanded  by  prince  Charles 
of  Lorraine,  and  the  Turks,  who  were  defeated,  with  the  loss  of  10,000  men,  their 
cannon,  and  baggage,  1687. 

MOHILOW,  Battle  of,  between  the  Russian  army  under  the  prince  Bagration,  and 
the  French  under  marshal  Davoust.  The  former  experienced  a  signal  defeat,  and 
immense  loss  in  killed  and  wounded,  fought  July  23, 1812. 

MOHOCKS.  A  set  of  disorderly  people,  who  went  about  London  streets  at  night,  and 
took  pleasure  in  wounding  and  disfiguring  the  men,  and  indecently  exposing  the 
women.  One  hundred  pounds  offiered  by  royal  proclamation,  for  apprehending  any 
one  of  them,  10th  Anne,  1711. — N'orthouck^s  History  of  London. 

MOLWITZ,  Battle  of,  between  the  Prussians  and  imperialists,  the  former  com- 
manded by  Frederick  III.,  who  obtained  a  great  and  memorable  victory.  The 
Austrians  were  at  this  time  in  alliance  with  Great  Britain  ;  fought  April  10,  1741. 

MONARCHY.  The  most  ancient  was  that  of  the  Assyrians,  founded  soon  after  the 
Deluge. — See  Assyria.  Historians  reckon  four  grand,  or  almost  universal  mon- 
archies, — ^the  Assyrian,  Persian,  Grecian,  and  Roman. — See  them  respectively. 

MONASTERIES.  The  first  founded  was,  according  to  some  authorities,  in  a.d.  270; 
and  according  to  others,  in  a.d.  305.  The  suppression  of  monastic  houses  has 
been  frequent,  even  in  Catholic  countries  ;  and  many  religious  communities  have 
bowed  to  the  variable  notions  of  mankind  regarding  religion,  and  to  the  altered 
state  of  the  world.  Constantine  IV.,  among  other  persecutors,  commanded  a  vast 
number  of  friars  and  nuns  to  appear  at  Ephesus .:  he  there  ordered  them  to  change 
their  black  habits  for  white,  and  to  destroy  their  images.  They  explained  that  this, 
on  account  of  the  vows  they  had  taken,  was  impossible ;  whereupon  he  directed 
that  their  eyes  should  be  put  out,  and  that  they  should  be  banished,  forfeiting  their 
various  monasteries,  which  he  sold  for  the  uses  of  the  state.  When  St.  Austin 
arrived  in  England  a.d.  596,  Ethelbert  of  Kent  gave  him  an  idol  temple  without 
the  walls  of  his  capital,  as  a  burial-place  for  him  and  his  successors,  which  was  con- 
verted into  the  first  monastery.  Various  monastic  houses  were  suppressed  in  Eng- 
land in  various  reigns;  and  a  vast  number  in  1515.  But  the  general  dissolution 
took  place  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YIII.  1534-9.  The  abbey  lands  were  afterwards 
granted  to  numerous  courtiers,  whose  descendants  enjoy  tiiem  to  this  day.  See 
Abbeys;  Impropriations,  ^c. 

MONEY.  It  is  mentioned  as  a  medium  of  commerce  in  the  82d  chapter  of  Genesis, 
when  Abraham  purchased  a  field  as  a  sepulchre  for  Sarah,  in  the  year  of  the  world 
2139.  In  profane  history,  the  coinage  of  money  is  ascribed  to  the  Lydians.  Moneta 
was  the  name  given  to  their  silver  by  the  Romans,  it  having  been  coined  in  the 
temple  of  Juno-Moneta,  269  b.c.     Money  was  made  of  different  ores,  and  even  of 

not  merely  of  national  edifices  and  the  mansions  of  nobles,  but  even  of  villas  and  parterres,  the 
eminent  architects  of  Italy,  France,  Germany,  &c.  never  proceed  without  models  in  rUievo  formed 
from  their  plans.  Buonaparte  was  a  patron  and  lover  of  this  art,  many  admirable  performances  in 
which,  as  a  reward  to  the  artist,  he  purchased,  weight  for  weight,  according  to  their  bulk,  in  silver  or 
gold.  On  one  occasion,  an  humble  price  of  400  francs  being  set  upon  a  work,  he  erased  the  word 
/rancst  in  lieu  of  which  he  inserted  NapoleonSf  and  directed  them  to  be  paid.  Since  the  foundation 
of  the  Royal  Academy,  modelling  has  had  princely  encouragement  in  England. 


HON  [  348  ]  MON 


leather  and  other  articiefl,  both  in  ancient  and  modem  times.  It  was  made  of 
pasteboard  bj  the  Hollanders  so  late  as  1574.  Silver  has  increased  more  than 
thirty  times  its  value  since  the  Norman  oonqaest,  viz.  a  poand  in  that  age  was 
three  times  the  qoantity  that  it  is  at  present,  and  twelve  times  its  valne  in  porchasing 
any  commodity. — See  articles  Coin  ;  Goid  ;  Silver  ;  Copper ;  Mint,  Sfc, 

MONK.  The  first  is  said  to  have  been  Paol  of  Thebais,  who  fled  into  the  deserts  to 
avoid  the  Decian  persecntion  aboat  a.d.  250.  St.  Anthony  is  supposed  by  other 
authorities  to  have  been  the  first  example  of  a  r^;ular  monastic  life,  a.d.  305,  soon 
after  which  time  monks  began  to  associate.  St.  Athanasius  introduced  the  monastic 
life  into  Rome  in  341. — See  Abbey t ;  Orders^  S[0. 

MONMOUTH'S  REBELLION.  James,  duke  of  Monmouth,  a  natural  son  of 
Charles  II.  was  banished  England  for  a  conspiracy  in  1683.  He  invaded  England 
at  Lyme^  June  11,  1685.  He  was  proclaimed  king  at  Taunton  on  the  20th  of  the 
same  month.  Was  defeated  at  Bridgewater,  July  5  ;  and  was  beheaded  on  Tower- 
hill,  July  15,  1685.  The  county  of  Monmouth,  from  which  he  was  named,  was 
made  an  English  county  by  Henry  YIII.  about  1535. 

MONOPOLIES.  Commercial  monopolies  reached  to  such  a  height  in  England,  that 
parliament  petitioned  against  them,  and  they  were  in  consequence  mostly  abolished 
about  the  close  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  1602.  They  were  farther  suppressed,  as  being 
contrary  to  law,  19  James  1. 1622.  And  were  totally  abolished,  and  it  decreed  that 
none  should  be  in  future  created,  as  was  previously  the  custom,  by  royal  patent, 
16  Charles  I.,  1640. 

MONSTER,  Thk.  This  was  a  wretch  named  Ren  wick  Williams,  who  prowled  nightly 
through  the  streets  of  London,  secretly  armed  with  a  sharp  instrument,  a  double- 
edged  knife,  with  which  he  shockingly  wounded  numbers  of  females  whose  more 
respectable  appearance  attracted  his  attention.  Numbers  of  ladies  were  wounded 
by  him  in  the  most  delicate  parts,  particularly  in  the  breasts  and  thighs;  but  when 
he  could  assault  them  in  lonely  places  they  were  dreadfully  injured.  He  was  tried 
and  convicted  on  a  variety  of  these  charges,  July  8,  1790.  More  recently,  an 
offender  or  two  of  this  description  committed  many  similar  outrages,  but  so  secretly 
as  to  elude  detection. 

MONTANISTS.  A  sect  founded  by  Montanus,  of  Ardaba,  in  Mysia,  an  extraordinary 
enthusiast,  about  a.d.  171.  He  was  reputed  to  have  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and 
proclaimed  himself  the  comforter  promised  by  Christ,  condemned  second  marriages 
as  fornication,  permitted  the  dissolution  of  marriage,  forbade  to  avoid  martyrdom, 
and  ordered  a  severe  fast  of  three  lents ;  he  hanged  himself  with  Maximilla,  one  of 
his  women-scholars,  before  the  close  of  the  second  century. — Cave*8  Hist.  Lit, 

MONTE  VIDEO.  Taken  by  storm  by  the  British  forces  under  Sir  Samuel  Auch- 
muty,  but  with  the  loss  of  nearly  one-third  of  our  brave  troops,  February  3,  1807. 
The  killed  and  wounded  of  the  British  in  the  engagement  was  very  considerable. 
It  was  evacuated  July  7,  the  same  year. 

MONTEM.  The  triennial  custom  of  the  Eton  scholars  parading  to  Salt-hill,  and 
distributing  salt,  originated  in  the  early  days  of  monkish  superstition,  when  the  friars 
used  to  sell  their  consecrated  salt  for  medical  purposes. — See  Eton, 

MONTEREAU,  Battle  of.  Between  the  Allied  army  and  the  French,  the  latter 
commanded  by  Napoleon  in  person.  In  this  obstinate  battle  the  allies  were  defeated 
with  great  loss  in  killed  and  wounded,  but  it  was  one  of  the  last  triumphs  of  the 
French  arms,  Feb.  18,  1814. 

MONTREAL.  Surrendered  to  the  English  by  the  French  in  1760.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Provincials  in  the  American  war  of  Independence,  November  12,  1775,  and  was 
retaken  by  the  British  June  15,  1776.  The  Episcopalian  church,  the  Jesuits*  college, 
and  the  prison  were  burnt  down,  with  several  other  buildings,  June  6,  1803. 

MONUMENT  of  LONDON.  It  was  begun  in  a.d.  1671,  and  was  finished  in  1677. 
The  pedestal  is  forty  feet  high,  and  the  edifice  altogether  202  feet,  that  being  the 
distance  of  its  base  from  the  spot  where  the  fire  which  it  commemorates  commenced. 
The  -stair-case  is  of  black  marble,  consisting  of  345  steps,  by  which  a  balcony  is 
reached.  Of  the  four  original  inscriptions  (three  of  which  were  in  Latin)  was  the 
following  in  English  : — 


MUN  Q  349  ]  MOR 

MONUMENT,  continued, 

THIS  PILLAR  WAS  8KT  UP  FOR  A  PSRPBTDAL  RBMBMBRANCC  OP  THAT  MOST  DRBADFUL  BURNINO 
OP  THIS  PROTKSTANT  CTTV,  BBOAN  AND  CARRISD  ON  BY  THB  TRBACHBKY  AND  MALICB  OP 
THB  PAPISTS,  IN  THB  BBOINNINO  OP  6BPTBMBBK,  IN  THB  YBAR  OP  OUR  LORD  1666,  IN 
ORDBR  TO  TUB  CARRYING  ON  THB  HORRID  PLOT  POR  BXTIRPATINO  THB  PROTBSTANT 
RBLIOION,  AND  OLD  BNOLISH  LIBBRTY,  AND  INTROOUCINO  POPBRY  AND  8LAVBRY. 

And  on  a  new-erected  house,  built  on  the  site  of  Farrier's  (the  baker)  where  the  fire 
first  broke  out,  was  inscribed  these  severe  lines,  engraved  on  a  large  stone  slab  : — 

Here,  by  the  permisiion  qf  Heaven,  hell  broke  loose  upon  this  Protestant  city,  from  the 
malicious  hearts  of  barbarous  Papists,  by  the  hand  of  their  agent,  Hubert,  who  con- 
fessed, and  on  the  ruins  qf  this  place,  declared  the  fact  for  which  he  was  hanged,  viz., 
That  here  began  that  dreadful  fire  which  is  described  and  perpetuated  by  the  neighbour- 
ing pillar,  erected  Anno  Domini  1681,  in  the  mayoralty  qfsir  Patience  Ward. 

It  is  due  to  the  memory  of  sir  Christopher  Wren,  the  architect,  to  state  that  the 
inscriptions  were  adopted  against  his  wishes,  instead  of  more  elegant  and  less  illiberal 
compositions  which  he  had  himself  prepared.  They  produced  from  a  celebrated  poet 
the  following  couplet : 

**  Where  London's  column,  pointing  at  the  skies. 
Like  a  tall  bully,  lifts  the  head,  and  lies."—Pope. 

A  man,  a  weaver,  fell  from  this  monument  June  25,  1750.  A  man  named  Thomas 
Craddock,  a  baker,  precipitated  himself  from  its  summit  July  7,  1788.  Mr.  Lyon 
Levy,  a  Jewish  diamond-merchant,  of  considerable  respectability,  threw  himself  from 
it  January  18,  1810.  Margaret  Moyes,  a  young  girl,  the  daughter  of  a  baker,  threw 
herself  down  Sept.  11, 1839;  and  a  youth,  named  Hawes,  also  committed  suicide  by 
the  same  means  Oct.  18,  same  year.     They  were  all  dashed  to  pieces. 

MOON.  The  full  moon  was  held  favourable  for  any  undertaking  by  the  Spartans,  and 
the  Greeks  generally  looked  upon  full  moons,  or  the  times  of  conjunction  of  the  sun 
or  moon,  as  seasons  most  favourable  to  marriage.  Opacity  of  the  moon,  and  true 
causes  of  lunar  eclipses,  was  taught  by  Thales,  640  b.c.  Posidonius  accounted  for 
the  tides  from  the  motion  of  the  moon,  79  B.C. — Diog,  Laert,  A  map  of  the  moon 
was  first  taken  at  Dantzic,  a.d.  1647.  The  strength  of  moon-light  at  the  full  moon 
is  90,000  times  less  than  the  light  of  the  sun.— i>r.  Smith.  It  is  300,000  times 
less. — Bouguer, 

MOORS.  They  first  invaded  Spain,  a.d.  173. —  Univ,  Hist,  The  Saracens  in  Spain 
beset  by  the  Christians,  called  in  the  assistance  of  the  Moors,  who  seized  the  domi- 
nions they  came  to  protect,  and  subdued  the  Saracens,  a.d.  1091.  Alphonsus  I.  of 
Navarre,  defeated  them  in  many  battles,  1118,  et  seq.  The  Moors  began  the  king- 
dom of  Granada,  being  their  last  refuge  from  the  power  of  the  Christians,  1238. 
Alphonsus  XI.  of  Leon  and  Castile,  slew  200,000  Moors  in  one  battle ;  three 
leagues  round  the  country  was  covered  with  the  dead,  1327.  The  power  of  this 
people  was  overthrown  by  Ferdinand  Y.,  who  took  Granada,  1492.  Philip  III. 
banished  them  to  the  number  of  900,000,  confiscating  their  property,  1610. — 
Prieiiley, 

MORAL  PHILOSOPHY,  The  knowledge  of  our  duty  and  felicity,  the  science  of 
ethics,  or  art  of  being  virtuous  and  happy.  Socrates  is  universally  regarded  as  the 
father  of  moral  philosophy,  about  430  B.C.  And  Grotius  is  esteemed  by  many 
writers  as  the  father  of  moral  philosophy  in  modern  times,  about  a.d.  1623. — Bate,  &c. 

MORAVIANS.  United  Brethren.  A  sect  which  took  its  rise  in  Moravia,  in,  it 
is  said,  the  fifteenth  century,  which  some  doubt ;  while  the  Brethren  say  that  their 
sect  is  derived  from  the  Greek  church  in  the  ninth  century.  They  appeared  in  Eng- 
land about  1737,  and  were  introduced  here  by  count  Zinzendorf,  who  was  the  chief 
of  their  sect  in  this  country,  and  who  died  at  Chelsea,  in  June  1760.  In  order  to 
the  conversion  of  the  heathen  world,  these  persevering  brethren  formed  settlements 
in  Greenland,  America,  the  Cape,  East  and  West  Indies,  and  other  climes.  The 
Moravians  led  the  way  to  the  Scriptural  missions  now  so  general. 

MORGARTEN,  Battle  of,  the  most  memorable,  as  well  as  extraordinary  and  glo- 
rious  in  the  annals  of  Switzerland ;  1300  Swiss  engaged  20,000  Austrians,  com- 
manded by  the  duke  Leopold,  whom  they  completely  defeated.  They  seized  upon 
the  heights  of  Morgarten,  which  overlooked  the  defile  through  which  the  enemy  was 
to  enter  their  territory  from  Zug,  and  thus  achieved  their  victory,  Nov.  15,  1315. 


MOH 


[350] 


MOS 


MOROCCO.  Anciently  Mauriiania.  From  its  early  possession  by  the  Romans  it 
underwent  Yarions  revolnti9n8.  Abont  a.d.  1116,  Abdallah,  the  leader  of  a  sect  of 
Mahometans,  foonded  a  dynasty  which  ended  in  the  last  sovereign's  defeat  in  Spain. 
Abont  this  period,  1202,  Fez  and  other  provinces  shook  off  their  dependence  ;  bnt 
the  descendants  of  Mahomet,  abont  1650,  subdaed  them,  and  formed  the  empire  of 
Morocco. 

MORTALITY.  See  Bilis  of  Mortaliiy,  For  the  institution  of  parish  registers  of 
deaths,  as  well  as  of  births  and  marriages,  we  are  indebted  to  Cromwell,  earl  of 
Essex,  A.D.  1536.  The  following  list,  compiled  from  the  latest  Bills  of  Mortality  of 
London,  shows  the  average  of  diseases,  &c.»  in  20,000  deaths  in  that  city : — 


oiasAsas. 

79 
Age  and  debility  .  .  1614 
Apoplexy     .  .    37S 

Asthma    .  .    .    778 

Bedridden  ...  2 
Bile  .    .       8 

Cancer  .  .  .  9S 
Childbhrth  .    .    S66 

ConMimption  .  4871 

Contraction  of  the  heart  1 
Convulsions  .    .  2377 

Cow-pox  .  .  .  1 
Croup       .  .    .    106 

Diabetes  ...  3 
Diarrhoea  .    .      28 

Dropsy  .818 

Dropqr  on  the  brain  .  661 
Dropsy  on  the  chest  SI 

I>ysentery  .    .     43 

Enlargement  of  the  heart  17 
Epilepsy  ...  23 
Eruptive  diseases  .  .  24 
Erysipelas  ...  18 
Fever  .  .  .  .  694 
Fever  (Typhus)  .     97 

Fever,  intermittent,  or 

ague      .        .        .    .      16 
Fistula         ...      12 


Flux 

Gout    . 

Htemorrhage 

Hernia 

Hooping  oough 

Hydrophobia 

Inflammation 

Inflam.  of  the  liver    . 

Insanity 

Jaundice 

Jaw,  locked 

Measles    . 

Miscarriage 

Mortification    . 

Ossification  of  the  heart 

Palpitation  of  the  heart 

Palsy 

Paralysis  .        .    . 

Pleiurisy 

Rheumatism  .    . 

Scrofula 

Bmali-pox  .    . 

Sore  throat  or  quinsey  « 

Spasm  • 

Still-bom         .         .    . 

Stone 

Stoppage  in  stomach 

St.  Titus's  dance        .    . 

Suddenly     . 


9 

37 

47 

41 

604 

1 

2062 

127 

214 

39 

3 

466 

2 

308 

9 

16 

31 

187 

21 

33 

9 

£91 
16 
61 

872 

21 

18 

1 

102 


Teething 

Thrush 

Tumour 

Venereal 

Worms 

Total  of  diseases 


437 
69 

17 

11 

6 


19,566 


CASCALTIBS. 

Broken  limbs 

Burnt 

Drowned 

Excessive  drinking 

Executed 

Found  dead 

Fractured 

Frighted       . 

Frozen 

Killed  by  falls  and  other 

accidents  . 
KUled  by  fighting     . 
Murdered 
Poisoned 
Scalded 
Starved 
Strangled 
Suffocated    . 
Suicides 


12 

44 

147 

6 

I 

14 

3 

1 

1 

128 

2 
3 
1 
7 
6 
1 
4 
51 

434 


Total  of  Casualties 

MORTARS.  A  short  gnn  with  an  extraordinary  large  bore,  and  close  chamber,  used 
for  throwing  bombs,  first  made  in  England  in  1543.  The  celebrated  mortar  left  by 
Soult  at  Cadiz,  was  fixed  in  St.  James's  park  in  August  1816. 

MORTMAIN  ACT.  Morte  and  main.  When  the  survey  was  made  by  William  the 
Conqueror  of  all  the  land  in  England,  the  whole  was  found  to  amount  to  62,215 
knights'  fees,  out  of  which  the  church  was  then  possessed  of  28,015^  to  which  addi- 
tions were  afterwards  made,  till  the  7th  of  Edward  I.,  when  the  statute  of  mortmain 
was  passed,  from  a  fear  that  the  estate  of  the  church  might  grow  too  bulky.  By  thia 
act  it  was  made  unlawful  to  give  any  estates  to  the  church  without  the  king's  leave  ; 
and  this  act,  by  a  supplemental  provision,  was  made  to  reach  all  lay-fraternities,  or 
corporations,  in  the  I5th  of  Richard  I.  Mortmain  is  such  a  state  of  possession  as 
makes  it  unsdienable,  whence  it  is  said  to  be  in  a  dead  hand.  Several  statutes  have 
been  passed  on  this  subject ;  and  a  statute  much  referred  to  is  the  10th  Geo.  II.,  1736. 

MOSCOW.  One  of  the  largest  cities  in  Europe.  It  was  founded  in  1156;  was  taken 
by  Tamerlane  1382  ;  and  subsequently  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Tartars,  whose 
last  attack  upon  it  was  in  1571,  when  they  set  it  on  fire.  This  city  was  entered  by 
the  French,  Sept.  14,  1812,  and  the  Russian  governor,  Rostopchin,  ordered  that  it 
should  be  set  on  fire  in  five  hundred  places  at  once,  In  this  memorable  conflagra- 
tion, 11,840  houses  were  burnt  to  the  ground,  besides  palaces  and  churches.  The 
French,  thus  deprived  of  quarters,  evacuated  Moscow  Oct.  19,  and  it  was  re-entered 
by  the  Russians  Oct.  22,  following.  This  city  has  been  since  rebuilt,  and  no  traces 
of  this  mighty  fire  now  remain. 

MOSKWA,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  and  Russians.  For  the  particulars  of 
this  great  and  memorable  battle,  which  is  also  called  the  battle  of  Borodino,  see 
Borodino. 


MOS  Q  351  2  MUR 

MOSS-TROOPERS.  These  were  a  desperate  sort  of  plunderers,  secreting  themselves 
in  the  mosses  on  the  borders  of  Scotland,  defiling  women,  and  perpetrating  the  most 
savage  enormities,  as  weU  as  minor  mischiefs,  extirpated  a.d.  1609. 

MOST  CHRISTIAN  KING.  The  title  given  to  Louis  XI.  by  pope  Paul  II.,  1469. 
It  has  been  justly  remarked,  that  never  was  the  title  or  name  of  Christian  given  to  a 
prince  more  unworthily  bestowed,  or  less  deserved. 

MOTTOES,  ROYAL.  Dieu  et  mm  Droit  was  first  used  by  Richard  I.,  a.d.  1193. 
The  Bohemian  crest,  viz.  three  ostrich  feathers,  and  the  motto  Ich  dienj  '*I  serve," 
was  adopted  by  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  at  the  battle  of  Cressy,  the  king  of  Bo- 
hemia being  slain  in  the  battle,  1346.  Honi  soit  qui  mal  y  pense,  was  made  the 
motto  of  the  Garter,  1349-50.  Je  maintiendrait  "/  will  matntotn,"  was  adopted 
by  William  III.,  1688.  And  Semper  eadem  was  ordered  by  queen  Anne  to  be  used 
as  her  motto. 

MOURNING  FOR  THE  DEAD.  The  practice  of  the  Israelites  was,  neither  to  wash 
nor  anoint  themselves  during  the  time  of  mourning.  The  exhibition  of  grief  for  a 
friend  lasted  for  seven  days  ;  and  upon  extraordinary  occasions  it  lasted  a  month. 
The  Greeks  and  Romans  also  exhibited  their  grief  for  the  dead  by  many  public  absti- 
nences. The  ordinary  colour  for  mourning  in  Europe  is  black ;  in  China,  it  is 
white ;  in  Turkey,  violet ;  in  Ethiopia,  brown ;  and  it  was  white  in  Spain,  until 
A.D.  1498. — Herrera. 

MOUSQUETAIRES.  Horse-soldiers  under  the  old  French  rSffime,  raised  by  Louis 
XIII.  1622.    This  corps  was  considered  a  military  school  for  the  French  nobility. 

MUGGLETONIANS.  A  sect  that  sprang  up  about  the  time  of  the  civil  wars  of 
Charles  I.  and  period  of  the  Protectorate,  so  called  from  one  Ludowic  Muggleton,  a 
tailor.  He  and  his  associate  Reeves  set  up  for  prophets.  They  affirmed  that  God 
the  Father,  leaving  the  government  of  heaven  to  Elias,  came  down  and  suffered  death 
in  a  human  form.  They  pretended  to  an  absolute  power  of  saving  souls,  and  asserted 
they  were  the  two  last  witnesses  of  God  which  should  appear  before  the  end  of  the 
world  :  they  made  considerable  noise  about  1657. 

MULBERRY-TREE.  The  first  mulberry-trees  planted  in  England  are  now  standftig 
in  the  gardens  attached  to  Sion-house.  Shakspeare  planted  a  mulberry-tree  with 
his  own  hands  on  his  ground  at  Stratford-upon-Avon ;  and  Garrick,  Macklin,  and 
others  were  entertained  under  this  mulberry-tree,  in  1 742.  Shakspeare's  house  was 
afterwards  sold  to  a  clergyman  of  the  name  of  Gastrel,  who,  being  rated  for  the  poor 
higher  than  it  pleased  him  to  pay,  peevishly  declared  that  the  house  should  never 
pay  again;  and,  from  ill-will  to  the  inhabitants  of  Stratford,  who  were  benefited  by 
the  company  it  brought  to  the  town,  he  pulled  it  down,  and  sold  the  materials.  He 
had  previously  cut  down  the  mulberry-tree  for  fuel ;  but  a  silversmith  purchased  the 
whole  of  it,  which  he  manufactured  into  memorials  of  the  poet. — See  article  Fruits. 

MUM.  A  wholesome  kind  of  malt-liquor,  brewed  chiefly  from  malt  made  from  wheat 
instead  of  barley.  It  is  not  thought  to  be  fit  for  use  till  it  has  been  full  two  years  in 
the  cask.  Mum  is  much  drunk  in  Germany  ;  and  Brunswick  is  a  place  of  note  for 
making  it ;  hence,  it  is  frequently  called  Brunswick  Mum.  It  was  first  made 
there  in  1489. 

MUNSTER,  Treaty  of,  between  France,  the  Emperor,  and  Sweden  ;  Spain  continuing 
the  war  against  the  former  kingdom.  By  this  peace,  the  principle  of  a  balance  of 
power  in  Europe  was  first  recognised.    Signed  at  Munster,  Oct.  24,  1648. 

MURDER.  The  highest  offence  against  the  law  of  nature.  A  court  of  Ephetse  was 
established  by  Demophoon  for  the  trial  of  murder,  1179  B.C.  The  Persians  did  not 
punish  the  first  offence.  In  England,  during  a  period  of  the  Heptarchy,  murder  was 
punished  by  fines  only.  So  late  as  Henry  VIlI.^s  time,  the  crime  was  compounded  for 
in  Wales.  Murderers  were  allowed  benefit  of  clergy  in  1503.  Aggravated  murder,  or 
petit  treasorit  may  happen  in  three  ways ;  by  a  servant  killing  his  master  ;  a  wife  her 
husband  ;  and  an  ecclesiastical  person  his  superior,  statute  25  Edward  III.,  1350. 
The  enactments  relating  to  this  crime  are  very  numerous,  and  its  wilful  commission 
has  been  excepted  from  mercy  by  our  sovereigns  in  every  instance.  The  act  whereby 
the  murderer  should  be  executed  on  the  day  next  but  one  after  his  conviction,  was 
repealed  7  WiU.  IV.,  July  1836. 

MURDERS,  HORRIBLE,  in  British  history.  Here  may  be  mentioned  one  or 
two  cases  of  murder  attended  with  circumstances  of  horrid  barbarity  and  wickedness. 


MCS  [_  352  ]  MU8 

Alfred,  eldest  son  of  Etbelred  II.  and  all  his  train,  hj  earl  Godwin,  to  remove  the 
fears  of  Harold,  the  prince  having  a  better  right  to  the  throne,  a.d.  1036.  The 
assassins  ripped  up  Alfred's  belly,  fiutened  his  bowels  to  a  post,  and  then  pricked 
him  with  poniards  to  make  him  ran  round  it  till  he  died :  but  this  was  almost  instan- 
taneously.— Speed's  Chron,  Tosti  caused  the  domestics  of  his  brother  Harold  to 
be  murdered,  and  cut  in  pieces,  salted,  and  barrelled,  and  then  sent  as  a  present  to 
their  master,  1058. — Saron  Chron.* 

MUSEUM.  Originally  a  quarter  of  the  palace  of  Alexandria,  like  the  Prytaneum  of 
Athens,  where  learned  men  of  extraordinary  merit  were  maintained  by  the  public, 
because  of  their  considerable  services  to  the  commonwealth.  The  foundation  of 
this  establishment  is  attributed  to  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  who  here  placed  his  library, 
about  284  b.c. — See  British  Mtueum^  ^c. 

MUSIC-  Lucretius  ascribes  its  invention  to  the  whistling  of  the  winds  in  hollow  reeds. 
Franckinus  to  the  various  sounds  produced  by  the  hammers  of  Tubal  Cain.  Came- 
leon  Pontique  and  others  to  the  singing  of  birds.  And  Zarlino  to  the  sound  of  water. 
It  is,  however,  agreed  that  music  was  first  reduced  to  rules  by  Jubal  1800  b.c.  The 
flute,  and  harmony  or  concord  in  music  was  invented  by  Hyagnis,  1506. — Arund. 
Marbles.  Vocal  choruses  of  men  are  first  mentioned  556  B.C. — Du  Fresnoy. 
Pythagoras  maintained  that  the  motions  of  the  twelve  spheres  must  produce  delight- 
taX  sounds  inaudible  to  mortal  ears,  which  he  called  '*  the  music  of  the  spheres.*' 
St  Cecilia,  a  Roman  lady,  is  said  to  have  excelled  so  eminently  in  music,  that  an 
angel  was  enticed  from  the  celestial  regions  by  the  fascinating  charms  of  her  melody ; 

'  and  this  hyperbolical  tradition  has  been  deemed  sufficient  authority  to  make  her  the 
patroness  of  music  and  musicians.     She  died  in  the  third  century. 

MUSICAL  NOTES.  The  first  six  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Gui  Aretin,  a 
Benedictine  monk  of  Arezzo  a.d.  1025. — Blair,  The  notes  at  present  used  were 
perfected  in  1338.  Counterpoint  was  brought  to  perfection  by  Palestrina  about 
1515.  Gaffnrius  of  Lodi  read  lectures  on  musical  composition  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  they  effected  great  improvement  in  the  science.  The  Italian  style  of 
composition  was  introduced  into  these  countries  about  1616. 

MUSIC  IN  ENGLAND.  Before  the  Reformation  there  was  but  one  kind  of  music  in 
Europe  worth  notice,  namely,  the  sacred  chant,  and  the  descant  built  upon  it  This 
music  moreover  was  applied  to  one  language  only,  the  Latin. — Ashe,  The  original 
English  music,  from  the  period  of  the  Saxons  to  that  era  in  which  our  countrymen 
imbibed  the  art,  and  copied  the  manner  of  the  Italians,  was  of  a  character  which 
neither  pleased  the  soul  nor  charmed  the  ear.  But  as  all  the  arts  seem  to  have  been 
the  companions  of  successful  commerce,  our  music  soon  improved,  our  taste  was 
chastened,  and  sweet  sounds  formed  an  indispensable  part  of  polite  education. 
Prior  to  1600,  the  chief  music  was  masses  and  madrigals,  but  dramatic  music  was 
much  cultivated  from  that  time.  About  the  end  of  James  I.'s  reign  a  music  pro- 
fessorship was  founded  in  the  University  of  Oxford  by  Dr.  Wm.  Hychin  ;  and  the 
year  1710  was  distinguished  by  the  arrival  in  England  of  George  Frederick  Handel. 
Mozart  came  to  England  in  1763  ;  Joseph  Haydn  in  1791 ;  and  Carl  Maria  Von 
Weber  in  1825. 

MUSICAL  FESTIVALS  in  ENGLAND.  Dr.  Bysse,  chancellor  of  Hereford,  pro- 
posed to  the  members  of  the  choirs,  a  collection  at  the  cathedral  door  after  morning 
service,  when  forty  guineas  were  collected,  and  appropriated  to  charitable  purposes, 
then  agreed  to  hold  festivals  at  Hereford,  Gloucester,  and  Worcester,  in  rotation, 
annually.  Until  the  year  1753,  the  festival  only  lasted  two  days :  it  was  then 
extended  at  Hereford  to  three  evenings  ;  and  Gloucester  in  1 757,  to  three  mornings, 
for  the  purpose  of  introducing  Handel's  '*  Messiah,"  which  was  warmly  received, 
and  has  been  performed  annually  ever  since.  Musical  festivals  on  a  great  scale  are 
now  annually  held  in  England. 

*  Major  Johnson,  an  officer  on  half-pay  in  Dublin,  entered  his  parlour  and  gave  his  two  sons  (one 
a  lad  of  ten,  the  other  of  twelve  years  of  age),  each  a  loaded  pistol,  ordering  them  to  fire  at  each 
other,  or  else  he  would  run  them  through  with  his  sword  ;  they  fired,  and  shot  each  other  dead  upon 
the  spot.  Their  mother  coming  into  the  room,  on  the  report  of  the  pistols,  the  m^Jor  stabbed  her 
to  the  heart,  and  then  himself,  lT2Xi.—8almon*9  CJiron.  A  Milanese  woman  named  Elizabeth, 
enticed  numerous  children  to  her  house,  and  killed  and  salted,  and  afterwards  ate  them  {see  An- 
thropophagi)* A.D.  1619.  At  Lisbon,  a  woman  was  executed  for  the  murder  of  thir^-three  infants 
committed  to  her  care,  July  ITI^.-^Phillipt. 


MU8  L  353  J  MYC 

MUSICAL  INSTITUTIONS.  The  Ancient  Academy  of  Music  was  institated  in  1710. 
It  originated  with  numerous  eminent  performers  and  gentlemen  to  promote  the 
study  of  vocal  harmony.  The  Madrigal  Society  was  established  in  1741,  and  other 
musical  societies  followed.  The  Royal  Society  of  Music  arose  from  the  principal 
nobility  and  gentry  uniting  to  promote  the  performance  of  operas  composed  by 
Handel,  1785.     Royal  Academy  of  Music  established  1822. 

MUSKETS.  They  were  first  used  at  the  siege  of  Arras  in  1414.  The  Spanish  histo- 
rians state  that  Spain  was  the  first  power  that  armed  the  foot-soldier  with  these 
weapons.  They  were  used  at  the  siege  of  Rbegen  in  1521.  Introduced  generally 
into  the  English  army,  and  bows  and  arrows  laid  aside,  12  Henry  VIII.  1521. — 
Carte,  It  was  the  duke  of  Alva  who  first  brought  the  musket  into  use  in  the  Low 
Countries,  1569. — Branstone, 

MUSLIN.  A  fine  cloth,  made  wholly  of  cotton.  According  to  some,  it  is  so  called  as 
not  being  bare,  but  having  a  downy  nap  on  its  surface  resembling  moss,  which  the 
French  call  fnousse.  According  to  others,  it  was  first  brought  from  Mousol,  in 
India,  whence  the  name.  Muslins  were  first  worn  in  England  in  1670. — An4er8on, 
They  were  manufactured  in  great  perfection  in  Ehigland  in  1778. 

MUTE.  A  prisoner  is  said  to  stand  mute  when,  being  arraigned  for  treason  or  felony* 
he  either  makes  no  answer,  or  answers  foreign  to  the  purpose.  Anciently,  a  mute 
was  taken  back  to  prison,  placed  in  a  dark  dungeon,  naked,  on  his  back,  on  the 
bare  ground,  and  a  great  weight  of  iron  placed  upon  his  body  ;  in  this  situation  he 
was  fed  with  three  morsels  of  bad  bread  one  day,  and  three  draughts  of  stagnant 
water  the  next,  and  so  on  alternately  until  he  died.  For  a  very  memorable  instance 
of  this  punishment  in  a.d.  1605,  see  article  Pressing  to  Death,  By  statute  12 
George  III.  judgment  is  awarded  against  mutes,  in  the  same  manner  as  if  they  were 
convicted  or  confessed.  A  man  refusing  to  plead  was  condemned  and  executed  at 
the  Old  Bailey  on  a  charge  of  murder,  1778.  Another  on  a  charge  of  burglary,  at 
Wells,  1792.  At  Shrewsbury  a  man  tried  and  convicted  notwithstanding,  Aug.  21, 
ISOl. —PhUlips, 

MUTINIES  IN  THE  BRITISH  FLEET.  The  memorable  mutiny  throughout  the 
fleet  at  Portsmouth  for  an  advance  of  wages,  April  15,  1797.  It  subsided  on  a 
promise  from  the  Admiralty,  which,  not  being  quickly  fulfilled,  occasioned  a  second 
mutiny  on  board  the  London  man-of-war,  admiral  Colpoys,  who,  with  his  captain, 
was  put  into  confinement  for  ordering  the  marines  to  fire,  whereby  some  lives  were 
lost.  The  mutiny  subsided  May  10,  1797,  when  the  act  passed  to  raise  their  wages, 
and  the  king  pardoned  the  mutineers.  A  more  considerable  one  at  the  Nore,  which 
blocked  up  the  trade  of  the  Thames,  subsided  June  10,  1797,  when  the  principal 
mutineers  were  put  in  irons,  and  several  executed.  Mutiny  of  the  Dana'e  frigate  ; 
the  crew  carried  the  ship  into  Brest  harbour,  March  27,  1800.  Mutiny  on  board 
admiral  Mitcheirs  fleet  at  Bantry  Bay,  December  1801,  and  January  following :  see 
Bantry  Bay,  Mutiny  at  Malta,  began  April  4,  1807,  and  ended  on  the  12th,  when 
the  mutineers  blew  themselves  up,  by  setting  fire  to  a  large  magazine,  consisting  of 
between  400  and  500  barrels  of  gunpowder.  Mutiny  Act,  a  statute  for  the  discip- 
line, regulation,  and  payment  of  the  army,  &c.,  was  passed  2  William  III.  1689, 
and  has  been  renewed  annually  ever  since. 
MUTINY  OF  THB  BOUNTY,  April  28,  1789.  For  particulars  see  Bounty.  ' 
MYCALE,  Battle  op,  fought  September  22,  479  B.C.,  between  the  Greeks  and 
Persians ;  being  the  identical  day  on  which  Mardonius  was  defeated  and  slain  at 
Platea.  The  Persians  consisted  of  about  100,000  men,  who  had  just  returned  from 
an  unsuccessful  expedition  of  Xerxes  in  Greece.  They  were  completely  defeated, 
some  thousands  of  them  slaughtered,  their  camp  burnt,  and  the  Greeks  triumphantly 
embarked  their  troops  and  sailed  back  to  Samoa  with  an  immense  booty. 

MYCENJS.  A  division  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Argives.  It  stood  about  fifty  stadia 
from  Argos,  and  flourished  till  the  invasion  of  the  Heraclidse.  Perseus  removes 
from  Argos  to  Mycense,  and  reigns,  1313  B.C.  Mycena  destroyed  by  the 
Argives,  568  e.g. 


Reign  of  Electryon        .        .        •    b.c.  1302 
Reign  of  Eurystheus  •         •    •  1289 

[Towards  the  close  of  his  reign,  he  im- 
poses on  Hercules  several  dangerous 


enterprises,  with  a  view  to  get  rid  of 
him ;  but  the  hero  surmounts  all  diffi* 
culties.] 
Agamemnon,  succeeding  to  the  throne, 

A  A 


MTC 


C354] 


NAM 


Orestea,  son  of  Aganusaaion,  puts  his 

mother  and  her  paramour  to  death  b.c.  1176 
Orestea  dies  of  the  bite  of  a  serpent  .  .1106 
The  Achaians  are  expelled    .  .  1106 

Invasion  of  the  Heradids,  and  the  con- 

qnerors  divide  the  dominions  .  .  1104 
Mycenc  destroyed 668 


MYCENiE,  cofUinued. 

beoomes  king  of  Myoenc,  Si^yQii,  Co- 
rinth, and  perhi^ps  of  Argoe        .    B.C.  1201 

AgameomQn  chosen  generalissimo  of  the 
Grecian  farces  going  to  the  Trojan  war  1193 

JEgisthns,  in  the  absence  of  Agamem- 
non, lives  in  adultery  with  the  queen 
Clytemnestra.  On  the  return  of  the 
king  th^  ansBBsliiite  him;  and  iESgis- 
thus  mounts  the  throne  .  1183 

MYSTERIES.  They  originated  in  Egypt,  the  land  of  idolatry,  and  were  an  institu- 
tion of  the  priesthood  to  extend  their  own  inflaence  ;  so  that  all  maxims  in  morality, 
tenets  in  theology,  and  dogmas  in  philosophy,  were  wrapt  up  in  a  veil  of  allegory 
and  mystery.  From  the  Egyptian  mysteries  of  Isis  and  Osiris  sprung  those  of 
Bacchus  and  Ceres  among  the  Greeks.  The  Eleusinian  mysteries  were  introduced 
at  Athens  by  Eumolpus,  1356  b.c.  The  laws  were — 1.  To  honour  parents  ;  2.  To 
honour  the  gods  with  the  fruits  of  the  earth  ;  3.  Not  to  treat  brutes  with  cruelty. 
Cicero  makes  the  civilisation  of  mankind  one  of  the  beneficial  effects  of  the  Eleusi- 
nian mysteries.    They  were  abolished  by  the  emperor  Theodosius  a.d.  389. 

MYTHOLOGY.  Fable  usurped  the  place  of  historical  truth  as  soon  as  the  authentic  tra- 
dition concerning  the  Creation  had  been  lost  or  adulterated  ;  and  persons  who  had  ren- 
dered Uiemselves  renowned  as  kings  or  leaders  in  this  life,  and  whose  achievements 
had  dazzled  the  benighted  understanding  of  men  living  in  a  state  of  nature,  were 
supposed  to  be  more  than  mortal,  and  therefore  after  death  the  multitude  were  easily 
taught  to  reverence  them  with  divine  honours.  The  Egyptians  and  Babylonians,  after 
forgetting  the  inyieible  and  true  Grod,  worshipped  positive  objects, as  the  sun  and  moon ; 
and  then  transferred  their  adoration  to  the  operations  of  nature  and  the  passions  of 
their  own  minds,  which  they  embodied  under  synibolical  representations,  and  ulti- 
mately worshipped  the  symlrals  themseWes.  Thoth  is  supposed  to  have  introduced 
mythology  among  the  Egyptians,  1521  b.c  ;  and  Cadmus,  the  worship  of  the  Egyp- 
tian and  Phoenician  deities,  among  the  Greeks,  1493  b.c. 


N. 

NAAS,  Battlb  ot,  in  Ireland.    A  desperate  engagement  between  a  body  of  the  king's 
^    forces,  consisting  of  the  Ancient  Britons  and  the  Armagh  Militia.    The  insurgents, 
who  had  just  commenced  the  memorable  Rebellion,  were  3000  strong,  and  were 
defeated  with  the  loss  of  300  killed.  May  24,  1798.— ^S'tr  Richard  Musgrave. 

NABONASSER,  Era  of.  This  era  received  its  name  from  the  celebrated  prince  of 
Babylon,  and  began  Feb.  26,  747  b.c.  To  find  the  Julian  year  on  which  the  year 
of  Nabonasser  begins,  subtract  the  year,  if  before  Christ,  from  747  ;  if  after  Christ, 
add  to  it  748. 

NAMES.  Originally  every  person  had  but  one  name.  Plato  recommended  it  to  parents 
to  give  happy  names  to  their  children ;  and  the  Pythagoreans  taught  that  the  minds, 
actions,  and  successes  of  men  were  according  to  their  names,  genius,  and  fate.  The 
popes  change  their  names  at  their  exaltation  to  the  pontificate,  "  a  custom  intro- 
duced by  pope  Sergius,  whose  name  till  then  was  Swine-snout,  a.d.  687.^ — Platina. 
Onuphrius  refers  it  to  John  XII.,  956 ;  and  gives  as  a  reason,  that  it  was  done  in 
imitation  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  who  were  first  called  Simon  and  Saul.  In  France 
\  it  was  usual  to  change  the  name  given  at  baptism,  as  was  done  in  the  case  of 
two  sons  of  Henry  II.  of  France.  They  were  christened  Alexander  and  Hercules  ; 
but  at  their  confirmation,  these  names  were  changed  to  Henry  and  Francis.  It  is 
usual  for  the  religious  at  their  entrance  into  monasteries  to  assume  new  names,  to 
show  they  are  about  to  lead  a  new  life,  and  have  renounced  the  world,  their  family, 
and  themselves. — See  Simames, 

NAMUR.  Ceded  to  the  house  of  Austria  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht.  It  was  garrisoned  by 
the  Dutch  as  a  barrier  town  of  the  United  Provinces  in  1715.  Namur  was  taken  by 
the  French  in  1746,  but  was  restored  in  1748.  In  1781,  the  emperor  Joseph  expelled 
the  Dutch  garrison.  In  1792,  it  was  again  taken  by  the  French,  who  were  compelled 
to  evacuate  it  the  following  year ;  but  they  regained  possession  of  it  in  1794.  The 
French,  however,  delivered  it  up  to  the  Allies  in  1814. 


NAN 


C  355  ] 


NAT 


537 


NANTES,  Edict  of.  This  was  a  celebrated  edict,  permitting  to  the  Protestants  the 
free  exercise  of  their  religion,  pablished  by  Henry  IV.  of  France  in  1598.  The 
impolitic  and  nnjast  revocation  of  this  edict  by  Lonis  XIV.  was  declared  Oct.  24, 
1685,  and  obliged  the  Protestants  to  shelter  themselves  in  England,  Holland,  and 
different  parts  of  Germany,  where  they  established  various  manufactures  to  the  pre- 
judice of  their  own  country. — See  Pitcification. 

NAPIER'S  BONES.  The  name  given  to  certain  pieces  of  ivory,  JEc^  pontaining  the 
products  of  any  two  single  numbers,  so  contrived,  that  multiplication  and  division  of 
large  numbers  may  easily  be  performed  by  them,  invented  by  the  famous  lord 
Napier,  baron  of  Merchiston,  who  also  invented  logarithms,  about  a.d.  1617. 

NAPLES.  The  continental  division  of  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies.  Naples  was  a 
part  of  the  Roman  territory  at  a  very  early  period.  In  the  fifth  century  it  became 
a  prey  to  the  Goths,  and  afterwards  to  the  Lombards ;  and  the  Saracens,  Normans, 
and  French,  also  successively  had  possession  of  this  country. 

The  kingdom  completely  oonquered  by 

prince  Eugene  .  .  .  a.d.  1707 
Discovery  of  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum. 

See  Herculaneum       .... 
Naples  ceded  to  the  Emperor  by  the 

treaty  of  Radstadt,  1714 ;  Sicily       .    . 
Both  kingdoms  are  recovered  by  the 

crown  of  Spain  .... 

And  Charles,  the  son  of  Philip  of  Spain, 

reigns    .        .         .        .        .         .    . 

Reign  of  Ferdinand  lY. 

UIb  flight  on  the  approach  of  the  French 

republicans  .  .  .  Jan.  14,  1799 
Nelson  appears,  Naples  is  retaken,  and 

the  king  restored  .  .  July  13,  1799 
It  is  again  taken  by  the  French,  April  7i  1801 
Dreadful  earthquake  felt  throughout  the 

kingdom, and  thousands  perish  July  26,  1805 
Treaty  offensive  and  defensive  between 

France  and  Naples  .         .  Oct.  8,  1805 

Ferdinand  is  again  driven  from  Naples, 

and  Joseph  Duonaparte  is  crowned 

king  ....         Feb.  6,  1806 

Joseph  abdicates  for  the  crown  of  Spain 

June  1,  1808 
The  crown  is  transferred  to  Joachim 

Murat      .         .         .  July  1,  1808 

Naples  is  surrendered  to  a  British  fleet, 

and  Ferdinand  re-enters  .  June  17,  1815 
Execution  of  Joachim  Murat  .  Oct.  15,  1815 
Revolutionary  movement,    headed  by 

general  Pepe  .         .         July  15,  1820 

Suppression  of  the  Carbonari      Sept.  16,  1820 

Reign  of  Francis  1 1826 

And  of  Ferdinand  II.         .  Nov.  8,  1830 

Commencement  of  the  dispute  relative 

to  the  sulphur  monopoly,  (which  is 

afterwards  amicably  adjusted)  Mar.  15,  1840 


The  Goths  having  become  masters  of 
Naples  and  of  Sicily,  are  expelled  by. 
Belisarius,  general  of  the  Eastern  em- 
pire ......    A.D. 

The  Lombards  next  get  possession  of 
Naples,  and  are  dispossessed  by  Char- 
lemagne     800 

Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  of  St.  Louis, 
king  of  France,  obtains  the  crown  from 
the  pope  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
rightful  heir,  Conradin,  who  is  be- 
headed, aged  sixteen  years         .        .  1266 

The  French  becoming  hated  by  the  Si- 
cilians, a  general  massacre  of  the  in- 
vaders takes  place,  one  Frenchman 
only  escaping.— See  Sicilian  Vespers 

March  30,  1282 

Peter  off  Arragon  reigns  .        .  1282 

The  two  crowns  dl-Joined  .         .    .  1303 

Charles  Durazzo,  becoming  king  of  Hun- 
gary, is  murdo^  there  by  order  of  the 
queen  regent,  in  her  presence     . 

For  this  murder,  she  is  taken  out  of  her 
carriage,  and  drowned  in  the  river 
Boseth 

Sicily  again  united  to  Naples,  and  the 
kings  ever  since  called  king  of  the  Two 
Sicilies      .         .     '  . 

Taken  from  the  French  and  annexed  to 
Spain 

The  tyranny  of  the  Spaniards  leads  to  an 
insurrection,  excited  by  Afasaniello,  a 
fisherman,  who  in  fifteen  days  raises 
200,000  men 

This  insurrection  subsides,  and  Masa- 
niello  is  murdered      .... 

Attempt  of  the  duke  of  Guise  to  possess 
the  crown 


1711 

1720 

1734 

1735 
1759 


1386 


1386 


1442 


1504 


1647 
1647 


1647 

NARVA,  Battle  of,  in  which  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia  was  totally  defeated  by  the 
renowned  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  then  in  his  nineteenth  year.  The  army  of  Peter 
is  said  to  have  amounted  to  100,000  men,  while  the  Swedish  army  did  not  much 
exceed  20,000,  fought  Nov.  30,  1700. 

NASEBY,  Battle  of,  between  Charles  I.  and  the  parliament  army  under  Fairfax  and 
Cromwell.  The  main  body  of  the  royal  army  was  commanded  by  lord  Astley  ;  prince 
Rupert  led  the  right  wing,  sir  Marmaduke  Langdale  the  left,  and  the  king  himself 
headed  the  body  of  reserve.  The  victory  was  with  the  parliament  forces,  and  was 
decisive  of  the  fate  of  the  unfortunate  Charles,  who  was  obliged  to  abandon  the  field 
to  his  enemies,  losing  all  his  cannon  and  baggage,  and  5000  of  his  army  were  made 
prisoners,  June  14, 1645. 

NATIONAL  DEBT.    The  first  mention  of  parliamentary  security  for  a  debt  of  the 

A  A  2 


NAT 


Case  ] 


NAV 


nation,  ocean  in  the  teign  of  Henry  VI.  The  present  national  debt  commenced 
in  the  reign  of  William  III.  It  had  amounted,  in  the  year  1697,  to  aboat  five 
millions  sterling,  and  the  debt  was  then  thought  to  be  of  alarming  magnitnde. 


In  1702.  On  the  mooemion  of  queen 

Anne,  thedebt  amounted£l4,000,000 
In  171^  On  iheaoceaskm  of  George  L 

it  amounted  to  .    5l,000g000 

In  17481  GeorfelL;  after  theSpmish 

war,  it  amounted  to     .    78*000,000 
In  1783.  George  IIL ;  end  of  the  7 

jeanT  war^t  unomted  to  196^000,000 
In  1786>  Three  yean  after  the  Ame- 

rioan  war,  it  amounted  to  268,000,000 
In  178&  The  dTil  and  foreign  war,  it 

amounted  to  468,000,000 


In  1808.  Close  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tionary war,  it  amounted 
to    ...        .    £571,000,000 

In  1814.  Cloee  of  the  war  against 
Buonaparte,  it  amounted 
to  ...         .  865.000,000 

In  181 7.  When  the  English  and  Irish 
exchequers  were  consoli- 
dated .  .    848,282,477 

In  1830L  Total  amount  of  the  f  mided 

and  unfunded  debt       .    840,184,022 

In  1840.  Total  amount  of  ditto    .    789,578,720 


NATIVITY.  There  are  two  festivals,  both  in  the  Roman  and  Greek  chnrches,  under 
this  name.  The  first  is  the  Nativity  of  the  Redeemer,  which  is  also  observed  by  the 
Protestants,  generally  on  the  25th  day  of  December,  and  is  of  very  long  standing  in 
the  church ;  the  other  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  not  observed  by  the  Protestants  at  all. 
Pope  Sergins  I.  abont  690,  is  the  first  who  placed  the  Nativity,  kept  in  memory  of  the 
blessed  Virgin,  among  the  festivals ;  but  it  was  not  generally  received  in  France  and 
Germany  till  about  1000,  and  the  Greeks  and  eastern  Christians  did  not  observe  it 
till  some  time  in  the  twelfth  century ;  but  they  now  do  it  with  great  solemnity. 

NATURALIZATION.  It  is  defined  to  be  "the  making  a  foreigner  or  alien  a  denizen 
or  freeman  of  any  kingdom  or  city,  and  so  becoming,  as  it  were,  both  a  subject  and 
a  native  of  a  king  or  country,  that  by  nature  he  did  not  belong  to."  The  first  act 
of  naturalization  passed  in  1437;  and  various  similar  enactments  were  made  in 
most  of  the  reigns  from  that  time,  several  of  them  special  acts  relating  to  individuals. 
An  act  for  the  naturalization  of  the  Jews  passed  in  1753,  but  it  was  repealed  in  the 
following  year,  on  the  petition  of  all  the  cities  in  England.  The  act  for  the  natural- 
ization of  prince  Albert  passed  3  Victoria,  Feb.  7,  1840. 

NATIONAL  ASSEMBLY  of  FRANCE.  Upon  the  proposition  of  the  abb^  Sieyes, 
the  states  of  France  constituted  themselves  into  the  National  Assembly,  June  16, 
1789.  On  the  20th,  the  hall  of  this  new  assembly  was  shut  by  order  of  the  king  ; 
upon  which  the  deputies  of  the  Tiers  Eiat  repaired  to  the  Jeu  de  Paumet  or 
Tennis-court,  and  swore  not  to  dissolve  until  they  bad  digested  a  constitution  for 
France.  On  the  22nd  they  met  at  the  church  of  St.  Louis.  This  assembly  dissolved 
itself,  Sept.  21,  1792.— See  next  article. 

NATIONAL  CONVENTION  of  FRANCE.  Constituted  in  the  hall  of  the  Tuileries, 
Sept.  17,  and  formally  opened,  Sept.  21,  1792,  when  M.  Gregoire,  at  the  head  of 
the  National  Assembly,  repaired  thither  and  announced  that  that  assembly  had  ceased 
its  functions.  It  was  then  decreed,  *'  That  the  citizens  named  by  the  French  people 
to  form  the  National  Convention,  being  met  to  the  number  of  371,  after  having 
verified  their  powers,  declare,  that  the  National  Convention  is  constituted."  This 
convention  continued  until  a  new  constitution  was  organised,  and  the  Executive 
Directory  was  installed  at  the  Little  Luxembourg,  Nov.  1, 1795. — See  Directory, 

NATIONAL  GALLERY.  The  foundation  of  this  great  institution  was  the  purchase, 
by  the  British  government,  for  the  public  service,  of  the  Angerstein  collection  of 
pictures,  whose  number  did  not  much  exceed  forty.  They  were  purchased  of  Mr. 
Angerstein's  executors,  in  Jan.  1822  ;  and  the  first  exhibition  of  them  took  place  in 
Pall  Mall,  in  May  1824.  Sir  G.  Beaumont,  Mr.  Holwell  Carr,  and  many  other  gen- 
tlemen, as  well  as  the  British  Institution,  contributed  many  fine  pictures  ;  and  the 
collection  has  been  augmented  by  numerous  later  gifts,  and  recent  purchases.  The 
present  grand  edifice  in  Trafalgar-sq^uare  was  designed  by  Mr.  Wilkins,  and  was 
completed  and  opened  in  1837. 

NAVAL  BATTLES.  The  Argonautic  expedition  undertaken  by  Jason  is  the  first  upon 
record,  1263  b.c. — Du  Fteenoy,  The  first  sea-fight  on  record  is  that  between  the 
Corinthians  and  Corey reans,  664  b.c. — Blair.  The  following  are  among  the  most 
celebrated  naval  engagements  to  be  found  on  the  page  of  history,  and  the  glorious 
achievements  of  England  infinitely  surpass  those  of  any  other  country. 


WAV 


[357] 


NAT 


NAVAL  BATTLES,  continued, 

BXFORB  CHRIOT. 

First  sea-fight  on  record,  in  which 
the  Ccnrinthians  oonqner  the  Ckuroy- 
reana 664 

The  Athenian  fleet  under  Themistodes, 
with  380  sail,  defeat  the  Persian,  con- 
sisting of  2000,  at  the  straits  of  Sa- 
lamis  .         .         ....    480 

Again,  at  the  month  of  the  river  Eury- 
medon ;  Cimon,the  Athenian  admiral, 
vanquishes  the  Persianfleet  andarmy, 
ia  one  d&j.— Herodotus  .         .    .    470 

The  Lacedemonian  fleet  taken  hy  Aid- 
hiades,  the  Athenian  .    410 

The  Spartan  general,  Lysander,  totally 
defeats  theA  thenian  fleet  imder  Conon ; 
hy  this  victory  he  puts  an  end  to  the 
maritime  power  of  Athens     .         .    .    407 

The  Persians  esngage  Ck)non  to  command 
their  fleet,  with  which  he  entirely 
vanquishes  the  Lacedaemonian  fleet, 
and  takes  fifty  sail  out  of  ninety         .    400 

The  Persian  fleet  conquer  the  Spartan 
at  Cnidos;  Pisander,  the  Athenian 
admiral,  is  killed ;  and  the  maritime 
power  of  theLacedemonlans  destroyed. 
—Thucpdides 394 

The  Roman  fleet,  employed  in  the  siege 
of  Lilybaeum,  burned  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians   849 

The  Carthaginian  fleet  destroyed  by  the 
consul  Lutatius  ....    242 

The  Roman  fleets  vanquidied  by  Hanni- 
bal, the  Carthaginian  general;  800 
galleys  taken,  and  16,000  prisoners; 
second  Punic  war  .    .    S09 

At  Actium,  between  the  fleets  of  Octa- 
vianus  Caesar  and  Marc  Antony.  This 
battle  decides  the  fate  of  the  latter,  HOO 
of  his  galleys  going  over  to  Oaraar,  by 
which  he  is  totally  defeated        .  31 

ANNO  DoaaNi. 

The  emperor  Claudius  n.  defeats  the 
Ooths,  and  sinks  2000  of  their  ships.— 
Du  Fretnop 269 

The  fleets  belonging  to  Spain,  Yrailce, 
and  Pius  Y.  defeat  the  Turkish  fleet  in 
the  Gulf  of  Lepanto.  The  Christian 
fleet  consisted  of  206  galleys,  and  30,000 
men.  The  Turks,  out  of  250  galleys, 
saved  only  100 ;  and  lost  30.000  men  in 
killed  and  prisoners. — Voltaire  .        .  1571 

Bay  of  Gibraltar ;  Dutch  and  Spaniards* 
This  was  a  bloody  conflict  and  decisive 
victory,  and  settled  for  a  time  the  su- 
periority of  the  Dutch  •        April  25,  1607 

NAVAL  XNOAQBMENTB  IN  BBITI8B  BISTOKY. 

Alfred,  with  10  gall^s,  defeated  300  saU 
of  Danish  pirates  on  the  Dorset  and 
Hampshire  ooaBt.—Aner'i  Life  cf  Al- 
fred   897 

Near  Sluys ;  Edward  HI.  defeated  the 
French  fleet  of  400  sail,  which  wereall 
sunk.  30,000  French  were  killed  in 
this  engagement  .  .    .  1340 

The  English  and  Flemings ;  the  latter 
signally  defeated        ....  1371 


English  and  French ;  in  which  the  latter 
power  loses  80  ships  .    .  1389 

Near  Milford  Ebven ;  the  English  take 
14,  and  destroy  15  French  ships  .        .  1405 

OffBarfleur;  the  duke  of  Bedford  takes 
500  French  ships  .    .  1416 

In  the  Downs ;  the  French  fleet  captured 
by  the  earl  of  Warwick  .  1459 

Bay  of  Biscay ;  English  and  French,  the 
Utter  defeated 1512 

Sir  Edward  Howard  defeats  the  French 
under  Prejeant  ....  1513 

In  the  Channel ;  the  British  defeat  the 
French  fleet  with  great  loss    .        .    .  1545 

The  Spanish  Armada  driven  from  the 
English  Channel  to  the  road  of  Calais, 
by  a  running  fight,  the  Spaniardslosing 
15  ships  and  5000  men ;  they  are  again 
defeated,  and  obliged  to  bear  away  for 
Scotland  and  Ireland,  when  their  fleet 
is  dispersed  in  a  storm,  and  they  lose 
17  more  ships,  and  5000  more  men.— 
See  Armada        .        .        .    July  19,  1568 

Dover  Straits ;  between  the  Dutch  ad- 
miral, Van  Tromp,  and  admiral  Blake. 
The  Dutch  surprise  the  English  in  the 
Downs,  80  sail  engaging  40  English, 
six  of  which  are  taken  or  destroyed ; 
and  the  Dutch  admiral  sails  in  triumph 
through  the  channd,  with  a  broom  at 
his  mast-head,  to  denote  that  he  had 
swept  theEnglish  from  the  seas  Jane29,  1652 

In  the  Downs ;  sameadmirals,  andnearly 
same  loss;   Sept.  28,    Oct  28,    and 

Nov.  29,  1650 

The  English  gain  a  victory  over  the 
Dutch  fleet  off  Portsmouth,  taking  and 
destroying  11  men  of  war  and  30 
merchantmen.  Yan  Tromp  was  the 
Dutch,  and  Blake  the  English  admiral 

Febw  10,  1653 

Again,  near  Portland,  betweeenthe  En- 
glish and  Dutch ;  the  latter  defeated 

Feb.  18,  1653 

Again,  off  the  North  Foreland.  The 
Dutch  and  English  fleets,  consisted  of 
near  100  men-of-war  each.  Yan-Tromp 
commanded  the  Dutch ;  Blake,  Monk, 
and  Deane,  the  English.  Six  Dutch 
ships  were  taken;  11  were  sunk,  and 
the  rest  ran  into  Calais  road     Jime2,  1653 

Again,  on  the  coast  of  Holland;  the 
Dutch  lost  30  men-of-war,  and  admiral 
Tromp  was  killed  .  July  31,  1653 

At  Cadis,  when  two  galleons,  worth 
2.000,000  pieces  of  eight,  were  taken  by 
the  English         .  .        Sept.  1666 

The  Spanish  fleet  vanquished,  and  then 
burnt  in  the  harbour  of  Santa  Croz,  by 
Blake      ....  April,  1657 

English  and  French;  130  of  the  Bor^ 
deaux  fleet  destroyed  by  the  duke  of 
York Dec  4,  1664 

The  duke  of  York  (afterwards  James 
II.)  defeats  the  Dutch  fleet  off  Har- 
wich ;  the  Dutch  admiral  blown  up 
with  all  his  crew ;  18  capital  ships 
taken,  14  destroyed  June  3,  1665 


iNAV 


[358] 


NAT 


NAVAL  BATTLES,  cwUmued. 

The  earl  of  Saadwiidi  took  12  men  of  war 
and  8  India  ships     .         .         Sept.  4.  1665 

A  contest  between  the  Dutch  and  En- 
glish fleets  for  victory,  nudntained 
for  four  days.  The  English  lose  9, 
and  the  Dutch  15  ships,  June  1  to  4     .  1666 

DedsiTO  engagement  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Thames,  when  the  English  gain  a 
glorious  victory.  The  Dutch  lose  94 
men-of-war,  4  admirals  Idlled.and  4000 
officers  and  seamen.     Fought  July  96,  1666 

The  English  fleet  of  16  sail,  defeat  the 
French  of  30,  near  Martinico  .    .  1667 

Twelve  Algerine  ships  of  war  destroyed 
by  Sir  Edward  Spragg        .  .  1671 

The  fleetsof  England  and  France  engage 
the  Dutch  in  Southwold-bay ;  an  ob- 
stinate and  bloody  action.  The  earl 
of  Ssndwidi  was  blown  up ;  several 
shiiM  and  some  thousands  of  men  were 
destroyed ;  and  though  no  decisive  vic- 
tory was  gained,  the  Dutch  fled,  pur- 
sued by  the  duke  of  York  (afterwards 
James  II.)  to  their  own  coasts  May  28,  1672 

Coast  of  Holland  ;  by  Prince  Rupert, 
May  28,  June  4,  and  Aug.  11,  D'Etrees 
and  Ruyter  defeated  .  1673 

Sevmd  actions  to  the  disadvantage  of 
the  Dutch.  They  agree  to  strike  to  the 
English  colours  in  the  British  seas, 
25  Charles  IL 1673 

Off  Tangiers,  batUe  between  the  English 
and  Moors,  which  lasted  11  days         .  1679 

Off  Beachy-head ;  the  English  and 
Dutoh  are  defeated  by  the  French, 

June  30,  1690 

The  English  and  Dutoh  combined  fleets 
gain  a  signal  victory  over  the  French 
fleet,  near  Cape  La  Hogue ;  21  of  their 
largest  men-of-war  were  destroyed. — 
Bee  La  Hogue  May  19,  1692 

Off  St.  Vincent ;  the  English  and  Dutoh 
squadrons,  under  admiral  Rooke,  de- 
feated by  the  French        .      June  16,  1693 

Off  Carthagena,  between  admiral  Ben- 
bow  *  and  the  French  fleet,  com- 
manded by  admiral  Du  Casse,  fought 

Aug.  19,  1702 

The  English  and  Dutoh  fleets,  under 
sir  George  Rooke,  defeat  the  French 
fleet  (having  the  Spanish  galleons  in 
convoy)  in  the  port  of  Vigo.  They  take 
9  out  of  13  galleons,  laden  chiefly  with 
silver,  and  six  men-of-war ;  the  other 
4  galleon8,andl  4  men-of-war,de8troyed, 
fought  .        .        Oct  12,  1702 


Off  Malaga ;  bloody  engagement  between 
the  French  and  English,  when  the 
former  entirely  relinquishes,  the  do- 
minion of  the  seas  to  England  Aug.  24,  1704 

At  Gibraltar,  when  the  French  lose  flve 
men-of-war  .        .    Nov.  5,  1704 

Off  the  Lisard,  when  the  Kngtish  fleet 
was  defeated     .         .         .         Oct  9,  1707 

In  the  Mediterranean,  admiral  Leake 
took  sixty  French  vessels  laden  with 
provisions      .  .         May  22,  1708 

The  Spanish  fleet  of  27  sail  totally  de- 
feated by  shr  George  Byng,  in  the  Faro 
of  Messina  .         .         .    Aug.  11, 1718 

Bloody  battle  off  Toul(m ;  Matthews  and 
Lestock  against  the  fleets  of  France 
and  Spain.  Here  the  brave  captain 
Cornwall  fell;  and  the  victory  was 
lost  by  a  misunderstanding  between 
the  EngUsh  admirala— i^TavoZ  HtX.    .  1744 

Off  Cape  Finisterre,  the  Froich  fleet 
taken  by  admiral  Anson  .        May  3,  1747 

In  the  East  Indies ;  the  French  retired 
to  Fondicherry  ....  1747 

Off  Ushant,  when  admiral  Hawke  took 
seven  men-of-war  of  the  French  Oct  14, 1747 

Off  Newfoimdland,  when  admiral  Bos- 
cawen  took  two  men-of-war    June  10,  1755 

Off  Cape  Francois ;  seven  ships  defeated 
by  three  English      .  Oct.  21,  1757 

Admiral  Pocock  defeats  the  French 
fleet  in  the  East  Indies,  in  two  actions, 
1758;  and  again         .        .        .        .1759 

Admiral  Boscawcn  defeats  the  French 
under  De  la  Clue,  off  CapeLagos,  fought 

Aug.  18,  1759 

Admiral  Hawke  defeats  the  French 
fleet  commanded  by  Conflans,  in  Qui- 
beron  Bay;  and  thus  prevents  a  pro- 
jected Invasion  of  England,  fought 

Nov.  20,  1759 

Kjeppel  ',took  3  French  frigates,  and 
a  fleet  of  merchantmen     .        Oct  9,  1762 

On  Lake  Champlain,  where  the  provin- 
cial force  was  totally  destroyed  by  ad- 
miral Howe    .        .         .        Oct  11,  1776 

Off  Ushant;  a  drawn  battle,  between 
Keppel  and  Dorvilllers         .  July  27,  1778 

In  New  England ;  the  American  fleet  to- 
tally destroyed  July  30,  1779 

Near  Cape  St  Yincent;  between  adm. 
Rodney  and  adm.  "Dom.  Langara,  the 
latter  defeated  and  taken  prisoner, 
losing  8  ships        .         .         .   Jan.  8,  1780 

At  St.  Jago ;  Mona  Suffrein  defeated  by 
commodore  Johnston       .     April  16,  1781 


*  In  the  engagement  the  other  ships  of  admiral  Boibow's  squadron  falling  a<steni,  left  this  brave 
commander  alone  to  maintain  the  unequal  battle.  In  this  situation  a  chain-shot  shattered  his  leg, 
yet  he  would  not  be  removed  from  the  quartor-deck,  but  continued  fighting  till  the  morning,  when 
the  French  sheered  off.  He  died  in  October  following,  of  his  wounds,  at  Jamaica,  where,  soon  after 
his  arrival,  he  received  a  letter  from  the  French  admiral,  of  which  the  following  is  a  literal 
translation :  *'  Carthagena,  August  22, 1702. 

*'  SiR,~I  had  little  hopes  on  Monday  last,  but  to  have  supped  in  your  cabin ;  yet  it  pleased  God  to 
order  it  otherwise.  I  am  thankful  for  it.  As  for  those  cowardly  captains  who  deserted  you,  hang 
them  up,  for  by  G— d  they  deserve  it.  Du  Cassk." 

Two  of  those  unworthy^  cowards,  captains  Kirby  and  Wade,  were  shot  on  their  arrival  at  Plymouth, 
having  been  previously  tried  by  a  court-martial. 


NAV 


[359] 


NAV 


NAVAL  BATTLES,  continued. 

Dogger-bank,  between  adm.  Parker  and 
the  Dutcdi  adm.  Zoutman ;  400  killed 
on  eabh  Bide  Aug.  ft,  1781 

Adm.  Rodney  defeated  the  French  going 
to  attack  Jamaica,  took  10  ships  of  the 
line,  (1  sunk,  and  3  blown  up)  and  sent 
the  French  admiral,  count  de  Graase, 
prisoner  to  England        .        Ajwil  12,  178S 

The  British  totaUy  defeated  the  fleeto  of 
France  and  Spain,  in  the  bay  of  Gibral- 
tar.—See  Gibraltar        .        Sept  13,  1782 

East  Indies ;  a  series  of  actions  between 
Sir  Edw.  Hughes  and  Buffrein,  viz. : 
February  17, 1782,  the  French  had  11 
ships  to  9 ;  April  12,  they  had  18  ships 
to  11,  yet  were  completely  beaten. 
Again,  July  6,  off  Trincomalee,  they 
had  15  to  12,  and  were  again  beaten 
with  the  toss  of  1000  kiUed,  Sept.  3, 
1782.    Again  .         .  June  20,  1783 

Lord  Howe  signally  defeated  the  French 
fleet,  took  tf  ships  of  war,  and  sunk  se- 
veral       ....      June  1,  1794 

Sir  Edward  Pellew  took  16  sail,  and 
burnt  7>  out  of  a  fleet  of  35  sail  of  trans- 
ports       ....     March  8,  1795 

French  fleet  defeated,  and  2  ships  of  war 
taken,   by  admiral  Hotham,  fought 

March  14,  1795 

Adm.  Comwallis  took  8  tranq>orts,  con- 
voyed by  3  French  men-of-war,  fought 

June  7*  1795 

Eleven  Dutch  East  Indiamen  taken  by 
the  Sceptre,  man-of-war,  and  some 
armed  British  Indiamen  in  company 

June  19,  1795 

L'Orient;  the  French  fleet  defeated  by 
lord  Bridport,  and  3  ships  of  war  taken 

June  25,  1795 

Dutch  fleet  under  adm.  Ducas,  in  Bal- 
danha  bay,of  five  men-of-war  and  nine 
frigates,  snrrenders  to  sir  Geo.  Keith 
Elphinstone        .         .         .   Aug.  17,  1796 

Cape  St  Yincent ;  the  Spanish  fleet  de-. 
feated  by  sir  J.  Jervis,  and  4  line  of  bat- 
tle ships  taken        .  Feb.  14,  1797 

Unaucoessful  attempt  on  Santa  Cruz; 
admiral  Nelson  loses  his  right  arm, 

July  24,  1797 

Camperdown;  the  Dutch  signally  de- 
feated by  adm.  Duncan,  and  15  ships 
of  war,  with  the  admiral  (De  Winter), 
taken         ....      Oct.  11,  1797 

Nile ;  Toulon  fleet  defeated  by  sir  Hora- 
tio Nelson,  at  Aboukir ;  9  ships  of  the 
line  taken ;  2  burnt,  2  escaped,  Aug.  1 ,  1798 

Off  the  coast  of  Ireland ;  a  ifrench  fleet 
of  9  sail,  full  of  troops,  as  succours  to 
the  Irish,  engaged  by  dr  John  Borlase 
Warren,  and  5  taken        .       Oct.  12,  1798 

The  Tezel  fleet  of  12  ships  and  13  India- 
men,  surrenders  to  the  British  admi- 
ral, MitcheU         .         .         .  Aug.  28,  1799 

Copenhagen  bombarded ;  when  the  Da- 
nish fleet  of  23  sail  is  taken  or  de- 
stroyed by  lord  Nelson.  1800  Danish 
seamen  killed         .  April  2,  1801 

Gibraltar  Bay ;  engagement  between  the 


French  and  British  fleets ;  the  Hanni- 
bal oti  A  fs^jaxilotlL  July  6,  1801 

Off  Cadiz ;  Sir  James  Saumares  obtaina 
a  victory  over  the  Fren<di  and  Spanish 
fleets;  1  ship  captured, fought  July  12,  1801 

Sir  Robt  Calder  with  15  nil,  takes  2 
ships  (both  Spanish)  out  of  20  sail  of 
the  French  and  Spanish  combined 
fleets,  off  Ferrol        .        .      July  22,  1005 

Off  Trafalgar;  memorable  battle,  in 
which  lord  Nelson  defeated  the  fleets 
of  France  and  Spain,  and  in  which  he 
received  his  mortal  wound.— (See  Tror 
/algar)        ....    Oct.  21,  1805 

Sir  R.  Strachan,  with  4  sail  of  British, 
captures  4  French  ships  of  the  line,  off 
Cape  Ortegal        .  .    Nov.  4,  1805 

In  the  West  Indies ;  the  French  defeated 
by  Sir  T.  Duckworth ;  3  sail  of  the  line 
taken,  2  driven  on  shore     .      Feb.  6,  1806 

Sir  John  Borlase  Warren  captures  the 
French  fleet  under  command  of  admi- 
ral Linois        .        .        .    March  13,  1808 

Admiral  Duckworth  effects  the  passage 
of  the  Daidanellea.— See  I>ardaneUes, 

Feb.  19,  1807 

Copenhagen  fleet  of  18  ships  of  the  line, 
15  frigates,  and  31  other  vessels,  sur- 
renders to  lord  Cathcart  and  adm. 
Qam'bier.—^See  Copenhagen)     Sept.  7.  1807 

The  Russian  fleet  of  several  sail,  in  the 
TaguB,   surrenders  to    the    British, 

fiept.  3,  1808 

Basque  Roads ;  4  sail  of  the  line,  and 
much  shippii]^,  destroyed  by  lord  Gam- 
bier        ....       April  14,  1809 

Two  Russian  flotillas  of  numerous  ves- 
sels, taken  or  destroyed  by  sir  J.  Sau- 
marez         .         .        .        ;       .July  1809 

French  ships  of  the  line  driven  on  shore 
by  lord  Collingwood  (2  of  them  burnt 
by  the  French  next  day)      .     Oct.  25,  1809 

Bay  of  Rosas,  capt  Hallowell  takes  or  de- 
stroys 11  war  and  other  vessels,  Nov.  1,  1809 

Bassetene ;  La  Loire  and  La  Seine, 
French  frigates,  destroyed  by  sir  A. 
Cochrane  .  Dec.  18,  1800 

The  Spartan  British  frigate  gallantly 
engages  a  large  French  force  in  the 
bay  of  Naples        .        .         .   May  3,  1810 

Action  between  the  Tribune,  capt.  Rey- 
nolds, and  4  Danish  brigs,  fought 

May  12,  1810 

Isle  of  Rhd ;  17  vessels  taken  or  destroyed 
by  the  Armide  and  Cadmus    July  17,  1810 

Twenty-two  vessels  from  Otranto  taken 
by  the  Cerberus  and  Active  .  Feb.  22,  1811 

Amazon  French  frigate  deatroyed  off 
Cape  Barfleur        .        .      March  25,  1811 

Lazone  Bay ;  3  Frendi  frigates  burnt  by 
capt.  Barrio's  ships        .        .   Mayl,  1811 

The  British  sloop,  LitUe  Belt,  and  Ame- 
rican ship  President,  their  rencontre. 

May  16,  1811 

Off  Ifadagaacar ;  3  British  frigates  under 
capt.  Schomberg,  engage  3  French, 
larger  sized,  laden  with  troops,  and 
capture  2  May  21,  1811 


HAY 


[360] 


NAV 


NAVAL  BATTLES,  amtinued. 


» 
Joly,  1811 

Tbe  N*i^  frigate  fttteoksd  In  pnmance 
of  Boonaparte  by  7  anned  praams ; 
tliey  were  gallanUy  repnlaed.  Sept  SI.  1811 

Freoeh  IHgate  ^«mmmm  captoied  by  tbe 
Brittah  frigate  AtHpi  Dee.  99,  1811 

Rtroli  of  84  gone,  taken  by  tbe  Vieio- 
nVN(#of74  Feb.  91,  1812 

L*Orieat;  S  Freneh  ftigatee,  fto.,  de- 
stroyed by  tbe  crew  of  the  Jfortkum- 
barlomd        ....  May  S9.  1812 

Qutrriere  British  frigate,  email  chue, 
oaptitred  by  the  American  ship  Con- 
ttUutiim,  <an  wiieqnal  contest)  fought 

Aug.  19,  1812 

British  brig  Frolic  captured  by  tbe 
American  sloop  Wa$p  Oct  )R,  1812 

British  frigate  Maeedcnfan  taken  by  the 
American  ship  VniUd  States,  large 
class        ....       Oct.  25,  1812 

British  frigate  Java,  taken  by  the  Ame- 
rican ship  Constitution,  large  class, 

Deo.  29,  1812 

British  frigate ^aiWIa  loses  46  men  kiUed 
and  95  wounded,  engaging  a  French 
fk-igate        ....      Febw  7,  1813 

British  sloop  Pe^uoek  c^tured  by  the 
American  ship  Hornets  she  was  so 
disabled  that  she  sunk  with  a  part  of 
her  crew  .  Feb.  25,  1813 

American  frigate  Chesapeake,  taken  by 
the  Shannon,  captain  Broke  .  June  1,  1813 

American  ships  Orowier  and  Eagle, 
taken  by  British  gun-boate    .  June  3,  1813 

American  sloop  Argus,  taken  by  the 
British  sloop  Peiican  Aug.  14,  1813 


French  frigate  La  Trave,  44  gum,  teken 
by  the  ^ndromadke  of  3Bgans,  Oct.  23,  1813 

Fren<^  frigate  Ceres,  takm  by  the  Bri- 
tish ship  Tagus         .  Jan.  6,  1814 

French  frigates  Alcmene  and  Iphigenia, 
iMkea  by  the  Venerable    .         Jan.  16,  1814 

French  frigate  Terpsidiore  iaikesa  by  the 
Majestic  Feb.  3,  1814 

French  ship  Cloriade  taken  by  the 
Jhyad  and  Achates,  after  an  acticm 
with  the  £i«roto#     .         .         Feb.  25,  1814 

French  frigate  £'£tot7e  captured  by  the 
Hebms  March  27,  1814 

American  frigate  Essex  captured  by  the 
Phabe  and  Chervb  March  29,  1814 

Lake  Champlain ;  the  British  squadron 
captured  by  the  American,  after  a 
severe  omflict     .  .    Sept  11,  1814 

British  sloop  Avon  sunk  by  the  Ameri- 
can sloop  Wasp        .         .        Sept.  8,  1814 

American  ship  President  captured  by 
the  Endymion  Jan.  15,  1815 

Algiers  bombarded  by  lord  Exmouth. 
Bee  Algiers  .         .    Aug.  27,  1816 

Navarino ;  the  British,  French,  and 
Russian  squadrons*  defeat  and  anni- 
hilate the  Turkish  navy.  See  Nava^ 
rino         ....         Oct  20,  1827 

Action  between  the  British  siiipaVolage 
and  Hyacinth,  and  29  Chinese  war 
Junks,  which  were  defeated  .    Nor.  3,  1839 

Bombardment  and  fall  of  Acre.  The 
Briti^  squadron  under  admiral  Stop- 
ford  achieved  this  triumph  with 
trifling  loss,  while  the  Egyptians  lost 
2Q0U  killed  and  wounded,  and  3000 
prisoners.— See  S;y»'to        .        Nov.  3,  1840 


NAVAL  SALUTE  to  the  BRITISH  FLAG.  This  mark  of  honoar  began  in  Alfred's 
reign^  and  though  sometimes  disputed,  it  may  be  said  to  have  been  continued  ever  since. 
The  Dutch  agreed  to  strike  to  the  English  colours  in  the  British  seas,  in  1673. 
The  honour  of  the  flag-salute  at  sea  was  also  formally  assented  to  by  France  in  1704, 
although  it  had  been  long  previously  exacted  by  England. 

NAVAL  UNIFORMS.  The  first  notice  of  the  establishment  of  a  uniform  in  the 
British  naval  service  which  we  have  met  with,  occurs  in  the  Jacobiie*8  Journal 
of  March  5,  1748,  under  the  head  of  ''  Domestic  News,"  in  these  terms  : — "  An 
order  is  said  to  be  issued,  requiring  all  his  majesty's  sea-officers,  from  the  admiral 
down  to  the  midshipman,  to  wear  a  uniformity  of  clothing,  for  which  purpose 
pattern  coats  for  dress  suits  and  frocks  for  each  rank  of  officers  are  lodged  at  the  Navy- 
office,  and  at  the  several  dock-yards,  for  theirinspection."  This  is  corroborated  by  the 
Gazette  of  July  13,  1757,  when  the  first  alteration  in  the  uniform  took  place,  and  in 
which  a  reference  is  made  to  the  order  of  1748,  alluded  to  in  the  journal  above-men- 
tioned,  and  which  in  fact,  is  the  year  when  a  naval  uniform  was  first  established.  Jas.  I. 
had  indeed  granted,  by  warrant  of  6th  April,  1609,  to  six  of  his  principal  masters 
of  the  navy,  **  liverie  coats  of  fine  red  cloth."  The  warrant  is  stated  to  have  been 
drawn  verbatim  from  one  signed  by  queen  Elizabeth,  but  which  had  not  been  acted 
upon  by  reason  of  her  death.  This  curious  document  is  in  the  British  Museum ; 
but  king  James's  limited  red  livery  is  supposed  to  have  been  soon  discontinued. — 
(luarterly  Review. 

NAVAR1N0,  Battle  of,  between  the  combined  fleets  of  England,  France,  and  Russia, 
under  command  of  admiral  Codrington,  and  the  Turkish  navy,  in  which  the  latter 
was  almost  wholly  annihilated.  More  than  thirty  ships,  many  of  them  four-deckers^ 
were  blown-up  or  burnt,  chiefly  by  the  Turks  themselves,  to  prevent  their  falling  into 
the  hands  of  their  enemies,  Oct.  20,  1827.  The  species  of  policy  which  led  to  this 
attack  upon  Turkey,  was  that  of  Mr.  Canning's  administration.     This  destruction  of 


KAV 


[361] 


NAV 


the  Turkish  naval  power  was  characterised,  by  the  iUustrious  duke  of  WelliDgton,  as 
being  an  **  untoward  event*' — a  memorable  phrase,  applied  to  it  to  this  day. 

NAVIGATION.  It  owes  its  origin  to  the  Phoenicians,  about  1500  b.c.  The  first  laws 
of  navigation  originated  with  the  Rhodians,  916  b.c.  The  first  account  we  have  of 
any  considerable  voyage  is  that  of  the  Phoenicians  sailing  round  Africa,  604  b.c. — 
Blair.  On  the  destruction  of  Thebes  by  Alexander  the  Great,  335  b.c,  its  com- 
merce passed  to  Alexandria,  and  subsequently  the  Romans  became  the  chief  masters 
of  commerce.  It  passed  successively  from  the  Venetians,  Genoese,  and  Hanse 
Towns  to  the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards ;  and  from  these  to  the  Ehiglish  and  Dutch. 

Logarithmic  tables  applied  to  navigation 

byGunter  ....   a.x>.  16S0 

Middle  latitade  sailing  Introduoed  .  .  1623 
Mensuration  of  a  degree,  Norwood  .  1631 
Hadley'B  quadrant  .        .        .    .  1731 

Harrison's  time-keeper  used  .  1764 

Nautical  almanac  first  published  .  .  1767 
Barlow's  theory  of  the  deviation  of  the 

compass 1820 

See  Compoit,  Latitude,  Longitude,  ij^e. 


Plane  charts  and  mariner's  compass 
used  about        ....    a.o.  1420 

Variation  of  the  compass  discovered  by 
Columbus 

That  the  oblique  rhumb  lines  are  spirals, 
discovered  by  Nonius 

First  treatise  on  navigation  . 

The  log  first  mentioned  by  Boiune     •    . 

Mercator's  chart  .... 

Davis's  quadrant,  or  backstaff,  for  mea- 
suring angles,  about       .        .        .    .  1600 


1492 

1537 
1545 
1577 
1599 


NAVIGATION,  INLAND,  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  share  which  inland 
navigation  has  had  in  England  has  been  among  the  great  features  of  her  commercial 
prosperity. — J.  C.  Wiliiams.  Mr.  Nimmo^  in  his  evidence  before  the  Committee 
on  the  state  of  Ireland,  in  1824,  said,  '*  we  have  more  inland  navigation  in  Britain 
than  in  all  the  rest  of  the  world  put  together."  America  has,  however,  made  too 
great  a  progress  in  inland  navigation  to  justify  Mr.  Nimmo  in  this  statement ;  and 
that  gifted  man  must  have  forgotten  the  canals  of  China.  The  total  length  of  the 
inland  navigation  of  England,  including  as  well  the  navigable  rivers  as  canals,  is 
5300  miles. — See  Canals, 

NAVIGATION  LAWS.  The  laws  of  Oleron  were  decreed,  6  Richard  I.  1194.  See 
Oleron*  The  first  navigation  act  was  passed  in  1381.  Another  and  more  extensive 
act  was  passed  in  1541.  Act  relating  to  the  trade  of  the  colonies  passed  in  1646 ; 
and  several  acts  followed  relating  to  navigation.  The  act  regulating  the  navigation 
of  the  river  Thames  was  passed  in  1786.  Navigation  Act,  for  the  encouragement 
of  British  ships  and  seamen,  passed  4  William  IV*.,  August  1833. 

NAVY  OF  ENGLAND.  The  first  fleet  of  galleys,  like  those  of  the  Danes,  was  built 
by  Alfred,  a.d.  897.  The  number  of  ^dleys  had  increased  under  Edgar  to  350, 
about  A.D.  965.  A  formidable  fleet  was  equipped  by  the  public  contribution  of 
every  town  in  England,  in  the  reign  of  Ethelred  II.  1007,  et  seq.y  when  it  rendez- 
voused at  Sandwich  to  be  ready  to  oppose  the  Danes.  From  this  period  fleets  were 
occasionally  furnished  by  the  maritime  towns,  and  the  Cinque  ports,  and  were 
usually  commanded  by  the  king,  or  an  admiral  under  him  :  such  was  the  fleet  of 
Edward  III.  at  the  siege  of  Calais  in  1347  ;  it  consisted  of  40  ships,  badly  equipped, 
under  no  public  fixed  regulations.  The  date  of  the  commencement  of  the  Royal  or 
British  navy,  may  therefore  be  placed  4  Henry  VIII.  1512,  when  the  first  Navy- 
office  was  appointed,  with  commissioners  to  manage  naval  affairs,  and  a  number  of 
stout  ships  of  war  began  to  be  permanently  kept  on  foot  by  the  crown. — Gibson* s 
Camden,  In  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  the  navy  consisted  of  1  ship  of  1200  tons, 
2  of  800  tons,  and  six  or  seven  smaller  ;  the  largest  was  called  the  Great  Harry. 
Elizabeth's  fleet  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  in  1588,  consisted  of  only  28 
vessels,  none  larger  than  frigates.  ^  James  I.  added  10  ships  of  1400  tons  each,  and 
64  guns,  the  largest  then  ever  built — Gibson*s  Continuation  of  Camden, 

ACCOUNT  OF  TBM  PROORMSSIVX  INCRSASX  OF  THS  ROTAli  NAVY  OF  XNOXAND,  FROM  BBKRV  VIU.'s  RSION 

TO  THB  CliOBS  OF  TBB  LAflTT  WAR,   1814. 


Yr. 

Ships. 

Tons. 

Men  voted 

Navp  estimates. 

Tr. 

Ships, 

Tons. 

Men  voted. 

Navp  estimates. 

1021 

16 

7.260 

no  acoount 

1760 

412 

321.134 

70,000 

^^3,227,143 

1578 

24 

10.606 

6,700 

no  acoount. 

1793 

498 

433.226 

46,000 

6,625,331 

1603 

42 

17,056 

8,346 

noaooount. 

1800 

767 

668,744 

136,000 

12,422,837 

1658 

157 

67,000 

21,910 

no  account. 

1808 

869 

892,800 

143,800 

17,496,047 

1688 

173 

101,892 

42,000 

no  accomit. 

1814 

901 

966,000 

146,000 

18,786,609 

1702 

272 

159,020 

40.000 

£1,056,915 

In  1814,  Great  Britain  had  901  ships,  of  which  177  were  of  the  line ;  and  in  1830, 


NAY 


[362] 


MEG 


she  had  621  ships,  some  of  140  gtms  each,  and  down  to  snryeying  vessels  of  2  guns 
only.  Of  these  148  sail  were  employed  on  foreign  and  home  service.  On  Jan.  I, 
1841,  the  total  number  of  ships  of  all  sizes  in  commission  was  183. 

SHIPS  TAKXN  OR  DSSTROYXD  BY  THE  ITATAJL  AND  MAMNV  FORCKS  OF  ORRAT   BRTTAIK  IN  THS    FRBNCH 

RCTOLUTZONARY  WAR,  XNDINO  1802. 


Force. 


Of  the  line    . 
Fifties 
Frigatee 
Sloops,  Jko. 

Grand  total    . 


French. 

45 

2 

133 

161 

341 


Dutch. 

25 

1 

31 

32 


BpanUh. 

11 

0 

20 

55 

86 


Other  natiofis. 

2 

0 

7 

16 

25 


Total. 

83 

3 

191 

264 

541 


MUMBRR  OF  SHIPS  TAKBN  OR  DR8TR0TBO  IN  THB  WAR  AGAINST  BUONAPARTS,  BNDINO  1814. 


Force. 


Of  the  line    . 
Fifties 
Frigates 
Sloops,  dec. 

Grand  total    . 


French, 

Spanith. 

Danith. 

Ruuian. 

70 

27 

23 

4 

7 

0 

1 

0 

77 

36 

24 

6 

188 

64 

16 

7 

342 

187 

64 

17 

American. 

0 

1 

5 

13 

19 


Total. 

124 

9 

148 

288 

569 


It  thus  appears  that,  in  the  two  last  wars,  extending  over  a  period  of  about  twenty- 
one  years,  our  navy  had  taken  or  destroyed  1110  ships  of  the  navies  of  our  enemies. 

NAVY  OF  FRANCE.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  history  a.d.  728,  when,  like  that  of 
England  at  an  early  period,  it  consisted  of  galleys ;  in  this  year  the  French  defeated 
the  Frison  fleet.  It  was  considerably  improved  under  Louis  XIV.  at  the  instance  of 
his  minister  Colbert,  about  1697.  The  French  navy  was  in,  perhaps,  its  highest 
splendour  about  1 781 ;  but  it  became  greatly  reduced  in  the  late  wars  against  England. 

NAVY-OFFICE.  A  navy-ofSce  was  constituted  in  1512;  and  a  board  with  twelve 
commissioners,  subordinate  to  the  Board  of  Admiralty,  was  established  1  Charles  I. 
1625. — Rpmer's  Fmdera.  The  Navy-office  was  organised  in  a  manner  somewhat 
similar  to  the  present  in  1644.  This  office  comprehends  a  variety  of  officers. 
Among  others  is  the  treasurer  of  the  navy,  secretary,  comptroller,  &c  Upon  the 
reform  of  various  departments  in  the  state  in  1782^  this  office  cameinfor  its  share,  and 
increased  salaries  were  given  to  its  chiefs  in  lieu  of  perquisites,  &c.     See  Admiralty. 

NECTARINES.  The  Amygdalis  Persica  is  the  nectarine  tree.  It  originally  came 
from  Persia.  Previously  to  the  introduction  of  the  fruit  here,  in  1562,  presents  of 
nectarines  were  frequently  sent  to  the  court  of  England,  from  the  Netherlands ;  and 
Catherine,  queen  of  Henry  VIII.,  in  her  turn  distributed  them  as  a  peculiar  rarity 
among  her  friends.  This  queen  gave  the  greatest  encouragement  to  the  cultivation 
of  delicate  fruits  in  this  country ;  and  to  her  we  owe  some  of  those  that  are  now 
produced  in  the  highest  perfection  in  our  gardens. 

NEEDLES.  They  make  a  considerable  article  of  commerce,  as  well  as  of  home  trade  in 
England.  German  and  Hungarian  steel  is  of  most  repute  for  needles.  The  first  that 
were  made  in  England  were  fabricated  in  Cheapside,  London,  in  the  time  of  the 
sanguinary  Mary,  by  a  negro  from  Spain  ;  but,  as  he  would  not  impart  the  secret,  it 
was  lost  at  his  death,  and  not  recovered  again  till  1566,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  ; 
when  Elias  Growse,  a  German,  taught  the  art  to  the  English,  who  have  since  brought 
it  to  the  highest  degree  of  perfection. — Siowe.  The  family  of  the  Greenings,  ancestors 
of  lord  Dorchester,  established  a  needle  mantifactory  in  Bucks,  about  this  time. — 
Anderson. 

NEGRO  TRADE.  See  Slavery.  This  species  of  commerce  with  human  beings  was 
first  undertaken  by  the  Spaniards,  a.d.  1508:  and  by  the  English  in  1563;  and 
to  the  dishonour  of  our  country,  notwithstanding  the  progress  of  civilization, 
education,  and  religion,  and  their  consequent  blessings  and  enlightenment,  this 
traffic  continued  up  to  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  1807.  By  a 
judgment  in  our  courts,  in  1772,  it  was  determined  that  negroes  who  were  purchased 
abroad,  and  were  brought  to  England  by  their  masters,  were  free — ^free  the  moment 
their  feet  touched  the  British  soil.  This  judgment,  to  the  honour  of  Mr.  Granville 
Sharpe,  was  obtained  by  his  carrying  on  the  suit  on  behalf  of  Somerset,  the  black. 


KEL  Q  363  ]  NEV 

NELSON'S  FUNERAL.  The  illustrious  Nelson  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar, 
October  21,  1805,  and  the  Victory  man-of-war  arrived  off  Portsmouth  with  his 
remains,  December  4,  same  year.  The  body  lay  in  state  in  the  Painted  Hall,  at 
Greenwich,  January  5  ;  on  the  8th  was  removed  to  the  Admiralty,  and  on  the 
next  day  the  funeral  took  place,  the  greatest,  most  grand,  and  solemn  tJiat  ever  took 
place  in  England.  The  prince  of  Wales  (afterwards  George  IV.),  the  duke  of 
Clarence  (afterwards  William  IV. )»  and  other  royal  dukes,  and  almost  all  the  peers 
of  England,  and  the  lord  mayor  and  corporation  of  London,  with  thousands  of  mill- 
tary  and  naval  officers  and  distinguished  men,  followed  the  funeral  car  to  St.  Paul's. 
The  military  assembled  on  this  occasion  amounted  to  near  10,000  regulars,  inde- 
pendent of  volunteers.  The  regulars  consisted  chiefly  of  the  regiments  that  had 
fought  and  conquered  in  Egypt,  and  participated  with  the  deceased  hero  in  delivering 
that  country  from  the  power  of  France,  January  9,  1806. 

NEM^AN  GAMES.  So  called  from  Nemsea,  where  they  were  celebrated.  They 
were  originally  instituted  by  the  Argives  in  honour  of  Archemorus,  who  died  by  the 
bite  of  a  serpent,  and  Hercules  some  time  after  renewed  them.     They  were  one  of 

^  the  four  great  and  solemn  games  which  were  observed  in  Greece.  The  Argives,  Corin- 
thians, and  the  inhabitants  of  Cleonae,  generally  presided  by  turns  at  the  celebration 
in  which  were  exhibited  foot  and  horse-races,  chariot  races,  boxing,  wrestling,  and 
contests  of  every  kind,  both  gymnical  and  equestrian.  The  conqueror  was  rewarded 
with  a  crown  of  olives,  afterwards  of  green  parsley,  in  memory  of  the  adventure  of 
Archemorus,  whom  his  nurse  laid  down  on  a  sprig  of  that  plant.  They  were  celebrated 
every  third,  or  according  to  others,  every  fifth  year,  or  more  properly  on  the  first 
and  third  year  of  every  Olympiad,  1226  b.c. — Herodotus, 

NEPAUL.  The  East  India  Company's  war  with  the  state  of  Nepaul  commenced 
Nov.  1,  1814,  and  terminated  April  27,  1815.  Treaty  of  peace  was  signed  between 
the  parties,  December  2,  1815.  War  renewed  by  an  mfraction  of  the  treaty  by  the 
Nepaulese,  January,  1816  ;  and  after  several  contests  unfavourable  to  the  Nepauiese, 
the  former  treaty  was  ratified,  March  15,  1816. 

NEPHALIA.  Feasts  or  sacrifices  of  sobriety,  used  among  the  Greeks,  in  which  they 
offered  mead  instead  of  wine  ;  the  Athenians  offered  these  sacrifices  to  the  sun  and 
moon,  to  the  nymphs,  to  Aurora,  and  to  Venus ;  and  burnt  all  sorts  of  wood  but 
those  of  the  vine,  fig-tree,  and  mulberry -tree,  because  they  were  esteemed  symbols 
of  drunkenness,  613  B.C. 

NESTORIANS.  A  sect  of  Christians,  the  followers  of  Nestorius,  some  time  bishop  of 
Constantinople,  who,  by  the  general  strain  of  church  historians,  is  represented  as  a 
heretic,  for  maintaining  that  though  the  Virgin  Mary  was  the  mother  of  Jesus  Christ 
as  man,  yet  she  was  not  the  mother  of  Gt)d,  for  that  no  human  creature  could  par- 
ticipate that  to  another,  which  she  had  not  herself ;  that  God  was  united  to  Christ 
under  one  person,  but  remained  as  distinct  in  nature  and  essence  as  though  he  had 
never  been  united  at  all ;  that  such  union  made  no  alteration  in  the  human  nature 
but  that  he  was  subject  to  the  same  passions  of  love  and  hatred,  pleasure  and  pain, 
&c.,  as  other  men  have,  only  they  were  better  regulated,  and  more  properly  applied 
than  in  ordinary  men.  The  generality  of  Christians  in  the  Levant  go  under  this 
name  ;  they  administer  the  sacrament  with  leavened  bread,  and  in  both  kinds, 
permit  their  priests  to  marry,  and  use  neither  confirmation  nor  auricular  confession. 
&c.     Nestorius  died  a.d..  439. — Du  Pin. 

NETHERLANDS.  They  were  attached  to  the  Roman  empire  under  the  name  of 
Belgia,  until  its  decline  in  the  fifth  century.  For  several  ages  this  country  formed 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Austrasia.  In  the  twelfth  century  it  was  governed  by  its  own 
counts  and  earls ;  and  afterwards  fell  to  the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  and  next  to  the 
house  of  Austria.  The  seventeen  provinces  were  united  into  one  state,  in  1549. 
For  the  late  history  of  the  Netherlands  see  Belgium. 

NEVILL'S  CROSS,  Battle  op,  between  the  Scots  under  king  David  Bruce,  and 
the  English  under  Philippa,  consort  of  Edward  III.  The  English  army  was  raised 
by  Philippa,  and  may  more  properly  be  said  to  have  been  commanded  by  lord 
Piercy.  More  than  15,000  of  the  Scots  were  slain,  and  their  king  taken  prisoner. 
October  17,  1346. 

NEVIS.    An  English  colony,  first  planted  by  the  English  in  1628.    This  island  was 


NEW  [_  364  ]  NEW 

taken  hj  the  French,  February  14,  1782,  bat  was  restored  to  the  English  at  the 
general  peace  in  the  next  year.  The  capital  of  this  island  (one  of  the  Caribbees)  is 
Charleston. — See  Colonies, 

NEW  HOLLAND.  The  largest  known  land  that  does  not  bear  the  name  of  a  con- 
tinent. When  this  yast  island  was  first  discovered  is  uncertain.  In  the  beginning 
of  the  serenteenth  century  the  north  and  west  coasts  were  traced  by  the  Dutch ;  and 
what  was  deemed,  till  lately,  the  south  extremity,  was  discovered  by  Tasman, 
in  1642.  Captain  Cook,  in  1770,  explored  the  east  and  north-east  from  38°  south, 
and  ascertained  its  separation  from  New  Guinea  ;  and,  in  1773,  captain  Fumeaux, 
by  connecting  Tasmania  discoveries  with  Cook's,  completed  the  circuit.  But  the 
supposed  south  extremity,  which  Tasman  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Van  Diemen^s 
Land,  was  found,  in  1798,  to  be  an  island,  separated  from  New  Holland  by  a  channel 
forty  leagues  wide,  named  from  the  discoverer,  Bass  Strait.  Different  parts  of  the 
coast  have  been  called  by  the  names  of  the  discoverers^  &c.  The  eastern  coast, 
called  New  South  Wales,  was  taken  possession  of  in  his  majesty's  name  by  captain 
Cook,  and  now  forms  a  part  of  the  British  dominions. — See  New  South  Wales. 

NEW  RIVER,  London.  An  artificial  river  for  the  supply  of  London  with  water, 
commenced  in  1609,  and  finished  in  1613,  when  the  projector^  Hugh  Middleton, 
was  knighted  by  James  I. — Strype,  This  river,  which  rises  in  Hertfordshire,  and 
which,  with  its  windings,  is  forty-two  miles  long,  was  brought  to  London  in  1614. 
Sir  Hugh  Middleton,  who  was  a  citizen  of  London,  died  very  poor,  having  been 
ruined  by  this  immense  undertaking.  So  little  was  the  benefit  of  it  understood,  that 
for  above  thirty  years  the  seventy-two  shares  into  which  it  was  divided,  netted  only 
5/.  a-pieoe.  Each  of  these  shares  was  sold  originally  for  100/.  Within  the  last  few 
years  they  were  sold  at  9000/.  a  share  ;  and  some  lately  at  10,000/. 

NEW  FOREST,  Hampshirb.  This  great  and  celebrated  forest  was  made  ("  afforested") 
by  William  the  Conqueror,  a.d.  1085.  Many  populous  towns  and  villages,  and 
indeed  the  whole  country,  for  above  thirty  miles  in  compass,  were  laid  waste  to 
make  this  forest  in  Hampshire  for  the  king's  deer  and  other  game.  No  less  than 
thirty-six  churches  were  destroyed  on  this  occasion^  Hence  the  poet  weU  remarks 
of  this  despot,  that  he 

'*  8tretch*d  o'er  the  i>oor  and  ohuroh  his  iron  rod, 
And  served  alike  his  vassals  and  his  God."— Popjb. 

William  Rufus  was  killed  in  this  forest  by  an  arrow,  shot  by  Walter  Tyrrel,  that 
accidentally  glanced  against  a  tree,  the  site  of  which  is  now  pointed  out  by  a 
triangular  stone,  a.d.  1100. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES.  See  New  Holland,  The  eastern  coast  of  New  Holland 
was  explored  and  taken  possession  of  by  captain  Cook»  in  the  king's  name,  in  1770. 
It  was  at  the  recommendation  of  this  illustrious  navigator  that  the  design  of  a 
convict  colony  here  was  fii*st  formed.  Governor  Phillips,  the  first  governor,  arrived 
at  Botany  Bay  with  800  convicts,  January  20,  1788  :  but  he  subsequently  preferred 
Sydney,  about  seven  miles  distant  from  the  head  of  Port  Jackson,  as  a  more  eligible 
situation  for  the  capital.  A  new  passage  was  effected  across  the  Blue  Mountains  in 
1813.  A  proclamation  was  issued  at  Sydney  for  the  first  legislative  council  held 
here,  July  13,  1829.     See  Syijlney, 

NEW  STYLE.  Ordered  to  be  used  in  England  in  1751 ;  and  the  next  year  eleven 
days  were  left  out  of  the  calendar — the  third  of  September,  1752,  being  reckoned  as 
the  fourteenth — so  as  to  make  it  agree  with  the  Gregorian  Calendar,  which  see,  and 
also  article  Calendar,  In  the  year  a.d.  200,  there  was  no  difference  of  styles;  but 
there  had  arisen  a  difference  of  eleven  days  between  the  old  and  the  new  style,  the 
latter  being  so  much  beforehand  with  the  former:  so  that  when  a  person  using  the 
old  style  dates  the  1st  of  May,  those  who  employ  the  new,  reckon  the  12th.  From 
this  variation  in  the  computation  of  time,  we  may  easily  account  for  the  difference 
of  many  dates  concerning  historical  facts  and  biographical  notices. 

NEW  YEAR'S  DAY.  Its  institution  as  a  feast,  or  day  of  rejoicing,  is  the  oldest 
upon  authentic  record  transmitted  down  to  our  times,  and  still  observed.  The  feast 
was  instituted  by  Numa,  and  was  dedicated  to  Janus  (who  presided  over  the  new 
year),  January  1,  713  B.C.  On  this  day,  the  Romans  sacrificed  to  Janus  a  caice 
of  new  sifted  meal,  with  salt,  incense,  and  wine ;  and  all  the  mechanics  began 


NEW  Q  365  ]  NEW 

something  of  their  art  or  trade ;  the  men  of  letters  did  the  same,  as  to  books,  poems, 
&c.  ;  and  the  consuls,  though  chosen  before,  took  the  chair  and  entered  upon  their 
office  this  day.  After  the  government  was  in  the  hands  of  the  emperors,  the  consuls 
marched  on  New-year* s  day  to  the  capitol,  attended  by  a  crowd,  dl  in  new  clothes, 
when  two  white  bulls  never  yoked  were  sacrificed  to  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  A  great  deal 
of  incense  and  other  perfumes  were  spent  in  the  temple  ;  the  flamens,  together  with 
the  consuls,  during  this  religious  solemnity,  offered  their  vows  for  the  prosperity  of 
the  empire  and  the  emperor,  after  having  taken  an  oath  of  allegiance,  and  confirmed 
all  public  acts  done  by  him  the  preceding  year.  On  this  day  the  Romans  laid  aside 
all  old  grudges  and  ill  humour,  and  took  care  not  to  speak  so  much  as  one  ominous 
or  untoward  word«  The  first  of  January  is  more  observed  as  a  feast-day  in  Scotland 
than  it  is  in  England. 

NEW-YEAR'S  GIFTS.  Nonius  Marcellus  refers  the  origin  of  New-year's  gifts 
among  the  Romans  to  Titus  Tatius,  king  of  the  Sabines,  who  having  considered  as  a 
good  omen  a  present  of  some  branches  cut  in  a  wood  consecrated  to  Strenia,  the 
goddess  of  strength,  which  he  received  on  the  first  day  of  the  new  year,  authorised 
the  custom  afterwards,  and  gave  these  gifts  the  name  of  Strens,  747  b.c.  In  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  the  populace,  gentry,  and  senators  used  to  send  him  new-year's 
gifts,  and  if  he  ^as  not  in  town,  they  carried  them  to  the  capitol.  From  the 
Romans  this  custom  went  to  the  Greeks,  and  from  the  heathens  to  the  Christians, 
who  very  early  came  into  the  practice  of  making  presents  to  the  magistrates.  Some 
of  the  fathers  wrote  very  strenuously  against  the  practice,  upon  account  of  the 
immoralities  committed  under  that  cover  and  protection  ;  but  since  the  governments 
of  the  several  nations  in  Europe  became  Christian,  the  custom  is  still  retained  as  a 
token  of  friendship,  love,  and  respect. 

NEW  YORK.  Settled  by  the  Dutch,  a.d.  1614  ;  but  the  English,  under  colonel 
Nichols,  dispossessed  them  and  the  Swedes,  August  27,  1664.  New  York  was 
confirmed  to  England  by  the  peace  of  Breda,  August  24,  1667.  The  city  of  New 
York  was  one  of  the  principal  points  of  the  straggle  for  independence  among  the 
states  of  America.  It  surrendered  to  the  British  forces,  September  15,  177C,  from 
which  time  until  the  arrival  of  sir  Guy  Carleton  at  New  York,  May  5,  1782,  it 
suffered  much  from  both  the  provincial  and  British  armies  in  turn.  An  independent 
constitution  was  established,  April  20, 1777.  The  city  was  evacuated  by  the  British 
November  26,  1783.  New  York  is  now  one  of  the  most  prosperous  and  flourishing 
cities  in  the  world,  and  is  acquiring  more  importance  every  year ;  and  one  of  its 
streets  (Broadway)  was  said  by  Mr.  Cobbett  to  be  vastly  superior  to  the  finest  street 
in  any  city  of  Europe.  An  academy  of  the  fine  arts,  and  a  botanical  garden,  were 
established  herein  1804. — See  United  States, 

NEW  YORK,  Great  Fire  of.  One  of  the  most  destructive  fires  that  have  raged  in 
any  part  of  the  world  for  the  last  hundred  years.  It  occurred  Nov.  15, 1835.  The 
number  of  buildings  destroyed,  as  stated  in  an  official  report,  was  about  674,  among 
which  were  several  public  edifices,  and  ranges  of  capacious  and  valuable  stores  and 
warehouses  ;  about  1000  mercantile  firms  were  dislodged.  The  property  destroyed 
was  valued  at  nearly  20,000,000  of  dollars.  The  fire  burned  over  an  area  of  52 
acres,  comprising  a  densely-built  and  exclusively  mercantile  portion  of  the  city. 
Active  measures  were  adopted  by  congress,  the  banks,  and  the  merchants,  to  alle- 
viate  the  effects  of  the  calamity  ;  and  during  the  spring  and  summer  of  1836,  the 
ground  was  again  nearly  covered  by  new  and  handsome  erections. 

NEWARK,  Battle  of,  in  which  the  royal  army  under  prince  Rupert  was  defeated  by 
the  army  of  the  parliament,  fought  March  21,  1644.  With  the  name  of  Newark 
many  interesting  recollections  are  associated.  The  church,  reckoned  one  of  the  finest 
in  the  kingdom,  was  erected  by  Henry  IV.  Here,  in  the  midst  of  troubles,  died 
king  John  ;  and  here  Charles  I.,  after  his  defeat  at  Naseby,  put  himself  into  the 
hands  of  the  Scotch  army,  who  afterwards  gave  him  up  to  his  enemies.  Newark  was 
first  incorporated  by  Edward  VI.,  and  afterwards  by  Charles  II. 

NEWBURY,  Battle  of,  fought  with  extraordinary  and  desperate  valour  on  both 
sides,  between  the  army  of  Charles  I.  and  that  of  the  parliament,  under  Essex,  and 
in  which,  though  the  success  was  dubious,  it  terminated  with  circumstances  somewhat 
favourable  to  the  cause  of  the  king.  This  battle  lasted  till  midnight ;  and  among  the 
slain  was  Lucius  Cary,  Viscount  Falkland,  a  nobleman  deeply  regretted  by  every 


NEW  Q  366  ]  NEW 

loyer  of  ingeaaity  and  Tirtae  thronghoat  the  kingdom,  Sept.  20,  1643.  A  second 
battle,  of  eqoaUy  dnbiona  resolt,  was  fought  between  the  royalists  and  parliamenta- 
rians, Oct  10,  1644. 

NEWCASTLE.  The  first  coal  port  in  the  world.  The  coal-mines  were  discovered 
here  about  a.d.  1234.  The  first  charter  which  was  granted  to  the  townsmen  for 
digging  coal  was  by  Henry  III.  in  1239 ;  bnt  in  1306,  the  use  of  coal  for  fael  was 
prohibited  in  London,  by  royal  proclamation,  chiefly  because  it  injured  the  sale  of 
wood  for  fuel,  great  quantities  of  which  were  then  growing  about  that  city ;  but  this 
interdiction  diid  not  long  continue,  and  we  may  consider  coal  as  having  been  dug  and 
exported  from  this  place  for  more  than  500  years. 

NEWFOUNDLAND,  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot,  who  called  it  Prtma  Vista,  June 
24,  A.D.  1494.  It  was  formally  taken  possession  of  by  sir  Henry  Gilbert,  1583.  In 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  other  nations  had  the  advantage  of  the  English  in  the  fishery. 
There  were  100  fishing- vessels  from  Spain,  50  from  Portugal,  150  from  France,  and 
only  15,  but  of  larger  size,  from  England,  in  1577. — Hackluyt,  Bnt  the  English 
fishery  in  some  years  afterwards  had  increased  so  much  that  the  ports  of  Devonshire 
alone  employed  150  ships,  and  sold  their  fish  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy,  1625. 
Nearly  1000  English  nimilies  reside  here  all  the  year ;  and  in  the  fishing  season, 
beginning  in  May  and  ending  in  September,  more  than  15,000  persons  resort  to  New- 
foundland, which  may  be  esteemed  as  one  of  our  finest  nurseries  for  seamen.  New- 
foundland has  recently  obtained  the  privilege  of  a  colonial  legislation.  A  bishopric 
was  established  here  in  1839,  of  which  the  right  Rev.  Aubrey  George  Spencer  was 
consecrated  the  first  prelate. 

NEWGATE.  This  prison  derives  its  name  from  the  gate  which  once  formed  a  part  of 
it,  and  stood  a  little  beyond  the  Sessions-house  in  the  Old  Bailey.  This  gate  was 
used  as  a  prison  for  persons  of  rank,  as  early  as  1218  ;  but  was  rebuilt  about  two 
centuries  afterwards  by  the  executors  of  sir  Richard  Whittington,  whose  statue  with 
a  cat  stood  in  the  niche  till  the  time  of  its  demolition  by  the  great  fire  of  London,  in 
1666.  It  was  then  re-constructed  in  its  late  form,  but  the  old  prison  being  an  accu- 
mulation of  misery  and  inconvenience,  was  pulled  down  and  rebuilt  between  1778  and 
1780.  During  the  riots,  however,  in  the  latter  year,  the  whole  of  the  interior  was 
destroyed  bjp  fire,  but  shortly  afterwards  repaired  and  completed  in  its  present  form, 
the  front  consisting  of  a  rustic  wall,  broken  at  intervals  by  grated  windows  and  niches 
partially  filled  with  statues.    The  centre  forms  the  house  of  the  keeper. 

NEWMARKET.  One  of  the  most  noted  grounds  for  horse-racing  in  the  kingdom  ; 
perhaps  it  may  claim  to  be  the  most  celebrated,  as  well  as  one  of  the  oldest.  Charles 
II.  built  a  stand-house  here  for  the  sake  of  this  diversion,  about  1667,  and  from  that 
period  races  have  been  annual  to  the  present  time ;  and  many  most  extraordinary 
races  have  been  run. — See  Reuses. 

NEWPORT,  CHARTISTS*  ATTACK  upon.  The  chartists,  collected  from  the  mines 
and  collieries  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Newport  (Monmouthshire),  to  the  number  of 
10,000,  most  of  them  armed  with  guns,  arrived  at  Newport  on  Sunday  night,  Nov. 
4,  1839.  On  Monday  morning  they  divided  themselves  into  two  bodies,  one  of 
which,  under  the  command  of  Mr.  John  Frost,  an  ex-magistrate,  proceeded  down 
the  principal  street  of  Newport ;  whilst  the  other,  headed  by  Mr.  Frost's  son,  took 
the  direction  of  Stowe-hill.  They  met  in  front  of  the  Westgate  Hotel,  where  the 
magistrates  were  assembled,  with  about  30  soldiers  of  the  45th  regiment,  and  several 
special  constables.  The  rioters  commenced  breaking  the  windows  of  the  house, 
and  fired  on  the  inmates,  by  which  the  mayor,  Mr.  Phillips,  and  several  other  per- 
sons, were  wounded.  The  soldiers  now  made  a  sortie  and  succeeded  in  dispersing 
the  mob,  which,  with  its  leaders,  fled  from  the  town,  leaving  about  20  rioters  dead, 
and  many  others  dangerously  wounded.  A  detachment  of  the  10th  royal  hussars 
having  arrived  from  Bristol,  the  town  became  tranquil.  Frost  was  apprehended  on 
the  following  day,  together  with  his  printer,  and  other  influential  persons  among  the 
chartists.  Frost  and  several  others  were  tried  and  convicted  in  January  following,  and 
sentenced  to  death  ;  but  this  judgment  was  afterwards  commuted  to  transportation. 

NEWRY.  Several  castles  were,  it  is  said,  erected  here  before  the  Conquest.  In  the 
Rebellion  of  1641,  Newry  was  reduced  to  a  ruinous  condition  ;  it  was  surprised  by 
sir  Con.  Magenis,  but  was  retaken  by  lord  Conway.  After  the  Restoration  it  was 
rebuilt.  It  was  burnt  by  the  duke  of  Berwick  when  flying  from  Schomberg  and  the 
English  army,  when  the  castle  and  a  few  houses  only  escaped,  1689. 


NEW  Q  367  ]  NEW 

NEWS.  The  origin  of  this  word  has  been  yariously  defined.  News  is  a  freth.  account 
of  anything. — Sidney,  It  is  something  not  heard  before. — L' Estrange.  News  is 
an  account  of  the  transactions  of  the  present  times. — Addison.  The  word  '^  news'' 
is  not,  as  many  imagine,  derived  from  the  adjectiye  new.  In  former  times  it  was 
a  prevalent  practice  to  put  over  the  periodical  publications  of  the  day  the  initial  let- 
ters of  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass,  thus  :^ 

N 

E — — W 
8 

importing  that  these  papers  contained  intelligence  from  the  four  quarters  of  the 
globe  ;  and  from  this  practice  is  derived  the  term  of  Newspaper. 

NEWSPAPERS.  The  first  published  in  England,  which  might  truly  be  considered  as 
a  vehicle  of  general  information,  was  established  by  Sir  Roger  L'Estrange,  in 
1663;  it  was  entitled  the  Public  Intelligencer ,  khA  continued  nearly  three  years, 
when  it  ceased  on  the  appearance  of  the  Gazette.  A  publication,  with  few  claims 
however  to  the  character  of  a  newspaper,  had  previously  appeared  ;  it  was  called  the 
English  Mercury^,  and  came  out  under  the  authority  of  queen  Elizabeth,  so  early  as 
1588,  the  period  of  the  Spanish  armada.  An  early  copy  of  this  paper  is  dated  July 
23,  in  that  year.  In  the  reign  of  James  I.,  1622,  appeared  the  London  Weekly 
I  Courant;  and  in  the  year  1643  (the  period  of  the  civil  war)  were  printed  a  variety 
of  publications,  certainly  in  no  respect  entitled  to  the  name  of  newspapers,  of  which 
the  following  were  the  titles : — 

England* 9  Memorable  Accidents. 

The  Kingdom's  Intelligencer. 

The  Diurnal  cf  Certain  Passages  in  Parlia 

ment. 
The  Mercurius  Aulicus- 
The  Scotch  Intelligencer. 
The  Parliament's  Scout. 

A  paper  called  the  London  Gazette  was  published  August  22,  1642.  The  London 
Gazette  of  the  existing  series,  was  published  first  at  Oxford,  the  court  being  there 
on  account  of  the  plague,  Nov.  7,  1665,  and  afterwards  at  London,  Feb.  5,  1666. — 
See  Gazette.  The  printing  of  newspapers  and  pamphlets  was  prohibited  31  Charles 
I.,  1680.^ Salmon's  Chron.    Newspapers  were  first  stamped  in  1713. 

STATBUKNT  OF  TBB  NUMBBR  OP  STAMPS  I88UKD  TO  BRITISH  NKW8PAPKR8,  VIZ. — 


Th«  ParliamenVs  Scout's  Discovery,  or  Cer- 
tain Ir^formation. 

TTke  Mercurius  Civicus,  or  London's  InteUi- 
gencer. 

The  Country's  Complaint,  Sjfc, 

27k«  Weekly  Account. 

Mercurius  Britannicus. 


In  1753  .         .-7,411,767 

In  1760  .         .    .    9.404  790 

In  1774  .  12,300,000 

In  1790  .         .    .  14,035«639 


In  1830  .         .  30,158,741 

In  1835      .         .    .  .32,874,652 
In  1840  .         .  49,033,384 


In  1800  .  16,064,905 

In  1810  .         .    .  20,172,837 

In  1820  .         .  24,862.186 

In  1825  .         .    .  26,950,693 

In  the  last  year  mentioned  the  stamps  issued  to  the  London  newspapers  were, 
29,127,583 ;  the  number  issued  to  the  English  provincial  newspapers  was  19,905,801 ; 
the  number  issued  to  Irish  newspapers  was  5 ,509,000  ;  and  the  number  to  Scotch 
newspapers,  3,974,444.  The  reduction  of  newspaper  duty  took  effect  on  Sept.  15, 
1836,  when  it  was  reduced  from  fourpence  to  one  penny.  On  1st  Jan.  1837,  the 
distinctive  die  came  into  use. — See  Advertisements, 

NUMBBR  OP  RBOIBTBRED  NEWBPAPBRS     N  THB  UNITBD  KINGDOM,  VIZ. — 


Irish  newspapers    .         .         .         .         .75 

Scotch  newspapers 59 

British  Isles 14 


London  newspapers,  daily  .  .  .11 
London  Newspapers,  weekly  .  .  .  38 
English  provincial  newspapers       .        .    293 

NEWSPAPERS,  Irish.  The  first  Irish  newspaper  was  Pue*s  Occurrences,  published 
in  1700  :  Faulkner* s  Journal  was  established  by  George  Faulkner,  *'  a.  man  cele- 
brated for  the  goodness  of  his  heart,  and  the  weakness  of  his  head,"  1728. — Sup- 
plement to  Sw\ft.  The  oldest  of  the  existing  Dublin  newspapers,  is  the  Freeman's 
t/ofir»a/,  founded  by  the  patriot.  Dr.  Lucas,  about  the  year  1755. —  Westminster 
Review,  Jan.  1830.  The  Limerick  Chronicle,  the  oldest  of  the  provincial  prints, 
was  established  in  1768. — Idem. 

*  The  full  title  is,  **  No.  50,  flu  Er^lish  Mercuric,  published  by  authoritie,  for  the  prevention  of 
false  reports,  imprinted  by  Christopher  Barker,  her  highness's  printer,  No.  50."  It  describes  the 
armament  called  the  Spanish  Armada,  giving  "  A  joumall  of  what  paused  since  the  21st  of  this 
month,  between  her  Ma  jostle's  fleet  and  that  of  Spayne,  transmitted  by  the  Lorde  Highe  Admirall 
to  the  Lordes  of  the  Ciouncil." 


^  ■  ■     ■  ■  ■  ■  i  —  .     ■  ■    ■  -         .  ■ 

NEW  [  368  ]  NIL 

NEWSPAPERS  OF  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.  A  Frencli  writer  asserts  that  oar 
newspapers  owe  their  origin  to  one  of  theirs,  the  Journal  des  S^avana  ;  bat  that 
paper  did  not  appear  until  16< — .  M.  Renaudot  appears  to  have  been  the  first  author 
of  newspapers  in  France  4  he  had  an  exclusive  privilege  from  Louis  XIII.  to  publish 
them  in  1631.  The  first  newspaper  set  up  in  Germany  was  in  1715.  One  was  pub- 
lished in  America,  at  Philadelphia,  in  1719 ;  and  the  first  appeared  in  Holland  in 
1732.  America,  whose  population  is  about  12,000,000,  supports  800  newspapers 
(50  of  these  publishing  daily),  and  their  present  annual  circulation  is  stated  at 
64,000,000.  In  Paris,  there  now  exist  169  journals,  literary,  scientific,  religious, 
and  political,  of  which  151  are  constitutional  or  liberal,  and  1 8  ■  monarchical. — 
Westminster  Review, 

NEWTOWNBARRY  RIOT.  On  the  occasion  of  a  seizure  of  stock  for  tithes,  at  this 
town  in  Ireland^  a  lamentable  conflict  ensued  between  the  yeomanry  and  the  people, 
and  thirty-five  persons,  men  and  women,  were  killed  or  wounded.  The  coroner's 
inquest  which  sat  on  the  bodies  of  the  dead  was  discharged,  it  having  been  unable 
io  agree  upon  a  verdict,  June  18,  1831. 

NEY,  MARSHAL,  his  Exbcution.  Ney  was  the  duke  of  Elchingen,  and  prince  of  the 
Moskwa,  and  one  of  the  most  valiant  and  skilful  of  the  marshals  of  France.  After 
the  abdication  of  Napoleon,  5th  April,  1814,  he  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  king, 
Louis  XVIII.  On  Napoleon*s  return  to  France  from  Elba,  he  marched  against  him  ; 
but  his  troops  deserting,  he  regarded  the  cause  of  the  Bourbons  as  lost,  and  opened 
the  invader's  way  to  Paris,  March  13,  1815.  Ney  led  the  attack  of  the  French  at 
Waterloo,  where  he  fought  in  the  midst  of  the  slain,  his  clothes  filled  with  bullet, 
holes,  and  five  horses  having  been  shot  under  him,  until  nfght  and  defeat  obliged 
him  to  fly.  But  though  he  was  included  in  the  decree  of  July  24,  1815,  which  gua- 
ranteed the  safety  of  all  Frenchmen,  he  was  afterwards  sought  out,  aiid  taken  in  the 
castle  of  a  friend  at  Urillac,  where  he  lay  concealed,  and  brought  to  trial  before  the 
Chamber  of  Peers.  The  12th  article  of  the  capitulation  of  Paris»  fixing  a  general 
amnesty,  was  quoted  in  his  favour,  yet  he  was  sentenced  to  death,  and  met  his  fate 
with  the  fortitude  which  such  a  hero  could  hardly  fail  to  evince,  Aug.  16,  1815. 

NIAGARA,  America.  At  the  head  of  this  river,  on  its  western  shore,  is  Fort  Erie. 
This  fort  was  abandoned  for  a  time  by  the  British  in  the  late  war  with  the  United 
States,  May  27, 1813.  Below  Fort  Erie,  about  the  distance  of  eighteen  miles,  are  the 
remarkable  falls,  which  are  reckoned  among  the  greatest  natural  curiosities  in  the 
world.  The  river  is  here  740  yards  wide.  The  half-mile  immediately  above  the 
cataracts  is  a  rapid,  in  which  the  water  falls  58  feet ;  it  is  then  thrown,  with  asto- 
nishing grandeur,  down  a  stupendous  precipice  of  150  feet  perpendicular,  in  three 
distinct  and  collateral  sheets  ;  and  in  a  rapid  that  extends  to  the  distance  of  nine 
miles  below,  falls  nearly  as  much  more.  The  river  then  flows  in  a  deep  channel  till 
it  enters  Lake  Ontario,  at  Fort  Niagara.  This  last-mentioned  fort  was  taken  by  the 
British  in  the  late  war,  Dec.  19,  1813. 

NICENE  CREED.  A  summary  of  the  Christian  faith,  composed  at  Nice  by  the  first 
general  council  held  there  in  the  palace  of  Constantine  the  Great.  In  this  cele- 
brated council,  which  assembled  a.d.  325,  the  Arians  were  condemned.  It  was 
attended  by  318  bishops  from  divers  parts,  who  both  settled  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  and  the  time  for  observing  Easter. 

NICHOLAITES.  This  extraordinary  sect  sprung  from  Nicholas,  one  of  the  seven 
first  deacons.  Nicholas  made  a  vow  of  continence,  and  in  order  to  convince  his 
followers  of  his  resolve  to  keep  it,  he  gave  his  wife  (who  was  remarkable  for  her 
beauty)  leave  to  marry  any  other  man  she  desired.  Owing  to  this  rash  zeal,  his 
followers  afterwards  maintained  the  legality  of  a  community  of  wives,  as  well  as  hold- 
ing all  other  things  in  common.  The  Nicholaites,  who  denied  the  divinity  of  Christ, 
arose  about  a.d.  68. 

NICOPOLIS,  Battle  of,  between  the  allied  Christian  powers  under  Sigismund, 
king  of  Hungary,  afterwards  emperor,  and  the  Turks,  and  celebrated  as  being  the 
first  battle  between  the  Turks  and  Christians ;  the  latter  were  defeated,  losing 
twenty  thousand  in  slain,  and  as  many  thousands  in  wounded  and  prisoners, 
fought,  A.D.  1396. 

NILE,  Battle  of  the.  One  of  the  most  glorious  in  British  naval  history,  between 
the  Toulon  and  British  fleets,  the  latter  commanded  by  the  immortal  lord,  then  sir 


NIL  C  369  ]  NON 

Horatio  Nelson.  This  engagement  took  place  near  Rosetta,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
celebrated  river  Nile ;  nine  of  the  French  line-of-battle  ships  were  taken ,  two  were 
burnt,  and  two  escaped,  August  1,  1798.  This  is  sometimes  called  the  battle  of 
Aboukir ;  it  obtained  the  conqueror  a  peerage,  by  the  title  of  baron  Nelson  of  the 
Nile;  his  exclamation  upon  commencing  the  battle  was,  **  Victory  or  West- 
minster-abbey 1 " 

NILE,  SOURCE  of  thb.  This  great  river  rises  in  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon,  in 
about  ten  degrees  of  N.  lat.,  and  in  a  known  course  of  1250  miles  receives  no 
tributary  streams.  The  travels  of  Bruce  were  undertaken  to  discover  the  source  of 
the  Nile;  he  set  out  from  England  in  June,  1768;  on  the  14th  of  Nov.  1770,  he 
obtained  the  great  object  of  his  wishes,  and  returned  home  in  1773.  This  river 
overflows  regularly  every  year,  from  the  15th  of  June  to  the  17th  of  September, 
when  it  begins  to  decrease,  having  given  fertility  to  the  land  ;  and  it  must  rise  16 
cubits  to  insure  that  fertility.  In  1829,  the  inundation  of  the  Nile  rose  to  26 
instead  of  22,  by  which  30,000  people  were  drowned,  and  immense  property  lost. 

NIMEGUEN,  Treaty  of.  This  was  the  celebrated  treaty  of  peace  between  France 
and  the  United  Provinces,  1678.  Nimeguen  is  distinguished  in  history  for  other 
treaties  of  peace.  The  French  were  successful  against  the  British  under  the  duke  of 
York,  before  Nimeguen,  Oct.  28,  1794  :  but  were  defeated  by  the  British,  with  the 
loss  of  500  killed,  Nov.  8,  following. 

NISBET,  Battle  of,  between  the  English  and  Scotch  armies,  the  latter  greatly  dis- 
proportioned  in  strength  to  the  former,  yet  fought  by  them  with  surpassing  bravery. 
Several  thousands  of  the  Scots  were  slain  upon  the  field,  and  in  the  pursuit, 
May  7,  1402. 

NITRIC  ACID,  formerly  called  aquafortis^  first  obtained  in  a  separate  state  by  Ray- 
mond LuUy,  an  alchemist,  about  a.d.  1287  ;  but  we  are  indebted  to  Cavendish, 
Priestley,  and  Lavoisier,  for  our  present  knowledge  of  its  properties.  Mr.  Cavendish 
demonstrated  the  nature  of  this  acid,  in  1785.  Nitrous  acid,  nearly  similar  to  nitric, 
was  discovered  by  Scheele,  in  1771.  Nitrous  gas  was  accidentally  discovered  by 
Dr.  Hales.     Nitrous  Oxide  Gas  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Priestley,  in  1776. 

NOBILITY.  The  origin  of  nobility  is  referred  to  the  Goths,  who,  after  they  had 
seized  a  part  of  Europe,  rewarded  their  heroes  with  titles  of  honour,  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  common  people.  The  right  of  peerage  seems  to  have  been  at  first 
territorial.  Patents  to  persons  having  no  estate  were  first  granted  to  Philip  the 
Fair  of  France,  a.d.  1095.  George  Neville,  duke  of  Bedford  (son  of  John,  marquess 
of  Montague),  ennobled  in  1470,  was  degraded  from  the  peerage  by  parliament,  on 
account  of  his  utter  want  of  property,  19  Edward  IV.  1478.  Noblemen's  privileges 
were  restrained  in  June  1773.  See  the  various  orders  of  nobility  through  the 
volume  ;  see  also  Peerage, 

NOBILITY  OF  FRANCE.  The  French  nobility  preceded  that  of  England,  and  con- 
tinued through  a  long  line,  and  various  races  of  kings,  until  the  period  of  the 
memorable  revolution.  The  National  Assembly  decreed  that  hereditary  nobility 
could  not  exist  in  a  free  state  ;  that  the  titles  of  dukes,  counts,  marquisses,  knights, 
barons,  excellencies,  abbots,  and  others,  be  abolished  ;  that  all  citizens  take  their 
family  names  ;  liveries,  and  armorial  bearings,  shall  also  be  abolished,  June  18, 1790. 
The  records  of  the  nobility,  600  volumes,  were  burned  at  the  foot  of  the  statue  of 
Louis  XIV.,  June  25,  1792.  A  new  nobility  was  created  by  the  emperor  Napoleon, 
1808.  The  hereditary  peerage  was  abolished  in  that  kingdom,  December  27,  1831. 
See  France. 

NOBLE.  An  ancient  English  coin,  which  was  first  struck  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III. 
about  1337.  This  coin  was  stamped  with  a  rose,  and  it  was  thence  called  a  rose 
noble  ;  its  value  as  money  of  account  was  6«.  Sd. — Camden. 

*'  NOLUMUS  LEGES  ANGLIC  MUTARE."  An  attempt  was  made  to  legitimatize 
bastard  children  in  England,  with  which  object  a  law  was  proposed  to  the  barons 
assembled  in  the  parliament  at  Merton,  by  whom  it  was  rejected,  accompanying 
their  dissent  by  the  memorable  declaration — '*  Nolumus  leges  Anglics  mutare." 
A.D.  1236. — See  Merlon. 

NON-CONFORMISTS.  The  Protestants  in  England  are  divided  into  conformists 
and   non-confonnists ;    or,  as  they  are  commonly  denominated,    churchmen  and 

B  B 


NON  Q  370  "I  NOR 

dissenters.  The  former  are  those  who  conform  to  that  mode  of  worship  and  form 
of  chnrch-gOTemment  which  are  established  and  supported  by  the  state  ;  the  latter 
are  those  who  meet  for  diyine  worship  in  places  of  their  own.  The  first  place  of 
meeting  of  the  latter,  in  England,  was  established  at  Wandsworth,  near  London, 
NoYember  20,  1572.  The  name  of  non-conformists  was  taken  by  the  Paritans, 
after  the  Act  of  Uniformity  had  passed,  August  24,  a.d.  1662,  when  2000  ministers 
of  the  established  religion  resigned,  not  choosing  to  conform  to  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles. 

NON- JURORS.  Persons  who  supposed  that  our  James  II.  was  unjustly  deposed, 
and  who,  upon  that  account,  refused  to  swear  allegiance  to  the  family  which  suc- 
ceeded him.  Among  this  class  of  persons  were  several  of  the  bishops,  who  were 
deprived  In  1690.  Non-jurors  were  subjected  to  a  double  taxation,  and  were 
obliged  to  register  their  estates.  May  1723. 

NOOTKA  SOUND.  Discovered  by  captain  Cook  in  1778.  It  was  settled  by  the 
British  in  1786,  when  a  few  British  merchants  in  the  East  Indies  formed  a  settle- 
ment to  supply  the  Chinese  market  with  furs  ;  but  the  Spaniards,  in  1789,  captured 
two  English  vessels,  and  took  possession  of  the  settlement.  The  British  ministry 
made  their  demand  of  reparation,  and  the  affair  was  amicably  terminated  by  a  con- 
vention, and  a  free  commerce  was  confirmed  to  England  in  1790. 

NORFOLK  ISLAND.  A  penal  colony  of  England.  It  was  discovered  in  1774,  by 
captain  Cook,  who  found  it  uninhabited,  except  by  birds.  The  settlement  was  made 
by  a  detachment  from  Port  Jackson,  in  1788,  in  Sydney  bay,  on  the  south  side  of 
the  island. 

NORMANDY.  Anciently  Neustria.  From  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century  this 
country  was  continually  devastated  by  the  Scandinavians,  called  Northmen  or 
Normans,  to  purchase  repose  from  whose  irruptions  Charles  the  Simple  of  France 
ceded  the  duchy  to  their  leader  RoUo,  a.d.  905  to  912,  and  from  its  conquerors  it 
received  its  present  name.  Rollo  was  the  first  duke,  and  held  it  as  a  fief  of  the 
crown  of  France,  and  several  of  his  successors  after  him,  till  William,  the  seventh 
duke,  conquered  England,  in  1066,  from  which  time  it  became  a  province  of  Eng- 
land, till  it  was  lost  in  the  reign  of  king  John,  1204^  and  re-united  to  the  crown  of 
France.  The  English,  however,  still  keep  possession  of  the  islands  on  the  coast,  of 
which  Jersey  and  Guernsey  are  the  principal. 

NORTH,  LORD,  his  ADMINISTRATION.  This  was  the  celebrated  and  unfortunate 
administration  during  which  Great  Britain  lost  her  American  possessions.  Frederick 
lord  North  came  in,  February  1770,  and  his  administration  lasted  until  March  30, 
1 782.  After  his  dismission  from  office,  lord  North  entered  into  a  league  with  the 
Whigs,  which  led  to  the  famous  coalition  ministry  ;  but  this  heterogeneous  adminis- 
tration lasted  only  a  few  months,  after  which,  he  held  no  responsible  station  in  the 
state.  He  succeeded  to  the  earldom  of  Guildford,  two  years  before  his  death,  which 
took  place  in  1792.— See  Administrations. 

NORTH  BRITON  NEWSPAPER.  The  celebrated  paper,  Number  45  (Wilkes' 
number),  dated  Saturday,  April  23,  1763,  was  publicly  burnt  in  London,  by  order 
of  both  houses  of  parliament,  and  by  the  hands  of  tlie  common  hangman,  Dec.  3, 
1763. — Annual  Register.  Wilkes  by  his  newspaper,  The  North  Brttori,  rendered 
an  antipathy  to  Scotland  very  prevalent  in  England. — Bellchambers.  The  copy  of 
it  bearing  the  number  45  contained  a  commentary  on  the  king's  speech,  couched  in 
such  caustic  terms,  that  a  prosecution  was  commenced  against  him.  Having  been 
arrested  on  a  general  warrant,  he  was  brought,  by  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  before 
chief-justice  Pratt,  of  the  common  pleas,  who  declared  the  judgment  of  that  court, 
that  general  warrants  were  illegal,  and  Wilkes  was  consequently  discharged.  But 
not  content  with  this  escape,  he  reprinted  the  obnoxious  number,  which  produced  a 
regular  prosecution  to  conviction. — See  Biography, 

NORTH-WEST  PASSAGE.  The  attempt  to  discover  a  north-west  passage  was  made 
by  a  Portuguese  named  Cortereal,  about  a.d.  1500.  It  was  attempted  by  the  English, 
in  1553  ;  and  the  project  was  greatly  encouraged  by  queen  Elizabeth  in  1585,  in 
which  year  a  company  was  associated  in  London,  and  was  called  the  **  Fellowship 
for  the  Discovery  of  the  North -West  Passage.''  The  following  voyages,  with  this 
design,  were  undertaken  in  the  years  respectively  stated  : — 


NOR 


[371] 


NOR 


Lieuts.  Parry  and  Liddon  in  the  Ilecla 
and  Griper         .         .         .       May  A,  1819 

They  return  to  Leith         .         .  Nov.  3,  1820 

Captfiu  Parry  and  Lyon,  in  the  Fury  and 
Ilecla        ....       Mays,  18S1 

Capt.  Parry's  third  expedition  with  the 
Hecla         ....       May  8,  1834 

Capts.  Franklin  and  Lyon,  after  having 
attempted  a  land  expedition,  again 
sail  from  Liverpool  .     Feb.  16,  1825 

Captain  Parry,  again  in  the  Hecla,  sails 
from  Deptford        .  March  25,  1827 

And  returns  .  Oct.  6,  1827 

Capt.  Ross  arrived  at  HuU,  on  his  return 
from  his  Arctic  expedition,  after  an 
absence  of  four  years,  and  when  all 
hope  of  his  return  had  been  nearly 
abandoned        .  .      Oct.  18, 

Capt.  Back  and  his  companions  arrived 
at  Liverpool  from  their  perilous  Arctic 
Land  Eupedition,  after  having  visited 
the  Great  Fish  River,  and  examined 
its  course  to  the  Polar  Beas  .   Sept.  8,  1835 

Captain  Back  sailed  from  Chatham  in 
command  of  His  Majesty's  ship  Terror, 
on  an  exploring  adventure  to  Wager 
River.  [Captain  Back,  in  the  month 
of  December,  1835,  was  awarded,  by 
the  Geographical  Society,  the  king's 
annual  premium  for  his  polar  discove- 
ries, and  the  spirit  and  enterprise 
which  he  evinced.}    .         .     June  SI,  1836 


1833 


NORTH-WEST  PASSAGE,  continued. 
Sir  Hugh  Willoughby 's  expedition  to  find 

a  north-west  passage  to  China,  sailed 

from  the  Thames*     .         .      May  20,  1553 
Sir  Martin  Frobisher's  attempt  to  find  a 

north-west  passage  to  China       .         .  1576 
Captain  Davis'  expedition  to  find  a  north- 
west passage      1585 

Barentz's  expedition  .  .  .  .  1594 
Weymouth  and  Knight's  .  .  .  1602 
Hudson's  voyages ;  the  last  undertaken 

{See  Hudson's  Bay)   .        .         .        .1610 
Sir  Thomas  Button's  .         .    .  1612 

Ba&n'B.— See  Baffin's  Bay    .  .1616 

Foxe's  expedition 1631 

[A  number  of  enterprises,  undertaken  by 

various  countries,  followed.] 
Middleton's  expedition  .        .        .  1742 

Moore's  and  Smith's  .         .         .    .  1746 

Heame's  land  expedition  .  .  .  1769 
Capt.  Phipps,  afterwards  lord  Mulgrave, 

his  expedition 1773 

Captain  Cook  in  the  Resolution  and  DiS' 

cover y July  1776 

Mackenzie's  expedition         .  .  1789 

Captain  Duncan's  voyage  .        .        .    .  1790 
The  Discovery,  captain  Vancouver,  re- 
turned from  a  voyage  of  survey  and 

discovery  on  the  north-west  coast  of 

America        .        .  Sept.  24,  1795 

Lieut.  Kotzebue's  expedition  .  Oct  1815 
Captain  Buchan's  and  lieut  Franklin's 

expedition  in  the  Dorothea  and  Trent  1818 
Captain  Ross  and  lieut.  Parry,  in  the 

Isabella  and  Alexander      .        .        .  1818 

NORTHALLERTON,  Battle  of,  or  THE  STANDARD.  Furious  battle  fought  la 
Yorkshire,  between  the  English  and  Scotch  armies.  This  engagement  obtained 
the  latter  name  from  a  high  crucifix,  which  was  erected  by  the  English  on  a  waggon, 
and  was  carried  along  with  the  troops ;  fought  August  22,  1137-8. 

NORTHAMPTON,  Battle  of,  between  the  duke  of  York  and  Henry  VL  of  England, 
in  which  the  unfortunate  monarch  was  defeated,  and  made  prisoner  (the  second 
time),  after  a  sanguinary  fight,  which  took  place  in  the  meadows  below  the  town, 
July  19,  A.D.  1460.  The  memorable  fire,  which  almost  totally  destroyed  the  town, 
occurred  September  3,  1675. 

NORTHUMBERLAND.  One  of  the  kingdoms  of  the  Heptarchy,  began  a.d.  547, 
under  Ella,  and  ended  under  Andred,  in  828.  Besides  Northumberland,  it  con- 
tained  the  counties  of  York,  Lancaster,  Durham,  Cumberland,  and  Westmoreland, 
and  received  its  name  from  being  situate  north  of  the  Humber. — See  Briiain. 

NORWAY.  Until  the  ninth  century,  Norway  was  divided  into  petty  principalities,  and 
was  little  known  to  the  rest  of  Europe  except  by  the  piratical  excursions  of  its 
natives.  It  was  converted  to  Christianity  in  a.d.  1000.  The  city  of  Bergen  was 
founded  in  1069.  The  kingdom  was  united  to  Denmark  in  1378  ;  and  the  three 
kingdoms  of  Norway,  Denmark,  and  Sweden,  was  united  in  1439.  Pomerania  and 
Rugen  were  annexed  to  Denmark  in  exchange  for  Norway,  in  1814,  and  on  Nov.  4, 
in  that  year,  Charles  XIII.  was  proclaimed  king  by  the  National  Diet  assembled  at 
Christiana.  The  two  countries  of  Sweden  and  Norway  have  since  then  been  termed  the 
Scandinavian  Peninsula,  of  which  Bernadotte  was  crowned  king  by  the  title  of  Charles 
XIV.,  February  5, 1818.— See  Sweden, 

*  The  gallant  sir  Hugh  Willoughby  took  his  departure  from  Radcliffe,  on  his  fatal  voyage  for 
discovering  the  north-east  passage  to  China.  He  sailed  with  great  pomp  by  Greenwich,  where  the 
court  then  resided.  Mutual  honours  were  paid  on  both  sides.  The  council  and  courtiers  appeared 
at  the  windows,  and  the  people  covered  the  shores.  The  young  king,  Edward  VI.,  alone  lost  the 
noble  and  novel  sight,  for  he  then  lay  on  his  death-bed ;  so  that  the  principal  object  of  the  parade 
was  disappointed.  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby  was  unfortunately  entangled  in  the  ice,  and  frozen  to  death, 
on  the  coast  of  Lapland — Hackluyt. 

B  B  2 


NOR  Q  372  ']  NOV 

NORWICH.  First  mentioned  in  history  in  the  Saxon  Chronicle  at  the  period  when 
Sweyne,  king  of  Denmark,  destroyed  it  by  fire,  a.d.  1004.  Artisans  from  the  Low 
Countries  established  here  the  manufacture  of  baizes,  arras,  &c.  A  plague  here  in 
1348  carried  off  many  thousand  persons ;  and  in  1505  Ndrwich  was  nearly  consumed 
by  fire.  The  cathedral  was  first  erected  in  1088,  by  bishop  Herbert  Losinga;  it 
was  completed  by  bishop  Middleton,  the  36th  prelate,  in  1278.  St  Andrew's  Hall 
was  erected  in  1415.  The  public  library  was  instituted  in  1784.  The  Norwich  new 
canal  and  harbour  was  opened  June  3,  1831. . 

NORWICH,  Bishopric  of.  This  see  was  once  two  distinct  bishoprics — Elmham,  in 
Norfolk,  and  Dunwich,  in  Suffolk.  Felix,  a  Burgundian,  who  first  converted  the 
East  Angles,  founded  a  see,  a.d.  630.  Bifus,  the  third  bishop  in  succession  from 
him,  finding  himself,  from  his  great  age,  unable  to  bear  so  great  a  harden,  got  his 
diocese  divided  into  two.     Both  sees  suffered  extremely  from  the  Danish  invasions, 

■  insomuch  that  after  the  death  of  St.  Humbert,  they  lay  vacant  for  a  hundred  years. 
At  last  the  see  of  Elmham  was  revived,  and  Dunwich  was  united  to  it ;  but  Herfast, 
the  22d  bishop,  removed  the  seat  to  Thetford,  where  it  continued  till  Herbert 
Losinga,  the  24th  bishop,  removed  it  to  Norwich,  1088.  This  see  bath  given  to 
the  Church  of  Rome  two  saints ;  and  to  the  nation  five  lord  chancellors.  It  was 
valued  in  the  king's  books  at  899/.  18«.  T^d.  per  annum, — See  Bishoprics. 

NOT.iBLES  OF  FRANCE.  An  assembly  of  the  notables  of  France  was  convened  by 
Calonne,  the  minister  of  Louis  XVI.,  in  1788.  The  deranged  state  of  the  king's 
finances  induced  him  to  convoke  the  notables,  who  assembled  November  6,  when 
Calonne  opened  his  plan,  but  any  reform  militated  too  much  against  private  interest 
to  be  adopted.  Calonne,  not  being  able  to  do  any  good,  was  dismissed,  and  soon 
after  retired  to  England :  and  Louis,  having  lost  his  confidential  minister,  Mons.  de 
Vergennes,  by  death,  called  Mons.  de  Brienne,  an  ecclesiastic,  to  his  councils.  In 
the  end,  the  States  General  were  called,  and  from  this  assembly  sprang  the 
National  Assembly,  which  see.  The  notables  were  dismissed  by  the  king,  December 
12,  1788.  .  The  Spanish  notables  assembled  and  met  Napoleon  (conformably  with  a 
decree  issued  by  him  commanding  their  attendance),  at  Bayonne,  May  25,  1808. — 
See  Spain. 

NOTARIES  PUBLIC.  They  were  first  appointed  by  the  primitive  fathers  of  the 
Christian  church,  to  collect  the  acts  or  memoirs  of  the  lives  of  the  martyrs,  in  the 
first  century. — Du  Fresnoy.  This  ofiSce  was  afterwards  changed  to  a  commercial 
employment,  to  attest  deeds  and  writings,  so  as  to  establish  their  authenticity  in  any 
other  country.  An  important  statute  to  regulate  notarial  transactions  was  passed 
40  George  III.  1800,  and  some  statutes  on  the  same  subject  have  been  enacted  since. 

NOTTINGHAM.  The  celebrated  castle  here  was  defended  by  the  Danes  against  king 
Alfred,  and  his  brother  Ethelred.  It  was  rebuilt  by  William  I.,  in  1068 ;  and 
ultimately  it  became  a  fortress  of  prodigious  strength.  Nottingham  was  anciently 
of  great  note,  and  has  gone  through  various  different  scenes,  as  times  happened,  being 
by  the  revengeful  disposition  of  Robert,  earl  of  Ferrers  and  Derby,  burnt  down,  the 
inhabitants  killed,  and  their  goods  divided  among  his  soldiers.  The  riots  at 
Nottingham,  in  which  the  rioters  broke  frames,  &c.,  commenced  November  14, 
1811,  and  continued  to  January,  1812.  Great  similar  mischief  was  done  in  April, 
1814.  The  Watch  and  Ward  act  was  enforced  December  2,  1816.  The  castle,  a 
possession  of  the  duke  of  Newcastle,  was  burnt  by  the  populace,  October  8,  1831. 

NOVA  SCOTIA.  Settled  in  a.d.  1622,  by  the  Scotch,  under  sir  William  Alexander, 
in  the  reign  of  James  I.  of  England,  from  whom  it  received  the  name  of  Nova  Scotia. 
Since  its  first  settlement  it  has  more  than  once  changed  rulers  and  proprietors,  nor 
was  it  confirmed  to  England  till  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713.  It  was  taken  in 
1745,  and  1758  ;  but  was  again  confirmed  to  England  in  1760.  Nova  Scotia  was 
divided  into  two  provinces,  in  1 784  ;  and  was  erected  into  a  bishopric  in  August, 
1787. — See  Baronets. 

NOVEMBER.  This  was  anciently  the  ninth  month  of  the  year  (whence  its  name), 
but  when  Numa  added  the  months  of  January  and  February,  in  713  b.c,  the  Romans 
had  it  for  the  eleventh,  as  it  is  now.  The  Roman  senators  (for  whose  mean  ser- 
vilities even  Tiberius,  it  is  said,  often  blushed)  wished  to  call  this  month  in  which 
he  was  born,  by  his  name,  in  imitation  of  Julius  Caesar,  and  Augustus  ;  but  this  the 
emperor  absolutely  refused,  saying,  **  What  will  you  do,  conscript  fathers,  if  you 
have  thirteen  Ceesars  ?  " 


NOV  [  373  ]  OAT 

NOVI,  Battle  of,  in  whicli  the  French  army  commanded  by  Joubert  was  defeated 
by  the  Russians  under  Suwarrow^  with  immense  loss,  August  15, 1799.  Among 
10,000  of  the  French  slain  was  their  leader,  Joubert,  and  several  other  distinguished 
officers.  A  second  battle  was  here  between  the  Austrian  and  French  armies,  when 
the  latter  was  signally  defeated,  January  8,  1800. 

NUMANTINE  WAR,  and  SIEGE.  The  celebrated  war  of  Numantia  with  the 
Romans  was  commenced  solely  on  account  of  the  latter  having  given  refuge  to  the 
Sigidians,  their  own  allies,  who  had  been  defeated  by  the  Romans,  141  B.C. — Livy,  It 
continued  for  14  years ;  and  though  Numantia  was  unprotected  by  walls  or  towers, 
it  bravely  withstood  the  siege.  The  inhabitants  obtained  some  advantages  over 
the  Roman  forces  till  Scipio  Africanus  was  empowered  to  finish  the  war,  and  to  see 
the  destruction  of  Numantia.  He  began  the  siege  with  an  army  of  60,000  men, 
and  was  bravely  opposed  by  the  besieged,  who  were  no  more  than  4000  men  able  to 
bear  arms.  Both  armies  behaved  with  uncommon  valour,  and  the  courage  of  the 
Numantines  was  soon  changed  into  despair  and  fury.  Their  provisions  began  to  fail, 
and  they  fed  upon  the  flesh  of  their  horses,  and  afterwards  on  that  of  their  dead 
companions,  and  at  last  were  obliged  to  draw  lots  to  kill  and  devour  one  another ; 
and  at  length  they  set  fire  to  their  houses,  and  all  destroyed  themselves,  B.C.  133, 
so  that  not  even  one  remained  to  adorn  the  triumph  of  the  conqueror. 

NUNCIO.  A  spiritual  envoy  from  the  pope  of  Rome  to  Catholic  states.  In  early 
times  they  and  legates .  ruled  the  courts  of  several  of  the  sovereigns  of  Germany, 
France,  and  even  England.  The  pope  deputed  a  nuncio  to  the  Irish  rebels  in  1645. 
The  arrival  in  London  of  a  nuncio,  and  his  admission  to  an  audience  by  James  II., 
1687,  is  stated  to  have  hastened  the  Revolution. 

NUNNERY.  The  first  founded  is  said  to  have  been  that  to  which  the  sister  of  St. 
Anthony  retired  at  the  close  of  the  third  century.  The  first  founded  in  France,  near 
Poitiers,  by  St.  Marcellina,  sister  to  St.  Martin,  a.d.  360. — Du  Fresnoy,  The  first 
in  England  was  at  Folkstone,  in  Kent,  by  Eardbald,  or  Edbald,  king  of  Kent,  630. 
— DugdaleU  MonasHcon  Anglicanum,  See  articles  Abbeys  and  Monasteries. 
The  nuns  were  expelled  from  their  convents  in  Germany,  in  July,  1785.  They  were 
driven  out  of  their  convents  in  France,  in  January,  1790.  For  memorable  instances 
of  their  constancy  and  fortitude,  see  articles  Acre  and  Coldingham, 

O. 

OAK.  Styled  the  monarch  of  the  woods  ;  and,  among  the  ancients  an  emblem  of 
strength,  virtue,  constancy,  and  long  life.  This  tree  grows  in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  but  that  produced  in  England  is  found  the  best  calculated  for  ship-building, 
which  makes  it  so  highly  valuable.  The  oak  gives  name  to  a  constellation  in  the 
heavens — Robur  Caroli,  the  royal  oak — named  by  Dr.  Halley  in  1676,  in  memory 
of  the  oak  tree  in  which  Charles  II.  saved  himself  from  his  pursuers,  after  the  battle 
of  Worcester.  Some  foreign  oaks  have  been  planted  here.  The  evergreen  oak, 
Quercus  //^ j',  was  brought  from  the  south  of  Europe  before  a.d.  1581.  The 
scarlet  oak,  Quercvs  Coccinea,  was  brought  from  North  America  before  1691.  The 
chesnut-leaved  oak,  Quercus  prinus^  from  North  America  before  1730.  The 
Turkey  oak,  Quercus  Berris,  from  the  south  of  Europe,  1735.  The  agaric  of  the 
oak,  in  pharmacy,  was  first  known  as  a  styptic  in  1750. 

OATES,  TITUS,  bis  PLOT.  This  Oates  was  a  wicked  man,  at  one  time  chaplain  of  a 
ship  of  war.  Being  dismissed  the  service  for  his  immoral  conduct,  he  became  a 
lecturer  in  London ;  and,  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Tongue,  invented  a  pretended 
plot  to  assassinate  Charles  II.,  of  which  several  persons,  Catholics,  were  accused, 
and  upon  false  testimony,  convicted  and  executed,  a.d.  1678.  Oates  was  afterwards 
.  tried  for  perjury,  (in  the  reign  of  James  II.)  and  being  found  guilty,  he  was  fined, 
put  in  the  pillory,  publicly  whipped  from  Newgate  to  Tyburn,  and  sentenced  to 
imprisonment  for  life,  1685  ;  but  was  pardoned,  and  a  pension  granted  him,  1689. 

OATHS.  The  administration  of  an  oath  in  judicial  proceedings  was  introduced  by 
the  Saxons  into  England,  a.d.  600. — Rapin,  That  administered  to  a  judge  was 
settled  1344.  Of  supremacy,  first  administered  to  British  subjects,  and  ratified  by 
parliament,  26  Henry  VIII.,  1535.  Of  allegiance  first  framed  and  administered,  3 
James  I.  1605. — Siowe^s  Chron,     Of  abjuration,  being  an  obligation  to  maintain 


OBE 


[374] 


ODE 


the  government  of  king,  lords^  and  commons,  the  Church  of  England,  and  toleration 
of  Protestant  dissenters,  and  abjuring  all  Roman  Catholic  pretenders  to  the  crown, 
13  William  III.  1701.  Oaths  were  taken  on  the  Gospels  so  early  as  a.d.  528  ;  and 
the  words  '*  So  help  me  God  and  all  saints/'  concluded  an  oath  until  1550.  The 
Test  and  Corporation  oaths  modified  by  statute  9  George  IV.  1828,  which  repealed 
so  much  of  several  acts  as  imposed  the  necessity  of  receiving  the  Sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  as  a  qualification  for  certain  offices  and  employments.  Act  abolishing 
oaths  in  the  custom  and  excise  departments,  and  in  certain  other  cases,  and  substi- 
tuting declarations  in  lieu  thereof,  1  and  2  William  IV.  1831.  The  Greeks  and 
Romans  looked  upon  the  infringement  of  an  oath  with  still  greater  abhorrence  than 
Christians ;  they  permitted  oaths  to  be  taken  upon  every  object  in  which  the  person 
who  swore  it  had  a  decided  and  sincere  belief.  They  accordingly  swore  upon  all 
kinds  of  animals,  fruits,  and  vegetables,  the  stars,  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  other 
objects,  without  rendering  the  oaths  less  binding  than  if  they  had  sworn  by  Jupiter. 
A  learned  writer,  Jaques  Lydius,  has  left  us  a  long  catalogue  of  the  numerous 
objects  by  which  the  ancients  swore.  It  was  an  ordinary  occurrence  with  them  to 
swear  by  what  they  held  most  dear  ;  as,  for  instance,  by  their  own  heads,  by  that 
of  their  friends,  or  by  those  persons  whom  they  loved  most  tenderly.  The  most 
sacred  oath  far  above  any  other  was  by  the  eyes  of  their  mistress,  by  her  kisses, 
by  her  hair. — Ashe ;  Ovidf  ^c, 

OBELISK.  The  first  mentioned  in  history  was  that  of  Rameses,  king  of  Egypt, 
about  1485  b.c.  The  Arabians  call  them  Pharaoh's  needles,  and  the  Egyptian 
priests  the  fingers  of  the  sun ;  they  differed  very  much  as  to  their  costliness,  mag- 
nitude, and  magnificence.  Several  were  erected  at  Rome  ;  one  was  erected  by  the 
emperor  Augustus  in  the  Campus  Martins,  on  the  pavement  of  which  was  an  hori- 
zontal dial  that  marked  the  hour,  about  14  b.c. 

OBOLUS.  An  ancient  silver  coin  of  Athens,  whose  value  was  somewhat  more  than  a 
penny  farthing  sterling.  **  Date  Obolum  Beltsario*^  is  a  phrase  often  applied  to 
fallen  greatness,  and  relates  to  the  renowned  Roman  general,  Belisarius,  under  the 
emperor  Justinian,  memorable  for  his  numerous  and  signal  victories,  but  more  so 
for  his  misfortunes.  He  was  dismissed  from  all  his  employments  by  his  ungrateful 
master,  and  reduced  to  beg  alms  at  the  gates  of  Constantinople,  about  a.  d.  560. — 
Univ.  Hist. 

OBSERVATORIES.  The  first  is  supposed  to  have  been  on  the  top  of  the  temple  of 
Belus  at  Babylon.  On  the  tomb  of  Osymandias,  in  Egypt,  was  another,  and  it 
contained  a  golden  circle  200  feet  in  diameter :  that  at  Benares  was  at  least  as 
ancient  as  these.  The  first  in  authentic  history  was  at  Alexandria,  about  300  b.c. 
The  first  in  modem  times  was  at  Cassel,  1561.  The  Royal  Observatory  at  Green- 
wich was  founded  by  Charles  II.  a.d.  1675 ;  and  from  the  meridian  of  Greenwich 
all  English  astronomers  make  their  calculations  : — 


First  modem  meridional  instrument,  by 

Copernicus  ....  a.d.  1640 
First  observatory  at  Cassel  .  .  .  1561 
Tycho  Brahe's,  at  Uranibourg  .  .  1576 
Astronomical  tower  at  Copenhi^n    .    .  1657 

Boyal  (French) 1667 

Royal  Observatory  at  Greenwich  .  .  1675 
Observatory  at  Nuremberg  .  .  .  1678 
At  Utrecht 1690 


Berlin,  erected  under  Leibnitz's  direction  171 1 

At  Bologna 1714 

At  Petersburg .         *        .         .        .    .  1725 

At  Lisbon 1728 

At  Pisa 1730 

Oxford,  Dr.  Radcliffe  ....  1772 
Dublin,  Dr.  Andrews  .  .  .  .  1783 
Armagh,  privMkte  Rokeby  .  ,  .  1793 
Cambridge 1824 


OCTOBER.  The  eighth  month  in  the  year  of  Romulus,  as  its  name  imports,  and  the 
tenth  in  the  year  of  Numa,  713  B.C.  From  this  time  October  has  still  retained  its 
first  name,  in  spite  of  all  the  difi'erent  appellations  which  the  senate  and  Roman 
emperors  would  have  given  it.  The  senate  ordered  it  to  be  called  Faustinus,  in 
honour  of  FaustinOf  the  wife  of  Antonius  the  emperor ;  Commodus  would  have  had 
it  bear  the  name  of  Invictits  ;  and  Domitian  caused  it  to  be  denominated  Domi- 
iianust  after  his  own  name.     October  was  sacred  to  Mars. 

ODES  are  nearly  as  old  as  the  lyre ;  they  were  at  first  extempore  compositions  accom- 
panying this  instrument,  and  sung  in  honour  of  the  gods.  Perhaps  the  most  beau- 
tiful and  sublime  odes  ever  written,  as  well  as  the  oldest,  are  those  of  the  royal 
prophet  Isaiah,  on  the  fall  of  Babylon,  composed  about  757  b.c.  The  celebrated 
odes  of  Anacreon  were  composed  about  532  B.C. ;  and  from  his  time  this  species 


OFF  [  375] OME 

of  writing  became  usual.  Anciently  odes  were  divided  in  Strophe,  Antistrophe, 
and  Epode.  Tliis  species  of  writing  is  that  of  our  court  poets  at  this  day. — Sec 
Poet  Laureates, 

OFFA'S  DYKE.  The  entrenchment  from  the  Wye  to  the  Dee,  made  by  Offa,  a  Saxon 
king,  to  defend  his  country  from  the  incursions  of  the  Welsh,  a.d.  774. 

OGYGES,  DELUGE  of.  The  Deluge  so  called,  from  which  Attica  lay  waste  200 
years,  occurred  1764  B.C.  Many  authorities  suppose  this  to  be  no  other  than  the 
universal  Deluge. — See  article  Deluge. 

OIL.  It  was  used  for  burning  in  lamps  as  early  as  the  epoch  of  Abraham,  about  1921 
B.C.  It  was  the  staple  commodity  of  Attica,  and  a  jar  full  was  the  prize  at  the 
Panathensean  games.  It  was  the  custom  of  the  Jews  to  anoint  with  oil  persons 
appointed  to  high  offices,  as  the  priests  and  kings.  Psalm  cxxxiii.  2 ;  1  Sam,  x.  1  ; 
xvi.  13.  The  anointing  with  this  liquid  seems  also  to  have  been  reckoned  a  neces- 
sary ingredient  in  a  festival  dress,  Ruth  iii.  3.  The  fact  that  oil,  if  passed  through  red- 
hot  iron  pipes,  will  be  resolved  into  a  combustible  gas,  was  long  known  to  chemists  ; 
and  after  the  process  of  lighting  by  coal-gas  was  made  apparent,  Messrs.  Taylor  and 
Martineau  contrived  apparatus  for  producing  oil-gas  on  a  large  scale. 

OLBERS.    The  asteroid  of  this  name  was  discovered  by  M.  Oibers,  in  1802. 

OLD  BAILEY  SESSIONS*-COURT.  This  court  is  held  for  the  trial  of  criminals,  and 
its  jurisdiction  comprehends  the  county  of  Middlesex,  as  well  as  the  city  of  London. 
It  is  held  eight  times  in  the  year  by  the  royal  commission  of  oyer  and  terminer.  The 
judges  are,  the  lord  mayor,  those  aldermen  who  have  passed  the  chair,  the  recorder, 
and  the  common-sergeant,  who  are  attended  by  both  the  sheriffs,  and  one  or  more  of 
the  national  judges.  The  court-house  was  built  in  1773,  and  was  enlarged  in  1808. 
'  During  some  trials  in  the  old  court,  the  lord  mayor,  one  alderman,  two  judges,  the 
greater  part  of  the  jury,  and  numbers  of  spectators,  caught  the  gaol  distemper,  and 
died  May  1750.  Again  this  disease  was  fatal  to  several  in  1772.  Twenty-eight  per- 
sons were  killed  at  the  execution  of  Mr.  Steele's  murderers,  at  the  Old  BaUey, 
Feb.  22,  1807. 

OLERON,  Laws  of.  An  ancient  and  celebrated  code  of  laws  relating  to  sea-affairs, 
was  framed  by  Richard  I.  of  England,  when  he  was  at  the  island  of  Oleron  in  France, 
A.D.  1194.  These  laws  are  received  by  all  the  nations  of  Europe,  as  the  bases  of 
their  marine  constitutions,  on  account  of  their  wisdom  and  justice,  and  concurrence 
with  the  general  welfare. 

OLIVES.  They  are  named  in  the  earliest  accounts  of  Egypt  and  Greece ;  and  at 
Athens  their  cultivation  was  taught  by  Cecrops,  1556  b.c.  He  brought  the  olive 
from  Sais,  in  Upper  Egypt,  where  it  was  for  ages  previously  abundant.  The  olive 
was  first  planted  in  Italy  about  562  b.c.  **  When  thou  beatest  thine  olive-tree,  thou 
shalt  not  go  over  the  boughs  again  :  it  shall  be  for  the  stranger,  for  the  fatherless, 
and  for  the  widow." — Deut,  xxiv.  20. 

OLYMPIADS.  The  Greeks  computed  time  by  the  celebrated  era  of  the  Olympiads, 
which  date  from  the  year  776  b.c,  being  the  year  in  which  Coroebus  was  successful 
at  the  Olympic  games.  This  era  differed  ^om  all  others  in  being  reckoned  by 
periods  of  four  years  instead  of  single  years.  Each  period  of  four  years  was  caUed 
an  Olympiad,  and  in  marking  a  date,  the  year  and  Olympiad  were  both  mentioned. 
The  second  Olympiad  began  in  772  ;  the  third,  in  768  ;  the  fourth,  in  764 ;  the 
fifth,  in  760;  the  10th,  in  740,  &c. 

OLYMPIC  GAMES.  These  games,  so  famous  among  the  Greeks,  were  instituted  in 
honour  of  Jupiter.  They  were  holden  at  the  beginning  of  every  fifth  year,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Alpheus,  near  Olympia,  in  the  Peloponnesus,  now  the  Morea,  to  exer- 
cise their  youth  in  five  kinds  of  combats.  Those  who  were  conquerors  in  these  games 
were  highly  honoured  by  their  countrymen.  The  prize  contended  for  was  a  crown 
made  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  wild  olive,  appropriated  to  this  use.  The  games  were 
instituted  by  Pelops,  1307  b.c.  They  are  also  ascribed  to  an  ancient  Hercules ;  and 
were  revived  by  Iphytus  among  the  Greeks,  884  b.c. — Dufresnoy, 

OMENS. — See  Augury,  Amphictyon  was  the  first  who  is  recorded  as  having  drawn 
prognostications  from  omens,  1497  B.C.  Alexander  the  Great  is  said  to  have  had 
these  superstitions ;  and  also  Mithridates  the  Great,  celebrated  for  his  wars  with  the 
Romans,  his  victories,  his  conquest  of  twenty-four  nations,  and  his  misfortunes.     At 


p.p. Q  376  ] opo 

the  birth  of  this  latter,  there  were  seen,  for  seventy  days  together,  two  krge  comets, 
whose  splendour  eclipsed  that  of  the  noon-day  bud,  occupying  so  vast  a  space  as 
the  fourth  part  of  the  heavens  ;  and  this  omen^  we  are  told,  directed  all  the  actions 
of  Mithridates  throughout  his  life,  so  much  had  superstition  combined  with  nature  to 
render  him  great,  135  b.c. — Jfistin. 

O.  P.  RIOT  AT  COVENT  GARDEN  THEATRE.  The  memorable  riot,  known  by 
this  name,  occurred  on  the  opening  of  the  new  theatre,  on  account  of  the  increased 
prices  of  admission,  Sept.  18,  1809.  The  play  was  Macbeth^  and  from  the  rising  of 
the  curtain  until  its  fall  not  one  word  from  the  stage  was  heard.  The  concurrence 
of  all  parts  of  the  house  in  the  desire  for  redViction,  gave  a  furious  and  determined 
party  in  the  pit  (many  of  them  persons  known,  and  of  some  consideration  in  the 
city]  courage  to  proceed,  and  great  injury  was  done  in  pit,  boxes,  and  galleries.  For 
many  successive  nights  the  audience,  too  strong  to  be  controlled,  continued  their 
demand,  and  renewed  their  depredations,  while  the  managers  seemed  on  their  part, 
resolved  not  to  give  way  ;  but  in  the  end  they  yielded  to  the  manifest  wishes  of  the 
whole  public,  and  the  prices  were  reduced.  This  contest,  which  continued  for 
nearly  three  months,  was  terminated  Dec.  10,  same  year. 

OPERA.  Octavio  Rinuccini,  of  Florence,  was  the  inventor  of  operas,  or  of  the  custom 
of  giving  musical  representations  of  comedy,  tragedy,  and  other  dramatic  pieces. 
Emelio  de  Cavalero,  however,  disputed  this  honour  with  him,  a.d.  1590. — Nouv. 
Did,  Hist.  Among  the  Venetians,  opera  was  the  chief  glory  of  their  carnival. 
About  the  year  1669,  the  abbot  Perrin  obtained  a  grant  from  Louis  XIV.  to  set  up 
an  opera  at  Paris,  where,  in  1672,  was  acted  Pomona.  Sir  William  Davenant  intro- 
duced a  species  of  opera  in  London,  in  1684.  The  first  regularly  performed  opera 
was  at  York-buildings,  in  1692.  The  first  at  Drury-lane  was  in  1705.  The  operas 
of  Handel  were  performed  in  1735,  and  they  became  general .  in  several  of  the  thea- 
tres  a  few  years  after.  Among  the  favourite  performances  of  this  kind  was  Gay's 
Beggar* t  Opera,  first  performed  in  1727.  It  ran  for  sixty- three  successive  nights, 
but  so  offended  the  persons  in  power^  that  the  lord  chamberlain  refused  to  license 
for  performance  a  second  part  of  it,  entitled  "  Polly."  This  resentment  induced 
Gay's  friends  to  come  forward  on  its  publication  with  so  handsome  a  subscription, 
that  his  profits  amounted  to  1200/.,  whereas  the  Beggar's  Opera  had  gained  him 
only  400/.  ^Life  of  Gag, 

OPERA  HOUSE,  the  ITALIAN.  The  original  building  is  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  constructed  by  sir  John  Vanbrugh,  though  Mr.  Pennant  attributes  it  to 
sir  Christopher  Wren.  It  was  built,  according  to  this  authority,  in  1704.  The 
Opera-house  was  burnt  down,  June  17,  1788  ;  and  the  foundation  of  the  new  theatre 
was  laid,  April  3, 1790  ;  and  it  was  opened,  Sept.  22,  1791,  on  an  improved  plan, 
though  the  exterior  was  not  erected  in  its  present  style  till  1818,  from  designs  by 
Mr.  Nash.  It  is  now  a  handsome  edifice  cased  with  stucco,  and  adorned  with  an 
elegant  colonnade  supported  by  cast-iron  pillars  of  the  Doric  order.  The  front  is 
decorated  with  a  rilievo,  executed  by  Mr.  Bubb,  in  1821,  representing  the  Origin 
and  Progress  of  Music,  The  interior  is  magnificent,  and  is  nearly  as  large  as  the 
theatre  of  La  Scala,  at  Milan. 

OPERA,  THE  ENGLISH.  This  theatre,  under  the  name  of  the  Lyceum,  was  opened 
June  15,  1816,  with  an  atldress  spoken  by  the  gifted  Miss  Kelly.  It  was  entirely 
destroyed  by  fire,  Feb.  16,  1830.  The  exterior  of  the  late  Lyceum,  in  consequence 
of  the  situation  of  the  building,  exhibited  no  architectural  beauties,  with  the  exception 
of  a  portico  of  the  Ionic  order,  added  in  1823  ;  but  the  interior  was  neat  It  was 
about  thirty-five  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  distance  from  the  orchestra  to  the 
front  boxes  was  only  thirty  feet.  The  new  English  Opera-house,  or  Lyceum,  was 
erected  from  designs  by  Mr.  S.  Beazley,  and  was  opened  for  performances,  in 
July,  1834. 

OPORTO.  By  nature  one  of  the  most  impregnable  cities  in  Europe ;  the  great  mart 
of  Portuguese  wine  known  as  **  Port."  A  chartered  company  for  the  regulation  of 
the  port-wine  trade  was  established  here  in  a.d.  1756.  See  article  Wines.  The 
French  under  marshal  Soult  were  surprised  here  by  lord  Wellington,  and  defeated  in 
an  action  fought  May  11, 1 809.  The  Miguelites  attacked  Oporto,  and  were  repulsed 
after  a  sharp  contest  by  the  Pedroites,  with  considerable  loss,  September  19,  1832. 
See  Portugal. 


OPT 


[377] 


OR  A 


OPTICS.  Ab  a  science,  optics  date  their  origin  a  little  prior  to  the  time  of  Alliazen,  an 
Arabian  philosopher,  who  flourished  early  in  the  twelfth  century.  It  has  advanced 
rapidly  since  the  time  of  Halley,  and  is  now  one  of  our  most  flourishing^  aa^ell  as 
useful  sciences. 

C  Jansen  and  Galileo  have  also  been  stated 

to  be  the  inventors.] 
Cassegrainian  reflector  ....  1621 
Law  of  refraction  discoyered  by  Snelllus, 

about A.D.  1624 

Reflecting  telescope,  James  Gregory  .   .  1663 
;Newton         .        .  1666 


Burning  lenses  known  at  Athens  at 
least B.C.    424 

Two  of  the  leading  principles  known  to 
the  Platonists 900 

First  treatise  on,  by  Euclid,  about      .    .    280 

The  magnifying  power  of  convex  glasses 
and  concave  mirrors,  and  the  prisma' 
tic  colours  produced  by  angular  glass, 
mentioned  by  Seneca,  about        .   a.d. 

Treatise  on  Optics,  by  Ptolemy . 

Greatly  improved  by  Albazen 

Hints  for  spectacles  and  telescopes  given 
by  Roger  Bacon,  about 

Spectacles  (said  to  have  been)  invented 
by  Salvinus  Armatus,  of  Pisa,  before  . 

Camera  obscura  said  to  have  been  in* 
vented  by  Baptista  Porta  . 

Telesoox>eB  invented  by  Leonard  Dlgges, 
about        

Telescope  made  by  Jansen  (who  is  said 
also  to  have  invented  the  microscope), 
about        

[The  same  instrumoit  constructed  by 
Galileo,  without  using  the  production 
of  Jansen.} 

Astronomical  telescope  suggested  by 
Kepler 1611 

Microscope,  according  to  Huygens,  in- 
vented by  Drebbel,  about  .        .        .  1621 


60 

ISO 

1106 

1280 

1300 

1560 

1571 


1609 


Motion  and  velocity  of  light  discovered 

by  Roemer,  and  after  him  by  Cassini  1667 
[Its  velocity  demonstrated  to  be  190 

millions  of  miles  in  sixteen  minutes.] 
Double  refraction  explained  by  Bartho- 

linus 1669 

Newton's  discoveries         •        •        .    •  1674 
Telescopes  with  a  single  lens,  by  Tschim- 

hauseh,  about 1690 

Polarization  of  light,  Huygens,  about  .  1692 
Structure  of  the  eye  explained  by  Petit, 

about 1700 

Achromatic  telescope  constructed  by  Mr. 

Hall  (but  not  made  public)  in  .  .1733 
Constructed  by  Dollond,'!.  most' likely. 

without  any  knowledge  of  Hall's  .  1757 
Herschel's    great    reflecting    telescope, 

erected  at  Slough  ....  1789 
Camera  lucida  (Dr.  Wollaston)  .  .  .*,1807 
Ramage's  reflecting  telescope  erected  at 

Greenwich 1820 


OPTIC  NERVES.  The  discoverer  of  the  optic  nerves  is  reputed  to  have  been  N. 
Varole,  a  surgeon  and  physician  of  Bologna,  about  a.d.  1538.— i^oup.  Diet. 

ORACLES.  The  most  ancient  oracle  was  that  of  Dodona  ;  but  the  most  famous  was 
the  oracle  of  Delphi,  1263  b.c. — See  Delphi,  The  heathen  oracles  were  always 
delivered  in  such  dubious  expressions  or  terms,  that  let  what  would  happen  to 
the  inquirer,  it  might  be  accommodated  or  explained  to  mean  the  event  that  came 
to  pass.  Among  the  Jews  there  were  several  sorts  of  oracles  ;  as  first,  those  that 
were  delivered  viva  voce,  as  when  God  spoke  to  Moses ;  secondly,  prophetical 
dreams,  as  those  of  Joseph  ;  thirdly,  visions,  as  when  a  prophet  in  an  ecstacy,  being 
properly  neither  asleep  nor  awake,  had  supernatural  revelations ;  fourthly,  when 
they  were  accompanied  with  the  ephod  or  the  pectoral  worn  by  the  high  priest,  who 
was  indued  with  the  gift  of  foretelling  future  things,  upon  extraordinary  occasions  ; 
fifthly,  by  consulting  the  prophets  or  messengers  sent  by  God.  At  the  beginning 
of  Christianity,  prophecy  appears  to  have  been  very  common  ;  but  it  immediately 
afterwards  ceased. — Lempriere ;  Pardon. 

ORANGE.  The  sweet,  or  China  orange,  was  first  brought  into  Europe  from  China  by 
the  Portuguese,  in  1 547  ;  and  it  is  asserted  that  the  identical  tree,  whence  all  the 
European  orange-trees  of  this  sort  were  produced,  is  still  preserved  at  Lisbon,  in  the 
gardens  of  one  of  its  nobility.  Orange-trees  were  first  brought  to  England,  and 
planted,  with  little  success,  in  1595.  But  from  that  time  the  fruit  has  been  com- 
mon in  these  countries. 

ORANGE,  House  of.  This  illustrious  house  is  as  ancient  as  any  in  Europe,  and 
makes  a  most  distinguished  figure  in  history.  Otho  I.,  count  of  Nassau,  received 
the  provinces  of  Guelderland  and  Zutphen  with  his  two  wives,  and  they  continued 
several  hundred  years  in  the  family.  Otho  II.  count  of  Nassau  Dillembourg,  who 
died  in  1369,  got  a  great  accession  of  territories  in  the  Low  Countries  by  his  wife 
Abelais,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Godfrey  count  of  Vianden ;  and  his  grandson  Gil- 
bert, having  married  Jane,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Philip,  baron  of  Leek  and  Breda, 
added  these  to  his  other  domains  in  1404.  The  title  of  prince  of  Orange  came  first 
into  the  Nassau  family  by  the  marriage  of  Claude  de  Chalons  with  the  count  of 


ORA  [[  378  ]  ORD 

Nassau,  in  1530.  William  prince  of  Orange,  afterwards  William  III.  of  England, 
landed  at  Torbay,  with  an  army,  Not.  5,  1688,  and  was  crowned  with  his  queen, 
the  princess  Mary,  daughter  of  James  II.>  April  1 1,  1689. 

ORANGEMEN.  A  battle,  called  the  battle  of  the  Diamond,  was  fought  in  the  county 
of  Armagh,  in  Sept  1795 ;  and  the  treachery  experienced  by  the  Protestants  on  that 
occasion  conTinced  them  they  would  become  an  easy  prey  to  the  Roman  Catholics, 
from  the  paucity  of  their  numbers,  unless  they  associated  for  their  defence.  In  com- 
memoration of  that  victory  the  first  Orange  lodge  was  formed  in  the  county  of  Armagh, 
Sept.  21,  1795  ;  but  the  name  of  Orangeman  existed  some  time  before.  They  asso- 
ciated to  maintain  the  constitution  in  church  and  state,  as  established  at  the  Revo- 
lution by  the  prince  of  Orange.  The  first  Orange  lodge  was  formed  in  Dublin,  the  mem- 
bers publishing  a  declaration  of  their  principles,  in  Jan.  1798. — Sir  Rich.  Musgrave. 

ORATOR  HENLEY.  An  English  clergyman  of  some  talents,  and  great  eccentricity, 
obtained  this  name  by  opening  what  he  called  his  ^*  Oratory''  in  London,  in  1726. 
He  had  a  kind  of  chapel  in  Newport-market,  where  he  gave  lectures  on  theological 
topics  on  Sundays,  and  other  subjects  on  Wednesdays,  every  week.  Novelty  pro- 
cured him  a  multitude  of  hearers  ;  but  he  was  too  imprudent  to  gain  any  permanent 
advantage  from  his  project.  After  having  served  as  a  butt  for  the  satirical  wits, 
poets,  and  painters  of  his  time,  he  removed  his  oratory  to  Clare-market,  and  sunk 
into  comparative  obscurity  and  contempt  previously  to  his  death,  in  1 756. 

ORATORIOS.  Their  origin  is  ascribed  to  St.  Philip  Neri.  The  first  oratorio  in 
London  was  performed  in  Lincoln's-Inn  theatre,  in  Portugal-street,  in  1732. 

ORCHARDS.  As  objects  of  farming  or  field  culture,  orchards  do  not  appear  to  have 
been  adopted  until  about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  although  they 
had,  doubtlessly,  existed  in  Great  Britain  for  many  ages  previously,  as  appendages  to 
wealthy  religious  establishments. — Loudon, 

ORDEAL.  The  ordeal  was  known  among  the  Greeks.  With  us  it  is  a  term  signifying 
the  judiciary  determination  of  accusations  for  criminal  offences  by  fire  and  water. 
It  was  introduced  into  England  with  other  superstitions  taken  from  the  codes  of  the 
Germans.  That  by  fire  was  confined  to  the  upper  classes  of  the  people,  that  of  water, 
to  bondsmen  and  rustics.  Hence  the  expression  of  going  through  fire  and  water  to 
serve  another.  Women  accused  of  incontinency  formerly  underwent  the  ordeal,  to 
prove  their  innocence.  A  prisoner  who  pleaded  not  guilty,  might  choose  whether 
he  would  put  himself  for  trial  upon  God  and  his  country,  by  twelve  men,  as  at  this 
day,  or  upon  God  only  ;  and  then  it  was  called  the  judgment  of  God,  presuming 
he  would  deliver  the  innocent.  The  accused  were  to  pass  barefooted  and  blindfold 
over  nine  red -hot  plough-shares,  or  were  to  carry  burning  irons  in  their  hands ; 
and  accordingly  as  they  escaped,  they  were  judged  innocent  or  guilty,  acquitted  or 
condemned*.  The  ordeal  was  used  from  Edward  the  Confessor's  time  to  that  of 
Henry  III.  It  was  abolished  by  a  royal  proclamation,  45  Henry  III.,  1261. — 
Law  Diet,     Rymer^e  Fcedera, 

ORDINATION.  In  the  ancient  church  there  was  no  such  thing  as  a  vague  and  abso- 
lute ordination  ;  but  every  one  ordained  had  a  church  whereof  he  was  to  be  clerk  or 
priest  In  the  twelfth  century,  they  grew  more  remiss,  and  ordained  without  any 
title  or  benefice.  The  church  of  Rome  is  episcopal ;  and  the  church  of  England  so 
far  acknowledges  the  validity  of  the  ordination  of  that  church,  that  a  Catholic  priest 
is  only  required  to  abjure  Jts  peculiar  distinctions,  and  he  can  officiate  without 
re-ordination.  The  late  Dean  Kirwan  was  thus  ordained  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 

ORDNANCE-OFFICE.  In  ancient  times,  before  the  invention  of  guns,  this  office 
was  supplied  by  officers  under  the  following  names :  the  bowyer ;  the  cross-bowyer ; 
the  galeater,  or  purveyor  of  helmets ;  the  armourer ;  and  the  keeper  of  the  tents. 
And,  in  this  state  it  continued,  till  king  Henry  VIII.  placed  it  under  the  manage- 
ment of  a  master,  a  lieutenant,  surveyor,  &c.  Some  improvements  have  been  made 
since,  and  this  very  important  branch  is  now  under  the  direction  of  the  master- 
general  of  the  ordnance,  who  is  colonel-in-chief  of  the  royal  regiment  of  artillery. 

*  The  water  ordeal  was  performed  in  either  hot  or  cold :  in  cold  water,  the  parties  suspected  were 
adjudged  innocent,  if  their  bodies  were  borne  up  by  the  water,  contrary  to  the  course  of  nature ;  in  hot 
water,  they  were  to  put  their  bare  arms  or  l^s  into  scalding  water,  which  if  they  brought  out  without 
hurt,  they  were  taken  to  be  innocent  of  the  crime. 


ORG  Q  379  ]  OST 

ORGANS.  The  invention  of  the  organ  is  attributed  to  Archimedes,  about  220  B.C. ; 
but  the  fact  does  not  rest  on  sufficient  authority.  It  is  also  attributed  to  one  Ctesi- 
bias,  a  barber  of  Alexandria,  about  100  b.c.  llie  organ  was  brought  to  Europe  from 
the  Greek  empire,  and  was  first  applied  to  religious  devotions,  in  churches,  in  a.d. 
658. — Bellarmine.  Organs  were  used  in  the  Western  churches  by  pope  Vitalianus, 
in  658. — Ammonius,  It  is  affirmed  that  the  organ  was  known  in  France  in  the  time 
of  Louis  I.,  815,  when  one  was  constructed  by  an  Italian  priest.  St.  Jerome  men- 
tions an  organ  with  twelve  pairs  of  bellows,  which  might  have  been  heard  a  mile  off; 
and  another  at  Jerusalem,  which  might  have  been  heard  on  the  Mount  of  Olives. 
The  organ  at  Haerlem  is  one  of  the  largest  in  Europe  ;  it  has  60  stops,  and  8000 
pipes.  At  Seville  is  one  with  100  stops,  and  5300  pipes.  The  organ  at  Amsterdam 
has  a  set  of  pipes  that  imitate  a  chorus  of  human  voices. 

ORGANS  IN  England.  That  at  York-minster  is  the  largest;  and  the  organ 
in  the  Music-hall,  Birmingham,  the  next.  In  London,  the  largest  is,  perhaps, 
that  of  Spitalfields  church ;  and  that  in  Christ  Church  is  nearly  as  extensive.  The 
best  is  the  famous  Temple  organ,  erected  by  competition  of  Schmidt  and  Harris, 
two  eminent  builders ;  and  after  long-protracted  disputes  about  their  merits,  the 
question  was  referred  to  Mr.  Jeffries,  afterwards  chief  justice,  who  decided  in 
favour  of  Schmidt. 

ORKNEY  AND  SHETLAND  ISLES.  These  islands  were  ceded  by  Denmark  to 
Scotland  in  a.d.  839,  and  were  confirmed  to  James  III.,  for  a  sum  of  money,  in 
1468.  The  Orkneys  were  the  ancient  Orcades  ;  and,  united  with  Shetland,  they 
now  form  one  of  the  Scotch  counties.  The  bishopric  of  Orkney  was  founded  by  St. 
Servanus  early  in  the  fifth  century,  some  affirm  by  St.  Colm.  It  ended  with  the 
abolition  of  episcopacy  in  Scotland,  about  1689. 

ORLEANS,  SiEOE  of,  by  the  English,  under  John  Talbot,  earl  of  Salisbury,  Oct.  12,1 428. 
The  city  was  bravely  defended  by  Gauconr,  the  more  so  as  its  fall  would  have  ruined 
the  cause  of  Charles  VI.,  king  of  France ;  and  it  was  relieved,  and  the  siege  raised, 
by  the  intrepidity  and  heroism  of  Joan  of  Arc,  afterwards  surnamed  the  Maid  of 
Orleans,  April  29,  1429.     Siege  of  Orleans,  when  the  duke  of  Guise  was  killed,  1563. 

ORLEANS,  NEW.  The  capital  of  Louisiana,  built  in  1 720,  under  the  regency  of 
the  duke  of  Orleans.  In  1788,  seven-eighths  of  the  city  were  destroyed  by  fire; 
but  it  is  now  rebuilt    The  British  were  repulsed  here  with  great  loss,  Jan.  7, 1815. 

ORRERY.  The  employment  of  planetary  machines  to  illustrate  and  explain  the  mo- 
tions of  the  heavenly  bodies,  appears  to  have  been  coeval  with  the  construction  of 
the  clepsydrse  and  other  horological  automata.  Ptolemy  devised  the  circles  and  epi- 
cycles that  distinguish  his  system  about  a.d.  130.  The  planetary  clock  of  Fin^e, 
was  begun  a.d.  1553.  The  planetarium  of  De  Rheita  was  formed  about  1650. 
The  Orrery,  so  called,  was  invented  by  Charles,  earl  of  Orrery ;  but  perhaps  with 
more  justice  it  is  ascribed  to  Mr.  Rowley  of  Lichfield,  whom  his  lordship  patronised, 
1670.     This  Orrery  has  been  greatly  improved  of  late  years. 

ORTHES,  Battle  of,  between  the  British  and  Spanish  armies  on  one  side,  and  the 
French  on  the  other,  the  former  commanded  by  the  marquess  (now  duke)  of  Wel- 
lington, and  the  latter  by  marshal  Soolt.  In  this  ipemorable  engagement  the  British 
gained  a  great  and  decisive  victory,  February  27,  1814. 

OSSORY,  Bishopric  of.  This  see  was  first  planted  at  Saiger,  about  a.d.  402, 
(thirty  years  before  the  arrival  of  St.  Patrick),  from  whence  the  bishops  of  it 
were  called  Episcopi  Saigerensis.  From  Saiger  it  was  translated  to  Aghavoe  in 
Upper  Ossory  in  1052 ;  for  in  the  MS.  Annals  of  Leinster,  under  that  year,  we  meet 
with  this  passage :  '*  A  church  was  built  at  Achadboe,  and  the  shrine  of  Canio 
placed  in  it.''  This  St.  Canic,  the  son  of  Laidee,  an  eminent  poet,  was  the  first 
abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Aghavoe,  which  he  founded,  and  in  which  he  died  in  599. 
Felix  O'Dullany,  bishop  of  Ossory,  translated  this  see  to  Kilkenny,  about  the  end 
of  the  reign  of  king  Henry  II.  The  Cathedral  Church  was  allowed  to  be  the  finest 
in  Ireland ;  its  east  window  was  ornamented  with  stained  glass,  of  exquisite  work- 
manship. It  is  said  that  the  pope's  nuncio  to  the  rebels,  in  1645,  offered  700/.  for 
it,  in  order  to  carry  it  to  Rome.  This  window  was  afterwards  totally  destroyed  in 
the  course  of  the  rebellion  of  that  time. 

OSTEND.  This  town  is  famous  for  the  long  siege  it  sustained  against  the  Spaniards, 
from  July  1601  to  September  1604,  when  it  surrendered  by  an  honourable  capitula- 


OST Q  360  ] OUZ 

tion.  On  the  death  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  the  French  seized  Ostend ;  but,  in 
1706,  after  the  battle  cf  Ramilies,  it  was  retaken  by  the  allies.  It  was  again  taken 
by  the  French  in  1745,  but  restored  in  1748.  In  the  war  of  1756,  the  French  gar- 
risoned this  town  for  the  empress- queen  Maria  Theresa.  In  1792,  the  French  once 
more  took  Ostend,  which  tiiey  evacuated  in  1793,  and  repossessed  in  1794.  The 
English  landed  a  body  of  troops  here,  who  destroyed  the  works  of  the  Bruges  canal ; 
but  the  wind  shifting  before  they  could  re^mbark,  they  were  obliged  to  surrender 
to  the  French,  May  19,  1798. 

OSTRACISM.  From  the  Greek  word  Ostrtteon,  an  oyster  ;  a  mode  of  proscription  at 
Athens,  where  a  plurality  of  ten  voices  condemned  to  ten  years'  banishment  those 
who  were  either  too  rich,  or  had  too  much  authority,  for  fear  they  might  set  up  for 
tyrants  over  their  native  country,  but  without  any  confiscation  of  their  goods  or 
estate.  This  custom  is  said  to  have  been  first  introduced  by  the  tyrant  Hippias ;  by 
others  it  is  ascribed  to  Clysthenes,  about  510  b.c.  The  people  wrote  the  names  of 
those  whom  they  most  suspected  upon  small  shells  ;  these  they  put  into  an  urn  or 
box,  and  presented  it  to  the  senate.  Upon  a  scrutiny,  he  whose  name  was  oftenest 
written  was  sentenced  by  the  council  to  be  banished,  ab  arts  et  focis.  But  this 
law  at  last  was  abused,  and  they  who  deserved  best  of  the  commonwealth  fell  under 
the  popular  resentment,  as  Aristides  noted  for  his  justice,  Miltiades  for  his  victories, 
&c.  It  was  abolished  by  ironically  proscribing  Hyperbolus,  a  mean  and  con- 
temptible person. 

OSTROLENKA,  Battle  of,  between  the  Poles  and  Russians,  one  of  the  most  san. 
guinary  and  desperate  battles  fought  by  the  Poles  for  the  recovery  of  their  inde- 
pendence, May  26,  1831.  On  both  sides  the  slaughter  was  immense,  but  the  Poles 
remained  masters  of  the  field ;  they,  however,  shortly  afterwards  retreated  to  Praga, 
unmolested. 

OTAHEITE.  Discovered  in  1767,  by  captain  Wallis,  who  called  it  George  the  Third 
Island.  Captain  Cook  came  hither  in  1768,  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus ;  sailed 
round  the  whole  island  in  a  boat,  and  staid  three  months  :  it  was  visited  twice  after- 
ward by  that  celebrated  navigator. — See  Cook.  Omai,  a  native  of  this  island,  was 
brought  over  to  England  by  captain  Cook,  and  carried  back  by  him,  in  his  last 
voyage.  In  1799,  king  Pomarre  ceded  the  district  of  Matavai  on  the  north  side  of 
this  island,  to  some  English  missionaries. 

OTTERBURN,  Batixe  of,  fought  in  1388,  between  the  English  under  the  earl  of 
Northumberland  and  his  two  sons,  and  the  Scots  under  sir  William  Douglas,  who 
was  slain  by  Henry  Percy,  sumamed  Hotspur  ;  but  the  Scots  obtained  the  victory, 
and  the  two  Percies  were  made  prisoners.  On  this  battle  the  ballad  of  Chevy  Chase 
is  founded. 

OTTOMAN  EMPIRE.  The  sovereignty  of  the  Turks,  founded  by  Ottoman  I.  on  the 
ruin  of  the  empire  of  the  eastern  Greeks,  a.d.  1293. — See  Turkey, 

OUDENARDE,  Battle  op,  between  the  English  and  allies  under  the  duke  of  Marl- 
borough, and  prince  Eugene,  against  the  French,  who  were  besieging  Oudenarde. 
The  French  were  defeated  and  entirely  routed,  with  great  loss.  Marlborough  pushed 
his  victory  so  far  that  the  French  king  entered  into  a  negotiation  for  peace,  which 
was,  however,  of  no  effect,  June  30,  1708. 

OULART,  Battle  of,  between  a  body  of  5000  insurgents,  and  the  king's  troops.  In 
this  fatal  affair,  the  North  Cork  militia  was  cut  to  pieces,  the  lieut-col.,  a  Serjeant, 
and  three  privates,  alone  escaping,  May  27,  1798. — Sir  R,  Musgrave. 

OUNCE.  The  sijiteenth  part  of  the  pound  avoirdupois,  and  twelfth  of  the  pound  troy. 
The  word  is  from  uncia;  and  its  precise  weight  was  fixed  by  Henry  III.,  who  de- 
creed that  an  English  ounce  should  be  640  dry  grains  of  wheat ;  that  twelve  of  these 
ounces  should  be  a  pound  ;  and  that  eight  pounds  should  be  a  gallon  of  wine,  1233. 

OUZEL  GALLEY  SOCIETY.  A  popular  and  useful  society  in  Dublin.  In  a.d. 
1 700,  the  cose  of  a  ship  in  the  port  of  Dublin  excited  great  legal  perplexity ;  and  in 
order  to  lessen  the  consequent  delay  and  expense,  it  was  referred  to  an  arbitration  of 
merchants,  whose  decision  was  prompt  and  highly  approved.  This  led  to  the  found- 
ation of  the  present  society  for  terminating  commercial  disputes  by  arbitration. 
The  vessel  in  question  was  named  the  Ouxel  Galley ^  and  the  society  adopted  the 
name  as  an  appropriate  designation. 


OVA 


[381] 


OXF 


OVATION.  An  inferior  triumph  which  the  Romans  allowed  the  generals  of  their 
army  whose  victories  were  not  considerable.  He  who  was  thus  rewarded,  entered 
the  city  with  a  myrtle  crown  upon  his  head,  that  tree  being  consecrated  to  Venus  ; 
wherefore  when  Marcus  Crassus  was  decreed  the  honour  of  an  ovation,  he  particu- 
larly desired  it  as  a  favour  of  the  senate  to  be  allowed  a  Laurel  crown  instead  of  a 
myrtle  one.  This  triumph  was  called  ovation,  because  the  general  offered  a  sheep 
when  he  came  to  the  capitol,  whereas  in  the  great  triumph  he  offered  a  bull.  Pub- 
lius  Posthumius  Tubertus  was  the  first  who  was  decreed  an  ovation,  503  B.C. 

OWHYHEE.  Discovered  by  captain  Cook  in  1778.  Here  this  illustrious  seaman  fell 
a  victim  to  a  sudden  resentment  of  the  natives.  A  boat  having  been  stolen  by  one 
of  the  islanders,  the  captain  went  on  shore  to  seize  the  king,  and  keep  him  as  a  hos- 
tage till  the  boat  was  restored.  The  people,  however,  were  not  disposed  to  submit 
to  this  insult ;  their  resistance  brought  on  hostilities,  and  captain  Cook  and  some  of 
his  companions  were  killed,  Feb.  14, 1779. 

OXFORD.  The  chief  seat  of  learning  in  England.  Henry  III.,  compelled  by  his  ba- 
rons, summoned  a  parliament  here,  1258. — Dugdale.  The  first  clear  account  we 
have  of  the  representatives  of  the  people  forming  the  House  of  Commons,  is  in  the 
42d  of  Henry  III.,  when  it  was  settled  by  the  statutes  of  Oxford,  that  twelve  per- 
sons  should  be  chosen  to  represent  the  commons  in  the  three  parliaments  which,  by 
the  sixth  statute,  were  to  be  held  yearly. — Burton^ s  annah,  .  A  parliament  assem- 
bled  here,  1  Charles  I.,  1625,  in  consequence  of  the  plague  then  raging  in  London ; 
and  in  1644,  Charles  summoned  such  members  of  both  houses  as  were  devoted  to 
his  interest  to  meet  him  at  Oxford ;  these  were  seceders  from  the  parliament  at 
Westminster. — See  next  article. 

OXFORD  UNIVERSITY.  This  university  is  by  some  supposed  to  have  been  a  se- 
minary for  learning  before  the  time  of  Alfred,  and  that  it  owed  its  revival  and  con- 
sequence to  his  liberal  patronage.  Others  state  that  though  the  university  is  as- 
cribed to  Alfred,  yet  that  no  regular  institution  deserving  the  name  existed  even  at 
the  period  of  the  Norman  conquest. 


COLLBOKB. 

All  Souls*  College,  founded  by  Henry 

Chichely,  abp.  of  Canterbury  .  a.d.  1437 
BalioL    John  Baliol,  knt.,  and  Deborah 

his  wife ;  he  was  father  to  Baliol  king 

of  the  Scots 1263 

Brazen-Nose.    William  Smith ,  bishop  of 

Lincoln,  and  Sir  Richard  Button  .  1509 
Christ  Church.    Cardinal  Wolsey,  1525 ; 

and  afterwards  by  Henry  YIIL  .  .  1532 
Corpus  Christl.    Richard  Fox,  bishop  of 

Winchester 1516 

Exeter.  Walter  Btapleton,  earl  of  Exeter  1314 

Hertford  College 1312 

Jesus  College.    Dr.  Hugh  Price ;  queen 

Elizabeth  .         .         .         ..        •  1571 

Lincoln  College.  Richard  Fleming,  1427 ; 

finished  by  Rotheram,  bp.  of  Lincoln  .  1475 
Magdalen.  Waynflete.bp.  of  Winchester  1458 
Merton  College.    Walter  de  Merton,  bp. 

of  Rochester 1274 

New  College.    William  of  Wykeham, 

bishop  of  Winchester ;  first  called  St 

Mary  of  Winchester  ....  1375 


Oriel  College.  King  Edward  XL ;  Adam 
de  Brom,  archdeacon  of  Stow     .         .  1324 

Pembroke.  Thos.Tee8dale,  and  R.Whit- 
wick,  clerk        16i!0 

Queen's  College.  Robert  Eglesfield,  oik., 
confessor  to  queen  Philippa,  consort  of 
Edward  m 1340 

St.  John's.    Sir  Thomas  White .        .    .  1557 

Trinity.    Sir  Thomas  Pope    .         .         .  1554 

University.  Said  to  have  been  founded 
by  king  Alfred,  872 ;  founded  by  Wm. 
of  Durham 1172 

Wadham.  Nicholas  Wadham,  and  Do- 
rothy his  wife    1612 

Worcester.  Sir  Thomas  Coke  of  Bentley 
in  Worcestershire;  it  was  originally 
called  Gloucester  College   .        .        .  1714 

HALLS. 

St  Alban's 1547 

St  Edmund's 1269 

St  Mary's 1616 

St.  Mary  Magdalen                    .         .    .  1602 
New  Inn  Hall 1392 


OXFORD  ASSIZES,  The  Fatal,  when  the  high  sheriflf,  and  300  other  persons, 
died  suddenly,  of  an  infection  caught  from  the  prisoners,  20  Eliz.,  1577. — Slowe. 

OXFORD,  See  of.  This  diocese  constituted  a  part  of  the  diocese  of  Lincoln  until 
1541,  when  king  Henry  VIII.  erected  this  into  a  bishopric,  and  endowed  it  out  of 
the  lands  of  the  dissolved  monasteries  of  Abingdon  and  Osney ;  and  the  same  king 
assigned  the  church  of  the  abbey  of  Osney,  for  a  cathedral  to  this  see ;  but,  five 
years  afterwards,  he  removed  the  seat  of  the  see  to  Oxford.  The  present  cathedral 
of  Oxford  was  anciently  dedicated  to  St.  Frideswide  ;  but,  when  the  see  was  trans- 
lated thither,  it  was  entitled  Christ  Church,  and  part  of  the  lands  appropriated  by 


« 


OXF  t  382  ]  PAI 

cardinal  Wolsey  to  the  maintenance  of  his  college,  was  allotted  to  the  dean  and 
chapter ;  but  during  the  reign  of  qneen  Elizabeth^  this  see  was  almost  stripped  of 
the  ample  endowments  it  received  from  her  father. 

OXFORD,  EDWARD,  his  ASSAULT  on  the  QUEEN.  A  youth  named  Oxford, 
who  had  been  a  servant  in  a  pnblic-house,  discharged  two  pistols  at  Her  Majesty 
qneen  Victoria  and  prince  Albert,  as  they  were  proceeding  np  Constitution-hill  in  an 
open  phaeton  from  Buckingham-palace.  He  stood  within  a  few  yards  of  the  car- 
riage ;  but  fortunately  neither  Her  Majesty  nor  the  prince  were  injured,  June  10, 
1840.  Oxford  was  subsequently  tried  at  the  Old  Bailey  (July  10),  and  being  ad- 
judged to  be  insane,  he  was  sent  for  confinement  to  Bethlehem-hospitaL 

OXYGEN  AIR  or  GAS.  One  of  the  most  important  agents  in  the  chemical  pheno- 
mena of  nature,  and  the  processes  of  art,  discovered  by  Dr.  Priestley,  Aug.  1774. 

OYER  AND  TERMINER.  A  commission  directed  to  the  judges  and  other  gentle- 
men of  the  courts  to  which  it  is  issued,  by  virtue  whereof  they  have  power  to  hear 
and  determine  treasons,  felonies,  flee 

O  YES.  A  corruption  of  the  French  oi/egf  hear  ye  I  The  term  used  by  a  public  crier, 
to  enjoin  silence  and  attention ;  very  ancient,  but  the  date  not  known. 

P. 

PACIFICATION,  Edicts  of.  The  name  usually  given  by  the  French  to  the  edicts 
of  their  kings  in  favour  of  the  Protestants,  with  the  object  of  appeasing  the  commo- 
tions occasioaed  by  their  previous  persecutions. 


Edict  of  Pacification  published  by  Henry 

ni April  1576 

This  ediot  was  revoked  .  Dec.  1575 

And  was  renewed  for  six  years      .    Oct.  1677 
[Several  edicts  were  published  against  the 

Protestants  after  the  six  years  expired.] 
Edictof  Henry  lY.  renewing  that  of  Oct. 

1577 1591 

Edict  of  Nantes,  by  Henry  IV.  extending 

the  toleration  allowed  to  Protestants. 

—See  Edict  cf  Nantes        .  April  1598 

This  last  edict  confirmed  by  Louis  XlII.  1610 

Again,  by  Louis  XIY 1652 

Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  by 

Louis  XIY.  .         .  Oct  1685 


First  edict,  published  by  Charles  IX. 
permitting  the  free  exercise  of  the  re- 
formed religion  near  all  the  cities  and 
towns  in  the  realm  .        Jan.  1562 

Edict ;  the  reformed  religion  permitted 
in  the  houses  of  lords  Justiciaries,  and 
certain  other  persons         .         March  1A63 

These  edicts  revoked,  and  all  Protestant 
minL>tera  ordered  to  depart  the  king- 
dom in  15  days  ....  1568 

Edict,  allowing  lords  and  others  to  have 
service  in  their  houses,  and  granting 
public  service  in  certain  towns  .  1570 

[In  August  1572,  the  same  monarch  authorised 
the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. — See 
Bartholotnew.'} 

PADLOCKS.    This  species  of  lock  was  invented  by  Bechar  at  Nuremberg  in  a.d.  1540. 

PAGANISM.  Pagans,  in  the  Scriptures  called  the  heathen,  idolaters,  and  gentiles, 
are  worshippers  of  idols,  not  agreeing  in  any  set  form  or  points  of  belief,  except  in 
that  of  one  God  supreme,  in  which  point  all  travellers  assure  us  they  concur,  and 
their  having  gods  is  a  demonstrative  proof  of  that  belief.  Constantine  ordered  the 
Pagan  temples  to  be  destroyed  throughout  the  Roman  empire,  a.d.  331 ;  and  Pa- 
ganism was  finally  overthrown  in  the  reign  of  Theodosius  the  Younger,  about  390. 
—  TillemonL 

PAINTING.  An  art,  according  to  Plato,  of  the  highest  antiquity  in  Egypt.  Osy- 
mandyas  (see  Egypt)  ^  causes  his  exploits  to  be  represented  in  painting,  2100  b.c. — 
Usher,  Pausias  of  Sicyon  was  the  inventor  of  the  encaustic,  a  method  of  burning  the 
colours  into  wood  or  ivory,  335  b.c.  The  ancients  considered  Sicyon  the  nursery 
of  painters.  Antiphiles,  an  Egyptian,  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  the  gro. 
tesque,  332  B.c. — Pliny.  The  art  was  introduced  at  Rome  from  Etruria,  by  Quin- 
tus  Fabius,  who  on  that  account  was  styled  Pictor,  291  b.c — Livy*.  The  first 
excellent  pictures  were  brought  from  Corinth  by  Mummius,  146  b.c.    After  the 

*  Parrhaeius  of  Ephesus  and  Zeuxis  were  cotemporary  painters.  These  artists  once  contended  for 
pre-eminence  in  their  profession,  and  when  they  exhibited  their  respective  pieces,  the  birds  came  to 
peck  the  grapes  which  Zeuxis  had  painted.  Parrhasius  then  produced  his  piece,  and  Zeuxis  said, 
••  Remove  the  curtain,  that  we  may  see  the  painting."  The  curtain  itself  was  the  painting,  and 
Zeuxis  acknowledged  himself  to  be  conquered,  exclaiming,  '<  Zeuxis  has  deceived  the  birds;  but 
Parrhasius  has  deceived  Zeuxis !  **  Parrhasius  dressed  in  a  purple  robe,  and  wore  a  crown  of  gold, 
calling  himself  king  of  painters,  415  B.c.^Plutar€h. 


PAL  [  383  2  PAL 

death  of  Augustus,  not  a  single  painter  of  eminence  appeared  for  several  ages  ;  Lu- 
dius,  who  was  very  celebrated,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  last,  about  a.d.  14. 
Painting  on  canvas  seems  to  have  been  known  at  Rome  in  a.d.  66.  Bede,  the 
Saxon  historian,  who  died  in  735,  knew  something  of  the  art.  It  revived  about  the 
close  of  the  13th  century,  and  Giovanni  Cimabue,  of  Florence,  is  awarded  the 
honour  of  its  restoration.  It  was  at  once  encouraged  and  generously  patronised  in 
Italy.  John  Van  Eyck  of  Bruges,  and  his  brother  Hubert,  are  regarded  as  the 
founders  of  the  Flemish  school  of  painting  in  oil,  1415. — Du  Fresnoy.  Paulo  Uc- 
cello  was  the  first  who  studied  perspective.  The  earliest  mention  of  the  art  in  Eng- 
land,  is  a.d.  1523,  about  which  time  Henry  VIII.  patronised  Holbein,  and  invited 
Titian  to  his  court. 

PALATINE.  A  German  dignity.  William  the  Conqueror  made  his  nephew,  Hugh 
D'Abrincis,  count  palatine  of  Chester,  with  the  title  of  earl,  1070.  Edward  III. 
created  the  palatine  of  Lancaster,  1376. — See  Lancaster ,  Duchy  of.  The  bishop, 
rics  of  Ely  and  Durham  were  also  made  county  palatines.  There  is  also  mention 
made  of  the  county  palatine  of  Hexham,  in  33  of  Henry  VIII.  chap.  10,  which 
then  belonged  to  the  archbishop  of  York,  but  by  the  14th  of  Elizabeth,  it  was  dis- 
solved, and  made  part  of  the  county  of  Northumberland.  The  palatinate  juris- 
diction of  Durham  was  separated  from  the  diocese,  and  vested  in  the  crown, 
June  21,  1836. 

PALATINES  AND  SWABIANS.  About  7000  of  these  poor  protestants,  from  the 
banks  of  the  Rhine,  driven  from  their  habitations  by  the  French,  arrived  in  England, 
and  were  encamped  on  Blackheath  and  Camberwell  common :  a  brief  was  granted  to 
collect  alms  for  them.  500  families  went  under  the  protection  of  the  government 
to  Ireland,  and  settled  chiefly  about  Limerick,  where  parliament  granted  them 
24,000/.  for  their  support.  3000  were  sent  to  New  York  and  Hudson's  Bay,  but 
not  having  been  received  kindly  by  the  inhabitants,  they  went  to  Pennsylvania,  and 
being  there  greatly  encouraged  by  the  quakers,  they  invited  over  some  thousands  of 
German  and  Swiss  protestants,  who  soon  made  this  colony  more  flourishing  than 
any  other,  7  Anne,  1709. — Anderson, 

PALACE  COURT.  The  court  of  the  queen's  palace  of  Westminster,  created  by  let- 
ters patent,  16  Charles  II.,  1664.  It  is  held  in  Great  Scotland  Yard,  and  is  a  court 
of  record  for  the  trial  of  all  personal  actions,  whatever  their  amount  may  be,  arising 
within  the  limits  of  twelve  miles  round  the  sovereign's  palace,  with  the  exception  of 
the  city  of  London. 

PALL,  OR  PALLIUM.  In  the  Roman  church  an  ensign  of  dignity  conferred  by  the 
pope  upon  archbishops.  An  archbishop  of  Canterbury  has  paid  5000  florins  for  a 
paU.  By  a  decretal  of  pope  Gregory  XL,  no  archbishop  could  call  a  council,  bless 
the  chrism,  consecrate  churches,  ordain  a  clerk,  or  consecrate  a  bishop,  till  he  had 
received  his  pall  from  the  see  of  Rome.  The  pall  was  first  worn  by  an  Irish  arch- 
bishop in  1151-2,  when  it  was  conferred  at  Kells  by  a  national  synod,  on  March  9, 
by  the  cardinal  priest  Paparo  on  the  four  archbishops  of  Ireland,  Armagh,  Dublin, 
Cashel,  and  Tuam,  when  Gelasius  was  recognised  as  primate  of  all  Ireland. — 
Bishop  Mant. 

PALLADIUM.  The  statue  of  Pallas,  concerning  which  ancient  authors  disagree. 
Some  say  it  fell  from  heaven,  near  the  tent  of  Ilus,  as  he  was  building  Ilium ;  but  on 
its  preservation  depended  the  safety  of  Troy ;  which  the  oracle  of  Apollo  declared 
should  never  be  taken  so  long  as  the  palladium  was  found  within  its  walls.  This 
fatality  being  made  known'to  the  Greeks,  they  contrived  to  steal  it  away  during  the 
Trojan  war,  1184  B.C.,  though  some  maintain,  that  it  was  only  a  statue  of  similar 
size  and  shape,  and  that  the  real  palladium  was  conveyed  from  Troy  to  Italy  by 
^neas,  1183  b.c,  and  preserved  by  the  Romans  with  the  greatest  secrecy  in  the 
temple  of  Vesta,  and  esteemed  the  destiny  of  Rome.  ( 

PALM  SUNDAY.  When  Christ  made  his  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem,  multi- 
tudes of  the  people  who  were  come  to  the  feast  of  the  Passover,  took  branches  of  the 
palm  tree,  and  went  forth  to  meet  him,  with  acclamations  and  hosannas,  a.d.  33. 
In  memory  of  this  circumstance  it  is  usual,  in  popish  countries,  to  carry  palms  on 
the  Sunday  before  Easter  ;  hence  called  Palm  Sunday.  Conquerors  were  not  only 
accustomed  to  carry  palm  trees  in  their  hands  ;  but  the  Romans,  moreover,  in  their 
triumphs,  sometimes  wore  toga  palmata,  in  which  the  figures  of  the  palm  trees  were 
interwoven. 


PAL  C  384  ]  PAP 

PALMYRA,  Ruins  or,  in  the  deserts  of  Syria,  discovered  by  some  English  travellers 
from  Aleppo,  a.d.  1678.  The  rnins  of  Palmyra,  which  are  chiefly  of  white  marble, 
prove  it  to  have  been  more  extensive  and  splendid  than  even  Rome  itself.  It  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  Tadmor  in  the  wilderness  bnilt  by  Solomon.  Zenobia, 
the  qaeen  of  Palmyra,  resisted  the  Roman  power  in  the  time  of  Aurelian,  who  hav- 
ing made  himself  master  of  the  place,  caused  all  the  inhabitants  to  be  destroyed, 
and  gave  the  pillage  of  the  city  to  the  soldiers.  The  stupendous  ruins  of  this  city 
were  visited,  in  1751,  by  Mr.  Wood,  who  published  an  account  of  them  in  1753. 
Mr.  Bruce,  on  ascending  a  neighbouring  mount,  was  struck  with  the  most  magnificent 
sight  which,  he  believes,  ever  mortal  saw:  the  immense  plains  below  were  so  covered 
with  the  grandest  buildings  (palaces  and  temples),  they  seemed  to  touch  one  another. 

PAMPELUNA.  Spain.  This  city  was  taken  by  the  French  on  their  invasion  of 
Spain.  It  was  invested  by  the  British,  between  whom  and  the  French  very  obstinate 
conflicts  took  place,  July  27  and  29,  1813.  Pampeluna  surrendered  to  the  British, 
Oct.  31,  in  that  year. 

PANATHENiEAN  GAMES.     First  celebrated  at  Athens,  1234  B.C.— See  Athenaa, 

PANDECTS.  A  digest  of  the  civil  law  made  by  order  of  Justinian,  about  a.d.  529. 
These  pandects  were  accidentally  discovered  at  Amalfl,  a.d.  1137  ;  they  were  re- 
moved from  Pba  in  1416  ;  and  are  now  preserved  in  the  library  of  Medici  at  Flo- 
rence, as  the  Pandects  Florentina, 

PANORAMA.  This  ingenious  and  useful  species  of  exhibition  is  the  invention  of 
Robert  Barker.  Panoramas  are  bird's-eye  views  painted  in  distemper  round  the 
wall  of  a  circular  building,  with  a  strikiog  resemblance  to  reality.  In  1788,  Mr. 
Barker  exhibited  at  Edinburgh  a  view  of  that  city,  being  the  first  picture  of  the 
kind.  He  then  commenced  similar  exhibitions  in  London,  having  adopted  the  name 
of  '  Panoramat*  to  attract  notice,  and  was  ultimately  enabled  to  build  commodious 
premises  in  Leicester-square  for  that  purpose.     He  died  during  April,  1806. 

PANTHEON  at  ROME.  A  temple  built  by  Augustus  Caesar,  some  say  by  Agrippa, 
his  son-in-law,  25  B.C.  It  was  in  a  round  form,  having  niches  in  the  wall,  where 
the  particular  image  or  representation  of  a  particular  god  was  set  up ;  the  gate» 
were  of  brass,  and  beams  covered  with  gilt  brass,  and  the  roof  covered  with  silver 
plate.  Pope  Boniface  III.  dedicated  it  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  all  the  saints,  by 
the  name  of  St.  Mary  de  la  Rotunda.  The  Pantheon  in  London  was  erected  hy 
subscription,  and  opened  Jan.  25,  1772.  It  was  formed  into  an  Opera-house,  and 
was  burnt  down  Jan.  10,  1792  ;  was  rebuilt  in  1795  ;  and  made  a  bazaar  in  1834. 

PANTOMIMES.  They  were  representations  by  gestures  and  attitudes  among  the  an- 
cients. They  were  introduced  on  the  Roman  stage  by  Pylades  and  Bathyllus,  22 
B.C. ;  and  were  then  considered  as  the  most  expressive  part  of  stage  perform- 
ances.— Usher,     Pantomime  dances  were  introduced  about  the  same  time. — Idem. 

PAPER.  See  Papyrus,  Paper  is  said  to  have  been  invented  in  China,  170  b.c.  It 
was  first  made  of  cotton,  about  a.d.  1000 ;  and  of  rags  in  1319.  White  coarse 
paper  was  made  by  sir  John  Speilman,  a  German,  at  Dartford,  in  England,  33  Eliz. 
1590;  and  here  the  first  paper-mills  were  erected. — Siowe.  Paper  for  writing  and 
printing,  manufactured  in  England,  and  an  act  passed  to  encourage  it,  2  WUliam 
III.,  1690 ;  before  this  time  we  paid  for  these  articles  to  France  and  Holland 
100,000/.  annually.  The  French  refugees  taught  our  people,  who  had  made  coarse 
brown  paper  almost  exclusively,  until  they  came  among  us.  White  paper  was  first 
made  by  us  in  1690. — Anderson.  Paper-making  by  tt  machine  was  first  suggested 
by  Louis  Robert,  who  sold  his  model  to  the  celebrated  M.  Didot,  the  great  printer. 
The  latter  brought  it  to  England,  and  here,  conjointly  with  M.  Fourdrinier,  he  per- 
fected the  machinery.  M.  Fourdrinier  obtained  a  patent  for  manufacturing  paper 
of  an  indefinite  length  in  1807  ;  it  had  previously  been  made  tediously  by  the  hand. 
A  sheet  of  paper  was  made  13,800  feet  long,  and  four  feet  wide,  at  Whitehall-mills, 
Derbyshire,  in  1830. 

PAPER-HANGINGS.  Stamped  paper  for  this  purpose  was  first  made  in  Spain  and 
Holland,  about  a.d.  1555.  Made  of  velvet  and  floss  for  hanging  apartments,  about 
1620.  The  manufacture  of  this  kind  of  paper  rapidly  improved  in  this  country  from 
early  in  the  eighteenth  century ;  and  it  has  now  been  brought  to  such  perfection 
that  rich  stained  paper  is  made  at  twelve  shillings  for  one  yard,  and  the  common 
kinds  a  dozen  yards  for  one  shilling. 


PAP 


[  385  ] 


PA  II 


PAPYRUS,  the  reed  from  which  was  made  the  celebrated  paper  of  Egypt  and  India,, 
used  for  writings  until  the  discovery  of  parchment  about  J 90  B.C.  Ptolemy  prohi- 
bited the  exportation  of  it  from  Egypt,  lest  Eumenes  of  Pei^amus  should  make  a 
library  equal  to  that  of  Alexandria.  A  manuscript  of  the  Antiquities  of  Josephus 
on  papyrus  of  inestimable  value  was  among  the  treasures  seized  by  Buonaparte  in 
Italy,  and  sent  to  the  National  Library  at  Paris ;  but  it  was  restored  in  1815. 

PARCHMENT.  Invented  for  writing  books  by  Eumenes  (some  say  by  Attains),  of 
Pergamus,  the  founder  of  the  celebrated  library  at  Pergamus,  formed  on  the  model 
of  the  Alexandrian,  about  190  B.C.  Parchment-books  from  this  time  became  those 
most  used,  and  the  most  valuable  as  well  as  oldest  in  the  world  are  written  on  the 
skins  of  goats.  It  should  be  mentioned  that  the  Persians,  and  others^  are  said  to 
have  written  a]l  their  records  on  skins  long  before  Eumenes's  time. 

PARDONS.  General  pardons  were  proclaimed  at  coronations.  The  first  was  by  Ed- 
ward III.,  in  1327.  The  king's  power  of  pardoning  is  said  to  be  derived  a  lege  sua 
dignitatis  ;  and  no  other  person  has  power  to  remit  treason  or  felonies,  stat.  27, 
Henry  VIII.,  1535.  In  democracies  there  is  no  power  of  pardoning ;  hence  Black- 
stone  mentions  this  prerogative  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  advantages  of  monarchy 
above  any  other  form  of  government.  But  the  king  cannot  pardon  a  nuisance  to  pre- 
vent its  being  abated.  He  cannot  pardon  where  private  justice  is  concerned. — 
Blackstone.  A  pardon  cannot  follow  an  impeachment  of  the  house  of  commons. 
See  Impeachment. 

PARIAN  MARBLES.  The  chronology  of  the  Parian  Marbles  was  composed  264  b.c. 
The  Parian  Marbles  were  discovered  in  the  Isle  of  Paros,  a.d.  1610.  They  were 
brought  to  England,  and  were  presented  to  the  university  of  Oxford,  by  Thomas 
Howard,  lord  Arundel,  whence  they  are  commonly  called  the  Arundelian  Marbles. 
— See  Arundelian  Marbles. 

PARIS.  At  the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion,  Paris  was  only  a  miserable  township.  It 
began  to  be  called  the  city  of  the  Parisii,  a.d.  380.  Clovis  fixed  upon  it  as  the  c&. 
pital  of  his  states  in  507.  This  city  was  several  times  ravaged  by  the  Normans ; 
and  in  1420  was  taken  by  the  English,  who  held  it  fifteen  years.  More  than  50,000 
persons  died  of  famine  and  plague  in  1438,  when  the  hungry  wolves  entered  the  city 
and  committed,  we  are  told,  great  devastation.  A  mortality  from  heat  occurred  in 
1466.  The  memorable  siege  of  Paris,  1594.  The  events  in  connexion  with  this 
great  city  will  be  found  under  their  respective  heads. — See  France, 


St  Denis  founded     .        .         .        a.d.    613 

Rebuilt 1231 

Church  of  Notre  Dame  built     .        .    .  1270 
The  Louvre  built  (see  Louvre)  .  1522 

Hotel  de  YiUe  1533 

The  Boulevards  commenced  .  1536 

Fountain  of  the  Innocents         .         .    .  1551 
The  Tuileries  built  (see  Tuileries)  .  1564 

The  Pont  Neuf  begun        .        .        .    .  1578 

TRKATIC8 

Treaty  of  Paris,  between  England, 
France,  Spain,  and  Portugal ;  cession 
to  Great  Britain  of  Canada  by  France, 
and  Florida  by  Spain      .         Feb.  10,  1763 

Treaty  of  Paris,  between  France  and 
Sardinia ;  the  latter  ceding  Savoy,  &c. 

May  15,  1796 

Peace  of  Paris,  between  France  and 
Sweden,  whereby  Swedish  Pomeranla 
and  the  island  of  Rugen  were  given  up 
to  the  Swedes,  who  agreed  to  adopt  the 
French  prohibitory  system  against 
Great  Britain  .  Jan.  6,  1810 

Capitulation  of  Paris;  Napoleon  renoun- 
ces the  sovereignty  of  France  April  11,  1814 

Convention  of  Paris,  between  France  and 
the  Allied  Powers ;  the  boundaries  of 
France  to  be  the  same  as  on  the  1st 
Jan.  1792       .         .         .         AprU  23,  1814 


The  Luxembourg,  by  Mary  of  Medicis  .  1594 
Hospital  of  Invalids  ....  1595 
The  HAtel-Dieu  founded  .  .  .  .  1606 
The  Palais-Royal  built  .  1610 

The  Val-de-Grace     t        .  .    .  1645 

Arch  of  St  Denis  erected  .  .  .  1672 
The  Palace  of  the  Deputies  .    .  1722 

The  MiUtary  School  ....  1751 
The  Pantheon ;  St  Genevieve   .         .    .  1764 

or  PARIS. 

Peace  of  Paris  ratified  by  France,  and  all 
the  Allies  .     May  14,  1814 

Convention  of  St.  Cloud,  between  mar- 
shal Davoust  and  Wellington  and  Blu- 
cher  for  the  surrender  of  Paris,  July  3,  1815 
[The  Allies  entered  it  on  the  6tk.] 

Treaty  of  Paris,  betweoi  Great  Britain, 
Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  styling 
Napoleon  the  prisoner  of  those  powers, 
and  cenfiding  his  safeguard  to  England 

Aug.  2,  1815 

Treaty  of  Paris,  establishing  the  bounda- 
ries  of  France,  and  stipulating  for  the 
occupation  of  certain  fortresses  by  fo- 
reign troops  for  three  years      Nov.  20,  1815 

Treaty  of  Paris,  confirming  the  treaties  of 
Chaumontandyienna,samedayNov.20,  1815 

Treaty  of  Paris,  to  fulfil  the  articles  of 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  .        June  10,  1817 
c  c 


PAH 


[386] 


PAR 


PARISHES  IN  ENGLAND.  The  boundaries  of  parishes  were  first  fixed  by  Hono- 
rins,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  a.d.  636.  They  were  enlarged,  and  the  number  of 
parishes  was  consequently  reduced,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  when  they  were  10,000. 
The  parishes  of  England  and  Wales  now  amount  to  11,077.  Parish-registers  were 
commenced  a.d.  1536. 

PARK,  MUN60,  his  Travels.  This  enterprising  traveller  set  siul  on  his  first 
▼oyage  to  Africa,  under  the  patronage  of  the  African  Society,  to  trace  the  source  of 
the  river  Niger,  May  22, 1795  ;  and  returned  Dec.  22,  1797,  after  having  encoun- 
tered great  dangers,  without  his  journey  through  intertropical  regions  having  enabled 
him  to  achieve  the  great  object  of  his  ambition.  He  again  sailed  from  Portsmouth 
on  his  second  voyage,  Jan.  30,  1804,  appointed  to  a  new  expedition  by  government ; 
but  never  returned.  The  accounts  of  his  murder  on  the  Niger  were  a  long  time 
discredited ;  unhappily,  however,  they  were  at  length  too  well  authenticated  by  later 
intelligence.  It  appears  that  Park  and  his  party  were  attacked  by  the  natives  at 
Boussa,  and  all  killed,  with  the  exception  of  one  slave. 

PARKS.  The  Romans  attached  parks  to  their  villas.  Fulvius  Lupinus,  Pompey,  and 
Hortensius,  among  others,  had  large  parks.  In  England,  the  first  great  park  of 
which  particular  mention  is  made,  was  that  of  Woodstock,  formed  by  Henry  I., 
1 125.  The  parks  of  London  are  in  a  high  degree  essential  to  the  health  of  its  im- 
mense population.  St.  James's  Park  was  drained  by  Henry  YIII.,  1537.  It  was 
improved,  planted,  and  made  a  thoroughfare  for  public  use,  1668.  The  Green  Park 
forms  a  part  of  the  ground  inclosed  by  Henry  VIII.  In  Hyde  Park,  the  sheet  of 
water  called  the  Serpentine  River,  althoogh  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram,  was  made 
between  1730  and  1733,  by  order  of  queen  Caroline,  consort  of  George  II.  This 
queen  once  inquired  of  the  first  Mr.  Pitt  (afterwards  earl  of  Chatham),  how  much 
it  would  cost  to  shut  up  the  parks  as  private  grounds.  He  replied,  **  Three  crowns, 
your  majesty.''  She  took  the  hint,  and  the  design  was  never  afterwards  entertained. 
— See  Green  Park  ;  St.  James' »  Park, 

PARLIAMENT,  IMPERIAL,  of  GREAT  BRITAIN.  It  derives  its  origin  from 
the  Saxon  general  assemblies,  called  WUtenagemots  ;  but  their  constitution  totally 
diflfered,  as  well  as  the  title,  which  is  more  modem,  and  is  taken  from  parler  la  ment, 
which  in  the  Norman  law-style  signifies  to  speak  one*s  mind.  This  at  once  denotes 
the  essence  of  British  parliaments.  The  name  was  applied  to  the  general  assemblies 
of  the. state  under  Louis  VII.  of  France,  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century, 
but  it  is  said  not  to  have  appeared  in  our  law  till  its  mention  in  the  statute  of  West- 
minster I.,  3  Edw.  I.,  A.D.  1272  ;  and  yet  Coke  declared  in  his  Institutes,  and 
spoke  to  the  same  effect,  when  speaker  (a.d.  1592),  that  this  name  was  used  even 
in  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  1041.  The  first  summons  by  writ  on  record 
was  directed  to  the  bishop  of  Salisbury,  7  John,  1205.  The  first  clear  account  we 
have  of  the  representatives  of  the  people  forming  a  house  of  commons,  was  in  the 
43rd  Henry  III.,  1258,  when  it  was  settled,  by  the  statutes  at  Oxford,  that  twelve 
persons  should  be  chosen  to  represent  the  commons  in  the  three  parliaments,  which, 
by  the  sixth  statute,  were  to  be  held  yearly. — Burton*s  Annals,  The  general  repre- 
sentation by  knights,  citizens,  and  burgesses,  took  place  49  Henry  III.,  1265. — 
Duffdale*8  Summonses  to  Parliament,  edit,  1685. 


Fintsuinm<m8ofbaron8,byktngJohnA.D.  1205 

Parliament  of  Merton  .         .        .  1236 

The  assembly  of  knights  and  burgesses. 
^Burton 1258 

First  assembly  of  the  commons  as  a  con- 
firmed representation. — Bugdale         ,  1265 

First  r^^ular  parliament,  according  to 
many  historians,  22  Edward  I.         .    .  1294 

The  commons  receive  various  distinctions 
and  privileges 1294 

First  a  deliberative  assembly,  they  be- 
come a  legislative  power,  whose  assent 
is  essential  to  constitute  a  law         .    .  1306 

Parliament  of  but  one  session,  of  only  one 
day,  Richard  II.  deposed    .         .         .  1399 

Lawyers  excluded  from  the  house  of  com- 
mons      '    .    .  1404 


Members  were  obliged  to  reside  at  the 
places  they  represoited      .        .    a.d. 

Freeholders  only  to  elect  knights       .    . 

The  Journals  oonunenced 

Acts  of  parliament  printed  1501,  and  con- 
secutively from 

Members  protected  from  arrest.— See  ar- 
ticle, Ferrars*  Arrest 

Francis  Russell,  son  of  the  earl  of  Bed- 
ford, was  the  first  peer's  eldest  son  who 
sat  in  the  house  of  comimons  .    . 

The  parliament  remarkabl  e  for  the  epocb 
in  which  were  first  formed  the  parties 
of  Court  and  Country  .        June, 

The  Long  Parliament,  which  voted  the 
house  of  lords  as  useless,  first  assem- 
bled        ....         Nov.  3,  1640 


1413 
1429 
1509 

1509 

1542 


1549 


1620 


PAR 


C  387  ] 


PAR 


PARLIAMENT,  IMPERIAL,  or  GREAT 

The  Rump  Parliament,  it  voted  the  trial 
of  Charles  L     .         .        .     Jan.  a.d.  1649 

AoonyeKitionpa]iiameat.-8eeCon«e»fJon  1660 

A  peer  elected,  aad  tat  as  a  member  of 
the  house  of  commons    .        .        .    .  1649 

Catholics  excluded  from  parliament,  90 
Charles  II 1678 

The  commons  committed  a  secretary  of 
state  to  the  Tower     .  .        Nor.  1678 

The  speaker  of  the  oommons  refused  by 
the  lung 1679 

A  convention  parliament.-45ee  Convention  1688 

James  II.  convenes  the  Irish  parliament 
at  Dublin,  which  attaints  9000  Pro- 
testants     1699 

Act  for  triennial  parliaments  .    .  1694 

The  firat  parliament  of  Great  Britain  met 

Oct.  24,  1707 

The  Triennial  Act  repealed,  and  Septen- 
nial Act  voted  .        .        May  1, 

The  JoumalB  ordered  to  be  printed    .    . 

Privilege  as  to  freedom  from  arrest  of  the 
servants  of  members  relinquished  by 
the  oommons    •        .        .        .        . 


1715 
1752 


1770 


BRITAIN— con/i»ti€£r. 

The  loT^  mayor  of  London  (Oliver)  and 
alderman  Crosby  committed  to  the 
Tower  by  the  oommons,  in  Wilkes's 
affair        .         .        .        .        .  a.d.  1770 

Assembly  of  the  first  parliament  of  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland        ....    Feb.  2,  1801 

Committal  of  Sir  Franeis  Burdett  to  the 
Tower     ....       Aprils,  1810 

Murder  of  right  hon.  Speucer  Perceval, 
in  the  lobby  of  the  house  of  commons 

May  11,  1812 

Return  for  Clare  county,  Ireland,  of  Mr. 
O'Connell,  the  first  Catholic  dected 
since  the  Revolution  .        July  5,  1828 

The  duke  of  Norfolk  took  his  seat  in  the 
lords,  the  first  Catholic  peer  under  the 
Catholic  Relief  Bill.— See  Catholici* 

AprU28,  1829 

The  reformed  parliament —See  Reform 
in  Parliament  .        .        Aug.  7>  1832 

Both  houses  of  parliament  destroyed  by 
fire Oct.  16,  1834 


8  pari,  in    8  yrs.  reign. 

BUxabeth 

10  parL  in  45  yrs.  reign. 

15  ditto    .  20 

James  L 

4  ditto 

.  22 

37  ditto    .  50 

Charles  I. 

4  ditto 

.  24 

26  ditto    .  22 

Charles  II.    . 

8  ditto 

•  36 

10  ditto    .  14 

James  n. 

3  ditto 

.    4 

11  ditto    .    9 

William  nL 

6  ditto 

.  13 

22  ditto    .  39 

Anne 

6  ditto 

.  12 

5  ditto    .  22 

George  L 

2  ditto 

.  13 

1  ditto    .    2 

George  II. 

6  ditto 

.  33 

8  ditto    .  24 

George  III.    . 

U  ditto 

.  59 

3  ditto    .  38 

George  IV. 

3  ditto 

.  10 

2  ditto    .    6 

William  IV. 

4  ditto 

.    7 

5  ditto    .    5 

Victoria   . 

1  ditto 

.    4 

MUMBEB  AND  DURATION  OF  PARLIAMKMTS,  FROAI  27    KDWARO  I.  1299,  TO  4  VICTORIA,   1841. 

Edward  I. 
Edward  II. 
Edward  III.      . 
Richard  II. 
Henry  IV. 
Henry  V.    . 
Henry  VI. 
Edward  IV. 
Richard  HL      . 
Henry  VIL 
Henry  VIIL     . 
Edward  VI. 
Mary 

The  power  and  jurisdiction  of  parliament  are  so  transcendent  and  absolute,  that  it 
cannot  be  confined,  either  for  causes  or  persons,  within  any  bounds.  It  hath  sove- 
reign and  uncontrollable  authority  in  making  and  repealing  laws.  It  can  regulate 
or  new-model  the  succession  to  the  crown,  as  was  done  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII. 
and  William  III.  It  can  alter  and  establish  the  religion  of  the  country,  as  was 
done  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.,  Edward  VI. >  Mary,  and  Elizabeth. — Sir 
Edward  Coke*, 

PARMA.  Founded  by  the  ancient  Etrurians.  It  was  made  a  duchy  (with  Placentla) 
A.D.  1545.  It  fell  to  Spain  by  Philip  V.'s  marriiage  with  Elizabeth  Farnese,  1714. 
The  dake  of  Parma  was  raised  to  the  throne  of  Tuscany,  with  the  title  of  king  of 
Etruria,  in  Feb«  1801.  Parma  was  afterwards  united  to  France  (with  Placentia  and 
Guastalla),  and  on  the  fall  of  Napoleon  was  conferred  on  Maria  Louisa,  the  ex-em- 
press, by  the  treaty  of  Fontainebleau,  April  5,  1814.  Battle  of  Parma :  the  confe- 
derates, England,  France,  and  Spain,  against  the  emperor ;  indecisive,  both  armies 
claiming  the  victory,  June  29,  1734.  Great  battle  of  Parma,  in  which  the  French, 
under  Macdonald,  were  defeated  by  Suwarrow,  with  the  loss  of  10,000  men,  and  four 
generals,  July  12,  1799. 

PARRICIDE.  There  was  no  law  against  it  in  ancient  Rome,  such  a  crime  not  being 
supposed  possible.    About  500  years  after  Numa*s  reign,  L.  Ostius  having  killed 


*  When  the  royal  assent  is  given  to  a  public  bill,  the  cIotIc  says,  "  Le  roi  le  veutJ"  If  the  bill  be  a 
private  bill,  he  says,  '*  Soit/ait  comme  il  est  dieiri,**  U  the  bill  have  subsidies  fur  its  object,  he  says, 
*'  Le  roi  remerde  see  lopaux  sujets,  accepte  leur  b^n^olenee,  et  austi  le  veut.**  If  the  king  do  not 
think  proper  to  assent  to  the  bill,  the  derk  says,  *'  Le  roi  s'avisera  ;"  which  is  a  mild  way  of  giving 
a  refusal.  It  is  singular  that  the  king  of  England  should  still  make  use  of  the  French  language  to 
declare  his  intentions  to  his  parliament. 

cc  2 


PAR  Q  388  ]  PAT 

his  fiither,  the  Romans  first  scourged  the  parridde ;  then  sewed  him  up  in  a  leathern 
sack  made  air-tight,  with  a  live  dog,  a  cock,  a  Tiper,  and  an  ape,  and  thus  cast  him 
into  the  sea.  The  old  Egyptians  used  to  run  sharp  reeds  into  e^ery  part  of  the 
hodies  of  parricides ;  and  after  having  thus  wounded  them,  threw  them  upon  a  heap 
of  thorns,  and  set  fire  to  them.  In  France,  before  the  execution  of  the  criminal, 
the  hand  is  cut  off.  Memorable  execution  of  Miss  Blandy,  at  Oxford,  for  the 
murder  of  her  father,  April  1752. 

PARTHIA.  The  Parthians  were  originally  a  tribe  of  Scythians,  who,  being  exiled,  as 
their  name  implies,  from  their  own  country,  settled  near  Hyrcania.  Arsaces  laid 
the  foundation  of  an  empire  which  ultimately  extended  all  oyer  Asia,  250  B.C.  ;  and 
at  one  time  the  Parthians  disputed  the  empire  of  the  world  with  the  Romans,  and 
could  never  be  wholly  subdued  by  that  nation,  who  had  seen  no  other  people  upon 
earth  unconquered  by  their  arms.  The  last  king  was  Artabanus  V.,  who  being 
killed  A.D.  2*29,  his  territories  were  annexed  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Persia,  under 
Artaxerxes. 

PARTITION  TREATIES.  The  first  treaty  between  EngUnd  and  Holland,  for  regu- 
lating the  Spanish  succession,  was  signed  Oct.  11,  1698  ;  and  the  second,  (be- 
tween France,  England,  and  Holland,  declaring  the  archduke  Charles  presumptive 
heir  of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  Joseph  Ferdinand  having  died  in  1699),  March  13, 
1700.  Treaty  for  the  partition  of  Poland  :  the  first  was  a  secret  convention  between 
Russia  and  Prussia,  Feb.  17|  1772  ;  the  second,  between  the  same  powers  and  Aus- 
tria, Aug.  5,  same  year ;  the  third  was  between  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  Nov. 
25,  1795.  There  were  other  similar  treaties  relating  to  Poland,  but  not  under 
this  name. 

PASQUINADES.  This  name,  which  is  given  to  humorous  libels,  originated  in  this 
way  : — At  the  stall  of  a  cobbler  named  Pasquin,  at  Rome,  a  number  of  idle  persons 
used  to  assemble  to  listen  to  the  pleasant  sallies  of  Pasquin,  and  to  relate  little  anec- 
dotes in  their  turn,  and  indulge  themselves  in  raillery  at  the  expense  of  the  passers- 
by.  After  the  cobbler's  death  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  statue  of  a  gladiator  was 
found  near  his  stall,  to  which  the  people  gave  his  name,  and  on  which  the  wits  df 
the  time  afiixed  their  lampoons  upon  the  state,  and  their  satirical  effusions  on  their 
neighbours,  secretly  at  night.  Small  poems,  and  writings  of  a  similar  kind,  from 
this  obtained  the  name  of  Pasquinades,  about  a.d.  1533. 

PASSAU,  Treaty  of.  A  celebrated  treaty  whereby  religious  freedom  was  esta- 
blished, and  which  treaty  was  ratified  between  the  emperor  Charles  V.  and  the  pro- 
testant  princes  of  Germany,  August  12,  1552.  In  1662  the  cathedral  and  greatest 
part  of  the  town  were  consumed  by  fire. 

PASSOVER.  A  solemn  festival  of  the  Jews,  instituted  1491  B.C.,  in  commemoration 
of  their  coming  oat  of  Egypt ;  because,  the  night  before  their  departure,  the  de- 
stroying angel,  who  put  to  death  the  first-born  of  the  Egyptians,  passed  over  the 
houses  of  the  Hebrews  without  entering  them  ;  they  being  marked  with  the  blood 
of  the  lamb  that  was  killed  the  evening  before,  and  which  for  this  reason  is  called 
the  Paschal  Lamb.  It  was  celebrated  in  the  new  Temple,  April  18, 515  b.c. —  Usher, 

FATAY,  Battle  of,  in  which  the  renowned  and  ill-fated  Joan  of  Arc  (the  Maid  of 
Orleans)  signally  defeated  the  English,  June  10,  1429.  Talbot  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  the  valiant  Fastolfe  was  forced  to  fiy.  In  consequence  of  this  victory,  Charles 
of  France  entered  Rheims  in  triumph,  and  was  crowned  July  17,  same  year,  Joan 
of  Arc  assisting  in  the  ceremony  in  full  armour,  and  holding  the  sword  of  state. 
— See  Joan  of  Arc. 

PATENTS.  Licences  and  authorities  granted  by  the  king.  Patents  granted  for  titles 
of  nobility,  were  first  made  a.d.  1344,  by  Edward  III.  They  were  first  granted  for 
the  exclusive  privilege  of  printing  books,  in  1591,  about  which  time  the  property 
and  right  of  inventors  in  arts  and  manufactures  were  secured  by  letters  patent. 

PATRIARCHS.  Socrates  gives  this  title  to  the  chiefs  of  dioceses.  The  dignity 
among  the  Jews  is  referred  to  the  time  of  Nerva,  a.d.  97.  In  the  Christian  church 
it  was  first  conferred  on  the  five  grand  sees  of  Rome,  Constantinople,  Alexandria, 
Antioch,  and  Jerusalem.     The  Latin  church  had  no  patriarchs  till  the  6th  century. 

PATRICK,  ST.,  ORDER  of,  in  Ireland,  instituted  by  George  III.,  Feb.  5,  1783. 
The  first  investiture  of  knights  was  made  March  11,  same  year.     This  order  first 


PAT  Q  389  3  PAY 

consisted  of  the  sovereign  and  fifteen  knights  companions.  It  was  extended  on  the 
occasion  of  the  visit  of  George  IV.  to  Ireland,  to  twenty-one  knights  companions, 
in  August  1821. 


THS  ORIGINAL  KNIOHTS. 

Prince  Edward,  fourth  son  of  the  king. 
William  Robert,  duke  of  Leinster. 
Hrairy,  earl  of  Clanricarde. 
Randal- William,  earl  of  Antrim. 
Thomas,  earl  of  Westmeath 
Murrough,  earl  of  Inchiquin. 
Charles,  earl  of  Drogheda. 


George  de  la  Poer,  earl  of  Tyrone. 
Richard,  earl  of  Shannon. 
James,  earl  of  Glanbraseil. 
Richard  Colley,  earl  of  Momington. 
James,  earl  of  Courtown. 
James,  earl  of  Charlemont. 
Thomas,  earl  of  Bective. 
Henry,  earl  of  Ely. 


PATRICK'S  PURGATORY,  a  small  island  in  the  county  of  Down,  defaced  by  order 
of  government,  thereby  to  prevent  the  scandalous  resort  of  people  under  pretence 
of  making  atonement  for  their  sins,  a.d.  1630. 

PATROLS  AND  SENTINELS,  in  camps;  were  first  introduced  by  Palamedes  of 
Argos,  who  also  was  the  first  to  range  an  army  in  a  regular  line  of  battle, 
about  1224  B.C. 

PAUL  JONES,  Privateer.  An  American  privateer  commanded  by  Paul  Jones, 
memorable  for  his  daring,  and  depredations  on  British  commerce  during  the  war 
with  the  revolted  colonists.  He  landed  and  pillaged  the  house  of  lord  Selkirk,  near 
Kirkcudbright,  and  at  Whitehaven  he  burnt  shipping  in  the  harbour,  April  1778. 
The  Dutch  permitted  Paul  Jones  to  enter  their  ports  with  two  of  the  king's  ships  of 
war  which  he  had  taken,  and  which  the  Stadtholder  peremptorily  refused  to  de- 
liver up,  1779. 

PAUL'S,  ST.,  CATHEDRAL,  London.  The  noblest  protestant  church  in  the  worid. 
The  best  authority  that  exists  illustrative  of  the  origin  of  this  church,  is  its  great 
restorer,  sir  Christopher  Wren.  His  opinion,  that  there  had  been  a  church  on  this 
spot^  built  by  the  Christians  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  was  confirmed  when  he 
searched  for  the  foundations  for  his  own  design.  He  explodes  the  notion  of  there 
having  been  a  temple  of  Diana.  The  first  church  is  supposed  to  have  been  destroyed 
during  the  Dioclesian  persecution,  and  to  have  been  rebuilt  in  the  reign  of  Constan- 
tine.  This  was  demolished  by  the  pagan  Saxons,  and  restored  by  Sebert  in  603.  It 
was  destroyed  by  the  great  conflagration  in  1086,  after  which  Mauritius,  then  bishop 
of  London,  commenced  the  magnificent  edifice  which  immediately  preceded  the  pre- 
sent cathedral*.  St.  Paul's  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  memorable  fire  of  1666  ; 
and  the  first  stone  of  the  present  edifice  was  laid  June  21,  1675,  and  the  whole  was 
completed  in  1710-11,  under  the  illustrious  architect,  sir  Christopher  Wren. 

Length  of  St.  Paul's,  within  fiOO  feet. 

Its  greatest  breadth     .         .         .       223 
Height  from  the  ground  .  340 

PAUL'S,  ST.,  CROSS.  The  famous  Paul's  Cross,  which  stood  before  the  cathedral, 
was  a  pulpit  formed  of  wood,  mounted  upon  steps  of  stone,  and  covered  with  lead, 
from  which  the  most  eminent  divines  were  appointed  to  preach  every  Sunday  in  the 
forenoon.  To  this  place,  the  court,  the  mayor,  the  aldermen,  and  principal  citizens, 
used  to  resort.  It  was  in  use  as  early  as  1259,  and  was  appropriated  not  only  to 
instruct  mankind  by  preaching,  but  to  every  purpose  political  or  ecclesiastical : — 
for  giving  force  to  oaths,  for  promulgating  laws,  &c.  Jane  Shore,  mistress  of  Ed- 
ward IV.,  was  brought  before  this  cross  in  1483,  divested  of  all  her  splendour.  It 
was  demolished  in  1643  by  order  of  the  parliament. 

PAVEMENT.  The  Carthaginians  are  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  paved  their 
towns  with  stones.  The  Romans  in  the  time  of  Augustus  had  pavement  in  many 
of  their  streets ;  but  the  Appian  Way  was  a  paved  road,  and  was  constructed  312  b.c. 

*  The  ancient  cathedral  will  ever  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  great  works  of  architecture  of  the  mid- 
die  ages.  Pennant  says  it  was  a  most  beautiful  Gothic.  Its  dimensions  far  exceeded  other  religious 
edifices  in  this  eountry ;  and  it  is  represented  by  historians  as  equally  pre-eminent  in  magnificence 
and  splendour  of  ornament  In  the  reign  of  James  I.,  this  cathedral  having  fallen  into  decay,  a  royal- 
commission  was  issued  for  its  repair:  but  nothing  of  consequence  was  done  till  the  advancement  of 
Laud  to  the  see  of  London,  in  the  succeeding  reign.  Inigo  Jones  was  appointed  to  superintend  the 
undertaking.  He  commenced  his  operations  in  1633,  and  the  work  went  rapidly  on  till  the  breaking 
out  of  the  civil  war,  which  threw  all  things  into  confusion.  The  repairs  were  re-commenoed  at  the 
Bestoration ;  but  the  great  fire  destroyed  the  whole  edifice  in  IGQS.'^Leigh, 


Length  of  St.  Peter's,  Rome         .       669  feet. 
Its  greatest  breadth  within      .  442 

Height  from  the  ground      .         .       432 


PAV  Q  3yO  ]  PEL 

PA  VIA,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  and  ImperialiBts,  when  the  former  were  de- 
featedy  and  their  king,  Francis  I.,  after  fighting  with  heroic  Talonr,  and  killing  seven 
men  with  his  own  hand,  was  at  last  obliged  to  surrender  himself  prisoner.  Francis 
wrote  to  his  mother,  Loaisa  of  Savoy,  regent  of  the  kingdom  in  his  absence,  the  me- 
lancholy news  of  his  captivity,  conceived  in  these  dignified  and  expressive  terms  :—> 
Tout  est  per du^  madame^for%,Vhtmneur,    Feb.  24, 1525. 

PAWNBROKERS.  The  origin  of  borrowing  money  by  means  of  pledges  deposited 
with  lenders  is  referred,  as  a  regular  trade,  to  Perousa,  in  Italy,  about  a.d.  1458 ; 
and  soon  afterwards  in  England.  The  business  of  pawnbrokers  was  regulated  30 
George  II.,  1756.  Licences  were  issued  24  George  III.,  1783.  In  London  there 
are  334  pawnbrokers  ;  and  in  England,  exclusively  of  London,  1 127. 

PEACE,  BETWEEN  Great  Britain  and  Foreign  Powers;    see  article  War, 

PEARLS.  The  formation  of  the  pearl  has  embarrassed  both  ancient  and  modern 
naturalists  to  explain,  and  has  given  occasion  to  a  number  of  vain  and  absurd 
hypotheses.  M.  Reaumur,  in  1717,  alleged  that  pearls  are  formed  like  other  stones 
in  animals.  An  ancient  pearl  was  valued  by  Pliny  at  80,000/.  sterling.  One  which 
was  brought,  in  1574,  to  Philip  II.  of  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg^  was  valued  at 
14,400  ducats,  equal  to  13,996/.  A  pearl  spoken  of  by  Boetius,  named  the  Income 
parable t  weighed  thirty  carats,  equal  to  five  pennyweights,  and  was  about  the  size  of 
a  muscadine  pear.  The  pearl  mentioned  by  Tavernier  as  being  in  possession  of  the 
emperor  of  Persia  was  purchased  of  an  Arab  in  1633,  and  is  valued  at  a  sum 
equal  to  110,400/. 

PEDESTRIANISM .  Euchidai,  a  citizen  of  Plateea,  went  from  thence  to  Delphos,  to 
bring  the  sacred  fire.  This  he  obtained,  and  returned  with  it  the  same  day  before 
sunset,  having  travelled  125  English  miles.  No  sooner  had  he  saluted  his  fellow- 
citizens,  and  delivered  the  fire,  than  he  fell  dead  at  their  feet.  After  the  battle  of 
Marathon,  a  soldier  was  sent  from  the  field  to  announce  the  victory  at  Athens. 
Exhausted  with  fatigue,  and  bleeding  from  his  wounds,  he  had  only  time  to  cry 
out,  ''  Rejoice,  we  are  conquerors !.''  and  immediately  expired.  Foster  Powell,  the 
celebrated  English  pedestrian,  performed  many  astonishing  journeys  on  foot.  Among 
these,  was  his  expedition  from  London  to  York  and  back  again  in  1788,  which  he 
completed  in  140  hours.  The  most  astonishing  feat  of  pedestrianism  performed  in 
England  was  that  of  captain  Barclay  in  1809.— -See  Barclay, 

PEEP-O'-DAY  BOYS,  insurgents  in  Ireland  who  obtained  this  name  from  their 
morning  visits  to  the  houses  of  their  antagonists  at  break  of  day,  in  search  of  arms, 
first  appeared  July  4,  1 784. — Sir  R,  Musgrave.     See  article  Defenders. 

PEERS.  The  first  of  the  present  order  created  in  England  was  William  Fitz  Osborn, 
as  earl  of  Hereford,  by  William  the  Conqueror,  in  1066.  The  first  peer  who  was 
created  by  patent  was  lord  Beauchamp  of  Holt  Castle,  by  Richard  II.,  in  1387.  In 
Scotland,  Gilchrist  was  created  earl  of  Angus  by  Malcolm  III.,  1037.  In  Ireland, 
sir  John  de  Courcy  was  created  baron  of  Kinsale,  &c.,  in  1181  ;  the  first  peer  after 
the  obtaining  of  that  kingdom  by  Henry  11.    The  house  of  lords  consisted  of,  viz : — 

At  the  death  of  Charles  II.  .         176  peers.     At  the  death  of  George  III.  .   339peersw 

At  the  death  of  WiUiam  m.         .    192 

At  the  death  of  Anne       .  .         209 
At  the  death  of  George  I.     .         .     216 

At  the  death  of  George  II.  .        229 

PELAGIANS.  A  sect  founded  by  Pelagius,  a  native  of  Britain.  The  sect  maintained, 
1.  That  Adam  was  by  nature  mortal,  and  whether  he  had  sinned  or  not,  would  cer- 
tainly have  died.  2.  That  the  consequences  of  Adam's  sin  were  confined  to  his  own 
person.  3.  That  new-bom  infants  are  in  the  same  condition  with  Adam  before  the 
fall.  4.  That  the  law  qualified  men  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  and  was  founded 
upon  equal  promises  with  the  gospel.  5.  That  the  general  resurrection  of  the  dead 
does  not  follow  in  virtue  of  our  Saviour's  resurrection,  &c.  This  sect  appeared  a.d. 
400  at  Rome,  and  in  Carthage  about  412. 

PELEW  ISLANDS.  Discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  seventeenth  century.  The 
wreck  here  of  the  East  India  Company's  packet  Antelope,  captain  Wilson,  1783. 
The  king,  Abba  ThuUe,  allowed  captain  Wilson  to  bring  prince  Lee  Boo,  his  sod» 
to  England,  where  he  arrived  in  1784,  and  died  soon  after  of  the  smallpox  ;  and  the 
East  India  Company  erected  a  monument  over  his  grave  in  Rotherhithe  churchyard. 


At  the  death  of  George  IV.       .        396 
At  the  death  of  William  lY.  .    456 

In  4th  Yiotoria,  1841        .         .        4fi9 


PEL 


[391] 


PEN 


P£LOPONNESIAN  WAR.  The  celebrated  war  which  continued  for  twenty-seven 
years  between  the  Athenians  and  the  inhabitants  of  Peloponnesus,  with  their  respec- 
tive allies.  It  is  the  most  famous  and  the  most  interesting  of  all  the  wars  which 
happened  between  the  inhabitants  of  Greece.    It  began  431  B.C.,  and  ended  404  B.C. 

PENAL  LAWS,  affectino  ROMAN  CATHOLICS.  The  laws  enacted  against 
Roman  Catholics  in  these  realms  were  very  severe ;  and  even  up  to  the  period  of 
passing  the  Emancipation  Bill  many  of  them  remained  unrepealed.  The  following 
account  of  these  laws  is,  perhaps,  as  interesting  a  record  as  this  volume  presents.  It 
comprises  the  chief  statutes  set  forth  in  Scully* a  Hwtory  of  the  Penal  Laws,  edi- 
tion 1812.  All  the  laws  against  Roman  Catholics  were  repealed  by  the  Relief  Bill, 
passed  April  13,  1829. 


PRIBBT8  CCUBBRATINO  KA1I1UAOB& 

If  any  popish  priest  shall  celebrate  matrimony 
between  any  two  persons,  knowing  that  both 
or  either  is  of  the  Protestant  religion  (unless 
previously  married  by  a  Protestant  clergy- 
man), he  shall  suffer  the  punishment  of  a 
Popish  regular,  [that  is,  transportation  ; 
and  if  he  return,  the  punishment  of  high 
treason.]  First  statute,  6  Anne,  1708.  Se- 
cond statute,  8  Anne,  1710. 

EXCLUSION  PIIOM  PARUAMBNT. 

No  peer  of  the  realm  shall  sit  in  the  house  of 
peers,  nor  person  chosen  as  a  member  of  the 
house  of  commons  shall  sit  as  such,  unlesshe 
first  take  the  oath  of  allegianoe  and  supre- 
macy,and  subscribe  to  the  declaration  against 
transubstantiation,  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass, 

'    Idolatry  of  the  church  of  Rome,  invocation 

"  of  the  Virgin  Mary  or  of  the  saints. 

Penalty :  all  the  punishments  of  a  popish  re- 
cusant convict.  3  'William  and  Mary,  1691. 

ELBCTIVa  FRAMCHTSB. 

No  Catholic  shall  vote  at  the  election  of  any 
member  to  senre  in  parliament,  as  a  knight, 
citizen,  or  burgess,  14  George  I.  1787*  Ck}n- 
ditionally  reinstated,  1793. 

CORFORATB  OFnCXS. 

No  Catholic  shall  be  mayor,  sovereign,  port- 
reef,  burgomaster,  bailiff,  alderman,  re- 
corder, treasurer,  sheriff,  town-clerk,  com- 
mon-councilman, master  or  warden  of  any 
guild,  corporation,  or  fraternity  in  any  city, 
walled  town,  or  corporation  in  Ir^and..— 
First  statute,  17  and  18  Charles  n.  1667. 
Irish  statute,  21  and  22  George  III.  confirm- 
ing the  English  Test  and  Corporation  Acts. 

TRB  ARMY  AND  NAVY. 

Persons  holding  offices,  civil  or  military,  and 
receiving  pay,  salary,  fee,  or  wages,  to  take 
the  oaths  of  supremacy  and  abjuration,  and 
to  subscribe  to  the  declaration  against  tran- 
substantiation, the  mass,  Ac.  English  stat. 
25  Charles  II.  1675.  A  severer  enactment, 
as  regards  penalties  in  Ireland,  9  Anne,  1710. 

All  military  offices,  except  master-general  of 
the  ordnance,  commander-in-chief,  and 
generals,  opened  to  Catholics,  1793. 

BXCLUDBD  PARISH  YBSTRnS,  dcC. 

By  act  for  preventing  Papists  having  it  in 
their  power  to  obstruct  the  building  or 
repairing  of  churches,  by  out-voting  the 
Protestant  parishioners,  12  George  L  1745. 

ARMS  FORBmDBN. 

By  act  for  disarming  the  Papists,  requiring 
them  to  deliver  up  to  the  justices  or  civil 


officers  all  their  armour,  arms,  and  ammu- 
nition, &c.,  and  authorising  search,  &o.  by 
day  or  night.  Makers  of  fire-arms  forbidden 
Catholic  apprentices,  7  William  HL  1695. 
No  Catholic  to  be  employed  as  fowler  for 
any  Protestant,  10  William  III.  1698. 

Penalty :  fine  and  one  year's  imprisonment  for 
first  offence.  For  the  second,  all  the  paloa 
and  penalties  of  persons  attainted  of  a 
pramunire. 

These  acts  were  confirmed,  13  George  II.  1739. 
thej  were  qualified,  33  George  IIL  1793. 

TRIAL  BY   JURY,   &C. 

Catholics  not  to  serve  as  grand  jurors,  imless 
a  sufficient  number  of  Protestants  cannot  be 
found,  6  and  8  Anne. 

Issues  to  detomine  questions  arising  upon 
popery  laws,  to  be  tried  by  known  Protest- 
ants only,  6  and  8  Anne,  1708-10. 

No  Catholic  to  serve  on  juries  in  actions  be- 
tween a  Protestant  and  Catholic.  29  George 
IL1755. 

mbdtg;4l  profbssions. 
Catholics  (in  England)  prohibited  from  prac- 
tising physic,  or  exercising  the  trade  of 
apothecaries,  5  James  I.  1606. 

PROPBRTY. 

The  Catholics  disabled  from  taktaig  leases  for 
a  longer  term  than  31  years,  or  at  rents  less 
than  two-thirds  of  the  improved  yearly  va- 
lue, 2,  8  Anne,  1703-9. 

Be  cannot  dispose  of  his  estate  by  will,  or 
lend  money  upon  the  security  of  land,  2 
Anne,  1703. 

Allowed  to  take  leases  for  a  term  of  999  years, 
18  George  in.  1778.  Permitted  to  take  or 
to  transfer  lands  by  devise,  descent,  pur- 
chase, or  otherwise,  the  same  as  Protestants, 
21  and  22  George  m.  1781. 

fossbssion  qp  a  hobsb. 
Catholics  prohibited  from  the  keeping  any 

horse  of  a  value  exceeding  M.,  statute  7  Wm. 

m.  1694. 

childrbn  op  catholics. 
A  child  conforming  to  the  established  rdiglon, 

may  force  his  parent  to  surrender  his  estate, 

under  a  fair  allowance,  2  George  L  171& 
The  eldest  son  may  reduce  his  fee-simple  estate 

to  a  life  estate,  1  George  IL  1727.    A  younger 

brother  may  deprive  the  elder  (tf  the  legal 

right  of  primogeniture.— /<fom. 

education. 
Catholics  prohibited  from  keeping  schools,  or 
procuring  the  education  of  his  child  at 
horns,  2  George  I.  171&    Prohibited  from 


PEN 


C  392] 


PKN 


PENAL  LAWS  affecting  ROMAN  CATHOLICS— oon/inu«d. 


[No  exoeption  then  niAde  in  faTOur  of  Catholic 
officers  or  soldiers.] 

BBlTKnCBS. 

If  a  Catholic  become  possessed  of  any  right  of 
presraitation  to  a  benefice,  the  same  shall  be 
ipso  facto,  vested  in  the  crown,  if  he  do  not 
aljjure  his  religion,  2  Anne,  1704. 

DONATIONS  AND  BSQUB8TS. 

Statates  (in  England)  interdicting  donationa 
and  bequests  for  superstitions  uses ;  such  as 
tawards  the  maintmanoe  of  a  priest  or 
chaplain  to  say  mass,  to  pray  for  the  soula 
of  the  dead,  or  to  maintain  perpetual  obits, 
lamps,  dec.  to  be  used  at  prayers  for  dead 
persons.  Such  to  be  vested  in  the  king,  and 
applied  to  Protestant  Institutions,  1  Edward 
VL  1546. 

THB  PAPAL  SEK. 

The  obtaining  from  the  bishop  of  Rome  any 
manner  of  bull,  writing,  or  instrument* 
written  or  printed,  oontaining  any  thing  or 
matter ;  or  publishing  or  putting  in  use  any 
such  instrument  ;  the  procurers,  abettors* 
and  counsellors  to  the  fact  shall  be  adjudged 
guilty  of  high-treason,  13  Elizabeth,  1570. 

MENDICANT  POOR. 

Any  child  who  (with  the  consent  of  its  parents) 
shall  be  found  begging,  the  parson  and 
wardens  of  the  parish  shall  detain,  and  they 
shall  bind  such  child  to  a  Protestant  master 
until  the  age  of  SI,  or  to  a  Protestant  trades- 
man until  the  age  of  24  years,  2  George 
1. 1716. 

OONCBSSrONS. 

Catholics  qualified  to  be  barristers,  solicitors, 
attorneys,  &c.  And  the  withdrawing  of 
certain  prohibitions  theretofore  existing* 
with  respect  to  marriages  with  Protestants ; 
apprentices  to  the  law,  schoolmasters,  dec 
22  George  m.  1792. 

PENANCE.  Called  by  the  Jews  Thejouvtha.  Penance,  they  said^  consisted  in  the  love 
of  God  attended  with  good  works.  They  made  a  confession  upon  the  day  of  expia- 
tion, or  some  time  before  ;  and  had  stated  degrees  of  penance,  in  proportion  to  the 
crimes  committed.  Penance  was  introduced  into  the  Romish  church  a.d.  157.  In 
our  canon  law,  penance  is  chiefly  adjudged  to  the  sin  of  fornication. 

PENDULUMS  FOR  Clocks.  Affirmed  to  have  been  adapted  by  Galileo  the  younger, 
about  A.D.  1641.  Christian  Huygens  contested  the  priority  of  this  discovery  :  the 
latter  brought  clocks  with  pendulums  to  perfection,  1656. — Dufresnoy. 

PENITENTS.  There  are  various  orders  of  penitents,  as  Magdalens,  Magdalenetts,  &c. 
The  order  of  Penitence  of  St.  Magdalen  was  founded  at  Marseilles,  about  a.d.  1272. 
The  Penitents  o'f  the  Name  of  Jesus  was  a  congregation  of  religious  in  Spain  who  had 
led  a  licentious  life,  formed  about  1550.  The  Penitents  of  Orvieto  were  formed  into 
an  order  of  nuns  about  1662. 

PENNSYLVANIA.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was  the  first  adventurer  who  planted  a  colony 
on  these  shores,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  Pennsylvania  was  granted  by  Charles  11. 
to  the  duke  of  York,  1664 ;  and  it  was  sold  to  the  Penn  family  1680-1,  et  seq.  Mr. 
Penn  granted  a  charter  in  May  1701,  but  the  emigrants  from  the  Low  Countries 
refused  it,  and  separated  themselves  from  the  province  of  Pennsylvania.  They 
afterwards  had  their  own  assembly,  in  which  the  governor  of  Pennsylvania  presided. 
This  state  adopted  an  independent  constitution  in  1776,  and  established  the 
present  in  1790. 

PENNY.  The  ancient  silver  penny  was  the  first  silver  coin  struck  in  England,  and 
the  only  one  current  among  the  Anglo-Saxons.     The  penny,  until  the  reign  of 


sending  him  beyond  seas  for  education,  6 
George  L  1719. 
Catholics  permitted  to  keep  schools  and  teach, 
38  George  H.  17S8.    Admissible  to  Trinity 
CoUege,  1793. 

OCARDIAN8. 

No  Catholics  to  be  guardians^  or  to  have  the 
custody  or  tuition  of  any  orphan  or  child 
under  the  age  of  21  years,  9  Anne  1703» 
Permitted  to  be  guardians,  1782. 

A  Catholic  may  dispose  of  the  custody  of  his 
child  or  children,  by  will,  during  minority, 
to  any  person  other  than  a  Cat^^olic  eccle- 
siastic, 30  George  UL  1790. 

CATHOUC  HOX.IOAY8. 

Punishment  for  n(»t  working  upon  Catholio 
holidays ;  each  offence,  2«.  fine  on  labourers ; 
or  in  default,  the  punishment  of  whipping, 
7  William  m.  1694. 

BUl^YINO  THB  DBAD. 

Punishment  for  burying  the  dead  except  in 
Protestant  churchyards,  or  being  present  at 
the  burying  any  dead  other  than  therein,  9 
William  IIL  1697. 

PILORIMAOaS,  Aeo. 

Who  shall  attend  or  be  present  at  any  pil- 
grimage or  meeting  held  at  any  holy  well, 
or  reputed  holy  well :  fine,  10s.  or  in  de- 
fault, whipping,  2  Anne,  1703. 

CROSSXS,   riCTURBS,  &c. 

Magistrates  to  demolish  all  crosses,  pictures, 
and  inscriptions  publidy  set  up  to  promote 
the  piety  ef  Catholics,  2  Anne,  1703. 

DIVINB  WOBSHIP. 

All  officers  and  soldiers  shall  diligently  fre- 
quent divine  service  and  sermon,  in  the 
places  appointed  for  the  assemblage  of  the 
regiment,  troop,  or  company,  to  which  he 
may  he^Long.— Articles  of  War. 


PEN  £  393  2  PER 

£dward  I.  was  struck  with  a  cross,  so  deeply  indented  that  it  might  be  easily  parted 
into  two  for  halfpence,  and  into  four  for  farthings,  and  hence  these  names.  Penny 
and  twopenny  pieces  of  copper  were  coined  by  Boulton  and  Watt  at  Soho,  Bir- 
mingham, in  1797. — See  Coins,  ^c, 

PENNY-POST.  First  set  up  in  London  and  its  suburbs  by  a  Mr.  Murray,  uphol- 
sterer, A.D.  1681.  Mr.  Murray  afterwards  assigned  his  interest  in  the  undertaking 
to  Mr.  Dockwra,  a  merchant,  1683;  but  on  a  trial  at  the  King's  Bench  bar  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.,  it  was  adjudged  to  belong  to  the  duke  of  York  as  a  branch  of 
the  general  post,  and  was  thereupon  annexed  to  the  revenue  of  the  crown. — Delaune, 
1690.  This  institution  was  considerably  improved  in  and  round  London,  July  1794, 
'  et  seq.,  and  was  made  a  twopenny-post.  A  penny-post  was  first  set  up  in  Dublin  in 
1774.— See  Post-office, 

PENTECOST.  It  literally  signifies  the  ordinal  number  called  the  fiftieth ;  and  in  the 
solemn  festival  of  the  Jews,  so  called  because  it  was  celebrated  fifty  days  after  the 
feast  of  the  Passover,  Lev,  xxiii.  15.  It  is  called  the  feast  of  weeks,  Exod.  zzziv. 
22,  because  it  was  kept  seven  weeks  after  the  Passover. 

PERCEVAL  ADMINISTRATION.  The  administration  of  Mr.  Perceval  com- 
menced in  October  1809,  on  the  dissolution  of  that  of  the  duke  of  Portland.  He 
owed  his  post  of  prime  minister  in  a  large  degree  to  his  previous  connexion  with  the 
affairs  of  the  princess  of  Wales. — See  Delicate  Investigation,  This  ministry  ter- 
minated with  the  death  of  Mr.  Perceval,  who  was  assassinated  in  the  lobby  of  the 
house  of  commons,  May  11, 1812. 

PERFUMERY.  Many  of  the  wares  coming  under  this  name  were  known  to  the 
ancients,  and  the  Scriptures  abound  with  instances  of  the  use  of  incenses  and 
perfumes.  No  such  trade  as  a  perfumer  was  known  in  Scotland  in  1763. — Creech, 
A  stamp-tax  was  laid  on  various  articles  of  perfumery  in  England,  and  the  vendor 
was  obliged  to  take  out  a  licence,  in  1786.  At  the  comer  of  Beaufort  Buildings,  in 
the  Strand,  resided  Lilly  the  perfumer,  mentioned  in  the  Spectator, — Leigh. 

PERIPATETIC  PHILOSOPHY.  The  philosophy  taught  by  Aristotle,  about  342 
B.C.  Like  Plato,  who  taught  in  a  shady  grove  called  Academia,  Aristotle  chose  a 
spot  of  a  similar  character  at  Athens,  adjacent  to  the  same  river,  where  there  were 
trees  and  shades  :  this  spot  was  denominated  the  Lyceum ;  and  as  he  usually  walked 
while  he  instructed  his  pupils,  his  philosophy  was  called  Peripatetic. 

PERJURY.  In  some  countries  this  crime  was  punished  with  death.  The  early 
Romans  at  first  punished  it  by  throwing  the  offender  headlong  from  the  Tarpeian 
precipice ;  but  that  penalty  was  afterwards  altered,  upon  a  supposition  that  the 
gods  would  vindicate  their  own  honour  by  some  remarkable  judgment  upon  the 
offender.  The  Greeks  set  a  mark  of  infamy  upon  them.  After  the  empire  became 
Christian,  and  any  one  swore  falsely  upon  the  gospels,  he  was  to  have  bis  tongue  cut 
out.  The  canons  of  the  primitive  church  enjoined  eleven  years'  penance ;  and  in 
some  states  the  false-swearer  became  liable  to  the  punishment  he  charged  upon  the 
innocent.     In  England,  perjury  was  punished  with  the  pillory,  1563. 

PERONNE,  Treaty  of.  Louis  XI.  of  France  having  placed  himself  in  the  power  of 
the  duke  of  Burgundy,  was  forced  to  sign  a  treaty  at  Peronne,  confirming  those  of 
Arras  and  Conflans,  with  some  other  stipulations  of  a  restrictive  and  humiliating 
character,  a.d.  1 468. 

PERSECUTIONS,  General,  of  the  Christians.  Historians  usually  reckon  ten. 
The  first  under  Nero,  who  having  set  fire  to  Rome,  threw  the  odium  of  the  act  upon 
the  Christians.  Multitudes  of  them  were,  in  consequence,  massacred.  Some  were 
wrapped  up  in  the  skins  of  wild  beasts,  and  torn  and  devoured  by  dogs  ;  others  were 
crucified,  and  numbers  burned  alive,  a.d.  64.  The  2nd,  under  Domitian,  a.d.  95. 
The  3rd,  in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  a.d.  100.  The  4th,  under  Adrian,  118.  The  5th, 
under  the  emperor  Severus,  197.  The  6th,  under  Maximinus,  235.  The  7th,  under 
Decius,  more  bloody  than  any  preceding.  They  were  in  all  places  driven  from  their 
habitations,  plundered,  and  put  to  death  by  torments,  the  rack,  and  fire.  The  8th, 
under  Valerian,  257.  The  9th,  under  Aurelian,  272.  The  10th,  under  Dioclesian. 
In  this  persecution,  which  lasted  ten  years,  houses  filled  with  Christians  were  set  on 
fire,  and  droves  of  them  were  bound  together  with  ropes  and  cast  into  the  sea,  302, 
See  Massacres. 


PER 


[394] 


PER 


PERSECUTIONS  of  thb  JEWS.    See  articles  Jews  and  Masaaeres. 

PERSECUTION  or  thb  PROTESTANTS.  In  Franconia^  where  a  multitude  of 
Luther's  followers  were  massacred  by  William  de  Furstemberg,  1525. — Du  Fresnoy. 
In  England,  when  Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  Latimer  and  Ridley^ 
prelates,  and  300  Protestants,  were  burned  alive,  and  great  numbers  perished  in 
prison,  3  Mary,  1556. —  Warner* 9  Eeclet,  HisL  Of  the  Protestants  in  France, 
when  numbers  perished ;  their  assemblies  were  prohibited,  their  places  of 
worship  pulled  down,  and  sentence  to  the  gaUeys  proclaimed  against  all  who  har- 
boured them,  1723.  Executions  of  the  Protestants  at  Thorn,  when  great  numbers 
were  put  to  death  under  pretence  of  th^  having  been  concerned  in  a  tumult  occa- 
sioned by  a  procession,  1724. — See  Massaoret  and  Bartholomew. 
PERSIAN  EMPIRE.  The  country  which  gave  name  to  this  celebrated  empire  was 
originally  called  Elam,  and  received  the  appellation  of  Persia  from  Perseus,  the  son 
of  Perseus  and  Andromeda,  who  settled  here,  and  perhaps  established  a  petty  sove- 
reignty. But  long  before  his  time,  it  was  subject  to  independent  princes.  Persia 
was  at  length  included  in  the  first  Assyrian  monarchy  ;  and  when  that  empire  was 
dismembered  by  Arbaces,  &c.  it  appertained  to  the  kingdom  of  Media.  Persia  was 
partly  conquered  from  the  Greeks,  and  was  tributary  to  the  Parthians  for  nearly  500 
years,  when  Artaxerzes,  a  common  soldier,  became  the  founder  of  the  second  Persian 
monarchy,  a.d.  229. 

Zoroaster,  king  of  Bactria,  founder  of 

the  Magt.'-^utiin      ■        .        .    b.c.  9115        ridates.  the  eunuch    .  .    b.c.    465 
Zoroaster  IL,  Persian  philosopher,  gene- 
rally confounded  with  the  king  of  Bac- 
tria,.—Zanlhut  1062 


41  *  *  jf  *  * 

Cyrus,  king  of  Persia  ....  560 
Lydia  conquered  by  the  Persians  .  .  548 
Cyrus  becomes  master  of  all  Asia  .  .  536 
Cambyses  conquers  Egypt  (which  He}  .  525 
Darius  made  king  of  Persia  .  .522 

Revolt  of  the  Babylonians         .        .    .    512 
Conquest  of  Ionia ;  Miletus  destroyed     .    496 
Darius  equips  a  fleet  of  600  sail,  with  an 
army  of  300,000  soldiers,  to  invade  the 

Peloponnesus 490 

The  troops  advance  towards  Athens,  but 
are  met  in  the  plains  of  Marathon,  by 
Miltiades,  at  the  head  of  10,000  Athe- 
nians.— See  Marathon        .                 .    490 
Xerxes  enters  Greece,  in  the  spring  of 
this  year,  at  the  head  of  an  immense 
force.   The  battle  of  Thermopylae        .    460 
Xerxes  enters  Athens,  after  having  lost 
200,000  of  his  troops,  and  is  defeated  in 
a  naval  engagement  off  Salamis     .     .    480 
Cymon,  son  of  Miltiades,  with  a  fleet  of 
250  vessels,  takes  several  cities  from 
the  Persians,  and  destroys  their  navy, 
consisting  of  340  sail,  near  the  island 
of  Cyprus 470 


Xerxes  is  murdered  in  his  bed  by  Mith- 
ridates,  the  eunuch    .  .    b.c. 

The  assassin  is  put  to  death  in  a  horrible 
manner  t 

Reign  of  Artaxerxes  .        .        .    . 

Cyprus  taken  from  the  Persians    . 

Memorable  retreat  of  the  Greeks.— See 
article  Retreat 

The  sea-fight  near  Cnidus .        .        .    . 

The  Sidonians  being  besieged  by  the  Per- 
sians, set  fire  to  their  city,  and  perish 
in  the  flames 

Alexander  the  Great  enters  Asia ;  first 
battle  in  Phrygia,  near  the  river  Gra- 
nicus 

[.For  the  exploits  of  AlexandOT  in  Persia, 
see  article  Macedoth.'] 

Murder  of  Darius  by  Bessus,  who  is  torn 
in  pieces  % 

Alexander  founds  the  third  or  Grecian 
monarchy 

Alexander,  in  a  moment  of  intoxication, 
at  the  instance  of  his  mistress  Thais, 
sets  fire  to  the  palace  of  Persepolis 

[The  riches  of  this  town,  whose  ruins, 
even  as  they  exist  at  this  day,  are  of 
indescribable  magnificence,  were  so 
immense  that  80,000  mules  and  5000 
horses  were  laden  with  the  spoils.] 

Persia  was  partly  reconquered  from  the 
Greeks,   and  remained  tributary  to 


465 
464 
449 


401 
394 


351 


334 


331 


331 


330 


t  The  criminal  was  enclosed  in  a  box,  except  his  head,  hands,  and  feet,  which  being  confined 
through  apertures  left  for  the  purpose,  were  smeared  with  honey ;  in  this  condition  he  was  exposed 
with  his  face  towards  the  sun,  which  shone  intensely  hot  The  honey  on  his  extremities  attracted 
wasps  and  other  insects,  who  by  their  stings  infiicted  excruciating  pains,  whilst  the  maggots  produced 
within  the  box,  from  his  excrements,  ate  into  his  flesh,  and  even  to  his  very  entrails ;  and  lest  this 
complication  of  torture  should  put  an  end  to  his  existence  too  quickly,  he  was  daily  fed  with  nourish- 
ing food.  Mithridates  endured  this  punishment  seventeen  days,  and  when  he  died,  his  flesh  was 
nearly  all  consumed  from  the  bones.  The  sufferer  very  rarely  refused  to  take  the  sustenance  offered 
him,  on  account  of  the  insufferable  drought  induced  by  the  heat  of  the  climate,  and  the  fever 
occasioned  by  the  torture ;  but  when  he  did,  his  eyes  were  pricked  with  small  bodkins  till  he  com- 
plied.—P^utarcA. 

%  For  this  miurder,  Bessus  was  taken  and  bound  naked  hand  and  foot,  and  four  trees  having  been 
by  main  force  bent  down  to  the  ground,  and  one  of  the  criminal's  limbs  tied  to  each  of  them,  the 
trees,  as  they  wa  re  suffered  to  return  to  their  natural  positi<ni»  flew  back  with  prodigious  violence, 
carrying  withi  t  one  of  the  Umbs  of  his  body.— P/utorcA. 


PER  Q  395  ]  PET 


PERSIAN  EMPIRE,  conHnued. 

Parthia  for  near  fire  hundred  years, 
till  about ,         .        .        .        .   A.o.    200 
Artaxerxes  I.  of  thia  new  empire,  a  com- 
mon soldier,  restores  to  Persia  its 

ancient  title 229 

Reign  of  Sapor,  conqueror  and  tyrant    .    238 
He  is  assassinated  ....    273 

Hormisdas  reigns      .         .         .         .    .    273 


Reign  of  Sapor  n.  ((rf  70  years),  a  cruel 

and  suooessful  tyrant  .  .  a.d.  310 
Persia  was  conquered  by  the  Saracens  .  651 
It  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Tamerlane, 

by  the  defeat  of  Bajazet      .        .        .1402 
Reign  of  Thamas  Kouli  Khan    .         .    .  1732 
He  carried  the  Persian  arms  into  India, 
which  he  ravaged. — See  India  .  1738 


In  1747,  Ahmed  Abdalla  founded  the  kmgdom  of  Candahar.  In  1779,  competitors 
for  the  throne  of  Persia  sprung  up,  and  caused  a  period  of  slaughter  and  desolation 
till  1794,  when  Mahomed  Khan  became  sole  monarch. 

PERTH,  Scotland.  This  town  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Agricola,  about  a.d. 
70.  It  was  besieged  by  the  regent  Robert  in  1339.  James  I.  "was  murdered  here  at 
the  Black  Friars'  monastery,  by  Robert  Graham  and  the  earl  of  Athol,  for  which 
their  bodies  were  torn  with  red-hot  pincers,  burning  crowns  of  iron  pressed  down 
upon  their  heads,  and  in  the  end  their  hearts  taken  out  and  thrown  into  a  fire. 
Gowrie's  conspiracy  occurred  Aug.  5, 1600.  Perth  was  taken  by  Cromwell  in  1651  ; 
by  the  earl  of  Mar,  after  the  battle  of  Dumblane,  in  1715. 

PERU.  First  visited  in  a.d.  1513,  and  soon  afterwards  conquered  by  the  Spaniards, 
whose  avarice  led  to  the  most  frightful  crimes.  The  easy  conquest  of  this  country 
has  not  its  parallel  in  history.  Pizarro,  in  1530,  and  others,  with  one  vessel,  112 
men,  and  four  horses,  set  out  to  invade  South  America,  which,  however,  not  succeed- 
ing, he  again,  in  1531,  embarked  with  three  small  vessels,  140  infantry,  and  thirty- 
six  horses ;  with  these,  and  two  reinforcements  of  thirty  men  each,  he  conquered 
the  empire  of  Peru,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  that  yast  power  which  the  Spaniards 
enjoy  in  the  New  World.  Pizarro's  expedition,  1524.  Peru  remained  in  subjection 
to  the  Spaniards  (who  murdered  the  Incas  and  all  their  descendants)  without  any 
attempt  being  made  to  throw  off  the  oppressive  yoke  till  1782 ;  but  the  independ- 
ence of  the  country  was  completely  achieved  in  1826.  The  new  Peruvian  consti- 
tution was  signed  by  the  president  of  the  Republic,  March  21,  1828. 

PERUKE.  The  ancients  used  false  hair,  but  the  peruke  in  the  present  mode  has  been 
little  more  than  two  centuries  in  use.  It  was  first  used  in  France  and  Italy  about 
a.d.  1620 ;  and  was  introduced  into  England  about  1660. — Strype. 

PETALISM.  This  was  a  mode  of  deciding  upon  the  guilt  of  citizens  of  Syracuse, 
similar  to  the  Athenian  ostracism  ;  but  the  name  was  written  on  a  leaf  instead  of  on  a 
shell :  it  is  said  to  have  been  in  use  460  b.c.     From  Syracuse  it  went  to  other  states. 

PETARD.  An  instrument  whose  invention  is  ascribed  to  the  Huguenots  in  1579. 
Petards  are  of  metal,  nearly  in  the  shape  of  a  hat.  In  the  siege,  when  a  design  ifc 
to  blow  up  gates,  or  other  barriers,  these  instruments  are  applied ;  they  are  also 
used  in  countermines  to  break  through  into  the  enemy's  galleries,  and  so  to  dis- 
appoint their  mines.  Cahors  was  taken  by  Henry  IV.  by  means  of  petards,  and 
they  were  first  used  there  in  1580. — MU,  Diet. 

PETER-PENCE.  Presented  by  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  to  the  pope  at  Rome, 
for  the  endowment  of  an  English  college  there,  a.d.  725.  So  caUed,  because  agreed 
to  be  paid  on  the  feast  of  St  Peter.  The  tax  was  levied  on  all  families  possessed 
of  thirty  pence  yearly  rent  in  land,  out  of  which  they  paid  one  penny.  It  was 
confirmed  by  Offa,  777,  and  was  afterwards  claimed  by  the  popes,  as  a  tribute  from 
England,  and  regularly  collected,  till  suppressed  by  Henry  VIII. — Camden, 

PETER,  THE  WILD  BOY.  A  savage  creature  found  in  the  forest  of  Hertswold, 
electorate  of  Hanover,  when  George  I.  and  his  friends  were  hunting.  He  was  found 
walking  on  his  hands  and  feet,  climbing  trees  like  a  squirrel,  and  feeding  on  grass 
and  moss,  November  1 725.  At  this  time  he  waa  supposed  to  be  thirteen  years  old. 
The  king  caused  him  to  taste  of  all  the  dishea  at  the  royal  table ;  but  he  preferred 
wild  plants,  leaves,  and  the  bark  of  trees,  which  he  had  lived  on  from  his  infancy. 
No  humao  efibrts  of  the  many  philosophic  persons  about  the  court  could  entirely 
vary  his  savage  habits,  or  cause  him  to  utter  one  distinct  syllable.  He  died  in  Feb. 
1785,  at  the  age  of  72.  Lord  Monboddo  presented  him  as  an  instance  of  the  hypo- 
thesis that  '*  man  in  a  state  of  nature  is  a  mere  animal.'' 

PETER'S  CHURCH,  ST.,  at  Rome.     Originally  erected  by  Constantine.    About  the 


PET  Q  396  ]  PIIA 

middle  of  the  15th  century,  Nicholas  VI.  commenced  the  present  magnificent  pile^ 
which  was  not  completed  wider  numerous  succeeding  popes,  until  a.d.  1629.  The 
front  is  400  feet  broad,  rising  to  a  height  of  1 80  feet,  and  the  majestic  dome  ascends 
from  the  centre  of  the  church  to  a  height  of  324  feet :  the  length  of  the  interior  is 
600  feet,  forming  .the  most  spacious  hall  eter  constructed  by  human  hands. — See 
Pou/'f,  St, 

PETERBOROUGH,  England.  Founded  a.d.  633.  It  was  anciently  called  Medes- 
hamstede ;  but  one  of  the  kings  of  Merda  founding  an  abbey  here,  and  dedicating 
it  to  St.  Peter,  it  obtained  its  present  name.  The  original  monastery  here  was 
founded  in  689.  It  was  formerly  subject  to  an  abbot ;  but  king  Henry  YIII.  turned 
the  monastery  into  a  cathedral,  and  made  it  a  bishop's  see. 

PETERBOROUGH,  Sbk  of.  One  of  the  bishoprics  erected  by  Henry  VIII.  out  of 
the  lands  of  the  dissolved  monasteries,  and  wholly  taken  from  the  diocese  of  Lincoln. 
The  church  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes ;  but  it  was  rebuilt  with  great  beauty,  and 
continued  to  flourish  till  the  Reformation.  The  first  bishop  was  John  Chamber,  the 
last  abbot  of  Peterborough.  The  see  was  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  419/.  19».  11^. 

PETERSBURGH.  The  new  capital  of  Russia.  Peter  the  Great  first  began  this  city 
in  1703.  He  built  a  small  hut  for  himself,  and  some  wretched  wooden  hovels.  In 
1710,  the  count  Golovkin  built  the  first  house  of  brick;  and  the  next  year,  the 
emperor,  with  his  own  hand,  laid  the  foundation  of  a  house  of  the  same  materials. 
From  these  small  beginnings  rose  the  imperial  city  of  Petersburgh  ;  and  in  less  than 
nine  years  after  the  wooden  hovels  were  erected,  the  seat  of  empire  was  transferred 
from  Moscow  to  this  place.  Here,  in  1736,  a  fire  consumed  2000  houses  ;  and  in 
1780,  another  fire  consumed  11,000  houses  ;  this  last  fire  was  occasioned  by  light- 
ning. Again,  in  June  1 796,  a  large  magazine  of  naval  stores  and  100  vessels  were 
destroyed.   The  winter  palace  was  burnt  to  the  ground,  Dec.  29, 1837. — See  Russia, 

PETERSBURGH,  Peace  of,  between  Russia  and  Prussia,  the  former  restoring  all 
her  conquests  to  the  latter,  signed  May  5,  1762.  Treaty  of  Petersburgh,  for 
the  partition  of  Poland,  (see  article  Partition  Treaties,)  Aug.  5,  1772.  Treaty 
of  Petersburgh,  for  a  coalition  against  France,  Sept.  8,  1805.  Treaty  of  alliance, 
signed  at  St.  Petersburgh,  between  Bemadotte,  prince  royal  of  Sweden,  and  the 
emperor  Alexander ;  the  former  agreeing  to  join  in  the  campaign  against  France, 
in  return  for  which  Sweden  was  to  receive  Norway,  March  24,  1812. 

PETERSWALDEN,  Convention  of.  An  important  and  fortunate  convention 
between  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  by  which  a  firm  and  decisive  alliance  between 
those  powers  was  made  against  France,  and  the  course  of  action  against  Napoleon 
was  planned,  signed  July  8,  1813. 

PETRARCH  AND  LAURA.  Two  of  the  most  eminent  persons  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  celebrated  for  the  exquisite  and  refined  passion  of  the  former  for  the  latter, 
and  the  great  genius  and  virtue  of  both.  The  chief  subject  of  Petrarch's  enchanting 
sonnets  was  the  beautiful  Laura.  He  was  crowned  with  laurel,  as  a  poet  and 
writer,  on  Easter-day,  April  8,  1341  ;  and  died  at  Arqua,  near  Padua,  July  18, 
1374.     Laura  died  AprU  6.  1348. 

PFAFFENDORF,  Battle  of,  between  the  Imperialists  and  Prussians.  The  Austrians 
were  signally  defeated  with  great  slaughter  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  who,  by  this 
victory,  prevented  the  designed  junction  of  the  Russian  and  Austrian  grand  armies, 
August  15,  1760. 

PHALANX.  A  troop  of  men  closely  embodied. — Milton.  The  Greek  phalanx  con- 
sisted of  8000  men  in  a  square  battalion,  with  shields  joined,  and  spears  crossing 
each  other.  The  battalion  formed  by  Philip  of  Macedon  was  called  the  Macedonian 
phalanx,  and  was  instituted  by  him  360  B.C. 

PHARISEES.  They  were  a  famous  sect  among  the  Jews  ;  so  called  from  a  Hebrew 
word  which  signifies  to  separate  or  set  apart,  because  they  pretended  to  a  greater 
degree  of  holiness  and  piety  than  the  rest  of  the  Jews.  The  admirable  parable  of 
the  Pharisee  and  Publican  is  levelled  against  spiritual  pride,  and  to  recommend  the 
virtue  of  humility. — Luke  xviii.  9» 

PHAROS  at  ALEXANDRIA,  called  the  Pharos  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and 
esteemed  as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  It  was  a  tower  built  of  white  marble, 
and  could  be  seen  at  the  distance  of  100  miles.     On  the  top,  fires  were  constantly 


PHA  [_  397  ]  PHI 

kept,  to  direct  sailors  in  the  bay.  The  boilding  of  this  tower  cost  800  talents, 
which  are  equivalent  to  above  165,100/.  English,  if  Attic ;  or  if  Alexandrian,  double 
that  sum.  There  was  this  inscription  upon  it— *'  King  Ptolemy  to  the  gods,  the 
saviours,  for  the  benefit  of  sailors  ;"  but  Sostratus  the  architect,  wishing  to  claim  all 
the  glory,  engraved  his  own  name  upon  the  stones,  and  afterwards  filled  the  hollow 
with  mortar,  and  wrote  the  above  inscription.  When  the  mortar  had  decayed  by 
time,  Ptolemy's  name  disappeared,  and  the  following  inscription  then  became 
visible  : — '**  Sostratus  the  Cnidian,  son  of  Dexiphanes,  to  the  gods,  the  saviours,  for 
the  benefit  of  sailors."    About  280  b.c. 

PHARSALIA,  Battle  of,  between  Julius  Caesar  and  Pompey,  in  which  the  former 
obtained  a  great  and  memorable  victory,  glorious  to  Csesar  in  all  its  consequences. 
Ceesar  lost  about  200  men,  or,  according  to  others,  1200.  Pom{$ey's  loss  was  15,000, 
or  25,000  according  to  others,  and  24,000  of  his  army  were  made  prisoners  of  war 
by  the  conqueror.  May  12,  48  B.C.  After  his  defeat,  Pompey  fled  to  Egypt,  where 
he  was  treacherously  slain,  by  order  of  Ptolemy  the  younger,  then  a  minor,  and  his 
body  thrown  naked  on  the  strand,  exposed  to  the  view  of  all  whose  curiosity  led 
them  that  way,  till  it  was  burnt  by  his  faithful  freedman  Philip. 

PHILIPPI,  Battle  of,  between  Octavius  Csesar  and  Marc  Antony  on  one  side,  and 
the  republican  forces  of  Brutus  and  Cassius,  in  which  the  former  obtained  the 
victory.  Two  battles  were  fought :  in  the  first,  Brutus,  who  commanded  the  right 
wing,  defeated  the  enemy ;  but  Cassius,  who  had  care  of  the  left,  was  overpowered, 
and  be  ordered  his  freedman  to  run  him  through  the  body.  In  the  second  battle, 
the  wing  which  Brutus  commanded  obtained  a  victory  ;  but  the  other  was  defeated, 
and  he  found  himself  surrounded  by  the  soldiers  of  Antony.  He  however  made  his 
escape,  and  soon  after  fell  on  his  sword.  Both  battles  were  fought  in  October, 
42  B.C. — Boasuet^ 

PHILIPPICS.     This  species  of  satire  derives  its  name  from  the  orations  of  Demo- 
sthenes against  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  and  from  Cicero^s  Orations  (the  second  of 
•  which  was  called  divine  by  Juvenal)  against  Marc  Antony,  which  latter  cost  Cicero 
his  Ufe,  43  B.C. 

PHILIPPINE  ISLES.  Discovered  by  the  Spaniards  a.d.  1519.  In  this  archipelago 
the  illustrious  circumnavigator  Magellan,  like  our  still  more  iUustrious  Cook  in  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  lost  his  life  in  a  skirmish,  in  1521. 

PHILOSOPHY.  The  knowledge  of  the  reason  of  things,  in  opposition  to  history, 
which  is  only  the  knowledge  of  facts  ;  or  to  mathematics,  which  is  the  knowledge  of 
the  quantity  of  things  ; — the  hypothesis  or  system  upon  which  natural  effects  are 
explained. — Locke,  Pythagoras  first  adopted  the  name  of  philosopher  (such  men 
having  been  previously  called  sages),  about  528  b.c — See  Moral  Philosophy, 
Philosophers  were  expelled  from  Rome,  and  their  schools  suppressed,  by  Domitian, 
A.D.  83. — Univ,  Hist.  Philosophy  has  undergone  four  great  changes : — 1.  A  total 
subserviency  to  priestcraft  and  superstition,  by  the  Chaldeans  and  Egyptians.  2. 
A  commixture  of  reason  and  poetry,  by  the  Greeks.  3.  A  mechanical  system,  intro- 
duced by  Copernicus  and  Galileo ;  and,  4.  A  system  of  poetical,  verbal,  and 
imaginary  causation,  taught  by  Newton,  Lavoisier,  &c.  The  world,  at  present,  are 
divided  between  the  two  last. 

PHILOSOPHER'S  STONE.  By  this  name  is  usually  meant  a  powder,  which  some 
wise  heads  among  the  chymists  imagined  had  the  virtue  of  turning  all  imperfect 
metals  into  silver  and  gold — all  metals  but  these  being  so  considered.  Kircher 
observes,  with  truth,  that  the  quadrature  of  the  circle,  perpetual  motion,  the  inex- 
tinguishable lamp,  and  philosopher's  stone,  have  cracked  the  brains  of  philosophers 
and  mathematicians  for  a  long  time,  without  any  useful  result.  For  a  remarkable 
case  of  folly  and  imposition  in  relation  to  this  subject,  see  Alchemy, 

PHIPPS,  Captain,  his  Expedition.  The  hon.  captain  Phipps  (afterwards  lord 
Mulgrave)  sailed  from  England  in  command  of  the  Sea-horse  and  Carcase  ships,  to 
make  discoveries,  as  near  as  possible,  to  the  North  Pole,  1773.  In  August  of 
that  year,  he  was  for  nine  days  environed  with  impenetrable  barriers  of  ice,  in  the 
Frozen  Ocean,  north  of  Spitzbergen,  80®  48'  North  latitude.  All  further  progress 
was  not  only  impossible,  but  retreat  also,  and  in  this  dreadful  situation  all  on  board 
gave  themselves  up  for  lost ;  but  they  were  providentially  liberated  from  the  vast 
mountains  of  ice  by  a  brisk  wind,  which  in  two  or  three  days  more  accomplished 


PHO  [  398  ]  PHY 

their  deliveranoe.  The  shipe  returned  to  England  without  their  intrepid  commander 
hating  made  any  dlacoveries,  S^t.  20,  1773.  In  thi^  expedition,  Nelson  was 
cockswain  to  the  second  in  command. 

PHOSPHORUS.  It  was  discovered  in  the  year  1667,  by  Brant,  who  procured  it 
from  nrine ;  and  Scheele  soon  after  found  a  method  of  preparing  it  from  bones. 
The  discoTery  was  prosecuted  by  John  Kunckell,  a  Saxon  chemist,  1670,  and  by  the 
hon.  Mr.  Boyle,  about  the  same  time.— iSTotio.  Diei.  Phosphoric  acid  is  first 
mentioned  in  1743,  but  Is  said  to  have  been  known  earlier;  the  distinction  was  first 
pointed  out  by  Lavoisier  in  1777.  Canton's  phosphorus  is  so  called  from  its  dis- 
coverer, 1768.  Protophosphurated  hydrogen  wn  discovered  by  sir  Humphrey 
Davy  in  1812. 

PHRENOLOGY.  The  science  of  the  mind,  and  of  animal  propensities,  a  modem 
doctrine,  started  by  Dr.  Gall,  in  1803. — See  Craniology.  Dr.  Spurzheim  improved 
the  science  in  1815,  and  it  has  now  many  professors ;  and  a  Phrenological  Society 
has  been  established  in  London. 

PHYSIC.  Reason  and  chance  led  early  to  the  knowledge  and  virtues  of  certain  herbs. 
The  sea-horse  drawing  blood  from  his  body  by  means  of  a  reed  to  relieve  himself 
from  plethora,  taught  men  the  art  of  artificial  blood-letting. — Pliny.  In  fabulous 
history  it  is  mentioned  that  Polydius  having  seen  a  serpent  approach  the  wounded 
body  of  another  with  an  herb,  with  which  he  covered  it,  restored  the  inanimate  body 
of  Glaucus  in  the  same  manner. — Hyginus.  Egypt  appears  to  have  been  the  cradle 
of  the  healing  art ;  ''  and  the  priests,"  says  Cabanus,  *'  soon  seized  upon  the 
province  of  medicine,  and  combined  it  with  their  other  instruments  of  power." 
From  the  hands  of  the  priests,  medicine  fell  into  those  of  the  philosophers,  who 
freed  it  from  its  superstitious  character.  Pythagoras  endeavoured  to  ex];dain  the 
formation  of  diseases,  the  order  of  their  symptoms,  and  the  action  of  medicine, 
about  529  B.C.  Hippocrates,  justly  regarded  as  the  father  of  medicine  and  the 
founder  of  the  science,  flourished  about  422  B.C.  Galen,  born  a.d.  131,  was  the 
oracle  of  medical  science  for  nearly  1500  years.  The  discovery  of  the  circulation  of 
the  blood,  by  Dr.  Harvey,  furnished  an  entirely  new  system  of  physiological  and 
pathological  speculation,  1628. 

PHYSIC  GARDEN.  The  first  cultivated  in  England  was  by  John  Gerard,  surgeon, 
of  London,  in  1567.  That  at  Oxford  was  endowed  by  the  earl  of  Danby  in  1652. 
That  at  Cambridge  was  commenced  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  That  at 
Chelsea,  originated  by  sir  Hans  Sloane,  was  given  to  the  Apothecaries'  Company 
in  1721 ;  this  last  was  very  much  admired  by  the  illustrious  Linnseus.  The  fine 
Botanic  Garden  in  Dublin  was  commenced  in  1763. 

PHYSICIAN  TO  THE  KING.  The  earliest  mandate  or  warrant  for  the  attendance  of 
a  physician  at  court  is  dated  a.d.  1454,  the  33  Henry  VI.,  a  reign  fertile  in  the 
patronage  which  was  afforded  to  practitioners  in  medicine ;  but  in  that  reign  no 
appointment  existed  which  can  justly  be  called  physician  to  the  royal  person.  By 
this  warrant,  the  king,  with  the  consent  of  his  privy  council,  deputed  to  three  phy- 
sicians and  two  surgeons  the  regulation  of  his  diet,  and  the  administration  of  such 
medicines  and  remedies  as  might  be  sufficient  for  his  cure,  without  any  allusion  to 
the  previous  existence  or  permanency  of  the  office,  which  they  were  authorised  for  a 
time  to  fill,  or  to  a  remuneration  for  their  services. — Life  of  Linacre. 

PHYSICIANS,  ROYAL  COLLEGE  op,  London,  was  projected  by  Dr.  Linacre,  phy- 
sician to  Henry  VIII.,  who,  through  his  interest  with  cardinal  Wolsey,  obtained 
letters  patent,  constituting  a  corporate  body  of  regular  physicians  in  London,  with 
peculiar  privileges,  October  23, 1518.  Linacre  was  elected  the  first  president  of  the 
college.  Dr.  Harvey,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  discovery  of  the  circulation 
of  the  blood,'was  another  ornament  and  benefactor  to  this  institution.  He  built  a 
library  and  public  hall,  which  he  granted  for  ever  to  the  college,  with  his  books  and 
instruments.  The  college  was  afterwards  held  in  a  building  in  Warwick-lane, 
erected  by  sir  C.  Wren,  where  it  continued  till  1823,  when  the  present  elegant  stone 
edifice  was  erected  from  designs  by  sir  R.  Smirke.  The  College  of  Physicians, 
Dublin,  was  founded  by  charter  of  Charles  II.,  1667,  and  was  re-incorporated  in 
1692.    The  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  Edinburgh,  Nov.  29,  1681. 

PHYSICS.  Well  described  as  a  science  of  unbounded  extent,  and  as  reaching  from  an 
atom  to  God  himself.    It  is  made  to  embrace  the  entire  doctrine  of  the  bodies  and 


PHY []  399   ] PIG 

I  existences  of  the  nniTene ;  their  phenomena,  caneesy  and  effects.      Mr.   Locke 

,  would  include  God,  angels,  and  spirits,  under  this  term.    The  origin  of  physics  is 

referred  to  the  Brachmans,  magi,  and  Hebrew  and  Egyptian  priests.^  From  these 

it  was  derived  to  the  Greek  sages,  particularly  Thales,  who  first  professed  the  study 

of  nature  in  Greece,  about  595  B.C.     Hence,  it  descended  to  the  Pythagoric,  Pla- 

I  tonic,  and  Peripatetic  schools  ;  and  from  these  to  Italy  and  the  rest  of  Europe. 

I  PHYSIOLOGY.    In  connexion  with  natural  philosophy,  and  that  part  of  physics 

which  teaches  the  constitution  of  the  body,  so  feur  as  it  is  in  its  healthy  or  natural 
state,  and  to  that  purpose  endeatours  to  account  for  the  reason  of  the  seyeral 
functions  and  operations  of  the  several  members.  Sometimes  it  is  limited  to  that 
part  of  medicine  which  particularly  considers  the  structure  and  constitution  of 
human  bodies,  with  regard  to  ttie  cure  of  diseases.  Its  date  is  referred  to  the  same 
time  with  physics,  which  see, 

PHYSIOGNOMY.  This  is  a  sdence  by  which  the  dispositions  of  mankind  are  dis- 
covered, chiefly  from  the  features  of  the  face.  The  origin  of  the  term  is  referred  to 
Aristotle  ;  Cicero  was  attached  to  the  science.  It  became  a  fashionable  study  from 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century ;  and  in  the  last  century,  the  essays  of  Le 
Cat  and  Pemethy  led  to  the  modem  system.  Lavater*s  researches  in  this  pursuit 
arose  from  his  having  been  struck  with  the  singular  countenance  of  a  soldier  who 
passed  under  a  window  at  which  he  and  the  celebrated  Zimmerman  were  standing  ; 
published  1776. 

PIANO-FORTE.  This  is  a  musical  instrument  of  modem  invention,  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple with  the  harpsichord,  but  of  softer  tones.  It  was  invented  in  London  by  M. 
Zumpie,a  German,  about  1766,  but  from  that  time  it  has  been  greatly  improved  by 
succeeding  makers. 

PICHEGRU'S,  MOREAU'S,  and  GEORGES*  CONSPIRACY.  The  memorable 
conspiracy  against  Napoleon  Buonaparte  detected,  and  Geoi^s  and  Moreau  arrested 
at  Paris,  February  23,  1804.  For  the  particulars  relating  to  this  conspiracy,  see 
article  Georges^  ^c. 

PICQUET,  THE  Game  of,  the  first  known  game  upon  the  cards,  invented  by  Joque- 
min,  and  afterwards  other  games,  for  the  amusement  of  Charles  VI.  of  France,  who 
was  at  the  time  in  feeble  health,  1390. — M4zera\,     See  article  Cards. 

PICTS.  A  Scythian  or  German  colony,  who  landed  in  Scotland  much  about  the  time 
that  the  Scots  began  to  seize  upon  tiie  Ebudse,  or  Western  Isles.  They  afterwards 
lived  as  two  distinct  nations,  the  Scots  in  the  highlands  and  the  isles,  and  the  Picts 
in  that  now  called  the  lowlands.  About  a.d.  838  to  843,  the  Scots  under  Kenneth 
II.  totally  subdued  the  Picts,  and  seized  all  their  kingdom,  and  extended  the  limits 
as  far  as  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

PICTS'  WALL.  The  famous  wall  in  Northumberland,  which  reached  from  Newcas- 
tle-upon-Tyne to  Carlisle  in  Cumberland^  for  the  space  of  eighty  miles,  so  that  it 
extended  almost  from  sea  to  sea,  that  is,  from  the  German  sea  on  the  east,  to  the 
Irish  sea  on  the  west ;  it  was  eight  feet  thick,  and  twelve  feet  high,  ascending  and 
descending  over  several  craggy  hills,  with  battlements  all  along,  and  towers  at  a 
convenient  distance  from  each  other,  in  which  soldiers  were  kept  for  its  defence  ; 
this  wall  was  built  by  the  Romans,  a.d.  85,  when  possessed  of  this  part  of  Britain, 
to  defend  it  from  the  incursions  of  the  Scots  and  Picts,  from  whom  it  took  its  name. 
This  wall  was  built  by  Agricola.  The  wall  of  Adrian  was  built  a.d.  121  ;  and  by 
Severus,  203. 

PICTURES.  Bularchus  was  the  first  who  introduced,  at  least  among  the  Greeks,  the 
use  of  many  colours  in  one  picture.  One  of  his  pictures  was  purchased  by  the  king 
of  Lydia  for  its  weight  in  gold ;  he  flourished  740  b.c. — See  Painting, 

PIE-POUDRE  COURT.  In  English  law,  the  Court  of  Dusty  Foot  A  court  whose 
jurisdiction  was  established  for  cases  arising  at  fedrs  and  markets,  to  do  justice  to 
the  buyer  and  seller  immediately  upon  the  spot.  By  statute  17  Edward  IV.,  it  had 
cognisance  of  all  disputes  in  the  precincts  of  the  market  to  which  it  might  belong, 
A.D.  1476.  By  a  court  of  Pie  Poudre  at  Bartholomew  Fair,  a  young  gentleman  paid 
3/.  16«.  for  taking  away  an  actress  when  she  was  going  to  perform,  and  5/.  for  crim. 
con,  to  the  husband,  the  lady  being  married,  Sept.  6,  1804. — Phillips* 

PIGEON,  THE  Cakkier.    The  courier  pigeons  are  of  very  ancient  use.   The  ancients 


PIL  [_  400  ]  PIN 

being  destitute  of  the  conTenience  of  posts,  were  accustomed  when  they  took  a  long^ 
journey,  and  were  desirous  of  sending  back  any  news  with  uncommon  expedition, 
to  take  tame  pigeons  with  them.  When  they  thought  proper  to  write  to  their  Mends, 
they  let  one  of  these  birds  loose,  with  letters  fastened  to  its  neck  :  the  bird,  once 
released,  would  never  cease  its  flight  till  it  arrived  at  its  nest  and  young  ones.  Taa- 
rosthenes  announced  to  his  fisther  his  victory  at  the  Olympic  games  by  sending  to 
him  at  JSgina  a  pigeon  stained  with  purple.— Om(i.  Hirtius  and  Brutus  corre- 
sponded by  means  of  pigeons  at  the  si^e  of  Modena.  In  modem  times,  the  most 
noted  were  the  pigeons  of  Aleppo,  which  served  as  couriers  at  Alezandretta  and 
Bagdad.  Thirty- two  pigeons  sent  from  Antwerp  were  liberated  from  London  at  7 
o'clock  in  the  morning  ;  and  on  the  same  day  at  noon,  one  of  them  arrived  at  Ant- 
werp ;  a  quarter  of  an  hour  afterwards  a  second  arrived ;  the  remainder  on  the  fol- 
lowing day,  Nov.  23,  IS19,— Phillips, 

PILGRIMAGES.  They  began  to  be  made  about  the  middle  ages  of  the  church,  but 
they  were  most  in  vogue  after  the  close  of  the  11th  century.  Many  licences  were 
granted  to  captains  of  English  ships  to  carry  pilgrims  abroad,  7  Henry  VI.,  1428. 

PILLORY.  A  scaffold  for  persons  to  stand  on,  in  order  to  render  them  infamous,  and 
make  them  a  public  spectacle,  for  every  one  to  see  and  know,  that  they  might  avoid 
and  refuse  to  have  any  commerce  or  dealings  with  them  for  the  future.  This  punish- 
ment was  awarded  against  persons  convicted  of  forgery,  perjury,  libelling,  &c.  In 
some  cases  the  head  was  put  through  a  hole,  the  hands  through  two  others,  the  nose 
slit,  the  face  branded  with  one  or  more  letters,  and  one  or  both  ears  were  cut  off. 
There  is  a  statute  of  the  pillory  41  Henry  III.,  1256.  Many  persons  died  in  the 
pillory  by  being  struck  with  stones  by  Uie  mob,  and  pelted  with  rotten  eggs  and 
putrid  offal.  It  was  abolished  as  a  punishment  in  all  cases  except  perjury,  56  Geo. 
III.,  1815-16.     The  pillory  was  totally  abolished  by  act  I  Victoria,  June  1837. 

PILNITZ,  Convention  and  Treaty  of,  against  France.  The  famous  conven- 
tion of  Pilnitz  took  place  between  the  emperor  Leopold  and  the  king  of  Prussia, 
July  20,  1791.  In  the  subsequent  part  of  the  month,  the  treaty  of  Pilnitz,  or,  as 
some  style  it,  the  Partition  Treaty,  was  finally  agreed  upon  at  Pavia  by  the  courts 
in  concert.  It  was  to  the  effect  "  that  the  emperor  should  retake  all  that  Louis 
XIV.  had  conquered  in  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  and  uniting  these  provinces  to 
the  Netherlands,  give  to  his  serene  highness  the  elector  palatine,  to  be  added  to 
the  palatinate.  The  emperor  to  preserve  also  the  possession  of  Bavaria,  to  be 
added  to  the  Austrian  possessions,"  &c. 

PINE  TREES.  The  Stone  pine  (Pinus  Pinea),  brought  to  these  countries  before 
1548.  The  Cluster  pine  {Pinus  Pinaster) t  brought  from  the  South  of  Europe  be- 
fore 1596.  The  Weymouth  pine  (Pinus  Strobus),  from  North  America,  1705. 
Frankincense  pine  (Pinus  Tada),  from  North  America,  before  1713.  Sir  Joseph 
Banks'  pine  brought  from  Chili  in  1796. 

PINKEY,  Battle  of,  between  the  English  under  the  earl  of  Hertford,  protector, 
and  the  Scots,  when  the  latter  were  totally  defeated.  Few  victories  have  been 
more  decisive,  or  gained  with  smaller  loss  to  the  conquerors^  There  fell  not  200  of 
the  English ;  and,  according  to  the  most  moderate  computation,  there  perished 
above  10,000  of  the  Scots.    Above  1500  were  taken  prisoners.   September  10, 1547. 

PINS.  As  an  article  of  foreign  commerce,  pins  are  first  mentioned  in  the  statutes 
A.D.  1483.  Those  made  of  brass  wire  were  brought  from  France  in  1540,  and  were 
first  used  in  England,  it  is  said,  by  Catherine  Howard,  queen  of  Henry  VIII.  Be- 
fore the  invention  of  pins,  both  sexes  used  ribands,  loop-holes,  laces  with  points 
and  tags,  clasps,  hooks  and  eyes,  and  skewers  of  brass,  silver,  and  gold.  They  were 
made  in  England  in  1543. — Stowe, 

PIN-MONEY.  One  of  the  articles  of  the  statutes  of  the  ancient  pin-makers  of  Paris 
was,  that  no  master  should  open  more  than  one  shop  for  the  sale  of  his  wares,  ex- 
cept on  New-year's  Day  and  its  eve  ;  when  it  was  usual  to  make  presents  of  them, 
and  of  money  to  buy  them  :  hence  the  custom  of  giving  the  name  of  pins,  or  pin- 
money,  to  certain  presents  that  accompanied  considerable  bargains,  in  which  it  was 
usual  to  give  something  toward  the  pins  of  the  wife  or  children  of  the  person  with 
whom  the  agreement  was  concluded.  Hence,  too,  the  term  pin-money  is  applied  to 
the  allowance  that  is  generally  made  by  the  husband  to  his  wife  for  her  own  indi- 
vidual use. 


PIS [^  401  ] PLA 

PISA,  Leaning  Tower  of.  This  celebrated  tower,  likewise  called  Campaniley  on 
account  of  its  having  been  erected  for  the  purpose  of  containing  bells,  stands  in  a 
square  dose  to  the  cathedral  of  Pisa.  It  is  built  entirely  of  white  marble,  and  is  a 
beautiful  cylinder  of  eight  stories,  each  adorned  with  a  round  of  columns,  rising  one 
above  another.  It  inclines  so  far  on  one  side  from  the  perpendicular,  that  in  drop- 
ping a  plummet  from  the  top,  which  is  188  feet  in  height,  it  falls  sixteen  feet  from 
the  base.  Much  pains  have  been  taken  by  connoisseurs  to  prove  that  this  was  done 
purposely  by  the  architect ;  but  it  is  evident  that  the  inclination  has  proceeded  from 
another  cause,  namely,  from  an  accidental  subsidence  of  the  foundation  on  that  side. 

PISTOLS.  These  are  the  smallest  sort  of  fire-arms,  carried  sometimes  on  the  saddle- 
bow, sometimes  in  a  girdle  round  the  waist,  sometimes  in  the  pocket,  &c. — Pardon. 
The  pistol  was  first  used  by  the  cavalry  of  England  in  1544. 

PITCAIRN'S  ISLAND.  A  small  solitary  island  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  seen  by  Cook 
in  1773,  and  noted  for  being  colonised  by  ten  mutineers  from  the  ship  Bounty^  cap- 
tain Bligh,  in  1789,  from  which  time,  tiU  1814,  they  (or  rather  their  descendants) 
remained  here  unknown. — See  Mutiny  of  the  Bounty. 

PITT'S  ADMINISTRATION.  The  first  administration  of  this  illustrious  statesman 
was  formed  on  the  dismissal  of  the  Coalition  ministry  (which  »ee),  Dec.  27,  1783. 
His  second  administration  was  formed  May  1-2,  1804.  The  right  hon.  William  Pitt 
was  son  of  the  great  earl  of  Chatham.  He  died  Jan.  23, 1806.  Mr.  Pitt  was  a  mi- 
nister of  commanding  powers,  and  still  loftier  pretensiotis ;  and  he  departed  life  in 
possession  of  the  esteem  of  a  large  portion  of  his  countrymen.  A  public  funeral 
was  decreed  to  his  honour  by  parliament,  and  a  grant  of  40,000/.  to  pay  his  debts. 
In  his  administration  an  illustrious  nobleman  wrote  the  following  lines,  published  in 
1805^  in  the  height  of  the  then  war  between  England  and  half  the  world:— 

O !  England,  thou  art  a  deserted  deer. 

Beset  by  every  ill,  but  that  of  fear ; 

The  nations  hunt,  they  mark  thee  for  a  prey. 

They  swarm  around  thee,  and  thou  stand'st  at  bay, 

Undaunted  still,  though  wearied  and  perplex'd ; 

Once  Chatham  saved  thee— but  who  saves  thee  next  ? 

Who  saves !    Again  the  glorious  triumph  's  won. 
And  Chatham's  name  is  lost,  in  Chatham's  son. 
To  HIM  the  muse-a  higher  praise  will  yield ; 
'  A  steord  was  Chatham— Pitt  both  sword  and  shield. 

PIUS.  This  name  was  first  given  to  the  emperor  Antoninus  Titus,  thence  called  Anto- 
ninus Pius,  on  account  of  his  piety  and  virtue,  a.d.  138.  This  name  was  also  given 
to  a  son  of  Metullus,  because  he  interested  himself  so  warmly  to  have  his  father 
recalled  from  banishment.  The  name  of  Pius  has  also  been  taken  by  seven  of  the 
popes  of  Rome,  the  first  of  whom  assumed  it  in  a.d.  142. 

PLAGUE.  ''The  offspring  of  inclement  skies,  and  of  legions  of  putrifying  locusts.'' 
—  Thornton.  The  first  recorded  general  plague  in  all  parts  of  the  world  occurred 
767  B.C. — Petavius.  At  Carthage  a  plague  was  so  terrible  that  the  people  sacrificed 
their  children  to  appease  the  gods,  534  b.c. — Baronius.  At  Rome  prevailed  a  de- 
solating plague  carrying  off  a  hundred  thousand  persons  in  and  round  the  city,  461 
B.C.  At  Athens,  whence  it  spread  into  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  and  caused  an  awful 
devastation,  430  B.C.  Another,  which  raged  in  the  Greek  islands,  Egypt,  and 
Syria,  and  destroyed  2000  persons  every  day,  188  b.c. — Pliny. 


At  Rome,  a  most  awftil  plague ;  10,000  persons 
perish  daily,  a.d.  78. 

The  same  fated  disease  again  ravaged  the  Ro- 
man empire,  A.o.  167*  ' 

In  Britain,  a  plague  raged  so  formidably,  and 
swept  away  such  multitudes,  that  the  living 
were  scarcely  sufiLcient  to  bury  the  dead, 
A.n.430. 

A  dreadful  one  began  in  Europe  in  568,  ex- 
tended all  over  Asia  and  Africa,  and  it  is 
said  did  not  cease  for  many  years.  Univ.  Hist. 

At  Constantinople,  when  200,000,  of  its  inha- 
bitants perished,  a.d.  746. 


[This  plague  raged  for  three  years,  and  was 
equally  fatal  in  Calabria,  Sicily,  and  Greece.] 

At  Chichester  in  England,  an  epidemical  dis- 
ease carried  off  34,000  persons,  772-— Witt. 
Malms. 

In  Scotland,  40,000  persons  perished  of  a  pesti- 
lence, A.D.  954. 

In  London,  a  great  mortality,  a.d.  1094 ;  and 
in  Ireland,  1095. 

Again  in  London :  it  extended  to  cattle,  fowls, 
and  other  domestic  animals,  1111.— Holings. 

In  Ireland :  after  Christmas  this  year,  Henry 
n.  was  forced  to  quit  the  country,  1172. 
D  D 


FLA 


[402] 


PLA 


PLAGUE,  eontinued. 

Again,  in  Ireland,  when  a  prodigioua  nmnber 
perished,  1204. 

A  general  plague  raged  throughont  Europe, 
causing  a  most  extensiye  mortality.  Britain 
and  Ireland  suffered  grierously.  In  Lond»n 
alone,  200  persons  were  buried  daily  in  the 
Charterhouse  yard. 

In  Paris  and  London  a  dreadful  mortality 
prevailed  in  1362  and  1367  ;  and  in  Ireland, 
in  1370. 

A  great  peetflenoe  in  Ireland,  called  the  fourth, 
destroyed  a  great  number  of  the  people,  1383. 

30,000  persons  perished  of  a  dreadful  pestilence 
in  London,  1407' 

Again  in  Ireland,  superinduced  by  a  famine ; 
great  numbers  died,  1466 ;  and  Dublin  was 
wasted  by  a  plague,  1470. 

An  awful  peatilenoe  at  Oxford,  1471 ;  and 
throughout  England  a  plague  which  de- 
stroyed more  people  than  the  continual 
wars  for  the  fifteen  preceding  years,  1478 — 
Rapin;  Salmon* 

The  awful  Stuior  Anglicust  or  sweating  dck- 
nese,  very  fatal  at  Lond(m,  1485.— I>c2attii«. 

The  plague  at  London  so  dreadful  that  Henry 
VU.  and  his  court  removed  to  Calais,  IfiOa 
'-Stowe, 

Again,  the  sweating  sickness  (mortal  in  three 
hours).  In  most  of  the  capital  towns  in 
England  half  the  inhabitants  died,  and  Ox- 
ford was  depopulated,  9  H.  YIIL 1517.  Stowe. 

Limerick  was  visited  by  a  plague,  when  many 
thousands  perished,  1522. 

A  pestilence  throughout  Ireland,  1625 ;  and 
the  Elnglish  Sweat,  1528;  and  a  pestilence  in 
DubUn,  1575. 

90,578  persons  perished  of  the  plague  in  Lon- 
don alone,  1603-1604.  It  was  also  fatal  in 
Ireland. 


200,000  perished  of  a  pestilence  at  Conatanti- 
nople,  in  1611. 

In  London,  a  great  mortality  prevailed,  and 
35,417  persons  perished,  1625. 

In  Frsnce,  a  general  mortality;  at^Lyona 
60,000  persons  died,  1632. 

The  plague,  brought  from  Sardinia  to  Naples 
(being  introduced  by  a  transport  with  sol- 
diers on  board),  raged  with  such  violence  as 
to  carry  off  400,000  of  the  inhabitants  in  aix 
months,  1656. 

Memorable  plague  which  carried  off  68,596 
persons  in  London,  1665. 

[Fires  were  kept  up  night  and  day  to  purify 
the  air  for  three  days ;  and  it  is  thought  the 
infection  was  not  totally  destroyed  tUl  the 
great  conflagration  of  1666.] 

60,000  persons  perished  of  the  plague  at  Mar- 
seilles and  neighbourhood,  brought  in  a  ship 
from  the  Levant,  1720. 

One  of  the  most  awful  plagues  that  ever  raged, 
prevailed  in  Syria,  1760—  AbM  Maritu 

In  Persia,  a  fatal  pestilence,  which  carried  off 
80.000  of  the  inhabitants  of  Bassorah,  1773. 

In  Egypt,  more  than  800,000  persons  died  of 
plague,  1792. 

In  Barbary,  3000  died  daily;  and  at  Fes 
247,000  perished,  1799. 

In  Spain,  and  at  Oibraltar,  immense  numbrav 
were  carried  off  by  a  pestilent  disease  in 
1804  and  1805. 

Again,  at  Gibraltar,  an  epidemic  fever,  mucli 
resembling  the  plague,  caused  great  mor- 
taUty,  1828. 

The  Asiatic  cholera  (see  Cholera)  made  ita 
first  appearance  in  England,  at  Sunderland, 
Oct.  26, 1831 ;  in  Scotland,  at  Haddington, 
Dec.  23,  same  year;  and  in  Ireland,  at 
Belfast,  March  14, 1832. 


PLAGUE  IN  LONDON,  the  Great.  This  most  awful  and  memorable  scourge 
commenced  in  December  1664.  In  the  months  of  May,  Jane,  and  July,  it  had  con- 
tinued with  great  severity ;  but  in  August  and  September  it  quickened  into  dread- 
ful activity,  sweeping  away  8000  persons  in  a  week.  Then  it  was  that  the  whole 
British  nation  wept  for  the  sufferings  of  the  metropolis.  In  some  houses  carcases 
lay  waiting  for  burial ;  and  in  others,  persons  were  seen  doubled  up  in  their  last 
agonies.  In  one  room  were  heard  dying  groans ;  and  in  the  next,  the  ravings  of  de- 
lirium, mingled  with  the  wailings  of  relatives  and  friends,  and  the  apprehensive 
shrieks  of  children.  Infants  passed  at  once  from  the  womb  to  the  grave.  The  yet 
healthy  child  hung  upon  the  putrid  breast  of  a  dead  mother ;  and  the  nuptial  bed 
was  changed  into  a  sepulchre.  Some  of  the  infected  ran  about  staggering  like 
drunken  men,  and  fell  and  expired  in  the  streets ;  while  others  calmly  laid  them- 
selves down,  never  to  rise  but  at  the  call  of  the  last  trumpet.  At  length,  in  the 
middle  of  September,  more  than  12,000  perished  in  one  week  ;  in  one  night  4000 
died.  The  hearses  were  but  dead-carts  which  continually  traversed  the  streets, 
while  the  appalling  cry,  **  Bring  out  your  dead^**  thrilled  through  every  soul. 
Then  it  was  that  parents,  husbands,  wives,  and  children  saw  all  those  that  were  dear 
to  them  thrown  with  a  pitchfork  into  a  cart,  like  the  offal  of  the  slaughter-house,  to 
be  conveyed  without  the  walls,  and  flung  in  one  promiscuous  heap,  without  the  rites 
of  sepulture,  without  a  coffin,  and  without  a  shroud !  Some  graves  were  dug  so  laige 
as  to  hold  more  than  a  thousand  bodies  each ;  and  into  these  huge  holes,  the  living, 
wrapt  in  blankets  and  rags,  threw  themselves  among  the  dead,  in  their  agonies  and 
delirium.  They  were  often  found  in  this  state  hugging  the  flesh  of  their  kindred 
that  had  not  quite  perished.  People,  in  the  intolerable  torment  of  their  swellings, 
ran  wild  and  mad,  laying  violent  hands  upon  themselves ;  and  even  mothers  in  their 


PLA  [_  403  ]  PLA 

lanacy  murdered  their  own  children.  When  the  carts  were  insufficient  for  their 
office,  the  houses  and  streets  were  rendered  tenfold  more  pestUential  by  the  unburied 
dead.     Not  68,000,  but  100,000  perished  of  this  plague.— Z>«/otf. 

PLAGUES  OF  EGYPT.  The  refusal  of  the  king  to  hearken  to  Moses,  although  he 
had  performed  many  miracles  to  proYC  his  divine  mission,  brings  a  display  of  wrath 
upon  the  land,  in  ten  awful  instances,  which  are  denominated  the  plagues  of 
Egypt,  1492  B.C. 

PLA.INS  OF  ABRAHAM,  Battle  of  the,  in  which  the  French  of  Canada 
were  defeated  by  the  British  under  the  heroic  general  Wolfe,  who  fell  mortally 
wounded,  just  as  the  enemy  had  given  way,  and  he  had  conquered,  a  ball  having 
pierced  his  breast,  Sept.  13, 1759.  This  is  idso  called  the  battle  of  Quebec,  which  see. 

PLANE-TREES.  The  Oriental  Plane,  Platanus  orientalist  brought  from  the  Le- 
Tant,  before  a.d.  1548.     The  American  Plane  brought  to  these  realms  before  1640. 

PLANTAGENET,  House  of.  A  race  of  fourteen  English  kings,  from  Henry  II.  to 
Richard  III.,  killed  at  the  battle  of  Bosworth  (which  see),  1485.  Antiquaries  are 
at  a  loss  to  account  for  the  origin  of  this  appellation ;  and  the  best  derivation  they 
can  find  for  it  is,  that  Fulk,  the  first  earl  of  Anjou,  of  that  name,  being  stung  with 
remorse  for  some  wicked  action,  went  on  a  pi^rimage  to  Jerusalem  as  a  work  of 
atonement ;  where  being  soundly  scourged  with  broom  twigs,  which  grew  plenti- 
fully on  the  spot,  he  ever  after  took  the  surname  of  Plantagenet,  or  Broom-stalk, 
which  was  retained  by  his  posterity. 

PLASSEY,  Battle  of,  between  the  British  under  lord  Cliye,  and  the  native  Hindoos 
under  Surajah  Dowlah,  June  23,  1757.  The  nabob  was  vanquished,  although  at 
the  head  of  70,000  men,  by  the  British,  whose  force  did  not  exceed  3000  ;  and  the 
victory  laid  the  foundation  of  our  power  in  India. — See  article  India. 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS,  for  moulds,  figures,  statuary,  &c.  The  method  of  taking  like- 
nesses by  its  use  was  first  discovered  by  Andrea  Verrochio,  about  a.d.  1466.  This 
gypsum  was  first  found  at  Montmartre,  a  village  near  Paris,  whence  it  obtained 
ita  name, 

PLAT^A,  Battle  of,  between  Mardonius  the'  commander  of  Xerxes  king  of  Per- 
sia, and  Pausanias  the  Lacedaemonian,  and  the  Athenians.  The  Persian  army  con- 
sisted of  300,000  men,  3000  of  which  scarce  escaped  with  their  lives  by  flight.  The 
Ghrecian  army, which  was  greatly  inferior,  lost  but  few  men ;  and  among  these,  ninety- 
one  SpartanSf  fifty-two  Athenians,  and  sixteen  Tegeans,  were  the  only  soldiers  found 
^  hi  the  number  of  the  slain.  The  plunder  which  the  Greeks  obtained  in  the  Persian 
camp  was  immense.  Pausanias  received  the  tenth  of  all  the  spoils,  on  account  of 
his  uncommon  valour  during  the  engagement,  and  the  rest  were  rewarded  each 
according  to  their  respective  merit.  This  battle  was  fought  on  the  22d  September, 
tiie  same  day  as  the  battle  of  Mycale,  479  B.C. ;  and  by  it  Greece  was  totally  deli- 
Tcred  for  ever  from  the  continual  alarms  to  which  she  was  exposed  on  account  of 
the  Persian  invasions,  and  from  that  time  none  of  the  princes  of  Persia  dared  to 
appear  with  a  hostile  force  beyond  the  Hellespont 

PLATE.  The  earliest  use  of  plate  as  an  article  of  luxury  cannot  be  precisely  traced. 
In  England,  plate,  with  the  exception  of  spoons,  was  prohibited  in  public-houses  by 
statute  8  William  III.,  1696.  The  celebrated  Plate  Act  passed  in  May  1756.  This 
act  was  repealed  in  1780.    The  act  laying  a  duty  upon  plate  passed  in  1784. 

P  LATIN  A.  This  is  the  heaviest  of  all  the  metals,  and  harder  than  silver  and  gold. 
The  name  which  is  given  to  it  originated  with  the  Spaniards,  from  the  word  Plata f 
signifying  silver,  it  would  seem  on  account  of  its  silvery  colour.  It  was  unknown 
in  Europe  until  a.d.  1748,  when  Don  Antonio  Ulloa  announced  its  existence  in  the 
narrative  of  his  voyage  to  Peru. — Greig. 

PLATING.  The  art  of  covering  baser  metals  with  a  thin  plate  of  silver,  either  for 
use  or  for  ornament,  said  to  have  been  invented  by  a  spur-maker.  Till  then,  the 
more  elegant  spurs  in  common  use  were  made  of  solid  silver  ;  and  from  the  flexi- 
bility of  that  metal,  they  were  liable  to  be  bent  into  inconvenient  forms  by  the 
slightest  accident.  To  remedy  this  defect,  a  workman  at  Birmingham  contrived  to 
make  the  branches  of  a  pair  of  spurs  hollow,  and  to  fill  that  hoUow  with  a  slender 
rod  of  steel.  Finding  this  a  great  improvement,  and  desirous  to  add  cheapness  to 
utility,  he  continued  to  make  the  hollow  larger,  and  of  coarse  the  iron  thicker,  till  at 

D  D  2 


PLA 


[404] 


FOB 


last  he  coftted  the  iron  spar  with  silver  in  sach  a  manner  as  to  make  it  equally 
elegant  with  those  made  wholly  of  that  metaL  The  invention  was  qnickly  applied 
to  other  purposes. 

PLATONIC  YEAR.  The  period  of  time  which  the  equinoxes  take  to  finish  their 
revolution,  at  the  end  of  which  the  stars  and  constellations  have  the  same  place  with 
regard  to  the  equinoxes  that  they  had  at  first  Tycho  Brahe  says  that  this  year  or 
period  requires  25^16  common  years  to  complete  it ;  Ricciolus  computes  it  at 
25,920  ;  and  Cassini  at  24,800  ;  at  the  end  of  which  time  some  imagined  that  there 
would  be  a  total  and  natural  renovation  of  the  whole  creation. 

PLATTSBUR6H.  The  British  expedition  against  Plattsburgh,  situate  on  Lake 
Champlain,  was  designed  under  sir  George  Prevost ;  but  it  was  abandoned  after  the 
naval  force  of  England  had  suffered  a  defeat  in  an  engagement  with  the  Americans, 
September  11,  1814. 

PLAYS.  Tragedy,  comedy,  satire,  and  pantomime  were  performed  in  Greece  and 
Rome.  Plays  became  a  general  and  favourite  pastime  about  165  b.c.  ;  but  they 
were  performed  on  occasions  of  festivity  some  ages  before.  The  Trojan  plays  con- 
sisted of  horse-races  and  exercises  of  the  youth,  under  a  proper  head  or  captain, 
wherein  the  utmost  dexterity  was  practised.  The  plays  of  Ceres  were  instituted  to 
please  the  ladies,  who  from  the  12th  to  the  20th  of  April  were  clad  in  white,  and,  in 
imitation  of  that  goddess,  went  with  a  torch  in  their  hands,  as  if  in  search  of  her 
daughter  Proserpine.  The  plays  of  Flora  were  so  offensive,  that  they  were  forced 
to  be  put  down,  common  women  appearing  publicly  naked  ;  and  in  the  night-time 
they  ran  about  with  links  in  their  hands,  dancing  in  lascivious  postures  to  the  sound 
of  musical  instruments,  and  singing  immodest  songs.  The  funeral  plays  were  plays 
in  honour  of  the  dead,  and  to  satisfy  their  ghosts.  There  were  numerous  instita- 
tions  under  the  name  of  plays.  Plays  were  first  acted  in  England  at  Clerkenwell, 
A.D.  1397.  The  first  company  of  players  that  received  the  sanction  of  a  patent  was 
that  of  James  Burbage,  and  others,  the  servants  of  the  earl  of  Leicester,  from  queen 
Elizabeth,  in  1574.     Plays  were  subjected  to  a  censorship  in  1737.~See  Drama. 

PLEADINGS.  In  the  early  courts  of  judicature  in  England,  pleadings  were  made  in 
the  Saxon  language  in  a.d.  786.  They  were  made  in  Norman-French  from  the 
period  of  the  Conquest  in  1066  ;  and  they  so  continued  until  the  36th  of  Edward 
III.  1362.  Cromwell  ordered  all  law  proceedings  to  be  taken  in  English  in  1650. 
The  Latin  was  used  in  conveyancing  in  our  courts  of  law  till  1731. 

PLUM.  Diospyros  Lotus,  the  Date-plum,  was  brought  from  Barbary,  before  a.d. 
1596.    The  Pishamin  Plum,  Diospyrot  virginiana,  came  from  America,  before  1629. 

PLURAL  NUMBER.  It  was  first  assumed  in  the  royal  style  by  the  kings  of  England. 
The  pronoun  we  was  first  used  instead  of  the  pronoun  I,  by  John,  king  of  England, 
in  1199. — Cohe*s  Instit.  According  to  other  authorities  the  plural  was  used  at  a 
later  date  of  the  same  reign. 

POET  LAUREAT.  Selden  could  not  trace  the  precise  origin  of  this  office.  The 
first  record  we  have  of  poet-laureat  in  England  is  in  the  35th  Henry  III.  1251.  The 
laureat  was  then  styled  the  king's  versifier,  and  a  hundred  shillings  were  his 
annual  stipend. — Warton  ;  Maddox,  Hist.  Exch,  Chaucer,  on  his  return  from 
abroad,  assumed  the  title  of  poet-laureat ;  and  in  the  12th  year  of  Richard  II.,  1389, 
he  obtained  a  grant  of  an  annual  allowance  of  wine.  James  I.  in  1615,  granted  to 
his  laureat  a  yearly  pension  of  100  marks  ;  and  in  1630,  this  stipend  was  augmented, 
by  letters-patent  of  Charles  I.  to  100/.  per  annum,  with  an  additional  grant  of  one 
tierce  of  Canary  Spanish  wine,  to  be  taken  out  of  the  king's  store  of  wine  yearly. 

NAHBS  OF  PBR80N8  WHO  PILLBD  THB  OFFICE  FROM  THB  RBIGN  OF  QUBSN  KLIZABBTB. 


Elizabeth  appointed  Edmund  Spenser, 

who  died   .....   a.d.  1598 
Bamuel  Daniel,  died  .         .        •    .  1619 

Ben  Jonson,  died  ....  1637 

Sir  William  Davenant,  died  .  .  .  1668 
John  Dryden  was  deposed  .  .  .  1688 
Thomas  Shadwell,  died     .         .        .    .  1692 


Nahum  Tate,  died  .  .  .  a.d.  1716 
The  rev.  Laurence  Ensden,  died  .  .  1730 
Colley  Gibber,  died        .         .        .         .1767 

WiUiam  Whitehead 1785 

Rev.  Dr.  Thomas  Warton      .        .        .  1790 

Henry  James  Pye *1813 

Dr.  Robert  Southey,  the  present  laureat. 


POETRY.  The  oldest,  rarest,  and  most  excellent  of  the  fine  arts,  and  highest  species 
of  refined  literature.  It  was  the  first  fixed  form  of  language,  and  the  earliest  per- 
petuation of  thought    It  existed  before  music  in  melody,  and  before  painting  in 


POI 


[  405  ] 


POL 


description. — Hazlitt,  The  exact  period  of  the  invention  of  poetry  is  uncertain. 
In  Scriptural  history,  the  song  of  Moses  on  the  signal  deliverance  of  the  Israelites, 
and  their  passage  through  the  Red  Sea,  is  said  to  be  the  most  ancient  piece  of  poetry 
in  the  world,  and  is  yery  sublime. — Exodus  xv.  Orpheus  of  Thrace  is  the  earliest 
author,  and  is  deemed  the  inventor  of  poetry  (at  least  in  the  western  part  of  the 
world),  about  1249  B.C.  Homer,  the  oldest  poet  whose  works  have  descended  to 
us,  flourished  about  907  B.C. — Parian  Marb.  Iambic  verse  (which  see)  was  intro- 
duced by  Archilochus,  700  B.C. — Du  Fresnop.  For  odes,  see  article  Odes.  We 
are  told  that  poetry  (or  more  properly  the  rules  of  poetry)  was  first  brought  to 
England  by  Aldhelme,  or  Adelmus,  abbot  of  Malmsbury,  about  the  close  of  the 
seventh  century. 

POITIERS,  Battle  of,  in  France,  between  Edward  the  Black  Prince  and  John  king 
of  France,  in  which  the  English  arms  triumphed.  The  standard  of  France  was 
overthrown,  and  many  of  her  distinguished  nobility  were  slain.  The  French  king  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  brought  to  London,  through  which  he  was  led  amidst  an  amazing 
concourse  of  spectators.  Two  kings,  prisoners  in  the  same  court,  and  at  the  same 
time,  were  considered  as  glorious  achievements ;  but  all  that  England  gained  by 
them  was  only  glory,  Sept.  19, 1356. — Carte, 

POISONING.  A  number  of  Roman  ladies  formed  a  conspiracy  for  poisoning  their 
husbands,  which  they  too  fatally  carried  into  effect.  A  female  slave  denounced  170 
of  them  to  Fabius  Maximus,  who  ordered  them  to  be  publicly  executed,  331  B.C.  It 
is  said  that  this  was  the  first  public  knowledge  they  had  of  poisoning  at  Rome. 
Poisoning  was  made  petty  treason  in  England,  and  was  punished  by  boiling  to  death 
(of  which  there  were  some  remarkable  instances)  23  Henry  YIII.  1532.  See 
article  Boiling  to  Death, 

POLAND.  Anciently,  the  country  of  the  Vandals,  who  emigrated  from  it  to  invade 
the  Roman  empire.  It  became  a  duchy  under  Lechus  I.  a.d.  550  ;  and  a  kingdom 
under  Boleslaus  a.d.  999.  Poland  was  dismembered  by  the  emperor  of  Germany, 
the  empress  of  Russia,  and  king  of  Prussia,  who  seized  the  most  valuable  territories 
in  1772.  It  was  finally  partitioned,  and  its  political  existence  annihilated,  by  the 
above  powers,  in  1795*.  The  king  formally  resigned  his  crown  at  Grodno,  and  was 
afterward  removed  to  Petersburgh,  where  he  remained  a  kind  of  state  prisoner  till 
his  death  in  1798.     With  him  ended  the  kingdom  of  Poland. 


PiastuB,  a  peasant,  is  elected  to  the  ducal 
dignity  ....         a.d. 

[Piastus  lived  to  the  age  of  120,  and  his 
reign  was  so  prosperous  that  every  suo- 
ceeding  native  sovereign  was  called  a 
Piast.] 

Introduction  of  Christianity 

Red  Russia  added  to  Poland       .         .    . 

Boleslaus  II.  murders  the  hishop  of  Cra- 
cow with  his  own  hands ;  his  kingdom 
laid  under  an  interdict  by  the  pope, 
and  his  subjects  absolved  of  their  alle- 

'   glance 

He  flies  to  Himgary  for  shelter ;  but  is 
refused  it  by  order  of  Gregory  VII.,  and 
he  at  length  kills  himself        .        .    . 

Uladislaus  deposed        .... 

Premislaus  assassinated     .  .    . 

Louis  of  Hungary  elected  king 


842 


992 
1059 


1060 


1081 
1102 
1296 
1370 


War  against  the  Teutonic  knights      .    . 

The  Wallachians  treacherously  carry  off 
100,000  Poles,  and  sell  them  to  the 
Turks  as  slaves  .        .        *        . 

Splendid  reign  of  Sigismund  II.  .    . 

Stephen  forms  a  militia  composed  of 
Cossacks,  a  barbarous  race,  on  whom 
he  bestows  the  Ukraine 

Abdication  of  John  Casimir       .         .    . 

Massacre  of  the  Protestants  at  Thorn 

Stanislaus*  unhappy  reign  begins       .    . 

He  abolishes  torture      .         .         .         . 

An  awful  pestilence  sweeps  away  260,000 
of  the  people  .         .         .         .    . 

The  evils  of  civil  war  so  weaken  the  king- 
dom, it  falls  an  easy  prey  to  the  royal 
plunderers,  the  empress  of  Russia,  em- 
peror of  Austria,  and  king  of  Prussia  . 


1447 


1498 
1648 


1676 
1669 
1724 
1763 
1770 

1770 


The  flrst  partition  treaty 


1772 
Feb.  17,  1772 


*  An  act  of  si>oliation  more  unprincipled  never  dishonoured  crowned  heads.  For  a  century  pre- 
viously, the  balance  of  i>ower  had  engaged  the  attention  of  the  politicians  of  Europe ;  but  in  permit- 
ting this  odious  crime,  such  an  object  appears  to  have  been  totally  lost  sight  of.  Austria  and  Prussia 
had  long  been  deadly  enemies,  and  both  hated  Russia ;  yet  they  now  conspired  against  a  country 
they  were  each  pledged  to  protect,  and  with  unexampled  profligacy  became  leagued  in  a  scheme  of 
plunder  consummated  by  the  destruction  of  500,000  lives !  Russia  seized  Lithuania,  and  all  that  part 
to  the  eastward  which  suited  her.  Austria  took  Oallicia,  the  most  fertile  of  the  provinces,  lying 
contiguous  to  her  own  dominions ;  and  Prussia  secured  the  maritime  districts.  The  most  extraordi- 
nary circumstance  attending  this  affair  was  the  total  inaction  of  the  two  great  powers,  England  and 
France,  whose  supineness  in  a  more  recent  Instance  also  is  rebuked  by  policy  as  well  as  justice,  and 
deplored  by  the  good  and  brave  among  mankind. 


POL 


[406] 


POL 


POLAND,  continued. 

The  public  partition  treaty      .    Aug.  5,  177S 
A  new  oonstitution  ia  formed  by  the  vir- 
tuous Btanidaua  MajSi  1791 
[The  royal  and  imperial  spoliators,  on 
▼arions  pretexts*  pour  their  armies 
into  Poland,  17S8,  et  teq.'] 
The  hraTe  Poles,  under  Poniatowaki  and 
Kosoiusko,  sereral  times  contend  sno- 
oeasf  ully  against  superior  armies,  but 
in  the  end  axe  defeated.    Kosciusko, 
wounded  and  taken,is  carried  prisoner 

toRuasia 1794 

Buwarrow's  Tiotories  and  massacres  .    .1794 
BatUe  of  Warsaw  Oct  12,  1794 

[Here  Suwarrow  subsequently  butchov 
.10,000  Poles  of  all  ages  and  conditions 
in  cold  blood.] 
Courland  is  annexed  to  Russia  .        .    .  179A 
Stanislaus  resigns  his  crown ;  final  par- 

tition  of  his  kingdom  Nor.  S6,  1795 

HUMduako  set  at  liberty  .        .    Dec.  25,  1796 
He  arrives  in  London  May  30,  1797 

Stanislaus    dies   at    St.    Petersburgh, 

Feb.  12, 1796 
Treaty  of  Tilsit  {which  see)  July  7,  1607 

[The  central  provinces  form  the  duchy 

of  Warsaw,  between  1807  and  1813.] 
General  Diet  at^  Warsaw    .        .    June,  1812 
New  oonstitution  .  Nov*  1815 


Polish  Diet  opened    .  Sept.  1820 
Late  revoluticm  commenced  at  Warsaw; 
the  army  declare  in  favour  of  the  peo- 
ple     Nov.  89,  1830 

The  Diet  declares  the  throne  of  Poland 

vacant    ....         Jan.  25,  1831 
Battle  of  Gzowchow,  near  Praga :  the 
Russians  lose  7000  men ;  the  Poles,  who 
keep  the  field,  2000     .        .     Feb.  SO,  1831 
Battle  of  Wawz  (which  see)      March  31 ,  1831 
The  insurrection  spreads  to  Wilna  and 

Volhynia  .        Aprils.  1831 

Battle  of  Zelicho(t0AfeA«tfe)    .    April  6,  1831 
Battle  of  Seidlez  .       April  10,  1831 

Battle  of  Ostrolenka  {which  sec),  signal 

defeat  of  the  Russians  .    May  26,  1831 

The  Russian,  Diebitsch.  dies    .  June  10,  1831 
Battle  of  Wilna  (see  Wilna)    .  June  19,  1831 
Grand  Duke  Constantine  dies     June  27,  1831 
Battle  of  Winsk  (see  TTinfft)  .    July  14,  1831 
Warsaw  taken  (see  Warsaw)       Sept.  8,  1831 
[This  last  fatal  event  terminated   the 
monorable  and  glorious,  but  unfor^ 
tunate  struggle  of  the  Poles.] 
Ukase  issued  by  the  emperor  Nicholas, 
decreeing  that  the  kingdom  of  Poland 
shall  henceforth  form  an  integral  part 
of  the  Russian  empire  Feb.  26,  1832 


DCKS8  AND  KXN06  OW  FOLAIO). 


A.D.  550. 

700. 

*  * 

750. 
760. 

804. 

810. 

815. 

830. 

842. 

861. 

892. 

913. 

964. 

999. 
1025. 
1041. 
1058. 
1082. 
1102. 
1140. 
1146. 
117a 
1178. 
1194. 
1200. 


120a 
1206. 


Lechus  I.  His  posterity  held  the  duke- 
dom for  about  150  years. 

Cracusl. 

Cracus  H.,  assassinated  by  his  brother. 

Lechus  n.,  deposed* 

Venda,  drowned  herself. 

Premidaus,  who  on  being  elected  was 
named  Lescus. 

Lescus  II.,  killed  by  the  French. 

Lescus  m. 

Popiel  I. 

Popiel  n. 

Piastus,  a  country  peasant. 

Zemovitus. 

Lescus  lY. 

Zemomlslaus. 

Mieoislaus,  sumamed  the  Blind. 

Boleslaus  I.,  sumamed  the  Intrepid. 

Mieoislaus  II.,  went  mad. 

Casimir  the  Pacific. 

Boleslaus  IL,  killed  himself. 

Uladislaus.  sumamed  Humanus. 

Boleslaus  III ,  sumamed  Wry-month. 

Uladislausn.,fied. 

Boleslaus  lY.,  the  Curled. 

Mieoislaus  III.,  dejwBed. 

Casimir  U.,  sumamed  the  Just 

Lescus  Y.,  relinquished. 

Mieoislaus  lY.,  whose  tyranny  in  a  few 
months  restored  Lescus  Y. ;  but  for 
bad  conduct  he  was  again  forced  to 
relinquish  the  government. 

TTladislaus  HI. ;  he  voluntarily  retired. 

Lescus  Y.,  a  third  time,  being  chosen 
by  the  nobles,  assassinated ;  succeeded 
by  his  son,  an  infant. 


he 


1228.  Boleslaus  Y.,  the  Chaste. 

I279>  Leseus  YI.,  sumamed  the  Black,  son 
of  Conrad,  brother  of  Lescus  Y.,  died 
1289.  An  interr^num  of  fire  years, 
when  the  Poles  chose 

1295.  Premislaus.  great  duke  of  Poland, 

slnated. 

1296.  Uladislaus  lY.,  sumamed  Loetious  . 

refused  the  title  of  king ;  deposed. 
1300.  WincesUius. 
1306.  Uladishkus  lY.  again. 
133a  Casimir  the  Great,  killed  by  a  fall  from 

his  horse,  while  hunting. 
1370.  Lewis,  king  of  Hungary,  succeeded  by 

his  daughter, 
138a  Hedwigis,  who  married,  in 
1385.  Jagellon,  duke  of  Lithuania,  who  em- 
braced the  Cliristian  religion,  and  took 

the  name  of 
Uladislaus  Y. ;   united  Lithuania    to 

Poland. 
1434.  Uladislaus  YL,  killed  in  battle. 
1444.  Boleslaus,  duke  of  Massovia. 
1447.  Casimir  lY. 
1492.  John  Albert. 
1502.  Alexander,  prince  of  Livonia. 
1507-  Sigismund  I. 

1548.  Sigismund  II.,  Augustus,  chose 
157a  Henry  of  Yalois,  duke  of  Ax^jou,  sucqeed- 

ing  to  the  French  throne. 
1876.  StephenBattory.princeofTransylvania. 
1587.  Sigismund  lU.,   son   to  the   king   of 

Sweden. 
1632.  Uladislaus  Yn. 
1648.  John  Casimir,  abdicated. 
1669.  Michael  Koribert  Wiesnown. 


POL  Q  407  ]  POL 


1710.  Frederick  Augustus  II,,  again. 

1733.  Stanislaus  I.,  again. 

1733.  Frederick  Augustus  in. 

1764.  Stanislaus  Augustus,  resigns  the  crown. 


POLAND,  cantimted, 

A.D.  1674.  John  Sobieski,  died  in  1697.    An  inter- 
r^;num  for  a  year. 
1696.  Frederick  Augustus  n.,  forced  to  resign. 
1704.  Stanislaus  I.,  Leczinsky,  forced  to  re- 
tire in  1710. 

So  late  as  the  13th  centnry,  the  Poles  retained  the  custom  of  killing  old  men  when 
past  labour,  and  such  children  as  were  born  imperfect. 
POLAR  REGIONS.  For  Voyages  of  Discovery  to  the,  see  North-Weat  Passage, 
POLE  STAR.  A  star  of  the  second  magnitude,  the  last  in  the  tail  of  the  constellation 
called  the  Little  Bear ;  its  nearness  to  the  North  Pole  causes  it  never  to  set  to 
those  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  therefore  it  is  called  the  seaman's  guide. 
The  discovery  of  the  Pole  Star  is  ascribed  by  the  Chinese  to  their  emperor  Hong  Ti, 
the  grandson  (they  say)  of  Noah,  who  reigned  and  flourished  1970  b.c. — Univ,  Hist. 

POLICE.  That  of  London  has  been  extended  and  regulated  at  various  periods.  Its 
jurisdiction  was  extended  27  Elizabeth  1585,  and  16  Charles  I.  1640 ;  and  the 
system  improved  by  various  acts  in  subsequent  reigns.  The  London  police  grew 
out  of  the  London  watch,  instituted  about  1253.  Police  statutes  5,  11,  32,  and  54 
George  III.  The  magistracy  at  Bow-street  has  been  long  established.  The  juris- 
diction of  twenty-one  magistrates,  three  to  preside  in  each  of  the  seven  divisional 
4>ffice8,  commenced  August  1,  1792.  The  Thames  police  was  established  in  1798. 
The  London  police  was  remodelled  by  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Robert)  Peel,  by  statute 
10  George  IV.,  June  19,  1829,  and  commenced  duty  September  29  following. 
The  London  Police  Improvement  Act  passed  3  Victoria,  August  17,  1839.  Another 
ACt,  August  7,  1840.  The  Dublin  police  commenced  September  29,  1786,  and  was 
remodelled  by  statute  48  George  III.  1807,  and  5  George  IV.  1824.  New  Dublin 
Police  Act  passed  July  4,  1 836.     See  Constabulary, 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY,  or  improvement  of  the  condition  of  mankind.  A  science 
justly  viewed  as  the  great  high-road  to  public  and  private  happiness.  Its  history 
may  be  dated  from  the  publication  of  Dr.  Adam  Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations ^  1776. 

POLITICIANS.  A  politician  is  described  as  a  man  well  versed  in  policy,  or  the  well 
regulating  and  governing  of  a  state  or  kingdom ;  a  wise  and  cunning  man. — Pardon, 
The  term  was  first  used  in  France  about  a'.d.  1569. — Henanlt. 

POLL-ACT,  Ireland.  An  iniqmtous  act  passed  in  this  country  by  the  Junto  of  the 
Pale,  putting  a  price  upon  the  heads  of  certain  ancient  Irish,  the  earl  of  Desmond 
deputy,  5  Edward  IV.  1465. 

POLL-TAX.  The  tax  so  called  was  first  levied  m  England  a.d.  1378.  The  rebellion 
of  Wat  Tyler  sprung  from  this  impost  (see  Tyle'i)^  1381.  It  was  again  levied  in 
1513.  By  the  18th  Charles  II.  every  subject  was  assessed  by  the  head,  viz. — a 
duke  100/.,  a  marquis  80/.,  a  baronet  30/.,  a  knight  20/.,  an  esquire  10/.,  and  every 
single  private  person  12<f.,  1667.  This  grievous  impost  was  abolished  by  William 
III.  at  the  period  of  the  Revolution. 

POLOTSK,  Battle  of.  The  French  under  marshal  Oudinot  were  defeated  by  the 
Russians  under  general  Wittgenstein,  July  30  and  31,  1812.  The  same  armies 
contending  the  next  day,  the  Russians  were  defeated.  Polotsk  was  stormed  by  the 
Russians,  and  retaken,  October  20, 1812. 

POLTROON.  From  PoUex  truncatus,  meaning  the  cutting  off  of  the  thumb.  The 
conscripts  of  France,  in  former  days,  cut  off  their  thumbs  to  avoid  serving  in  the 
army ;  hence  the  French  used  poltron,  for  coward. 

POLYGAMY.  Most  of  the  early  nations  of  the  world  admitted  polygamy.  It  was 
general  among  the  ancient  Jews,  and  is  still  so  amx>ng  the  Turks  and  Persians.  In 
Media,  it  was  a  reproach  to  a  man  to  have  less  than  seven  wives.  Among  the 
Romans,  Marc  Antony  is  mentioned  as  the  first  who  took  two  wives ;  and  the 
practice  became  frequent  until  forbidden  by  Arcadius  a.d.  393.  The  emperor 
Charles  V.  punished  this  offence  with  death.  In  England,  by  statute  1  James  I. 
1603,  it  was  made  felony,  but  with  benefit  of  clergy.  This  offence  is  now  punished 
vrith  transportation. — See  Marriages. 

POLYGLOT.  The  term  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words  denoting  "  many  languages,"  and 
it  is  chiefly  used  for  the  Bible  so  printed.  The  Polyglot  Bible,  termed  the  Comptu- 
tensian  Polyglot,  in  6  vols,  folio,  was  printed  a.d.  1514-17  ;  the  first  edition  at  the 
expense  of  the  celebrated  Cardinal  Ximenes.     Three  copies  of  it  were  printed  on 


POL  [^  408  2  PON 

Teliam.  Count  MacCarthy,  of  Tooloose,  paid  483/.  for  one  of  these  copies  at  the 
Pinelli  rale.  The  second  Polyglot  was  printed  at  Antwerp,  hy  Montanns,  8  yoIs. 
folio,  in  1569.  The  third  was  printed  at  Paris,  by  Le  Jay,  in  10  yols.  folio,  1628-45. 
The  fourth,  in  London,  printed  by  Bryan  Walton,  in  6  vols,  folio,  1657. — Burnet. 

POLYPUS.  An  insect,  named  Hydra  on  account  of  its  property  of  reproducing  itself 
when  cut  in  pieces,  every  part  soon  becoming  a  perfect  animal;  first  discovered  by 
Leuwenhoek,  and  described  by  him  in  the  Philosophical  Trans,  1703 ;  but  the 
wonderful  property  in  question  was  not  thoroughly  ascertained  till  March  1740, 
when  Mr.  Trembly  made  it  manifest.  The  polypi  are  of  the  order  of  Zoophytes  ; 
they  partake  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  nature,  and  therefore  are  justly  placed  as 
the  link  which  joins  the  animal  to  the  vegetable  world.  Two  polypi  cut  asunder, 
and  joined  at  either  end,  become  one  ;  and  one  species  may  be  turned  inside  out, 
and  live  as  before. 

POMEGRANATE  TREE,  Punica  Granatum,  was  brought  to  England  from  Spain 
before  a.d.  1584.  It  originally  came  from  Spanish  America.  In  Peru,  the  fruit  is 
said  to  have  been  found  as  large  as  a  barrel ;  and  the  Spaniards,  by  way  of  curiosity, 
used  to  carry  it  in  the  procession  of  the  sacrament. 

POMFRET  CASTLE.  Built  a.d.  1069.  Here  Richard  II.  was  confined  and 
murdered.  Henry  IV.,  by  whom  he  was  deposed,  wishing  for  his  death,  one  of  the 
assassins  of  the  court,  attended  by  eight  followers,  rushed  into  the  apartment  of  the 
unfortunate  king.  Richard,  concluding  that  their  design  was  to  take  away  his  life, 
resolved  not  to  fall  unrevenged  ;  wherefore,  wresting  his  pole-ax  from  one  of  the 
murderers,  he  soon  laid  four  of  their  number  dead  at  his  feet.  But  he  was  at  length 
overpowered,  and  struck  dead  by  the  blow  of  a  pole-ax,  February  13, 1400;  In  this 
.  castle  also,  the  earl  Rivers,  lord  Gray,  sir  Thomas  Vaughan,  and  sir  Richard 
Hawse  were  executed,  or  rather  murdered,  by  order  of  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  then 
Protector  of  England,  (afterwards  Richard  HI.,)  June  13,  1483. 

POMPEII,  Ruins  of.  This  ancient  city  of  Campania  was  partly  demolished  by  an 
earthquake  in  A.n.  63.  It  was  afterwards  rebuilt,  and  was  swallowed  up  by  an 
awful  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  accompanied  by  an  earthquake,  on  the  night  of  the  24th 
of  August,  A.D.  79.  Many  of  the  principal  citizens  happened  at  the  time  to  be 
assembled  at  a  theatre  where  public  spectacles  were  exhibited.  The  ashes  buried  the 
whole  city,  and  covered  the  surrounding  country.  After  a  lapse  of  fifteen  centuries, 
a  countryman,  as  he  was  turning  up  the  ground,  accidentally  found  a  bronze  figure ; 
and  this  discovery  attracting  the  attention  of  the  learned,  further  search  brought 
numerous  productions  to  light,  and  at  length  the  city  was  once  more  shone  on  by 
the  sun.  Different  monarchs  have  contributed  their  aid  in  uncovering  the  buried 
city  ;  the  part  first  cleared  was  supposed  to  be  the  main  street,  a.d.  1750. 

PONDICHERRY.  Formerly  the  capital  of  French  India,  and  first  settled  by  the 
French  in  1674.  It  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Dutch  in  1693,  and  was  besi^ed 
by  the  English  in  1748.  It  was  taken  by  our  forces  in  January  1761,  and  was 
restored  in  1763.  Again  taken  October  1778,  and  restored  in  1783.  Pondicherry 
was  once  more  captured  by  the  British,  August  23,  1793  ;  and  finally  in  1803. 

PONTUS.  The  early  history  of  this  country  (which  seems  to  have  been  but  a  portion 
of  Cappadocia,  and  received  its  name  from  its  vicinity  to  the  Pontus  Etueinus)  is 
very  obscure.  Artabazus  was  made  king  of  Pontus  by  Darius  Hystaspes.  His 
successors  were  little  more  than  satraps  or  lieutenants  of  the  kings  of  Persia,  and 
are  scarcely  known  even  by  name. 

Artabazes  made  king  of  Pontus  by  Da- 
rius Hystaspes       .        .         .         B.G.    487 

Reign  of  Mithridates  I.  .         .         .    3R3 

Ariobarzanes  invades  Pontus     .         .    .    363 

Mithridates  11.  recovers  it     .         .         .    336 

Mithridates  III.  reigns       .         .        .    .    301 

Ariobarzanes  II.  reigns  .         .         .    266 

Mithridates  lY .  is  besieged  in  his  capital 
by  the  Gauls,  &c.  .         .         .    .    252 

Mithridates  makes  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tack upon  the  free  city  of  Sinope,  and 
is  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  by  the 
Rhodians 219 


Reign  of  Phamaces ;  he  takes  Sinope,  b  c. 
and  makes  it  the  capital  of  his  kingdom  183 
Reign  of  Mithridates  y.  .  .  .157 
He  is  murdered  in  the  midst  of  his  court  123 
Mithridates  YI.,  sumamed  the  Great, 
or  Eupator,  receives  the  diadem  at  19 

years  of  age 1S3 

Marries  Laodioe,  his  own  sistetr      .         .    115 
She  attempts  to  poison  him ;  he  puts  her 

and  her  accomplices  to  death      .         .112 
Mithridates  makes  a  glorious  campaign ; 
conquers  Scythia,  Bosphoms,  Colchis, 
and  other  countries   .        .        .        .ill 


PON  [_  409  ]  POP 


PONTUS,  continued. 


He  enters  Gappadocia        .        •        b.c.     97 
His  war  with  Rome      ....      89 
Tigranes  ravages  Gappadocia     .         .    .  ,   86 
Mithridates  enters  Bithynia,  and  makes 
himself  master  of  many  Roman  pro- 
vinces, and  puts  80,000  Romans  to 

death 86 

Archelaus  defeated  by  Sylla,  at  Chs- 

ronea:  100,000  Cappadocians  slain      .      86 
Tictories  and  conquests  of  Mithridates 

up  to  this  time  .         .         .         •     7^ 

The  fleet  of  Mithridates  defeats  that  un- 
der Lucullus,  in  two  battles  .         .    .     73 
Mithridates  defeated  by  Lucullus  .         .      69 
Mithridates  defeats  Fabius        .        .    .      68 


But  is  defeated  by  Pompey    .        .    b.c.     66 
Mithridates  stabs  himself,  and  dies    .    .     63 
Reign  of  Pharnaces      ....      63 
Battle  of  2^1a  (see  Zela) ;  Pharnaces  de- 
feated by  Caesar 47 

Darius  reigns 39 

Polemon,  son  of  Zeno,  reigns     .         .    .     36 
Polemon  II.  succeeds  his  father        a.o.      33 
Mithridates  VU.  reigns     .         .         .    .      40 
Pontus  afterwards  became  a  Roman  pro- 
vince, under  the  emperors. 
Alexis  Ciomnenus  founded  a  new  empire 
of  the  Greeks  at  Trebisond,  in  this 
country,  a.d.  1204,  which  continued  till 
the  Turks  destroyed  it,  in  1459. 

POOR  LAWS.  The  poor  of  England  till  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  subsisted,  as  the 
poor  of  Ireland  do  to  this  day,  entirely  upon  private  beneTolence.  By  an  ancient 
statute,  23  Edward  III.  1348,  it  was  enacted  that  none  should  giye  alms  to  a  beggar 
able  to  work.  By  the  common  law,  the  poor  were  to  be  sustained  by  "  parsons, 
rectors  of  the  church,  and  parishioners,  so  that  none  should  die  for  default  of  sus- 
tenance ;''  and  by  statute  15  Richard  II.  impropriators  were  obliged  to  distribute 
a  yearly  sum  to  the  poor.  But  no  compulsory  law  was  enacted  till  the  27th  Henry 
VI 11.,  1535.  The  origin  of  the  present  system  of  poor  laws  is  referred  to  the  43d 
of  Elizabeth,  1600. 


In  1815,  the  Poor  Rates  were  .  £5,418.845 

1820,  they  amounted  to           .  7*329,594 

1828,  they  amounted  to       .  7»642,171 

1830,  they  amounted  to          .  8,111,422 

1835,  they  amounted  to       .  6.356,345 

1840,  they  amounted  to          .  5,468,699 


In  1580,  the  Poor  Rates  were  .        ^  188,811 

1680,  they  amounted  to  .  .         665,562 

1698,  they  amounted  to  .            819,000 

1760,  they  amounted  to  .  .    .  1,556,804 

1785,  they  amounted  to  .          2,184,950 

1802,  they  amounted  to  .  .    .  4,952,421 

The  Poor  Law  Amendment  Bill  was  passed  4  and  5  William  IV.^  August  1834. 
This  important  statute  was  followed  by  Amendment  Acts,  6  and  7  William  IV. 
1836,  and  Act  1  Victoria,  11th  June,  1838.  The  Poor  Law  Ireland  Act  was 
passed  2  Victoria,  July  31,  1838,  and  was  amended  2  Victoria,  March  15, 1839. 

POOR  KNIGHTS  of  WINDSOR.  Instituted  by  Henry  VIII.  in  his  testament, 
1546-7.  Their  original  number  was  thirteen,  but  the  knights  were  subsequently 
increased  to  twenty-eight ;  and  the  institution  underwent  various  modifications  from 
time  to  time. 

POPE.  This  title  was  originally  given  to  all  bishops.  It  was  first  adopted  by  Hygenus, 
A.D.  138  ;  and  pope  Boniface  III.  procured  Phocas,  emperor  of  the  East,  to  confine 
it  to  the  prelates  of  Rome,  606.  By  the  connivance  of  Phocas  also,  the  pope's 
supremacy  over  the^  Christian  church  was  established.  The  custom  of  kissing  the 
pope's  toe  was  introduced  in  708.  The  first  sovereign  act  of  the  popes  of  Rome 
was  by  Adrian  I.,  who  caused  money  to  be  coined  with  his  name,  780.  Sergius  II. 
was  the  first  pope  who  changed  his  name,  on  his  election  in  844.  Some  contend 
that  it  was  Sergius  I.,  and  others  John  XII.  or  Xlll.  See  Names.  John  XVIII. 
a  layman,  was  made  pope  1024.  The  first  pope  who  kept  an  army  was  Leo  IX. 
1054.  Gregory  VII.  obliged  Henry  IV.,  emperor  of  Germany,  to  stand  three  days 
in  the  depth  of  winter,  barefooted  at  his  castle  gate,  to  implore  his  pardon,  1077. 
The  pope's  authority  was  firmly  fixed  in  England  1079.  Appeals  from  English 
tribunals  to  the  pope  were  introduced  19  Stephen,  1154. —  Viner's  Statutes.  Henry 
II.  of  England  held  the  stirrup  for  pope  Alexander  III.  to  mount  his  horse,  1161 ; 
and  also  for  Becket,  1170*.  Celestine  III.  kicked  the  emperor  Henry  VI. 's  crown 
off  his  head  while  kneeling,  to  show  his  prerogative  of  making  and  unmaking  kings, 
1191.    The  pope  collected  the  tenths  of  the  whole  kingdom  of  England,  1226.    The 

-M , ■     ■  ll._..    ■__llllll  II  - — ^^^.^^^M^i^B^^ 

*  "When  Louis,  king  of  France,  and  Henry  II.  of  England,  met  pope  Alexander  III.  at  the  castle 
of  Torci,  on  the  Loire,  they  both  dismounted  to  receive  him,  and  holding  each  of  them  one  of  the 
reins  of  his  bridle,  walked  on  foot  by  his  side,  and  conducted  him  in  that  submissive  manner  into 
the  castle."— fTume.  Pope  Adrian  IV.  was  the  only  Englishman  that  ever  obtained  the  tiara.  His 
arrogance  was  such,  that  he  obliged  Frederick  I.  to  prostrate  himself  before  him,  kiss  his  foot,  hold 
his  stirrup,  and  lead  the  white  palfrey  on  which  he  rode.  His  name  was  Nicholas  Brekespeare,  a 
native  of  Abbots-Langley,  a  village  near  St.  Alban's,  Herts.    He  was  elected  to  the  popedom  in  1154. 


POP 


[410] 


POP 


papal  seat  was  removed  to  Ayignon,  in  France,  in  1308,  for  seventy  years.  The 
Holy  See*s  demands  on  Englwod  were  refdsed  by  parliament,  1363.  Appeals  to 
Rome  from  England  were  abolished  1533. — Viner.  The  words  "  Lord  Pope"  were 
stnick  out  of  all  English  books,  1541.  The  papal  authority  declined  about  1600. 
Kissing  the  pope's  toe,  and  other  ceremonies,  were  abolished  by  Clement  XIV.  1773. 
The  pope  became  destitute  of  all  political  influence  in  Europe,  1787.  Pius  VI.  was 
burnt  in  effigy  at  Paris,  1791.  He  made  submission  to  the  French  republic,  1796. 
Was  expelled  from  Rome,  and  deposed,  February  22,  1798,  and  died  at  Valence, 
August  19,  1799.  Pius  VII.  was  elected  in  exile,  March  13,  1800.  He  crowned 
Napoleon,  December  2,  1804.  Was  dethroned  May  13,  1809.  Remained  a  pri- 
soner at  Fontainebleau  till  Napoleon's  overthrow;  and  was  restored  May  24,  1814. 
See  Rome  ;  R^ormatum  ;  Tiara^  &c. 


A.D. 


FOPXS  OP  ROMS. 

33.  8t.  Peter,  martyred. 

440.  Leo  I.,  the  Great. 

66.  St.  Linus,  martyred. 

461.  Hilary. 

67.  St  Clement,  abdicated. 

468.  Simpliciua. 

77«  St.  CletuB,  martyred. 

• 

48a  Felix  lU. 

83.  St.  AnacUtus. 

4»2.  GelasiuB. 

96  St  Evaristus,  coadjutor  to  the  former, 

496.  Anastasius  n. 

martyred. 

496.  Symmachus. 

106.  8t  Alexander  L,  martyred. 

514.  HoxmisdaB. 

117.  St.  SixtusL,  martyred. 

52a  John  I.,  died  in  prison  at  Ravonna. 

1S7.  Telesphonu,  martyred. 

526.  Felix  IV. 

138.  Hygeous,  martyred.     The 

firat  called 

530.  Boniface  IL 

pope. 

533.  John  11. 

142.  Pius  I.,  martyred. 

535.  Agapetus. 

150.  Anicetus,  martyred. 

53&  Sylvester;  hewaamadeprisoner  by  the 

162.  Boter. 

antipope  Vigilius,  who  enjoyed  the 

171.  EleutherluB,  martyred. 

papacy. 

185.  Victor  L,  martyred. 

538.  Vigilius,  banished,  and  reetored. 

197*  Zephyrinus,  martyred. 

555.  Pelagius  L 

217*  Callxtus  I.,  martyred. 

560.  John  ni. 

222.  Urban  I.,  martyred. 

574.  Benedict  I. 

230.  Pontianua,  martyred. 

578.  Pelagius  U. 

235.  Anterua,  martyred. 

590.  Gregory  the  Great. 

236.  Fabian,  martyred. 

604.  Sabiamua. 

236.  Novatianua ;  antipope. 

606.  Boniface  Ul. 

250.  Corneliua,  beheaded 

608.  Boniface  IV. 

252.  Lucius  I.,  martyred. 

615.  Deusdedit 

254.  Stephen  I.,  martyred. 

6ia  Boniface  V. 

257.  SIxtuB  II.,  coadjutor    to 

the  former. 

624.  Honoriua  L 

martyred. 

640.  Severinus. 

269.  DionyaiuB. 

640.  John  IV. 

269.  Felix  L 

642.  Theodorua. 

274.  Eutychianua. 

649.  Martin  I. ;  atarved  to  death. 

283.  Caius. 

654.  EugeniusL 

295.  Marcelllnua,  martyred. 

657.  Vitalianus. 

304.  Marcellua  I.,  martyred. 

672.  Adeodatus. 

310.  Euaebiua,  martyred. 

676.  Bonus. 

310.  Melohiadea,  coadjutor  to  the  former. 

679.  Agatho. 

314.  Sylvester. 

682.  Leon. 

336.  Marcus. 

684.  Benedict  IL 

33';.  Julius  L 

685.  John  V. 

3SSt.  Liberius,  banished. 

686.  C!onon. 

356.  Felix  IL ;  antipope. 

686.  Theodore  and  Paaoan ;  antipopes. 

358.  Liberius,  again,  abdicated. 

687.  Sergius. 

35&  Felix  became  legal  pope,  but  was  killed 

701.  John  VL 

by  Liberius. 

705.  John  Vn. 

369.  Liberius,  again. 

708.  SisinniuB. 

366.  DamasiaB. 

70a  Constantine. 

385.  SiriciuB. 

715.  Gregory  n. 

399.  Anastasiua. 

731.  Gregory  in. 

401.  Innocent  I. 

741.  Zacharias. 

417.  Zosimus. 

752.  Stephen  n,  governed  only  4  daya. 

4ia  Boniface  I. 

752.  Stephen  ni. 

422.  Celestinua  I. 

757.  Paul  I. 

432.  SixtusIII. 

1 

768.  Stephen  IV. 

POP 


[411] 


POP 


POP£S,  continued. 

A.D.  773.  Adrian  I. 
796.  Leo  in. 

816.  Stephen  Y. 

817.  Paaohal  L 
824.  Engenius  IL 

857.  Talentinus. 
828.  Gregory  IV. 
844.  SergiusIL 
847.  Leo  IV. 
855.  Benedict  UL 

858.  Nicholas  L 
867.  Adrian  n. 
872.  John  ym. 

882.  Martin  n. 

883.  Adrian  HL 
885.  Stephen  YI. 
891.  FormoBUs. 

896.  Boniface  TI. 

897.  Romanus,  antipope. 
897.  Stephen  YII. 

896.  Theodorua  DL,  goremed  22  days. 
896.  John  IX. 
900.  Benedict  lY. 

904.  Leo  Y.,  kiUedby  Christiphilus. 

905.  SergiusUI. 
9ia  Anastasiusin. 

914.  Laudo. 

915.  John  X.,  was  stifled. 
928.  Leo  YI.  

999.  Stephen  Ym. 
931.  John  XI. 
936.  Leo  Yn. 
939.  Stephen  IX. 
943.  Martin  III. 
946.  AgapetusII. 
956.  JohnXIL 

963.  Leo  YIIL,  turned  out. 

964.  Benedict  Y.,  banished. 

964.  Leo  Yin. 

965.  Benedict  Y.,  again. 
965.  John  Xm. 

972.  Benedict  YL 

974.  Domus.    

975.  Benedict  Yn. 
975.  Boniface  Vn. 
984.  John  XIY. 

965.  John  XY.,  died  before  consecration. 

966.  John  XYL 
996.  Gregory  Y. 
999.  Silvester  II. 

1003.  John  XYI. 

1004.  John  XYIL 
1009.  SerginsYI. 
1012.  Benedict  Ym. 
1024.  John  XYm. 

1033.  Benedict  IX.,  deposed. 

1045.  Gregory  YI. 

1046.  Clement  n. 

1047.  Benedict  IX.,  again,  abdicated. 

1048.  Damasiusn. 

1049.  Leo  IX. 
1055.  Yictor  IL 

1057.  Stephen  X. 

1058.  Nicholas  n. 
1061.  Alexander  II. 
1073.  Gregory  YIL 

1086.  Yictor  ni,  poisoned. 
1068.  Urban  U. 


1099.  Paschal  n. 

1118.  Gelasius  IL 

1119.  CalixtusIL 
1124.  Honorius  IL 
1130.  Innocent  n. 

1143.  Cdestine  n. 

1144.  Lucius  n. 

1145.  Eugeniusm. 

1153.  Anastasius  lY.,  a  short  |{me. 

1154.  Adrian  lY.,  choked  by  %  fly  as  he  was 

drinking. 
1159.  Alexander  m. 
1181.  Lucius  m. 
1185.  Urban  in. 
1187.  Gregory  Ym. 
1187.  Clement  m. 
1191.  CiBlestineni. 
1198.  Innocent  in. 
1216.  Honorius  nL 
1227.  Gr^orylX. 
1241.  CiBlestine  lY. 
1243.  Innocent  lY. 
1254.  Alexander  lY. 
1261.  Urban  lY. 
1265.  Clement  lY. 
1271.  Gregory  X. 
1276.  Innocent  Y. 
1276.  Adrian  Y. 
1276.  Yicedominus,  died  the  next  day. 

1276.  John  XIX.,  killed  by  the  fall  of  his 

chamber  at  Yiterblum. 

1277.  Nicholas  m. 
1281.  Martm  lY. 
1285.  Honorius  lY. 
1288.  Nicholas  lY. 
1294.  CslestineY. 
1294.  Boniface  Yin. 
1303.  Benedict  XI. 
1305.  Clement  Y. 
1316.  John  XX. 
1334.  Benedict  XH. 
1342.  Clement  YI. 
1352.  Innocent  YL 
1362.  Urban  Y. 
1370.  Gregory  XL 
1378.  Urban  YL 
1389.  Boniface  IX. 
1404.  Innocent  YH. 

1406.  Gregory  Xn.,  deposed. 

1409.  Alexander  Y. 

14ia  John  XXL 

1417.  Martin  Y. 

1431.  Eugenius  lY. 

1455.  Calixtusm. 

1458.  Pius  n. 

1464.  Paul  n. 

1476.  Sixtus  lY. 

1484.  Innocent  Ym. 

1492.  Alexander  YL 

1503.  Pius  in. 

1503.  Julius  n. 

1513.  Leo  X. 

1522.  Adrian  YI. 

1523.  Clement  YH. 
1534.  Paul  III. 
1550.  Julinsm. 
1555.  MaroellusU. 
1555.  Paul  lY. 


POP 


[412] 


POP 


POPES,  continued. 


A.X>. 


559.  Pius  IT. 
566.  PiiuV. 
572.  Gregory  XID. 
585.  Biztus  y. 
590.  Urban  TIL 

590.  Gregory  XIT. 

591.  Innocent  IX. 

592.  Clement  VIIL 
605.  Leo  XL 

605.  Paul  V. 
621.  Gregory  XV, 
62a  Urban  VIIL 
644.  Innocent  X. 
655.  Alexander  VIL 
667.  Clement  IX.  ^ 


1676.  Innocent  XI. 

1689.  Alexander  Vm. 

1691.  Innocent  XII. 

1700.  Clement  XI. 

1721.  Innocent  Xin. 

1724.  Benedict  XIIL 

1730.  Clement  XIL 

1740.  Benedict  XIV. 

1758.  Clement  XIIL 

1769.  Clement  XIV.,  poisoned. 

1775.  Pius  VI.,  February  14. 

1800.  Cardinal  Chiaramonte,  elected  at  Ve- 
nice, as  Pius  VIL,  March  13. 

1823L  Annibal  della  Genga,  Leo  XII.,  Sept.  2a 

1831.  Cardinal  Mauro  Capellari,  as  Or^ory 
XVL,  Feb.  2. 


1670.  Clement  X. 

POPE  JOAN.  It  is  fabnlonslj  asserted  that  in  the  ninth  centary,  a  female,  named 
Joan,  conceived  a  violent  passion  for  a  young  monk  named  Felda,  and  in  order  to  be 
admitted  into  his  monastery  assumed  the  male  habit.  On  the  death  of  her  lover, 
she  entered  on  the  duties  of  professor,  and  being  very  learned,  was  elected  pope 
when  Leo  IV.  died  in  855.  Other  scandalous  particulars  follow;  '*  yet  until  the 
Reformation  the  tale  was  repeated  and  believed  without  offence." — Gibbon, 

POPISH  PLOT.  This  plot  is  said  to  have  been  contrived  by  the  Catholics  to  assas- 
sinate Charles  II. ;  concerning  which,  even  modem  historians  have  affirmed^  that 
some  circumstances  were  true,  though  some  were  added,  and  others  much  magnified. 
The  Popish  plot  united  in  one  conspiracy  three  particular  designs  :  to  kill  the  king, 
to  subvert  the  government,  and  to  extirpate  the  Protestant  religion.  Lord  Stafford 
was  convicted  of  high  treason  as  a  conspirator  in  the  Popish  plot,  and  was  beheaded. 
He  made,  on  the 'scaffold,  the  most  earnest ,  asseverations  and  protestations  of  his 
innocence,  December  29,  1680. — Rapin. 

POPLAR  TREES.  The  Tacamahac  poplar,  Populus  balsamiferaf  was  brought  hither 
from  North  America  before  1692.  The  Lombardy  poplar  was  brought  from  Italy 
about  the  year  1758. — Hist,  of  Plants, 

POPULATION.  The  population  of  the  world  may  now,  according  to  the  best  and 
latest  authorities,  Balbi,  Hanneman,  the  Almanac  de  Gotha,  &c.  be  stated  in  round 
numbers  at  1050  millions.  Of  these,  Europe  is  supposed  to  contain  270  millions  ; 
Asia,  565  millions;  Africa,  115  millions  ;  America,  75  millions;  and  Australasia, 
25  millions.  The  population  of  England  in  a.d.  1377  was  2,092,978  souls.  In  a 
little  more  than  a  hundred  years,  1483,  it  had  increased  to  4,689,000.  The  follow- 
ing tables  of  the  population  of  the  United  Kingdom  are  from  official  returns : — 

POPULATION  OF  EMOLAIVD  AND  WALKS  DCCKNNIALLY  FOR  ONS  HUNDRKO   YBARS: 


Year  1700 

Population 

5,475,000 

Year  1750 

Population 

6,467,000 

1710 

ditto 

5,240.000 

1760 

ditto 

6.736.00O 

1720 

ditto 

5.565,000 

1770 

ditto 

7,428.000 

1730 

ditto 

5.796,000 

1780 

ditto 

7,963,000 

1740 

ditto 

6,064,000 

1790 

ditto 

8,675,000 

POPULATION  OF  ORXAT  BRITAIN   AT  DBCBNNIAL  PXRIODB  TO  THE  PRBSSNT  TIMB : 


Division,                    1801. 

18li. 

1821. 

1831. 

1841. 

England    .         .       8,331,434 
Wales    .        .       '.      541,546 
Scotland    .         .        1,599,068 
A  rmy.  Navy,  &c. .      470,596 

9,551,888 
611,788 

1,805,688 
640,500 

11,261.437 

717,438 

2,093.456 

319,300 

13,089,338 

805,236 

2,365,807 

277,017 

Census  not  yet 
made  up,  sup- 
posed 

19,000,000 

Total           10.942.646 

12.609.864 

14,391.631 

16,537.398 

POPULATION  OF  IRELAND,  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  AND  PROTESTANT,  IN  THE  YEAR  1731  : 


Frovinces. 

Connaught 

Leinster 

Munster 

Ulster 

Total 

Jioman  Catholics. 
221,780 
.      447,916    . 

482,044         .      '   . 
.      158,028    . 

.      1.309,768 

Protestants. 
21,604 
203,087     . 
115,130 
360,632    . 

700,453 

TotaU. 
,     243,384 

651,003 
.      597,174 

518,660 

.    2.010,22] 

POP                                     Q  413  J                                    POP 

POP 

•ULATION,  continued. 

POPULATION  or  TRKLANO,  CATHOLIC  AND  PROTESTANT,  IN  1831,  ONB   HUNDRCD  YCARS  APTCR: 

Provinces.                     Roman  Catholics*                   Protestants,  ^c.                Totals. 
Gonnaught         .         .            989.720         .         .         .         193.870  .         .         1,183,590 
Leinster         .         .         .    1,684,484    ....     510.855         .         .  2,195.339 
Munster             .         .          1.965.870        .         .         .          249,457  .         .         2,215,327 
Ulster            .         .         .        837,724             .         .           1,352,954        .         .    2,190,678 

• 

Total         .         .       5,477.798         .          .          .      2,307,136        .         .    7.784,934 

In  1831,  the  total  population  of  the  United  Kingdom  was  24,321,934  ;  and  the 
census  of  1841,  which  is  not  yet  made  up,  will,  it  is  supposed,  make  it  upwards  of 
27  millions. 


POPULATION 

RETURNS  OP  THE  CITY  OF  LONDON  AT  FOUR  DECENNIAL  PERIODS  : 

Districts. 

1801. 

1811. 

1821. 

1831. 

1841. 

Within  the  Walls 

.        75,171 

55,484 

56.174 

57,695 

Without  the  WaUs 

81,688 

65,425 

69,260 

67.878 

Returns 

Southwark 

.      67.448 

72,119 

85,905 

91,501 

not  yet 

Westminster    . 

158.210 

162.085 

182,085 

202.080 

made  up : 

Within  the  Bills  . 

.    364,526 

498,719 

616,628 

761,343 

supposed 

Adjacent 

Total 

117,802 

155.714 

215,642 

293.567 

to  be 
1,800.000 

864,845 

1,009,546 

1,225,694 

1,474,069 

N.R  Of  the  number  in  1831,  the  Males  were  684,441,  and  the  Females  789,628 ;  the  excess 
of  the  latter,  the  females,  being  105,187.  The  total  population  of  London,  within  eight  miles 
rectilinear  of  St.  Paul's,  then  amounted  to  1,776,556.— PaWtam<ntory  Returns. 

POPULATION  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  TOWNS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AT  DECENNIAL  PERIODS! 


Towns. 

1801. 

1811. 

1821. 

1831. 

1841. 

Manchester,  &o. 

.    94.876 

115,874 

161.635 

237.832* 

The  returns 

Glasgow,  dec. 

.     .    77.386 

100,749 

147,043 

202,426 

of  this  cen- 

Liverpool 

.    79,722 

100,240 

131.801 

189,244 

sus  are  not 

« 

Edinburgh    . 

.    .    82,560 

102,987 

138,236 

162,403 

yet   made 

Birmingham     . 

.    73,h70 

85.753 

106,721 

142,251 

up. 

Leeds  and  Liberties 

,    ,    **** 

♦  *♦* 

83,796 

123,393 

Halifax  Parish 

.    ***# 

**** 

112.628 

109,899 

• 

Bristol,  dec  . 

.    .    63,645 

76,433 

87,779 

103,886 

Sheffield   . 

.    ♦♦** 

**** 

**** 

91,692t 

Plymouth 

.    .    43,194 

56.060 

61,212 

75.534 

Portsmouth 

.    43,461 

52.769 

56,620 

63,026 

Norwich 

.    .    36.832 

37,256 

50,288 

61.116 

Aberdeen 

.    27,008 

35,370 

44,796 

58,019 

Newcastle     . 

.    .    36.963 

36,369 

46.948 

57,937 

Paisley 

.    31,179 

36,722 

47.003 

57,466 

Nottingham 

.    .    28,861 

34,253 

40,415 

50.680 

Hull 

.    34,964 

32,467 

41,874 

49.461 

Dundee 

.    .    26,084 

29,616 

30,675 

45,356 

; 

Brighton 

.      7.339 

12.012 

24,429 

40.634 

Bath 

.    .    30,113 

32,214 

36.811 

38,063 

Yorlc 

.    23,692 

26,422 

29,527 

34.461 

Preston 

.    .    11,887 

17.065 

24.575 

33,112 

Cambridge 

.     13,360 

13,802 

14,142 

20,917 

Oxford 

.    .    15,124 

15,337               16.364 

20,432 

PRESENT  PO 

PULATION  OF  THE  CHIEF  KINGDOMS  AMD  CITIJ 

B8  OF  THE  WG 

rld: 

Chinese  empire}  {Ba 

m)    .      .  180,000,000 

France 

•                         •                         • 

.      36,500,000 

Russia 

.    .      58,500,000 

Austria 

•                         • 

.      34,500,000 

Russian  empire 

.      72,000,000 

Great  Britain  an 

d  Ireland 

.      27,000,000 

*  Manchester'and  suburbs  contain  270,961  souls. 

t  Sheffield  town  contains  69,011 ;  but  with  the  suburban  parte,  91,692  souls.  The  above  towns  are 
set  down  in  the  order  of  precedence,  according  to  their  amount  of  population  in  the  census  of  1831. 

i^  The  account  of  the  population  of  the  Chinese  empire  on  the  authority  of  the  statement  furnished 
to  lord  Macartney,  makes  it  333,000,000 ;  while  we  read  in  the  Biblioteca  Italiana,  that  the  last  census 
of  that  empire,  taken  in  1790,  was,  according  to  Martucci,  143,124,734.  This  latter  account  nearly 
corresponds  with  the  report  of  our  countryman,  Mr.  Thomas,  who  states  the  population  of  China  at 


POP 


[414] 


POR 


POPULiLTION,  emUinusd. 

800,000 

710,000 

435,000 

410,000 

405,000 

395,000 

355,000 

335,000 

296,000 

280,000 

280,000 

274,000 

270,000 

247,000 

245,000 

244,000 

225,000 

224,000 

200,000 

198,000 

183,000 

186,000 

172,000 

168,000 

147,000 

146,000 

145,000 

143.000 

142,000 

141,000 

138,000 

133,000 

132,000 

130,000 

122j000 

121.000 

118,000 

114,000 

110,000 

PORCELAIN.  Porcelaine,  Said  to  be  derived  from  Pour  cent  ann^es,  it  being 
formerly  believed  that  the  materials  of  porcelain  were  matured  under  ground  100 
years.  It  is  not  known  who  first  discovered  the  art  of  making  porcelain,  nor  is  the 
date  recorded ;  but  the  manufacture  has  been  carried  on  in  China  at  King-te-ching, 
at  least  since  a.d.  442,  and  here  still  the  finest  porcelain  is  made.  It  is  first  men- 
tioned in  Europe  In  1531,  shortly  after  which  time  it  was  known  in  England.  See 
China,  Porcelain,  and  Dresden  China. 

PORT  E6M0NT.  One  of  the  finest  harbours  in  the  world,  on  the  N.W.  coast  of 
Falkland  Islands,  discovered  by  commodore  Byron  in  1 765.  The  whole  navy  of 
England  might  ride  here  in  perfect  security  from  all  winds  ;  and  everything  for  the 
refreshment  of  ships  is  to  be  obtained  in  abundance. — Brookes. 

PORT  JACKSON.  This  bay  and  harbour  are  on  the  coast  of  New  South  Wales,  13 
miles  north  of  Botany  Bay.    The  capes  that  form  its  entrance  are  high,  rugged,  and 

?erpendicular  cliffs  ;  and  the  harbour  is  one  of  the  noblest  in  the  world,  extending 
4  miles  in  length,  with  numerous  creeks  or  coves.  The  name  of  Port  Jackson  was 
given  to  it  by  the  illustrious  circumnavigator  Cook,  who  observed  it  in  sailing  along 
the  coast  in  1770.     See  Botany  Bay  ;  New  South  Wales  ;  Sydney, 

PORT  ROYAL,  Jamaica.  Once  a  considerable  town,  abounding  in  riches  and  trade. 
In  June  1692  it  was  destroyed  by  an  esurthqnake;  in  1702  it  was  laid  in  ashes  by  a 
fire;  in  1722  it  was  reduced  to   ruins  by  an  inundation  of  the  sea;  and  in  1744, 

146,270,163.  other  writers,  however,  afi&rm  it  to  be  fivk  hundred  millions,  and  some  as  even 
exceeding  that  amount.  In  fact,  the  accoimts  of  population  of  all  countries  differ  so  widely,  and  are 
so  various,  few  statements  can  be  relied  on  as  being  accurate/— itf.  Adrien  Balhi ;  Balance  PolUique 
du  Globe, 


British  empire 

.    158,000.000 

Constantinople 

Japan 

.    .     87.000,000 

Calcutta 

Spain 

.      17.A)0«000 

Madras 

Spanish  empire  (totai) ' 

.    .      19,500,000 

Naples 

Praasian  monarchy  . 

.      16,550.000 

St  Petersburgh 

United  States  of  America 

.    .      14,600,000 

Vienna 

Torkey     .... 

12,000,000 

Moscow        • 

.    .      24.500.000 

Grand  Cairo 

Penia      .... 

11,800,000 

Lisbon 

Mexico 

.    .       9.500.000 

Aleppo     . 

Kingdom  of  the  Two  SidUes 

8.750.000 

Berlin 

BrazU 

.    .       6.250,000 

Amsterdam 

Sardinia 

.       5,800.000 

Madrid 

Morocco        .        .        .        . 

.    .        5.200.000 

Bordeaux 

Holland 

5,100.000 

Bagdad 

Dutch  numaiehy  {total) 

14,750,000 

New  York 

Bavaria    .... 

4,600,000 

Mexico 

Sweden  and  Norwaj 

4.550,000 

Rome 

Belgium    .... 

4,500,000 

Rio  Janeiro 

Poland          .        .        .        . 

4.250,000 

Milan 

Portugal 

3,950,000 

Barcelona 

Republic  of  Columbia   . 

3.350,000 

Philadelphia     . 

Eocleslastical  States 

2.970,000 

Hamburgh 

British  America 

2,960,000 

Ly<ms 

Switcerland 

2,450,000 

Palermo 

Denmark              • 

.    .       2.400,000 

Marseilles 

Hanover 

1.780,000 

Wh-temberg 

1,680,000 

Turin 

Saxony 

1.650.000 

SeviUe 

Tuscany        .        .        .        . 

1,550,000 

Warsaw    . 

Baden 

.       1,400,000 

Tunis 
Prague 

cims* 

Smyrna        • 

CUiet, 

Tnhdffitants. 

Brussels 

London  {Pari.  Bel.) 

.       1,776.556 

Flnrenoe 

Jeddo  (reputed)     . 

1.680,000 

Stoolchokn 

Pekin  {repuUd) 

1,600,000 

Munich 

Paris             .        .        .        . 

1.000.000 

Dresden 

Nankin             .        . 

850,000 

Frankfort 

FOR 


[415] 


FOR 


was  destroyed  by  a  hurricane.  After  these  extraordinary  calamities,  the  custom- 
house and  public  offices  were  removed.  Port  Royal  was  again  greatly  damaged  by 
fire  in  1750  ;  by  another  awful  storm  in  1784  ;  and  by  a  devastating  fire  in  July  1815. 

PORTEOUS,  Captain,  Death  of.  This  officer,  at  Edinburgh,  on  April  14,  1736, 
commanded  the  guard  at  the  execution  of  a  smuggler  who  had,  heedless  of  his  own 
fate,  saved  the  life  of  a  brother  criminal,  by  springing  upon  the  soldiers  around  them, 
'  and  by  main  force  keeping  them  back,  while  his  companion  fled,  he  never  afterwards 
being  heard  of.  The  execution  of  this  brave  fellow  excited  great  commiseration, 
and  the  spectators  pelted  the  guard  with  stones.  Fearing  a  rescue,  Capt.  Porteous 
ordered  his  men  to  fire  upon  die  mob,  seventeen  of  whom  were  killed  or  wounded. 
For  this  he  was  tried  and  found  guilty  of  murder,  June  22, 1736 ;  but  the  queen 
granted  him  a  reprieve  (the  king  being  then  in  Hanover)  ;  and  the  court,  interested 
for,  determined  to  save  him.  The  people,  on  the  other  hand,  resolved  that  he  should 
not  have  the  benefit  of  the  royal  clemency  ;  and  on  the  day  which  had  been  named 
for  his  execution,  they  arose  in  prodigious  numbers,  assembled  round  the  prison, 
broke  open  its  doors,  took  out  Porteous,  and  dragging  him  to  the  Grass-market, 
hanged  him  on  a  dyer's  sign-post,  in  defiance  of  the  municipal  and  military  power. 
Strange  to  say,  not  one  actor  in  this  scene,  notwithstanding  the  offer  of  great 
rewards,  was  ever  identified,  Sept.  7,  1736. 

PORTER.  Dr.  Ashe  says,  that  this  beverage  obtained  this  appellation  on  account  of 
its  having  been  much  drunk  by  porters  in  the  city  of  London,  about  1730.  The 
malt  liquors  previously  in  use  were  ale,  beer,  and  twopenny,  and  it  was  castomary 
to  call  for  a  pint  or  tankard  of  half  and  half,  t.  e,  half  of  ale  and  half  of  beer  ;-:- 
half  of  ale  and  half  of  twopenny ; — or  half  of  beer  and  half  of  twopenny.  In  the 
course  of  time  it  also  became  the  practice  to  ask  for  a  pint  or  tankard  of  three 
threads,  meaning  a  third  of  ale,  beer,  and  twopenny ;  and  thus  the  publican  was 
obliged  to  go  to  three  casks  for  a  single  pint  of  liquor.  To  avoid  this  trouble  and 
waste,  a  brewer,  of  the  name  of  Harwood,  conceived  the  idea  of  making  a  liquor 
which  should  partake  of  the  united  flavours  of  ale,  beer,  and  twopenny.  He  did  so, 
and  succeeded,  calling  it  entire,  or  entire  butt  beer,  meaning  that  it  was  drawn 
entirely  from  one  cask  or  butt ;  and  being  a  hearty  nourishing  liquor,  it  was  very 
suitable  for  porters  and  other  working  people.  Hence  it  obtained  its  name  of  porter, 
and  was  first  retailed  at  the  Blue  Last,  Curtain-road. — Picture  of  London, 

FORTBB  BRKWJED  BY  THK  TKN  PRINCIPAI.  LONDON  BUEWBRIKS  IN  1760,  VIZ.  : 


BarreU. 

Barrels. 

Calvert  and  Ckk 

.      74,734 

Lady  Parsons 

.           .     .       34,U9D 

Whitbread 

.     .      63,408 

Thrale 

.      30,740 

Truman          .... 

.      60.140 

Huck  and  Co. 

.    .      29,615 

Bir  William  Calvert 

.     .      88,786 

.      28,017 

Gifford  and  Co. 

.      41,410 

Meux  and  Co. 

.    .      10,013 

FORTKB  BRBWBD  BY  THK 

SBYBN  CHIBF  1 

:X)NDON  HOUSBS  IN  TBK  YEAR 

1815,  VIZ. : 

Barrels. 

Barrels. 

Barclay  and  Perkins 

.    337,621 

Henry  Meux  and  Co. 

.    223,100 

Meux,  Reid,  and  Co. 

.    .    282.104 

F.  Calvert  and  Co. 

.     .    219,333 

Truman,  Hanbury,  and  Co. 

.    272,162 

Combe,  Delafield,  and  Co. 

.    105,061 

Whitbread  and  Co. 

.    .    261,018 

FORTBR  fiRKWBD  IN  LONDON 

BY  THB  BBVEN 

PRINCIPAL  HOUBBS  IN  THB  YBAR  1840,  VIZ.  : 

Barrels. 

Barrels, 

Barclay,  Perkins,  and  Co. 

.    361,321 

Combe,  Delafield,  and  Co. 

.    .    177^42 

Truman,  Hanbury,  and  Co. 

.     .     263,235 

Felix  Calvert  and  Co. 

.     136,387 

Whitbread  and  Co. 

.    218,828 

Sir  Henry  Meux  and  Co. 

.    116,547 

Reid  and  Co. 

.    .    196,442 

London  engrosses,  it  is  said,  one-third  of  the  entire  business  of  the  whole  country  ; 
and  it  is  remarkable  that  this  business  has  been  drawn  of  late  into  the  hands  chiefly 
of  eight  or  ten  houses  of  gigantic  capitals.  Messrs.  Whitbread  and  Co.  built  a 
porter  cask  65  feet  in  diameter,  25  feet  high,  with  56  hoops  weighing  from  one  to 
three  tons  each — the  contents  20,000  barrels.  It  was  four  years  building.  At 
Meuz's  brew-house  two  large  vats  suddenly  burst,  deluging  and  destroying  many 
neighbouring  houses.  Several  lives  were  lost ;  and  the  total  loss  of  porter  was 
estimated  at  between  8000  and  9000  barrels,  October  17,  1814. 

PORTERAGE  ACT.    Act  for  regulating  the  porterage  of  small  parcels,  July  1799. 


POR 


C416] 


POR 


PORTLAND  ADMINISTRATION.  This  wu  also  styled  the  CoaUtion  Ministry, 
and  was  fonned  April  5,  1783.  Lord  North  and  Charles  James  Fox  were  members 
of  it.  The  late  Portland  administration  was  formed  March  25, 1807,  and  consisted, 
among  others,  of  Mr.  Canning,  lord  Hawkesbnry,  earl  Camden,  and  Mr.  Spencer 
Peroeral. — ^See  AthtinistraiioHM. 

PORTLAND  ISLE.  Fortified  before  a.d.  1142.  Portland  castle  was  built  by  Henry 
VIII.  about  1536.  Off  this  peninsula  a  memorable  naval  engagement  commenced 
between  the  English  and  Dutch,  February  18,  1653.  The  battle  continued  for 
three  days,  and  the  English  destroyed  eleven  Dutch  men-of-war  and  thirty  mer- 
chantmen. Van  Trump  was  admiral  of  the  Dutch,  and  Blake  of  the  English.  Here 
is  the  noted  freestone  used  for  building  our  finest  edifices.  The  Portland  lights 
were  erected  in  1716—1789.  The  pier,  with  nearly  half  a  mile  square  of  land,  was 
washed  into  the  sea  in  February  1792. 

PORTO  BELLO.  Discovered  by  Columbus,  November  2,  1502.'  It  was  taken  from 
the  Spaniards  by  the  British  under  admiral  Vernon,  November  22,  1739.  It  was 
again  taken  by  admiral  Vernon,  who  destroyed  the  fortifications,  in  1 742.  Before 
the  abolition  of  the  trade  by  the  galleons,  in  1748,  and  the  introduction  of  register 
ships,  this  place  was  the  great  mart  for  the  rich  commerce  of  Peru  and  Chili. 

PORTO  FERRAJO.  Capital  of  Elba ;  built  and  fortified  by  Cosmo  J.  duke  of 
Florence,  in  1548 ;  but  the  fortifications  were  not  finished  till  1628,  when  Cosmo 
II.  completed  them  with  a  magnificence  equal  to  that  displayed  by  the  old  Romans 
in  their  public  undertakings.  Here  was  the  residence  of  Napoleon  in  1814-15.  See 
Buonapariet  Elba,  and  France, 

PORTREEVE.  This  title  was  anciently  given  to  the  principal  magistrate  of  port  or 
other  towns  in  England.  The  chief  magistrate  of  London  was  so  styled ;  but 
Richard  I.  appointed  two  bailiffs,  and  afterwards  London  had  mayors.  Camden, — 
See  Lord  Mayors, 

PORTSMOUTH.  The  most  considerable  haven  for  men-of-war,  and  the  most  strongly 
fortified  place  in  England.  The  dock,  arsenal,  and  storehouses  were  established 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  The  French  under  D'Annebaut  attempted  to  destroy 
Portsmouth,  but  were  defeated  by  viscount  Lisle,  in  the  then  finest  war-ship  in  the 
world,  the  Great  Harry ,  1544.  Here  the  celebrated  George  Villiers,  duke  of 
Buckingham,  memorable  in  English  story  for  having  been  tiie  favourite  of  two 
kings,  was  assassinated  by  Felton,  who  had  served  under  his  grace  in  the  station  of 
lieutenant,  August  23,  1628.  The  unfortunate  English  admiral  Byng  was,  on  a 
very  dubious  sentence,  shot  at  Portsmouth,  March  14,  1757. — See  Byng,  The 
dock-yard  was  fired,  the  loss  estimated  at  400,000/.,  July  3,  1760.  Another  fire 
occasioned  loss  to  the  amount  of  100,000/.,  July  27,  1770.  French  secret  perfidy 
was  suspected  both  times,  but  there  was  no  actual  proof.  Memorable  g^and  naval 
mock  engagement  and  parade  of  the  fleet,  the  king  being  present,  June  22  to  25, 
1773.    Another  great  fire  occurred  here,  December  7, 1776. 

PORTUGAL.  The  ancient  Lusitanla.  The  name  is  derived  from  Porto  Callo,  the 
original  appellation  of  the  city  of  Oporto.  It  submitted  to  the  Roman  arms  about 
250  3.C.,  and  underwent  the  same  changes  as  Spain  on  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
empire.  Conquered  by  the  Moors  a.d.  713.  They  kept  possession  till  they  were 
conquered  by  Alphonsus  VI.  the  Valiant  of  Castile,  assisted  by  many  other  princes 
and  volunteers.  Among  those  who  shone  most  in  this  celebrated  expedition  was 
Henry  of  Lorraine,  grandson  of  Robert  king  of  France.  Alphonsus  bestowed 
upon  him  Theresa,  his  natural  daughter,  and,  as  her  marriage  portion,  the  kingdom 
of  Portugal,  which  he  was  to  hold  of  him,  a.d.  1093. 


472 
713 


900 


Settlement  of  the  Alains  and  Visigoths 
here        .....     a.o. 

Invasion  by  the  Saracens 

The  kings  of  Asturias  subdue  some  Sara- 
cen chiefs,  and  Alphonsus  HE.  esta- 
blishes episcopal  sees 

AlphonsusHenriqnezdefeats  five  Moorish 
kings,  and  is  proclaimed  king  by  his 
army 1139 

Assisted  by  a  fleet  of  Crusaders  in  their 
way  to  the  Holy  Land,  he  takes 
Lisbon  from  the  Moors  .1148 


The  kingdom  of  Algarve  taken  from  the 
Moors  by  Sancho  L  ...  1189 

Reign  of  Dionysius  L  or  Denis,  father  of 
his  country,  who  builds  44  cities  or 
towns  in  Portugal      ....  1275 

Military  orders  of  Christ  and  St  James 
instituted,  1279  to      .         .        .         .1325 

John  I.,  sumamed  the  Great,  carries  his 
arms  into  Africa        ....  1415 

Madeira  and  the  Canaries  seized    ,        .  1420 

Passage  to  the  East  Lidies,  by  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  discovered  .  1490 


---H 


POR 


L417] 


POR 


PORTUGAL,  continued. 

Discovery  of  the  Brazils        .        .  a.d.  1500 
The  Inquisition  established  .         .  1526 

The  Idngdom  seized  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain  1 580 
The  Portuguese  throw  off  the  yolce,  and 
place  John,  duke  of  Braganza,  on  the 
throne.    His  i>osterity  still  possess  the 

crown 1640 

The  great  earthquake  which  destroys 

Lisbon.    See  Earihqufike  .        .        .  1756 
Joseph  I.  is  attacked  by  assassins,  and 

narrowly  escapes  death  •  .  .  1758 
[This  affair  causes  some  of  the  first  fami- 
lies of  the  kingdom  to  be  tortured  to 
death,  their  very  names  being  forbid- 
den to  be  mentioned ;  yet  many  were 
uniustly  condemned,  and  their  inno- 
cence was  soon  afterwards  made  mani- 
fest. The  Jesuits  were  also  expelled 
on  this  occasion.] 
Joseph,  having  no  son,  obtains  a  dispen- 
sation from  the  pope  to  enable  his 
daughter  and  brother  to  intermarry. 

Bee  Incest 1760 

The  Spaniards  and  French  invade  Por- 
tugal, which  is  saved  by  the  valour  of 
the  English         .        .        .  1762  and  1763 
Regent^  of  John  (afterwards  king)  owing 

to  the  queen's  lunacy         .         .         .  1792 
The  Court,  on  the  French  invasion,  emi- 
grates to  the  Brazils  .      Nov.  2,  1807 
Marshal  Junot  enters  Lisbon,  Nov.  29    .  1807 
Convention  of  Cintra  (See  article  under 

that  name)  .  .  .  Aug.  30,  1808 
Battle  of  Busaco  .  .  Sept.  27,  1810 
The  British  parliament  grants  the  suf- 
ferers hi  Portugal  100,000/.  .  .  1811 
Portugal  cedes  Guiana  to  France  .  .  1814 
Revolution  in  Portugal  .  Aug.  29,  1820 
Constitutional  Junta  .  .  Oct  1,  1820 
Return  of  the  Court  .  .  July  4,  1821 
Independence  of  Brazil,  the  prince  regent 

made  emperor        .        .  Oct.  12,  1822 

The  king  of  Portugal  suppresses  the  con- 
stitution        .         .         .  Junes,  1823 
Disturbances  at  Lisbon;  Don  Miguel 

departs,  &c.  .  May  1—9,  1824 

Treaty  with  Brazil  .  Aug.  29,  1825 

Death  of  John  VL      .  Feb.  18,  1826 

Don  Pedro  grants  a  charter,  and  confirms 

the  regency  .         .  April  26,  1826 

He  relinquishes  the  throne  of  Portugal 
in  favour  of  his  daughter.  Donna  Maria 
da  Gloria         .        .         .         May  2,  1826 
Don  Miguel  takes  the  oath  of  fealty  at 

Yienna         ....      Oct.  4,  1826 
Marquess  of  Chaves'  insurreotion  at  Lis- 
bon        ....  Oct  6,  1826 
Don  Miguel  and  Donna  Maria  betrothed 

{aee  Incest)        .         .         .     Oct  29,  1826 
Portugal  solicits  the  assistance  of  Great 

Britain     ....         Dec.  3,  1826 
Departure  of  the  first  Britifiii  auxiliary 
troops  for  Portugal  Dec.  17»  1826 


1828 
1828 
1828 


Bank  of  Lisbon  stops  payment  .  Dec.  7,  1827 
Don  Miguel  arrives  in  London  .  Deo.  30,  1827 
He  arrives  in  Lisbon  .  Feb.  22,  1828 

He  takes  the  oaths  as  regent  .         .  1828 

Formal  act  of  abdication  by  Don  Pedro, 

March  3,  1828 
The  British  armament  finally  quits  Por- 
tugal .  .  .  April  28,  1828 
Foreign  ministers  withdraw  .  May  3,  1828 
Sir  John  Doyle  arrested  .  June  13,  1828 
Don  Miguel  formally  assumes  the  title 

of  king  .         .         .  July  4,  1828 

He  dissolves  the  three  estates    .  July  12,  1828 
Miguel's  troops  take  Madeira    .  Aug.  24,  1828 
Release  of  Sir  John  Doyle        .    Sept  7,  1828 
The  Queen  Donna  Maria  arrives  at  Fal- 
mouth       ....   Sept.  24, 
She  arrives  in  London        .        .  Oct  6, 
Her  reception  at  Windsor        .   Dec.  22, 
Don  Miguel's  expedition  against  Terceira 

defeated         .         .         .  Aug.  11,  1829 

Revolution  at  Brazil         .  April  7,  1831 

Don  Pedro  arrives  in  England  .  June  16,  1831 
Insurrection  in  Portugal  in  favour  of  the 
queen,  in  which  more  than  300  lives 
are  lost         .        .        .  Aug.  21,  1831 

Don  Pedro's  expedition  sails  from  Belle- 
isle        '...        .  Feb.  9,  1832 
At  Terceira  Don  Pedro  proclaims  himself 
regent  of  Portugal,  on  behalf  of  his 
daughter         .         .         .         April  2,  1832 
He  takes  Oporto        .         .  July  8,  1832 
The  Miguelites  attack  Oporto,  and  are 
defeated  with  considerable  loss  on  both 
sides    ....          Sept.  19,  1832 
Mount  Cavello  taken        .           April  9,  1833 
Admiral  Napier  takes  the  whole  of  Don 
Miguel's  squadron  off  Cape  StVincent, 

July  2,  1833 
Lisbon  is  evacuated  by  the  duke  of  Cada- 

val'sarmy      .  .         July  23,  1833 

After  various  conflicts,  Don  Miguel  ca- 
pitulates to  the  Pedroite  forces,  and 
Santarem  surrenders  .  May  26,  1834 
Don  Miguel  is  permitted  to  leave  the 
country  unmolested,  and  he  embarks 
at  Evora  for  Genoa  .  .  May  31,  1834 
Massacres  at  Lisbon    .  June  9,  1834 

The  Queen  declared  by  the  Cortes  to  be 

of  age        ....    Sept  16,  1834 
Don  Pedro  dies        .         .  Sept  21,  1834 

Prince  Augustus  of  Portugal  (duke  of 
Leuchtenberg),  Just  married  to  the 
queen,  dies         .         .  March  28,  1835 

The  queen  marries  prince  Ferdinand  of 

Saxe  Coburg  .         .         Jan.  1,  1836 

Revolution  at  Lisbon  .   Aug.  9,  1836 

Another  outbreak  there  Nov.  8,  1836 

The  duke  of  Terceira  attempts  to  restore 

Don  Pedro's  charter    .         .   Aug.  18,  1837 
He  and  marshal  Saldanha  fail  in  the 
attempt,  and  embark  for  England, 

Sept  18,  1837 


KINGS  OF  PORTUGAL. 


A.D.  1093.  King  of  Lorraine,  count  or  earl  of 
Portugal. 
1112.  Alphonso  I. 


1 185.  Sancho  I. 

1212.  Alphonso  n.,  sumamed  Crassus,  or  the 
Fat. 

E  E 


POR 


C418] 


POS 


1580.  Anthony,  prior  of  Crato,  son  of  £ma- 
nuel,  deposed  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
who  united  Portugal  to  his  other 
dommions,  till  1640. 

1640.  John  IT.,  duke  of  Braganza,  dispos- 
sessed the  Spaniards,  and  was  pro- 
claimed king,  Dec.  1. 

1656.  AlphonsusYL 

1668.  Peter  IL 

1707.  John  V. 

1750.  Joseph. 

1777*  Mary  Frances  Isabella. 

1799.  John  VI. 

1826.  Don  Pedro;  he  abdicates  May  2,  in 
favour  oi  his  daughter. 

1826.  Maria  da  Gloria. 


PORTUGAL,  continued, 

A.D.  1233.  Sancho  II.,  the  Idle,  deposed. 
1247.  AlphonsusIIL 
1275.  Dennis. 
1325.  Alphonsns  IV. 
1357.  Peter  the  CrueL 
1367*  Ferdinand  L,  died  1383 ;  an  interr^inum 

for  18  months. 
1385.  John  I.,  the  Bastard,  natural  son  to 

Peter  the  CrueL 
1433.  Edward. 
143&  Alphonsus  Y. 
1481.  John  II. 
1495.  Emanuel. 
J521.  John  m. 

1557.  Sebastian,  killed  in  Africa. 
157a  Henry,  the  Cardinal. 

POSTS.  Posts  originated  in  the  regpilar  couriers  established  by  Cyrus,  who  erected 
post-houses  throughout  the  kingdom  of  Persia.  Augustus  was  the  first  who  intro- 
duced this  institution  among  the  Romans,  and  who  employed  post-chaises.  This 
plan  was  imitated  by  Charlemagne  about  a.d.  800. — A»he.  Louis  XT.  first  esta- 
blished post-houses  in  France  owing  to  his  eagerness  for  news,  and  they  were  the 
first  institution  of  this  nature  in  Europe,  1470. — HenauU.  In  England  the  plan 
commenced  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  1481,  when  riders  on  post-horses  went 
stages  of  the  distance  of  twenty  miles  from  each  other  in  order  to  procure  the  king 
the  earliest  intelligence  of  the  events  that  passed  in  the  course  of  the  war  that  had 
arisen  with  the  Scots. — Gale,  Richard  III.  improyed  the  system  of  couriers  in 
1483.  In  1543  similar  arrangements  existed  in  England. — Sadler* s  Letters,  Post 
communications  between  London  and  most  towns  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland, 
existed  in  1635. — Strype» 

POST-OFFICE,  The  General,  of  England,  ^et  preceding  article.  The  first 
chief  postmaster  of  England  was  Mr.  Thomas  Randolph,  appointed  by  queen 
Elizabeth  in  1581.  The  office  of  Foreign  Postmaster  was  established  by  James  T., 
who  appointed  Mathew  de  TEquester  to  that  office ;  and  Charles  I.  appointed 
William  Frizelland  Thomas  Witherings  in  1631.  A  proclamation  of  Charles  I.  in 
1635,  states  in  the  preamble  that  '*  whereas  to  this  time  there  hath  been  no  certain 
intercourse  between  the  kingdoms  of  England  and  Scotland,  the  king  now  commands 
his  postmaster  of  England  for  foreign  parts  to  settle  a  running  post  or  two  to  nin 
night  and  day  between  Edinburgh  and  London,  to  go  thither  and  come  back  again 
in  six  days*.''  An  enlarged  office  was  erected  by  the  parliament  in  1643  ;  and  one 
more  considerable  in  1657,  with  a  view  '*  to  benefit  commerce,  convey  the  public 
despatches,  and  as  the  best  means  to  discover  and  prevent  many  dangerous  wicked 
designs  against  the  commonwealth  by  the  inspection  of  the  correspondence." — Ashe. 
The  post-office  as  at  present  constituted  was  founded  12  Charles  II.  December  27, 
1660.  The  mails  were  first  conveyed  by  coaches,  August  2, 1784,  when  the  first 
mail  left  London  for  Bristol.— See  Mail  Coaches. 

TRB  RBVBNUB  OF  THB  POST-OFFICB  OF  KNOLAND  AT  THK  FOLLOWING  PERIODS,  VIZ. 


In  1643.  It  yielded 

£5.000 

In  1790.   Ditto      ....      480,074 

1(>.')3.  Farmed  to  John  Manley, 

1800.    Ditto             .         .         .    .      745,313 

esq.  for         .        .        .    . 

10»000 

1805.  Great  Britain             .         .  1,424,994 

1663.  Farmed  to  Daniel  O'Neale, 

1810.     Ditto        .         .            .    .  1.709.063 

Esq.,  for          ... 

21,500 

1815.     Ditto            .         .         .    .  1,755,898 

1674.  Farmed  for            ... 

43,000 

1820.  United  Kingdom         .        .  2,402,f?V7 

1685.  It  yielded 

65,000 

1825.      Ditto           .          ...  2,255,239 

1707.  Ditto 

111,461 

1830.      Ditto      ....  2,301,43i 

1714.  Ditto          .... 

145,227 

1835.      Ditto           .         .          .    .  2,353,340 

1723.  Ditto 

201,805 

1839.  Last    year  of    the  heavy 

1744.  Ditto       .... 

235,492 

postage            .         .         .  2.522,495 

1764.  Ditto 

432,048 

1840.  Fu-8t  year  of  the  low  rate  .      471,01D 

*  The  king  also  commanded  his  <*  postmaster  of  England  for  foreign  parts,"  to  open  a  regular  com- 
munication by  running  posts  between  the  metropolis  and  Edinburgh,  West  Chester,  Holyhead, 
Ireland,  Plymouth,  Exeter,  &c.  Even  so  late  as  between  1730  and  1740,  the  post  was  only  transmitted 
'hree  days  a  week  between  Edinburgh  and  London ;  and  the  metropolis,  on  one  occasion,  only  tent  a 

■^■gle  Utter t  which  was  for  an  Edinburgh  banker,  named  Ramsay. 


The  new  postage  law,  by  which  the  uniform  rate  of  4d,  per  letter  was  tried  as  an 
experiment,  came  into  operation  December  5,  1839.  The  uniform  rate  of  \d,  per 
letter  of  half  an  ounce  weight,  &c.  commenced  January  10^  1840.  The  stamped 
postage  coTers  came  into  use  May  6,  1840. 

POST  OFFICES.  The  General  post-office  of  London  was  originally  established  ia 
Cloak-lane,  near  Dowgate-hill,  whence  it  was  removed  to  the  Black  Swan,  in 
Bishopsgate-street.  On  occasion  of  the  great  fire  of  1666,  it  was  removed  to  the 
Two  Black  Pillars^  in  Brydges-street,  Covent-garden,  and  afterwards  to  sir  Robert 
Yiner's  mansion  in  Lombard-street,  where  it  continued  till  September  23,  1829, 
when  it  was  transferred  to  St.  Martin's-le-Grand.  It  now  occupies  the  site  of  an 
ancient  college  and  sanctuary.  This  magnificent  building  was  commenced  in  1825, 
from  designs  by  R.  Smirke,  esq.,  and  completed  September  23,  1829.  The  new 
post-office  of  Dublin  was  opened,  January  6,  1818.  The  offices  of  post-masters* 
general  of  England  and  of  Ireland  were  united  into  one,  1  William  IV.,  1831. 

POSTING.  Post-chaises  were  invented  by  the  French,  and  were  introduced,  according 
to  Grainger,  into  this  [country  by  Mr.  William  Toll,  son  of  the  well-known  writer  on 
Husbandry.  Posting  was  fixed  by  statute  of  Edward  VI.  at  one  penny  per  mile, 
1548.  By  a  statute,  re-establishing  the  post-office,  none  but  the  postmaster  or  his 
deputies  could  furnish  post  horses  for  travellers,  1660,  and  hence  the  name.  The 
post-horse  duty  was  imposed  in  1779. 

POTATOES.  The  potato  is  a  native  of  Chili  and  Peru.  Potatoes  were  originally 
brought  to  England  from  Santa  Fe,  in  America,  by  sir  John  Hawkins,  a.d.  1563. 
Others  ascribe  this  introduction  to  sir  Francis  Drake,  in  1586;  while  their  general 
introduction  is  mentioned  by  many  writers  as  occurring  in  1592.  Their  first  culture 
in  Ireland  is  referred  to  sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who  had  large  estates  in  that  country, 
about  Youghal,  in  the  county  of  Cork.  It  is  said  that  potatoes  were  not  known  in 
Flanders  until  1620.  A  fine  kind  of  potato  was  first  brought  from  America  by 
that  **  patriot  of  every  clime,"  the  late  Mr.  Howard,  who  cultivated  it  at  Cardington, 
near  Bedford,  1765 ;  and  its  culture  became  general  soon  after.  It  is  affirmed  that 
the  Neapolitans  once  refused  to  eat  potatoes  during  a  famine. — Butler. 

POTOSI,  Mikes  of.  These  mines  were  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1545,  and  pro- 
duce the  best  silver  in  America.  They  are  in  a  mountain  in  the  form  of  a  sugar4oaf. 
Silver  was  as  common  in  this  place  as  iron  is  in  Europe ;  but  the  mines  are  now  much 
exhausted,  or  at  least  little  is  got  in  comparison  of  what  was  formerly  obtained. 

POULTRY  COMPTER.  This  was  one  of  the  most  noted  of  the  old  city  prisons, 
and  existed  very  early,  but  the  time  is  not  precisely  known.  The  compter  of  Wood- 
street  belonged  to  the  sherifif  of  London,  and  was  made  a  prison-house  in  1555. 
This  latter  and  Bread-street  compter  were  rebuilt  in  1667.  The  Giltspur-street 
prison  was  built  to  supply  the  place  of  the  old  city  compters.  The  Poultry  chapel 
was  erected  on  the  site  of  the  Poultry  compter,  in  1819. — Leigh* 

POUND.  From  the  Latin  Pondus,  The  pound  sterling  was  in  Saxon  times,  about 
A.D.  671,  a  pound  troy  of  silver,  and  a  shilling  was  its  twentieth  part,  consequently 
the  latter  was  three  times  as  large  as  it  is  at  present. — Peacham.  The  value  of  the 
Roman  pondo  is  not  precisely  known,  though  some  suppose  it  was  equivalent  to  an 
Attic  minOf  or  3/.  4«.  7d,  Our  avoirdupois  weight  (avoir  du  poids)  came  from  the 
French,  and  contains  sixteen  ounces ;  it  is  in  proportion  to  our  troy  weight  as 
seventeen  to  fourteen. — Chambers, 

POWDERING  THV  HAIR.  This  custom  took  its  rise  from  some  of  the  ballad-singers 
at  the  fair  of  St.  Germain  whitening  their  heads  to  make  themselves  ridiculous. 
Unlike  other  habits,  it  was  adopted  from  the  low  by  the  high,  and  became  very 
general  about  a.d.  1614.  In  England  the  powdered-hair  tax  took  place  in  May 
1795,  at  which  time  the  preposterous  practice  of  using  powder  was  at  its  height; 
this  tax  was  one  guinea  for  each  person.  The  hair-powder  tax  is  still  continued, 
though  it  yields  in  England  under  7000/.  per  year,  and  in  Scotland  about  250/.  It 
was  abolished  in  Ireland. 

POYNING'S  LAW.  A  law  so  called  after  sir  Edward  Poyning,  one  of  the  lord 
deputies  of  Ireland,  at  the  time  of  its  passing  in  that  country,  a.d.  1494.  By  this 
law  all  acts  were  to  originate  in  the  English  counciL  This  act  was  repealed,  toge- 
ther with  the  English  Declaratory  Act  of  the  6th  of  George  I.,  and  some  other 
equally  obnoxious  Irish  statutes,  April  1782. — Statutes, 

£  E  2 


PRiB  C  420  ]  PKA 

PRJSMUNIRE.  This  Uvr  derived  its  origin  from  the  exorbitant  power  which  was 
exercised  in  England  bj  the  pope.  The  offence  ranked  as  one  against  the  king, 
because  it  consisted  of  introducing  a  foreign  power  into  the  land,  and  thereby  creat- 
ing an  impetium  in  imperio.  The  first  statute  of  Prsemunire  was  enacted  35  Ed- 
ward I.  1306. — Coke.  The  church  of  Rome,  in  the  assertion  of  her  supremacy, 
bestowed  mostW  the  bishoprics,  abbeys,  &c.  before  they  were  Toid,  upon  favourites, 
on  pretence  of  providing  the  church  with  better  qualified  successors  before  the 
vacancies  occurred.  To  put  a  stop  to  these  encroachments,  Edward  III.  enacted 
three  statutes  in  25,  27,  and  28  of  his  reign.  The  statute  commonly  referred  to  as 
the  statute  of  Prsemunire  is  the  16th  of  Richard  11.  1392.  But  several  other  enact- 
ments, of  similar  object,  have  followed  in  the  subsequent  reigns. 

PR^TORS.  Magistrates  of  Rome.  The  office  was  instituted  365  b.c.^  when  one 
prsetor  only  was  appointed ;  but  a  second  was  appointed  in  252  b.c.  One  adminis- 
tered justice  to  the  citizens,  and  the  other  appointed  judges  in  all  causes  which, 
related  to  foreigners.  In  the  year  of  Rome  520,  two  more  praetors  were  created  to 
assist  the  consul  in  the  government  of  the  provinces  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  which, 
had  been  lately  conquered,  and  two  more  when  Spain  was  reduced  into  the  form  of 
a  Roman  province,  A.  U.  C.  551.  Sylla  the  dictator  added  two  more,  and  Julius 
Caesar  increased  the  number  to  10,  and  afterwards  to  16,  and  the  second  triumvirate 
to  64.  After  this  their  numbers  fluctuated,  being  sometimes  18,  16,  or  12,  till,  in 
the  decline  of  the  empire,  their  dignity  decreased,  and  their  numbers  were  redaced 
to  three. 

PRA6A,  Battle  of,  in  which  30,000  Poles  were  butchered  by  the  merciless  Russian 
general  Suwarrow,  fought  October  10,  1794.  Battle  of  Praga,  in  which  the  Poles 
commanded  by  Skrznecki  defeated  the  Russian  army  commanded  by  general  Giesmar, 
who  loses  4000  killed  and  wounded,  6000  prisoners,  and  12  pieces  of  cannon ; 
fought  between  Grothoff  and  Wawer,  March  31,  1831. 

PRAGMATIC  SANCTION.  An  ordinance  relating  to  the  church  and  sometimes 
state  affairs ;  and  at  one  time  particularly  the  ordinances  of  the  kings  of  France, 
wherein  the  rights  of  the  Gallican  church  were  asserted  against  the  usurpation  of 
the  pope  in  the  choice  of  bishops.  Also  the  emperor*s  letter  by  advice  of  his  council, 
in  answer  to  high  personages  in  particular  contingencies.  The  Pragmatic  Sanction 
for  settling  the  empire  of  Germany  in  the  house  of  Austria,  a.d.  1439.  The 
emperor  Charles  VI.  published  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  whereby,  in  default  of  male 
issue,  his  daughters  should  succeed  in  preference  to  the  sons  of  his  brother  Joseph 
I.,  April  17,  1713,  and  he  settled  his  dominions  en  his  daughter  Maria  Theresa  in 
conformity  thereto,  1722.  She  succeeded  in  October  1740 ;.  but  it  gave  rise  to  a 
war,  in  which  most  of  the  powers  of  Europe  were  engaged. 

PRAGUE,  Battle  of,  between  the  Imperialists  and  Bohemians.  The  latter,,  who 
had  chosen  Frederick  V.  of  the  Palatinate  (son-in-law  of  our  James  I.)  for  their 
king,  were  totally  defeated.  The  unfortunate  king  was  forced  to  flee  with  his  queen 
aad  children  into  Holland,  leaving  all  his  baggage  and  money  behind  him.  He  was 
afterwards  deprived  of  his  hereditary  dominions,  and  the  Protestant  interest  was 
ruined  in  Bohemia;  all  owing  to  the  pusillanimity  and  inactivity  of  James,  Nov.  7, 
1620.  Prague  was  taken  by  the  Saxons  in  1631  ;  and  by  the  Swedes  in  1.648.  It 
was  taken  by  storm  by  the  French  in  1741  ;  but  they  were  obliged  to  leave  it  in 
1742.  In  1744,  it  was  taken  by  the  king  of  Prussia ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  abandon 
it  in  the  same  year.  The  great  and  memorable  battle  of  Prague  was  fought  May  6, 
1757.  In  this  engagement  the  Austrians  were  defeated  by  prince  Henry  of  Prussia, 
and  their  whole  camp  taken ;  their  illustrious  commander,  general  Browne,  was 
mortally  wounded  ;  and  the  brave  Prussian,  marshal  Schwerin,  was  killed.  After 
this  victory,  Prague  was  besieged  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  but  he  was  soon  afterwards 
obliged  to  raise  the  siege. 

PRAISC-GOD-BAREBONES'  PARLIAMENT.  A  celebrated  parliament,  so  called 
from  one  of  the  members  (who  had  thus  fantastically  styled  himself  according  to  the 
fashion  of  the  times),  met  July  4,  1653.  This  parliament  consisted  of  144  members, 
summoned  by  the  protector  Cromwell ;  they  were  to  sit  for  fifteen  months^  and 
then  they  were  to  choose  a  fresh  parliament  themselves. 

PRATIQUE.  The  writing  or  licence  of  this  name  was  originally  addressed  by  the 
Southern  nations  to  the  ports  in  Italy  to  which  vessels  were  bound,  and  signified 


PR  A 


C  421  ] 


PRE 


that  the  ship  so  licensed  came  from  a  place  or  country  in  a  healthy  state,  and  no  way 
infected  with  the  plagae  or  other  contagious  disease.  The  pratique  is  now  called  a 
bill  of  health,  and  is  still  of  the  same  intent  and  import. — Ashe. 

PRAYERS  FOR  THE  DEAD,  &c.  They  were  first  introduced  into  the  Christian  church 
about  A.D,  190. — Eusebius.  Prayers  addressed  to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  to  the  saints 
were  introduced  by  pope  Gregory,  a.d.  693.  The  mode  of  praying  with  the  face  to 
the  east  was  instituted  by  pope  Boniface  II.,  a.d.  532. 

PRECEDENCE.  Precedence  was  established  in  very  early  ages  ;  and  in  most  of  the 
countries  of  the  East  and  of  Europe,  and  was  amongst  the  laws  of  Justinian.  In 
England,  the  order  of  proceedings  was  regulated  chiefly  by  two  statutes,  namely, 
one  passed  31  Henry  VIII.,  1539  ;  and  the  other,  1  George  I.  1714. 


The  queen. 

[Prince  of  Wales,  if  bom.] 

Prince  Albert. 

Queen  dowager. 

[Queen's  other  sons,  if  any.] 

Princess  royaL 

[Other  daughters  of  thequeen, 
if  bom.] 

Duchess  of  Kent. 

Queen's  uncles. 

Queen's  aunts. 

Queen's  cousins. 

Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

Lord  chancellor. 

Archbishop  of  York. 

*Lord  high  treasurer. 

♦Lord  president. 

♦Lord  privy  seal. 

fLord  high  constable. 

0iOrd  great  ohamberlain  of 
England. 

f  Earl  marshal. 

fLord  high  admiral. 

Lord  steward  of  the  house- 
hold. 

Lord  chamberlain. 

Dukes,  according  to  patent. 

Marquesses,  according  to  their 
patents. 

Dukes'  eldest  sons. 

Earls,  according  to  their  pa- 
tents. 

Marquesses*  eldest  sons. 

Dukes'  younger  sons. 

Viscounts,  according  to  their 
patents. 

Earls*  eldest  sons. 

Marquesses*  younger  sons. 

Bishop  of  London. 

Bishop  of  Durham. 

Bishop  of  Winchester. 

All  other  bishops,  according 


TABLE  OF  PRECKDBNCy. 

to  their  seniority  of  conse- 
cration. 

Secretary  of  State,  being  a 
baron. 

Commissioners  of  the  great 
seal. 

Barons,  according  to  their 
patents. 

[All  the  above,  except  the 
royal  family,  hold  their 
precedence  of  rank  by  act 
31  Henry  VIH.] 

COMMONERS. 

The  Speaker. 

Treasurer,  comptroller,  and 
vice -chamberlain  of  the 
household. 

Secretaries  of  State,  if  they  be 
imder  the  degree  of  baron. 

Viscounts*  eldest  sons. 

Earls'  younger  sons. 

Banms'  eldest  sons. 

Knights  of  the  Garter. 

Privy  councillors. 

Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer. 

Chancellor  of  the  duchy  of 
Lancaster. 

Lord  chief  Justice  of  tiie 
queen's  bench. 

Master  of  the  rolls. 

Vice-chancellor. 

Lord  chief  Justice  of  the  com- 
mon pleas. 

Lord  chief  baron. 

Judges,  and  barons,  accord- 
ing to  seniority. 

Hereditary  bannereta 

Viscounts'  younger  sons. 

Barons'  younger  sons. 

Baronets. 


Knights  of  the  bath. 
Grand  Crosses. 

Knights  commanders. 

Knights  bachelors. 

Eldest  sons  of  the  younger 
sons  of  peers. 

Baronets*  eldest  sons. 

Sjiights  of  the  garter's  eldest 
sons. 

Bannerets'  eldest  sons. 

Knights  of  the  bath's  eldest 
sons. 

Knights*  eldest  sons. 

Baronets'  younger  sons. 

Flag,  and  field  offioers. 

Sergeants-at-law. 

Doctors,  deans,  and  chan- 
cellors. 

Masters  in  chancery. 

Companions  ci  the  bath. 

Gentlemen  of  the  privy  cham- 
ber. 

Esquires  of  the  knights  of  the 
Bath. 

Esquires  by  creation. 

Esquires  by  office  or  com- 
mission. 

Younger  sons  of  knights  of 
the  garter. 

Sons  of  bannerets. 

Younger  sons  of  knights  of 
the  bath. 

Younger  sons  of  knights  ba- 
chelors. 

Gentlemen  entitled  to  bear 
arms. 

Clergymen,  not  dignitaries. 

Barristers  at  law. 

Officers  of  the  army  and 
navy,  not  esquires  by  com- 
mission. 

Citizens,  burgesses,  Aeo. 


Bannerets  for  life  only. 

PREDESTINATION.  The  belief  that  God  hath  from  all  eternity  unchangeably 
appointed  whatever  comes  to  pass.  This  doctrine  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the  most 
perplexing  controversies  that  have  occurred  among  mankind.  It  was  taught  by  the 
ancient  stoics  and  early  Christians ;  and  Mahomet  introduced  the  doctrine  of  an 
absolute  predestination  into  his  Koran  in  the  strongest  light.  The  controversy 
respecting  it  in  the  Christian  church  arose  in  the  fifth  century,  when  it  was  main- 
tained by  St.  Augustin  ;  and  Lucidus,  a  priest  of  Gaul,  taught  it  a.d.  470. 

*  If  of  the  rank  of  barons.  t  Above  all  of  their  own  rank  only,  by  31  Henry  VIII. 

%  When  in  actual  office  only,  by  1  George  I. 

N.B.  The  priority  of  signing  any  treaty  or  public  instrument  by  ministers  of  state  is  taken  by  rank 
of  office  and  not  title. 


PRE  Q  422  ]  PRE 

PREMONSTRANTS,  or  WHITE  CANONS.  This  order  of  Friars  was  founded  by 
St  Norbert,  aboat  a.d.  1120.  They  had  many  monasteries  in  France,  Spain,  and 
Italy.  Their  first  monastery  in  England  was  at  New  House,  in  Lincolnshire, 
about  A.D.  1146 

PREROGATIVE  COURT.  The  court  wherein  all  wills  are  proved,  and  all  adminis- 
trations  taken,  which  belong  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  by  his  prerogative  : 
and,  if  any  dispute  arise  between  parties  concerning  such  will  or  administration,  the 
cause  is  properly  decided  in  this  court.  The  judge  is  appointed  by  his  grace  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury.  There  are  appeals  from  this  court  to  the  judicial  com. 
mittee  of  the  privy  council,  by  statutes  11  George  IV.  and  1  William  IV.  1830. 

PRESBURG,  Peace  of,  between  France  and  Austria,  by  which  the  ancient  states  of 
Venice  were  ceded  to  Italy ;  the  principality  of  Eichstett,  part  of  the  bishopric  of 
Passau,  the  city  of  Augsburg,  the  Tyrol,  all  the  possessions  of  Austria  in  Suabia,  in 
Brisgau,  and  Ortenau,  were  transferred  to  the  elector  of  Bavaria  and  the  dake  of 
Wirtembeig,  who,  as  well  as  the  duke  of  Baden,  were  then  created  kings  by  Napo- 
leon ;  the  independence  of  the  Helvetic  republic  was  also  stipulated,  Dec.  26,  1805. 

PRESBYTERIANS.  A  numerous  and  increasing  sect  of  Christians,  so  called  from 
their  maintaining  that  the  government  of  the  church  appointed  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  by  Presbyteries,  or  associations  of  ministers  and  ruling  elders,  equal  in 
power,  office,  and  in  order.  The  first  Presbyterian  meeting-house  in  England  was 
established  by  the  Puritans  at  Wandsworth,  Surrey,  November  20, 1572.  Presby- 
terianism  is  the  religion  of  Scotland.  Its  distinguishing  tenets  seem  to  have  been 
first  embodied  in  the  formulary  of  faith  attributed  to  John  Knox,  and  compiled  by 
that  reformer  in  1560.  It  was  approved  by  the  parliament,  and  ratified,  1567,  and 
finally  settled  by  an  act  of  the  Scottish  senate,  1696,  afterwards  secured  by  the 
treaty  of  union  with  England  in  1 707. 

PRESCOTT,  Battle  of,  in  Upper  Canada.  The  Canadian  rebels  were  attacked  by 
the  British  under  Major  Young,  and  (on  the  following  day)  by  Lieut.-Colonel 
Dundas,  who,  after  an  obstinate  resistance,  succeeded  in  dispersing  the  insurgents, 
several  of  whom  were  killed,  and  many  taken  prisoners ;  the  troops,  however,  also 
suffered  considerably.  After  the  attack  of  Lieutenant-Colonel  Dundas,  the  remain- 
der of  the  rebels  surrendered.  In  these  engagements  they  were  aided  by  Americans 
of  the  United  States,  who  invaded  the  Canadian  territory  in  great  numbers, 
Nov.  17,  1838. 

PRESIDENT  OF  the  COUNCIL,  LORD.  The  President  of  the  Council  (the  fourth 
great  officer  of  state)  is  appointed  to  this  important  office  by  letters  patent,  under 
the  great  seal,  durante  beneplacitOy  and,  by  his  office,  is  to  attend  the  king's  royal 
person,  and  to  manage  the  debates  in  council ;  to  propose  matters  from  the  king  at 
the  council-table ;  and  to  report  to  his  majesty  the  resolutions  taken  thereupon. 
From  the  12th  Charles  II.  1660,  when  Anthony,  lord  Ashley,  was  lord  president, 
this  office  has  eusted  uninterruptedly  to  the  present  time. 

PRESIDENT  OF  the  UNITED  STATES  of  AMERICA.  This  rank  (being  that 
of  first  magistrate)  was  first  conferred  on  George  Washington,  father  of  American 
Independence.  He  was  unanimously  elected  president  of  the  federal  convention, 
which  sat  at  Philadelphia  from  May  25,  to  Sept.  17,  1787;  and  was  unanimously 
elected  president  of  the  United  States,  April  6,  1789.  This  illustrious  patriot, 
eminent  statesman  and  general,  was  again  elected  president  in  1793,  and  died 
December  14,  1799.     See  United  States. 

PRESIDENT  American  Ship  of  War,  of  60  guns  and  490  men,  was  captured  by 
the  British  ship  Endymion  of  only  50  guns  of  smaller  calibre,  some  other  British 
ships  being  in  company,  January  15,  1815.  ' 

PRESS,  the  PRINTING.  This  great  engine  was  of  rude  construction  from  the 
period  of  the  discovery  of  the  art  of  printing,  up  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  when  many  improvements  were  made.  William  Caxton,  a  mercer  of  London, 
had  a  press  set  up  at  Westminster,  1471. — Stowe*8  Chron.  The  earl  of  Stanhope's 
iron  presses  were  in  general  use  in  1806.  The  printing-machine  was  invented  by 
Koenig  in  1811,  and  Applegath's  followed.  The  Columbian  press  of  Clymer  was 
produced  in  1814  ;  and  the  Albion  press,  an  improvement  on  this  last,  came  into 
use  in  a  few  years  after.     Printing  by  means  of  steam  machinery  was  first  executed 


PRE  [[  423  ]  PRE 

in  England  at  The  7<W«  office,  London^  on  Monday,  November  28, 1814.  Cowper's 
and  Applegath's  rollers  for  distributing  the  ink  upon  the  types  were  brought  into 
use  in  1817.     See  article  Printing, 

PRESS,  Liberty  of  the.  The  imprimatur ^  ''  let  it  be  printed,''  was  much  used  on 
the  title-pages  of  books  printed  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries.  The  liberty  of  the 
press  was  restrained,  and  the  number  of  master-printers  in  London  and  Westminster 
limited,  by  the  Star  Chamber,  14  Charles  I.,  1638.  And  again  by  act  of  parliament 
6  William  III.  1693.  The  celebrated  toast,  "  The  liberty  of  the  press — it  is  like 
the  air  we  breathe — if  we  have  it  not  we  die,*'  was  first  given  at  the  Crown  and 
Anchor  tavern,  at  a  Whig  dinner  in  1795.  Presses  were  licensed,  and  the  printer's 
name  required  to  be  placed  on  both  the  first  and  last  pages  of  a  book,  July  1799. 

PRESS  Newspaper.  A  celebrated  journal,  published  in  Dublin,  of  considerable 
talent,  but  of  a  most  revolutionary  tendency ;  it  was  commenced  in  October  1797, 
by  the  celebrated  Arthur  O'Connor,  and  Mr.  Emmett,  the  barrister  (whose  brother 
was  executed  in  1803)  ;  and  several  other  conspicuous  men  were  contributors  to  it ; 
and  their  writings  served  to  inflame  the  public  mind  in  Ireland,  on  the  eve  of  the 
memorable  rebellion,  which  broke  out  in  1798.  The  paper  was  suppressed  by  a 
military  force,  March  6,  1798,  and  Mr.  O'Connor  was  arrested  at  Margate  while 
attempting  his  escape  to  France. 

PRESSING  TO  DEATH.  A  punishment  of  the  Inquisition.  A  remarkable  instance 
of  this  death  in  England,  is  the  following  : — Hugh  Calverly,  of  Calverly  in  Yorkshire, 
esq.,  having  murdered  two  of  his  children,  and  stabbed  his  wife  in  a  fit  of  jealousy, 
being  arraigned  for  his  crime  at  York  assizes,  stood  mute,  and  was  thereupon 
pressed  to  death  in  the  castle,  a  large  iron  weight  being  placed  upon  his  breast,  3 
James  I.  1605. — Stowe's  Chron, 

PRESSING  FOR  THE  SEA  SERVICE.  See  Impressment.  Supported  by  custom, 
as  far  back  as  records  can  be  found.  It  is  said  that  the  first  commission  was  issued 
29  Edward  III.,  1355.  Impressment  was  a  criminal  punishment  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.  Mr.  Read,  an  alderman  of  London,  was  pressed,  and  sent  to  serve 
on  board  the  fleet  in  foreign  parts,  for  refusing  to  pay  a  tax  levied  on  him  by  the 
king  in  1544. — Stoufe*s  Chron. 

PRESTON,  Battle  of,  between  the  Scotch  insurgents,  under  Forster,  and  the 
British,  under  general  Wills.  The  first  attack  was  successful  on  the  side  of  the 
Scots,  but  general  Wills  having  been  reinforced  by  general  Carpenter,  the  royal 
army  invested  Preston  on  all  sides,  and  the  Scots  at  length  laid  down  their  arms, 
and  their  nobles  and  leaders  were  secured  ;  some  of  them  were  shot  as  deserters,  and 
others  were  sent  to  London,  pinioned  and  bound  together,  to  intimidate  their  party ; 
fought,  Nov.  1 2,  1 7 1 5  .—Goldsmith. 

PRESTONPANS,  Battle  of,  between  the  Young  Pretender,  prince  Charles  Stuart, 
heading  his  Scotch  adherents,  and  the  royal  army  under  sir  John  Cope.  The  latter 
was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  500  men,  and  was  forced  to  fly  at  the  very  first  onset. 
Sir  John  Cope  precipitately  galloped  from  the  field  of  battle  to  Berwick-upon-Tweed, 
where  he  was  the  first  to  announce  his  own  discomfiture.  His  disgrace  is  perpe- 
tuated in  a  favourite  Scottish  ballad,  called,  from  the  doughty  hero,/'  Johnie  Cope." 
Fought  September  21,  1745. 

PRETENDER.  The  person  known  in  our  history  by  the  title  of  the  Pretender,  or 
Chevalier  de  St.  George,  was  the  son  of  James  II.  born  in  1688,  and  acknowledged 
by  Louis  XIV.  as  James  III.  of  England,  in  1701.  He  was  proclaimed,  and  his 
standard  set  up,  atBraemar  and  Castletown  in  Scotland,  September  6,  1715  ;  and  he 
landed  at  Peterhead,  in  Aberdeenshire,  from  France,  to  encourage  the  rebellion  that 
the  earl  of  Mar  and  his  other  adherents  had  promoted,  Dec.  26,  same  year.  This 
rebellion  having  been  soon  suppressed,  the  Pretender  escaped  to  Montrose  (from 
whence  he  arrived  at  Gravelines),  Feb.  4, 1716  ;   and  died  at  Rome,  Dec.  30,  1765. 

PRETENDER,  the  Young.  The  son  of  the  preceding,  called  prince  Charles,  bom 
in  1720.  He  landed  in  Scotland,  and  proclaimed  his  father  king,  June  1745.  He 
gained  the  battle  of  Prestonpans,  Sept.  21,  1745,  and  of  Falkirk,  January  18,  1746; 
but  was  defeated  at  Culloden,  April  16,  same  year,  and  sought  safety  by  flight.  He 
continued  wandering  -among  the  frightful  wilds  of  Scotland  for  nearly  six  months, 
and  as  30,000/.  were  ofilered  for  taking  him,  he  was  constantly  pursued  by  the  British 
troops,  often  hemmed  round  by  his  enemies,  but  still  rescued  by  some  lucky  acci- 
dent, and  he  at  length  escaped  from  the  isle  of  Uist  to  Morlaix.     He  died  March  3, 


PRI  [  424  J  PR! 

1788.  His  natural  daughter  assumed  tbe  title  of  duchess  of  Albany ;  she  died  in 

1789.  His  brother,  the  cardinal  York,  calling  himself  Henry  IX.  of  Elngland,  bom 
March  1725,  died  at  Rome  in  August  1807. 

PRIDE'S  PURGE.  In  the  civil  war  against  Charles  I.  colonel  Pride,  at  the  head  of 
two  regiments,  surrounded  tbe  house  of  parliament  and  seizing  in  the  passage  41 
members  of  the  Presbyterian  party,  sent  them  to  a  low  room,  then  called  hell. 
Above  160  other  members  were  excluded,  and  none  admitted  but  the  most  furious 
of  the  independents.  This  atrocious  invasion  of  parliamentary  rights  was  called 
Pride* t  Purge,  and  the  privil^ed  members  were  named  the  Rumpt  to  whom  nothing 
remained  to  complete  their  wickedness,  but  to  murder  the  king,  24  Charles  I., 
ISAS.—GohUmUh, 

PRIESTS.  Anciently  elders,  but  the  name  is  now  given  to  the  clergy  only.  In  the 
Old  Testament  the  age  of  priests  was  fixed  at  thirty  years.  Among  the  Jews,  the 
dignity  of  high  or  chief  priest  was  annexed  to  Aaron's  family,  1491  B.C.  After  the 
captivity  of  Babylon,  the  civil  government  and  the  crown  were  superadded  to  the 
high  priesthood ;  it  was  the  peculiar  privilege  of  the  high  priest,  that  he  could  be 
prosecuted  in  no  court  but  that  of  the  great  Sanhedrim.  The  heathens  had  their 
arch-flamen  or  high-priest,  and  so  have  the  Christians,  ezceptlDg  among  some 
particular  sects. 

PRIMER.  A  book  so  named  from  the  Romish  book  of  devotions,  and  formerly  set 
forth  or  published  by  authority,  as  the  first  book  children  should  publicly  learn  or 
read  in  schools,  containing  prayers  and  portions  of  the  scripture.  Copies  of  primers 
are  preserved  of  so  early  a  date  as  1539. — Ashe, 

PRIMOGENITURE,  Rioht  op,  an  usage  brought  down  from  tbe  earliest  times. 
The  first  born  in  the  patriarchal  ages  had  a  superiority  over  his  brethren,  and  in  the 
absence  of  his  father  was  priest  to  the  family.  In  England,  by  the  ancient  custom 
of  gavel-kind,  primogeniture  was  of  no  account.  It  came  in  with  the  feudal  law, 
3  William  I.,  1068. 

PRINTING.  The  greatest  of  all  the  arts.  The  honour  of  its  invention  has  been 
appropriated  to  Mentz,  Strasburg,  Haerlem,  Venice,  Rome,  Florence,  Basle, 
and  Augsburg;  but  the  claims  of  the  three  first  only  are  entitled  to  attention. 
Adrian  Junius  awards  the  honour  of  the  invention  to  Laurenzes  John  Koster 
of  Haerlem,  **  who  printed,  with  blocks,  a  book  of  images  and  letters,  Spe- 
culutn  Humanai  Salvationist  and  compounded  an  ink  more  viscous  and  tenacious 
than  common  ink,  which  blotted,  about  a.d.  1438."  The  leaves  of  this  book  being 
printed  on  one  side  only,  were  afterwards  pasted  together.  John  Faust  established 
a  printing  ofiice  at  Mentz,  and  printed  the  Tractattu  Petri  Hispani,  in  1442. 
John  Guttenberg  invented  cut  metal  types,  and  used  them  in  printing  the  earliest 
edition  of  tbe  bible,  which  was  commenced  in  1444,  and  finished  in  1460.  Peter 
Scheeffer  cast  the  first  metal  types  in  matrices,  and  was  therefore  the  inventor  of 
COMPLETE  PRINTING,  1452. — Adrian  Junius  ;  Du  Fresnoy. 


Book  of  Psalms t  printed  .        a.d.  1457 

The   Durandi  Rationale^    first    work 

printed  with  cast  metal  types  .  1459 

[Printing  was  introduced  into  Oxford, 
about  this  time. — Collier.     But  this 
statement  is  discredited  by  Dibdin.] 
A  Livy  ^riaXe^^Dv/resnoy      «         .    .  1460 
The  first  Bible  completed.— Jdtfm.  .  1460 

[Mentz  taken  and  plundered,  and  the  art 
of  printing,  in  the  general  ruin,  ia 
spread  to  other  towns]  .  .  .  *** 
The  types  were  uniformly  Gothic,  or  old 
German  (whence  our  English,  or 
Black  Letter),  until  .  .  .  .  1465 
Greek  characters  (quotations  only)  first 

used,  same  year         ....  1465 
Cicero  de  Officiis  printed  {Blair)         .    .1466 


Roman  characters,  first  at  Rome      a^.  1467 

A  Chronicle,  said  to  have  been  found  in 
the  archbishop  of  Canterbury's  palace 
(the  fact  disputed),  bearing  the  date 
Ojiford,  anno 1468 

William  Cazton,  a  mercer  of  London, 
set  up  the  first  press,  at  Westminster*  1471 

He  printed  Willyam  Caxton*s  Recuydof 
the  Historyes  of  Troy,  by  Baoul  le 
JFettr«.— Pmixips       ....  1471 

His  first  pieces  were,  A  Treatise  on  the 
Qameef  Chess,  and  Tvlly^s  Offices  (see 
below). —DiBiiiK         ....  1474 

Msop's  Fables,  printed  by  Caxton,  ia 
supposed  to  be  the  first  book  with  its 
leaves  numbered       ....   *** 


*  To  the  west  of  the  Sanctuary,  in  Westminster  Abbey,  stood  the  Eleemosynary  or  Almonry, 
where  the  first  printing-press  in  England  was  erected  in  147l>  by  William  Caxton,  encouraged  by 
the  learned  Thomas  Milling,  then  abbot  He  produced  "  The  Game  and  Play  qf  the  Chesse"  the 
first  book  ever  printed  in  these  kingdoms.  There  is  a  slight  difference  about  the  place  in  which 
it  was  printed,  but  all  agree  that  it  was  within  the  precincts  of  this  religious  house.— Zft^A. 


PRI 


[425] 


PRI 


PRINTING,  continued, 

Aldus  cast  the  Greek  alphabet,  and  a 

Greek  book  printed  (ap.  Aldi)       a.d.  1476 
He  mtroduces  the  Italic        ...  *** 
The  Pentateuch,  in  Hebrew       .        .    .  1482 
Homer,  in  folio,  beautifully  done  at  Flo- 
rence, eclipsing  all  former  printing,  by 
Demetrius         ...  .  1488 

Printing  used  in  Scotland  .        .    .  1509 

The  first  edition  of  the  whoJe  Bible  was, 
strictly  speaking,  the  Complutenslan 
Polyglot   of  cardinal  Ximenes   (see 

Polyglot) 1517 

The  Liturgy,  the  first  book  printed  in 

Ireland,  by  Humphrey  Powell         .    .  1550 
Printing  in  Irish  characters  introduced 
by  Nicholas  Walsh,  chancellor  of  St. 

Patrick's 1571 

The  first  Newspaper  printed  in  England 

{s^B  Newspapen)  .        .        .    .  1588 

First  patent  granted  for  printing  .  1591 

First  printing-press  improved  by  Wil- 
liam Blaeu,  at  Amsterdam  .1601 
First  printing  in  America,  in  New  Eng- 


land,  when  the  Freeman*t  Oath  and 
an  Almanack  were  printed        .    a.d.  1639 
First  Bible  printed  in  Ireland  was  at 

Belfast.— /fardyV  Tour  .         .    .  1704 

First  types  cast  in  England  by  Caslon. — 

PhUlipt  1720 

Stereotype  printing  suggested  by  William 

Ged,  of  Edinburgh—- iV^icAo/f       .         .1735 
The  present  mode  of  stereotype  invented 

by  Mr.  Tilloch,  about     .         .         .    .  1779 
[Stereotype  printing  was  in  use  in  Hol- 
land in  the  last  century. — Phillips.'] 
The  printing-machine  was  first  suggested 

by  Nicholson 1790 

The  Stanhope  press  was  in  general  use  in  1806 
Machine  printing  (see  Pre««)  .  .  .  1811 
Steam  machinery  (see  Press)  .  .  1814 
The  Columbian  press  .  .  .  .  1814 
The  Albion  press  ....  1819 

The  roller,  which  was  a  suggestion  of 

Nicholson,  introduced    .        .         .    .  1816 
Applegath's  rollers  (see  Press)       .        .  1817 


TrrLRB  OF  TRX  BARLIKST  BOOKS  OP  CAXTON  AND  WTRKYN  DB  WORDB. 


The  Oame  and  Playe  of  the  Chesse.  Trans- 
lated  out  of  the  Frenche  and  emprynted  by 
me  William  Cazton  Fynysshid  the  Uut  day 
ofMarche  the  yer  of  our  Lord  Ood  a  thou- 
sand foure  hondred  and  Ixxiiij, 

TULLY. 

The  Boke  cf  Tulle  of  Olde  age  Emprynted  by 
me  simple  persone  William  Cazton  in  to 
Englysshe  as  the  playsir  solace  and  reve- 
rence of  men  growyng  in  to  old  age  the  xij 
day  qf  August  the  yere  of  our  lord 
M.ccoci;rx4^.— HcRBKRT. 

THK  POLYCRONTOON'. 

27k«  Polycronycon  conteynyng  the  Berynges 
and  Dedes  cf  many  Tymes  in  eyght  Sokes. 
Imprinted  by  William  Caxton  aftxr  having 
somewhat  chaunged  the  rude  and  olde  Eng- 
lysshe»  that  is  to  wete  [to  wit]  certayn  Words 
which  in  these  Dayes  be  neyther  vsyd  ne 
understanden.  Ended  the  second  day  of 
Juyll  at  Westmestre  the  xx\j  yere  of  the 
Regne  ofKynge  Edward  the  fourth,  and  qf 
the  Incamacion  of  oure  Lord  a  Thousand 
four  Hondred  four  Score  and  tweyne  [1482.] 
— DiBDiN's  Typ.  AMTiq. 

THK  CURONICLR& 

The  Cronicles  of  Englond  Enprlted  by  me 
Wyllyam  Caxton  thabbey  of  Westmynstre 
by  london  the  v  day  cfJuyn  the  yere  cfthin- 
eamacion  qfour  lord  god  m.occc.lxzz. 

POLYCRONICON. 

Polycronycon.  Ended  the  thyrtenth  daye  qf 
Apryll  the  tenth  yere  of  the  regne  of  hinge 
Harry  the  seuenth  And  of  the  Jncarnacyon 
qf  our  lord  mcccclxzxxv  Enprynted  by 
Wynkyn  Theworde  at  Westmestre. 

HILL  OF  PBRFSCnON. 

The  Hylle  of  Perfection  emprynted  at  the 
instance  of  the  reverend  relygyous  fader 
Tho.  Prior  of  the  hous  qfSt,  Ann,  the  or- 
der of  the  charterouse     Accomplysshe[d'} 


and  /ynyssh({d']  att  Westmynster  the  uiii 
day  qf  janeuer  the  yere  of  our  lord  Thau- 
sande  ccoc.  lxxxxvu.  And  in  the  xii  yere 
qf  kynge  Henry  the  vii  by  me  wynkyn  de 
worde.'— Amks.  Hkrbbrt,  Dibdin. 

BNOLAND. 

The  Descripcyonqf  Englonde  Walys  Scotland 
and  Irlond  speaking  qf  the  Noblesse  and 
Worthynesse  qfthe  same  Fynysshed  and  en' 
prynted  in  Flete  strete  in  the  syne  qf  the 
Sonne  by  me  Wynkyn  de  Worde  the  yere  qf 
our  lord  a  ts.cecce  and  if.  mensis  Mayiit 
[mense  Mali].— Dibdin'b  Typ.  Ant. 

TUB  PBSTIVAL. 

The  Festyvall  or  Sermons  on  sondays  and 
holidais  taken  out  qf  the  golden  legend  en- 
prynted at  london  in  Fletestrete  at  ff  sygne 
qf  y*  S(mne  by  wynkyn  de  worde.  In  the 
yere  of  our  lord  m.  ocooc.  vm.  And  ended 
the  xi  daye  qf  Maye^—Auxa, 

THB  lord's  PRAYBR. 

[As  printed  by  Caxton  in  1483.] 
Father  our  that  art  in  heavens»  hcMowed  be 
thy  name :  thy  kingdome  come  to  ut  t   thy 
will  be  done  in  earth  as  is  in  heaven :  oure 
every  days  bred  give  us  to  day ;  and/brgive 
us  oure  trespassest  as  we  forgive  them  that 
trespcus  against  us  ;  and  lead  us  not  in  to 
temptation,  but  deliver  us  from  aU  evU  sin, 
amenj—liKWiB's  Lifb  of  Caxton. 
A  Placard* 
[As  printed  by  William  Caxton.]  ' 
J/  it  plese  ony  man  spirituel  or  temporel  to 
bye  ony  pies  qftwo  or  thre  comemoracios  qf 
Salisburi  use  *  enpryntid  after  the  forme  qf 
this  preset  lettre  whiche  ben  wel  and  truly 
correct,  late  hini  come  to  westmonester  in 
to  the  almonestye  at  the  reed  pale  [red  pale] 
and  he  shall  have  them  good  (Aere.— Dibdin's 
Typ.  Antiq. 


*  Romish  Service  books,  used  at  Salisbury  by  the  devout,  called  Pies  {Pica,  Latin),  as  is  supposed 
from  the  differait  colour  of  the  text  and  rubric.  Our  Pica  is  called  Cicero  by  foreign  printers. — 
WheaiUy. 


PRI  Q  426  ]  PRI 

Among  the  early  printers,  the  only  points  used  were  the  comma,  parenthesis,  inter- 
rogation, and  full  stop.  To  these  succeeded  the  colon ;  afterwards  the  semicolon ; 
and  last  the  note  of  admiration.  The  sentences  were  fall  of  abbreviations  and  con- 
tractions ;  and  there  were  no  running-titles,  numbered  leaves,  or  catch-words.  Our 
punctuation  appears  to  have  been  introduced  with  the  art  of  printing. 

PRINTED  GOODS.  The  art  of  calico-printing  is  of  considerable  antiquity,  and  there 
exist  specimens  of  Egyptian  cotton  dyed  by  figured  blocks  many  hundred  years  old. 
A  similar  process  has  been  resorted  to  even  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  where  they  use 
a  large  leaf  as  a  substitute  for  the  block.  See  article  Cotton.  The  copyright  of 
designs  secured  by  2  Victoria,  1839. 

PRIORIES.  They  were  of  early  foundation,  and  are  mentioned  in  a.d.  22  in  England. 
See  Abbeys  and  Monasteries.  The  priories  'of  aliens  were  first  seized  upon  by 
£dwu*d  I.  in  1285,  on  the  breaking  out  of  a  war  between  England  and  France. 
They  were  seized  in  several  succeeding  reigns  on  the  like  occasions,  but  were 
usually  restored  on  the  conclusion  of  peace.  These  priories  were  dissolved,  and 
their  estates  vested  in  the  crown,  3  Henry  V.  1414. — Rytner^s  Fmdera. 

PRISONERS  OF  WAR.  Among  the  ancient  nations,  prisoners  of  war  when  spared 
by  the  sword  were  usually  enslaved,  and  this  custom  more  or  less  continued  until 
about  the  thirteenth  century,  when  civilised  nations,  instead  of  enslaving,  commonly 
exchanged  their  prisoners.  The  Spanish,  French,  and  American  prisoners  of  war  in 
England  were  12,000  in  number,  Sept.  30,  1779.  The  number  exchanged  by  cartel 
with  France,  from  the  commencement  of  the  then  war,  was  44,000,  June  1781. — 
Phillips,  The  English  prisoners  in  France  estimated  at  6000,  and  the  French  in 
England,  27,000,  Sept.  1798.— /</em.  The  English  in  France  amounted  to  10,300, 
and  the  French,  &c.  in  England  to  47,600,  in  \%\\.—Idem,  This  was  the  greatest 
number,  owing  to  the  occasional  exchanges  made,  up  to  the  period  of  the  last  war. 

PRISONS  OF  LONDON.  The  precise  period  of  the  first  erection  of  the  celebrated 
King's  Bench  (now  Queen*s  Bench)  prison,  Southwark,  is  unknown  ;  but  a  prison 
has  existed  on  or  near  this  spot  for  some  centuries.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  many 
persons  died  in  it  of  what  was  called  the  "  sickness  of  the  house.'' — Stowe.  The 
Clink, 'on  the  Bankside,  also  existed  at  a  very  early  period.  The  Fleet  prison 
{which  see)  was  built  before  a.d.  1169.  Newgate,  so  called  from  its  being  later  built 
than  the  rest  of  the  gates,  was  a  prison  in  John's  reign,  about  1216.  See  Newgate. 
Clerk  en  well  prison  was  built  in  1615,  in  lieu  of  the  noted  prison  called  the  Cage, 
which  was  taken  down  in  1614.  Cold-Bath  Fields  prison  was  built  on  the  sugges- 
tion of  the  philanthropist  Howard.  The  atrocities  of  governor  Aris  in  this  prison 
were  exposed  in  parliament,  July  12,  1800.  Horsemonger-lane  gaol  was  built  in 
1781.  On  its  top  were  executed  colonel  Despard  and  his  associates  in  1803.  See 
Despard.  Giltspur-street  compter  was  also  built  upon  the  plan  suggested  by  the 
benevolent  Howard,  about  1780.  See  Poultry,  The  Savoy  prison,  for  the  confine- 
ment of  deserters  from  the  Guards,  formerly  situated  in  the  Strand,  was  pulled 
down  in  1819,  to  make  room  for  Waterloo-bridge.  The  White  Cross-street  prison 
for  debtors  was  erected  in  1813.  The  Borough  compter  was  a  mean  and  confined 
place  till  visited  by  a  parliamentary  committee  in  1817.  The  New  Bridewell  prison 
was  erected  as  a  substitute  for  the  City  Bridewell,  Blackfriars,  in  1829.  Tothill 
Fields  Bridewell  was  rebuilt  in  1831. 

PRISON  DISCIPLINE  SOCIETY  owes  its  existence  to  the  philanthropic  labours 
of  Sir  T.  F.  Bux|on,  M.P.  It  was  instituted  in  1815,  and  held  its  first  public 
meeting  in  1820.  Its  objects  are,  the  amelioration  of  gaols,  by  the  diffusion  of 
information  respecting  their  construction  and  management,  the  classification  and 
employment  of  the  prisoners,  and  the  prevention  of  crime,  by  inspiring  a  dread  of 
punishment,  and  by  inducing  the  criminal,  on  his  discharge  from  confinement,  to 
abandon  his  vicious  pursuits. 

PRIVILEGED  PLACES  in  LONDON.  So  blind  was  the  iU-directed  religious  zeal 
of  this  island,  that  from  Edward  the  Confessor's  time  to  the  Reformation,  which 
was  about  the  space  of  five  hundred  years,  whatever  place  or  building  was  consecrated 
by  the  clergy,  for  any  religious  use,  screened  offenders  from  the  justice  of  the  law, 
and  the  sentence  passed  upon  their  crimes.  Even  the  murderer  was  at  one  time 
protected,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  History  of  Westminster.  There  were  also  pri- 
vileged places  in  which  persons  were  secure  from  arrest.     These  were  the  Minories, 


PRl  [  427  ]  PRO 

Salisbury-court,  Whitefriars,  Fulwood^s-rents,  Mitre-court,  Baldwin's-gardens^  the 
Savoy,  Clink,  Deadman's-place,  Montague-close,  and  the  Mint.  All  were  abolished 
in  1696,  except  the  last,  which  was  not  wholly  suppressed  until  the  reign  of  George  I. 

PRIVY  COUNCIL.  This  assembly  is  of  great  antiquity.  Instituted  by  Alfred,  a.d. 
895.  In  ancient  times  the  number  was  twelve  ;  but  it  was  afterwards  so  increased, 
that  it  was  found  inconvenient  for  secrecy  and  despatch,  and  Charles  II.  limited  it 
to  thirty,  whereof  fifteen  were  the  principal  officers  of  state  (councillors  ex  officio), 
and  ten  lords  and  five  commoners  of  the  king's  choice,  a.d.  1679.  The  number  is 
now  indefinite.  To  attempt  the  life  of  a  privy-councillor  in  the  execution  of  his 
office  made  capital,  occasioned  by  Guiscard's  stabbing  Mr.  Harley  while  the  latter 
was  examining  him  on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  10  Anne,  1711. 

PRIVY  COUNCIL,  Judicial  Comitittee  of  the.  In  lieu  of  the  Court  of  Dele- 
gates, for  appeals  from  the  lord  chancellors  of  Great  Britain  and  of  Ireland  in  cases 
of  lunacy — from  the  Ecclesiastical  and  Admiralty  courts  of  England,  and  the  Vice- 
Admiralty  courts  abroad — from  the  Warden  of  the  Stanneries,  the  courts  of  the  Isle 
of  Man,  and  other  islands,  and  the  Colonial  Courts,  &c.,  fixed  by  statute  3  and  4 
William  IV.  IS33.  Judg€s — the  president  of  the  Privy  Council,  the  lord  chancellor, 
and  such  members  of  the  privy  council  as  may  hold  and  have  held  the  office  of  lord 
keeper,  or  first  commissioner  of  the  Great  Seal,  lord  chief  justice  of  the  Queen's 
Bench,  master  of  the  rolls,  vice-chancellor,  lord  chief  justice  of  the  Common  Pleas, 
lord  chief  baron,  judge  of  the  admiralty,  chief  judge  of  the  Court  of  Bankruptcy, 
and  others  appointed  by  the  queen,  being  privy  councillors. 

PRIVY  SEAL,  THE  LORD.  The  fifth  great  officer  of  state,  denominated  from  his 
having  the  custody  of  the  privy  seal,  which  he  must  not  put  to  any  grant,  without 
good  warrant  under  the  king's  signet.  This  seal  is  used  by  the  king  to  all  charters, 
grants,  and  pardons,  signed  by  the  king,  before  they  come  to  the  great  seal.  Richard 
Fox,  bishop  of  Winchester,  held  this  office  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  previously 
to  1523,  when  Cutbbert  Tunstall,  bishop  of  London,  was  appointed.  The  privy  seal 
has  been  on  some  occasions  in  commission. — Beatson. 

PRIZE  MONEY.  The  money  arising  from  captures  made  upon  the  enemy,  is  divided 
into  eight  equal  parts,  and  thus  distributed  by  order  of  government :«— Captain  to 
have  three-eighths,  unless  under  the  direction  of  a  flag  officer,  who  in  that  case  is  to 
have  one  of  the  said  three-eighths ;  captains  of  marines  and  land  forces,  sea  lieuten- 
ants, &c.  one-eighth  ;  lieutenants  of  marines,  gunners,  admirals'  secretaries,  &c. 
one-eighth  ;  midshipmen,  captain's  clerk,  &c.  one-eighth ;  ordinary  and  able  seamen, 
marines,  &c.  two  eighths.     Given  at  St.  James's,  April  17, 1793. 

PROFILES.  The  first  profile  taken,  as  recorded,  was  that  of  Antigonus,  who,  having 
but  one  eye,  his  likeness  was  so  taken,  330  B.C. — Mhe,  "Until  the  end  of  the 
third  century,  I  have  not  seen  a  Roman  emperor  with  a  full  face  ;  they  were  always 
painted  or  appeared  in  profile,  which  gives  us  the  view  of  a  head  in  a  very  majestic 
manner. ' ' — AddUon. 

PROMISSORY  NOTES.  They  were  regulated  and  allowed  to  be  made  assignable  in 
1705.  First  taxed  by  a  stamp  in  1782  ;  the  tax  was  increased  in  1804,  and  again 
in  1808,  and  subsequently.     See  Bills  of  JEwchange. 

PROPAGANDA  FIDE.  The  celebrated  congregation  or  college  in  the  Romish  Church, 
Congregatio  de  Propaganda  Fide,  was  constituted  at  Rome  by  pope  Gregory  XV.  in 
1622.     Its  constitution  was  altered  by  several  of  the  succeeding  pontiffs. 

PROPERTY  TAX.  Parliament  granted  to  Henry  VIII.  a  subsidy  of  two-fifteenths 
from  the  commons  and  two-tenths  from  the  clergy  to  aid  the  king  in  a  war  with 
France,  1512. — Rapin.  Cardinal  Wolsey  proposed  a  tenth  of  the  property  of  the 
laity  and  a  fourth  of  the  clergy  to  the  same  king,  1522.  The  London  merchants 
strenuously  opposed  this  tax :  they  were  required  to  declare  on  oath  the  real  value  of 
their  effects  ;  but  they  firmly  refused,  alleging  that  it  was  not  possible  for  them  to 
give  an  exact  account  of  their  effects,  part  whereof  was  in  the  hands  of  correspond- 
ents in  foreign  countries.  At  length,  by  agreement,  the  king  was  pleased  to  accept 
of  a  sum  according  to  their  own  calculation  of  themselves. — Butler,  This  tax  was 
levied  at  various  periods,  and  was  of  great  amount  in  the  last  years  of  the  late  war. 
The  assessments  on  real  property,  under  the  property-tax  of  1815,  were  51,898,423/. 
Of  which,  Middlesex  was  5,595,537/. ;    Lancashire,  3,087,774/. ;    and  Yorkshire, 


PRO []  428  ] PRO 

4,700,000/. ;  while  Wales,  of  4,752,000  acres,  or  one  million  more  than  Yorkshire, 
was  but  2,153,801/.  An  attempt  to  renew  the  property- tax  was  lost  in  the  commons' 
house  of  parliament  by  a  majority  of  37|  March  18,  1816. 

PROPHECY.  The  word  prophet,  in  popular  language,  means  one  of  the  sacred  writers 
empowered  by  God  to  display  Aiturity.  We  have  in  the  Old  Testament  the  writings 
of  sixteen  prophets  ;  t.  e.  of  four  greater,  and  twelve  lesser.  The  former  are  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel ;  the  latter  are  Hosea,  Joel,  Amos,  Obadiah,  Micah, 
Jonah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Zephaniah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  MalachL  Prophecy 
is  instanced  in  the  earliest  times.  The  prophetic  denunciations  upon  Babylon  were 
executed  by  Cyrus  538  B.C.  God's  judgment  upon  Jerusalem  {Isaiah  xxix.  1 — 8) 
executed  by  Titus  a.d.  70.     Many  other  instances  of  prophecy  occur  in  Scripture. 

PROTECTORATES  in  ENGLAND.  That  of  the  earl  of  Pembroke  began  Oct.  19, 
1216,  and  ended  by  his  death  the  same  year.  Of  the  duke  of  Bedford  began  Aug.  31* 
1422,  and  ended  by  his  death  in  September,  1435.  Of  the  duke  of  Gloucester  began 
April  9, 1483,  and  ended  by  his  assuming  the  royal  dignity,  June  22,  the  same  year. 
Of  Somerset  began  Jan.  28,  1547,  and  ended  by  his  resignation  in  1549.  Of  Oliver 
Cromwell  began  Dec.  12,  1653,  and  ended  by  his  death,  Sept.  3,  1658.  Of  Richard 
Cromwell  began  Sept.  4,  1658,  ended  by  his  resignation,  April  22,  1659. 

PROTESTANTS.  The  emperor  Charles  Y.  called  a  diet  at  Spires  in  1529,  to  reqnest 
aid  from  the  German  princes  against  the  Turks,  and  to  devise  means  for  allaying  the 
religious  disputes  which  then  raged,  owing  to  Luther's  opposition  to  the  Roman 
catholic  religion.  Against  a  decree  of  this  diet,  to  support  the  doctrines  of  the  church 
of  Rome,  six  Lutheran  princes,  with  the  deputies  of  thirteen  imperial  towns,  formally 
and  solemnly  protested,  April  17,  1530.  Hence  the  term  protestants  was  given  to 
the  followers  of  Luther,  and  it  afterwards  included  Calvinists,  and  all  other  sects 
separated  from  the  see  of  Rome.  The  six  protesting  princes  were :  John  and  George, 
the  electors  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg ;  Ernest  and  Francis,  the  two  dukes  of 
Lunenburg ;  the  landgrave  of  Hesse  ;  and  the  prince  of  Anhalt ;  these  were  joined 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Strasburg,  Nuremberg,  Ulm,  Constance,  Hailbron,  and  seven 
other  cities.     See  Lutheranism^  Cahinismf  &c. 

PROTESTANT  ASSOCIATION,  formed  to  oppose  the  grant  of  concessions  to  the 
Roman  catholics.  The  association  petitioned  parliament,  and  to  enforce  their  object 
a  vast  body  of  the  London  populace  collected,  headed  by  lord  George  Gordon,  and 
committed  the  most  dreadful  and  daring  excesses,  June  2  to  7,  1780.  See  Gordon's 
«  No  Popery  "  Mob. 

PROTESTANT  COLONISATION  SOCIETY,  for  planting  communities  of  the 
poorer  protestants  on  tracts  of  land,  particularly  in  the  northern  counties  of  Ireland, 
was  established  in  Dublin  in  December,  1829.  The  Protestant  Conservative  Society 
was  also  established  in  that  city,  Dec.  9,  1831. 

PROVINCIAL  BANKING  COMPANY  op  IRELAND.  EstabUshed  by  act  of  par- 
liament in  1825.  On  Sept.  1,  in  that  year,  the  Cork  branch  was  established;  and 
the  Limerick  branch  on  Nov.  1 ;  the  Clonmel  branch  on  Nov.  15  ;  and  the  London- 
derry branch  on  Dec.  12,  following.  The  Sligo,  Wexford,  Belfast,  Waterford,  and 
Galway  branches  were  formed  in  1826 ;  the  Athlone,  Armagh,  Coleraine,  and  Kil- 
kenny branches  in  1827  ;  the  Ballina  and  Tralee  branches  in  1828  ;  the  Youghal  and 
Enniskillen,  in  1831 ;  and  various  other  branches  in  the  following  years. 

PROVISIONS — Remarkable  facts  concerning  them.  Wheat  for  food  for  100 
men  for  one  day  worth  only  one  shilling,  and  a  sheep  for  fourpence,  Henry  I.,  about 
1130.  The  price  of  wine  raised  to  sixpence  per  quart  for  red,  and  eightpence  for 
white,  that  the  sellers  might  be  enabled  to  live  by  it,  2  John,  1200. — Burton's 
Annals,  When  wheat  was  at  6«.  per  quarter,  the  farthing  loaf  was  to  be  equal  in 
weight  to  twenty-four  ounces  (made  of  the  whole  grain),  and  to  sixteen  the  white. 
When  wheat  was  at  \s,  6d.  per  quarter,  the  farthing  loaf  white  was  to  weigh  sixty- 
four  ounces,  and  the  whole  grain  (the  same  as  standard  now)  ninety-six,  by  the  first 
assize,  a.d.  1202. — Mai,  Paris.  A  remarkable  plenty  in  all  Europe,  1280.^Z>u- 
fresnoy.  Wheat  \s.  per  quarter,  14  Edward  I.  1286. — SUnce.  The  price  of  pro- 
visions fixed  by  the  common-council  of  London  as  follows :  two  pullets,  three-half, 
pence ;  a  partridge,  or  two  woodcocks,  three-halfpence ;  a  fat  lamb  sixpence  from 
Christmas  to  Shrovetide,  the  rest  of  the  year  fourpence,  29  Edward  I.  1299. — Stowe, 
Price  of  provisions  fixed  by  parliament :  at  the  rate  of  21.  8^.  of  our  money  for  a  fat 


PRU 


[429] 


PRU 


OX,  if  fed  with  com  3/.  12«. ;  a  shorn  sheep,  58, ;  two  dozen  of  eggs,  3d. ;  other 
articles  nearly  the  same  as  fixed  by  the  common-council  above  recited,  7  Edward  II. 
1313.— Ao/.  Pari.  Wine,  the  hest  sold  for  20«.  per  tun.  10  Richard  II.  1387. 
Wheat  being  at  Is.  Id.  the  bushel  in  1390,  this  was  deemed  so  high  a  price  that  it  is 
called  a  dearth  of  com  by  the  historians  of  that  era.  Beef  and  pork  settled  at  a 
halfpenny  the  pound,  and  veal  three  farthings,  by  act  of  parliament,  24  Henry  VIII. 
1533. — Anderson* t  Origin  of  Commerce.  Milk  was  sold,  three  pints,  ale-measure^ 
for  one  halfpenny,  2  Eliz.  1560. — Slowe*s  Chronicle. 

PRUSSIA.  This  country  was  anciently  possessed  by  the  Yenedi,  ahout  320  b.c.  The 
Venedi  were  conquered  by  a  people  called  the  Borussi,  who  inhabited  the  Riphsan 
mountains  ;  and  from  these  the  country  was  called  Burussia.  Some  historians,  how- 
ever, derive  the  name  from  Po,  signifying  near,  and  Russia — Po-Russia,  easily 
modified  into  Prussia.  The  Porussi  afterwards  intermixed  with  the  followers  of  the 
Teutonic  knights,  and  latterly  with  the  Poles.  This  people  and  country  were  little 
known  until  about  a.d.  1007. 


St.  Adalbert  arrives  In  Prussia  to  preach 
Christianity,  but  is  murdered  by  the 
pagans  ....        a.d.  1010 

Boleslaus  of  Poland,  revenges  his  death 
by  dreadful  ravages    ,        .        .        ,  *** 

Berlin  built  by  a  colony  from  the  Nether- 
lands, in  the  reign  of  Albert  the  Bear  1163 

The  Teutonic  knights,  returning  from 
the  holy  wars,  undertake  the  conquest 
of  Prussia,  and  the  conversion  of  the 
people  1225 

Konigsberg,  lately  built,  made  the  capi- 
tal of  Prussia  ....  1286 

The  Teutonic  knights  by  their  barbari- 
ties almost  depopulate  Prussia.  It  is 
repeopled  by  German  colonists  in  the 
13th  century  .         .         .         .    .  ♦  *  * 

Frederick  lY.  of  Nuremberg  obtains  by 
purchase  from  Sigismond  emperor  of 
Germany  the  margraviate  of  Branden- 
burg   1415 

[This  Frederick  is  the  head  of  the  pre- 
sent reigning  family.] 

Casimir  IV.  of  Poland  assists  the  natives 
against  the  oppression  of  the  Teutonic 
knights  1446 

Albert  of  Brandenburg,  grand-master 
of  the  Teutonic  order,  renounces  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion,  embraces 
Lutheranism,  and  is  acknowledged 
duke  of  East  Prussia,  to  be  held  as  a 
fief  of  Poland 1525 

University  of  Konigsberg  founded  by 
duke  Albert 1544 

The  dukedom  of  Prussia  is  joined  to  the 
electorate  of  Brandenburg,  and  so 
continues  to  this  day     .        .         .    .  1594 

John  Sigismimd  created  elector  of  Bran- 
denburg and  duke  of  Prussia      .         .  1608 

The  principality  of  Halberstadt  and  the 
bishopric  of  Minden  transferred  to  the 
house  of  Brandenbiu*g        .         .         .  1648 

•Poland  obliged  to  acknowledge  Prussia 
as  an  independent  state,  under  Frede- 
rick William,  siunamed  the  Great 
Elector 1657 

Order  of  Concord  instituted  by  Christian 
Ernest,  elector  of  Brandenbiurg  and 
duke  of  Prussia,  to  distinguish  the 
part  he  had  taken  in  restoring  peace  to 
Europe 1660 


1685 


1701 


1701 
1702 


1707 
1712 


1740 
1741 
1742 
1744 


Order  of  Generosity  instituted  by  Fre- 
derick IIL  ....    A.D. 

Frederic  III.,  in  an  assembly  of  the 
states,  puts  a  crown  upon  his  own 
head,  and  upon  the  head  of  his  con- 
sort, and  is  proclaimed  king  of  Prussia, 
by  the  title  of  Frederick  L 

Order  of  the  Black  Eagle  instituted  by 
Frederick  I.,  on  the  day  of  his  coro- 
nation        

Guelders  taken  from  the  Dutch  .    . 

Frederick  L  seizes  Neufchatel  or  Neun- 
burgh,  and  Valengia,  and  purchases 
the  principality  of  Tecklenburgh 

The  principality  of  Meurs  added  to  the 
Prussian  dominions        •         .         .    . 

Reign  of  Frederick  the  Great,  during 
which  the  Prussian  monarchy  is  made 
to  rank  among  the  first  powers  in  £u- 
rope 

Breslau  ceded  to  Prussia 

Silesia,  Glatz,  &c.,  ceded 

Frederick  the  Great  visits  England    .    . 

General  Lacy  with  15,000  Austrians, 
and  a  Russian  army,  march  to  Berlin. 
The  city  laid  under  contribution ;  and 
pays  800,000  guilders,  and  1,900,000 
crowns,  the  magazines,  arsenals,  and 
foundries  destroyed  . 

Peace  of  Hubertsberg     .         .    Feb.  15,  1763 

Frederick  the  Great  dies    .         Aug.  17,  1786 

The  Prussians  take  possession  of  Hano- 
ver ....    Jan.  30,  1806 

Prussia  Joins  the  allies  of  England  against 
France  .         .         .         Oct.  6,  1806 

Fatal  battle  of  Jena         .        .    Oct.  14,  1806 

[Here  followed  the  loss  of  almost  every 
corps  in  succession  of  the  Prussian 
army,  the  loss  of  Berlin,  and  of  every 
province  of  the  monarchy  except  Prus- 
sia Proper.] 

Berlin  decree  promulgated 

Peace  of  Tilsit  (which  see) 

Convention  of  Berlin 

Prussia  Joins  the  Allies 

Treaty  of  Paris 

The  king  visits  England 

Dhies  at  Guildhall 

Congress  of  Carlsbad 

Marshal  Blucher  dies  in  Silesia,  aged  77> 

Sept.  12,  1819 


1760 


Nov.  20,  1806 

July  7.  1807 

Nov.  6,  1808 

Mar.  17,  1813 

April  11,  1814 

June  6,  1B14 

June  18,  1814 

.   Aug.  1,  1819 


PRU  Q  430  ]  PUN 

PRUSSIA,  eonHnued, 


MAROIUITBS  AKD  SLBCTORS  OF  BRAKDSNBITRO,  &C. 


A.D.  923.  Blfrol,iiuu:gaveof  Biandenbiirg. 

*  *  Qerau,  margniTe  of  Lusatia,  which.  In 
Biiooeaii<Bi  of  time  passed  into  the 
famlHflt  of  Staden,  Aaoania,  Bellen- 
Btadt.  and  that  of  Bavaria;  tiU  the 
emperor  SIgismond,  with  the  consent 
of  the  states  of  the  empire,  gave  per- 
petoal  inTestitnre  to, 

1418.  Frederick  IT.  of  Nuremberg,  made  elec- 
tor of  Brandenborgh.  1417. 

1440L  Frederick  n*,  sumamed  Ferreos,  or 
Ironside;  resigned. 

1470.  Albert  L,  somamed  the  German  AchlUes. 
He  confirmed  the  deed  made  by  his 
predecessor,  of  mutual  succession 
with  the  families  of  Saxony  and 
Hesse ;  resigned. 

1476.  John,  suniained  the  Cioero  of  Germany, 
his  son. 


1499.  Joachim  L,  his  son. 

1535,  Joachim  IL  ;    he  was  poisoned    by  a 

Jew. 
1571.  John  George. 
1598.  Joachim  Frederick. 
1606.  John  Sigismund. 
1019.  George  William. 
1640.  Frederick  William  the  Great. 
1688.  Frederick,  who,  in  1701,  was  made  king 

of  Priissia. 

KINGS  OF  PRUSSIA. 

1701.  Frederick  L 

1713.  Frederick  William  I. 

1740.  Frederick  11.,  snmamed  the  Great. 

1766.  Frederick  WUIiam  U* 

1797.  Frederick  William  in. 

1840.  Frederic  William  lY.,  June  7- 


PRUSSIC  ACID.  Thii  acid  is  colourless,  but  smells  like  peach  flowers,  and  freezes  at 
two  degrees,  and  is  very  volatile ;  it  turns  vegetable  blues  into  red.  It  was  acciden- 
tally discovered  by  Diesbach,  a  German  chemist,  in  1709.  Scheele  first  obtained 
this  acid  in  a  separate  state,  about  1 782.  Simple  water  distilled  from  the  leaves  of 
the  laurO'Cerasus  was  first  ascertained  to  be  a  most  deadly  poison  by  Dr.  Madden 
of  Dublin.  An  unfortunate  gentleman  of  good  family,  who  was  convicted  of  forgery 
in  London,  drauk  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  this  acid  in  Newgate,  and  was  found  dead 
in  his  cell  on  the  morning  appointed  for  his  execution,  July  4,  1828. 

PUBLIC-HOUSES.  A  power  of  licensing  them  was  first  granted  to  sir  Giles  Mom- 
pesson  and  sir  Francis  Mitchel  for  their  own  emolument,  a.d.  1620-1.  The  number 
of  public-houses  in  England  at  this  period  was  about  13,000.  In  1700  the  number 
was  32,600;  and  in  1790  the  number  in  Great  Britain  was  76,000.  It  is  supposed 
that  there  were  about  50,000  public-houses,  and  30,000  beer-shops  in  England  and 
Wales  in  1830.    The  number  on  Jan.  5,  1840,  was  95,820. 

PULLEY.  The  pulley,  together  with  the  vice  and  other  mechanical  instruments,  are 
said  to  have  been  invented  by  Archytas  of  Tarentum,  a  disciple  of  Pythagoras,  about 
516  B.C. — Univ,  Hist.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  in  a  single  movable  pulley  the 
power  gained  is  doubled.  In  a  continued  combination  the  power  is  twice  the  number 
of  pulleys,  less  1. — Phillips, 

PULTOWA,  Battle  of.  In  this  memorable  engagement  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden 
was  entirely  defeated  by  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  and  obliged  to  take  refuge  at 
Bender,  in  the  Turkish  dominions.  The  vanquished  monarch  would  have  ^en 
into  the  hands  of  the  czar  after  the  engagement,  had  he  not  been  saved  by  the  per- 
sonal exertions  of  the  brave  count  Poniatowski,  a  Polish  nobleman,  whona  Voltaire 
has  commemorated  and  immortalised.  This  battle  was  lost  chiefly  owing  to  a  want 
of  concert  in  the  generals,  and  to  the  circumstance  of  Charles  having  been  danger- 
ously wounded,  just  before,  which  obliged  him  to  issue  his  commands  from  a  litter, 
without  being  able  to  encourage  his  soldiers  by  his  presence.    Fought  July  8,  1 709. 

PULTUSK,  Battle  of,  between  the  Saxons  and  Swedes,  in  which  the  former  were 
signally  defeated,  1 703.  Battle  between  the  French  under  Napoleon  and  the  Russian 
and  Prussian  armies,  in  which  both  sides  claimed  the  victory,  but  it  inclined  in  favour 
of  the  French,  Dec.  26,  1806. 

PUMPS.  Ctesibius  of  Alexandria,  architect  and  mechanic,  is  said  to  have  invented  the 
pump  (with  other  hydraulic  instruments)  about  224  B.C.,  although  the  invention  is 
ascribed  to  Danaus,  at  Lindus,  1485  B.C.  They  were  in  general  use  in  £ngland, 
A.D.  1425.  The  air-pump  was  invented  by  Otto  Guericke  in  1654,  and  was  improved 
by  Boyle  in  1657.  An  inscription  on  the  pump  in  front  of  the  Royal  Exchange, 
London,  states  that  the  well  beneath  was  first  sunk  in  a.d.  1282. 

PUNIC  WARS.  The  first  Punic  war  was  undertaken  by  the  Romans  against  Carthage 
264  B.C.     The  ambition  of  Rome  was  the  origin  of  this  war;  it  lasted  twenty-three 


PDR  [^  431  ]  PYR 

years,  and  ended  241  B.C.  The  second  Punic  war  began  218  B.C.,  in  which  year 
Hannibal  marched  a  numerous  army  of  90,000  foot  and  12,000  horse  towards  Italy, 
resolved  to  carry  on  the  war  to  the  gates  of  Rome.  He  crossed  the  Rhone,  the 
Alps,  and  the  Apennines,  with  uncommon  celerity  ;  and  the  Roman  consuls  who  were 
stationed  to  stop  his  progress  were  severally  defeated.  The  battles  of  Trebia,  of 
Ticinus,  and  of  the  lake  of  Thrasymenus,  followed.  This  war  lasted  seventeen  years, 
and  ended  in  201  B.C.  The  third  Punic  war  began  149  B.C.,  and  was  terminated  by 
the  fall  of  Carthage,  146  B.C.     See  Carthage. 

PURGATIVES.  Those  of  the  mild  species,  particularly  cassia,  manna,  and  senna, 
were  first  discovered  by  Actuarius,  a  Greek  physician,  a.d.  1245. — Du  Fresnoy* 
Drastics  had  done  great  mischief  in  medicine  previous  to  this  period. 

PURGATORY.  The  middle  place  between  the  grave,  or  heaven,  and  hell,  where,  it  is 
believed  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  the  soul  passes  through  the  fire  of  purification 
before  it  enters  the  kingdom  of  God.  The  doctrine  of  purgatory  was  known  about 
A.D.  250  ;  and  was  introduced  into  the  Roman  church  in  593. — Platina,  It  was 
introduced  early  in  the  sixth  century. — Dupin. 

PURIFICATION.  The  act  of  cleansing,  especially  considered  as  relating  to  the  reli- 
gions performance  among  the  Jewish  women.  It  was  ordained  by  the  Jewish  law 
that  a  woman  should  keep  within  her  house  forty  days  after  the  birth  of  a  son,  and 
eighty  days  after  the  birth  of  a  daughter,  when  she  was  to  go  to  the  temple  and  offer 
a  lamb,  pigeon,  or  turtle,  a.d.  214.  Among  the  Christians,  the  feast  of  purification 
was  instituted,  a.d.  542,  In  honour  of  the  Virgin  Mary's  going  to  the  temple,  where, 
according  to  custom,  she  presented  her  son  Jesus  Christ,  and  offered  two  turtles  for 
him.  Pope  Sergius  I.  ordered  the  procession  with  wax  tapers,  from  whence  it  is 
called  Candlemas-day. 

PURITANS.  The  name  given  to  such  persons  as  in  the  reigns  of  queen  Elizabeth, 
king  James,  and  king  Charles  I.,  pretended  to  greater  holiness  of  living  and  stricter 
discipline  than  any  other  people.  They  at  first  were  members  of  tfa«  established 
church,  but  afterwards  became  separatists  upon  account  of  several  ceremonies  that 
were  by  the  rigidness  of  those  times  severely  insisted  upon. — Bishop  Sanderson, 

PURPLE.  A  mixed  tinge  of  scarlet  and  blue,  discovered  at  Tyre.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  found  by  a  dog's  having  by  chance  eaten  a  shell-fish,  called  murex  or  purpura^ 
and  upon  returning  to  his  master,  Herculus  Tyiius,  he  observed  his  lips  tinged,  and 
proper  use  was  made  of  the  discovery.  Purple  was  anciently  used  by  the  princes  and 
great  men  for  their  garments  by  way  of  distinction,  and  to  this  day  the  purple  colour 
is  the  livery  of  our  bishops,  &c.  The  dignity  of  an  archbishop  or  great  magistrate  is 
frequently  meant  by  the  purple.  The  purple  was  first  given  to  the  cardinals  by 
pope  Paul  II.  1465. 

PYRAMIDS  OF  EGYPT.  The  pyramids,  according  to  Dr.  Pococke  and  Sonnini, 
'*  so  celebrated  from  remote  antiquity,  are  the  most  illustrious  monuments  of  art. 
It  is  singular  that  such  superb  piles  are  nowhere  to  be  found  but  in  Egypt ;  for  in 
every  other  country,  pyramids  are  rather  puerile  and  diminutive  imitations  of  those 
in  Egypt,  than  attempts  at  appropriate  magnificence.  The  pyramids  are  situated  on 
a  rock  at  the  foot  of  some  high  mountains  which  bound  the  Nile."  The  first  build- 
ing of  them  commenced,  it  is  supposed,  about  1500  b.c.  They  were  formerly 
accounted  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world.  The  largest,  near  Gizeh,  is  461 
feet  in  perpendicular  hdght,  with  a  platform  on  the  top  32  feet  square,  and  the  length 
of  the  base  is  746  feet.  It  occupies  eleven  acres  of  ground,  and  is  constructed  of 
such  stupendous  blocks  of  stone,  that  a  more  marvellous  result  of  human  labour  has 
not  been  found  on  the  earth. 

'*  Virtue,  alone,  outbuilds  the  pyramids, 

'*  Her  monuments  shall  last  when  Egypt's  fall."— Youno. 

PYRENEES,  Battle  of  thb,  between  the  British  army,  commanded  by  lord  Welling- 
ton, and  the  French,  under  the  command  of  marshal  Soult.  The  latter  army  was 
defeated  with  great  slaughter,  July  28,  1813.  After  the  battle  of  Vittoria  (fought 
June  21),  Napoleon  sent  Soult  to  supersede  Jourdan,  with  instructions  to  drive  the 
allies  across  the  Ebro,  a  duty  to  which  his  abilities  were  inferior ;  for  Soult  retreated 
into  France  with  a  loss  of  more  than  20,000  men,  having  been  defeated  in  a  series  of 
engagements  from  July  25  to  A.ugust  2. 


PYR  f  432  ]  QUA 

PYRENEES,  Pkacs  of  thb.  A  peace  concladed  between  France  and  Spain  ;  by  the 
treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  Spain  yielding  Roussillon,  Artois,  and  her  rights  to  Alsace ; 
and  Prance  ceding  her  conquests  in  C^talonia^  Italy,  &c.j  and  engaging  not  to  assist 
Portugal,  Not.  7,  1659. 

PYTHAGOREAN  PHILOSOPHY.  Founded  by  Pythagoras,  of  Samos,  head  of  the 
Italic  sect.  He  first  tanght  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis  or  transmigration  of 
the  sonl  from  one  body  to  another.  He  forbade  his  disciples  to  eat  fled^,  as  also 
beans,  becaose  he  supposed  them  to  have  been  produced  from  the  same  putrified 
matter  from  which  at  the  creation  of  the  world  man  was  formed.  In  his  theological 
system,  Pythagoras  supported  that  the  universe  was  created  from  a  shapeless  heap  of 
passive  matter  by  the  hands  of  a  powerful  being,  who  himself  was  the  mover  and  soal 
of  the  world.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the  multiplication-table,  and  a  great  improver 
of  geometry,  while  in  astronomy  he  taught  the  system  adopted  at  this  day.   539  b.c. 

PYTHIA.N  GAMES.  Games  celebrated  in  honour  of  Apollo,  near  the  temple  of 
Delphi.  They  were  first  instituted,  according  to  the  more  received  opinion,  by 
Apollo  himself,  in  commemoration  of  the  victory  which  he  had  obtained  over  the 
serpent  Python,  from  which  they  received  their  name ;  though  others  mamtain  that 
they  were  first  established  by  Agamemnon,  or  Diomedes,  or  by  AmphictyoD,  or, 
lastly,  by  the  council  of  the  Amphictyons,  b.c.  12^.^^Arundelian  Marbles, 

Q. 

QUACKERY  amd  QUACK  MEDICINES.    At  the  first  appearance  that  a  French 

?iuack  made  in  Paris,  a  boy  walked  before  him,  publishing,  with  a  shrill  voice,  "  My 
ather  cures  all  sorts  of  distempers ;''  to  which  the  doctor  added  in  a  grave  manner, 
**  What  the  child  says  is  true.  — Addison.  Quacks  sprung  up  with  the  art  of  medi- 
cine ;  and  several  countries,  particularly  England  and  France,  abound  with  them. 
In  London,  some  of  their  establishments  are  called  colleges.  Quack  medicines  vvere 
taied  in  1783  et  teq.  An  inquest  was  held  on  the  body  of  a  young  lady.  Miss 
Cashin,  whose  physician,  St.  John  Long,  was  afterwards  tried  for  manslaughter, 
Aug.  21,  1830 ;  he  was  found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  250/.,  Oct.  30 
following.  The  same  quack  (who  had  previously  absconded)  was  tried  for  man- 
slaughter in  the  case  of  Mrs.  Catherine  Lloyd,  and  acquitted  Feb.  19,  1831. 

QUADRANT.  The  mathematical  instrument  in  the  form  of  a  quarter  circle.  The 
solar  quadrant  was  introduced  about  290  b.c.  The  Arabian  astronomers  under  the 
Caliphs,  in  a.d.  995,  had  a  quadrant  of  21  feet  8  inches  radius,  and  a  sextant  57  feet 
9  inches  radius.  Davis's  quadrant  for  measuring  angles  was  produced  about  1600. 
Hadley*s  quadrant,  in  1731.    See  Navigation. 

QUADRUPLE  ALLIANCE.  The  celebrated  treaty  of  alliance  between  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  the  lEmperor,  signed  at  London.  This  alliance,  on  the  accession  of  the 
states  of  Holland,  obtained  the  name  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance,  and  was  for  the 
purpose  of  guaranteeing  the  succession  of  the  reigning  families  in  Great  Britain  and 
France,  and  settling  the  partition  of  the  Spanish  monarchy.    Aug.  2, 1718. 

QU^STOR,  in  Roman  antiquity,  was  an  officer  who  had  the  management  of  the  public 
treasure,  instituted  484  B.C.  The  questorship  was  the  first  office  any  person  could 
bear  in  the  commonwealth,  and  gave  a  right  to  sit  in  the  senate.  At  first  there  were 
only  two ;  but  afterwards  the  number  was  greatly  increased. 

QUAKERS  OR  FRIENDS.  Originally  called  Seekers,  from  their  seeking  the  truth  ; 
and  afterwards  Friends — a  beautiful  appellation,  and  characteristic  of  the  relation 
which  man,  under  the  Christian  dispensation,  ought  to  bear  towards  man. — Clarkson. 
Justice  Bennet,  of  Derby,  gave  the  society  the  name  of  Quakers  in  1650,  because 
Fox  (the  founder)  admonished  him,  and  those  present  with  him,  to  tremble  at  the 
word  of  the  Lord.  This  respectable  sect,  excelling  in  morals,  prudence,  and  industry, 
was  commenced  in  England  about  a.d.  1650,  by  George  Fox,  who  was  soon  joined 
by  a  number  of  learned,  ingenious,  and  pious  men — among  others,  by  George  Keith, 
Wm.  Penn,  and  Robert  Barclay  of  Ury.*     The  thee  and  thou  used  by  the  Quakers 

*  The  Quakers  early  suffered  grievous  x>er8ecutiona  in  England  and  America.  At  Boston,  where 
the  first  Friends  who  arrived  were  females,  they,  even  females,  were  cruelly  scourged,  and  their  ears 
cut  off,  yet  they  were  unshaken  in  their  constancy.  In  1659,  they  stated  in  parliament  that  2000 
Friends  had  endured  suffeiings  and  imprisonment  in  Newgate ;  and  164  Friends  offered  themselves 


QUA  (^  433  ]  QUE 

originated  with  their  founder,  who  published  a  book  of  instructions  for  teachers  and 
professors.  The  first  meeting-house  in  London  was  in  White  Hart-court,  Grace- 
church-street.  The  first  meeting  of  Quakers  in  Ireland  was  in  Dublin  in  1658;  and 
their  first  meeting-house  in  that  city  was  opened  in  Eustace-street,  1692.  The 
solemn  affirmation  of  Quakers  was  enacted  to  be  taken  in  all  cases,  in  the  courts 
below,  wherein  oaths  are  required  from  other  subjects,  8  William  III.  1696.  This 
affirmation  was  altered  in  1702,  and  again  in  1721.  Quakers  were  relieved  from 
oaths  qualifying  persons  to  municipal  offices,  9  George  IV.  1828.  More  expressly 
relieved  by  statute  1  Victoria,  1837.  This  last  act  was  extended  to  persons  who, 
having  been  formerly  Quakers  or  Moravians,  had  seceded  therefrom,  yet  had  retained 
certain  opinions  as  to  oaths,  2  Victoria,  August  1838.    See  Affirmation  of  the  Truth. 

QUARANTINE.  The  custom  first  observed  at  Venice,  a.d.  1127,  whereby  all  mer- 
chants  and  others  coming  from  the  Levant  were  obliged  to  remain  in  the  house  of 
St.  Lazarus,  or  the  Lazaretto,  40  days  before  they  were  admitted  into  the  city. 
Various  southern  cities  have  now  lazarettos  ;  that  of  Venice  is  built  in  the  water. 
In  the  times  of  plague,  England  and  all  other  nations  oblige  those  that  come  from 
the  infected  places  to  perform  quarantine  with  their  ships,  &c.  a  longer  or  shorter 
time,  as  may  be  judged  most  safe. 

QUARTER  SESSIONS'  COURT.  The  jurisdiction  of  this  court  was  established  by 
statute  34  Edward  III.,  and  then  extended  to  the  trying  of  all  felonies  and  trespasses 
whatsoever ;  but  now  it  seldom  tries  other  than  minor  offences.  The  days  of  sitting 
quarterly  were  appointed  2  Henry  V.  1413.  By  Act  1  William  IV.  I830t  it  is 
enacted  that  "  in  the  year  1831,  and  afterwards,  the  justices  of  the  peace  in  every 
county,  riding,  or  division,  for  which  quarter  sessions  of  the  peace  by  law  ought  to 
be  held,  shall  hold  their  general  sessions  of  the  peace  in  the  fint  week  after  the  11th 
of  October ;  in  the  first  week  after  the  28th  December ;  in  the  first  week  after  the 
31st  March ;  and  in  the  first  week  after  the  24th  June.'* — Statutes. 

QUATRE-BRAS,  Battle  of,  between  the  British  and  allied  army  under  the  duke  of 
Brunswick,  the  prince  of  Orange,  and  sir  Thomas  Picton,  and  the  French  under 
marshal  Ney,  fought  two  days  before  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  The  British  fought  to 
maintain  their  position  with  remarkable  intrepidity,  notwithstanding  their  inferiority 
in  number,  and  the  fatigue  of  marching  all  the  preceding  night.  .  The  gallant  42d 
regiment  of  Scotch  Highlanders  suffered  severely  in  pursuit  of  a  French  division 
repulsed  early  in  the  morning,  by  cuirassiers  being  posted  in  ambush  behind  growing 
corn  as  high  as  the  shoulders  of  the  tallest  men.  In  this  engagement  the  gallant 
duke  of  Brunswick  fell,  June  16,  1815. 

QUEBEC.  Founded  by  the  French  in  1605.  It  was  reduced  by  the  English,  with  all 
Canada,  in  1626,  but  was  restored  in  1632.  Quebec  was  besieged  by  the  English, 
but  without  success,  in  1711 ;  but  was  conquered  by  them,  after  a  battle  memorable 
for  the  death  of  general  Wolfe  in  the  moment  of  victory,  Sept.  13,  1759.  This 
battle  was  fought  on  the  Plains  of  Abraham ;  and  the  following  epitaph  has  been 
engraved  on  a  monument  erected  to  the  memory  of  the  hero,  esteemed  by  his  country 
as  one  of  the  most  perfect  in  his  character  that  ever  lived : — 

THE  PARUAUBNT  XRBCTBD  THIS  MONUMENT, 

TO  THE  MEMORY  OF  MAJOR-OBNERAL  JAMEB  WOLPB  ; 

WHO,  HAVING  DISTINGUISHED  HIMSELF  RMINHNTLY 

IN  EUROPE  AND  NORTH  AMERICA, 

BY   A    STRETCH   OF   .MAGNANIMITY, 

OAFNED  A  MASTER  VICTORY  AT  QUEBEC,   8RPTEMBER  X.III.,  MDCCLVIIII. 

AND  FIXED,   UPON  THE  SPOT,   IN   DEATH, 

THE  FULNESS  OK   HI8  FAME. 

Quebec  was  besieged  in  vain  by  the  American  provincials,  under  their  general, 
Montgomery,  who  was  slain,  December  31,  1775  ;  and  the  siege  was  raised  the  next 


at  this  time,  by  name,  to  government,  to  be  imprisoned  in  lieu  of  an  equal  number  in  danger  (from 
confinement)  of  death.  Fifty-five  (out  of  120  sentenced)  were  transported  to  America,  by  an  order  of 
council,  16G4.  The  masters  of  vessels  refusing  to  carry  them  for  some  months,  on  embargo  was 
laid  on  West  India  ships,  when  a  mercenary  wretch  was  at  length  found  for  the  service.  But  the 
Friends  would  not  walk  on  board,  nor  would  the  sailors  hoist  them  into  the  vessel,  and  soldiers  from 
the  Tower  were  employed.  In  1665,  the  vessel  sailed ;  but  it  was  immediately  captured  by  the  Dutch, 
who  liberated  28  of  the  prisoners  in  Holland,  the  rest  having  died  of  the  plague  in  that  year.~-6ee 
Plague    Of  the  120,  few  reached  America. 

F  F 


QUE  C  ^3i  ^  QDE 

year.     The  public  aod  private  stores^  and  several  wharfs,  were  destroyed  by  fire  in 
September  1815 ;  the  loss  being  estimated  at  upwards  of  260,000/. 

QUEEN.  The  first  qaeen  invested  with  authority  as  a  ruling  sovereign,  was  Semi- 
nunts,  queen  and  empress  of  Assyria,  201 7  b.c.  She  embellished  the' city  of  Babylon, 
made  it  her  capital,  and  by  her  means  it  became  the  most  magnificent  and  saperb 
city  in  the  world.  The  title  of  queen  is  coeval  with  that  of  Id^.  The  Hungarians 
had  such  an  aversion  to  the  name  of  queen,  that  whenever  a  female  ascended  the 
throne,  she  reigned  with  the  title  of  king.     See  note  to  article  Hungary » 

QUEEN  ANNE'S  BOUNTY.  Established  in  February  a.d.  1704,  by  queen  Anne, 
being  the  First  Fruits  with  the  Tenths,  to  increase  the  incomes  of  the  poor  clergy. 
There  were  6597  clerical  livings  under  50/.  per  annum  found  by  the  commissionen  | 
under  the  act  of  Anne  capable  of  augmentation. — Chalmers.  Act  to  consolidate  the  j 
offices  of  First  Fruits,  Tenths,  and  Queen  Anne's  Bounty,  passed  I  Victoria,  i 
April  1838. 

QUEEN  ANNE'S  FARTHINGS.  The  popular  stories  of  the  great  value  of  this  coin 
are  fabulous,  although  some  few  of  particular  dates  have  been  purchased  by  mistaken 
persons  at  high  prices.  The  current  farthing,  with  the  broad  brim,  when  in  fine 
preservation,  is  worth  1/.  The  common  patterns  of  1713  and  1714  are  worth  1/. 
llie  two  patterns  with  Britannia  under  a  canopy,  and  Peace  on  a  car,  b.  b  r,  are 
worth  2/.  It,  each.  The  pattern  with  Peace  on  a  car  is  more  valuable  and  rare,  and 
worth  5/. — Pinkerton. 

QUEEN'S  BENCH  COURT.     Sec  article  King's  Bench,  Court  of . 

QUEEN'S  BENCH  PRISON.     See  King^s  Bench  Prison,  and  article  Prisoris, 

QUEEN'S  BOUNTY.  An  annual  grant  of  one  thousand  pounds^  which  commenced 
about  the  beginning  of  the  reign  o?  George  III.  and  was  continued  until  the  10th  of 
George  IV.  1829,  when  it  ceased  altogether.  The  collection  upon  the  king's  letter, 
which  used  to  accompany  the  grant,  has  also  been  discontinued  since  that  year. 

QUEEN  CAROLINE'S  TRIAL,  &c.  Caroline,  the  consort  of  George  IV.,  was  sub- 
jected, when  princess  of  Wales,  to  the  ordeal  of  the  Delicate  Investigation  {which 
see),  May  29, 1806.  Secret  committee  in  the  house  of  lords  to  examine  papers  on 
charges  of  incontinence,  June  8,  1820.  Bill  of  Pains  and  Penalties  introduced  by 
lord  Liverpool,  July  5.  The  queen  removed  to  Brandenburgh-house,  August  3. 
She  received  the  address  of  the  married  ladies  of  the  metropolis,  August  16.  Her 
trial  commenced  August  19.  Last  debate  on  the  bill  of  Pains  and  Penalties,  when 
the  report  was  approved  by  108  against  99 — the  numerical  majority  of  nine  being 
produced  by  the  votes  of  the  ministers  themselves.  In  this  situation  lord  Liverpool, 
instead  of  moving  that  the  bill  do  now  pass,  moved  that  it  be  reconsidered  that  day 
sir  months,  November  10.  Great  exultation  throughout  England,  and  illuminatioDS 
for  three  nights  in  London,  November  10,  11,  12.  The  queen  went  to  St.  Paul's 
in  state,  Nov.  29,  following.  She  protested  against  her  exclusion  from  the  corons- 
tion,  July  18,  1821.  She  was  taken  ill  at  Drnry-lane  theatre  July  30 ;  died  at  Ham- 
mersmith August  7.  Her  remains  were  removed,  on  their  route  to  Brunswick,  on 
which  occasion  an  alarming  riot  occurred,  owing  to  the  military  opposing  the  body 
being  carried  through  the  city,  August  14,  1821. 

QUEEN  CHARLOTTE  Ship  of  War.  This  first-rate  ship  of  the  line,  of  100  guns,  was 
burnt  by  an  accidental  fire,  oif  the  harbour  of  Leghorn,  and  nearly  700  British  seamen, 
out  of  a  crew  of  850,  perished  by  fire  or  drowning,  March  16,  1800.  The  Queen 
Charlotte  East  Indiaman,  with  all  her  crew  and  passengers,  was  lost  in  a  heavy  gale 
at  Madras,  October  24, 1818. 

QUEENS  or  HENRY  VIII.  Henry  VIII.  of  England  married  Catherine  of  Spain, 
his  brother  Arthur's  widow,  June  3,  1509.  Divorced  her,  and  married  Anna 
Boleyn,  November  14,  1532.  Beheaded  Anna  Boleyn,  May  19,  and  married  Jane 
Seymour,  May  20,  1536.  Jane  died  in  childbed ;  and  he  married  Anne  of  Cleves, 
January  6,  1540.  Divorced  her,  and  married  Catherine  Howard,  August  8,  1540. 
Beheaded  Catherine  Howard,  and  married  Catherine  Parr,  July  12,  1543.  This  last 
queen  survived  her  sovereign  and  husband. 

QUEENSTOWN,  Canada.     Taken  by  the  troops  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
ntober  13,  1812;  but  retaken  by  the  British  forces,  who  defeated  the  Americans 
h  considerable  loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  the  same  day. 


QUE  Q  435  ]  QUI 

I , .!■_  m  I  _  ■    >»^wwj^^— ■  — iM  ■  mmi  m    ■—■■—■    ■  i    — -   -m ' — 

QUERN.  The  quern,  or  hand-mill,  is  of  Roman,  or,  as  some  say,  of  Irish  invention  ; 
bat  the  latter  is  not  likely,  as  Roman  querns  have  been  found  in  Yorkshire  ;  and  it 
is  said  by  others  that  the  Romans  found  querns  there. 

QUESNOY,  Battle  of,  between  the  British  and  French,  in  which  the  former  defeated 
the  latter  with  some  loss,  September  11,  1793.  Quesnoy  was  taken  by  the  Austrians 
in  1793,  but  was  recovered  by  the  French  next  year.  It  surrendered  to  prince 
Frederick  of  the  Netherlands,  June  29,  1815,  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  It  was 
here  that  cannon  were  first  used,  and  called  bombards. — HenaulL 

QUIBERON  BAY.  A  British  force  landed  here  in  1746,  but  was  repulsed.  In  this 
bay  admiral  Hawke  grained  a  complete  victory  over  the  French  admiral  Conflans. 
This  most  perilous  and  important  action  defeated  the  projected  invasion  of  Great 
Britain,  November  20,  1 759.  Quiberon  was  taken  possession  of  by  some  French  regi- 
ments in  the  pay  of  England,  July  3, 1795  ;  but  on  July  21,  owing  to  the  treacherous 
conduct  of  some  of  these  soldiers,  the  French  republicans  retook  it  by  surprise,  and 
many  of  the  emigrants  were  executed.  About  900  of  the  troops,  and  near  1500 
royalist  inhabitants,  who  had  joined  the  regiments  in  the  pay  of  Great  Britain, 
effected  their  embarkation  on  board  the  ships.  The  remainder  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  enemy,  together  with  such  stores  and  ammunition  as  had  been  landed. 

QUICKSILVER.  In  its  liquid  state,  it  is  commonly  called  virgin  mercury.  It  is 
endowed  with  very  extraordinary  properties,  and  used  to  show  the  weight  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  its  continual  variations,  &c.  Its  use  in  refining  silver  was  discovered 
A.D.  1540.  There  are  mines  of  it  in  various  parts,  the  chief  of  which  are  at  Almeida 
in  Spain,  and  at  Udria  in  Camiola  in  Germany,  discovered  by  accident  in  1497.  A 
mine  was  discovered  at  Ceylon  in  1797.  Quicksilver  was  congealed  in  winter  at  St. 
Petersburgh  in  1759.  It  was  congealed  in  England  by  a  chemical  process,  without 
snow  or  ice,  by  Mr.  Walker,  in  1787. 

QUIETISTS.  The  doctrines  and  religious  opinions  of  Molinus,  th||  Spaniard,  whose 
work,  the  Spiritual  Guide,  was  the  foundation  of  the  sect  of  Quietists  in  France. 
His  principal  tenet  was,  that  the  purity  of  religion  consisted  in  an  internal  silent 
meditation  and  recollection  of  the  merits  of  Christ,  and  the  mercies  of  God.  His 
doctrine  was  also  called  Quietism  from  a  kind  of  absolute  rest  and  inaction  in  which 
the  sect  supposed  the  soul  to  be,  when  arrived  at  that  state  of  perfection  called  by 
them  unitive  life.  They  then  imagined  the  soul  to  be  wholly  employed  in  contem- 
plating its  God.  Madame  de  la  Mothe-Gnyon,  who  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastile 
for  her  visions  and  prophecies,  but  released  through  the  interest  of  F^nelon,  the 
celebrated  archbishop  of  Cambray,  between  whom  and  Bossuet,  bishop  of  Meaux, 
she  occasioned  the  famous  controversy  concerning  Quietism,  1697.  The  sect  sprang 
up  about  1678, — Nouv,  Did, 

QUILLS.  They  are  said  to  have  been  first  used  for  pens  in  a.d.  553  ;  but  some  say 
not  before  635.  Quills  are  for  the  most  part  plucked  with  great  cruelty  from  living 
geese ;  and  all  persons,  from  convenience,  economy,  and  feeling,  ought  to  prefer 
metallic  pens,  which  came  into  use  in  1830. — Phillips, 

QUINCE.  The  Pyrus  Cydoniat  brought  to  these  countries  ftovo.  Austria,  before  a.d. 
1573.  The  Japan  Quince,  or  Pyrus  JaponicOt  brought  hither  from  Japan,  1796. 
A  Quince,  in  token  of  fruitfulness,  was,  by  the  laws  of  Solon,  given  to  the  brides  of 
Athens  upon  the  day  of  their  marriage. — Peacham  on  Drawing, 

QUINTIN,  St.,  Battle  of.  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  assisted  by  the  English,  defeated 
the  French  at  St.  Quintin,  in  France ;  and  in  memory  of  his  victory,  the  Spanish 
monarch,  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow  he  had  made  before  the  engagement,  built  the  famous 
monastery  at  Escurial,  which  is  called  by  the  Spaniards  the  eighth  wonder  of  the 
world,  August  10,  1557.     See  Escurial, 

QUIRINUS,  Temple  of,  at  Rome.  L.  Paplrius  Cursor,  general  in  the  Roman  army, 
first  erected  a  sun-dial  in  the  temple  of  Quirinus,  from  which  time  the  days  began 
to  be  divided  into  hours,  293  b.c. — Aspin, 

QUITO.  A  presidency  of  Colombia  (which  see)  celebrated  as  having  been  the  scene  of 
the  measurement  of  a  degree  of  the  meridian,  by  the  French  and  Spanish  mathe- 
maticians, in  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  Forty  thousand  souls  were  hurled  into 
eternity  by  a  dreadful  earthquake  at  Quito,  which  almost  overwhelmed  the  city, 
February  4,  1797. 

F  r  2 


Qro  []  436  ]  RAI 


QUOITS.  This  unniement  originafeed  with  the  Gredu.  It  was  first  played  at  tiie 
Olympic  games,  by  the  Idci  Dactyli,  fifty  years  after  the  delage  of  Deucalion,  1453 
B.C.  He  who  threw  the  discus  farthest,  and  with  the  greatest  dexterity,  obtained 
the  prij».  Perseus,  the  grandsoa  of  Acrisios,  by  DanaS,  having  inadvertently  slain 
his  grandfather,  in  throwing  a  qaoit,  exchanged  the  kingdom  of  Ajrgos,  to  which  be 
was  heir,  for  that  of  Tirynthus,  and  founded  the  kingdom  of  Mycenae,  1313  B.C.— 
L0€mpriere. 

R. 

RACES.  One  of  the  exercises  among  the  ancient  games  of  Greece  (see  Chariots). 
Horse-races  were  known  in  England  in  very  early  times.  Fitz^Stephen,  who  wrote 
in  the  days  of  Henry  11.,  mentions  the  delight  taken  by  the  citizens  of  London  in 
the  diversion.  In  Jameses  reign,  Croydon  in  the  south,  and  Garterly  ia  the  north, 
were  celebrated  courses.  Near  York  there  were  races,  and  the  prize  was  a  little 
golden  bell,  1(>07. — Camden,  In  the  end  of  Charles  I.*s  reig^  races  were  performed 
at  Hyde -park,  and  also  Newmarket,  although  first  used  as  a  place  for  hunting. 
Charles  11.  patronised  them,  and  instead  of  bells,  g^ve  a  silver  bowl,  or  cup,  valoe 
100  guineas.  William  III.  added  to  the  plates  (as  did  queen  Anne),  and  founded 
an  academy  for  riding.  Act  for  suppressing  races  by  ponies  and  weak  horses,  13 
George  11.  1739. 

RACE-HORSES.  Flying  ChUders,  bred  in  1715  by  the  duke  of  Deyonshire,  was 
allowed  by  sportsmen  to  have  been  the  fleetest  horse  that  ever  ran  at  Newmarket, 
or  that  was  ever  bred  in  the  world ;  he  ran  four  miles  in  six  minutes  and  forty-eight 
seconds,  or  at  the  rate  of  35^  miles  an  hour,  carrying  nine  stone  two  pounds.  He 
died  in  1741,  aged  26  years.  Eclipte  was  the  fleetest  horse  that  ever  ran  in  England 
since  the  time  of  CkUdert ;  he  was  never  beaten,  and  died  in  February  1 789,  aged 
25  years.  His  heart  weighed  14  lbs.,  which  accounted  for  his  wonderful  spirit  and 
courage. — Christie  Whitens  Hist,  of  the  Turf. 

RACKS.  This  engine  of  death,  as  well  as  of  torture,  for  extracting  a  confession  from 
criminals,  was  early  known  in  the  southern  countries  of  Europe.  The  early  Chris- 
tians suffered  by  the  rack,  which  was  in  later  times  an  instrument  of  the  Inquisition. 
The  duke  of  Exeter,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  erected  a  rack  of  torture  (then 
called  the  duke  of  Exeter's  Daughter),  now  seen  in  the  Tower,  1423.  In  the  case 
of  Felton,  who  murdered  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  the  judges  of  England  nobly 
protested  against  the  punishment  proposed  in  the  privy  council  of  putting  the 
assassin  to  the  rack,  as  being  contrary  to  the  laws,  1628.     See  Ravillac, 

RADCLIFPE  LIBRARY.  Founded  under  the  wiU  of  Dr.  John  Radcliffe,  the  most 
eminent  physician  of  his  time.  He  left  40,000/.  to  the  University  of  Oxford  for 
this  purpose,  dying  November  1,  1714.  The  first  stone  of  the  library  was  laid  May 
17,  1737;  the  edifice  was  completely  finished  in  1749,  and  was  opened  April  13, 
same  year. 

RADSTADT,  Peace  of,  between  France  and  the  emperor,  March  6,  1714.  Con- 
gress of — commenced  to  treat  of  a  general  peace  with  the  Germanic  powers,  Dec. 
9,  1797.  Negotiations  were  carried  on  throughout  the  year  1798.  Atrocious 
massacre  of  the  French  plenipotentiaries  at  Radstadt  by  the  Austrian  regiment  of 
Szeltzler,  April  28,  1799. 

RAFTS.  The  Greeks  knew  no  other  way  of  crossing  their  narrow  seas  but  on  rafts  or 
beams  tied  to  one  another,  until  the  use  of  shipping  was  brought  among  them  by 
Danaus  of  Egypt,  when  he  fled  from  his  brother  Rameses,  1485  b.c. — Heylin, 

RAILROADS.  There  were  short  roads  called  tram-ways  in  and  about  Newcastle  so 
early  as  the  middle  of  the  17th  century  ;  but  they  were  made  of  wood,  and  were  used 
for  transporting  coals  a  moderate  distance  from  the  pits  to  the  place  of  shipping. 
They  are  thus  mentioned  in  1676 : — "  The  manner  of  the  carriage  is  by  laying  rails 
of  timber  from  the  colliery  to  the  river,  exactly  straight  and  parallel  ;  and  bulky 
carts  are  made  with  four  rollers  fitting  those  rails,  whereby  the  carriage  is  so  easy 
that  one  horse  will  draw  down  four  or  five  chaldron  of  coals,  and  is  an  immense 
benefit  to  the  coal-merchants." — Life  of  Lord-Keeper  North,  They  were  made  of 
iron,  at  Whitehaven,  in  1738.  The  first  considerable  iron  railroad  was  laid  down 
at  Colebrook  Dale  in  1786.  The  first  iron  railroad  sanctioned  by  parliament  (with 
the  exception  of  a  few  undertaken  by  canal  companies  as  small  branches  to  mines) 


RAI 


[437] 


RAP 


was  the  Surrey  iron  railway  (by  horses),  from  the  Thames  at  Wandsworth  to 
Croydon,  for  which  the  act  was  obtained  in  1801.  The  first  great  and  extensive 
enterprise  of  this  kind  is  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway  (by  engines),  com- 
menced in  October  1826,  and  opened  September  15,  1830.     See  Liverpool. 


RAILWAYS  OF  GREAT  BRFrAIN,  WITH  DATJE  OF  ACTS,  AND  OFKNINO. 


Railwap. 
Surrey  (by  horses) 
Stockton 

Canterbury  and  Whitstable 
Liverpool  and  Manchester 
Edinburgh  and  Dalkeith 
Bolton  and  Leigh 
D  undee  and  Newtyle 
Warrington  » 

Bodmin  and  Wadebridge 
Leeds  and  Selby 
Dublin  and  Kingstown 
Whitby 

Newtyle  and  Cupar  Angus  . 
Paisley 

Grand  Junction  . 

Manchester  and  Bolton  . 
London  and  Birmingham     . 
Sheffield 
Preston 

London  and  Greenwich 
Newcastle 

Arbroath  and  Forfar 
Aylesbury 
Brandling  (part) 
Newcastle  and  Shields 


Opened. 

.  1805 

Sept.  1825 

.   May  1830 

Sept.  15,  1830 

.  1831 

June  1831 

.    Dec.  1831 

.     .  1833 

.  1834 

Sept.  1834 

Dec.  17,  1834 

May  1836 

.    Feb.  1837 

AprU  1837 

July  4,  1837 

May  1838 

Sept.  17,  1838 

Oct.  1838 

.     Oct  1838 

Dec.  26,  1838 

.  1839 

Jan.  1839 

.    June  1839 

June  1839 

.    June  1839 

June  1,  1839 


Railwaps. 
Dimdee  and  Arbroath 
London  and  Brighton  (part) 
London  and  Southampton 
Lancaster  and  Preston 


Opened. 

April  1840 

.     May  1840 

May  11,  1840 

.    June  1840 


Manchester  and  Birmingham  (part)  June  1840 


York  , 

WestDiurham  (part) 
Preston  and  Wyre 
North  Midland 
Maryport  (part)  . 

London  and  Blackwall 
Great  Western 
Glasgow  and  Ayr 
Northern  and  Eastern  (part) 
Chester  and  Birkenhead 
Birmingham  and  Gloucester 
Chester  and  Crewe 
Taff  Vale  (part) 
Manchester  and  Leeds 
Bristol  and  Exeter 
Bristol  and  Gloucester 
Bolton  and  Preston 
Dublin  and  Drogheda 
Edinburgh  and  Leith 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow    . 
Gosport  Branch  Railway 
Great  North  of  England 
Hull  and  Selby 
Sheffield  and  Manchester 
South-Eastern 


June  1840 
.     June  1840 

July  1840 
.    July  1840 

July  1840 
July  4,  1840 

Aug.  1840 
.    Aug.  1840 

Sept.  1840 
.    Sept.  1840 

Bept  1840 
.      Oct.  1840 

Oct.  1840 
.  Oct  1840 
In  progress. 


Croydon  and  London 

Eastern  Counties'  (to  Romford)  June  18,  1839 

Extended,  July  1840. 
Ulster  (part)  .         .         .       Aug.  1839 

Birmingham  and  Derby  (part)     .    Aug.  1839 

RAINBOW.  **  And  God  said,  I  do  set  my  bow  in  the  cloud,  and  it  shall  be  for  a 
token  of  a  covenant  between  me  and  the  earth." — Genesis  ix.  12, 13.  The  iris  which 
appears  in  showery  weather  in  a  semicircle  of  various  colours. — Sidney.  There  are 
solar,  lunar,  and  marine  rainbows  :  the  last  is  occasioned  by  an  agitated  sea,  when 
the  wind,  sweeping  along  the  tops  of  the  waves,  carries  part  of  them  aloft,  so  that 
the  sun's  rays  falling  upon  them  are  refracted  ;  only  these  have  not  their  colours  so 
strong  and  lively  as  the  others. — Phillips.  The  theory  of  the  rainbow  was  accu- 
rately developed  by  Kepler  in  161 1,  and  by  Ren^  Descartes  in  1629.  Farther  disco- 
veries respecting  its  colours  were  made  in  1689. 

RAMILIES,  Battle  of,  between  the  English  under  the  illustrious  duke  of  Marlbo- 
rough and  the  allies  on  the  one  side,  and  the  French  on  the  other  ;  fought  on  Whit- 
sunday, May  23,  1706.  The  duke  achieved  one  of  his  most  glorious  victories,  which 
accelerated  the  fall  of  Louvain,  Brussels,  and  other  important  places,  and  parliament 
rewarded  the  victor  by  settling  his  honours  upon  the  male  and  female  issue  of  his 
daughters. 

RAMSGATE  PIER.  One  of  the  finest  piers  in  Britain.  It  is  built  of  white  Purbeck 
stone,  extending  into  the  sea  about  770  feet ;  the  foundation  of  it  is  laid  in  caissons, 
and  is  forty- five  feet  broad  ;  the  height,  from  the  foundation  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  terrace,  is  from  eighteen  to  thirty-eight  feet.  The  act  of  parliament  for  building 
this  pier  passed  in  1747. 

RAPE.  This  ofience  was  punished  by  the  Saxon  laws  with  death.  It  was  punished  by 
mutilation  and  the  loss  of  eyes  in  William  I.'s  reign.  This  punishment  was  miti- 
gated by  the  Statute  of  Westminster  1,  3  Edward  I.,  1274.  Made  felony  by  Stat. 
Westminster  2,  12  Edward  III.  1338  ;  and  without  benefit  of  clergy,  18  Elizabeth, 
1575.  The  earl  of  Castlehaven  (lord  Audley  in  England)  was  executed  for  inviting 
people  to  violate  his  own  countess ;  he  was  hanged,  May  13,  1631. — Burns.  Rape 
is  still  punished  with  death  in  England. — Statutes.  Rape  of  Ganymede.  This 
event  is  generally  fixed   1341  b.c.     See  Ganymede.     Rape  of  Helen  by  Theseus 


RAP 


[438] 


REB 


1213  B.c*  Rape  of  Helen  by  Paris,  1198  b.c. — Lenglet,  1204.  Iliad,  book  iiir. 
Thif  last  occasioned  the  Trojan  war.  See  Helen,  Rape  of  Lucrstia,  bO^  b.c. 
See  Lueretia* 

RAPHOE,  Bishopric  or.  It  is  no  easj  task  to  ascertain  the  exact  time  when  thi$ 
see  was  founded.  St.  Colamb-cille,  a  man  of  great  virtue  and  learning,  and  bom  of 
royal  blood,  founded  a  monastery  in  tbis  place ;  and  it  was  afterwards  enlarged  by 
other  holy  men  ;  but  it  is  the  received  opinion  that  St  Eunan  erected  the  chard 
into  a  cathedral,  and  was  the  first  bishop  of  this  see.  Raphoe  has  been  united  tc 
the  bishopric  of  Derry,  by  Act  3  and  4  William  lY.  1833.     See  Bishops. 

RASPBERRY.  The  Yirginian  raspberry,  or  Rubus  oceidetUalis,  was  brought  froc 
North  America,  before  1696.  The  flowering  raspberry,  or  Rubus  oeioratus,  came 
from  North  America  in  1700.     See  Fruits. 

RATH  MINES,  Battle  of.  Colonel  Jones,  governor  of  Dublin  Castle,  made  a  saiij 
out,  routed  the  marquis  of  Ormond,  killed  4(K)0  men,  and  took  2517  prisoners,  with 
their  cannon,  baicgagey  and  ammunition,  August  2,  1649,  the  period  of  the  Irish 
rebellion  of  O'Neil  and  others. 

RATISBON,  Peace  op,  concluded  between  France  and  the  emperor  of  Germany,  and 
by  which  was  terminated  the  war  for  the  Mantuan  succession,  October  13,  1630.  I: 
was  at  Ratisbon,  in  a  diet  held  there,  that  the  German  princes  seceded  from  the 
Germanic  empire,  and  placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  emperor  Napo- 
leon, August  1, 1806. 

RATS.  The  brown  rat,  very  improperly  called  the  Norway  rat,  the  great  pest  of  oa: 
dwellings,  originally  came  to  us  from  Persia  and  the  southern  regions  of  Asia.  This 
fact  is  rendered  sufficiently  evident  from  the  testimonies  of  Pallas  and  F.  Cuvier. 
So  many  of  these  animals  constantly  infested  a  German  bishop,  named  Hatto,  that 
he  built  a  tower  close  to  the  Rhine  for  his  defence  against  them  ;  but  they  gained  in 
entrance,  and  at  length  killed  him.  Pallas  describes  the  migratory  nature  of  th^ 
rats,  and  states  that  in  the  autumn  of  1729  they  arrived  at  Astrachan  in  snch  incre- 
dible numbers,  that  nothing  could  be  done  to  oppose  them  ;  they  came  from  the 
western  deserts,  nor  did  the  waves  of  the  Yolga  arrest  their  progress.  They  only 
advanced  to  the  vicinity  of  Paris  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  in 
some  parts  of  France  are  still  unknown.  Towards  the  north  their  gradual  extension 
has  been  slow  ;  nor  have  they  yet  been  found  in  Siberia. 

RAVENNA,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  under  the  great  Gaston  de  Foix  (duke  of 
Nemours  and  nephew  of  Louis  XII.)  and  the  Spanish  and  papal  armies.  De  Foil 
gained  this  memorable  battle,  but  perished  in  the  moment  of  victory,  and  his  death 
closed  the  fortunes  of  the  French  in  Italy,  April  II,  1512. 

RAVILLAC'S  MURDER  of  HENRY  IV.  of  FRANCE.  The  death  of  RaviUac 
is  one  of  the  most  dreadful  upon  record.  He  assassinated  the  king,  May  14,  1610; 
and  when  put  to  the  torture,  he  broke  out  into  horrid  execrations.  He  was  carried 
to  the  Greve,  and  tied  to  the  rack,  a  wooden  engine  in  the  shape  of  St.  Andrew's 
cross.  His  right  hand,  within  which  was  fastened  the  knife  with  which  he  did  the 
murder,  was  first  burnt  at  a  slow  fire.  Then  the  fleshy  and  most  delicate  parts  of 
his  body  were  torn  with  red-hot  pincers,  and  into  the  gaping  wounds  melted  lead, 
oil,  pitch,  and  rosin  were  poured.  His  body  was  so  robust,  that  he  endured  this 
exquisite  pain  ;  and  his  strength  resisted  that  of  the  four  horses  by  which  his  limbs 
were  to  be  pulled  to  pieces.  The  executioner  in  consequence  cut  him  into  quarters, 
and  the  spectators,  who  refused  to  pray  for  him,  dragged  them  through  the  streets. 
A.D.  ICIO. 

REBELLIONS,  Remarkablb  in  British  History.  Among  the  most  me- 
morable and  extraordinary  rebellions  which  have  occurred  in  these  realms  from 
the  period  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  were  the  following.  The  list  is  compiled  from 
the  most  esteemed  authorities : — 


Against  William  the  Conqueror  in  favour  of 

Edgar  Atbeling  by  the  Scots  and  Danes, 

A.D.  1069. 
Against  William  II.,  in  favour  of  his  brother 

Robert,  a.  d.  1088.— Extinguished,  1090. 
Of  the  Welsh,  who  defeated  the  Normans  and 

English,  A.D.  1095. 


In  England,  in  favour  of  the  empress  Maa<le. 

A.D.  1139.    Ended,  1153. 
The  Rebellion  of  Prince  Richard  against  his 

father,  Henry  II.,  a.d.  11R9. 
Of  the  Barons,  April  1215.    Compromised  br 

the  grant  of  Magna  ChartOt  June  15,  fbi- 

lowing.    See  Magna  Charta. 


REB 


[439] 


REC 


REBELLIONS  Remarkable  in  British  FI 

Of  the  Barons,  A.n.  1262.<-Thia  rebellion  ter- 
minated in  1267. 

Of  the  lords  spiritual  and  temporal  against 
Edward  IL,  on  account  of  his  favourites, 
the  (Javestons,  1312.  Again,  on  account  of 
the  Spencers,  1321. 

Of  Walter  the  Tyler,  of  Deptford,  vulgarly 
called  Wat  Tyler ^  occasioned  by  the  brutal 
rudeness  of  a  tax-collector  to  his  daughter. 
Having  killed  the  collector  in  his  rage,  he 
raised  a  party  to  oppose  the  tax  itself,  which 
was  a  grievous  poll-tax,  1381.  See  article 
Tyler. 

Of  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  and  other  lords,  in 
England,  1388. 

Of  Henry  duke  of  Lancaster,  who  caused 
Richard  H.  to  be  deposed,  1399. 

In  Ireland,  when  Roger,  earl  of  March,  the 
viceroy  and  heir  presumptive  to  the  crown, 
was  slain,  1399. 

Rebellion  of  the  English  and  Welsh  burst 
forth,  1400. 

Against  king  Henry  lY.,  by  a  number  of  con- 
federated lords,  1403. 

Of  Jack  Cade,  in  favour  of  the  duke  of  York, 
against  Henry  YI.  See  G(ide*s  Insurrec- 
tion, 1451 . 

In  favour  of  the  house  of  York,  1452,  which 
ended  in  the  imprisonment  of  Henry  YI. 
and  seating  Edward  lY.  of  York  on  the 
throne,  1461. 

Under  Warwick  and  Clarence,  1470,  which 
ended  with  the  expulsion  of  Edward  lY. 
and  the  restoration  of  Henry  YL  the  same 
year. 

Under  Edward  lY.,  1471,  which  ended  with 
the  death  of  Henry  YL 

Of  the  earl  of  Richmond,  against  Richard 
III.,  1485,  which  ended  with  the  death  of 
Richard. 

Under  Lambert  Simnel,  who  pretended  to  be 
Richard  III.'s  nephew,  1486,  which  ended 
the  same  year,  in  discovering  that  Simnel 
was  a  baker's  son ;  he  was  pardoned. 

Under  Perkin  Warbeek,  1492,  which  ended  in 
the  execution  of  Warbeek. 

Under  Flannock,  owing  to  taxes,  ended  with 
the  battle  of  Blackheath,  1497* 

Of  the  English  in  the  West,  owing  to   in- 


ISTORY,  continued. 

closures,  and  to  the  oppressions  of  the  gen- 
try, June  1549 ;  suppressed  same  year. 

In  Norfolk,  headed  by  Ket,  the  tanner,  but 
soon  suppressed,  August  1549. 

In  favour  of  lady  Jane  Gray,  against  queen 
Mary.  Lady  Jane  was  proclaimed  queen  of 
England  on  the  death  of  Edward  YL,  July 
9,  1553;  but  slie  resigned  the  crown  to 
Mary,  ten  days  afterwards:  she  was  be< 
headed  for  high  treason,  in  the  Tower, 
February  12, 1554,  aged  17. 

Of  sir  Thomas  Wyat  and  others,  on  account 
of  queen  Mary's  marriage  with  Philip  of 
Spain,  &c.,  1554. 

Of  the  Roman  Catholics  against  queen  Eliza- 
beth ;  this  insurrection  was  suppressed  the 
same  year. 

Of  the  Irish,  under  the  earl  of  Tyrone,  1.599 ; 
suppressed  in  1601. 

Under  the  earl  of  Essex,  against  queen  Eliza- 
beth, 1600 ;  it  ended  in  his  death,  1601. 

Against  Charles  I.,  1639;  it  ended  in  his 
death,  1649. 

Of  the  Irish  under  Roger  More,  sir  Phelim 
O'Neil,  &:c.,  against  the  English  in  Ireland  ; 
it  ended  in  1651. 

Rebellion  of  the  Scots,  1666 ;  soon  afterwards 
put  down. 

Under  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  1685 ;  it  ended 
in  his  death. 

Of  the  Scots,  in  favour  of  the  Old  Pretender, 
1715  ;  queued  in  1716. 

Of  the  Scots,  imder  the  Yoimg  Pretender, 
1745 ;  suppressed  in  1746,  when  lords  Lovat, 
Balmerino,  and  Kilmamoek  were  beheaded. 

Of  the  Americans,  on  aocoimt  of  taxation, 
1774.  This  rebellion  led  to  a  disastrous  war ; 
and  to  the  loss  of  our  chief  North  American 
colonies,  and  to  the  independence  of  the 
United  States,  1782. 

In  Ireland,  called  the  Great  Rebellion,  when 
nearly  the  whole  kingdom  took  up  arms, 
commenced  May  24, 1798 ;  not  finally  sup- 
pressed till  next  year. 

Again  in  Ireland,  under  Robert  Emmett,  a 
gifted  but  enthusiastic  youth,  July  23, 1803* 
In  this  rebellion.  Lord  Kil warden  was  put 
to  death,  with  several  others,  by  the  in- 
surgents.  See  Massacres. 

RECEIPTS  FOR  MONEY.  Taxed  by  a  stamp-duty  in  1 782.  The  act  was  amended  in 
1784,  1791,  et  seq.  Stamps  required  on  bills  of  exchange,  notes,  and  receipts  in 
Ireland,  by  Statute  35  George  III.  1795.     See  Bills  of  Exchange. 

RECITATIVE.  A  sort  of  speaking  in  a  plain  but  yet  singing  manner,  much  like  the 
chaunt  used  in  cathedrals  at  reading  the  psalms.  Used  in  the  performance  of  operas. 
It  was  first  introduced  at  Rome  by  signer  Emilio  del  Cavalierein  1600.  It  was 
soon  afterwards  adopted  in  other  parts  of  Italy,  and  by  degrees  in  Europe. 

RECORDER.  The  title  given  to  the  first  judicial  officer  of  great  corporations.  He  is 
the  first  corporation  officer  who  is  paid  a  salary,  which  was  originally  10/.  per 
annum,  and  is  at  present  2500/.,  enjoyed  for  life. 

RECORDS,  THE  Public.  The  public  records  began  to  be  regularly  preserved  and 
kept  from  a.d.  1100,  by  order  of  Henry  I.  The  repositories  which  possess  materials 
the  most  ancient  and  interesting  to  the  historian  are,  the  Chapter-house  of  West- 
minster Abbey,  the  Tower  of  London,  and  the  Queen's  Remembrancer's  Offices  of 
the  Exchequer.  The  Chapter-house  contains  the  rolls  of  parliament  from  18  to 
21  Edward  I. ;  Rolls  of  the  Curia  Regis,  temp.  Rich.  I.,  John  and  Hen.  III. 


RKP 


[440] 


&£P 


rolls  of  the  King's  Bench,  from  1  Edward  1.  to  end  of  Henry  V.  1422  ;  rolls  of  tie 
Common  Pleas,  from  Edward  I.  to  Henry  VII.  Assize  Rolls,  6  Richard  I.  to  Ed- 
ward IV.;  Quo  Warranto  Rolls,  Edward  I^  II.,  and  III.;  Pladta  Gorans,  10 
Henry  III.  to  Edward  III.  ;  Plactta  Forests,  10  John  to  Edward  III.  Sur 
Chamber  proceedings  from  3  Henry  VII.,  when  the  Court  was  created,  to  16  Car. 
I.,  when  it  ended.  The  Towkr  contains  the  Parliament  Rolls  finom  5  Edward  II.  to 
Edward  IV.,  M83 ;  SUtate  Rolls,  from  6  Edward  I.  to  8  Edward  IV. ;  Wnts  of 
Summons  and  Returns  to  Parliament,  16  Edward  I.  to  17  Edward  FV. ;  PkteDt 
Rolls,  from  3  John  to  Edward  IV.  1483;  the  Charter  Rolls,  1  John  to  Edward  IV.; 
the  Gascon  Rolls,  26  Henry  III.  to  39  Henry  VI. ;  the  Norman  Rolls,  2  John  to 
Henry  V. ;  the  French  RoUs,  16  Henry  III.  to  Edward  IV. ;  the  Scotch  Rolls,  19 
Edward  I.  to  22  Edward  IV. ;  the  Welsh  Rolls,  4  Edward  I.  to  23  Edward  I. ;  Cartae 
Antiqiue,  Papal  Bolls  and  Letters,  William  I.  to  Henry  VI. ;  Roman  BioUs,  34 
Edward  I.  to  Edward  IV.  1483.  With  the  Remembrancer  of  the  Exchequer  are 
deposited  records  of  similar  interest  and  importance ;  and  there  are  yarious  other 
depositaries  of  records.  The  early  records  of  Scotland,  going  from  London,  were 
lost  by  shipwreck  in  1298.  In  Ireland,  the  council-chamber  and  most  of  the 
records  were  burnt,  1711.     Public  Records  Act,  2  Victoria,  August  1838. 

REFLECTORS.  The  account  of  the  burning-glasses  of  Archimedes  had  always 
appeared  fabulous  to  some  of  the  modems,  till  the  experiments  of  Boffon  demon- 
strated its  truth  beyond  contradiction.  These  celebrated  glasses  were  supposed  to 
be  reflectors  made  of  metal,  and  capable  of  producing  their  effect  at  the  d£stanoe  of 
a  how-shoU—Lempriere. 

REFORM  IN  PARLIAMENT.  This  subject  was  a  chief  source  of  agitation  for  many 
years,  and  during  several  of  our  late  administrations.  Mr.  Pitt's  motion  for  a 
reform  in  parliament  was  lost  by  a  majority  of  20,  in  1782.  The  discussion  on  this 
motion  was  the  most  remarkable  up  to  the  period  at  which  reform  was  conceded. 
The  first  ministerial  measure  of  reform  was  in  earl  Grey's  administration,  when  it 
was  proposed  in  the  house  of  commons  by  lord  John  Russell,  March  1,  1831. 


BILL  or  1831. 

First  division ;  second  reading :  for  it,  30S ; 
against  it,  3()1— majority  for  second  read- 
ing, oMHt  March  22. 

On  motion  for  a  committee,  general  Gascoyne 
moved  an  amendment  **  that  the  number 
of  representatives  for  England  and  Wales 
ought  not  to  be  diminished."  Amendment 
carried,  on  a  division,  299  to  291— majority, 
KiOHT,  April  19. 

[The  bill  was  abandoned  in  consequoioe,  and 
parliament  dissolved,  April  22.  A  new  par- 
liament assembled,  June  14.] 

Jlill  again  introduced,  June  24.  Division  on 
second  reading :  for  it,  367 ;  against  it,  2fil— 
mnjurity,  116,  July  4. 

Diviblon  on  third  reading  of  the  bill :  for  it, 
349 ;  against  it,  236~majority.  113,  Sept.  21. 

In  the  LoRns— first  division  on  second  read- 
ing :  Lord  Whamcliffe  moved  "  that  the 
bill  be  read  that  day  six  months."  For  the 
amendment,  199 ;  against  it,  lfi8~majority, 
PORTV-ONK,  October  8. 


BTLL  OK  1832. 

Read  in  the  Coumons  a  first  time,  without  a 
division,  December  12, 1831. 

Second  reading ;  division,  viz. :  for  the  bill, 
324;  against  it,  162— majority,  162,  Dec 
17,  1831. 

Third  reading;  division,  viz.:  for  the  bill, 
355 ;  against  it,  239^majority  for  it,  116, 
March  23, 1832. 

In  the  Lords— read  a  first  time  on  motion  of 
earl  Grey,  March  26. 

Second  reading :  for  the  bill,  184  ;  against  it, 
17*— majority,  win  a,  April  14. 

In  the  committee  lord  Lyndhurst  moved  *'  that 
the  question  of  enfranchisement  should  pre- 
cede that  of  disfruichisement.'*  The  divi- 
sion was  151  and  116 — majority  against 
ministers,  thirty-fivb,  May  7* 

[This  result  led  to  the  resignation  of  ministers, 
May  9;  but  great  public  excitement  ensued, 
and  they  vrere  induced  to  resume  office  on 
the  king  granting  them  full  power  to  secure 
majorities,  by  the  creation  of  new  peers. 
May  18.] 


[Parliament  prorogued,  October  20, 1831.] 

1832,  May  30.  In  the  Lords,  the  bill  was  carried  through  the  committee. 

June  4.  And  the  bill  read  a  third  time :  106  against  22— majority,  bighty-four. 
June  7*  The  royal  assent  was  this  day  given,  by  commission,  to  the  bill. 
July  17<  The  royal  assent  given,  by  commission,  to  the  Scotch  Reform  Bill. 
Aug.  7.  The  royal  assent  given,  by  commission,  to  the  Irish  Reform  Bill. 

Thus  these  three  important  and  memorable  bills,  together  with  the  Boundary  Bills 
for  England  and  Ireland,  were  severally  passed,  and  received  the  royal  assent,  2  and 
3  WiUiam  IV.  IS32.^ Statutes. 

REFORMATION,  The.     The  early  efforts  for  the  reformation  of  the  church  may  be 
traced  to  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  when  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Aquileia,  employed  his 


In  Ireland  (Browne)  .         .  .  1536 

In  England,  completed  (Cranmert  Bucer, 

Fagiut,  SfC.)  .         .         ,         .1547 

In  Scotland  (Knox)  .         .         .    .  1560 

In  the  Netherlands       ....  1562 


BEG  Q  441  ]  REL 

-voice  and  pen  to  accomplisli  this  object.  The  principal  reformers  were>;Wickliffe, 
Huss,  Luther,  Zuinglius,  Tyndal,  Calvin,  Petri,  Melancthon,  Erasmus,  Jerome  of 
Prague,  Zisca,  Browne,  and  Knox.     The  eras  of  the  Reformation  are  as  follow  : — 

In  England  ( WickVffe)      •  •  aj).  1360     In  Sweden  (Petri)         .         .         .          .1530 

In  Bohemia  (Hww)        .  .  .         .1405     In  England  (^enry  F///.)        .          ,    .1634 

In  Oermany  (Luther)        .  .  .    .  1517 

In  Switzerland  (Zuinglius)  .         .  1519 

In  Denmark                      .  .  .    .  1521 

In  France  {Calvin)         ....  1529 

Protestants  first  so  called  .  .    .  1529 

The  reformed  religion  was  established  by  queen  Elizabeth  on  her  accession  to  the 
throne,  1558.  George  Browne,  archbishop  of  Dublin,  was  the  first  prelate  who 
embraced  the  Protestant  religion  in  Ireland,  1535.     See  Luther ^  Protestants,  Sfc. 

REGENCY  BILL.  The  memorable  Regency  Bill  was  proposed  to  parliament  in  con- 
sequence of  the  mental  illness  of  George  III.,  debated  December  10,  1788.  The 
bill  was  relinquished  on  his  majesty's  recovery,  February  26,  1789.  The  prince  of 
Wales  (afterwards  George  IV.)  sworn  in  before  the  privy  council  as  regent  of  the 
kingdom,  he  going  in  great  state,  February  5,  1811.  The  Regency  Bill  providing  for 
the  administration  of  the  government,  should  the  crown  descend  to  the  princess 
Victoria  while  under  eighteen  years  of  age,  passed  1  William  IV.  Dec.  23,  1830. 
Regency  Bill  appointing  prince  Albert  regent,  in  the  event  of  the  demise  of  Victoria, 
should  her  next  lineal  successor  be  under  age,  August  4,  1840. 

REGENT'S  CANAL.  It  commences  at  Paddington,  where  it  joins  a  cut  to  the  Grand 
Junction,  and  passing  by  a  tunnel  under  Maida-hill,  continues  its  course  by  the 
Regent's  Park  to  Islington,  where  another  subterranean  excavation,  about  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  in  length,  has  been  formed  for  its  passage.  It  then  proceeds  by 
Hoxton,  Hackney,  and  Mile-end,  to  Limehouse,  where  it  joins  the  Thames.  The 
whole  length  of  its  course  is  nine  miles,  and  within  that  space  are  comprised  twelve 
locks  and  thirty-seven  bridges.     Opened  August  1,  1820. 

REGENT'S  PARK.  It  originally  formed  part  of  the  grounds  belonging  to  a  palace 
which  stood  near  the  north  end  of  Tottenham-court-road,  and  was  occasionally  the 
residence  of  queen  Elizabeth.  This  building  was  pulled  down  in  1791.  From  the 
time  of  Elizabeth  the  property  was  let  to  various  persons,  but  the  leases  having 
expired,  it  reverted  to  the  crown  ;  and  in  1814  were  commenced  the  improvements, 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Nash,  which  have  rendered  this  park  the  most  beautiful 
part  of  London.  The  park  is  nearly  of  a  circular  form,  and  consists  of  about  450 
acres,  laid  out  in  shrubberies,  adorned  with  a  fine  piece  of  water,  and  intersected  by 
roads  which  are  much  frequented  as  promenades.  In  the  enclosures  are  several 
villas,  and  around  the  park  noble  ranges  of  building  in  various  styles  of  architecture. 

REGISTERS,  PAROCHIAL.  Registers  were  established  by  Cromwell,  lord  Essex,  by 
which  the  dates  of  births,  marriages,  and  burials  became  ascertainable,  27  Henry 
VIII.  1536.  A  stamp-tax  was  laid  on  them  in  1784.  Laws  for  their  better  regu- 
lation enacted  in  1813  et  seq.  Great  Registiation  Act,  6  and  7  William  IV.,  Aug. 
17,  1836.    See  BUh  of  Mortality,  ^c, 

REGISTERS  of  DEEDS,  WILLS,  &c.  The  registering  of  deeds  and  conveyances 
disposing  of  real  estates,  was  appointed  to  be  effected  in  Yorkshire  and  in  Middlesex, 
2  Anne  1703,  et  seq.  By  this  regulation,  greater  security  was  made  for  purchasers 
and  mortgagees;  and  the  value  of  estates  increased  in  the  register  counties.  The  regis- 
tering of  shipping  in  the  Thames  was  commenced  1 786 ;  and  throughout  England,  1787. 

RELIGION.  Properly,  that  awful  reverence  and  pure  worship  that  is  due  to  God,  the 
supreme  Author  of  all  beings,  though  it  is  very  often  abused,  and  applied  to  super- 
stitious adorations  among  Christians,  and  to  idols  and  false  gods  among  the  heathens. 
— Pardon,  Religion  had  its  origin  in  most  tribes  and  nations  in  their  ignorance  of 
the  causes  of  natural  phenomena,  benefits  beings  ascribed  to  a  good  spirit,  and  evils 
to  a  bad  one. — Phillips.  Religious  ceremonies  in  the  worship  of  the  Supreme  Being 
are  said  to  have  been  introduced  by  Enos,  2832  b.c. — Lenglet.  See  the  different 
sects  as  described  throughout  the  volume.  The  Established  religion  of  England 
commenced  with  the  Reformation  {which  see),  1534.  The  Six  Articles  of  religion, 
for  the  non-observance  of  which  many  Protestants  as  well. as  Catholics  suffered 
death,  passed  1539.    The  Thirty-nine  Articles  were  established  first  in  1552  ;  they 


RBM 


[[442] 


REV 


were  redaoed  from  forty-two  to  thirty-nine  in  January  1563|  and  received  the 
sanction  of  parliament  in  1571.     See  Ariielet  q/"  Religion. 

REMONSTRANTS.  A  tect  in  Holland,  called  also  Arminians,  very  numerotis  and 
powerfnl,  taking  their  name  from  a  writing  or  remonstrance  presented  to  the  States 
in  1609,  wherein  they  reduced  their  doctrine  to  five  articles.  The  Calvinists,  who 
opposed  them,  and  had  the  goTcming  power,  used  them  very  severely ;  and  at  a 
synod  held  at  Dort,  their  opinions  were  condemned  in  161S. 

RENTS  IN  England.  Rents  were  first  made  payable  in  money,  instead  of  in  kind, 
A.D.  1135.  Numerous  statutes  have  been  enacted  in  Tarious  reigns  to  define  the 
relations  and  regulate  the  dealings  between  landlord  and  tenant.  By  the  Act 
8  Anne,  no  goods  are  removeable  from  tenements  under  an  execution  until  the  rent 
shall  have  been  paid  to  the  landlord  by  the  sheriff,  1709.  In  England,  the  duke  of 
Sutherland  received  his  rents  in  the  value  of  com,  and  in  Scotland  in  the  value  of 
wool  and  sheep.  The  rental  of  England,  including  land,  bouses,  and  mines,  was  six 
millions  about  the  year  1600,  and  twelve  years*  purchase  the  vsdue  of  land.  About 
1690,  the  rental  amounted  to  fourteen  millions,  and  the  land  was  worth  eighteen 
years'  purchase. — Davenant  on  the  Revenues.  The  present  rental  of  the  United 
Kingdom  has  been  recently  estimated  in  parliament  at  127  millions.    See  Land,  ^c. 

orriaAL  ASSBasMnm,  takxn  from  thk  cnowir  survkyor's  kstimatbs  of  thb  actuaz<  taluk  or 

RBNTAL  or  VARIOUS  ORBAT  MANSIONS  IN  ENOLANIX 

Marquis  of  Stafford's,  at  the  yearly                 Shipton's,  Cheltenham       .                   .  £650 

Lacy's  Hotel,  Manchester                  .     .  600 

Wobum  Abbey  (duke  of  Bedford's)      .  &iO 

Royal  Hotel,  Cheltenham            .  550 

Richardson's,  Manchester       .         .    .  500 

Parsons's,  Brighton                     .         .  5<hi 

Eaton-hall               3riO 

Wentworth-house  .         .         .300 

Castle  Howard       ...         .     .  300 
Blenheim          ...         .          .900 

Trentham  (duke  of  Sutherland's)     .    .  300 

Wilton               300 

Knowsley  (earl  Darby's)                    .     .  300 

Nettleden  (countess  of  Bridgewater's) .  300 

Hatfield  (marquis  of  Salisbury's)           .  250 

REQUESTS,  Courts  of.     See  articles  Courts  of  Requests,  and  Conscience. 

RESTORATION,  The.  Emphatically  so  called,  being  the  restoration  of  king 
Charles  II.  to  the  crown  of  England,  after  an  interregnum  of  eleven  years  and  four 
months,  between  January  30,  1649,  when  Charles  I.  was  beheaded,  and  May  29, 
1660,  on  which  latter  day  the  exiled  monarch  was  restored. 

RETREAT  of  the  GREEKS.  Memorable  retreat  of  10,000  Greeks  who  had  joined 
the  army  of  the  younger  Cyrus  in  his  revolt  against  his  brother  Artazerxes.  Xenophon 
was  selected  by  his  brother  officers  to  superintend  the  retreat  of  his  countrymen. 
He  rose  superior  to  danger,  and  though  under  continual  alarms  from  the  sadden 
attacks  of  the  Persians,  he  was  enabled  to  cross  rapid  rivers,  penetrate  through  vast 
deserts,  gain  the  tops  of  mountains,  till  he  could  rest  secure  for  awhile,  and  refresh 
his  tired  companions.  This  celebrated  retreat  was  at  last  happily  effected ;  the 
Greeks  returned  home  after  a  march  of  1155  parasangs,  or  leagues,  which  was  per- 
formed in  215  days,  after  an  absence  of  fifteen  months.  The  whole  perhaps  might 
now  oe  forgotten,  or  at  least  but  obscurely  known,  if  the  great  philosopher  who 
planned  it  had  not  employed  his  pen  in  describing  the  dangers  which  he  escaped,  and 
the  difficulties  which  he  surmounted.     401  B.C. —  Vossius. 

REVENUE,  PUBLIC,  of  England.  The  revenue  collected  for  the  civil  list,  and 
for  all  the  other  charges  of  government,  as  well  ordinary  as  extraordinary,  1,200,000/. 
per  annum,  in  1660,  the  first  after  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  Raised  to 
6,000,000/.,  and  every  branch  of  the  revenue  anticipated,  which  was  the  origin  of  the 
funds  and  the  national  debt,  William  and  Mary,  1690. — Salmon's  Chron.  Hist. 

6SNBRAL  VIEW  OF  THE  PUBLIC  REVENUE  SINCE  THE  CONQUEST,  BY  SIR  JOHN  SINCLAIR. 

.    ^200,000 

150.0(10 

100,090 
80,090 


rVUUM  l/«                     «                   .                   . 

The  Bank  of  England 

.    .     2605 

East  India  House 

.     2600 

Mansion-house 

.    .     1000 

United  Service  Club 

.      1500 

Athensum,  Pall-mall 

.    .      1400 

Crockford's,  St  James's 

.      1300 

York-house,  Bath 

.    .      1050 

London  Tavern 

.      1000 

Duke  of  Wellington's 

.    .      1000 

British  Museum 

.       850 

White  Hart  Hotel,  Bath 

.    .       900 

Plough,  Cheltenham 

.       850 

Old  Ship  Hotel,  Brighton 

.    .       750 

William  the  Conqueror 

.    £400,000 

Henry  H. 

William  RufuB 

.    .       350,000 

Richard  I. 

Henry  L       .         .         .         . 

300,000 

John 

Stephen 

.    .        260,000 

Henry  IH. 

REV 

Q  443  ]                                   RHO 

REVENUE,  Public 

OF  England,  continued. 

Edward  I. 

, 

^150,900 

James  I. 

.  .  jffeoo.ooo 

Edward  n. 

100,000 

Charles  I.              .         . 

895,819 

Edward  III. 

154,000 

Commonwealth 

.    .     1,517,247 

Richard  II. 

130,000 

Charles  II.            ... 

.     1,800,000 

Henry  IV. 

•              i 

100.000 

James  II. 

.    .     2,001,855 

Henry  V. 

76,643 

William  in. 

.     3.896,205 

Henry  VL 

•              « 

64,976 

Anne  (at  the  Union) 

.    .     5,691,803 

Edward  IV. 

B             ^•l**p*n 

Oeorgel. 

.    6,762,643 

Edward  V. 

■ 

100,000 

George  U. 

.    .     8,522,540 

Richard  III. 

130,000 

George  IIL,  1788 

.  15,572.971 

Henry  VII. 

, 

400,000 

Ditto,  1820,  United  Kingdom 

.  65,699,570 

Henry  VIII. 

.        800,000 

George  IV.,  1825,  ditto 

.    .  62,871,300 

Edward  VI. 

• 

400,000 

William  IV.,  1830,  ditto 

.   65,431,317 

Mary 

450,000 

Ditto,  1835,  ditto 

.    .   50,494,732 

Elizabeth 

• 

500,000 

Victoria,  1840,  ditto 

.  62,058,349 

REVOLUTION,  Era  op  the.  This  memorable  revolution  took  place  in  England  in 
1688,  and  is  styled  by  Voltaire  as  the  era  of  English  liberty.  James  II.  had  ren- 
dered himself  hateful  to  his  subjects  by  his  tyranny  and  oppression  ;  and  soon  after 
the  landing  of  the  prince  of  Orange  at  Torbay,  November  5,  1688,  the  throne  was 
abdicated  by  James,  who  fled.  The  revolution  was  consummated  by  William  III. 
and  his  queen  (Mary,  daughter  of  James)  being  proclaimed,  February  13,  and 
crowned  April  11,  1689. 

REVOLUTIONS,  Remarkable  in  Ancient  History,  The  Assyrian  empire 
destroyed,  and  that  of  the  Medes  and  Persians  founded  by  Cyrus  the  Great,  536  b.c. 
The  Macedonian  empire  founded  on  the  destruction  of  the  Persian,  on  the  defeat  of 
Darius  Codomanus,  by  Alexander  the  Great,  331  B.C.  The  Roman  empire  esta- 
blished on  the  ruins  of  the  Macedonian,  or  Greek  monarchy,  by  Julius  Csesar,  47  B.c. 
The  Eastern  empire,  founded  by  Constantine  the  Great,  on  the  final  overthrow  of 
the  Roman,  a.d.  306.  The  empire  of  the  Western  Franks  began  under  Charlemagne, 
A.D.  802.  This  empire  underwent  a  new  revolution,  and  became  the  German  empire 
under  Rodolph  of  Hapsburgh,  the  head  of  the  house  of  Austria,  a.d.  1273,  from 
whom  it  is  also  called  the  Monarchy  of  the  Austrians.  The  Eastern  empire  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  Turks  about  a.d.  1293.  See  also  the  Revolutions  of  particular 
countries  under  their  proper  heads,  as  Rome,  France,  Portugal,  &c. 

REVOLUTIONS,  the  most  celebrated  in  modern  history.  In  Portugal, 
A.D.  1640.  In  England,  1688.  In  Poland,  1704,  1795,  and  1830.  In  Russia, 
1730  and  1762.  In  Sweden,  1772  and  1809.  In  America,  1775.  In  France,  1789 
and  1830.  In  Holland,  1795.  In  Venice,  1797.  In  Rome,  1798.  In  the  Nether- 
lands, 1830.   In  Brunswick,  1830.   In  Brazil,  1831.    See  these  countries  respectively. 

RHEIMS.  The  principal  church  here  was  built  before  a.d.  406  ;  it  was  rebuilt  in  the 
twelfth  century,  and  is  now  very  beautiful.  The  corpse  of  St.  Remy,  the  archbishop, 
is  preserved  behind  the  high  altar,  in  a  magnificent  shrine.  The  kings  of  France 
have  been  successively  crowned  at  Rheims ;  probably,  because  Clovis,  the  founder  of 
the  French  monarchy,  when  converted  from  paganism,  was  baptised  in  the  cathedral 
here,  in  the  year  496.  This  city  was  taken  and  retaken  several  times  in  the  last 
months  of  the  late  war,  1814. 

RHETORIC.  Rhetorical  points  and  accents  were  invented  by  Aristophanes  of  Byzan- 
tium, 200  B.C. — Abb^  Lenglet.  Rhetoric  was  first  taught  in  Latin  at  Rome  by 
Photius  Gallus,  87  b.c — Idem,  "  We  are  first  to  consider  what  is  to  be  said ; 
secondly,  how ;  thirdly,  in  what  words ;  and  lastly,  how  it  is  to  be  ornamented.^' — 
Cicero.  A  regius  professor  of  rhetoric  was  appointed  in  Edinburgh,  April  20, 1762, 
when  Dr.  Blair  became  first  professor. 

RHINE,  CONFEDERATION  of  the.     See  article  Confederation  of  the  Rhine. 

RHODE-ISLAND,  America.  Celebrated  for  its  fine  women,  and  called  by  travellers 
the  *'  Eden  of  America."  Settled,  1636  and  1644.  It  was  taken  in  the  war  of 
independence  by  the  British,  Dec.  6, 1776  ;  but  was  evacuated  by  them  Oct.  25, 1779. 

RHODES.  This  city  was  peopled  from  Crete,  as  early  as  916  b.c  The  Rhodians 
were  famous  navigators,  masters  of  the  sea,  and  institutors  of  a  maritime  code,  which 
was  afterwards  adopted  by  the  Romans.  The  republic  not  completed  till  480  b.c 
The  city  built  432  b.c  Its  famous  Colossus  (which  see)  thrown  down  by  an  earth- 
quake, 224  B.C.,  and  finally  destroyed  by  the  Saracen  admiral  Moavia,  a.d.  672. — 
Priestley. 


RIC 


[444] 


RIO 


RICHMOND,  SuBRBT.  Anciently  called  Sheen,  which,  in  the  Saxon  tongue,  signifies 
resplendent.  Here  stood  a  palace  in  which  Edward  I.  and  II.  resided,  and  Edward 
111.  died,  1377.  Here  also  died  Anne,  queen  of  Richard  II.,  who  first  taught  the 
English  ladies  the  use  of  the  side-saddle.  The  palace  was  repaired  by  Henry  V., 
,who  founded  three  religious  houses  near  it  In  1497  it  was  destroyed  by  fire ;  bat 
Henry  VII.  rebuilt  it,  and  commanded  that  the  Tiiiage  should  be  called  Rjchmoud, 
he  having  borne  the  title  of  earl  of  Richmond  before  he  obtained  the  crown  ;  and  here 
he  died  in  1509.  Queen  Elizabeth  was  a  prisoner  in  this  palace  for  a  short  time 
during  the  reign  of  her  sister.  When  she  became  queen,  it  was  one  of  her  favourite 
places  of  residence ;  and  here  she  closed  her  illustrious  career,  March  24,  1603.  It 
was  afterwards  the  residence  of  Henry  prince  of  Wales.  The  beautiful  park  and 
gardens  were  enclosed  by  Charles  I.  llie  observatory  was  built  by  sir  W.  Chambers 
in  1769.  In  Richmond,  Thomson  "  sung  the  Seasons  and  their  change;"  and  here 
he  died,  Aug.  27^  1748.  On  a  monument  of  this  exquisitely  sweet  and  moral  poet 
has  been  inscribed  the  high  and  glowing  eulogy  so  merited  by  the  tendency  of  aU  he 
wrote: — 

"  Not  one  immoral,  one  corrupted  thought, 
One  line  which,  dying,  he  oould  wish  to  blot.** 

RIALTO,  AT  Vknicb.  This  renowned  bridge  is  mentioned  by  Shakspeare  in  his 
**  Merchant  of  Venice."  It  was  built  in  1570,  and  consists  of  a  single  arch,  but  a 
very  noble  one,  of  marble,  built  across  the  Grand  Canal,  near  the  middle,  where  it  is 
the  narrowest :  this  celebrated  arch  is  ninety  feet  wide  on  the  level  of  the  canal,  and 
twenty- lour  feet  high. 

RIGHTS,  BILL  of.  The  declaration  made  by  the  lords  and  commons  of  England  to 
the  prince  and  princess  of  Orange,  Feb.  13,  1689.     See  J?*  V  of  Bighis. 

RIOTS  IN  Bbitish  Histoby.  The  riotous  assembling  of  twelve  or  more  persons, 
and  their  not  dispersing  upon  proclamation,  was  first  made  high-treason  by  a  statute 
enacted  3  and  4  Edward  VI.,  15-18-9.  The  present  statute^  usually  understood  as 
the  Riot  Acif  was  passed  2  George  I.  1715. 


Some  riotous  citizens  of  London  demolished 
the  convent  belonging  to  Westminster  Ab- 
bey ;  the  ringleader  was  hanged,  and  the 
rest  hod  their  hands  and  feet  out  off,  6th 
Henry  III..  1221. 

Goldsmiths*  and  Tailors*  companies  fought  in 
the  streets  of  London ;  several  were  killed 
on  each  side ;  the  sheriffs  quelled  it,  and 
thirteen  were  hanged,  1262. 

A  riot  at  Norwich :  the  rioters  burnt  the  ca- 
thedral and  monastery ;  the  king  went 
thither,  and  saw  the  ringleaders  executed, 
1721. 

The  memorable  riot  in  London  known  as  the 
riot  of  Evil  May-day,  1617>  See  article 
Evil  Map-day, 

A  riot  in  London,  and  Dr.  Lamb  killed  by 
the  mob,  June  1628. 

A  riot,  on  pretence  of  pulling  down  houses  of 
ill-fame :  several  of  the  ringleaders  hanged, 
166a 

Another,  at  Guildhall,  at  the  election  of  she- 
riffs: several  considerable  persons,  who 
seized  the  lord  mayor,  were  concerned,  1682. 

At  Edinburgh  and  Dumfries,  on  account  of 
the  Union,  1707. 

In  London,  on  account  of  Dr.  Sacheverel's 
trial ;  several  dissenting  meeting-houses 
were  broken  open,  170% 

Riot  of  the  Whig  and  Tory  mobs,  called  Or- 
mond  and  Newcastle  mobs.  The  Riot  Act 
passed  the  same  year,  great  mischief  having 
been  done  by  both  parties  in  London,  1715. 

The  Mug-house  riot,  in  Salisbury-court,  be- 
tween the  Whigs  and  Tories.      The  riot 

^   quelled  by  the  guards,  1716. 


Of  the  Spitalfields  weavers,  on  account  of 
employing  workmen  come  over  from  Ire- 
land. Quelled  by  the  military,  but  many 
lives  lost,  1736. 

Between  the  Irish,  Welsh,  and  Tgngitfth  hay- 
makers, same  year. 

The  memorable  riot  at  Edinburgh,  where  the 
mob  rose,  sot  lire  to  the  prison,  and  took 
out  Captain  Porteous,  whom  tiiey  hanged, 
1736.    See  Porteous. 

A  great  body  of  rioters  in  Worcestershire 
(nailers)  march  to  Birmingham,  and  make 
their  own  terms  with  the  iron-merchants 
there,  1737. 

Of  sailors,  who  were  robbed  and  ill-used  at  a 
house  of  ill-fame  in  the  Strand ;  being 
assisted  by  a  large  body,  they  pulled  down 
the  house  and  destroyed  the  fumitore  of 
several  others,  turning  the  women  naked 
into  the  streets.  1749. 

Of  the  Spitalfields  weavers;  the  duke  of 
Bedford  narrowly  escaped  being  killed; 
many  lives  lost,  1766. 

A  mob  in  St.  George's  Fields,  to  seeMr.'Wilkea 
in  the  King's  Bench  prison ;  the  military 
aid  indiscreetly  called  for  by  the  justices  of 
the  peace,  and  several  innocent  persons, 
particularly  young  Allen,  fired  upon,  and 
killed,  1768. 

The  memorable  riot  in  London  by  the  popu- 
lace, called  Lord  George  Gordon's  mob, 
June  2  to  7,  1780.  See  Gordon's  •«  ^o 
Poperp"  Mob. 

At  Birmingham,  on  account  of  oommemo- 
ratmg  the  French  Revolution,  July  14, 1791, 
when  several  houses  were  destroyed. 


RIO 


[  445  ] 


ROA 


<r-<» 


RIOTS  IN  British  History,  continued. 

In  varions  parts  of  Scotland*  on  account  of 
the  Militia  Act,  August  1797«  when  several 
were  killed. 

At  Maidstone  at  the  trial  of  Arthur  O'Connor 
and  others,  May  22, 1796 ;  the  earl  of  Thanet, 
Mr.  Ferguson,  and  others  were  active  in 
endeavouring  to  rescue  O'Connor,  for  which 
they  were  tried  and  convicted,  April  25, 1799. 

At  Liverpool,  occasioned  by  a  quarrel  between 
a  party  of  dragoons  and  a  press-gang,  June 
27,  1809. 

O.P.  Riot  at  the  Theatre  Royal,  Covent-gar- 
den,  Sept.  1809.    See  0.  P.  Riot 

In  Piccadilly,  in  consequence  of  the  house  of 
commons  committing  sir  Francis  Burdett 
to  the  Tower,  April  6,  1810. 

At  Sheffield,  during  which  800  muskets  be- 
longing to  the  local  militia  were  destroyed, 
April  14, 1812. 

In  various  parts  of  the  north  of  England,  by 
the  Luddites,  during  1811  and  1812. 
t  At  the  Theatre  Royal,  Dublin,  on  account  of 

the  celebrated  Dog  of  Montargii.  This 
riot  continued  several  nights,  and  the  mis- 
chief done  was  very  considerable,  Deo.  1814. 

Alarming  riots  at  Westminster,  on  account  of 
the  Com  Bill;  they  lasted  several  days, 
March  1815. 

At  the  d^pdt  at  Dartmoor,  in  quelling  which 
seven  Americans  were  killed,  and  thirty- 
five  wounded,  April  1815. 

Popular  meeting  at  Spa-fields,  when  the 
shops  of  the  gunsmiths  were  attacked  for 
arms.  Mr.  Piatt  shot  in  that  of  Mr.  Beck- 
with  on  Snow-hill.Dec.  2,181&  Watson  tried 
for  high-treason,  but  acquitted,  June  1817. 

In  the  Park,  on  the  prince  regent  going  to 
the  house,  in  which  tm  air-gun  was  fired  at 
his  royal  highness,  January  28, 1817* 

At  Manchester,  in  consequence  of  a  popular 
meeting,  March  3,  1817. 

Memorable  a£P^y  at  Manchester,  called  the 
"  Field  of  Peterloo,"  August  16,  1819.  See 
Manchester  Etform  Meeting. 

Again  at  the  Theatre  Royal,  Dublin,  of  several 
nights'  duration.  This  riot  originated  with 
the  friends  of  Miss  Byrne,  to  whose  wishes 
the  patentee,  Mr.  Jones,  yielded  in  the  end, 
on  the  representation  of  certain  facts,  from 
motives  of  humanity,  towards  the  young 
lady,  1819. 

Riot  at  Paisley  and  Glai^ow;  many  houses 


At  Edinburgh,  on  the  acquittal  of  the  queen, 
November  19,  1820. 

At  the  funeral  of  the  queen,  in  consequence  of 
the  military  opposing  the  body  being  carried 
through  the  City,  August  14, 1821. 

At  Knightsbridge,  between  the  military  and 
the  populace  on  the  f  mieral  of  Honey  and 
Francis,  August  26, 1821. 

In  various  parts  of  the  south  of  Ireland  for 
several  months,  in  1821  and  1822 ;  and  in  the 
north  in  1823. 

At  the  Theatre  in  Dublin;  the  memorable 
riot  called  the  *'  Bottle  Conipiracp"as^n9t 
the  marquess  Wellesley,  lord-lieutenant, 
December  14, 1822. 

Riot  of  Ballybay.  For  this  affair  Mr.  Law- 
less was  arrested,  October  9,  1828. 

Riot  at  Limerick ;  the  provision-warehouses 
attacked  and  plundered,  and  great  mischief 
done,  June  15, 1830. 

[For  the  lamentable  and  fatal  affrays  at 
Cattlepollard  and  Newtownbarry,  see  these 
articles.] 

Alarming  riots  at  Merthyr-Tydvil,  among 
the  iron-workers,  several  of  whom,  fired  on 
by  the  military,  were  killed  and  wounded, 
June  3,  1831. 

Riot  at  the  Forest  of  Dean,  when  great  mis- 
chief ensued,  June8,  1831.  See  Dean,  Forest  of. 

Fatal  riots  at  Bristol,  which  commenced 
October  29, 1831.    See  Bristol. 

A3TB:y  at  Castleshock,  county  of  Kilkenny, 
when  a  number  of  police,  attacked  by  the 
populace,  were,  with  their  commander,  Mr. 
Gibbins,  killed,  Dec.  14, 1831. 

Riot  at  Boughton,  near  Canterbury,  produced 
by  a  body  of  persons  called  Thomiteiy  headed 
by  a  fanatic  named  Thom,  or  Courtenay, 
who,  with  others,  was  killed,  May  31,  1838. 
See  Thomites. 

Great  riots  throughout  the  country,  occa- 
sioned by  the  Chartists.  Suppressed  by 
proclamation,  December  12, 1838. 

Riots  in  Birmingham,  when  much  mischief 
ensues,  July  15, 1839.    See  Birmingham. 

Great  riot  at  Newport,  caused  by  the  Chart- 
ists, headed  by  an  ex-magistrate,  John 
Frost ;  many  persons  killed,  November  4, 
1839.    See  Newport 

Meditated  Chartist  outbreak  at  Sheffield,  with 
most  destructive  objects,  providentially  dis- 
covered, and  many  persons  concerned  in 
the  plot  arrested,  January  11, 1840. 


.M* 


-    .1' 


plundered,  S^tember  16, 1819. 

ROADS  OF  England.  The  first  general  repair  of  the  highways  of  this  conn  try  was 
directed  in  1288.  Acts  passed  for  the  purpose  in  1524  and  1555,  and  were  followed 
by  others  in  Elizabeth's  and  the  succeeding  reigns.  Roads  through  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland  were  begun  by  general  Wade  in  1 746.  Loudon  M' Adam's  roads  were 
introduced  about  J  818;  he  prescribes  the  breaking  of  stones  to  six  ounces  weight, 
and  calculates  the  expense  of  breaking  stones  at  a  shilling  a  ton ;  clean  flints  and 
granite  clippings  answer  best.  Wooden  pavements  were  successfully  tried  in  the 
streets  of  London ;  at  Whitehall  in  1839,  and  in  other  streets  in  1840.  See  Woode 
Pavements, 

ROASTING  ALIVE.  One  of  the  earliest  instances  of  this  cruel  death  is  that  of 
Bocchoris,  king  of  Egypt,  who  was  slowly  roasted  alive  by  order  of  Sabacon  of 
Ethiopia,  737  b.c. — Abb4  Lenglet.  The  unfortunate  sir  John  Oldcastle,  lord  Cob- 
ham,  the  first  noble  martyr  to  the  Reformation,  was  hung  by  the  middle  in  chains, 


ROB  Q  446  ]  ROM 

bit  legs  ha? iog  preTtoatly  boeD  broken,  and  thus  roasted  and  consumed,  5  Henry  T. 
1418.  M.  S«rvetiu  was  roasted  alive  by  a  slow  fire,  on  a  charge  of  heresy,  at 
Geneva,  in  1533.  Many  martyrs  and  others  suffered  death  in  this  manner  ;  and  in 
Portqgal  and  otber  countries,  criminals  are  roasted  alive  to  the  present  day. 

ROBBERS.  First  punished  with  death  by  Edmund  I.'s  lavrs,  which  directed  that  the 
eldest  robber  should  be  hanged.  The  punishment  was  pecuniary  till  that  time.  The 
most  remaritable  robbers  were  Robin  Hood,  in  England,  a.d.  1189  (see  Aobin 
Hood),  and  Claud  Du  Val,  **  executed  at  Tyburn,' '  says  an  historian  quaintly,  **  to 
the  great  grief  of  the  women,"  January,  1670.  In  Ireland,  the  famous  Mac  Cabe 
was  hanged  at  Naas,  Aug.  19,  1691.  GiaUoping  Hogan,  the  rapparee,  flourished  at 
this  period.  Freney,  the  celebrated  highwayman,  surrendered  himself.  May  10, 
1749.     In  later  times,  the  accomplished  Harrington  transported,  Sept.  22,  1790. 

ROBESPIERRE'S    REIGN   or  TERROR.     MaximilUn  Robespierre   headed   the 

Sopulace  in  the  Champ  de  Mars,  in  Paris,  demanding  the  dethronement  of  the  kin^, 
uly  17,  1791.  He  was  triumphant  in  1793,  and  great  numbers  of  eminent  men 
and  citisens  were  sacrificed  during  his  sanguinary  administration.  Billaad  Varennes 
denounced  the  tyranny  of  Robespierre  in  the  tribune,  July  28,  1794.  Cries  of 
"  Down  with  the  tyrant  1'*  resounded  through  the  hall ;  and  so  great  was  the  abhor- 
rence of  the  Convention  of  this  wicked  minister,  that  he  was  immediately  ordered  to 
the  place  of  execution  and  suffered  death,  no  man  deeming  himself  safe  while 
Robespierre  lived. 
ROBIN  ilOOD.  The  celebrated  captain  of  a  notorious  band  of  robbers,  who  infested 
the  forest  of  Sherwood  in  Nottinghamshire,  and  from  thence  made  excursions  to 
many  parts  of  England,  in  search  of  booty.  Some  historians  assert  that  this  was 
only  a  name  assumed  by  the  then  earl  of  Huntingdon,  who  was  disgraced  and 
banished  the  court  by  Richard  I.  at  his  accession.  Robin  Hood,  Little  John  his 
friend  and  second  in  command,  with  their  numerous  followers,  continued  their 
depredations  from  about  1189  to  1247,  when  he  died. — Stowe^s  Chron. 

ROCHESTER,  See  or.  This  bishopric  is  the  smallest,  and  next  to  Canterbury,  the 
most  ancient  in  England,  it  having  been  founded  by  St.  Augustin  about  ten  years 
after  he  came  first  to  England.  The  cathedral  church  was  first  erected  by  Ethel bert, 
king  of  Kent,  when  it  was  made  a  bishop's  see.  St.  Justin  was  bishop  in  604. 
Rochester  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  358/.  3«.  2^c/.  per  annum. 

ROCKETS,  CONGREVE'S.  War  implements  of  Terydestructire  power, were  invented 
by  sir  William  Congreve  about  1803.  The  carcase  rockets  were  first  used  at 
Boulogne,  their  powers  having  been  previously  demonstrated  in  the  presence  of  Mr. 
Pitt  and  several  of  the  cabinet  ministers,  1806.     See  article  Boulogne  Flotilla, 

ROCKINGHAM  ADMINISTRATIONS.  That  in  which  the  duke  of  Grafton,  the 
earl  of  Shelbume,  &c.  were  joined,  commenced  in  July  1765.  That  of  which  lord 
Camden,  Charles  James  Fox,  lord  Shelburne,  the  duke  of  Richmond,  the  duke  of 
Grafton,  lord  John  Cavendish,  Mr.  Townshend,  &c.  were  members,  March  30,  1782. 
See  Administrations. 

ROLLS'  CHAPEL,  London.  Founded  by  Henry  III.  in  1233,  for  ordaining  Jewish 
rabbles  converted  to  Christianity.  On  the  banishment  of  the  Jews,  the  buildings 
now  called  the  Rolls,  and  the  chapel,  were  annexed  by  patent  to  the  keeper  of  the 
rolls  of  Chancery,  from  which  circumstance  they  took  their  name.  All  the  public 
records  from  the  time  of  Richard  III.  are  kept  in  presses  in  this  chapel,  as  those 
before  that  era  are  in  the  Tower. — Noorthouck^s  History  of  London. 

ROMAN  CATHOLICS.  The  progress  of  Christianity  during  the  life-time  of  its 
divine  founder  was  confined  within  narrow  bounds  :  the  Holy  Land  was  alone  the 
scene  of  his  labours,  and  of  his  life  and  death.  The  period  of  the  rise  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion  may  be  dated  from  the  establishment  of  Christianity  by  Con- 
stantine,  a.d.  323.  See  Rome,  The  foundation  of  the  papal  power  dates  from 
A.D.  606,  when  Boniface  III.  assumed  the  title  of  Universal  Bishop.  See  Pope, 
Pepin,  king  of  France,  invested  pope  Stephen  II.  with  the  temporal  dominions  of 
Rome  and  its  territories,  a.d.  756.  The  tremendous  power  of  the  Roman  pontiffs 
was  weakened  by  the  Reformation,  and  has  since  been  gradually  yielding  to  the 
influence  of  the  reformed  doctrines,  and  the  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  among 
the  nations  of  the  earth.     See  Catholics  of  these  Realms. 

I'OMANCES.     **  Stories  of  love  and  arms,  wherein  abundance  of  enthusiastic  flights 


ROM 


[447] 


ROM 


of  the  imagination  are  introduced,  giving  false  images  of  life.'' — Pardon.  As 
Heliodorus^  a  bishop  of  Tricea,  in  Thessaly,  was  the  author  of  Ethiopics,  in  Greek, 
the  first  work  in  this  species  of  writing,  he  is  hence  styled  the  "  Father  of  Romances." 
His  work  has  a  moral  tendency,  and  particularly  incnlcates  the  virtue  of  chastity. 
He  flourished  a.d.  398. — Huet  de  Origine  FabuL  Roman. 

ROME.  Once  the  mistress  of  the  world,  and  subsequently  the  seat  of  the  most  exten- 
sive ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  ever  acknowledged  by  mankind.  The  foundation  of 
Rome  was  laid  by  Romulusi  its  first  king,  April  20,  753  B.C.  The  Romans  seized 
on  the  Sabine  women  at  a  public  spectacle,  and  detained  them  for  wives,  750  b.c. 
The  Romans  and  the  Albans,  contesting  for  superiority,  agreed  to  choose  three 
champions  on  each  part  to  decide  it.  The  three  Horatiif  Roman  knights,  and  the 
three  Curiatii,  Albans,  having  been  elected  by  their  respective  countries,  engaged  in 
the  celebrated  combat,  which,  by  the  victory  of  the  Horatii,  united  Alba  to  Rome, 
667  B.C. — Livy, 


Numa  institutes  the  several  orders  of 
the  priesthood         .         .         .       B.C. 

The  city  of  Alba  destroyed 

Conquest  of  the  Etrurians  .        .    . 

The  first  census  takea.—Lenglet    . 

Rape  of  Lucretia  .        .         .    . 

The  family  of  Tarquin  banished 

The  capitol  finished  .         .         .    . 

C.  MarciuB  Coriolanus  banished 

He  besieges  Rome,  but  withdraws  at  the 
suit  of  his  wife  and  mother 

The  Fabii  slain.    See  Fabii   .  .    . 

The  Secular  Games  first  celebrated 

The  Decemviri  created  .        .    . 

Yirginius  kills  his  daughter,  Virginia, 
to  save  her  from  the  lust  of  Appius 
Claudius 

Military  tribunes  first  created  '  .    . 

Dreadful  famine  at  Rome 

Rome  burnt  by  the  (Jauls  .         .    . 

The  Yolsci  defeated  by  Camillus    . 

The  Romans  defeated  by  the  Yolsci 

The  Yestal  Minutia  buried  alive 

Also  Seztilia.    See  Buried  Alive        .    . 

Regulus  put  to  a  cruel  death 

Scipio  defeats  Hannibal  in  Africa       .    . 

First  library  erected  at  Rome 

Corinth  and  Carthage  destroyed         .    . 

The  Ambrones  defeated  by  Marius ; 
their  wives  being  refused  security 
from  violation,  murder  themselves  and 
their  children  .... 

The  Mithridatic  war  (which  see)         .    . 

Rome  besieged  by  four  armies  (viz.,  those 
of  Marius,  Cinna,  Carbo,  and  dertorius) 
and  taken      .  .... 

Sylla's  defeat  of  Marius  .         .    . 

The  Catiline  conspiracy 

War  between  Caesar  and  Pompey       .    . 

Battle  of  FharsaUa  (which  tee) 

Cesar  kiUed  in  the  Senate-house        .    . 

Cicero  killed,  proscribed  by  Antony 

Battle  of  Philippi  {which  see)  .    . 

Battle  of  Actium  (which  tee) 

[The  commencement  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire dates  from  this  year.] 

Octavius  takes  Alexandria 

He  assumes  the  title  of  Auguttut       .    . 

The  empire  now  at  peace  with  all  the 
world;  the  Temple  of  Janus  shut; 
Jksus  bom.    See  Jewt 

Ovid  banished  to  Toml  .  a.  d. 

Tiberius  retires  to  Caprea  .    . 


710 
665 
567 
566 
509 
509 
607 
491 

488 
477 
456 
451 


449 
444 
411 
387 
381 
379 
337 
274 
255 
202 

167 
146 


102 
88 


87 
82 
63 
50 
47 
44 
43 
41 
31 


30 
27 


5 

9 

26 


A  census  being  taken  by  Claudius,  the] 
emperor  and  censor,  the  inhabitants  of 
Rome  are  found  to  amount  to  6,900,000. 
•—Univ.  Hitt.    .  .         .         a.d.      48 

CMractaons  brought  in  chains  to  Rome  •  51 
St.  Paul  arrives  in  bonds  at  Rome  .     62 

Nero  bums  Rome  to  the  ground,  and 
charges  the  crime  upon  the  Christians. 
See  Pertecutiont  .        ,        .    .      64 

Seneca,  Lucan,  &:c.,  put  to  death  .      65 

Peter  and  Paul  put  to  death  .      .      67 

Jerusalem  taken,  and  levelled  to  the 

ground,  by  Titus  .         .  Sept  8,     70 

Revolt  of  the  Parthians        ...     77 
The  Dacian  war,  continues  15  years       .     88 
Cornelia,  a  vestal,  buried  alive      .        .     92 
Pliny  Junior,  pro-consul  in  Bithynia, 
sends  Trajan  his  celebrated  accoimt  of 
the  Christians    .  .         .         .    .    102 

Trajan's  expedition  into  the  East,  against 

the  Parthians,  &c.  .        .        .106 

Trajan's  Column  erected  at  Rome  .  .  114 
Adrian,  during  his  residence  in  Britain, 

erects  the  famous  wall        .        .        .121 
Heresies  among  the  Christians  .    .    141 

The  worship  of  Serapis  introduced  .  146 
The  Capitol  destroyed  by  lightning  .  .  188 
Byzantium  taken ;  its  walls  razed  .    196 

The  Goths  are  paid  tribute         .         .    .    222 
[The  Goths,  Yandals,  Alani,  Suevi,  and 
other  Northern  nations  attack  the  em- 
pire on  all  hands.] 
Pompey's  amphitheatre  burnt       .        .    248 
Pestilence  throughout  the  empire      .    .    252 
Great  victory  over  the  Goths  obtained 

by  Claudius ;  300,000  slain  .         .    269 

Longinus  put  to  death  .        .    .    273 

The  Barbarians  obtain  Dacia  .  .  274 
The  era  of  Martyrs  .        .        .    .    284 

The  Franks  settle  in  Gaul.^Fr^ret  .  287 
Constantius  dies  at  York  .        .    .    306 

Four  emperors  reign  at  one  time  .    308 

Constantino  the  Great,  in  consequence 
of  a  vision,  places  the  cross  on  his  ban- 
ners, and  arrives  at  Rome       .        .    .    312 
He  begins  to  favour  the  Christians         .    319 
He  tolerates  the  Christian  faith         .    .    323 
Constantine  convokes  the  first  general 

council  of  Christians,  at  Nice  .   325 

The  seat  of  empire  removed  from  Rome 

to  Byzantium    .  .         .         .    .    328 

Constimtine  orders  the  heathen  temples 
to  be  destroyed  .        .         .        .    330 


ROM 


C448] 


ROM 


ROME,  continued. 

Revolt  of  »ai,tNiO  Suiiiatian  BUTMfitnn 
Cheir  nutttera  .    .   A.i>. 

Death  of  Constantiiie :  he  is  mooeeded 
by  hl«  three  sons.  Constant  Constan- 
tins  II » and  Coostantine  IL 

The  army  under  Julian,  aamamed  the 
Apnistate,  proclaims  him  emperor 

Julian,  who  had  been  educated  for  the 
priesthood,  and  had  frequently  offi- 
ciated, abjures  Christianity,  and  re- 
opens the  heathen  temples,  becoming 
the  pa^an  pontiff  .  .    . 

Julian  killed  in  battle  .         .    . 

Christianity  restored  by  Jorian 

Juvian  found  dead  in  his  bed,  supposed 
to  have  been  poisoned  .    . 

The  empire  divided  into  Eastern  and 
Wertom  by  Talentinian  and  Talens, 
brothers :  the  former  has  the  Western 
portion,  or  Rome 

The  Goths  allowed  by  Yalens  to  settle 
In  Thrace  

They  enter  the  Imperial  territories 

Valentinian  deposed  hy  Maximus,  who 
restores  paganism 

Arcndius  and  Ilonorius  reign 

The  defeat  of  2<NMMN)  Goths        .         .    . 

The  Vandals,  Alains,  and  Buevl  settle 
in  Franco  and  Spain,  by  a  concession 
of  Honorius  .... 

Rome  taken,  pillaged,  and  burned  to  the 
ground  by  tbo  Vhtigoths,  under  Alarlo, 
who  soon  dies 

The  Visigoths  begin  tbo  kingdom  of 
Toulouse 

The  Vandals  begin  their  kingdom  in  Spain 

rharamond  begins  the  kingdom  of  the 
Franks  

The  Vandals  pass  into  Africa  .    . 

Genserlc  takes  Carthage 

Attila,  chief  of  the  Huns,  ravages  all 
Europe,  and  obtains  the  surname  of 
the  "Scourge  of  God"  .        .    . 


33* 


337 


360 


361 
363 
363 

364 


364 

376 
382 

387 
399 

405 


406 


410 

411 
412 

420 
427 
439 


447 


EMPERORS 

B.C.  4ft.  Julius  Cssar  ;  assassinated. 

31.  Augustus. Cssar. 
A.D.  14.  Tiberius ;  poisoned. 

37.  Caligula;  assassinated. 

54.  Nero;  killed  himself. 

68.  Galba ;  murdered. 

69.  Otho;  murdered. 

70.  Vitellius ;  murdered. 

71.  Vespasian. 
79.  Titus. 

81.  Domitian,  killed. 

96.  Nerva. 

98-  Trajan. 
117>  Adrian. 
138.  Antoninus  Pius. 
161.  Mal-cuB  Aurelius,  and  Lucius  Verus. 
169.  Aurelius,  alone. 

180.  Commodus;  poisoned  by  his  favourite, 
Martia. 

192.  Pertinax ;  put  to  death. 

193.  Didius  Julianus;  killed. 
193.  Severus. 

211.  Garacalla  and  Geta :   Geta  murdered 
by  Caracalla. 


The  Vandals  ravage  Sicfly  .    a  n.    4>4 

Talentinian  distBononra  the  wife  of 
AlaximuB  .  .         .  .  .    .    4M 

He  is  killed  by  two  guards,  influenced 
by  Haximus  who  marries  Eudoxia, 
Valentinian's  widow  .  .    4Jw 

Eudoxia,  to  avenge  the  murder  of  her 
first  husband,  and  punish  tiie  guilt  of 
her  second,  invites  Genseric,  chief  of 
the  Vandals,  Into  Italy  .  .    455 

Rome  taken  and  pillaged  on  the  12th  of 
July ;  Maximus  stoned  to  death,  nix- 
mat>us  buildings  demolished,  and  Eu- 
doxia, with  her  daughter  Placidia,  and 
many  thousands  of  perscms,  sent  cap- 
tives to  Africa  .         .  .         .455 

Majorianus,  emperor,  takes  up  his  resi- 
dence at  Ravenna  .         .  .    .  *** 

The  Vandals  driven  out  of  Sicily         .     .    464 

The  Goths  defeated  In  Gaul  .  .    i0i 

Great  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  by  which 
Campania  is  burned  np  .  .     .    47i 

Odoacre,  chief  of  the  HeruU,  enters  Italy, 
takes  Rome,  and  assumes  the  title  of 
king  of  Italy,  which  ends  the  Western 
empire  ...  .         .    47€ 

Rome  is  recovered  for  Justinian,  by 
Belisarius  .        .         .  •    .     537 

Retaken  by  the  Goths  .         .  .547 

Narses,  Justinian's  general,  again  re- 
conquers Rome  .         .  .    .     553 

Papal  power  established        .         .         .606 

Rome  revolts  from  the  Greek  emi»erors, 
and  becomes  free  .         .  .    .    726 

Pope  Stephen  II.  invested  with  the  tem- 
poral dominion  of  Rome    .         .         .756 

Charlemagne  acknowledged  as  emperor 
of  the  West       ...         .         .    9») 


The  popes  continued  in  possession  of  the 
city  and  territories.  See  article  Popes, 
and  Italy i 

OF  ROME. 

212.  Caracalla  alone ;  murdered. 

217.  Macrinus ;  put  to  death. 

218.  Heliogabalus ;  murdered. 
222.  Alexander  Severus. 

235.  Maximums;  murdered. 

236.  Gordian;  strangles  himself. 

237.  Pupienus  and  Balbinus;  both  put  to 

death. 

238.  Gordian,  grandson^of  the  first  Gordiaa  ; 

assassinated. 
244.  Philip;  assassinated. 
249.  Decius  ;  killed. 
251.  GallusHostilius;  murdered." 

253.  iBmilianus;  killed. 

254.  Valerianus  and  Gallienus;  the  first  ia 

flayed  alive  by  Sapor,  king  of  Persia. 
260.  Gallienus  alone ;  murdered. 
268.  Claudius  II. 
270.  QuintiUus;  kills  himself. 
270.  A  urelian ;  assassinated. 

275.  Tacitus. 

276.  Florianus :  succession  disputed. 

276.  M.  Aurelius  Probns ;  assassinated  by  his 
troops. 


ROM 


[449] 


ROS 


ROME,  continued. 

A.D.  282.  M.  Aurelius  Carus  ;  killed  by  lightning. 

283.  Carinus  and  Numerianus :  both  are  as- 

sassinated. 

284.  Diocletian. 

286.  Diocletian  unites  with  himself  Maxi- 
mianus  Hercules. 

304.  Constantius  Ghloras  andGalerius;  Con- 
stantius  dies  at  York ;  Galerlus  dies 
in  311. 

306.  Constantino,  son  of  Constantius. 

337*  Constantino  IE.,  Constans,  and  Constan- 
tius n.,  sons  of  Constantino ;  the  first 
is  slain  by  Constans,  who  is  himself 
killed  in  Spain. 

361.  Julian, the  Apostate ;   killed. 

363.  Jorian ;  found  dead  in  bed. 


364.  Yalentinian ;  burst  an  artery. 

375.  Oratian  and  Yalentinian  II. ;  Oratian 

murdered,   the  latter  strangled  at 

Yienna. 
395.  HonoriuB. 
423.  Yalentinian  m.,  murdered. 

455.  P.  Mazimua 

456.  An  Interregnum. 

457.  Majorianiis. 
461.  SevemsII. 
467.  Anthemius. 

472.  Olybrius;  deposed. 

473.  Glycerins  ;  dethroned 

474.  Julius  Nepos ;  deposed. 
476.  Romulus  Augustulus. 

Bee  Popes. 


ROSA.MOND*S  BOWER.  Rosamond  was  daughter  of  lord  Cliflford,  and  mistress  of 
Henry  II.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  by  the  queen,  prince  Henryi  and  his  other 
sons  against  the  king,  on  account  of  his  attachment  to  her.  **  The  beauty  of  Fair 
Rosamond  was  so  exquisite/'  say  the  writers  of  those  days,  **  that  no  other  than  a 
jealous  and  exasperated  woman  could  have  harmed  her.  Her  eyes  were  full  of 
sweetness,  and  the  benignest  in  the  world  ;  and  her  features  of  such  surpassing 
tendernessi  that  the  most  fierce  barbarian  would  have  shrunk  from  the  thought  of 
violence.'*  Henry  kepther  in  a  labyrinth  at  Woodstock,  where  his  queen,  Eleanor, 
it  is  said,  discovered  her  apartments  by  the  clue  of  a  silk  thread,  and  poisoned  her. 
She  was  buried  at  Godstow  church,  from  whence  Hugh,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  had  her 
ashes  removed,  with  every  species  of  indignity,  in  1191. 

ROSARY.  *•  We  owe  to  Dominic  de  Guzman,  a  canon  of  the  order  of  St.  Augustin, 
two  most  important  blessings,"  says  a  Spanish  writer,  **  the  Rosary  and  the  Holy 
Office,''  A.D.  1202.     Other  authors  mention  the  Rosary  as  being  said  in  1093. 

ROSBACH,  Battles  of.  In  the  battle  fought  at  Rosbach,  40,000  rebel  Flemings 
fell,  November  17,  1382.  Battle  between  the  Prussians,  commanded  by  their  king, 
and  the  combined  army  of  French  and  Austrians,  in  which  the  latter  sustained  a 
severe  loss  and  complete  defeat,  November  5,  1757. 

ROSE,  T^E  Flowbb.  The  Romans  were  fond  of  roses.  Cleopatra  received  Antony, 
at  one  of  her  banquets,  in  an  apartment  covered  with  rose-leaves  to  a  considerable 
depth ;  and  Antony  himself,  when  dying,  begged  to  have  roses  scattered  on  his 
tomb.  The  Roman  generals  who  had  achieved  any  remarkable  victory  were  per- 
mitted to  have  roses  sculptured  on  their  shields.  Rose-water  was  the  favourite 
perfume  of  the  Roman  ladies,  and  the  most  luxurious  even  used  it  in  their  baths. 
In  the  East  the  rose  has  always  been  a  favourite  with  the  poets.  The  Turks  believe 
that  roses  sprang  from  the  perspiration  of  Mahomet :  for  which  reason  they  never 
,  tread  upon  a  rose-leaf,  or  suffer  one  to  lie  on  the  ground ;  they  also  sculpture  a  rose 
on  the  tombstones  of  females  who  die  unmarried. — Arboretum  Britannicum. 

ROSES,  IN  England.  Roses  were  first  planted  in  England,  a.d.  1522. — Silmon. 
The  Damask  Rose,  or  Rosa  Damascena,  was  brought  from  the  south  of  France 
before  1573.  The  Provence  Rose,  Rosa  Provincialise  brought  from  Italy  before 
1596.  The  Moss  Rose,  Rosa  Mitscova,  before  1 724.  The  Rose  without  Thorns, 
Rosa  Pendulinttj  brought  from  North  America  before  1726.  The  China  Rose,  Rosa 
Indica^  brought  from  China  about  1789.  The  sweet-scented  Gaelder  Rose,  Vibur- 
num Odoratissimumf  brought  from  China,  1821. 

ROSES,  The  White  and  Red.  The  intestine  wars  which  so  long  devastated  Eng- 
land, were  carried  on  under  the  symbols  of  the  White  and  the  Red  Rose^  and  were 
called  the  wars  of  the  Roses.  The  partisans  of  the  house  of  Lancaster  chose  the  red 
roses  as  their  mark  of  distinction,  and  those  of  York  were  denominated  from  the 
white.  These  wars  originated  with  the  descendants  of  Edward  III.  That  monarch 
was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Richard  II.,  who,  being  deposed,  the  duke  of  Lan- 
caster was  proclaimed  king,  by  the  title  of  Henry  IV.  in  prejudice  to  the  duke  of 
York,  the  right  heir  to  the  crown  ;  he  being  descended  from  Lionel,  the  second  son 
of  Edward  III.,  whereas  the  duke  of  Lancaster  was  the  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  the 

GO  # 


R06  [^  450  2  ROT 

third  ion  of  king  Edward.  The  aooession  of  Henry  ooctsioned  sereral  conspiradei 
daring  hit  reign ;  and  the  animosities  whieh  subsisted  between  his  descendants  and 
those  of  the  dnke  of  York  afterwards  filled  the  kingdom  with  ci^Q  commotions^  and 
deloged  its  plains  with  blood,  particularly  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VI.  and  Edward  lY. 

ROSE,  Undbr  thb.  The  rose,  a  symbol  of  silence ;  gave  rise  to  the  phrase  **  under 
the  rose,*'  from  the  drcnmstance  of  the  pope's  presenting  consecrated  roses,  which 
were  placed  over  confessionals,  to  denote  secrecy,  a.d.  1526. 

ROSEMARY.    BotmannuM  offieinaiu,  brought  from  the  south  of  Europe  before  1548. 

ROSETTA.  Taken  by  the  French  in  1798,  and  by  the  British  and  Turks,  April  19, 
1801,  when  the  castle  surrendered.  The  Turks  repulsed  the  British  here  in  1807. 
Near  Rosetta,  at  the  mouth  of  the  rirer  Nile,  was  fought  the  memorable  battle  of 
August  1, 1798,  between  the  fleets  of  France  and  England,  the  latter  commanded  by 
lord  Nelson.     See  Nile, 

ROSICRUSIANS.  A  sect  of  hermetical  philosophers,  first  appeared  in  Germany  in 
1302,  and  again  early  in  the  17th  century.  They  swore  fidelity,  promised  secrecy, 
and  wrote  ^eroglyphically  ;  and  affirmed  that  the  ancient  philosophers  of  Egypt, 
the  Chaldeans,  Magi  of  Persia,  and  Gymnosophists  of  the  Indies,  taught  the  same 
doctrine  with  themselTCS. 

ROSS,  Battlb  op,  in  Ireland.  Fought  between  the  royal  troops,  commanded  by 
general  Johnstont  and  the  insurgent  forces  commanded  by  general  Beauchamp  Bagen^ 
Harvey ;  when,  after  a  most  obstinate  contest,  the  latter  were  defeated,  losing  more 
than  2600  killed  on  the  field  of  battle,  June  4, 1798.— 5^tr  Rich,  Musgrave, 

ROSS,  Bishopric  op,  in  Ireland.  Founded,  it  is  supposed,  by  St.  Fachnan,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  sixth  century ;  but,  until  the  arrival  of  the  English,  nothing  certain 
of  this  see  is  known.  It  is  not  valued  in  the  king's  books ;  but  by  a  manuscript  in 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  it  is  taxed  at  19/.  in  31  Elizabeth  ;*  and  by  a  manuscript  in 
Marsh's  library,  at  10/.  in  33  Elizabeth,  1590.  It  was  united  to  Cork  in  1340 ; 
and  Cloyne  to  both,  by  provision  of  3  and  4  l^liam  IV.,  1833.     See  Bishops, 

ROTA  CLUB.  A  society  who  met  at  Miles'  Coffee-house  in  New  Palace-yard,  West- 
minster, during  the  administration  of  Oliver  Cromwell ;  their  plan  was  to  have  all 
the  great  officers  of  state  chosen  by  ballot ;  and  that  a  certain  number  of  members 
of  parliament  should  be  changed  annually  by  rotation,  from  whence  they  took  their 
title.     Sir  William  Petty  was  one  of  the  members  in  1659. — Biog,  BriU 

ROTHESAY  CASTLE  STEAM.PACKET.  This  vessel,  plying  between  Liverpool 
and  Beaumaris,  lost  at  night  with  nearly  200  passengers  and  crew  on  board,  not 
more  than  twenty  of  whom  were  saved.  This  shipwreck,  ascribed  to  the  indiscretion 
of  the  commander,  was  most  lamentable  to  numerous  families,  whose  relatives  (many 
of  them  beautiful  and  accomplished  females)  were  among  the  sufferers,  Aug.  17, 1831. 

ROUND-HEADS.  During  the  unhappy  war  which  brought  Charles  I.  of  England  to 
the  scaffold,  the  adherents  of  that  monarch  were  first  called  Cavaliers,  and  the 
friends  of  the  parliament  were  called  Round-heads.  This  latter  term  arose  from 
those  persons  who  thus  distinguished  themselves  putting  a  round  bowl  or  wooden 
dish  upon  their  heads,  and  cutting  their  hair  by  the  edges  or  brims  of  the  bowl. 
See  Cavaliers, 

ROYAL  ACADEMY.  Previously  to  the  accession  of  George  III.  the  fine  arts  in 
England  had  sustained  great  neglect ;  but  at  the  commencement  of  his  reign  atten- 
tion to  them  b^an  to  manifest  itself  among  the  professors,  as  well  as  among  the 
higher  ranks  of  society.  This  bias  in  favour  of  the  liberal  arts  was  not  unnoticed  by 
his  majesty ;  and  when  the  artists  formed  their  plan  of  uniting  to  perpetuate  their 
public  exhibitions,  and  assumed  a  permanent  character,  the  royal  assent  was  gra* 
ciously  conceded,  and  their  charter  granted  January  26,  1765.  From  this  "  Incor- 
porated Society  of  Artists  of  Great  Britain,''  arose  the  Royal  Academy,  in  consequence 
of  a  dispute  between  the  directors  and  the  fellows,  which  occasioned  a  separation  of 
interests.  On  the  10th  December,  1768,  the  institution  of  the  present  Royal 
Academy  was  completed,  under  the  immediate  patronage  of  his  majesty ;  and  sir 
Joshua  Reynolds,  who  received  the  honour  of  knighthood  on  the  occasion,  was 
appointed  its  first  president. — Leigh, 

ROYAL  ASSENT.  If  the  king  assent  to  a  public  bill,  the  clerk  of  the  parliament 
declares  in  Norman  French,  <*  Le  rcy  le  veui,^'  the  king  wills  it  so  to  be.    If  the 


BOY  [  451  ]  ROY 

king  refuse  his  assent,  it  is  in  the  gentle  language  of  **  Le  roy  s'aviseray**  the  king 
will  advise  upon  it.  By  the  statute  33  Henry  YIII.  1541,  the  king  may  gire  his 
assent  by  letters  patent. — Blackstone^a  Com. 

ROYAL  EXCHANGE,  London.  The  foundation  of  the  original  edifice  was  laid  by 
sir  Thomas  Gresham,  June  7, 1566,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Tun  prison.  Queen 
Elizabeth  visited  this  Exchange  in  January  1571,  and  by  the  sound  of  trumpets  her 
herald  named  it  the  Hopal  Exchange. — Hume.  This  grand  fabric  was  totally 
destroyed  by  the  great  fire  in  1666,  precisely  a  century  after  its  erection.  Charles 
IL  laid  the  foundation  of  the  next  edifice,  October  23,  1667,  which  was  completed 
by  Mr.  Hawkesmoor,  a  pupil  of  sir  Christopher  Wren's,  in  about  three  years ;  and 
it  was  repaired  and  beautified  in  1769.  This  latter  also  became  a  prey  to  a  destruc- 
tive fire,  January  10,  1838  ;  and  was  burnt  to  the  ground  with  a  number  of  public 
offices  and  adjoining  houses,  A  new  Royal  Exchange,  commenced  in  1840,  is  now 
in  progress  of  erection,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Tite. 

ROYAL  EXCHANGE,  Dublin.    Commenced  in  1769,  and  opened  ten  years  after a 

magnificent  building,  whose  expense  was  defrayed  by  lottery  schemes,  conducted  by 
the  merchants  with  an  int^rity  that  did  them  great  honour. — Hardie.  Owing  to 
the  pressure  of  a  crowd,  the  balustrade  feU,  and  nine  persons  were  kiUed, 
April  24, 1815. 

ROYAL  GEORGE.  First-rate  man-of-war  of  100  guns,  overset  off  Spithead,  while 
at  anchor,  by  the  guns  rolling  to  one  side,  and  suddenly  went  down.  By  this 
dreadful  catastrophe,  admiral  Kempenfelt,  and  a  crew  of  many  hundreds  of  seamen 
and  marines,  with  nearly  a  hundred  women,  and  two  hundred  Jews  and  others,  then 
on  board,  perished,  June  28,  1782. 

ROYAL  HUMANE  SOCIETY,  London.  This  institution,  for  the  recovery  of 
persons  apparently  drowned,  was  founded  in  1774,  by  Drs.  Goldsmith,  Heberden, 
Towers,  Lettsom,  Hawes,  and  Cogan,  but  principsdly  by  the  exertions  of  the  last 
three  gentlemen.  The  society  has  eighteen  receiving-houses  in  the  metropolis,  all  of 
which  are  supplied  with  perfect  and  excellent  apparatus,  and  designated  by  conspi- 
cuous boards,  announcing  their  object  The  principal  receiving-house,  however,  was 
erected  in  1794,  and  is  situated  on  a  spot  of  ground  given  by  his  majesty  George 
III.,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Serpentine  River,  in  Hyde-park.  Forty-tiiree  similar 
institutions  have  been  established  in  Great  Britain,  five  in  the  British  fordgn  settle- 
ments, and  ten  in  foreign  countries.  The  motto  of  the  society  is  appropriate — 
"  Lateat  sciniillula  forxan" — a  small  spark  may  lurk  unseen. 

ROYAL  INSTITUTION,  London.  This  institution  was  formed  in  1800,  under  the 
patronage  of  George  III.,  and  incorporated  by  royal  charter  as  **  The  Royal  Institu- 
tion of  Great  Britain,''  for  diffusing  the  knowledge,  and  facilitating  the  general 
introduction,  of  useful  mechanical  inventions  and  improvements,  and  for  teaching, 
by  courses  of  philosophical  lectures  and  experiments,  the  application  of  science  to 
the  common  purposes  of  life.  The  investigations  and  the  important  discoveries  of 
sir  H.  Davy,  who  lectured  on  chemistry  here,  conferred  no  small  degree  of  celebrity 
on  this  establishment.     A  new  professorship  was  created  in  1833. 

ROYAL  MARRIAGE  ACT.     See  article  Marriage  Act,  Royal. 

ROYAL  MILITARY  ASYLUM,  Chelsea.  The  first  stone  of  this  important  insti- 
tution  was  laid  by  the  late  duke  of  York,  June  19,  1801.  The  principal  front  has  a 
portico  of  four  noble  Doric  pillars,  supporting  a  pediment  with  the  imperial  arms ; 
and  on  the  frieze  is  this  inscription,  **  The  Royal  Military  Asylum  for  the  Children 
of  the  Soldiers  of  the  Regular  Army." 

ROYAL  NAVAL  ASYLUM,  Greenwich.  This  institution  was  commenced  at 
Paddington  in  1801 ;  but  it  was  transferred  to  its  present  situation,  near  the  entrance 
to  Greenwich-park,  in  1807.  The  interior  of  the  central  portion  of  the  building  is 
remarkable,  having  been  commenced  in  1613  by  Anne  of  Denmark,  and  completed 
in  1635  by  queen  Henrietta  Maria,  whose  arms  still  adorn  the  ceiling  of  the  room  in 
which  her  son  Charles  II.  was  bom,  in  1630.  This  house,  which  was  afterwards 
ti^ansformed  into  the  ranger's  lodge,  became  the  occasional  retirement  of  the  prime- 
minister  Pelham,  from  whom  it  derived  the  name  of  Pelham-house. 

RQYAL  SOCIETY.  The  origin  of  this  learned  body  is  ascribed  to  the  hon.  Robert 
Boyle  and  sir  Wm.  Petty,  who,  together  with  several  doctors  of  divinity  and  physic, 

.  G  o  2  • 


ROT 


[452] 


RUS 


Matthew  Wren  and  Mr.  Rook,  frequently  met  in  the  apartments  of  Dr.  Wilkins,  ia 
Wadham  College,  Oxford;  where  the  society  continned  till  1658.  The  members 
were  called  to  Tariooa  parts  of  the  kingdom,  on  account  of  their  respectiTe  fanctioos; 
and  the  majority  coming  to  London,  constantly  attended  the  lectures  at  Gresham 
College.  Tliere,  being  joined  by  scTeral  persons  of  great  learning  and  diatinctioD, 
they  continned  to  meet  once  or  twice  a  week,  till  the  death  of  Oliver  Cromwell, 
when  the  college  was  converted  into  a  barrack  for  the  reception  of  soldiers.  Charles 
II.,  April  22, 1663,  constituted  them  a  body  politic  and  corporate,  by  the  appelladoa 
of  the  "  President,  Council,  and  Fellows  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  for  improving 
Natural  Knowledge."  Wben  Somerset-house  was  converted  into  a  public  building, 
his  m^esty  George  III.  was  pleased  to  assign  to  them  the  spacious  apartments  which 
they  now  occupy. 

ROYAL  STYLE  and  TITLES.    See  article  Titles,  Royal;  Majesty,  &c. 

RULING-MACHINES.  They  were  invented  by  an  iDgenious  Dutchman  resident  in 
London,  in  1782,  and  were  subsequently  greatly  improved  by  Woodmason,  Payne, 
Browne,  and  others.    They  were  improved  in  Scotland  in  1803. 

RUMP  PARLIAMENT.  The  parliament  so  designated  at  the  period  of  the  civil  war 
in  England.  Colonel  Pride  at  the  head  of  two  regiments  blockaded  the  house  of 
commons,  and  seized  in  the  passage  41  members  of  the  Presbyterian  party,  whom 
he  confined ;  above  160  more  were  exclnded ;  and  none  but  the  most  determined  of 
the  Independents,  about  60,  were  permitted  to  enter  the  house.  This  invasion  of 
parliamentary  rights  was  called  Pride's  Purge,  and  the  admitted  members  were  called 
the  Rump,  l%i9.— Goldsmith. 

RUSSIA.  Anciently  Sarmatia.  It  is  conjectured  that  the  aborigines  of  this  vast  tract 
of  country  were  the  immediate  progeny  of  Magog,  second  son  of  Japhet ;-  and  that 
they  settled  here  very  shortly  after  the  dispersion  from  Babel,  where  they  were 
gradually  divided  into  tribes,  each  distinguished  by  a  particular  name,  but  still 
retaining  their  ancient  general  appellation,  until  it  was  changed  by  the  Romans  into 
that  of  Scythians.  Rurick  was  grand-duke  of  Novogorod,  a.d.  882,  which  is  the 
earliest  authentic  account  of  this  country.  In  981,  Woladimer  was  the  first  Christian 
king.  Audrey  I.  began  his  reign  in  1156,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  Moscow. 
About  1200,  the  Mongol  Tartars  conquered  Russia,  and  held  it  in  subjection  till 
1540,  when  John  Basilowitz  restored  it  to  independence.  In  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century  the  Russians  discovered  and  conquered  Siberia. 


The  foundation  of  the  present  monarchy 
laid  .        .         ■  A  o. 

Basil  IV.  carries  his  victorious  arms  into 
the  East.  1509  to         .        .         .         . 

Ivan  Basilowitz  takes  the  title  of  czar, 
signifying  great  king,  and  drives  the 
Tartars  clear  out  of  his  dominions, 
lfi34to  

The  navigation  from  Eogland  first  dia- 
oovered  by  Robert  Chancellor         .    . 

The  Tartars  surprise  Moscow,  and  slay 
30,000  of  the  people 

The  Xovogorodians  having  Intrigued 
with  the  Poles,  Iran  orders  the  chief 
inhabitants  to  be  hewn  into  small 
pieces  before  his  eyes 

The  imposition  practised  by  Demetrius. 
See  Impostori  .        .        .        . 

The  Poles  place  Ladislans,  son  of  their 
own  king,  Sigismund  IL,  upon  the 
throne  of  Russia        .        .        .         . 

Michael  Fedorowitz,  of  the  house  of 
Romanzov,  ascends  the  throne       .    . 

Finland  ceded  to  Sweden 

Reign  of  Peter  I.,  or  the  Great  .    . 

He  visited  England,  and  worked  in  the 
dock-yard,  at  Deptford 


1474 
1534 


1550 


1554 


1571 


1581 


1606 


1610 

1613 

1617 
1682 

1697 


Orders  of  St  Andrew,  and  of  St  Alex- 
ander Nevskoi,  instituted  about      a.d. 

The  Russians  begin  their  new  year  from 
January  1  ..... 

Peter  builds  St.  Petersburg        .         .    . 

Peter  n.  deposed,  and  the  crown  given 
to  Anne  of  Ck)urland 

Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  I.  leigna^  in 
prejudice  of  Ivan  VL,  an  infant,  who 
is  imprisoned  for  life  .         .    . 

Peter  III.  dethroned  and  murdered ;  suc- 
ceeded by  Catherine  his  wife 

The  young  prince,  the  rightful  heir,  till 
now  immured,  put  to  death  .    . 

The  dismemberment  of  Poland  oom- 
menced  by  Catherine  (see  Poland) 

This  perfidious  robbery  completed 

Murder  of  the  emperor  Paul,  who  is 
found  dead  in  his  chamber,    March  23, 

Great  defeat  of  Alexander,  at  Austerlitz, 
by  Napoleon  .        Dec  S, 

Alexander  visits  England         .    June  6,  1814 

The  grand-duke  Constantine  renounces 
the  right  of  succession       .       Jan.  26,  l^S 

The  emperor  Nicholas  is  crowned  at 
Moscow*  .  .    Sept.  3,  ia36 

Russian  war  against  Persia        Sept  28,  1826 


1698 

1700 
1703 

1730 


1741 


176? 

1763 

1772 
1795 


18UI 


1805 


*  The*' magnanimous "^  Alexander,  was,  as  Napoleon  said,  *'a  Greek  of  the  Lower  Empiio  in 
dapUoity  and  disstmulation.'*    He  seemed  to  consider  falaehood  and  villany  as  the  safest  and  surast 


RUS 


[453] 


SAB 


RUSSIA,  continued, 

Nicholas  invested  with  the  order  of  the 

Garter  .  July  9,  1837 

Peace  concluded  between  Russia  and 

the  Persians    .  .         .    Feb.  22,  1828 

War  between  Russia  and  the  Ottoman 

Porte  declared         .         .       April  26,  1828 
[For    the   disastrous   consequences   to 

Turkey  of  this   war,    see    Turkey, 

and  Battles.^ 
The  war  for  the  independence  of  Poland, 

against  Russia  .    Xov.  29,  1830 

This   war  closed  with  the  capture  of 


Warsaw,  and  the  total  overthrow  of 
the  Poles.    See  Wanaw    .       Sept  8,  1831 

[For  the  events  of  this  last  war,  see  ar- 
ticle. Poland.'l 

Cracow,  which  had  been  erected  into  a 
republic,  and  its  independence  guaran- 
teed by  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  in 
1815,  is  occupied  by  a  Russian  and 
Austrian  army  Feb.  13,  1836 

Failure  of  the  Russian  expedition  against 
Khiva  .         Jan.  3,  1840 

Treaty  of  London  (see /Syria)     .  July  1ft,  1840 


THE  CZARS, 

OR  BMPBRORS  OF  RUSSIA. 

A.D.  1461.  John  nL 

« 

1682.  Peter  L,  the  Great 

1604.  Demetrius ;  murdered. 

1725.  Catherine  L 

1504.  Basil  V. 

1727.  Peter  U. 

1534.  John  IV. 

1730.  Anne,  a  nun. 

1584.  Theodore  L 

1740.  John  V. ;  murdered,  July  17,  1762. 

1598.  Bovise  Oodounove. 

1741.  Elizabeth. 

1605.  Theodore  n. 

1762.  Peter  in. ;  deposed,  and  died  soon  after 

1605.  Demetrius  n. ;  assassinated. 

wards. 

1606.  Chousky. 

1762.  Catherine  IL 

1613.  Michael  Fedorowits. 

1796.  Paul  I. ;  miurdered,  February  25,  1801. 

1645.  Alexis. 

1801.  Alexander. 

1676.  Theodore  IIL 

1825.  Nicholas,  December  1. 

RYE- HOUSE  PLOT.  The  real,  or  more  probably  pretended,  conspiracy  to  assassi- 
nate Charles  II.  and  his  brother  the  duke  of  York  (afterwards  James  II.)  at  a  place 
called  Rye-hoaBe>  on  the  way  to  London  from  Newmarket.  This  design  was  said  to 
have  been  frustrated  by  the  king's  house  at  Newmarket  accidentally  taking  fire, 
which  hastened  the  royal  party  away  eight  days  before  the  plot  was  to  take  place, 
March  22,  1683.  The  plot. was  discovered  June  12,  following.  The  patriot, 
Algernon  Sidney,  suffered  death  on  a  false  charge  of  being  concerned  in  this  con- 
spiracy, Dec.  7, 1683. 

RYSWICK,  Peace  of,  concluded  between  England,  France,  Spain,  and  Holland, 
signed  Sept.  20,  and  by  the  emperor  of  Germany,  Oct.  30,  1697. 


S. 

SABBATH,  The.  Ordained  by  the  Almighty.  The  Jews  observed  the  seventh  day  in 
commemoration  of  the  creation  and  their  redemption  from  the  bondage  of  the  Egyp- 
tians ;  the  Christians  observe  the  first  day  of  the  week  in  commemoration  of  the 
resurrection  of  Christ  from  the  dead,  and  the  universal  redemption  of  mankind.  The 
Sabbath-day,  or  Sunday,  ordained  to  be  kept  holy  in  England,  from  Saturday  at 
three  in  the  afternoon  to  Monday  at  break>of-day,  4  Canon,  Edgar,  a.d.  960.  Act 
of  parliament,  levying  one  shilling  on  every  person  absent  from  church  on  Sundays, 
3  James  I.  1606.  Act  restraining  amusements,  I  Charles  I.  1625.  Act  restraining 
the  performance  of  servile  works,  and  the  sale  of  goods,  except  milk  at  certain  hours, 
meat  in  public-houses,  and  works  of  necessity  and  charity,  on  forfeiture  of  five 
shillmgs,  29  Charles  II.  1677. 

SABBATIANS.  Christians,  who,  professing  to  follow  the  example  and  precepts  of 
Christ,  keep  the  ancient  divine  Sabbath  of  Saturday,  instead  of  the  modem  Romish 
festival  of  Sunday,  for  which  this  sect  allege  there  is  not  a  tittle  of  scriptural  autho- 
rity. They  maintain  that  the  Jewish  Sabbath  was  never  abrogated,  nor  any  other 
appointed  or  instituted,  and  consequently  that  it  ought  to  be  as  religiously  observed 
by  the  Christians  as  by  the  Jews,  1549. 

SABBATICAL  YEAR.     A  Jewish  institution,  1444  b.c.    Every  seventh  year,  during 

auxiliary  of  ambition.  His  infamous  conduct  is  only  to  be  surpassed  in  iniquity  by  the  perjury  and 
perfidy  of  Nicholas.  Prussia  Is  withdrawing  from  her  natural  allies,  and  administering  to  the  ag- 
grandisement of  a  power  which  is  her  most  dangerous  neighbour,  and  will  be  her  most  formidable 
eaany.— Edinburgh  Review, 


SAB  [  454  ]  SAI 

wbich  time  the  very  ground  had  rest,  and  was  not  tilled,  and  every  forty-ninth  year 
all  debts  were  forgiven,  slaves  set  at  liberty,  and  estates,  &c.,  that  were  before  sold 
or  mortgaged,  retained  to  their  original  families,  &c — Josephus. 

SABINES.  Hie  people  from  whom  the  Romans,  under  Romolos,  took  away  their 
daughters  by  force  for  wives,  having  made,  and  invited  them  to  some  public  sports 
or  shows  on  purpose ;  when  the  Sabines  were  determined  to  revenge  this  affront,  the 
women  became  mediators  to  their  fathers  in  behalf  of  their  husbands  the  Romans, 
and  settled  a  regular  and  lasting  peace  between  them,  750  B.C. 

SACRAMENTAL  WINE.  It  war  used  early  in  the  primitive  church.  The  wine  was 
laid  aside,  and  communion  by  the  laity  under  one  form  alone,  that  of  bread,  took  its 
rise  in  the  West,  nnder  pope  Urban  II.  1096. — M.  de  Marca,  Henry  YIII.  of 
Germany  was  poisoned  by  a  priest  in  the  consecrated  wafer,  1314.  The  sacramental 
wine  was  poisoned  by  the  grave-digger  of  the  church  at  Zurich,  by  which  sacrileg:iou8 
deed  a  number  of  persons  lost  their  lives,  Sept.  4, 1776. — Phillips, 

SACRED,  litis  term  was  first  added  to  the  title  of  Majesty,  in  the  style'  of  the  kings 
of  England,  at  the  time  of  the  accession  of  James  I.  1603.    See  Titles, 

SACRED  WAR.  Hie  first,  concerning  the  temple  at  Delphi,  took  place  448  b.c.  The 
second  Sacred  War  occurred  on  Delphi  being  attacked  by  the  Phoceans,  356  b.c 
This  latter  war  was  terminated  by  Philip  of  Macedon  taking  all  the  cities  of  the 
Phoceans,  348  b.c — Plutarch. 

SACRIFICE.  The  first  religious  sacrifice  was  offered  to  God  by  Abel;  it  consisted  of 
milk  and  the  firstlings  of  Ms  flock,  3875  b.c — Josephus  ;  Usher.  Sacrifices  to  ^e 
gods  were  first  introduced  into  Greece  by  Phoroneus,  king  of  Argos,  1773  b.c.  The 
offering  of  hnman  sacrifices  seems  to  have  originated  with  the  Chaldeans,  from  whom 
the  custom  passed  into  Greece,  Persia,  and  other  Eastern  nations.  All  sacrifices  to 
the  true  God  ceased  with  the  sacrifice  of  the  Redeemer,  a.d.  33. 

SADDLES.  In  the  earlier  ages  the  Romans  used  neither  saddles  nor  stirrups,  which 
led  to  several  maladies  of  the  hips  and  legs.  Saddles  were  in  use  in  the  third  cen- 
tury, and  are  mentioned  as  made  of  leather  in  a.d.  304.  They  were  known  in 
England  about  the  year  600.  Side-saddles  for  ladies  were  in  use  in  1388.  Anne, 
the  queen  of  Richard  II.,  introduced  them  to  the  English  ladies. — Stowe. 

SADLER'S  WELLS.  So  called  after  Mr.  Sadler,  who  built  an  orchestra  to  entertain 
the  invalids  who  used  the  waters  medicinally,  1683.  Many  superstitious  notions 
were  attached  to  the  waters  before  the  Reformation.  Eighteen  persons  trampled  to 
death  at  Sadler's  Wells  theatre,  on  a  fiedse  alarm  of  fire,  Oct.  15,  1807. 

SAFETY-LAMP.  That  of  the  illustrious  sir  Humphrey  Davy,  to  prevent  accidents 
which  happen  in  coal  and  other  mines,  introduced  in  1815  ;  and  improved  in  1817. 
The  safety-lamp  is  founded  on  the  principle  that  flame,  in  passing  through  iron-wire 
meshes,  loses  so  much  of  its  heat  as  not  to  be  capable  of  igniting  Inflammable  sub- 
stances around,  while  flame  alone  ignites  gas. 

SAFFRON.  Of  strong  aromatic  odour,  formerly  used  against  infection,  still  used  as  a 
medicine,  and  much  esteemed  in  cookery.  It  was  first  brought  to  England  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.  by  a  pilgrim,  about  1339,  probably  firom  Arabia,  as  the  word  is 
firom  the  Arabic  saphar. — Miller.  It  was  cultivated  in  England  in  1582  ;  and  the 
best  grows  in  Essex,  between  Cambridge  and  Saffron- Walden. 

SAGE.  A  species  of  this  garden  plant  grew  early  in  England,  and  some  varieties  were 
imported.  The  Mexican  sage.  Salvia  Meaioanat  was  brought  from  Mexico,  A.n. 
1 724.  The  blue  African  sage,  Salvia  Africana^  and  the  golden  African  sage,  Salvia 
Aureat  were  brought  to  England  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1731. 

SAGUNTUM,  Siege  of.  The  famous  and  dreadful  siege  of  Saguntum  (now  Mor- 
viedro  in  Valencia)  was  sustained,  219  b.c  The  heroic  citizens,  after  exerting 
incredible  acts  of  valour  for  eight  months,  chose  to  be  buried  in  the  ruins  of  their 
city  rather  than  surrender  to  Hannibal.  They  burnt  themselves,  with  their  houses 
and  all  their  effects,  and  the  conqueror  became  master  of  a  pile  of  ashes  and  of  dead. 

SAILING.  See  Navigation.  To  prevent  confusion  in  sailing,  vessels  to  starboard 
keep  their  course ;  and  those  to  larboard  are  bound  to  tack.  The  first  sail-elotk 
made  in  England,  33  Eliz.  1590.  The  manufacture  was  improved,  and  largely 
encouraged  by  bounties,  11  Anne,  1713. 


8AI  []  455  2  8AI 

ST.  ANDREWS,  Bishopric  of.    Originated  with  the  establishment  of  Chriitianity 

'  in  Scotland.    The  legendary  tale  of  transporting  some  of  the  relics  of  the  Apostle 

'  St  Andrew  from  the  city  of  Patrse  in  Achaia,  is  thus  recorded  by  all  the  ancient 

Scots  historians  : — "  Regains,  a  Greek  monk,  Uving  at  Patrse,  a  city  of  Achaia,  (by 

t  whom  the  relics  of  St.  Andrew  the  apostle  were  preserred),  about  a.d.  370  was 

;  L      warned  in  a  vision  by  night  (three  nights  before  the  emperor  Constantios  came  to 

t  the  city  on  purpose  to  translate  these  relics  to  Constantinople,)  to  visit  the  shrine 

where  the  relics  were  kept,  and  take  out  thereof  the  arm-bone,  three  fingers  of  the 

right  hand,  a  tooth,  and  one  of  the  lids  of  the  Apostle's  knees,  which  he  should 

carefully  preserve,  and  carry  with  him  to  a  region  towards  the  west,  situate  in  the 

utmost  parts  of  the  world.    Regulus  was  at  first  troubled  with  the  strangeness  of 

the  vision,  but  resolved  to  obey ;  and,  putting  the  relics  in  a  little  box,  he  went  to 

sea,  taking  copartners  with  him  Damianus,  a  presbyter,  Gelasius  and  Cubaculus, 

two  deacons,  eight  hermits,  and  three  devout  virgins.    After  long  storms,  the  vessel 

'  was  driven  into  the  bay  near  the  place  where  St.  Andrews  now  stands,  and  totally 

wrecked  upon  a  rock ;  but  Regulus  and  his  companions  were  all  brought  safe  ashore, 

•i      having  nothing  left  them  but  fiie  relics  saved.     Hergustus,  king  of  the  Picts,  came 

to  visit  them  in  the  place  where  they  had  settled,  now  St.  Andrews,  then  a  forest 

for  wild  boars.    The  king  gave  Regidus  all  the  land  of  the  forest,  and  erected  the 

I  first  church.''     Sir  R.  Sibbald's  list  of  the  bishops  of  St.  Andrews  commences  with 

;  Killach,  A.D.  872.    The  see  became  archiepiscopal  in  1470,  and  it  altogether  ceased 

soon  after  the  Revolution,  1689. 

I  ST.  ASAPH,  Bishopric  of.     Of  great  antiquity,  founded  about  a.d.  560,  by  Kenti- 

i  gem,  bishop  of  Glasgow.    Kentigem  returning  into  Scotland,  left  a  holy  man,  St. 

Asaph,  his  successor,  from  whom  the  prelacy  takes  its  name.  It  is  valued  in  the 
I  king's  books  at  187/.  lis,  6d,    By  an  order  in  council,  October  1836*  the  sees  of 

(  St.  Asaph  and  Bangor  are  to  be  united  on  ^the  next  vacancy  in  either ;  and  the 

bishopric  of  Manchester  shall  be  then  created.    See  Manchester. 

I  ST.  CHR1ST0PHER*S,  discovered  a.d.  1493.     Columbus,  pleased  with  the  appear- 

ance  of  this  island,  called  it  after  himself.  Settled  by  the  English  and  French,  1626. 
Entirely  ceded  to  England  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  1713.  Taken  by  the  French  in 
1782,  but  restored  the  next  year.  This  island  suffered  greatly  from  a  storm,  and  the 
town  of  Basseterre  from  a  fire,  September  3,  1776. 

ST.  CROIX,  Island  of.  Lieut.  Burke,  with  a  small  force,  took  eleven  armed  vessels 
and  store-ships  here,  besides  burning  twenty  more,  which  he  could  not  bring  off,  in 
Bourgneuf-bay  in  1800.     St  Croix  surrendered  to  the  British,  March  31,  1801. 

ST.  DAVIDS,  Bishopric  of.  Once  the  metropolitan  see  of  Wales,  and  archi- 
episcopal. When  Christianity  was  planted  in  Britain,  there  were  three  archbishops' 
seats  appointed,  viz.,  London,  York,  and  Caerleon  upon  Usk,  in  Monmouthshire. 
That  at  Caerleon  being  too  near  the  dominions  of  the  Saxons,  was  removed  to 
Menew,  and  called  St.  Davids,  in  honour  of  the  archbishop  who  removed  it.  St. 
Sampson  was  the  last  archbishop  of  the  Welsh ;  for  he,  withdrawing  himself  on 
account  of  a  pestilence,  to  D6le,  in  Brittany,  carried  the  pall  with  him ;  but  his 
successors  preserved  the  archiepiscopal  power,  although  they  lost  the  name.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  I.  these  prelates  were  forced  to  submit  to  the  see  of  Canterbury.  St. 
David  was  the  first  archbishop  of  St.  Davids,  a.d.  519. — Beataon. 

ST.  DIZIER,  Battle  of,  between  the  allied  armies  and  the  French,  the  latter  com- 
manded by  Napoleon,  January  27,  1814.  In  this  engagement  the  French  sustained 
a  severe  defeat,  and  considerable  loss  in  killed  and  wounded. 

ST.  EUSTACE,  Battle  of,  in  Lower  Canada.  The  Canadians  came  to  an  engage- 
ment with  the  royal  troops,  and  after  a  sharp  conflict,  were  beaten  from  their 
entrenchments,  and  dispersed.  The  insurgents  next  day  laid  down  their  arms,  their 
chiefs  saving  themselves  by  flight,  December  14,  1837. 

ST.  GEORGE,  British  ship  of  98  guns,  stranded  on  the  western  coast  of  North  Jut- 
land, and  admiral  Reynolds  and  the  whole  crew,  except  11,  were  lost,  Dec.  24, 1811. 
The  St.  George  steam-packet  was  wrecked  at  Douglas,  Isle  of  Man,  Nov.  19,  1830. 

ST.  JAMES'S  PALACE.  Was  built  by  Henry  VIII.  on  the  site  of  an  hospital  of  the 
same  name,  a.d.  1530.  It  has  been  the  acknowledged  town  residence  of  the  English 
kings  since  Whitehall  was  consomed  in  1695  ;  but  though  pleasantly  situated  on  the 


8AI  r  456  1  8AI 

north  side  of  St  James's  Park,  and  possessing  many  elegant  and  convenient  apart- 
ments calcolated  for  state  parposes,  yet  it  is  an  irregnlar  brick  building  without  a 
single  external  beauty  to  recommend  it  as  a  palace. 

ST.  JAMES'S  PARK.  Was  a  complete  marsh  till  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  who 
haying  built  St.  James's  Palace,  inclosed  it,  laid  it  out  in  walks,  and  collecting  the 
waters,  gave  the  new  inclosed  ground  and  building  the  name  of  St.  James's.  In 
1668  it  was  much  improved  by  Charles  II.,  who  employed  Le  N6tre  to  add  several 
fields,  to  plant  rows  of  lime-trees,  and  to  lay  out  tiie  Mall,  which  is  a  Tista  half  a 
mile  in  length,  at  that  time  formed  into  a  hollow,  smooth  walk,  skirted  by  a  wooden 
border,  with  an  iron  hoop  at  the  further  end,  for  the  purpose  of  playing  a  game 
with  a  ball  called  a  mall.  He  formed  a  canal,  100  feet  broad,  and  2800  long,  with 
a  decoy  and  other  ponds  for  water- fowl.  Succeeding  kings  allowed  the  people  the 
privilege  of  walking  here,  and  William  III.,  in  1699,  granted  the  neighbouring  inha- 
bitants a  passage  into  it  from  Spring-gardens.  The  irons  and  safeguards  for  the 
balls  were  removed  from  the  Mall  in  1752.  The  drains  were  filled  up  in  1775.  The 
park  was  improved  by  George  IV.  in  1827,  ei  seq.  The  inclosure  was  first  opened 
to  the  public  in  January  1829.     The  opening  by  Carlton-steps  in  1831.  See  Parkl 

ST.  JOHN'S  GATE,  London,  opening  into  St.  John*s-square,  is  the  finest  vestige  of 
monastic  building  in  the  metropolis  ;  it  was  originally  the  gate  to  the  priory  of  St. 
John  of  Jerusalem,  but  is  also  remarkable  as  the  place  where  the  early  numbers  of 
the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine  "  were  published.  It  was  often  visited  by  Dr.  Johnson, 
Garrick,  and  other  eminent  characters.  It  is  now  occupied  partly  as  a  tavern  and 
partly  as  a  watch-house. — Leigh, 

ST.  MALO,  Fbancb.  This  port  sustained  a  most  severe  bombardment  by  the  English 
in  1693.  In  1758,  they  landed  in  considerable  force  in  Cancal  Bay,  and  went  op 
to  the  harbour,  where  they  burnt  upwards  of  a  hundred  ships. — Brookes, 

ST.  SALVADOR.  The  first  point  of  land  discovered  in  the  .West  Indies  or  America  by 
the  illustrious  Christopher  Columbus.  It  was  previously  called  Giianahami,  or 
Cat's  Isle,  and  Columbus  (in  acknowledgment  to  God  for  his  deliverance  from  the 
dangers  to  which  he  was  exposed  in  his  voyage  of  discovery)  named  it  St.  Salvador, 
October  11,  1491-2. 

ST.  SEBASTIAN'S,  Sibob  of,  by  the  British  and  allied  army  under  lord  Wellington. 
St.  Sebastian,  after  a  short  siege,  during  which  it  sustained  a  most  heavy,  bombard- 
ment, and  by  which  the  whole  town  was  laid  nearly  in  ruins,  was  stormed  by  general 
(afterwards  lord)  Graham,  and  taken,  August  31,  1813. 

ST.  SEBASTIAN'S,  Battles  of.  The  fortified  works,  through  the  centre  of  which 
ran  the  high-road  to  Hernani,  were  carried  by  the  English  Auxiliary  Legion  under 
general  Evans,  after  very  hard  fighting.  The  British  naval  squadron,  off  St.  Sebaa- 
tiao,  under  Lord  John  Hay,  lent  very  opportune  aid  in  this  contest  to  the  victors, 
May  5, 1 836.  A  vigorous  assault  was  made  on  the  lines  of  general  Evans  at  St 
Sebastian  by  the  Carlists,  who  attempted  to  carry  them.  Both  parties  fought  with 
bravery.  The  Carlists  were  repulsed,  after  suffering  severely.  The  loss  of  the 
Anglo-Spanish  force  was  376  men,  and  37  officers,  killed  and  wounded.  General 
Evans  was  slightly  wounded,  October  1,  1836. 

ST.  SOPHIA,  Chubch  of.  In  Constantinople,  a  short  distance  from  the  Sublime 
Porte,  stands  the  ancient  Christian  church  of  St.  Sophia,  built  by  Justinian ;  and 
since  the  Mahometan  conquest,  in  1453,  used  as  an  imperial  mosque.  It  abounds 
in  curiosities.  Its  length  is  269  feet,  and  its  breadth  243  feet.  Six  of  its  pillars 
are  of  green  jasper,  from  the  Temple  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus  ;  and  eight  of  porphyry, 
from  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  at  Rome. 

ST.  STEPHEN'S  CHAPEL.  The  commons  of  England  have  held  their  assemblies  in 
St.  Stephen's  chapel,  which  was  built  by  king  Stephen,  and  dedicated  to  his  name- 
sake, the  proto-martyr,  about  1135.  It  was  rebuilt  by  Edward  III.  in  1347,  and  by 
him  made  a  collegiate  church,  to  which  a  dean  and  twelve  secular  priests  were 
appointed.  Soon  after  its  surrender  to  Edward  VI.,  about  1550,  it  was  applied  to 
the  use  of  parliament.     See  Parliament. 

ST.  THOMAS'S  HOSPITAL,  Southwark.  Founded  by  Richard,  prior  of  Ber- 
mondsey,  in  1213,  and  surrendered  to  Henry  VIII.  in  1538.  In  1551  the  mayor 
and  citizens  of  London,  having  purchased  of  Edward  VI.  the  manor  of  Southwark, 


sAi c  ^^y  ] ^f^ " 

including  this  hospital,  repaired  and  enlarged  it,  and  admitted  into  it  260  poor,  sick, 
and  helpless  objects  ;  upon  which  the  king,  in  1553,  incorporated  it,  together  with 
Bethlehem,  St  Bartholomew,  &c.    It  was  rebuilt  in  1693. 

ST.  VINCENT,  Battlb  op,  between  the  Spanish  and  British  fleets  off  the  Cape.  The 
latter  was  commanded  by  sir  John  Jenris  (afterwards  earl  St.  Vincent),  who  took 
four  line-of-battle  ships,  and  considerably  damaged  the  rest  of  the  Spanish  fleet, 
February  14,  1797. 

ST.  VINCENT,  CAPE.  Admiral  Rooke,  with  twenty  men-of-war  and  the  Turkey 
fleet  under  his  convoy,  was  attacked  by  admiral  Touryille,  with  a  force  vastly  superior 
to  his  own,  off  Cape  St.  Vincent,  when  twelve  English  and  Dutch  men-of-war,  and 
eighty  merchantmen,  were  taken  or  destroyed  by  the  French,  June  16,  1693.  Here 
admiral  Rodney  destroyed  several  Spanish  ships,  January  16,  1780. 

SALAD.  First  introduced  into  England,  with  other  garden  roots,  from  Artois,  about 
1520.  It  was  not  till  the  latter  end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  viz.  about  1547, 
that  any  salads,  carrots,  cabbage,  or  other  edible  roots,  were  produced  in  England. 
Butler,  Queen  Catherine  (Henry's  first  consort),  when  she  wanted  a  salad,  was 
obliged  to  despatch  a  messenger  thither  on  purpose. — Hume. 

SALAMANCA,  Battle  of,  between  the  British  and  allies  commanded  by  lord  Wel- 
lington, and  the  French  army  under  Marshal  Marmont,  fought  July  22,  1812.  In 
this  great  and  memorable  battle  the  illustrious  Wellington  was  victorious,  though 
the  loss  of  the  allies  was  most  severe,  amounting  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing,  to 
nearly  6000  men  ;  but  that  of  the  enemy  was  much  greater.  Marmont  left  in  the 
victor's  hands  7141  prisoners,  11  pieces  of  cannon,  6  stand  of  colours,  and  two 
eagles  :  8000  men  are  believed  to  have  been  killed  and  wounded.  Marmont  lost  an 
arm  in  the  battle,  and  was  the  seventh  French  marshal  whom  lord  Wellington  had 
defeated  in  the  course  of  four  years.  An  immediate  consequence  of  this  victory  was 
the  capture  of  Madrid,  with  2500  more  prisoners,  and  immense  stores. 

SALAMIS,  Battle  of.  The  Persians  defeated  by  the  Greeks  in  this  great  sea-fight, 
October  20,  480  B.C.  Themistodes,  the  Greek  commander,  with  only  380  sail, 
defeated  the  fleet  of  Xerxes,  which  consisted  of  2000  sail.  After  this  battle,  Xerxes 
retired  from  Greece,  leaving  behind  him  Mardonius,  with  300,000  men,  to  carry  on 
the  war,  and  suffer  more  disasters.  In  his  retreat,  he  found  the  bridge  of  boats  he 
had  crossed  over  at  the  Hellespont,  now  the  Dardanelles,  destroyed  by  a  tempest. 

SALDANHA  BAY.  Here  a  Dutch  squadron,  under  admiral  Ducas,  was  captured 
by  vice-admiral  sir  George  Keith  Elphinstone,  without  resistance ;  five  men-of-war 
and  nine  frigates  surrendered ;  and  sir  Greorge  was  in  consequence  created  lord 
Keith,  August  17,  1796. 

SALISBURY  PLAIN.  Massacre  of  300  English  nobles  on  this  plain  by  Hengist, 
May  1,  A.D.  474.  On  this  plain  were  so  many  cross  roads,  and  so  few  houses  to 
take  directions  from,  that  Thomas,  earl  of  Pembroke,  planted  a  tree  at  each  mile- 
stone  from  Salisbury  to  Shaftsbury,  for  the  traveller's  guide.  The  building  of  the 
cathedral  commenced  April  28,  1220 ;  and  was  finished  1258,  at  the  cost  of 
40,000  marks. 

SALISBURY,  Bishopric  of.  Its  first  seat  was  at  Sherborn,  St.  Adhelm  being 
prelate,  a.d.  705.  Wells  and  Exeter  were  dismembered  from  the  see  in  905.  Her- 
man removed  the  seat  to  Salisbury,  1056.  This  bishopric  is  valued  in  the  king's 
books  at  1367/.  11«.  Sd,  It  has  yielded  to  the  church  of  Rome  one  saint  and  two 
cardinals. 

S ALIQUE  LAW,  ob  SALIC.  By  this  law  females  are  excluded  from  inheriting  the 
crown  of  France,  instituted  by  Pharamond,  a.d.  424.  Ratified  in  a  council  of  state 
by  Clovis  I.,  the  real  founder  of  the  French  monarchy,  in  511. — HenauWs  France, 

SALT.  It  is  either  procured  from  rocks  in  the  earth,  from  salt-springs,  or  from  sea- 
water.  The  famous  salt-mines  of  Wielitska,  near  Cracow,  in  Poland,  have  been 
worked  600  years,  and  yet  present  no  appearance  of  being  exhausted.  Rock-salt 
was  discovered  about  a.d.  950.  Saltpetre  was  first  made  in  England  about  1625. 
The  fine  salt-mines  of  Staffordshire  were  discovered  about  1670.  Salt-duties  were 
first  exacted  in  1 702  ;  they  were  renewed  in  1 732 ;  and  were  considerably  reduced 
in  1823. 

SALUTE  AT  SEA.     It  is  a  received  maxim  at  sea,  that  he  who  returns  the  salute 


8AL  [  458  3  BAR 

^  almyt  Arei  fewer  gvm  than  ha  KoeiTesy  whidi  is  done  evea  between  the  ahipi  of 
princes  of  eqnal  dignity  ;  bnt  the  Swedes  tnd  Dines  return  the  compliment  without 
regarding  how  many  gnns  are  fired  to  them.  Merchantmen  lower  their  main-yard ; 
bnt  men-of-war  strike  only  their  topsail.  The  English  claim  the  right  of  bang 
saluted  first  in  all  pUces,  as  sovereigns  of  the  seas  ;  Uie  Venetians  daim  this  honoor 
within  their  golf,  &c.    See  Naval  Salute, 

SALUTING.  The  customary  and  natural  expressions  of  civility  or  friendship.  The 
custom  of  saluting  the  ladies  by  their  relatives,  &&  was  introdnoed  by  the  earlj 
Romans,  not  out  of  respect  originally,  but  to  find  by  their  breath  whether  they  had 
been  drinking  wine,  this  being  criminal  for  women  to  do,  as  it  sometimea  led  to 
adultery. 

SANCTUARIES.  They  had  their  origin  in  the  eariy  ages.  Rome  was  one  entn 
sanctuary  from  751  b.c.  In  England,  privilq^ed  places  for  the  safetj  of  offenden 
were  granted  by  king  Lucius  to  our  churches  and  their  precincts.  St.  John's  of 
Beverley  was  thus  privileged  in  the  time  of  the  Saxons.  St.  Burien's,  in  Cornwall, 
was  pri?ilq;ed  by  Athebtan,  a.d.  935 ;  Westminster,  by  Edward  the  Confessor ; 
St.  MartinVle-Grand,  1529.  Sanctuaries  were  abolished  at  the  Reformation. 
Several  places  in  London  were  privileged  against  the  arrest  of  persona  for  debt 
These  last  were  suppressed  in  1696.     See  Privileged  Places. 

SANDWICH  ISLANDS.  In  the  Sonthem  Ocean;  discovered  by  captain  Cook,  1778. 
It  was  in  one  of  these  islsnds  that  this  illustrious  circumnavigator  fell  a  -victim  to  the 
sudden  resentment  of  the  natives,  Feb.  14,  1779.    See  Owhyhee. 

SANHEDRIN.  An  ancient  Jewish  council  of  the  highest  jurisdiction,  of  seventy,  or 
as  some  say,  seventy-three  members.  They  date  this  senate  from  Numbers  xi.  16. 
It  was  yet  in  being  at  the  time  of  Jssus  Christ,  John  xviii.  31.  A  Jewish  Saa- 
hedrin  was  summoned  by  the  emperor  Napoleon  at  Paris,  July  23,  1806  ;  and  it 
assembled  Jan.  20, 1807. 

SANTA  CRUZ,  Tbnbriffs.  Here  the  renowned  admiral  Blake  entirely  destroyed 
16  Spanish  ships  secured  with  great  nautical  skill,  and  protected  by  the  castle  and 
forts  on  the  shore.  This  was  thought  at  the  time  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  naral 
exploits  ever  accomplished. — Butler.  It  was  so  miraculous,  that  all  who  knew  the 
place  wondered  any  sober  man,  with  what  courage  soever  endowed,  would  hare 
undertaken  it ;  and  the  victors  could  hardly  persuade  themselves  to  believe  what 
they  had  done ;  whilst  the  surviving  Spaniards  thought  that  they  were  devils,  and 

not  men,  who  had  destroyed  their  ships  in  such  a  manner,  April  20,  1657 Earl  of 

Clarendon.     In  an  unsuccessful  attack  made  upon  Santa  Cruz  by  Nelson,  several 
officers  and  141  men  were  killed,  and  the  brave  admiral  lost  hisrightarm,  July  24, 1797. 

SAPPHIC  VERSE.  The  verse  invented  by  Sappho,  the  lyric  poetess  of  Mitylene. 
Sappho  was  equally  celebrated  for  her  poetry,  her  beauty,  and  her  amorous  disposi- 
tion. She  conceived  a  hopeless  passion  for  Pbaon,  a  youth  of  her  native  country, 
on  which  account  she  threw  herself  into  the  sea  from  Mount  Leucas,  and  was 
drowned.  The  Lesbians,  after  her  death,  paid  her  divine  honours,  and  called  her 
the  tenth  muse,  594  b.c. 

SARACENS.  A  celebrated  people  from  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  Sarra  in  their  language 
signifying  a  desert.  They  were  the  first  disciples  of  Mahomet ;  and  within  40  years 
after  his  death,  in  a.d.  631,  they  conquered  a  great  part  of  Asia,  Africa,  and 
Europe.  They  conquered  Spain  in  713  0/  seq. ;  the  empire  of  the  Saracens  (dosed 
by  Bagdad  being  taken  by  the  Tartars,  1258. — Blair.  There  are  now  no  people 
known  by  this  name ;  the  descendants  of  those  who  subdued  Spain  are  called  Moors. 

SARA60SSA.  Anciently  Ceesarea  Augusta ;  whence,  by  corruption,  its  name.  Its 
church  has  been  a  place  of  great  devotion.  They  tell  us  that  the  Virgin,  while  yet 
living,  appeared  to  St.  James,  who  was  preaching  the  gospel,  and  left  him  her 
image,  which  was  afterwards  placed  in  the  church,  with  a  little  Jesus  in  its  arms, 
ornamented  with  a  profusion  of  gold  and  jewels,  and  illuminated  by  a  multitude  of 
lamps.  In  December  1778,  four  hundred  of  the  inhabitants  perished  in  a  fire  at  the 
theatre.  Saragossa  taken  by  the  French,  after  a  most  heroic  defence  by  general 
Palafox,  during  as  renowned  a  siege  as  is  on  record,  February  13, 1809. 

SARATOGA,  Bubooynb's  Surrender  at.  Here  general  Burgoyne,  commander  of 
the  British  army,  after  a  severe  engagement  with  the  American  provincials  in  the 


BAR 


[459] 


SAT 


war  of  independence  (Oct.  7),  being  surrounded,  surrendered  to  the  American 
general  Gates,  when  5791  men  laid  down  their  arms,  Oct  17,  1777. 

SARDANAPALUS.  The  last  king  of  Assyria.  See  Assyria,  One  of  the  most 
infamous  and  sensual  monarchs  that  ever  lived.  Having  grown  odious  to  his 
subjects,  and  being  surrounded  by  hostile  armies,  dreading  to  fall  into  their  hands, 
he  shut  himself  up  in  his  capital  at  Nineveh.  Here  he  caused  a  vast  pile  of  wood 
to  be  raised  in  a  court  of  his  palace,  and  heaping  upon  it  all  his  gold,  silver,  jewels, 
precious  and  rare  articles,  the  royal  apparel,  and  other  treasures,  and  enclosing  his 
concubines  and  eunuchs  in  an  apartment  within  the  pile,  he  set  all  on  fire,  perishin|[^ 
himself  in  the  flames.  This  is  the  mightiest  conflagration  of  wealth  on  record.  The 
riches  thus  destroyed  were  worth  a  thousand  myriads  of  talents  qf  gold^  and  ten 
TIMES  as  many  talents  of  silver  I  !  !  about  1,400,000,000/,  sterling. — Athenaus. 

SARDINIA.  The  first  inhabitants  of  Piedmont,  Savoy,  &c.  are  supposed  to  have  been 
the  Umbrians,  Etrurians,  Ligurians,  and  afterwards  the  Gauls  (when  they  esta- 
blished themselves  in  Italy,  under  Brennus,  &c.)  from  whom  this  country  was 
called  Cisalpine  Gaul  (or  Gaul  on  this  side  of  the  Alps,  with  respect  to  Rome)  :  it 
afterwards  became  a  part  of  Lombardy,  from  whom  it  was  taken  by  the  Bargundians. 
The  island  of  Sardinia  has  been  successively,  possessed  by  the  Phoenicians  and 
Greeks,  the  Carthaginians,  Romans,  Saracens,  and  Spaniards.  From  settlers 
belonging  to  which  various  nations  the  present  inhabitants  derive  their  origin*. 


Subjugated  by  the  Romans         .      b.c. 

*         *         Jti        }tt        Jti        *        Ji^ 

Taken  by  the  Moon,  about      .         a.d. 

Reduced  by  the  Genoese 

The  pope  grants  SardMia  to  the  Pisanese, 
who  are,  however,  too  weak  to  expel 
the  Saracens  .        .        .        . 

Alphonsus  lY.  of  Arragon,  becomes  mas- 
ter of  Sardinia  .        .        .        • 

Taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  the  Wnglish 
naval  forces  .        .        •        •    . 

Recovered  by  the  Spaniards 

They  again  lose  possession  .        .    . 

Ceded  to  the  duke  of  Savoy,  as  an  equi- 
valent for  Sicily        .        .        .        . 


231 

728 
1115 


1132 

1324 

1708 
1717 
1719 

1720 


Victor  AmadeuB,  having  the  title  of 
king,  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  son  a.d.  ]  730 

Attempting  to  recover  Sardinia,  he  Is 
taken,  and  dies  in  prison  .        .  1732 

[The  court  kept  at  Turin  till  1796,  when 
these  dominions  were  overrun  by  the 
French  arms,  and  shortly  afterwards 
annexed  to  the  French  empire.] 

The  king  resJgns  his  crown  to  his  bro- 
ther, duke  of  Aoust  June  4,  1802 

Sardinia  annexed  to  Italy,  and  Buona- 
parte crowned  king  of  the  whole, 

December  26,  1805 

Restored  to  its  rightful  sovereign,  with 
Genoa  added  to  it  December  1814 


KntOS  OF  SARDINIA. 


A.D.  172a  Victor  Amadous,  son  of  Charles  Ema- 
nuel, duke  of  Savoy. 
1730.  Charles  Emanuel. 
1773.  Victor  Amadeus  Siaria  n. 


1796.  Charles  Emanuel. 
1802.  Victor  EmanueL 
1821.  Charles  Felix. 
1831.  Charles  Albert,  April  27. 


SATIRE.  About  a  century  after  the  introduction  of  comedy,  satire  made  its  appear- 
ance at  Rome  in  the  writings  of  LuciUus,  who  was  so  celebrated  in  this  species  of 
composition  that  he  has  been  called  the  inventor  of  it,  116  b.c. — Livy,  Lucilius 
obtained  praise  lavished  with  too  liberal  a  hand :  we  may  compare  him  to  a  river 
which  rolls  upon  its  waters  precious  sand,  accompanied  with  mire  and  dirt. — Horace. 

SATURDAY.  With  us  this  is  the  last,  or  seventh  day  of  the  week ;  but  with  the 
Jews  it  is  the  Sabbath.  See  Sabbath.  It  was  so  called  from  an  idol  worshipped  on 
this  day  by  the  old  Saxons,  and  according  to  Vertigem  was  named  by  them  Sateme's- 
day. — Pardon.     It  is  more  properly  from  Saturn,  dies  Satumi, — Addison, 

SATURN.  Ascertained  to  be  about  900  millions  of  miles  distant  from  the  sun,  and 
its  diameter  to  be  89,170  miles.  His  satellites  were  discovered  by  Galileo  and 
Simon  Meyer,  1608.9-10  ;  his  belt,  &c.  by  Huygens  in  1634  ;  his  fifth  satellite  by 
the  same  in  1655  ;  and  his  sixth  and  seventh  by  Herschel  in  1789.  Cassini  was 
also  a  discoverer  of  the  satellites  of  the  planets. 

SATURNALIA.  Festivals  in  honour  of  Saturn.  They  were  instituted  long  before 
the  foundation  of  Rome,  in  commemoration  of  the  freedom  and  equality  which  pre- 
vailed on  earth  in  the  golden  reign  of  Satarn.  Some,  however,  s|ippose  that  the 
Saturnalia  were  first  observed  at  Rome  in  the  reign  of  Tullus  Hostilius,  after  a 
victory  obtained  over  the  Sabines ;  while  others  support  that  Janus  first  instituted 
them  in  gratitude  to  Saturn,  from  whom  he  had  learned  agriculture.  Others 
suppose  that  they  were  first  celebrated,  after  a  victory  obtained  over  the  Latins  by 


8AV Q  460  ] SCA 

the  dictator  Posthmniaa.  During  these  festiTals  no  basiness  was  allowed,  amuse- 
ments were  encouraged,  distinctioas  ceased,  and  even  slaves  could  say  what  they 
pleased  to  their  masters  with  imponity. — LengleU 

SAVINGS'  BANKS.  The  benefit  clubs,  among  artisans,  having  accnmnlated  stocks 
of  money  for  their  progressive  purposes,  a  plan  was  adopted  to  identify  these  funds 
with  the  public  debt  of  the  country,  and  an  extra  rate  of  interest  was  held  oat  as  an 
inducement ;  hence,  savings'  banks  to  receive  small  sums,  returnable  with  interest,  on 
demand,  were  formed.  See  article  Bank  of  Savings.  Brought  under  parliamentary 
regulation  in  1816.  Act  to  consolidate  and  amend  previous  laws  relating  thereto, 
9  George  IV.  1828.    This  act  extended  to  Scotland,  6  WiUiam  IV.,  Sept.  9,  1835. 

BAVDfOfl*  BAHKB,  Ain>  DKP06IT0R8  tS  aHOLAlfD,  SO0TI«AND,  WALKS,  AND  IRKLAITD,   IN    1840. 

{Untntty,  No,  €/ Banks.                           No,  <if  Depositor t.  Amount. 

England  .401                 ....    627.443  .         .                  £19,818.673 

BootUmd               .39             ....           44,638  .  471,338 

Wales  .31                 ....      15,937  •         .         •                   542.476 

Ireland                 .79            ....          78.356  .  2,228,367 

CLASSirTCATION  OW  THB  riBST  TWXNTT  THOUSAND  DKFOSITOIIS  WHO  OPKNBO  ACCOUNTS  : 

Domestic  senrants  .......  7245 

Persons  engaged  in  trade,  mechanics,  and  manufactures  .  74/3 

Jjiibourers  and  porters  .......  .673 

Minors  .  .........         1454 

Friendly  and  charitable  societies  .....  .58 

Persons  not  classed,  yia.,  widows,  teachers,  sailors,  soldiers,  &a  .  -     •        aogs 

SAVOY.  It  became  a  Roman  province  118  b.c.  The  Alemans  seized  it  in  a.d.  395, 
and  the  Franks  in  496.  It  shared  the  revolutions  of  Switzerland  till  1040,  when 
Conrad,  emperor  of  Germany,  gave  it  to  Hubert,  with  the  title  of  earl.  Anaadeus, 
earl  of  Savoy,  solicited  Sigismund  to  erect  his  dominions  into  a  duchy,  which  he 
did  at  Cambray,  February  19,  1417.  Victor  Amadeus,  duke  of  Savoy,  obtained  the 
kingdom  of  Sicily,  by  treaty,  from  Spain,  which  he  afterwards  exchanged  with  the 
emperor  for  the  island  of  Sardinia,  with  the  title  of  king,  1713-20.  The  French 
subdued  this  country  in  1792,  and  made  it  a  department  of  France,  under  the  name 
of  Mont  Blanc,  in  1800. 

SAW.  Invented  by  Daedalus. — Pliny.  Invented  by  Talus. — Apollodorus,  Talus, 
it  is  said,  having  found  the  jaw-bone  of  a  snake,  he  employed  it  to  cut  through  a 
piece  of  wood,*  and  then  formed  an  instrument  of  iron  like  it.  Becher  says  saw- 
mills  were  invented  in  the  seventeenth  century;  but  he  errs.  Saw-mills  were 
erected  in  Madeira  in  1420  ;  at  Breslau,  in  1427.  Norway  had  the  first  saw-mill 
in  1530.  The  bishop  of  Ely,  ambassador  from  Mary  of  England  to  the  <M>urt  of 
Rome,  describes  a  saw-mill  there,  1555.  In  England  saw-mills  had  at  first  the 
same  fate  with  printing  in  Turkey,  the  crane  in  Strasburg,  &c.  The  attenapts  to 
introduce  them  were  violently  opposed ;  and  one  erected  by  a  Dutchman  in  1663 
was  forced  to  be  abandoned. 

SAXONY.  The  royal  family  of  Saxony  is  of  very  ancient  origin,  and  is  allied  to  all 
the  royal  houses  in  Europe.  The  sovereignty  still  continues  in  the  same  family, 
notwitiistsnding  it  encountered  an  interruption  of  two  hundred  years,  from  1180  to 
1423.  Saxony,  which  had  been  for  many  centuries  an  electorate,  was  formed  into 
a  kingdom  in  1806.  It  became  the  scene  of  the  great  struggle  against  Napoleon  in 
1813.     Great  political  commotion  at  Dresden,  Sept.  9,  1830. 

SCALES  AND  MEASURES.  They  were  invented  by  Phidon  at  .£gina,  869  b.c.  ; 
and,  with  the  exception  of  the  beam,  the  scales  were  of  the  kind  with  those  used  at 
the  present  day.  In  England,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  scales  were  so  hang  as  to 
give  a  difference  of  one-eighth,  1216,  when  a  king's  beam  for  weighing  goods  was 
set  up.     See  article  Measures. 

SCANDALUM  MAGNATUM.  The  name  given  to  a  special  statute  relating  to  any 
wrong,  by  words  or  in  writing,  done  to  high  personages  of  the  land,  snch  as  peers, 
judges,  ministers  of  the  crown,  officers  in  the  state,  and  other  great  public  func- 
tionaries, by  the  circulation  of  scandalous  statements,  false  news,  or  horrible 
messages.     This  law  was  enacted  2  Richard  II.  1378. 

SCARLET.  The  scarlet,  or  kermes  dye,  was  known  in  the  East  in  the  earliest  ages  ; 
cochineal  dye,  a.d.  1518.  A  Fleming,  named  Kepler,  established  the  first  dye- 
house  for  scarlet  in  England,  at  Bow,  1643  :  improved  by  Brewer,  1667. — Beckmann. 


6CE 


[461] 


SCO 


SCEPTIC.  The  ancient  sect  of  philosophers  founded  by  Pyrrho,  334  b.c«  Pyrrho 
was  in  continual  suspense  of  judgment ;  he  doubted  of  everything,  never  made  any 
conclusions,  and  when  he  had  carefully  examined  a  subject,  and  investigated  all  its 
parts,  he  concluded  by  still  doubting  of  its  evidence.  As  he  showed  so  much  indif- 
ference in  everything,  and  declared  that  life  and  death  were  the  same  thing,  some  of 
his  disciples  asked  him,  why  he  did  not  hurry  himself  out  of  the  world  1  **  Because,'' 
says  he,  *' there  is  no  difference  between  life  and  death.''  Timon  was  one  of  the 
chief  followers  of  this  sect,  which  was  almost  extinct  in  the  time  of  Cicero Sirabo, 

SCEPTRE.  This  is  a  more  ancient  emblem  of  royalty  than  the  crown.  In  the  earlier 
ages  of  the  world  the  sceptres  of  kings  were  long  walking-staves  ;  they  afterwards 
were  carved,  and  made  shorter.  Tarquin  the  Elder  was  the  first  who  assumed  the 
sceptre  among  the  Romans,  about  468  b.c.  The  French  sceptre  of  the  first  race  of 
kings  was  a  golden  rod,  a.d.  481. — Le  Gendre, 

SCHOOLS.  Charity  schools  were  instituted  in  London  to  prevent  the  seduction  of 
the  infant  poor  into  Roman  Catholic  seminaries,  3  James  II.  1687. — Rapin. 
Charter  schools  were  instituted  in  Ireland  1733. — Scully.  In  England  there  are 
now  13,642  schools  (exclusively  of  Sunday  schools)  for  the  education  of  the  poor ; 
and  the  number  of  children  is  998,431.  The  parochial  and  endowed  schools  of 
Scotland  are  in  number  (exclusively  of  Sunday  schools)  4,836 ;  and  the  number  of 
children,  181,467.  The  number  of  schools  in  Wales  is  841,  and  the  number  of 
children  38,164  :  in  Ireland,  13,327  schools,  and  774,000  children. 

SCILLY  ISLES.  They  held  commerce  with  the  Phoenicians.  They  are  mentioned 
by  Strabo  as  being  ten  in  number.  The  memorable  shipwreck  of  the  British  squadron 
under  sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  occurred  here.  This  brave  admiral,  returning  from  an 
expedition  against  Toulon,  mistook  these  rocks  for  land,  and  struck  upon  them.  His 
ship  the  Assodationy  in  which  were  his  lady,  two  sons,  many  persons  of  rank,  and 
800  brave  men,  went  instantly  to  the  bottom.  The  Eagle^  Captain  Hancock,  and 
the  Romney  and  Firehrandy  were  also  lost.  The  rest  of  the  fleet  escaped,  Oct.  22, 
1707.  Sir  Cloudesley's  body,  being  found,  was  conveyed  to  London,  and  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  where  a  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory. 

SCOTLAND.  See  Caledonia.  This  important  member  of  the  British  empire  was 
governed  by  a  king  before  the  Romans  visited  England,  and  continued  an  independ- 
ent kingdom  till  the  death  of  the  English  queen  Elizabeth,  when  James  VI.  of 
Scotland,  the  most  immediate  heir,  was  called  to  the  throne  of  England,  and  con- 
stantly resided  in  the  latter ;  he  and  his  successors  calling  themselves  kings  of 
England  and  Scotland,  and  each  country  having  a  separate  parliament,  till  the  year 
]  707,  in  the  reign  of  queen  Anne,  when  both  kingdoms  were  united  under  the  general 
name  of  Great  Britain. 


Camelon,  capital  of  the  Picts,  taken  by 
Kenneth  II.,  and  every  living  creature 
put  to  the  sword  or  destroyed    .    a.d. 

The  feudal  system  established  by  Mal- 
colm n.  ..... 

Divided  into  baronies 

The  Danes  are  driven  out  of  all  parts 
of  Scotland 

Duncan  I.  is  murdered  by  his  kinsman 
Macbeth,  by  whom  the  crown  is  seized 

Malcolm  IIL,  aided  by  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor, meets  the  usurper  at  Dunsinane, 
and  kills  him  in  battle 

The  Saxon-English  language  introduced 
into  Scotland,  by  fugitives  from  Eng- 
land, escaping  from  the  Normans 

Siege  of  Alnwick ;  Bfalcolm  IIL  killed  by 
the  governor  .... 

Splendid  reign  of  David  I.,  who  compiles 
a  code  of  laws  .... 

Scotland  invaded  by  Hacho,  king  of  Nor- 
way, with  160  ships  and  20.000  men ; 
the  invaders  are  cut  to  pieces  by  Alex- 
ander m.,  who  now  recovers  the 
Western  Isles  .... 


843 

1004 
1032 

1040 

1040 


1057 


1080 


1093 


1124 


1263 


John  Baliol  and  Edward  Briioe  contend- 
for  the  throne        .        .        .       a.d.  1290 

Edward  I.  of  England,  as  umpire,  decides 
in  favour  of  John  .         .         .  1290 

John  Baliol,  king  of  Scotland,  appears  to 
a  summons,  and  defends  his  own.  cause 
in  Westminster-hall  against  the  earl 
otVite.—8towe*s  Chron.  .         .1293 

Edward,  wishing  to  annex  Scotland  to 
England,  dethrones  John,  ravages  the 
country,  destroys  the  monuments  of 
Scottish  history,  and  seizes  the  pro- 
phetic stone  (see  Coronation  Chair)     .  1296 

William  Wallace  taken  by  the  English, 
and  executed  on  Tower-hill,  as  a 
traitor    .  .         .         August  23,  1305 

Robert  I.  recovers  the  crown,  and  de- 
feats the  English  at  Bannockbum. — 
See  Bannockbum  ,         ,         .  1314 

David  II.  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of 
Durham,  by  queen  Philippa  of  Eng- 
land, and  detained  in  captivity  11  years  1346 

Battle  of  Chevy  Chase,  between  Hotspur 
Percy  and  earl  Douglas.  See  Otter- 
burn,  BatUe  qf  .        .        .         .1388 


MX) 


C469] 


SCO 


1437 
14M 

1460 


1488 
1494 


1513 


SCOTLAND,  eonimHed. 

84.  Andrews  Univenity  foimded    .  a.i>.  1411 

Jamai  L,  dscained  18  Tcwsa  priaoner  in 
England*  on  his  retoni  is  murdered 
in  his  bed 

Glasgow  Unirenity  foonded  .    . 

James  U.  kiUed  at  ths  siege  of  Rox- 
burgh by  a  cannon  borsting 

James  111^  a  weak  prince^  killed  In  an 
insurreoUon  of  his  people  at  Bannock* 
b«im-fleld  

University  of  Aberdeen  founded 

Battle  of  FkMlden  Field,  where  James 
IT.  is  slain,  and  his  army,  oomprlsing 
the  flower  of  the  Scotch  nobility.  Is 
out  to  pieces.    Be^  Flodden  Field 

James  T.  establishes  iheoourt  of  Seaoion. 
See  SetsUm    .  ....  1532 

Order  of  8t  Andrew,  or  the  Thistle,  is 
rerived.    See  ThiitU  .    .  1540 

Mary,  afterwards  queen  of  Scots,  bom, 

December  8,  1542 

She  marries  the  danphin  of  France, 
afterwards  Frands  IL      .     April  80,  1558 

Francis  XL  dies,  leaving  the  beautiful 
and  young  BfaJ7  a  widow  .  1559 

The  Reformation  takes  place  in  Scotland, 
during  the  minority  of  Mary,  1500  to  J560 

Consummated  by  John  Knox  •    .  1560 

Mary,  after  an  absence  of  13  years,  ar- 
rives at  Leith,  from  Prance,    Aug.  SI,  1561 

Upon  an  inquisition,  oflBciaUy  taken  by 
order  of  queen  Elizabeth,  only  58  Soots- 
men  were  found  in  London.— £?tou>«     .  IMS 

Mary  marries  her  cousin,  Hratry  Stuart, 
lord  Damley  .       July  87,  1565 

David  RlJEzio,  who  had  obtained  the  con- 
fidence and  favour  of  Mary  and  her 
secretary,  murdered  by  Damley,  in 
her  presence  .        .      March  9,  1SG6 

Lord  Damley  blown  up  by  gunpowder, 
in  his  house  February  10,  1567 

James  Hepburn,  earl  of  BothweU,  seises 
the  queen,  who  marries  him.   May  15,  1087 

M§ry  imprisoned  by  her  nobles  «  1567 

Her  infant  son  crowned,  as  James  VI., 
and  the  earl  of  Murray  appointed 
regent  .         .        .        July  22,  1567 

ary  escapes  from  prison,  and  re-enters 
Scotland  with  a  large  army,  which  is 
defeated  at  the  battle  of  Langslde.— See 
Langside     .  .        .        May  15,  1.568 

Earl  of  Lennox  regeat  .    July  12,  1570 


Earl  of  Mar  regent  September  6.  1571 

Earl  ot  Morton  regent        NoYember  24,  1573 

Death  of  John  Knox  .  .  1573 

The  University  of  Edinburgh  founded.. — 
See  Edinburgh 

Mary  having  taken  refuge  in  England,  is 
thrown  into  confinement  by  queen 
Elisabeth,  and  after  18  years'  capti- 
vity is  beheaded         .         February  8, 

Union  of  the  crown  of  Sootland  with 
tliat  of  England,  by  the  acoeasion  of 
James  TL  to  the  throne  of  the  latter, 

March  S4, 

Charles  I.  betrayed  by  the  Scottish  army 
into  the  hands  of  the  English  rebels    , 

Scotland  united  to  the  English  common- 
wealth, by  Oliver  Cromwdl 

The  oonmionwealth  destroyed,  and  roy- 
alty restored  with  Charles  II. 

Revolution  in  favour  of  William  m.  and 
establislmxent  of  presbytery  .    . 

Union  of  Scotland  with  England,  form- 
ing together  the  kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  May  1, 

Rebellion  in  Scotland  in  faronr  of  the 
son  of  the  late  king,  James  TL,  called 
the  Pretender.— See  Pretender 

The  partisans  of  the  Pretender  are  de- 
feated at  Sheriffmuir,  {which  see) 

They  aro  again  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Preston  November  12,  1715 

Affair  of  captain  Porteous,  in  Edinburgh. 
—See  Porteoui  .    September  7,  1736 

The  last  effort  of  the  Stuart  family  to 
regain  their  ancient  kingdom ;  the 
Young  Pretender  gains  the  battle  of 
Prestonpans  {u>hich  see)  September  21,  1745 

And  of  Falkirk  January  18,  1746 

But  is  completely  defeated  at  Culloden 
(which  see)  .  April  16,  1746 

Lords  Kilmarnock  and  Balmerino  exe- 
cuted on  Towor-hill    .        August  18, 

The  Highland  dress  prohibited  by  act  of 
parliament;  but  the  act  was  after- 
wards repealed  ... 

Simon  Frazer,  lord  Lovat,  executed  at 
the  age  of  80     .  .  April  9,  1747 

The  Old  Pretender  dies  at  Rome,  Dea  30,  1765 

The  Young  Pretender  dies     .    Msrch  %  1788 

Cardinal  York  (the  last  of  the  Stuarts) 
dies    ....        August  19,  1807 
See  Edinburgh. 


isaa 


1587 


I0Q3 


]»7 


1651 


im 


1688 


1707 


1715 

1715 


1746 


1746 


KINGS  OF  SOOTLAND. 


BBPORX  CHRISr. 

330.  Fergus  I. ;  lost  in  the  Irish  Sea. 

305.  Foritharis,  his  brother;  killed. 

290.  Mainus. 

261.  Domadilla. 

233.  Northatus. 

213.  Ruther. 

187.  Reutha,  abdicated. 

173.  Thereus ;  banished  for  tyranny. 

161.  Josina. 

137.  Finnanus. 

107.  Durstus ;  slain  by  his  nobles. 

98.  EvoiusL 

79.  Gillies;  killed  in  battle. 

77  EvenusIL 


60.  EderuB. 

13.  Evenus  IIL ;  killed  in  prison,  hy  achild. 
7.  Metdlan. 

AFTBA  CHRIST. 

35.  Caractacus. 

65.  Corbredl. 

72.  Dai-danus ;  killed  in  battle. 

76.  Corbred  H. 
110.  Lugthacus,  orLuctacus;  torn  to  pieces 

by  the  people  for  his  tynmny. 
113.  Mogallus;  murdered. 
149.  Coranus ;  died  in  prison. 
163.  Ethodius  I. ;  treacherously  killed  by  sn 

Irish  liarper. 
195.  Satrahel ;  killed  by  one  of  this  courtiers. 


SCO 


[463] 


BCV 


SCOTLAND,  eonHnued. 
A.D.    199.  Donald  L 

216.  EthodiusIL;  murdered  by  hb  gnarda 
331.  Athiroo;  kiUed  himself. 
242.  Natyaloccus;  killed  by  hlB  nobles. 
253.  Findocus;  murdered  by  feigned  hunters. 

264.  Donald  n. ;  died  of  wounds  reoeiyed  in 

battle. 

265.  Donald  in. ;  murdered. 
277.  Crathilinthus. 

301.  FinoormachuB. 

348.  Romachus ;  bfiheaded  by  his  nobles.  ' 

361.  AngusianuB  ;  killed  in  battte  by  the 

Picts. 
354.  Fethelmacus ;  murdered. 
357.  Eugenius  L ;  kiUed  m  battle  by  the 

Romans. 
404.  Fergus;  killed  also  in  battle   by  the 

Romans. 
[  **  An  Interr^;num. 
'  420.  Eugenius  IL 
451.  Dongardus ;  killed  in  battle. 
457.  Constantine  I. ;  murdered. 
479.  CougallusL 

501.  Goranus;  murdered  in  his  chamber. 
535.  Eugene  UL 
558.  Congallusn. 

569.  KinnatiUus. 

570.  Aidan. 

605.  Kenneth  I. 

606.  Eugene  IV. 

621.  Ferohard ;  killed  himself  in  prison. 
632.  Donald  lY. ;  drowned  in  the  river  Tay. 
646.  Ferohard  n.,  dies  of  a  loathsome  disease. 
664.  Blalduinus;  strangled  by  his  queen  in  a 

fit  of  Jealousy,  for  which  she  was 

burnt  four  days  afterwards. 
684.  Eugene  V . ;  sUUn  in  battle. 
688.  Eugene  YI. 

697.  Amberkeletns ;  killed  by  an  arrow. 
699.  Eugene  YII. 
715.  Mordaoua 

730.  Etfinus. 

761.  Eugene  Yin. ;  murdered  by  his  nobles. 
764.  Fergus  III. ;  murdered  by  his  queoi, 

who,  to  avoid  punishment,  stabbed 

hersdf. 
767.  Solvathius. 
787.  Achaius. 
819.  Ciongallus  m. 
824.  Dongal ;  drowned  in  the  Spey. 


834.  Kenneth  H. 

854.  Donald  Y. ;  killed  himself  in  prison. 
859.  Cionstantine  II. ;  beheaded  by  the  Danes. 
874.  Ethu8»  sumamed  Lightfoot;   died  in 

prison. 
876.  Or^ioiy. 
894.  Donald  YI. 

904.  Constantine  m.;   retired    to   a    mo- 
nastery. 
943.  Bfaloolm  I. ;  murdered  at  Ulrine,  in 

Moray,  by  knaves. 
952.  Indulphus ;  wonderfully  slain. 
961.  Duff  us ;  assassinated. 
966.  Cullenus  ;'^  murdered  at  Methven    by 
a  nobleman  whose  daughter  he  de- 
bauched. 
970.  Kenneth  in. ;  murdered  at  Fettercaim. 
994.  Constantine  lY. ;  killed  in  battle. 
996.  Grimus;  died  of  his  wounds. 
1004.  Malcolm  IL  ;  murdered  at  Glands. 
1034.  Duncan  I. ;  murdered. 
1040.  Macbeth ;  kiUed  in  battle. 
1057.  Malcolm  UL ;  killed  at  the  siege  of 
Alnwick. 

1093.  Donald  YII. ;  died  in  prison. 

1094.  Duncan  IL ;  killed  aa  a  usurper. 
1096.  Edgar. 

1107.  Alexander  I.  the  Fierce. 

1124.  David  L 

1153.  Blalcolm  lY. 

1165.  William  the  Lion. 

1214.  Alexander  IL 

1249.  Alexander  III.;  dislocated  his  neck  when 
hunting,  near  Kinghom. 

1299.  John  Baliol,  resigned. 

1306.  Robert  Bruce  L  . 

1330.  David  IL 

1330.  Edward  Baliol ;  forced  to  resign. 

1371.  Robert  H.,  Stuart. 

1390.  Robert  UL ;  died  of  displeasure. 

1424.  James  L ;  assassinated. 

1437.  James  n. ;  killed  at  the  siege  of  Rox- 
burgh castle. 

1460.  James  III. ;  killed  atBannockbnm-field. 

1488.  James  lY. ;  killed  at  the  batUe  of  Flod- 
iien. 

1514.  James  Y. ;  died  of  a  frenzy. 

1543.  Mary,  put  to  death  in  England. 

1567.  James  YI.;  who  in  1603  succeeded  queen 
Elizabeth,  and  the  kingdoms  became 
united  under  one  sovereign. 


831.  Alpine ;  beheaded  by  the  Picts. 

SCREW.  Known  early  to  the  Greeks.  The  pumping-screw  of  Archimedes,  or  screw, 
cylinder  for  raising  water,  invented  236  b.c,  is  still  in  use,  and  still  bears  that  phi- 
losopher's name.  The  power  of  the  screw  is  astonishing ;  it  being  calculated  that  if 
the  distance  between  the  two  spirals  or  threads  of  the  screw  be  half  an  inch,  and 
the  length  of  each  handle  twelve  inches,  the  circle  that  they  describe  in  going  round 
will  be  seventy-five  inches,  and  consequently  150  times  greater  than  half  an  inch, 
the  distance  between  the  two  spirals.  Therefore  one  man  can,  with  the  assistance 
of  this  screw,  press  down  or  raise  up  as  much  as  150  men  could  do  without  it.  This 
power  increases  in  proportion  to  the  closeness  of  the  spirals  and  the  length  of  the 
handles. — Greig, 

SCULLABOGUE,  Massacre  at,  in  Ireland,  June  4,  1798.    See  article  Mtusacres. 

SCULPTURE.  The  origin  of  this  art  cannot  be  traced  with  any  certainty.  The 
invention  is  given  by  some  ancient  writers  to  the  Egyptians,  and  by  others  to  the 
Greeks.  It  is  referred  by  some  historians  to  1020  b.c.,  and  sculpture  in  marble  to 
872  B.C.    Fausanias  refers  the  nearest  approach  to  perfection  in  the  art  to  560  b.c. 


8Cr  Q  464  ]  SEC 

According  to  ncred  history,  Betsleel  and  AhoUab,  who  built  Ae  tabernacle  in  the 
wilderncai.  and  made  all  the  vencb  and  omaments,  were  the  first  architects  and 
sculptors  of  repute,  and  their  exoellence  is  recorded  as  the  ^tt  of  Grod,  Exodm  xxd. 
Dipoenos  and  Scyllis,  statuaries  at  Crete,  established  a  school  at  Sicyon.  Plisy 
speaks  of  them  as  being  the  first  who  sculptured  marble  and  polished  it ;  all  statses 
before  their  time  bdng  of  wood,  568  b.c.  This»  however,  can  only  be  fact  so  far  a: 
it  relates  to  the  western  world ;  for  in  the  eastern  countries  the  art  was  known  loof 
before*  Alexander  gave  Lysippus  the  sole  right  of  making  his  stataes,  326  b.c.  tie 
left  no  leas  than  600  pieces,  some  of  which  were  so  highly  valued  in  the  age  of 
Augustus,  that  they  sold  for  their  weight  in  gold.  Sculpture  never  found  any  vm 
distinguished  followers  among  the  Romans,  and  in  the  middle  ages  it  fell  into  disuse. 
With  the  revival  of  the  sister  art,  painting,  it  revived  also  ;  and  Donate  di  BardL 
bom  at  Florence,  a.d.  1383.  was  the  earUest  professor  among  the  modems.  SciilptoR 
was  revived,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Medici  family,  about  1460. — Abbe  Venglet. 

SCUTAGE  OE  ESCUAGE.  The  service  of  the  shield  is  either  uncertain  or  certain. 
Escuage  uncertain  is  where  the  tenant  by  his  tenure  is  bound  to  follow  his  lonL 
Another  kind  of  escuage  uncertain  is  caUed  Castleward,  where  the  tenant  is  booiui 
to  defend  a  castle.  Escuage  certain  is  where  the  tenant  is  set  at  a  certain  sum  of 
money,  to  be  paid  in  lieu  of  such  uncertein  services.  The  first  tax  levied  in  England 
to  pay  an  army,  5  Henry  II.  1159. — Cowel. 

SCYTHIA.  The  country  situate  on  the  most  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  from 
which  circumstance  it  is  generally  denominated  European  and  Asiatic.  The  most 
northern  parte  of  Scythia  were  uninhabited,  on  account  of  the  extreme  coldness  of 
the  climate.  The  boundaries  of  Scythia  were  unknown  to  the  ancients,  as  no  travel- 
ler had  penetrated  beyond  the  vast  tracte  of  lands  which  lay  at  the  north,  east,  and 
west.  The  Scythians  made  several  irruptions  upon  the  more  southern  provinces  of 
Asia,  especially  b.c  624,  when  they  remained  in  possession  of  Asia  Minor  for 
twenty-eight  years ;  and  we  find  them  at  different  periods  extending  their  conquests 
in  Europct  and  penetrating  as  far  as  Egypt.  In  the  first  centuries  after  Christ  they 
invaded  the  Roman  empire. 

SEA  BATTLES,  Ancibnt,  and  in  British  History.    See  Naval  Battles. 

SEAL.  See  Great  Seal  of  England^  and  Privy  Seal,  Seals  Xrere  not  much  in  use 
with  the  Saxons ;  but  they  signed  parchmente  with  the  cross,  impressions  of  lead  beis' 
affixed.  Sealing  of  deeds  and  write  was  practised  in  England,  a.d.  1048.  There 
was  a  seal  of  king  Edward's  at  Westminster,  1188.  Until  William  I.'s  time,  the 
name  was  written,  adding  the  sign  of  the  cross.  Arms  were  then  introduced  in  seals. 
The  most  ancient  English  seal  with  arms  on  it  is  that  of  Richard  I.  Arnulphiu, 
earl  of  Flanders,  used  one  about  940.  Wax  was  first  used,  hung  at  the  bottom  of 
the  deed,  wrapped  in  cloth,  parchment,  or  tin,  about  1213.  Sealing-wax  for  letters 
was  not  brought  into  general  use  in  England  until  1556. 

SEAS,  SovBRBiONTY  OF  THE.  The  claim  of  England  is  of  very  ancient  date.  Arthar 
was  the  first  who  assumed  the  sovereignty  of  the  ssas  for  Britain,  and  Alfred  after- 
wards supported  this  right  The  sovereignty  of  England  over  the  British  seas  was 
mainteined  by  Selden,  and  measures  were  teken  by  government  in  consequence, 
8  Charles  I.  1633.  The  Dutoh,  after  the  death  of  Chu'les  I.,  made  some  attempts 
to  obtain  it,  but  were  roughly  treated  by  Blake  and  other  admirals.  Russia  and 
other  powers  of  the  North,  armed,  to  avoid  search,  1780  ;  again,  1800.  See  Armed 
Neutrality^  and  Flag, 

SECRETARY  of  STATE.  The  first  in  England  was  lord  Cromwell,  a.d.  1529. 
Towards  the  close  of  Henry  VIII.'s  reign,  two  secreteries  were  appointed  ;  and  apon 
the  union  with  Scotland,  Anne  added  a  third,  as  secretary  for  Scotch  affairs:  this 
appointment  was  afterwards  laid  aside  ;  but  in  the  reign  of  George  III.  the  number 
was  again  increased  to  three,  one  for  the  American  department.  In  1782  this  last 
was  abolished  by  act  of  parliament ;  and  the  appointmente  as  at  present  subsequently 
took  place,  the  secretaries  being  now  home,  foreign,  and  colonies.  When  there  were 
but  two  secreteries,  one  held  the  portefeuille  of  the  northern  department,  comprising 
the  Low  Countries,  Grermany,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Poland,  Russia,  &c. ;  the  other,  of 
the  southern  department,  including  France,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
Turkey ;  the  affairs  of  Ireland  belonging  to  the  elder  secretary :  both  secreteries  then 
equally  directed  the  home  affairs. 


SEC  Q  465  ]  SEP 

SECTS.  See  them  severally  through  the  volame.  The  greatest  vicissitude  of  things  is 
the  vicissitude  of  sects.  True  religion  is  built  upon  a  rock  ;  all  others  are  tossed 
upon  the  waves  of  time. — Bacon.  Assuming  the  population  of  the  globe  to  be  one 
thousand  and  fifty  millions,  the  following  division,  with  reference  to  their  religious 
worship,  will  appear. — M,  Balbi, 


Jews 4,600,000 

Christians 225,000,000 

Mahometans       ....  155,000,000 


Idolaters,  &c.,  not  professing  the 
Jewish,  Christian,  or  Maho- 
metan worship  .         .         .  666,500,00() 


SEDAN  CHAIRS.  So  called  from  Sedan,  on  the  Meuse,  in  France.  The  first  seen 
in  England  was  in  1581.  One  was  used  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  by  the  duke  of 
Buckingham  ;  to  the  great  indignation  of  the  people,  who  exclaimed  that  he  was 
employing  his  fellow-creatures  to  do  the  service  of  beasts.  Sedan  chairs  came  into 
fashion  in  London  in  1634,  when  sir  Francis  Duncomb  obtained  the  sole  privilege  to 
use,  let,  and  hire  a  number  of  such  covered  chairs  for  fourteen  years.  They  became 
in  very  general  use  in  1 649. 

SEDGMOOR,  Battle  of,  in  which  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  who  had  risen  in  rebellion 
on  the  accession  of  James  II.,  was  completely  defeated  by  the  royal  army,  July  5, 
1685.  The  duke,  who  was  the  natural  son  of  Charles  II.  by  Lucy  Walters,  one  of 
his  mistresses,  was  made  prisoner,  having  been  found  in  the  disguise  of  a  peasant, 
lying  at  the  bottom  of  a  ditch,  overcome  with  hunger,  fatigue,  and  anxiety.  He  was 
soon  afterwards  beheaded. 

SEDITION  ACT.  Several  acts  were  passed  in  the  reign  of  George  III.  The  memo- 
rable proclamation  against  seditious  writings  was  published  May  1792.  The  cele- 
brated Sedition  Bill  passed  December  1795.  Seditious  societies  were  suppressed  by 
act,  June  1 797.    The  seditious  meetings  and  assemblies*  bill  passed  March  31, 1817. 

SEDUCTION.  For  this  offence,  the  laws  of  this  kingdom  have  provided  no  other 
punishment  than  a  pecuniary  satisfaction  to  the  injured  family.  And  even  this 
satisfaction  is  only  obtained  by  one  of  the  quaintest  fictions  in  the  world  ;  the  father 
bringing  his  action  against  the  seducer  for  the  loss  of  his  daughter's  services  during 
her  pregnancy  and  nurturing. — Paley^s  Moral  Philosophy, 

SEIDLITZ,  Battle  of,  in  Poland,  between  the  Poles  struggling  for  independence  and 
their  Russian  oppressors.  The  Poles  obtained  the  victory  after  a  bloody  conflict, 
taking  4000  prisoners  and  several  pieces  of  cannon.  The  killed  and  wounded  on 
both  sides  amounted  to  many  thousands,  April  10,  1831. 

SELEUCIDES,  Era  of  the.  It  dates  from  the  reign  of  Seleucus  Nicator,  311  years 
and  four  months  B.C.  It  was  used  in  Syria  for  many  years,  and  frequently  by  the 
Jews  until  the  fifteenth  century,  and  by  some  Arabians  to  this  day.  To  reduce  it  to 
our  era  (supposing  it  to  begin  Sept.  1,  312  B.C.)  subtract  311  years  and  four  months. 

SEMINCAS,  Battle  of.  One  of  the  most  bloody  of  the  times  in  which  it  was  fought, 
between  the  Moors  and  Ramirez  II.,  king  of  Leon  and  the  Asturias.  More  than 
80,000  of  the  infidels  were  slain,  the  dead  lying  in  heaps  for  miles  round,  a.d.  938. 

SEMPACH,  Battle  of,  between  the  Swiss  and  Leopold  duke  of  Austria.  The  heroic 
Swiss,  after  prodigies  of  valour,  gained  a  great  and  memorable  victory  over  the  duke, 
who  was  slain,  July  9,  1386.  By  this  battle  they  established  the  liberty  of  their 
country ;  and  it  is  still  annually  commemorated  with  great  solemnity  at  Sempach. 

jj     SEMPER  EADEM,     First  adopted  by  queen  Anne  as  the  motto  for  the  royal  arms 
,  of  England,  Dec.  13,  1702.     It  was  suspected  by  many  of  the  politicians  of  the  day 

that  this  motto  was  meant  to  denote  her  Jacobitism.     It  ceased  to  be  used  with  her 

reign. 

SENESCHAL.  A  high  officer  of  the  royal  household,  and  one  of  the  most  ancient  titles 
^  attached  to  those  who  commanded  the  armies  of  the  kings  of  France,  particularly  of 

the  second  and  third  race.  In  the  reign  of  Philip  I.,  1059,  the  office  of  seneschal 
was  esteemed  the  highest  place  of  trust  under  the  French  crown,  and  seems  to  have 
been  much  the  same  with  our  lord  high  steward. 

t     SEPTEMBER.    The  ninth  month  of  the  year,  reckoned  from  January,  and  the  seventh 
r  from  March,  whence  its  name,  from  Septimus^  seventh.     It  became  the  ninth  month 

\  when  January  and  February  were  added  to  the  year  by  Numa,  713  B.C.  The  Roman 

1  senate  would  have  given  this  month  the  name  of  Tiberius,^  but  that  emperor  opposed 

it ;  the  emperor  Domitian  gave  it  his  own  name  Germanicus ;  the  senate  under 

H  H 


V 


<-u 


08T  [|  3eO  3 0TT2 

tion.  On  the  death  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  the  French  sdzed  Ostend ;  bat,  in 
I70<>,  after  the  battle  of  Ramiliea,  it  was  retaken  by  the  allies.  It  was  again  taken 
by  the  French  in  1745,  bat  restored  in  1748.  In  the  war  of  1756,  the  French  gar- 
risoned this  town  for  the  empress- qneen  Maria  Theresa.  In  1792,  the  French  once 
more  took  Ostend,  which  they  eyacnated  in  1793,  and  repossessed  in  1794.  The 
English  landed  a  body  of  troops  here,  who  destroyed  the  works  of  the  Broges  canal ; 
but  the  wind  shifting  before  they  could  re-embark,  they  were  obliged  to  surrender 
to  the  French,  May  19, 1798. 

OSTRACISM.  From  the  Greek  word  Ottraean,  an  oyster ;  a  mode  of  proscription  at 
Athens,  where  a  plurality  of  ten  ▼oices  condemned  to  ten  years'  banishment  those 
who  were  either  too  rich,  or  had  too  much  authority,  for  fear  they  might  set  up  for 
tyrants  over  their  native  country,  but  without  any  confiscation  of  their  goods  or 
estate.  This  custom  is  said  to  have  been  first  introduced  by  the  tyrant  Hippies ;  by 
others  it  is  ascribed  to  Ciysthenes,  about  510  b.c.  The  people  wrote  the  names  of 
those  whom  they  most  suspected  upon  small  shells  ;  these  they  put  into  an  nm  or 
box,  and  presented  it  to  the  senate.  Upon  a  scrutiny,  he  whose  name  was  oftenest 
written  was  sentenced  by  the  council  to  be  banished,  ab  arts  et  foci*.  But  this 
law  at  last  was  abused,  and  they  who  deserved  best  of  the  commonwealth  fell  under 
the  popular  resentment,  as  Aristides  noted  for  his  justice,  Miltiades  for  his  victories, 
&c.  It  was  abolished  by  ironically  proscribing  Hyperbolus,  a  mean  and  con- 
temptible person. 

OSTROLENKA,  Battle  of,  between  the  Poles  and  Russians,  one  of  the  most  san- 
guinary  and  desperate  battles  fought  by  the  Poles  for  the  recovery  of  their  inde- 
pendence, May  26,  1831.  On  both  sides  the  slaughter  was  immense,  but  the  Poles 
remained  masters  of  the  field ;  they,  however,  shortly  afterwards  retreated  to  Praga, 
unmolested. 

OTAHEITE.  Discovered  in  1767,  by  captain  Wallis,  who  called  it  George  the  Third 
Island.  Captain  Cook  came  hither  in  1768,  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus ;  sailed 
round  the  whole  island  in  a  boat,  and  stud  three  months :  it  was  visited  twice  after- 
ward by  that  celebrated  navigator. — See  Cook.  Omai,  a  native  of  this  island,  was 
brought  over  to  England  by  captain  Cook,  and  carried  back  by  him,  in  his  last 
voyage.  In  1799,  king  Pomarre  ceded  the  district  of  Matavai  on  the  north  side  of 
this  island,  to  some  English  missionaries. 

OTTERBURN,  Batixe  of,  fought  in  1388,  between  the  English  under  the  earl  of 
Northumberland  and  his  two  sons,  and  the  Scots  under  sir  William  Douglas,  who 
was  slain  by  Henry  Percy,  surnamed  Hotspur ;  but  the  Scots  obtained  the  victory, 
and  the  two  Percies  were  made  prisoners.  On  this  battle  the  ballad  of  Chevy  Chase 
is  founded. 

OTTOMAN  EMPIRE.  The  sovereignty  of  the  Turks,  founded  by  Ottoman  I.  on  the 
ruin  of  the  empire  of  the  eastern  Greeks,  a.d.  1293. — See  Turkey. 

OUDENARDE,  Battle  of,  between  the  English  and  allies  under  the  duke  of  Marl- 
borough, and  prince  Eugene,  against  the  French,  who  were  besieging  Oudenarde. 
The  French  were  defeated  and  entirely  routed,  with  great  loss.  Marlborough  pushed 
his  victory  so  far  that  the  French  king  entered  into  a  negotiation  for  peace,  which 
was,  however,  of  no  e£fect,  June  30,  1708. 

OULART,  Battle  of,  between  a  body  of  5000  insurgents,  and  the  king's  troops.  In 
this  fatal  affair,  the  North  Cork  militia  was  cut  to  pieces,  the  lieut-col.,  a  Serjeant, 
and  three  privates,  alone  escaping,  May  27,  1798. — Sir  R.  Musgrave. 

OUNCE.  The  sixteenth  part  of  the  pound  avoirdupois,  and  twelfth  of  the  pound  troy. 
The  word  is  from  uncia;  and  its  precise  weight  was  fixed  by  Henry  III.,  who  de- 
creed that  an  English  ounce  should  be  640  dry  grains  of  wheat ;  that  twelve  of  these 
ounces  should  be  a  pound  ;  and  that  eight  pounds  should  be  a  gallon  of  wine,  1233. 

OUZEL  GALLEY  SOCIETY.  A  popular  and  useful  society  in  Dublin.  In  a.d. 
]  700,  the  case  of  a  ship  in  the  port  of  Dublin  excited  great  legal  perplexity ;  and  in 
order  to  lessen  the  consequent  delay  and  expense,  it  was  referred  to  an  arbitration  of 
merchants,  whose  decision  was  prompt  and  highly  approved.  This  led  to  the  found- 
ation of  the  present  society  for  terminating  commercial  disputes  by  arbitration. 
The  vessel  in  question  was  named  the  Ouxel  Galley ^  and  the  society  adopted  the 
name  as  an  appropriate  designation. 


I 


SEP  [_  466  ^  SES 

Antoninas  Pius  gave  it  that  of  Antoninus ;  Commodus  gave  it  his  samame  Herca- 
lens  ;  and  the  emperor  Tacitns  his  own  name  Tacitus.  But  these  appellations  are 
all  gone  into  disuse. 

SEPTEMBRIZERS.  In  the  French  revolution,  a  dreadful  massacre  took  place  in 
Paris.  The  different  prisons  were  broken  open,  and  all  the  state  prisoners  butchered, 
among  them  an  ez -bishop,  and  nearly  100  non-juring  priests.  Some  accounts  state 
the  number  of  persons  slain  on  this  occasion  at  1200,  others  at  4000.  The  agents  in 
this  dreadful  slaughter  of  innocent  victims  were  branded  with  the  name  of  Septem- 
brizers,  Sept.  2,  1792. — Hist.  French  RevoL 

SEPTENNIAL  PARLIAMENTS.  Edward  I.  held  but  one  parliament  every  two 
years.  In  the  4th  Edward  III.  it  was  enacted,  **  that  a  parliament  should  be  holden 
every  year  once.*'  This  continued  to  be  the  statute-law  till  16  Charles  II.,  when  an 
act  was  passed  for  holding  of  parliaments  once  in  three  years  at  least ;  but  parlia- 
ments for  a  longer  period  than  a  year  were  held  after  Henry  Ylll.  ascended  the 
throne.  The  Triennial  Act  was  confirmed  soon  after  the  Revolution  of  1688,  by 
6  William  and  Mary,  cap.  2.  Triennial  parliaments  thence  continued  till  the  second 
year  of  George  I.'s  reign,  1715,  when,  in  consequence  of  the  all^ation  that  '^a 
popish  faction  were  designing  to  renew  the  rebellion  within  this  kingdom,  and  the 
report  of  an  invasion  from  abroad,  it  was  enacted  that  the  then  parliament  should 
continue  for  seven  years."  This  Septennial  Act  has  ever  since  been  in  force.  See 
Parliamenis, 

SEPTUAGINT  VERSION  ov  thb  BIBLE,  made  277  b.c  Seventy-two  translators 
were  shut  up  in  thirty-six  cells  ;  each  pair  translated  the  whole ;  and  on  subsequent 
comparison  the  thirty-six  copies  did  not  vary  by  a  word  or  letter. — Justm  Martyr. 
St.  Jerome  affirms  they  translated  only  the  Pentateuch  ;  but  St  Justin  and  others 
say  they  translated  the  whole.  Ptolemy  gave  the  Jews  about  a  million  sterling  for 
a  copy  of  the  Testament,  and  seventy  translators  half  a  million  more  for  the  transla- 
Mon,---^osephus.     Finished  in  seventy-two  days. — Hewlett. 

SERGEANTS-AT-LAW.  These  are  pleaders  from  among  whom  the  judges  are  ordi- 
narily chosen,  and  by  way  of  eminence  are  called  sergeants  of  the  coif.  The  judges, 
when  speaking  to  them,  call  them  brothers.  The  sergeant's  coif  was  originally  an 
iron  scull-cap,  worn  by  knights  under  their  helmets.  The  coif  was  introduced  before 
1259,  and  was  used  to  hide  the  tonsure  of  such  renegade  clergymen  as  chose  to 
remain  advocates  in  the  secular  courts,  notwithstanding  their  prohibition  by  canon. 
—'Blackstone. 

SERINGAPATAM,  Battles  of,  called  also  the  battle  of  Arikera,  in  which  the  British 
defeated  Tippo  Saib,  May  15,  1791.  Battle,  in  which  the  redoubts  were  stormed, 
and  Tippoo  was  reduced  by  lord  Comwallis,  Feb.  6,  1 792.  After  this  capture,  pre- 
liminaries of  peace  were  signed,  and  Tippoo  agreed  to  cede  one-half  of  Mysore,  and 
to  pay  33,000,000  of  rupees  (about  3,300,000/.  sterling)  to  England,  and  to  give  up 
to  lord  Comwallis  his  two  eldest  sons  as  hostages.  In  a  new  war  the  Madras  army 
arrived  before  Seringapatam,  April  5, 1799;  it  was  joined  by  the  Bombay  army, 
April  14  ;  and  the  place  was  stormed  and  carried  by  major-general  Baird,  May  4, 
same  year.     In  this  engagement  Tippoo  was  killed.    See  India. 

SERPENTS.  The  largest,  the  record  of  which  is  in  some  degree  satisfactorily  attested, 
was  that  which  disputed  the  passage  of  the  army  led  by  Rsgulus  along  the  banks  of 
the  Bagrada.  It  was  120  feet  long,  and  had  killed  many  of  his  soldiers.  It  was 
destroyed  by  a  battering-ram ;  and  its  skin  was  afterwards  seen  by  Pliny  in  the  capitol 
at  Rome.— 'P/tny.  The  American  papers  abound  with  accounts  of  sea-serpents, 
deemed  by  us  in  England  to  be  fabulous ;  but  a  sea-serpent  was  cast  on  shore  on  the 
Orkney  Islands,  which  was  fifty-five  feet  long,  and  the  circumference  equal  to  the 
girth  of  an  Orkney  pony,  1808. — Phillips. 

SERVANTS.  An  act  laying  a  duty  on  male  servants  was  passed  in  1775.  This  tax 
was  augmented  in  1781,  et  seq.  A  tax  on  female  servants  was  imposed  in  1785; 
but  this  latter  act  was  repealed  in  1792.  The  tax  on  servants  yidded  in  1830  about 
250,000/.  per  annum,  but  in  1840  the  revenue  from  it  had  fallen  to  201,482/. 

SESSION  COURTS.  The  sessions  in  England  were  appointed  to  be  held  quarterly, 
2  Henry  V.,  1413.  The  times  for  holding  these  courts  was  regulated  lately  by  statute 
1  William  IV.,  1831.  See  Quarter  Sessions .  In  Scotland,  a  court  of  session  was 
established  by  James  I.,  1425.    This  court  was  put  aside  in  1502,  but  was  re-coBsd- 


SET  []  467  ]  SHE 

tuted,  with  lords  to  preside,  in  1532.  The  kirk-session  in  Scotland  consists  of  the 
minister  and  elders  of  each  parish.  They  superintend  the  affairs  of  their  own  com- 
munity in  religious  concerns,  determine  on  matters  of  lesser  scandal,  take  care  of 
the  money  collected  for  the  poor,  distribute  it  to  proper  objects,  and  manage  what 
relates  to  public  worship. 
SETTLEMENT,  Act  of,  for  securing  the  succession  to  the  British  throne  to  the 
exclusion  of  Roman  Catholics,  was  passed  1  William  and  Mary,  1689.  This  name  is 
also  given  to  the  statutes  12  and  13  William  III.,  by  which  the  crown  is  limited  to 
the  present  royal  family,  June  12,  1701.  The  Irish  act  of  settlement  was  passed  in 
1662,  but  was  repealed  in  1689.     See  Hanoverian  Succession, 

SEVERUS'S  WALL.  This  wall  extended  nearly  seventy-four  Roman  miles,  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Tyne  on  the  east  to  Bowlness  on  the  Sol  way  Frith  on  the  west.  It  is 
called  by  Spartian  **  the  greatest  glory  of  Severus's  reign,''  built  a.d.  209. 

SEVILLE.  The  capital  of  Spain  until  Philip  II.  finally  established  his  court  at  Madrid, 
A.D.  1563.  This  city  is  the  Hispalis  of  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  Julia  of  the 
Romans.  The  peace  of  Seville  between  England,  France,  and  Spain,  and  also  a 
defensive  alliance  to  which  Holland  acceded,  signed  Not.  9,  1729.  Seville  surren- 
dered  to  the  French,  Feb.  1,  1810 ;  and  was  taken  by  assault  by  the  British  and 
Spaniards,  after  the  battle  of  Salamanca,  Aug.  27,  1812. 

SEXTANT.  This  instrument  is  used  in  the  manner  of  a  quadrant,  and  c<»tains  sixty 
degrees,  or  the  sixth  part  of  a  circle.  It  is  for  taking  the  altitude  of  the  planets,  &c. 
Invented  by  the  celebrated  Tycho  Brahe,  at  Augsburgh,  in  1550. —  Vinee's  Astron. 
The  Arabian  astronomers  under  the  Caliphs  are  said  to  have  had  a  sextant  of  fifty- 
nine  feet  nine  inches  radius,  about  a.d.  995. — Ashe* 

SHAKSPEARE'S  JUBILEE.  On  Sept.  6,  1769,  and  the  two  succeeding  days,  a 
jubilee,  conducted  by  Garrick,  was  celebrated  at  Stratford-upon-Avon,  in  honour  of 
the  great  poet  of  nature,  and  pride  and  glory  of  the  British  nation.  This  ceremony 
yery  much  engaged  the  public  attention.  An  entertainment  of  the  same  name  was 
performed  the  succeeding  winter  at  Drury-lane  theatre  ninety-two  nights,  vnth  great 
applause,  to  crowded  audiences. — Butler, 

SHAMROCK.  It  is  said  that  the  shamrock  used  by  the  Irish  was  introduced  by 
Patric  M^ Alpine,  since  called  St.  Patrick,  as  a  simile  of  the  Trinity,  a.d.  432.  When 
he  could  not  make  them  understand  him  by  words,  he  showed  the  Irbh  a  stem  of 
clover,  or  trefoil,  thereby  exhibiting  an  ocular  demonstration  of  the  possibility  of 
three  uniting  into  one,  and  one  into  three.  The  trefoil  was  denominated  the  ^Aam-rock, 
in  contradistinction  of  Peter  the  true  rock,  as  represented  by  the  Romish  church. — 
Greig.  An  error ;  shamrock  is  the  Irish  name  for  three-leaved  grass. — Spencer, 
St.  Patrick's  day  is  still  kept  with  great  festivity  in  Ireland  on  the  17th  of  March. 

SHEEP.  They  were  impoliticly  exported  from  England  to  Spain,  and,  the  breed 
being  thereby  improved,  produced  the  fine  Spanish  wool,  which  proved  detrimental 
to  our  woollen  manufacture,  8  Edward  IV.  1467. — Anderson,  Their  exportation 
prohibited  on  pain  of  fine  and  imprisonment,  1522.  The  number  of  sheep  in  the 
United  Kingdom  has  been  yariously  stated — by  some  at  43,000,000,  by  others  at 
49,000,000,  and  by  more  at  60,000,000,  m  1840. 

SHERIFF.  The  office  of  sheriff  is  from  skire-reve,  governor  of  a  shire  or  county. 
London  had  its  sheriffs  prior  to  William  I.'s  reign  ;  but  some  say  that  sheriffs  were 
first  nominated  for  every  county  in  England  by  William  in  1079.  According  to 
other  historians,  Henry  Cornhil  and  Richard  Reynere  were  the  first  sheriffs  of 
London,  1  Bidiard  I.  1189.  The  nomination  of  sheriffs  according  to  the  present 
mode  took  place  in  1461. — Stowe.  Anciently  sheriffs  were  hereditary  in  Scotland, 
and  in  some  English  counties,  as  Westmoreland.  The  sheriffs  of  DabUn  (first  called 
bailiffs)  were  appointed  in  1308 ;  and  obtained  the  name  of  sheriff  by  an  incorpora- 
tion of  Edward  VI.  1548.  Thirty-five  sheriffs  were  fined,  and  eleven  excused,  in 
one  year,  rather  than  serve  the  office  for  London,  1734.     See  Bailiffs, 

SHERIFFMUIR,  Battle  of,  between  the  royal  army  under  the  duke  of  Argyle, 
and  the  Scotch  rebel  forces  who  favoured  the  Pretender  (the  chevalier  de  St. 
George,  son  of  James  II.),  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Mar ;  the  insurgents  were 
defeated,  and  several  persons  of  rank  were  taken  prisoners.  The  battle  was  fought 
on  the  very  day  on  which  the  rebel  forces  in  the  same  cause  were  defeated  at 
Preston,  November  12,  1715. 

H  H  2 


8HI  Q  468  ]  SHO 

SHILLING.  The  yalae  of  the  ancient  Saxon  coin  of  this  name  was  five  pence,  bat  it 
was  redaoed  to  foar  pence  aboat  a  oentory  before  the  Conquest.  After  the  Ck>aqaest, 
the  French  Moiidus  of  twelve  pence,  in  use  among  the  Normans,  was  called  ghUling. 
The  true  English  shilling  was  first  coined,  bat  in  small  quantity,  18  Henry  Yli., 
1503. — Dr,  Kelly,  In  1505. — Bishop  Fleetwood,  A  peculiar  shilliug,  value  nme 
pence,  but  to  be  current  at  twelve,  was  struck  in  Ireland,  1560  ;  and  a  large  bat 
▼ery  base  coinage  in  England  for  the  service  of  Ireland,  1598.  Milled  shilling  was 
coined  13  Charles  11.,  1662.     See  Coins, 

SHIP-BUILDING.  The  art  is  attribated  to  the  Egyptians,  as  the  first  inventors  ;  the 
first  ship  (probably  a  galley)  being  brought  from  Egypt  to  Greece  by  Danaus,  1485 
B.C. — Blair.  The  first  double^lecked  ship  was  bailt  by  the  Tynans,  786  b.c.— 
Lenglet.  The  first  double-decked  one  built  in  England  was  of  1000  tons  burthen, 
by  order  of  Henry  VII.  1509;  it  was  called  the  Great  Harry ^  and  cost  14,000/. 
— Stowe.  Before  this  time,  24-gan  ships  were  the  largest  in  our  navy,  and  these 
had  no  port- holes,  the  guns  being  on  the  upper  decks  only.  Port-holes  and  other 
improvements  were  invented  by  Descharges,  a  Freoch  builder  at  Brest,  in  the  reiga 
of  Louis  XII.,  about  1500.  Ship-building  was  first  treated  as  a  science  by  Hoste, 
1696.  A  74-gua  ship  was  put  upon  the  stocks  at  Van  Dieman's  Land,  to  be 
sheathed  with  India-rubber,  1829.     See  Navy  and  Steam  Vessels. 

SHIPPING  OF  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM.  Shipping  was  first  registered  in  the 
river  Thames  in  1786  ;  and  throughout  the  empire  in  1787.  In  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century,  the  shipping  of  England  was  but  half  a  million  of  tons — ^less  than 
London  now.     In  1830,  the  number  of  ships  in  the  British  empire  was  22,785. 

NUMsaa  or  vkssbls  rboistbrko  in  thb  britibh  bmpirb  on  vanuart  1,  1840. 

Country,  Vessels.  Tons.  Seamen. 

England                .         .  15,830  .         .         1,963,523  .          114,593 

Bcdtland          .                   .  3,318  .         «       378,194  .         .        25,909 

Ireland                  .         .  1,889  .         .             169,289  .            11,288 

Guernsey         ...  105  .         .         11,775  .         .            832 

Jeraey         ...  246  .         .              20,763  .              2,196 

Man                 ...  282  .         .            7.092  .         .          1,443 

Britisli  Plantations      .  6,075  .         .            497,798  .            35,020 


Total  .  .     29,174  3,277,338  205,904 

Besides  these,  there  had  been  built,  in  the  year  which  ended  on  Janaary  5,  1840, 
the  following  number  of  vessels  : — in  England,  951  ;  in  Scotland,  217  ;  and  ia 
Ireland,  49 — the  entire  number  built  in  the  United  Kingdom,  British  plantations, 
&c.  was  1646,  whose  amount  of  tonnage  was  234,801.  The  returns  from  the 
colonies  were  incomplete. 

SHIP-MONEY.  It  was  first  levied  a.d.  1007^  and  caused  great  commotions.  This 
impost  being  illegally  levied  by  Charles  I.  in  1634,  led  to  the  Revolution.  He 
assessed  London  in  seven  ships,  of  4000  tons,  and  1560  men ;  Yorkshire  in  two 
ships,  of  600  tons,  or  12,000/.  ;  Bristol  in  one  ship  of  100  tons  ;  Lancashire  in  one 
ship  of  400  tons.  The  trial  of  the  patriot  Hampden  for  refusing  to  pay  the  tax, 
which  he  at  first  solely  opposed,  took  place  in  1638.  Ship-money  was  included  ia 
a  redress  of  grievances  in  1641.  Hampden  received  a  wound  in  a  skirmish  with 
prince  Rupert,  and  died  June  24,  1643. 

SHIRT.  This  now  almost  universal  garment  is  said  to  have  been  first  generally  worn 
in  the  west  of  Europe  early  in  the  eighth  century. — Du  Fre&noy.,  Woollen  shirts 
were  commonly  worn  in  England  until  about  the  38th  of  Henry  III.  1253,  when 
linen,  but  of  a  coarse  kind  (fine  coming  at  this  period  from  abroad),  was  first  manu- 
factured in  England  by  Flemish  artisans. — Stowe, 

SHOES.  Among  the  Jews  they  were  made  of  leather,  linen,  rush,  or  wood.  Moods 
were  worn  as  ornaments  in  their  shoes  by  the  Jewish  women. — Isaiah  iii.  18. 
Among  the  Greeks  shoes  were  of  various  kinds.  Pythagoras  would  have  his  disciples 
wear  shoes  made  of  the  bark  of  trees ;  probably,  that  they  might  not  wear  what  were 
made  of  the  skias  of  animals,  as  they  refrained  from  the  use  of  everything  that  had 
life.  Sandals  were  worn  by  women  of  distinction.  The  Romans  wore  an  ivorj 
crescent  on  their  shoes  ;  and  Caligula  wore  his  enriched  with  precious  stones.  The 
Indians,  like  the  Egyptians,  wore  shoes  made  of  the  bark  of  the  papyrus.     In  Eog- 


SHO  [^  469  ']  SIB 

land  the  people  had  an  extravagant  way  of  adorning  their  feet ;  they  wore  the  beaks 
or  points  of  their  shoes  so  long,  that  they  encumbered  themselves  in  walking,  and 
were  forced  to  tie  them  up  to  their  knees  ;  the  fine  gentlemen  fastened  theirs  with 
chains  of  silver,  or  silver  gilt,  and  others  with  laces.  This  custom  was  in  vogue 
from  A.D.  1462,  but  was  prohibited,  on  the  forfeiture  of  20s,  and  on  pain  of  being 
cursed  by  the  clergy,  7  Edward  IV.  1467.  See  Dress,  Shoes  as  at  present  worn 
'  were  introduced  about  1C33.  The  buckle  was  not  used  till  1668. — Stowe;  Mortimer, 

SHOP-TAX.  The  act  by  which  a  tax  was  levied  upon  retail  shops  was  passed  in 
1785  ;  but  it  caused  so  great  a  commotion,  particularly  in  London,  that  it  was 
deemed  expedient  to  repeal  it  in  1789.  The  statute  whereby  shop-lifting  was  made 
a  felony,  without  benefit  of  clergy,  was  passed  10  and  11  William  III,  1699.  This 
statute  has  been  repealed.    See  Acts, 

SHORE,  JANE.  The  celebrated  mistress  of  Edward  IV.,  and  afterwards  of  lord 
Hastings.  She  makes  a  prominent  feature  in  English  history,  and  is  memorable  for 
the  beauty  of  her  person  and  her  misfortunes.  Jane  Shore  atoned  for  the  immora- 
lity of  her  conduct,  in  her  connexion  with  the  licentious  Edward,  and  with  Hastings, 
by  a  public  penance  in  1483.  She  was  afterwards  confined  in  Ludgate,  but  upon 
the  petition  of  Thomas  Hymore,  who  agreed  to  marry  her,  king  Richard  IIL,  in 
1484,  restored  her  liberty,  and  sir  Thomas  More  mentions  having  seen  her  ;  which 
contradicts  the  story  of  her  having  perished  by  hunger. — Harleian.  MSS. 

SHREWSBURY,  Battle  of,  between  the  royal  army  of  Henry  IV.  and  the  army  of 
the  nobles,  led  by  Percy  (surnamed  Hotspur),  son  of  the  duke  of  Northumberland, 
who  had  conspired  to  dethrone  Henry.  Each  army  consisted  of  about  12,000  men, 
and  the  engagement  was  most  bloody.  Henry  was  seen  everywhere  in  the  thickest 
of  the  fight ;  while  his  valiant  son,  who  was  afterwards  the  renowned  conqueror  of 
France,  fought  by  his  side,  and  though  wounded  in  the  face  by  an  arrow,  still  kept 
the  field,  and  performed  astonishing  acts  of  valour.  On  the  other  side,  the  daring 
Hotspur  supported  the  renown  he  had  acquired  in  many  bloody  engagements,  and 
everywhere  sought  out  the  king  as  a  noble  object  of  his  vengeance.  2300  gentlemen 
were  slain,  and  about  6000  private  men.  The  death  of  Hotspur  by  an  unknown 
hand  decided  the  fortune  of  the  day,  and  gave  the  victory  to  the  king,  July  21, 
UO^.—Hume, 

SHROPSHIRE,  Battle  op,  in  which  the  Britons  were  completely  subjugated,  and 
Caractacus,  the  renowned  king  of  the  Silures  became,  through  the  treachery  of  the 
queen  of  the  Briganti,  a  prisoner  to  the  Romans,  a.d.  51.  While  Caractacus  was 
being  led  through  Rome,  his  eyes  were  dazzled  by  the  splendours  that  surrounded 
him.  "  Alas  !"  he  cried,  "  how  is  it  possible  that  a  people  possessed  of  such 
magnificence  at  home  could  envy  me  an  humble  cottage  in  Britain  ?"  The  emperor 
was  affected  with  the  British  hero's  misfortunes,  and  won  by  his  address.  He 
ordered  him  to  be  unchained  upon  the  spot,  and  set  at  liberty  with  the  rest  of  the 
captives. — Goldsmith, 

SHROVE  TUESDAY.  In  the  season  of  Lent,  after  the  people  had  made  confession, 
according  to  the  discipline  of  the  ancient  church,  they  were  permitted  to  indulge  in 
festive  amusements,  although  not  allowed  to  partake  of  any  repast  beyond  the  usual 
substitutes  for  flesh  ;  and  hence  arose  the  custom  yet  preserved  of  eating  pancakes 
and  fritters  at  Shrovetide,  the  Greek  Christians  eating  eggs,  milk,  &c.  during  the 
first  week  of  Lent.  On  these  days  of  authorised  indulgence  the  most  wanton 
recreations  were  tolerated,  provided  a  due  regard  was  paid  to  the  abstinence  com- 
manded by  the  church  ;  and  from  this  origin  sprang  the  Carnival.  On  Shrove 
Tuesday  the  people  in  every  parish  throughout  England  formerly  confessed  their 
sins ;  and  the  parish  bell  for  the  purpose  was  rung  at  ten  o'clock.  In  several 
ancient  parishes  the  custom  yet  prevails  of  ringing  the  bell,  and  obtains  in  London 
the  name  of  pancake-bell.     Observed  as  a  festival  before  1430. 

SIBYLS.  The  Sibylla  were  certain  women  inspired  by  heaven,  who  flourished  in 
different  parts  of  the  world.  Their  number  is  unknown.  Plato  speaks  of  one, 
others  of  two,  Pliny  of  three,  JSlian  of  four,  and  Varro  of  ten,  an  opinion  which  is 
universally  adopted  by  the  learned.  An  Erythrean  sibyl  is  said  to  have  offered  to 
Tarquin  II.  nine  books  containing  the  Roman  destinies,  demanding  for  them  300 
pieces  of  gold.  He  denied  her,  whereupon  the  sibyl  threw  three  of  them  into  the 
fire,  and  asked  the  same  price  for  the  other  six,  which  being  still  denied,  she  burned 
three  more,  and  again  demanded  the  same  sum  for  those  that  remained ;  when 


SIC 


[470] 


SIC 


B.C. 


1186 

1186 

7» 

713 

668 


to 


Tarqom,  conferring  with  the  pontiffs,  was  advised  to  bay  them.     Two  magistrates 
were  cmted  to  consult  them  on  all  occasions,  531  b.c. 

SICILY.  See  Naplet*  The  ancient  inhabitants  of  this  island  were  the  Sicam,  a 
people  of  Spain,  and  Etrnscana,  who  came  hither  from  Italy,  1294  b.c.  A  secofui 
colony,  under  Sicolaa,  arrived  80  years  before  the  destmction  of  Troy,  1264  b.c.— 
Lenglei.  The  Phoenicians  and  Greeks  settled  some  colonies  here,  and  at  last  tiie 
CarUiaginians  became  masters  of  the  whole  island,  till  they  were  dispossessed  of  it 
by  the  Romans  in  the  Panic  wars.  Some  aathors  suppose  that  Sicily  waa  originaQy 
joined  to  the  continent,  and  that  it  was  separated  from  Italy  by  an  earthqaake,  and 
that  the  straits  of  the  Charybdis  were  formed— ^wAn  ;  Livy. 

Spain;  but  Naples  remains  to  the 
hooM  of  Ai^joa,  which  expires       aj%.  lac 

Jane,  the  late  aoTerelgn,  haring  left  her 
crown  to  Louis,  duke  of  Anjou,  his 
pretensions  are  reasted  by  Charles] 
Durazzo,  cousin  of  Jane,  who  ascends 
the  throne  ....  138S 

Alphonsns,  king  of  Airagon,  takes  poe- 
sesskm  (tf  NaplM  .         .         .1458 

The  kingdom  of  Naples  and  Sicily  united 
to  the  Spanish  monarchy  .    .  15M 

The  tyranny  of  the  Spaniards  canaee  an 
insurrection,  excited  by  Masaniello,  a 
fisherman,  who,  in  fifteen  days,  raises 
two  hundred  thousand  men    .  .  1647 

Henry  duke  of  Guise,  taking  advantage 
of  these  commotions,  procures  himself 
to  be  proclaimed  king ;  but  is,  in  a  few 
days,  delivered  up  to  the  Spaniards  by 
his  adherents      .  .  .         .  1547 

Ceded  to  Victor,  duke  of  Savoy,  by  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht  .         .         .    .  1713 

Ceded  by  him  to  the  emperor  Charles 
VI.,  Sardinia  being  given  to  him  as 
an  equivalent  ....  Vt^ 

The  Spaniards  having  made  themselves 
masters  of  both  kingdoms,  Charley 
son  of  the  king  of  Spain,  asc^ids  the 
throne^  with  the  ancient  title  re- 
newed, of  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies        .  173t 

Order  of  St.  Januarius  uistituted  by  king 
Charles  173S 

The  throne  of  Spain  becoming  vacant, 
Charles,  who  isheir,  vacates  the  throne 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  in  favour  of  his  bro- 
ther Ferdinand,  agreeably  to  treaty     .  17^9 

Dreadful  earthquake  at  Messina,  in  Si- 
cily, which  destroys  40,000  •pesreoaa      .  I/K 

Naples  preserved  from  the  power  of  the 
French  by  the  British  forces  under 
admiral  Nelson  ....  1799 

Violent  earthquake  in  the  neighboor- 
hood  of  Naples       .         .         .         .    .  18G5 

The  French  invade  Naples,  depose  king 
Ferdinand  IV.,  and  give  the  crown  of 
the  Two  Sicilies  to  Joseph  Buonaparte, 
brother  to  the  emperor  of  the  French  laK 
For  subsequent  events,  see  Naples. 

TWO  StCILIES. 

1806.  Joseph  Napoleon  Buonaparte. 

1808.  Joachim  Murat;  he  was  shot,  October 
13, 1815. 

1815.  Ferdinand  I. ;  formerly  Ferdinand  IT. 
of  Naples,  and  intermediately  Fodi- 
nand  III.  of  Sicily ;  now  of  the  Unitcii 
Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

1826.  Francis  I. 

1830.  Ferdinand  n.,  Nov.  8. 


552 
496 
466 

405 


386 
386 

386 

346 
317 
309 
304 
S64 
262 
254 
236 

212 
135 

821 


Arrival  of  UlyaBe8.->/roffier 

He  pnts  out  the  eye  of  Polyphemus 

Syracuse  founded. — Eusebiut 

Oela  founded. — Thuejfdidet 

Arrival  of  the  Messenians 

Phalaris,  tyrant  of  Agrigentnm,  put 
death. — See  Brazen  Bull  .    . 

Hippocrates  becomes  tyrant  of  Gela 

Law  of  Petalism  instituted 

Reign  of  Dlooysias  . 

Offended  with  the  freedom  of  the  philo- 
sopher Plato,  the  tyrant  sells  him  for 
a  slave. — Stanlfp       .... 

Plato  ransomed  by  his  friends  .    . 

Damon  and  Pythiasflourish See  Dam&n 

and  Ppthioi  .... 

The  sway  of  Timoleon  .    . 

Usurpation  of  Agathocles  .        . 

Defeat  of  Hamiloar 

Pillage  of  the  temples  of  Lepari 

The  Romans  arrive  in  Sicily 

Agrigentum  taken  by  the  Romans     .    . 

Palermo  besieged  by  the  Romans 

Archimedos  flourishes  .    . 

The  Romans  take  Syracuse,  and  make 
all  Sicily  a  province  . 

The  servile  war  began. — Livp  .    . 

«        ♦        «        ♦        >|i        * 

Conquered  by  the  Saracens  .    a.d. 

[They  made  Palermo  the  capital,  and 
the  standard  of  Mahomet  triumphed 
for  200  years.] 

They  are  driven  out  by  a  Norman  prince, 
Roger  L,  son  of  Tancred,  who  takes  the 
title  of  count  of  Sicily 

Roger  IL,  son  of  the  above-named,  unites 
Sicily  with  Naples,  and  is  crowned 
king  of  the  Two  Sicilies 

Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  to  St.  Louis, 
king  of  France,  conquers  Naples  and 
Sicily,  deposes  the  Norman  princes, 
and  makes  himself  king 

The  French  becoming  hated  by  the  Sici- 
lians, a  general  massacre  of  the  in- 
vaders takes  place,  one  Frenchman 
only  e8caping.->See  Sicilian  Vetpers  1288 

In  the  same  year,  Sicily  is  seized  by  a 
fleet  sent  by  the  kings  of  Arragon,  in 

KINGS  OF  THE 

A  o.  1713.  Victor  Amadeus,  duke  of  Savoy ;  he 
resigned  it  to  the  emperor  Charles 
VL,  in  1718,  and  got  Sardinia  in 
lieu  of  it. 

1718.  Charles  VI.,  emperor. 

1734.  Charles,  second  eon  to  the  king  of  Spxiin, 
resigned  in  1759. 

1759.  Ferdinand  IV.,  third  son  of  the  former 
king. 


1000 


1130 


1266 


SIC 


[471] 


< 


SIE 


SICILIAN  VESPERS.  The  memorable  massacre  of  the  French  in  Sicily,  known  by 
this  name,  commenced  at  Palermo,  March  30,  1282.  The  French  had  become 
hateful  to  the  Sicilians,  and  a  conspiracy  against  Charles  of  Anjou  was  already  ripe^ 
when  the  following  occurrence  led  to  develop  and  accomplish  it.  On  Easter  Mon- 
day, the  chief  conspirators  had  assembled  at  Palermo ;  and  while  the  French  were 
engaged  in  festivities,  a  Sicilian  bride  happened  to  pass  by  with  her  train.  She  was 
observed  by  one  Drochet,  a  Frenchman,  who,  advancing  towards  her,  began  to  use 
her  rudely,  under  pretence  of  searching  for  arms.  A  young  Sicilian,  exasperated  at 
this  affront,  stabbed  him  with  his  own  sword ;  and  a  tumult  ensuing,  200  French 
were  instantly  murdered.  The  enraged  populace  now  ran  through  the  city,  crying 
out  "  Let  the  French  die  !''  and,  without  distinction  of  rank,  age,  or  sex,  they 
slaughtered  all  of  that  nation  they  could  find,  to  the  number  of  8000,  Even  such 
as  had  fled  to  the  churches  found  no  sanctuary  there — the  massacre  became  general 
throughout  the  island. 

SIDON,  IN  Syria.  Capture  of  this  town  from  the  pacha  of  Egypt  by  the  troops  of 
the  Sultan  and  of  his  allies,  assisted  by  some  ships  of  the  British  squadron,  under 
admiral  Stopford  and  commodore  Napier,  Sept.  27,  1840.  Here  were  found  large 
quantities  of  ammunition  and  stores.     See  articles  Syrian  and  Turkey. 

SIEGES.  Azoth,  which  was  besieged  by  Psammitichus  the  Powerful,  held  out  for 
nineteen  years. —  Usher,  It  held  out  for  twenty-nine  years. — Herodotus,  This  was 
the  longest  siege  recorded  in  the  annals  of  antiquity.  The  siege  of  Troy  was  the 
most  celebrated,  occupied  ten  years,  1184  B.C.  The  following  are  the  principal  and 
most  memorable  sieges  since  the  twelfth  century  : — 


Acre,  1192,  1799,  hy  Buona' 
parte  /  siege  raised  after 
60  dayst  open  trenches. 

Algeeiras,  1341. 

Algiers,  1681;  Bomb-vessels 
first  used  by  a  French  en- 
gineer named  Renau,  1816. 

Alkmaer,  1573. 

Almeida,  August  27, 1810. 

Amiens,  1597* 

Ancona,  1799. 

AngoulSme,  1345. 

Antwerp,  1576.  Use  of  in- 
fernal machines,  1583;  1585, 
1706,  1792,  1814. 

Arras,  1414. 

Ath,  1745. 

Avignon,  1226. 

Azoff,  1736. 

Badajos,  March  11, 1811.  Be- 
sieged by  lord  Wellington, 
in  May  ;  but  siege  raised. 
Again  in  June ;  raised 
June  9.  Taken  by  escalade 
on  the  night  qf  April  6, 1812. 

Bagdad.  1248. 

Bangalore,  March  6, 1791. 

Barcelona,  1697, 1714. 

Bayonne,  1451. 

Beauvais,  1472. 

Belgrade,  1439,  1455,  1521, 
1688, 1717, 1739, 1789. 

Bellegarde,  1793, 1794. 

Belle-Isle,  April  7, 1761. 

Bergen-op-Zoom,  1588,  1622, 
1747, 1814. 

Berwick.  1293. 

Besanpon,  1668, 1674. 

Bethime,  17IO. 

Bois-Ie-Duc,  1603,  1794. 

Bologna,  1512, 1796. 

Bommel;  the  invention  of 
the  covert-way,  1794. 


Bonifacio,  1553. 

Bonn.  1687,  1689,  1703. 

Bordeaux.  1451,  1653. 

Bouchain,  1676, 171I. 

Boulogne,  1545. 

Brannau.  1744, 1805. 

Breda,  1690, 1625,  1793. 

Brescia,  1512, 1796,  1799. 

Breslau,  Jan.  8, 1807. 

Brisac,  1638,  1703. 

Brussels,  1696,  1746. 

Buda,  1526, 1541,  1686. 

Burgos,  Sept.  19  to  Oct.  22, 
1812;  raised.  The  French 
in  their  retreat  blew  up  the 
works,  June  13, 1813. 

Cadiz,  1812. 

Caen,  1346, 1450. 

Calais,  1347,  {British  histo- 
rians affirm  that  cannon 
were  used  at  Cressy,  1346. 
and  here  in  1347.  First 
used  here  in  1388.— Rymxr's 
F(ED.)  1558,  1596. 

Calvi,  1794. 

Campo-Mayor,  Mar.  23, 1811. 

Candia;  the  largest  cannon 
then  known  in  Europe  used 
here  by  the  Turks,  1667. 

Capua,  1501. 

Carthagena,  17O6. 

Castillon,  1452, 1586. 

Ceuta,  1790. 

Chalons,  1199. 

Charleroi.  1672,  1677,  1693, 
1736, 1794. 

Chai-tres,  1568, 1591. 

Chaves,  March  25, 1809. 

Cherbourg,  1450. 

Chincilla,  Oct.  30, 1812. 

Ciudad  Rodrigo,  17O6 ;  July 
10, 1810 ;  Jan.  19, 1812. 

Colberg,  1760,  I8O7. 


Colchester,  1645. 

Compi^gne    (Joan  of  Arc), 
1430. 

Condd,  1676, 1792, 1794. 

Coni,  1691, 1744. 

Constantinople,  1453. 

Copenhagen,  I7OO,  1801, 1807- 

Corfu,  1715. 

Courtray,  1302  et  seq.  1794. 

Cracow,  1772. 

Cremona,  1702. 

Dantzic,  1734, 1793,  1807, 1813 

to  Jan.  12, 1814. 
Dendermonde,  1667< 
Dole,  1668. 1674. 
Douay,  171O. 
Dover,  1216. 
Dresden,  1745, 1813. 
Drogheda,  1649. 
Dublin,  1500. 
Dunkirk,  1646, 1793. 
Edinburgh,  1093. 
Figueraa,  Aug.  19. 1811. 
Flushing,  Aug.  15, 180a 
Fontenoy,  1242. 
Frederickshal ;  Charles  XII. 

kiUed,  171a 
Frederiokstein,    August   13, 

1814. 
Fumes,  1675, 1744,  1793. 
Gaeta,  1433, 1707,  1734,  1799, 

July,  1806,  1815. 
Genoa,  1747, 1800. 
Gerona.  Dec.  10, 1809. 
Ghent,  1576, 170a 
Gibraltar,    1704,    1779    (See 

Gibraltar),  1792. 
Qlatz,  1742,  I8O7. 
Gottingen,  1760. 
Graves,  1602, 1674,  1794. 
Gravelines,  1644. 
Grenada,  1491, 1492. 
Groningen,  1680, 1672, 1795. 


8IE 


[473  1 


SIL 


SIEGES,  continued, 

Goeldrc4,  IfitT.  1640.  1709L 

lUcrlcm.  lJ7i.  1573. 

nsin.  1411. 

Ilarflrur,  1415.  1450. 

IIctilclb(*rt.  lft« 

Herat,  June  J8.  1838. 

Iluninffen.  1815. 

Isn.ncl ;  th<  wn*  rciUtt  Sutrar- 
roir  hutcktred  3MMK)  turn, 
lA^r  ''raiv  j;«irrt«ofi.aiid(ii>UU 
•TOM  /n,  I'm  ci>/(I  Mood,  Deo. 
?-.'.  17l««. 

Kchl.  17M.  I7W. 

landnu.  17<^.  ^<  «<^->  1713, 
I79i,  And  17!K). 

Londm  is,  1540,  1712. 

Litiai.!)!il.  ISfH. 

L<Mp*>ic.  16.17  et  seq't  1813. 

LcnihtTK.  I7(^' 

I>Tida.  1«M7, 17t>7i  18U7. 

Lcydcn.  1574. 

Li*  CO.  1468,  17<>S. 

u\\',  mr7, 1708, 17W- 

Lin.»,  1747. 

Ltinorick,  ir»51,  l(i9l, 

Londonderry,  lf>M9. 

LonUljonrK.  1758. 

LyoHM,  171^1. 

MiU'Htriuht,  1570.  1G73.    Vau- 

hnn  Jirtt  came  into  notief, 

myjVk  1743. 171M. 
Mnffdeboiirg.  iCa\,  1806. 
Mh1>ixh,  1487. 
Mai  til,  1565,  17m.  1800. 
Mantua,  1734. 17!^,  179a 
ATarHcilloH,  1544. 
Mcntz,  ^»/  VharUM    V.,  1552, 

IfWK).  \T.)2ettcq.,\1^. 
Melun,  14i'0,  IfuVJ. 
Monin.  17<W,  1744. 
Mequincnza.  Juno  8,  1610. 
MeHHina.  1282,  1719. 
Metz,  1552. 
MczUtcs,  1521. 
Middleburg,  1672. 
Mons,  1572,  1681,  1709,  1746, 

1792,  1794. 
Montargis,  1427. 
Montauban,  1621. 


MoDterideo.  Jan.  180& 

Mothe ;  the  French,  tavffkt  bjf 
«  Mr.  MuUer^  an  English 
engineer,  J(rtt  practised  the 
art  <if  throwing  shells,  1634. 

Murviedro,  Oct  95, 181L 

Namiir.  1692, 1746,  1792. 

Naples.  1381,  1435, 1504, 1557. 
1792.  1799,  1806. 

Nice,  VJVtS. 

Nieuport.  1745. 1794. 

Olivenxa.  Jan.  22, 1811. 

OlmuU,  1758. 

Orleans,  1428.  1563. 

08t«nd,  1701.  1706, 1745. 

Oodenarde,  1706, 1745. 

Ptedua,  15I)9l 

Pampcluna.  Oct  31, 1813. 

Paris,  1429.  1485, 1594. 

Farma.  1248. 

Pavia,  1525,  1655, 1796. 

Perpignan,  1542,  1642. 

PhilipvUle.  157a 

PhUipsburg.  1644,  1675. 1688, 
first  ejcpcriment  fnf  firing 
artilUrjf  d-rieochet,  1734, 
1795. 

Plattiiburg,  Sept  U,  1814. 

Pondlcherry,  1748, 1792. 

Prague.  1741.  1743,1744. 

Quctnoy,  1794. 

Ucnncfl,  1.357. 

KheiniH.  1.T59. 

Rhodca,  1522. 

Riga,  1700,  1710. 

Rochello.  1573,  1627. 

Rome,  1527.  1798. 

Roniorentin :  artillerjf  first 
used  in  sieges. — Voltairb. 
t3A6. 

Rosas,  1645, 1795,  1808. 

Ruucn,  1449,  1562,  1591. 

Roxburgh,  1460. 

St.  Sebastian.  Obstinatelp  de- 
fended by  the  French  till 
Gen.  Oraham  ordered  the 
guns  to  be  fired  upon  the 
curtain  over  themen's heads 
as  theg  advanced  to  the 
breach,  Sept.  8, 1813. 


Salamanca.  June  37, 1811 

Salisbury,  1349i 

Saragofisa,  1710, 1809. 

SaTcme,  1675. 

Schweidnitz;  first  fiff^r 
ment  to  reduce  a  f&rim 
by  springing  glebes  ^  csk- 
pression,  1762, 1807- 

Scio  (see  Greece),  1822. 

Seringapatam,  1798. 

SeviUe/ 1096.  1248. 

Smolensko,  1611. 

Soissonsi,  1414. 

Stralsund;  the  method  . 
thr&unng  red-hot  balU  *^ 
practised  with  cerUiiP'}- 
1675.  1713, 1807. 

Tarifa.  I>ec.  20, 181L 

Tarraffona,  May  1813. 

Temesivar,  17I6. 

Thionville,  1643,  1?92. 

Thorn,  1703. 

Thouars,  137S,  1793L 

Tortosa.  Jan.  2.  i81i. 

Toulon,  1707,  1793: 

Toulouse,  1217- 

Toumay,  1340,  1352,  m 
1667,  17OP  (this  was  tie 
best  defence  ever  dn'ra 
front  countermines),  H**- 
1794. 

Treves,  J  675. 

Tunis,  1270,  1536. 

Turin,  1640,  1706,  17» 

Urbino,  1799. 

Valencia,  Dec.  25, 1811. 

Valenciennes,  1677, 1794. 

Varnies,  1343. 

Venloo,  1702.  1794. 

Verdun,  1792- 

Vienna,  1529,  1683. 

Wakefield,  1460. 

Warsaw,  Sept  8, 1831. 

Xativa,  1707- 

Xeres,  1262. 

Ypres,  1648,  1744,  17»4- 

Zurich,  1544. 

Zutphen,  1572,  158& 


SIERRA  LEONE.  Discovered  in  a.d.  1460.  In  1786,  London  swarmed  with  frc« 
negroes  living  in  idleness  and  want;  and  400  of  them,  with  60  whites,  mostly  women 
of  bad  character  and  in  ill  health,  were  sent  out  to  Sierra  Leone,  at  the  chaise  of 
government,  to  form  a  settlement,  December  9,  1786.  The  settlement  attacfced  6y 
the  French,  September  1794  :  by  the  natives,  February  1802.  Sir  Charles 
Macarthy,  the  governor  of  the  colony,  murdered  by  the  Ashantee  chief,  Jan.  21, 182^' 

SIGNALS.  In  the  history  of  the  Punic  wars  Polybius  alludes  to  this  mode  of  coo- 
munication.  In  the  naval  occurrences  of  modern  Europe,  mention  is  early  made  of 
signals.  Elizabeth  had  instructions  drawn  up  for  the  admiral  and  general  of  the 
expedition  to  Cadiz,  to  be  announced  to  the  fleet  in  a  certain  latitude :  it  was  on 
this  occasion  that  we  meet  with  the  first  set  of  signals  and  orders  to  the  commaoden 
of  the  English  fleet.  Signals,  as  a  system,  were  used  in  the  navy,  invented  by  the 
duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.,  1665. — Guthrie. 

SILK.  Wrought  silk  was  brought  from  Persia  to  Greece,  325  b.c.  Known  at  Ro""' 
in  Tiberius's  time,  when  a  law  passed  in  the  senate,  prohibiting  the  use  of  plate  o! 


8IL  [  473  ]  SIN 

massy  gold,  and  also  forbidding  men  to  debase  themselves  by  wearing  silk,  fit  only 
for  women.  Heliogabalus  first  wore  a  garment  of  silk,  a.d.  220.  Silk  was  at  first 
of  the  same  yalue  with  gold,  weight  for  weight,  and  was  thought  to  grow  in  the  same 
manner  as  cotton  on  trees.  Silk-worms  were  brought  from  India  to  Europe  in  the 
sixth  centary.  Charlemagne  sent  Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  a  present  of  two  silken 
Tests,  A.D.  780.  The  manufacture  was  encouraged  by  Roger,  king  of  Sicily,  at 
Palermo,  1130,  when  the  Sicilians  not  only  bred  the  silk-worms,  but  spun  and 
weaved  the  silk.  The  manufacture  spread  into  Italy  and  Spain,  and  also  into  the 
south  of  France,  a  little  before  the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  about  1510  ;  and  Henry  IV. 
propagated  mulberry  trees  and  silk-worms  throughout  the  kingdom,  1589.  la 
England,  silk  mantles  were  worn  by  some  noblemen's  ladies  at  a  ball  at  Kenilworth 
Castle,  1286.  Silk  was  worn  by  the  English  clergy  in  1534.  Manufactured  in 
England  in  1604 ;  and  broad  silk  wove  from  raw  silk  in  1620.  Brought  to  perfec- 
tion by  the  French  refugees  in  London,  at  SpitalBelds,  1688.  A  silk-throwing  mill 
was  made  in  England,  and  fixed  up  at  Derby,  by  sir  Thomas  Lombe,  merchant  of 
London,  modelled  from  the  original  mill  then  in  the  king  of  Sardinians  dominions, 
about  1714. 

SILVEIl.  It  exists  in  most  parts  of  the  world,  and  is  found  mixed  with  other  ores  in 
various  mines  in  Great  Britain.  The  silver  mines  of  South  America  are  far  the 
richest.  A  mine  was  discovered  in  the  district  of  La  Paz  in  1660,  which  was  so 
rich  that  the  silver  of  it  was  often  cut  with  a  chisel.  In  1749,  one  mass  of  silver, 
weighing  370  lbs.  was  sent  to  Spain.  From  a  mine  in  Norway,  a  piece  of  silver 
was  dug,  and  sent  to  the  Royal  Museum  at  Copenhagen,  weighing  560  lbs.,  and 
worth  1680/.  In  England  silver-plate  and  vessels  were  first  used  by  Wilfrid,  a 
Northumberland  bishop,  a  lofty  and  ambitious  man,  a.d.  709. —  TyrelVs  Hist,  qf 
England,     Silver  knives,  spoons,  and  cups,  were  great  luxuries  in  1300. 

SILVER  COIN.  Silver  was  first  coined  by  the  Lydians,  some  say ;  others,  by  Phidon 
of  Argos,  869  b.c.  At  Rome  it  was  first  coined  by  Fabius  Pictor,  269  B.C..  Used 
in  Britain  25  b.c.  The  Saxons  coined  silver  pennies,  which  were  22^  grains  weight. 
In  1302,  the  penny  was  yet  the  largest  silver  coin  in  England.  Sefs  Shillings^  &c. 
and  Coin.  From  1816  to  1840  inclusive,  were  coined  at  our  Mint  in  London, 
1 1,108,265/.  lbs.  in  silver,  being  a  yearly  average  of  444,330/.  The  total  amount  of 
the  seniorage  received  on  this  coin  was  616,747/.  8s.  2d. — Pari,  Ret, 

SIMONIANS.  An  ancient  sect  of  Christians,  so  called  from  their  founder  Simon 
Magus,  or  the  Magician.  He  was  the  first  heretic,  and  went  to  Rome  about  a.d.  41. 
His  heresies  were  extravagant  and  presumptuous,  yet  he  had  many  followers,  a.d. 
57.  A  sect  called  St.  Simonians  sprung  up  in  France,  and  lately  attracted  consi- 
derable attention  in  that  country ;  and  the  doctrine  of  Simonianism  has  been 
advocated  in  England,  and  particularly  by  Dr.  Prati,  who  lectured  upon  it  at  a 
meeting  in  London,  hdd  January  24,  1834. 

SINGING.  See  Music.  The  singing  of  psalms  was  a  very  ancient  custom  both 
among  the  Jews  and  Christians.  St.  Paul  mentions  this  practice,  which  was  con- 
tinued in  all  succeeding  ages,  with  some  variations  as  to  mode  and  circumstance. 
During  the  persecution  of  the  Orthodox  Christians  by  the  empress  Justina,  mother 
of  the  then  young  Valentinian  II.  a.d.  386,  ecclesiastical  music  was  introduced  in 
favour  of  the  Arians.  ''At  this  time  it  was  first  ordered  that  hymns  should  be 
sung  after  the  manner  of  Eastern  nations,  that  the  devout  might  not  languish  and 
pine  away  with  a  tedious  sorrow.''  The  practice  was  imitated  by  almost  all  other 
congregations  of  the  world.  —  St.  Augustin.  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  refined  upon 
the  church  music,  and  made  it  more  exact  and  harmonious  ;  and  that  it  might  be 
general,  he  set  up  singing-schools  in  Rome,  a.d.  602. 

SINKING  FUND.  First  projected  by  sir  Robert  Walpole,  whose  act  was  passed  in 
1716.  The  act  establishing  the  celebrated  sinking  fund  of  Mr.  Pitt  was  passed  in 
March  1786.  A  then  estimated  surplus  of  900,000/.  in  the  revenue  was  augmented 
by  new  taxes  to  make  up  the  sum  of  one  million,  which  was  to  be  invariably  applied 
to  the  reduction  of  the  national  debt.  Had  the  objects  and  operations  of  the  sinking 
fund  been  always  confined  to  the  simple  end  proposed  at  its  first  adoption,  there 
could  arise  no  question  with  regard  to  the  benefits  it  would  impart,  but  its  fallacy 
consists  not  in  its  original  constitution,  but  in  the  continuance  and  enlargement  of 
its  operation  during  periods  when  no  surplus  revenue  exists. 


SIO C  474  ] SLA 

SION  COLLEGE.  Thia  inBtltiitioii  is  rituatedon  the  site  of  a  nonnery,  which,  having 
fiillen  to  decay,  was  purchased  by  William  Elsynge,  citixen  and  mercer,  and  conyerted 
into  a  college  and  hospital,  called  from  hia  name  Elsynge  Spital ;  but  in  1340  he 
changed  it  into  an  Austin  priory,  which  was  afterwards  granted  to  sir  John  Williams, 
master  of  the  jewel-office,  to  Henry  VIII.,  who,  with  sir  Rowland  Hay  ward,  inha- 
bited it  till  its  destraction  by  fire.  In  1623,  Dr.  Thomas  White  haying  bequeathed 
3000/.  towards  porchasing  and  building  a  college  and  alms-house  on  the  ancient 
site,  his  executors  erected  the  present  college.  It  is  held  by  two  charters  of  incor- 
poration, 6  Charles  I.,  1630  ;  and  16  Charles  II.,  1664 

SIRLOIN.  The  name  given  to  a  favonrite  joint  of  beef,  whose  ample  size  has  given 
rise  to  the  well-known  popular  ballad  styled  "  The  Roast  Beef  of  Old  England." 
It  was  formally  knighted  by  Charles  II.,  "  the  merry  monarch,"  in  a  fit  of  drollery 
and  humour,  when  surrounded  by  his  laughter-loving  friends,  at  the  royal  table; 
and  the  title  of  Sir  Loin  is  given  to  the  joint  to  this  day. — Butler. 

SIRNAMES,  first  came  up  in  Greece  and  Egypt,  and  arose  in  great  acts  and  distinc- 
tions ;  as  Soter,  from  Saviour;  Nicator^  conqueror;  Euergetes,  or  Benefactor; 
PhilopatoTf  lover  of  his  father ;  Philometor^  lover  of  his  mother,  &c.  Strato  was 
aumamed  PhysicuSy  from  his  deep  study  of  nature  ;  Aristides  was  called  the  Just ; 
Phocion,  the  Good;  Plato,  the  Athenian  Bee;  Xenophon,  the  Attic  Muse; 
Aristotle,  the  Stagyrite ;  Pythagoras,  the  Samian  Sage ;  Menedeemns,  the  Ere- 
trian  Bull ;  Democritus,  the  Laughing  Philosopher  ;  Virgil,  the  Mantuan  SwaiUf 
&c.  Sirnames  were  introduced  into  England  by  the  Normans,  and  were  adopted  by 
the  nobility,  a.o.  1100.  The  old  Normans  used  Fitx,  which  signifies  son,  as  Fitz- 
herbert.  The  Irish  used  O,  for  grandson,  as  O'Neal,  O'Donnel.  The  Scottish 
Highlanders  employed  Mac,  as  Macdonald,  son  of  Donald.  The  Saxons  added  the 
word  son  to  the  father's  name,  as  Williamson.  Many  of  the  most  common  sir. 
names,  such  as  Johnson,  Wilson,  Dyson,  Nicholson,  &c.  were  taken  by  Brabanters 
and  other  Flemings,  who  were  naturalised  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YI.  1435^ 
Eymer*8  Fadera,  vol.  z. 

SIX  CLERKS.  Officers  of  the  Court  of  Chancery,  who  were  anciently  Clerici,  They 
should  conform  to  the  laws  of  celibacy,  and  forfeited  their  places  if  they  married ; 
but  when  the  constitution  of  the  court  began  to  alter,  a  law  was  made  to  permit 
them  to  marry,  by  Statute  24  and  25  Henry  VIII.  1533. 

SKINS.  The  raw  skins  of  cattle  were  usually  suspended  on  stakes  made  use  of  instead 
of  kettles,  to  boil  meat,  in  the  north  of  England  and  in  Scotland,  1  Edward  III.  1327. 
—Leland.  About  five  millions  of  skins  of  oxen,  lambs,  kid,  &c.  dressed  and 
undressed,  with  those  of  wild  animals,  are  imported  into  Great  Britain  annually.— 
Pari,  Returns, 

SLAVERY.  Slavery  has  existed  from  the  earliest  ages.  With  other  abominable 
customs,  the  traffic  in  men  spread  from  Chaldea  into  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  all  over 
the  East,  and  at  length  into  every  known  region  under  heaven.  In  Greece,  in  the 
time  of  Homer,  all  prisoners  of  war  were  treated  as  slaves.  The  Lacedemonian 
youth,  trained  up  in  the  practice  of  deceiving  and  butchering  slaves,  were  from  time 
to  time  let  loose  upon  them  to  show  their  proficiency  in  stratagem  and  massacre ; 
and  once,  for  their  amusement  only,  they  murdered  3000  in  one  night.  Alexander, 
when  he  razed  Thebes,  sold  the  whole  people,  men,  women,  and  children,  for  slaves, 
335  B.C.     See  Helots, 

SLAVERY  IN  ROME.  In  Rome  slaves  were  often  chained  to  the  gate  of  a  great 
man's  house,  to  give  admittance  to  the  guests  invited  to  the  feast.  By  one  of  the 
laws  of  the  XII.  Tables,  creditors  could  seize  their  insolvent  debtors,  and  keep  them 
in  their  houses  till,  by  their  services  or  labour,  they  had  discharged  the  sum  they 
owed.  C.  PoUio  threw  such  slaves  as  gave  him  the  slightest  offence  into  his  fish- 
ponds, to  fatten  his  lampreys,  42  B.C.  Csecilius  Isidorus  left  to  his  heir  4116 
slaves,  12  B.C. 

SLAVERY  IN  ENGLAND.  Slavery  was  very  early  known  ;  and  laws  respecting  the 
sale  of  slaves  were  made  by  Alfred.  The  English  peasantry  were  so  commonly  sold 
for  slaves  in  Saxon  and  Norman  times,  that  children  were  sold  in  Bristol  market 
like  cattle  for  exportation.  Many  were  sent  to  Ireland,  and  others  to  Scotland.  A 
statute  was  enacted  by  Edward  VI.  that  a  runaway,  or  any  one  who  lived  idly  for 
three  days,  should  be  brought  before  two  justices  of  the  peace,  and  marked  V  with 


SLA  [  475  ]  SLE 

a  hot  iron  on  the  breast,  and  adjudged  the  slaye  of  him  who  brought  him  for  two 
years.  He  was  to  take  the  slavoi  and  give  him  bread,  water,  or  small  drink,  and 
refuse  meat,  and  caase  him  to  work  by  beating,  chaining,  or  otherwise ;  and  if, 
within  that  space,  he  absented  himself  foarteen  days,  was  to  be  marked  on  the  fore- 
head or  cheek,  by  a  hot  iron,  with  an  S,  and  be  his  master's  slave  for  ever — second 
desertion  was  made  felony.  Lawful  to  put  a  ring  of  iron  round  his  neck,  arm,  or 
leg.  A  beggar's  child  might  be  put  apprentice,  and,  on  running  away,  become  a 
slave  to  his  master,  1547. 

SLAVE  TRADE.  The  slave  trade  from  Congo  and  Angola  was  begun  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  1481.  Volumes  have  been  written,  confined  to  facts  alone,  describing  the 
horrors  of  this  traffic.  The  commerce  in  man  has  brutalised  a  tract  15  degrees  on 
each  side  the  equator,  and  40  degrees  wide,  or  of  four  millions  of  square  miles ;  and 
men  and  women  have  been  bred  for  sale  to  the  Christian  nations  during  the  last  250 
years,  and  wars  carried  on  to  make  prisoners  for  the  Christian  market.  The  Abb6 
Raynal  computes  that,  at  the  time  of  his  writing,  9,000,000  of  slaves  had  been  con- 
sumed by  the  Europeans.  ''Add  1,000,000  at  least  more,  for  it  is  about  ten  years 
since,"  says  Mr.  Cooper,  who  published  letters  on  this  subject  in  1787.  In  the  year 
1768,  the  slaves  taken  from  their  own  continent  amounted  to  104,100.  In  1786,  the 
annual  number  was  about  100,000 ;  and  in  1807  (the  last  year  of  the  English  slave 
trade),  it  was  shown  by  authentic  documents,  produced  by  government,  that  from 
1792  upwards  of  3,500,000  Africans  had  been  torn  from  their  country,  and  had  either 
miserably  perished  on  the  passage,  or  had  been  sold  in  the  West  Indies  *. — Butler, 

SLAVE  TRADE  of  ENGLAND.  Captain,  afterwards  sir  John  Hawkins,  was  the 
first  Englishman,  after  the  discovery  of  America,  who  made  a  traffic  of  the  human 
species.  His  first  expedition  with  the  object  of  procuring  negroes  on  the  coast  of 
Africa,  and  conveying  them  for  sale  to  the  West  Indies,  took  place  in  October  1563. 
See  Guinea,  In  the  year  1786,  England  employed  130  ships,  and  carried  off  42,000 
slaves ;  and  such  was  the  extent  of  British  commerce  in  human  fiesh,  that  at  the 
period  of  slave  emancipation  in  the  British  plantations  in  1833,  the  number  of  slaves, 
which  had  previously  been  considerably  more,  yet  then  amounted  to  770,280.  The 
slave-trade  question  was  debated  in  parliament  in  1787.  The  debate  for  its  abolition 
lasted  two  days  in  April  1791.  The  motion  of  Mr.  Wilberforce  was  lost  by  a  majo- 
rity of  88  to  83,  April  3,  1798.  After  several  other  efforts  of  humane  and  just  men, 
the  question  was  introduced  under  the  auspices  of  lord  GrenvUle  and  Mr.  Fox,  then 
ministers,  March  31,  1806 ;  and  the  trade  was  finally  abolished  by  parliament,  March 
25,  1807. 

SLAVES,  Emancipation  of.  Act  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  throughout  the  British 
colonies,  and  for  the  promotion  of  industry  among  the  manumitted  slaves,  and  for 
compensation  to  the  persons  hitherto  entitled  to  the  services  of  such  slaves,  by  the 
grant  from  parliament  of  20,000,000/.  sterling,  passed  3  and  4  William  IV.,  Aug.  28, 
1833.  By  the  operation  of  this  act,  slavery  terminated  in  the  British  possessions  on 
Aug.  1,  1834,  and  770,280  slaves  became  free.     See  Somerset  the  Black, 

SLEEP.  We  are  told  that  while  Epimenides  was  at  Athens,  and  was  one  day  attending 
his  flocks,  he  entered  a  cave,  and  there  fell  asleep.  His  sleep  continued,  according 
to  some  writers,  forty  or  forty -seven  years  ;  Pliny  says  he  slept  fifty-seven  years  ; 
and  when  he  awoke,  he  found  every  object  so  altered  he  knew  not  where  he  was.  It 
is  supposed  that  he  lived  289  years,  596  B.C.  We  have  many,  and  even  very  late, 
instances  of  persons  in  these  countries  sleeping  continuously  for  weeks  and  months. 

*  European  avarice  has  been  glutted  with  the  murder  of  180,000,000  of  our  fellow-creatures,  recol- 
lecting that  for  every  one  slave  procured,  ten  are  slaughtered  in  their  own  land  in  war,  and  that  a 
fifth  die  on  the  passage,  and  a  third  in  the  seasoning.— Cooper's  Lettjers  ov  the  Blavr  Trade. 
"  But,"  says  Butler,  "  this  monstrous  colossiU  crime  has  not  been  perpetrated  with  impunity.  Not 
only  its  prosecution,  but  its  effects  have  in  some  measure  called  down  upon  us  the  frowns  and  the 
judgments  of  Heaven. 

"  By  foreign  wealth  are  British  morals  changed, 
And  Afric's  sons,  and  India's,  smile  avenged." 

The  trade  was  abolished  by  Austria  in  1782.  By  the  French  convention  in  1794.  By  England  {»ee 
abow)  in  1807*  The  Allies,  at  Vienna,  declared  against  it,  February  1815.  Napoleon,  in  the  hundred 
days,  abolished  the  trade,  March  29, 1815.  Treaty  with  Spain,  1817 ;  with  the  Netherlands,  May 
1818;  with  Brazil,  Nov.   1826.    But  this  horrid  tra£So  continues  to  be  encouraged  in  several  states. 


8LU  [_  476  ]  SOA 

ijir  William  Jones,  so  well  known  for  his  ^reat  acqaisitionB  in  oriental  literature,  waa 
no  less  remarkable  for  his  piety.     A  friend  reciting  sir  Edward  Coke's  couplet  of 

**  Six  hoars  to  deep,  in  law's  grave  study  six, 
**  Four  spend  in  prayer,  the  rest  on  nature  fix.** 

He  subjoined,  Rather  say — 

**  Seven  hours  to  law,  to  soothing  slumber  seven, 
*'  Ten  to  the  world  allot,  and  all  to  Heavoi." 

SLUYS,  Natal  Battle  of.  In  this  battle  Edward  III.  gained  a  signal  victory  over 
the  French.  The  English  had  the  wind  of  the  enemy,  and  the  sun  at  their  backs, 
and  began  the  action,  which  was  fierce  and  bloody,  the  English  archers  galling  the 
French  on  their  approach.  Two  hundred  and  thirty  French  ships  were  taken  : 
thirty  thousand  Frenchmen  were  killed,  with  two  of  their  admirals :  the  loss  of  the 
English  was  inconsiderable :  June  24,  1340. — Naval  Chron. ;  Hume, 

SMALCALD,  Treaty  of,  in  Franconia.  The  league  entered  into  between  the  elector 
of  Brandenburg  and  the  other  princes  of  Germany  in  favour  of  Protestantism,  1529-30. 
For  the  subscribing  to  this  memorable  treaty,  see  Protestants. 

SMALL- POX.  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu  introduced  inoculation  for  the  small- 
pox from  Turkey,  her  own  son  having  been  inoculated  with  perfect  success  at 
Adrianople,  a.d.  1718.  She  was  allowed,  by  way  of  experiment,  to  inoculate  seven 
capital  convicts,  who,  on  their  recovery,  were  pardoned.  Inoculation  for  the  small- 
pox was  encouraged  under  the  auspices  of  Dr.  Mead.  A  small-pox  hospital  was 
instituted  in  London  1746,  but  the  present  building  was  not  opened  till  1767.  See 
Inoculation  and  Vaccination** 

SMOLENSKO,  Battle  of.  One  of  the  most  memorable  of  the  celebrated  Russian 
campaign  of  1812,  between  the  French  and  Russian  armies.  The  French  in  this 
most  sanguinary  engagement  were  three  times  repulsed,  but  they  ultimately  suc- 
ceeded, and,  on  entering  Smolensko,  found  the  city,  which  had  been  bombarded, 
burning  and  partly  in  ruins.  Barclay  de  ToUi,  the  Russian  commander-in-chief, 
incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  emperor  Alexander,  because  he  retreated  after  the 
battle,  and  Kutusoff  sacceeded  to  the  command,  Aug.  17,  1812. 

SM  U6GLERS.  The  customs  duties  were  instituted  originally  to  enable  the  king  to 
afford  protection  to  trade  against  pirates ;  and  they  aftei'wards  became  a  branch  of 
pablic  revenue.  The  act  so  well  known  as  the  Smugglers'  Act  was  passed  in  1736. 
The  severity  of  this  act  was  mitigated  in  1781,  and  new  provisions  were  made  in 
1784.     A  revision  of  these  statutes  took  place,  Jan.  5,  1826. 

SNEEZING.  The  custom  of  saying  "God  bless  you"  to 'the  sneezer,  originated, 
according  to  Strada,  among  the  ancients,  who,  through  an  opinion  of  the  danger 
attending  it,  after  sneezing  made  a  short  prayer  to  the  gods,  as  "  Jupiter  help  me." 
Polydore  Virgil  says  it  took  its  rise  at  the  time  of  the  plague  of  a.d.  558,  in  which 
the  infected  fell  down  dead  sneezing,  though  seemingly  in  good  health. 

SNUFF-TAKING.  This  practice  took  its  rise  in  England  from  the  captures  made  of 
vast  quantities  of  snuff  by  sir  George  Rooke's  expedition  to  Vigo  in  1702.  The 
prize  of  the  forces  having  been  sent  home  and  sold,  the  vice  soon  obtained  from 
which  the  revenue  now  draws,  with  tobacco,  considerably  more  than  3,000,000/. 
per  annum.  In  the  year  ending  Jan.  5,  1840,  there  were  imported  l,622,493lbs.  of 
snuff,  of  which  196,3051bs.  were  entered  for  home  consumption;  the  duty  was 
88,263/.     See  Tobacco, 

SOAP.  This  article  was  imperfectly  known  to  the  ancients.  The  first  express  mention, 
of  it  occurs  in  Pliny  and  Galen ;  and  the  former  declares  it  to  be  an  invention  of  the 
Gauls,  though  he  prefers  the  German  to  the  Gallic  soap.  In  remote  periods  clothes 
were  cleaned  by  being  rubbed  or  stamped  upon  in  water.  Nausicaa  and  her  attend- 
ants, Homer  tells  us,  washed  theirs  by  treading  upon  them  with  their  feet  in  pits  of 
water. — Odyssey,  book  vi.  The  manufacture  of  soap  began  in  London  in  1524,  before 
which  time  it  was  supplied  by  Bristol  at  one  penny  per  pound.  One  hundred  and 
fifty  millions  of  pounds  weight  of  soap  are  now  annually  made  in  England. 

*  Catherine  II.,  empress  of  Russia,  was  inoculated  for  the  Bniall-pox,by  Dr.  Dimsdale,  of  London, 
-whom  she  most  liberally  remunerated  for  his  attendance  at  St.  Petersburgh,  by  presenting  him  with 
10,000/.  sterling  as  a  present,  settling  upon  him  an  annual  pension  of  £00/.,  to  be  paid  in  England, 
and  creating  him  a  baron  of  the  Russian  empire,— Butler, 


SOC  Q  477  ]  SOM 

SOCIALISTS.  The  doctrines  of.  socialism  were  advocated  in  London,  Jan.  24,  1834, 
by  the  celebrated  Robert  Owen,  who  is  the  founder  of  the  sect,  if  it  be  entitled  to 
the  name.  This  individual  has  been  labouring  indefatigably  since  that  time  to  pro- 
pagate his  doctrines,  and  swell  the  number  of  his  followers :  and  the  freedom  of 
religious  thought  and  latitude  in  morals  ascribed  to  the  socialists  have  served  to 
increase  their  numbers  with  the  weak,  depraved,  and  ignorant  among  the  multitude. 

SOCINIANS.  So  called  from  their  founders,  Faustus  and  Lselius  Socinus.  They 
taught  that  Jesus  was  a  mere  man,  who  had  no  existence  before  he  was  conceived  by 
the  Virgin ;  that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  not  a  distinct  person ;  and  that  the  Father 
only  is  truly  God.  They  maintained  that  Christ  died  only  to  give  mankind  a  pattern 
of  heroic  virtue,  and  to  seal  his  doctrine  with  his  death.  Original  sin,  grace,  and 
predestination  they  treated  as  mere  chimeras.  Socinianism  was  propagated  about 
A.D.  1560. — Pardon. 

SODOM  AND  GOMORRAH.  These  cities,  with  all  their  inhabitants,  destroyed  by 
fire  from  heaven,  1897  B.c^Biblet  Blair,  Usher.  The  offence  af  sodomy  was  first 
sown  in  England  by  the  Lombards.  By  our  ancient  law,  the  criminal  was  burnt  to 
death,  though  Fleta  says  he  should  be  buried  alive.  The  crime  was  subject  to  eccle- 
siastical censure  only  at  the  time  of  Henry  VIIL,  who  made  it  felony  without  benefit 
of  clergy,  1533.    Confirmed  by  statute  5  Elizabeth,  1562. 

SODOR  AND  MAN,  Bishopric  of.  See  Man,  Bishopric  of,  Sodor  is  a  village  of 
Icolmkill.  Dr.  Johnson  calls  it  **  the  luminary  of  the  Caledonian  regions,  whence," 
he  adds,  **  savage  clans  and  roving  barbarians  derived  the  benefits  of  knowledge,  and 
the  blessings  of  religion.' '  The  bishop's  seat  was  at  Rushin,  or  Castletown,  in  the 
isle  of  Man,  and  in  Latin  is  entitled  Sodorensis,  But,  when  that  island  became 
dependent  upon  the  kingdom  of  England,  the  western  islands  withdrew  themselves 
from  the  obedience  of  their  bishop,  and  had  a  bishop  of  their  own,  whom  they 
entitled  also  Sodorensis,  but  commonly  bishop  of  the  isles.  See  Isles*  Germanus 
was  settled  here  by  St.  Patrick  in  447.  The  bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man  is  not  a  lord 
of  parliament. 

SOLAR  SYSTEM.  The  system  nearly  as  now  accepted,  after  the  investigations  and 
discoveries  of  many  enlightened  centuries  and  ages,  was  taught  by  Pythagoras  of 
Samos,  about  529  B.C.  In  his  system  of  the  universe  he  placed  the  sun  in  the  centre, 
and  all  the  planets  moving  in  elliptical  orbits  round  it — a  doctrine  deemed  chimerical 
and  improbable,  till  the  deep  inquiries  and  the  philosophy  of  the  sixteenth  century 
proved  it,  by  the  most  accurate  calculations,  to  be  true  and  incontestable.  The 
system  of  Pythagoras  was  revived  by  Copernicus,  and  it  is  hence  called  the  Coperni- 
can  system.  Its  truth  was  fully  demonstrated  by  sir  Isaac  Newton,  in  1695.  How 
truly  the  poet  says — 

"  He  who  through  vast  immensity  can  pierce, 

**  See  worlds  on  worlds  compose  one  universe, 

'*  Observe  how  system  into  system  runs, 

**  What  other  planets  circle  other  suns, 

*♦  What  varied  beings  people  every  star, 

**  May  tell  why  Heaven  has  made  us  aa  we  are."— Pope. 

SOLEBAY,  Naval  Battle  of,  between  the  English  and  Dutch,  the  former  com- 
manded by  the  duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.  The  enemy  fled,  and  were 
pursued  by  the  British  to  their  own  coasts.  In  this  most  obstinate  and  bloody 
engagement,  the  earl  of  Sandwich  was  blown  up,  and  several  ships  and  some 
thousand  men  were  destroyed.  May  28,  1672. 

SOLOMON'S  TEMPLE.  The  foundation  laid,  480  years  after  the  deliverance  from 
Egypt,  1012  B.C.  The  temple  solemnly  dedicated,  Friday,  Oct.  30, 1004  B.C.,  being 
1000  years  before  the  birth  of  the  Redeemer. —  Usher,  Lenglet. 

SOLWAY  MOSS,  Bordering  on  Scotland.  It  swelled  owing  to  heavy  rains  ;  and  upwards 
of  400  acres  of  it  rose  to  such  a  height  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  that  at  last  it 
rolled  forward  like  a  torrent,  and  continued  its  course  above  a  mile,  sweeping  along 
with  it  houses,  trees,  and  all  in  its  way.  It  covered  600  acres  at  Netherby,  and 
destroyed  about  30  small  villages,  Nov.  13,  1771. 

SOMBRERO,  Island  of.  On  this  desert  isle,  Robert  Jeffery,  a  British  man-of-war's 
man,  was  put  ashore  by  his  commander,  the  hon.  captain  W.  Lake,  for  the  offence 
of  having  tapped  a  barrel  of  beer,  when  the  ship  was  on  short  allowance.     He  was 


80M Q  478  2 ^^ 

miracoloaaly  aayed,  after  nutainiog  life  for  eight  dayi  on  a  few  limpeta  and  rain- 
water, by  an  American  yesael  touching  at  the  rock,  Dec.  13, 1807.  Jelfery  returned 
to  England ;  bnt  sir  Francis  Burdett  advocated  his  canae  in  parliameat,  and  the 
aofferer  receiyed  aa  a  compensation  from  captain  Lake  600/. ;  but  this  officer  was 
tried  by  a  coart*martial,  and  dismiaaed  the  service,  Feb.  10,  1310. 

SOMERSET  TBB  BLACK.  The  memorable  case  of  this  sUye  determined  by  the  jadg- 
ment  of  the  court  of  King's  Bench,  at  the  instance  of  Mr.  Granville  Sharpe.  A 
poor  slave  named  Somerset,  brought  to  England,  was,  because  of  his  ill  state,  turned 
adrift  by  his  maater.  By  the  charity  of  Mr.  Sharpe,  he  was  restored  to  health,  when 
his  unfeeling  and  avaricious  master  again  claimed  him.  This  was  resisted,  and  a 
suit  was  the  consequence,  which  establi^ed,  by  its  result  in  favour  of  the  black,  the 
great  point,  that  slavery  could  not  exist  in  Great  Britain,  June  22,  1772. 

SOMERSET-HOUSE.  Formerly  a  palace  founded  on  the  site  of  several  churches 
and  other  buildings  levelled  for  the  purpose  in  1549,  by  the  protector  Somerset, 
whose  residence  fell  to  the  crowo  after  his  execution.  In  this  palace  queen  £Uza- 
beth  resided  at  certain  times ;  Anne  of  Denmark  kept  her  court ;  and  Catherine, 
queen  of  Charles  II.,  dwelt,  during  a  portion  of  the  life  of  her  volatile  sponse,  and 
continued  after  hu  death,  until  she  retired  to  her  native  country.  Old  Somerset- 
house,  which  was  a  mixture  of  Grecian  and  Gothic,  was  demolished  in  1775,  and  the 
present  magnificent  edifice,  from  a  design  by  sir  William  Chambers,  erected  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  public  offices.  The  Royal  Academy  of  Arts  first  assembled  in 
the  apartments  given  the  members  by  the  king,  Jan.  17,  1771.  Large  suites  of 
government  buildings  were  erected  in  1 774.  The  Navy-office,  Pipe-office,  Victualling 
and  other  offices,  were  removed  here  in  1788.  The  east  wing,  forming  the  King's 
College  (see  King's  College)  was  completed  in  1833. 

SO  PHI.  The  title  of  the  sovereign  of  Persia,  importing  wise.  It  is  said  by  some  to 
have  taken  its  rise  from  a  young  shepherd  named  Sophi,  who  attained  the  cro¥m  a.d. 
1370 ;  but  others  maintain  an  earlier  origin,  affirming  that  it  is  not  a  superadded 
name,  as  Pharaoh  to  the  kings  of  Egypt,  or  Ceesar  to  the  Roman  emperors,  but  the 
name  of  the  family,  or  rather  the  religion  of  Ali,  for  the  descendants  of  Ali  and 
Fatima,  the  daughter  of  Mahomet,  took  the  name  of  Sophi,  a.d.  632,  and  founded 
a  sect  called  the  Imenie,  to  explain  the  Alcoran,  which  is  followed  by  the  Persians. 

SORCERERS  and  MAGICIANS.  A  law  was  enacted  against  their  seductions,  33 
Henry  VIII.  1541  ;  and  another  statute  equally  severe  was  passed  5  Elizabeth,  1563. 
The  pretension  to  sorcery  and  witchcraft  and  the  conversing  with  evil  spirits  was 
made  capital,  1  James  I.,  1603.  For  shocking  instances  of  the  punishment  of 
sorcerers,  see  Witchcraft. 

SOUDAN  OB  SOUJAH.  The  title  of  the  lieutenant-generals  of  the  caliphs,  which 
they  went  by  in  their  provinces  and  armies.  These  officers  afterwards  made  them- 
selves sovereigns.  Saladin,  general  of  the  forces  of  Noradine,  king  of  Damascus, 
was  the  first  that  took  upon  him  this  title  in  Egypt,  a.d.  1165,  after  having  killed 
the  caliph  Caym* 

SOUND.  Fewer  than  thirty  vibrations  in  a  second  give  no  sound ;  and  when  the 
vibrations  exceed  7520  in  a  second,  the  tones  cease  to  be  discriminated.  Robesval 
states  the  velocity  of  sound  at  the  rate  of  560  feet  in  a  second ;  Gassendus,  at  1473  ; 
Derham,  at  1142  feet.  At  Paris,  where  cannon  were  fired  under  many  varieties  of 
weather  in  1738,  it  was  foand  to  be  1107  feet.  The  fire  of  the  British  on  landing  in 
Egypt  was  distinctly  heard  130  miles  on  the  sea.     See  Acoustics. 

SOUND.  The  famous  strait  between  the  Baltic  and  German  seas.  The  toll  was  esta- 
blished by  Denmark  on  all  ships  passing  into  the  Baltic,  a.d.  1348.  The  passage 
was  effected,  in  defiance  of  fortresses  hitherto  deemed  impregnable,  by  sir  Hyde 
Parker  and  lord  Nelson,  April  2,  180  i.     See  Baltic  Expedition. 

SOUNDINGS  AT  SEA.  Captain  Ross,  of  H.M.S.  (Edipus,  took  extraordinary  sound- 
ings at  sea.  One  of  them  was  taken  900  miles  west  of  St.  Helena,  where  it  extended 
to  the  depth  of  5000  fathoms.  Another  sounding  was  made  in  the  latitude  of  33 
degrees  S.  and  longitude  9  degrees  W.,  about  300  miles  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  when  2266  fathoms  were  sounded;  the  weight  employed  amounted  to 
450  lbs.  1840. 

SOUTH  SEA  BUBBLE.  This  destructive  speculation  was  commenced  in  1710  ;  and 
the  company  incorporated  by  statute,  1716.     The  bubble,  which  ruined  thousands 


sou 


[479  3 


SPA 


of  familiesi  exploded  in  1 720,  and  the  directors'  estates,  to  the  yalae  of  2,014,000/. 
were  seized  in  1721.  Mr.  Knight,  the  cashier,  absconded  with  100,000/. ;  bat  he 
compounded  the  fraad  for  10,000/.,  and  returned  to  England  in  1743.  Almost  all 
the  wealthy  persons  in  the  kingdom  had  become  stock-jobbers  and  speculators  in  this 
fatal  scheme.  The  artifices  of  the  directors  had  raised  the  shares,  originally  of  100/., 
to  the  enormous  price  of  1000/.     See  Law* 8  Bubble. 

SOUTHCOTT,  JOANNA.  A  fanatic  of  this  name,  formerly  of  Exeter,  came  to 
London,  where  her  followers  at  one  period  amounted  to  many  thousands,  and  among 
whom  were  colonels  and  generals  in  the  army,  although  the  low  and  ignorant  prin- 
cipally were  her  dupes.  She  announced  herself  as  the  woman  spoken  of  in  the 
book  of  Revelation ;  and  a  disorder  of  rather  rare  occurrence  gave  her  the  outward 
appearance  of  pregnancy  after  she  had  passed  her  grand  climacteric,  favouring  the 
delusion  that  she  would  be  the  mother  of  a  promised  Shiloh.  She  died  Dec.  27, 1814. 

SOUTHWARK.  This  part  of  London  was  governed  by  its  own  bailiffs  till  1327.  The 
city,  however,  found  great  inconvenience  from  the  number  of  malefactors  who 
escaped  thither,  in  order  to  be  out  of  the  reach  and  cognizance  of  the  city  magis- 
trates ;  and  a  grant  was  made  of  Southwark  to  the  city  of  London  by  the  crown,  for 
a  small  annuity.  In  Edward  VI.'s  reign  it  was  formed  into  a  city  ward,  and  was 
named  Bridge  Ward  Without,  1550.  Southwark  bridge  was  begun  September  23, 
1814  ;  and  was  completed  March  26,  1819,  at  an  expense  of  800,000/.  It  consists 
of  three  great  cast-iron  arches,  resting  on  massive  stone  piers  and  abutments  ;  the 
distance  between  the  abutments  is  708  feet ;  the  centre  arch  is  240  feet  span,  the 
two  others  210  feet  each  ;  and  the  total  weight  of  iron  5308  tons. 

SOVEREIGN.  The  name  of  an  ancient  as  well  as  a  modern  gold  coin  of  these  realms. 
In  Henry  I.'s  reign,  a  coin  of  this  denomination  was  issued,  of  the  value  of  22«., 
and  one  twenty-fourth  part  of  the  weight  of  a  pound  of  gold.  In  34  Henry  VIII. 
sovereigns  were  coined  of  the  value  of  20«.,  which  afterwards  (4  and  6  Edward  VI.) 
passed  for  24«.  and  30«.  By  56  George  III.  sovereigns  of  the  new  coinage  were 
directed  to  pass  for  20^.,  and  they  were  issued  from  the  Mint  same  year,  1816. 

SPA-FIELDS  RIOTS.  Here  upwards  of  30,000  persons  assembled  to  vote  an  address 
to  the  Prince  Regent,  from  the  distressed  manufacturers,  November  15,  1816.  A 
second  meeting,  Dec.  2,  following,  terminated  in  an  alarming  riot ;  the  shops  of 
several  gun-smiths  were  attacked  for  arms  by  the  rioters  ;  and  in  the  shop  of  Mr. 
Beck  with,  on  Snow-hiU,  Mr.  Piatt  was  wounded,  and  much  injury  was  done  before 
the  tumult  was  suppressed. 

SPAIN.  The  first  settlers  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  progeny  of  Tubal,  fifth  son 
of  Japheth.  The  Phoenicians  and  Carthaginians  successively  planted  colonies  on 
the  coasts ;  and  the  Romans  possessed  the  whole  country.  In  the  decline  of  the 
Roman  empire,  Spain  was  seized  by  the  Vandals,  Alans,  and  Suevi ;  afterwards 
subdued  by  the  Visigoths,  who  laid  the  foundation  of  the  present  monarchy. 


The  Vandals  and  Saevi  wrest  Spain  from 
the  Romans  .         .         .         aj>.    412 

The  Visigoths  enter  Spain  under  their 
leader,  Euric  .        .         .        .472 

The  Saracens  from  Arabia  invade  the 
country  .        .        .  713  etseq. 

Pelagius,  a  royal  Visigoth,  proclaimed 
king  of  Asturias         ....    718 

Alphonsus  II.  ref  osing  to  pay  the  Sara- 
cens the  annual  tribute  of  100  virgins, 
war  is  declared:  Alphonsus  is  vioto- 
riouB,  and  obtains  the  appellation  of 
"  the  Chaste  "...       791  et  seq. 

Inigo,  first  king  of  Navarre,  &c.  .    8S0 

Ferdinand  I.,  count  of  Castile,  takes  the 
title  of  king 1020 

Union  of  Navarre  and  Castile  .    .  1031 

The  kingdom  of  Arragon  commenced 
imder  Ramirez  I.  ...  1035 

Leon  and  Asturias  united  to  Castile       .  1037 

Portugal   taken  from  the  Saracens  by 
Henry  of  Bourbon  .  1087 

The  Saracens,  beset  on  all  sides  by  the 


Christians,  call  in  the  aid  of  the  Moors 
from  Africa,  who  seize  the  dominions 
they  came  to  protect,  and  subdue  the 
Saracens  .        .        .  a.o.  1091  et  geq. 

The  Moors  defeated  in  several  battles  by 
Alphonsus  I.  of  Navarre  .         .    . 

Twelve  Moorish  kings  overcome  in  one 
great  pitched  battle 

University  of  Salamanca  founded       .    . 

Leon  and  Castile  re-united 

Cordova,  the  residence  of  thefirst  Moorish 
kings,  taken  by  Ferdinand  of  Castile 
and  Leon 

The  kingdom  of  Granada  began  by  the 
Moors,  their  last  refuge  from  the 
power  of  the  Christians 

Reign  of  Alphonsus  the  Wise  .    . 

The  crown  of  Navarre  passes  to  the 
royal  family  of  France 

200,000  Moors  invade  Spain        .         .    . 

They  are  defeated  by  Alphonsus  XI., 
with  great  slaughter 

The  infant  Don  Henriquez,  son  of  John 


1118 

1135 
1200 
1226 


1236 


1238 
1252 

1276 
1327 

1340 


SPA 


[480] 


SPA 


SPAIN,  coniinm^, 

the  First  of  Castfle,  flnt  had  the  tide 
of  prince  of  AstnriM  .  ad.  1388 

Ferdiauid  IL  of  Anragon  marriee  Im- 
bdla  of  Castile :  tad  nearly  the  whole 
Chriftlan  dominionsof  Spain  are  nnited 
In  one  monarchy  .    .  1474 

Granada  taken  after  a  two  years*  siege; 
and  the  power  of  theMoors  is  finally  ez- 
tirpated  by  the  valoar  of  Ferdinand  1492 
Columbus  is  sent  from  Spain  to  explore 

the  western  world  .  .  1492 

Ferdinand  conquers  the  greater  part  of 

the  kingdom  of  NaTarre  .         .  1513 

Accession  of  the  house  of  Austria  to  the 

throne  of  Spain  .  .    .  1516 

Charles  V.  of  Spain  and  Germany  retires 

from  the  world  ....  1556 

Philip  I.  commences  his  bloody  perse- 
cution of  the  Protestants         .         .    .  1561 
The  Ewurinl  began  building  .         .  1562 

Portugal  unitod  to  Spain  .    .  1580 

The  Inrinciblti  Spanish  Armada  de- 
stroyed.    See   Arauula,   and   Navai 

BattUi 1588 

Philip  III.  banishes  the  Moors  and  their 
descendants,  to  the  number  of  900.000, 

from  Spain  1610 

Philip  IV.  loses  PortURal  .  .  .  1640 
Gibraltar  taken  by  the  English  .    .  1704 

Philip  V.  invades  Naples    .  .  1714 

Charles  III.,  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 

succeeds  to  the  crown  .         .    .  1759 

Battle  of  Cape  St.  Vincent  .  Feb.  14.  1797 
Spanish  treasure-ships,  valued  at  3,000,000 

dollars,  seized  by  the  English    Oct.  29,  1804 
Battle   of  Trafalgar.     See    Trafalgar ^ 

BaitU(\f  .  .    Oct.  21,  1805 

Sway  of  the  prince  of  Peace  .        .  1806 

The  French  under  Spain  .    .  1807 

Conspiracy   of  the  prince   of  Asturias 

against  his  father  .       July  25,  1807 

Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  .  .  Oct.  27,  1807 
The  French  take  Madrid  .  March,  1808 
The  prince  of  Peace  dismissed  by  the 

king  of  Spain        .         .         March  18,  1808 
Abdication  of  Charles  IV.  in  favour  of 

Ferdinand  .         .      March  19,  1808 

And  at  Bayonne,  in  favour  of  his  *'  friend 
and  ally"  Napoleon,  when  Ferdinand 
relinquished  the  crown         .      May  1,  1808 
The  French  are  massacred  at  Madrid, 

May  2,  1808 
Asturias  rises  «n  fito^fe  .       May  3,  1808 

Napoleon   assembles  the    notables    at 

Bayonne         .  .  May  25,  1808 

Joseph  Buonaparte  enters  Madrid,  as 

king  of  Spain  .         .      July  12,  1808 

He  retires  from  the  capital  July  29,  1808 

Supreme  Junta  installed         .  Sept.  1808 

Madrid  retaken  by  the  French,  and  Jo- 
seph restored  .         .         Dec-  2,  1806 
The  royal  family  of  Spain  imprisoned  in 
the  palace  of  Chambery,  in   Savoy, 

Dec.  5,  1808 
[Spain  now  becomes  the  Bcene  of  the  late 
glorious  struggle  called  the  Peninsular 
War.     For  the  events  of  which,  see 
the  articles  severally.] 


The  Spanidi  Cortes  assemble .  Sept  U,  lSli> 
Constitution  of  the  Cortes  .  May  8, 18J 
Ferdinand  YIL  restored  .  May  14, 1814 
Spanish  revolution  began  .  Jan.  1. 1^ 
Ferdinand  swears  to  the  constitution  nf 

the  Cortes  .         .        BiarchS.  lISP 

Removal   of  the  king  to  Seville,  and 

thence  to  Cadis  .         March  20, 1^ 

The  French  enter  Spain  .  April  7>  1*^ 
They  invest  Cadia  .  June  25,  I^ 

BatUe  of  the  Tiocadero  .      Aug.  31, 18£ 

Deqwtism  resumed ;  the  Cortes  dissolved ; 

executions  .         .         .        Oct  1® 

Riego  put  to  death        .  .      Nov.  27,  US' 

The  French  evacuate  Cadiz  Sept  21,  l& 
CadhE  made  a  free  port  .  Feb.  24, 18^ 
Salique  law  aboUshed    .  March  25,  m 

Queen  of  Spain  appointed  regent  during 
the  king's  indisposition,  and  a  com- 
plete change  made  in  the   ministry, 

Oct.  25, 182 
Don  Carlos  declares  himself  legitimate 
successor  to  his  brother's  throne  shonld 
the  king  die  .         .         April  29. 1«5 

Death  of  Charles  lY.,   and  his  queen 
assumes  the  title  of  governing  queen, 
until  Isabella  II.,  her  infant  daughter, 
attains  her  majority  .       .         Sept  29, 183 
The  royalist  volunteers  disarmed  with 

some  bloodshed  at  Madrid         Oct.  27,  IKS 
Don  Carlos  lands  at  Portsmouth  with 

his  family         .         .         .      June  18,11* 
He  suddenly  appears  among  his  ad- 
herents in  Spain  .  Jalj  W,  183* 
The  peers  vote  the  perpetual  exclusion 

of  Don  Carlos  from  the  throne,  Aug.30. 185» 
[Here  commences  the  desolating  civil 
war.  in  which  British  auxiliaries  take 
the  side  of  the  queen.] 
Espartero  gains  the  battle  of  Bilboa,  and 

Is  ennobled  .         .         .    Dec25, '«* 

General   Evans  retires  from   the  com- 
mand of  the  auxiliary  legion,  and  ar- 
rives in  London,  after  having  achieved 
various  successes  in  Spain  ,    June  20, 18* 
Madrid  is  declared  in  a  state  of  siege, 

Aug.  n,  185/ 
[Espartero  and  other  Christine  generals 
engage  with  the  Corlists,  and  numerous 
conflicts  take  place  with  various  suc- 
cess.] 
Madrid  is  again  declared  in  a  state  of 

siege  .         .         .  Oc'-*^'^S 

The  Spanish  Cortes  dissolved  .  June  h  ^*» 
The  Carlists  under  Marota  desert  don 

Carlos  ....  Aug.  25. 1838 
Marota  and  Espartero  conclude  a  treaty 

of  peace  .         .         .         Aug.  ^>  '^ 

Doii  Carlos    seeks  refuge  in   France, 

Sept  13, 1K9 

Madrid  again  declared  in  a  state  of  si^^*    ,^ 

Feb.  23.  18^^ 
Surrender  of  Morello  .         May  28,  l^K 

Cabrera,  the  Carlist  general,  unable  to 

maintain  the  war,  enters  France  with. 

a  body  of  his  troops  .  July  7 .  ^^ 
The  British  auxiliaries  evacuate  St.  Sel 

bastion  and  Passages      .  Aug.  25>  ^^ 


SPA 


[431  J 


SPA 


SPAIN,  continued, 

ReTolutionary  movement  at  lifadrid; 
the  authorities  triumphant  .    Sept.  1«  1840 

Dismlasal  of  the  ministry,  and  disso- 
lution of  the  Cortes  .        Sept.  9,  1840 

Espartero  makes  his  triumphal  entry 
into  Madrid        .        .        .      Oct  5,  1840 


The  queen  regent  appoints  a  new  mi- 
nis^, nominated  by  Espartero,  Oct  5,  1840 

Abdication  of  the  queen  regent  of  Spain. 

Oct.  12.  1840 

She  subsequently  leaves  the  kingdom, 
visits  France,  and  settles  in  Sicily. 


KINGS  or  SPADf. 


A.D.  406.  Alaric  L,  king  of  the  Goths;  murdered. 
411.  Athulsus;  murdered  by  his  soldiers. 
415.  Wallia, 

420.  ThbodorioL ;  killed  in  battle. 
450.  Torrismund;   assassinated  by  his  fa- 
vourite. 
453.  TheodorioIL 
466.  Euric. 

484.  Alaric  n. ;  killed  in  battle. 
507.  Gesalrio ;  killed  in  battle. 
511.  Amalario;  killed  in  battle. 
531.  Theodat ;  assassinated  by  a  madman. 

548.  Theodisele ;   murdered  for  female  vio- 

lation. 

549.  Agila ;  taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death. 
554.  Athanagild. 

567.  Levua  I. 

568.  Leovigilde. 
586.  Reoard  I. 

601.  Levua  II. ;  murdered. 
603.  Yetericus ;  murdered. 
610.  Oundonar. 
612.  SIsebuth. 

620.  Recard  IL 

621.  Suintilla;  deposed. 
630.  Sisenand. 

636.  CinthiUa. 

64a  Tulga. 

642.  Cindasvinfhe. 

649.  Resoesuintus. 

672.  Wamba. 

680.  Ervigius. 

687.  Egica,  or  Egiza> 

697.  Vitizza. 

711.  Roderick;  killed  in  battle  in  714. 

An  Interregnum  till 
718.  Pelagius. 

736.  Favila ;  killed  by  a  bear  in  hunting. 
738.  Alphonsus  L ;  Catholic. 
757.  Froila  I. ;  killed  by  his  brother  AureUns . 
768.  Aurelius. 
774.  Silo. 
783.  Maur^iat 
789.  Veremond. 
791.  Alphonsus  II.,  tiie  Chaste. 
824.  RamiroL 
850.  Ordogno  L 

862.  Alphonsus  m. ;  deposed  by  his  son. 
910.  Garcias. 
914.  Ordogno  n. 
9Sa  Froila  n. 

924.  Alphonsus  IV. ;  abdicated. 
931.  Ramiro  IL ;  killed  in  battle. 
960.  Ordogno  HI. 

955.  Ordogno  IT. 

956.  Sanoho  L,  the  Fat;  poisoned  with  an 

apple. 
967.  Ramiro  m. 


962.  Veremund  II.,  the  Gouty. 

999.  Alphonsus  Y. ;  killed  at  the  siege  of 

Yiscu. 
1028.  Yeremund  IIL  ;  killed  in  battle. 
1035.  Ferdinand  the  Great,  king  of  Leon  and 

Castile. 
lO&'k  Sanchon.,  the  Strong,  khig  of  Castile; 

Alphonsus  in  Leon  and  Asturias ;  and 

Garcias  in  Galicia. 
1072,  Alphonsus  YL,  the  Yaliajit;  in  CastUe 

and  Leon. 
1109.  Alphonsus  YII. 
1122.  Alphonsus  YIIL 

1157.  Sancho  lU.,  the  Beloved,  ki  Castile; 

Ferdinand  in  Leon. 

1158.  Alphonsus  IX.,  in  Castile. 
1214.  Henry  I. 

1226.  Ferdinand  IH.,  the  Holy;  in  him  Cas- 
tile and  Leon  were  reunited,  and  per- 
petually annexed. 

1252.  Alphonsus  the  Wise ;  deposed. 

1284.  Sancho  lY.,  the  Brave;  Peter  IH.  in 
Arragtm. 

1295.  Ferdinand  lY. 

1312.  AlphonsusJX. ;  John  in  Arragon. 

1350.  Peter  the  Cruel ;  deposed.  Reinstated 
by  Edward  the  Black  Prince  of  Eng- 
land; afterwards  beheaded  by  his 
subjects. 

1368.  Henry  H.,  the  Gracious ;  poisoned  by  a 
monk. 

1379.  John  I. ;  he  united  Biscay  to  Castile. 

1390.  Henry  IIL,  the  Sickly. 

140&  John  n. 

1454.  Henry  lY.,  the  Impotent 

1474.  Ferdinand  Y.,  the  Catholic,  in  whom 
the  kingdoms  of  Castile  and  Arragon 
were  united. 

1504.  Philip  I.,  of  Austria,  and  his  queen 
Joan. 

1506.  Joan  alone  over  both  kingdoms. 

1516.  Charles  L,  and  emperor  of  Germany ; 
resigned,  and  retired  to  a  monastery. 

1555.  PhiUp  n. 

1598.  PhUip  in. 

1621.  Philip  lY. 

1665.  Charles  n. 

170a  Philip  Y.,  duke  of  Anjou,  grandson  to 
Louis  XIY.  of  France ;  resigned. 

1724.  Lewis  I. ;  who  reigned  only  a  few  months. 

1724.  Philip  Y.;  again. 

1745.  Ferdinand  YI. 

1759.  Charles  HI.,  king  of  the  Two  SiciUee. 

178a  Charles  lY. ;  abdicated. 

1806.  Ferdinand  YH. ;  abdicated. 

1808.  Joseph  Buonaparte ;  deposed. 

1814.  Ferdinand  YH. ;  restored. 


1833.  Isabella  IL,  Sept  29. 

SPARTA.    The  capital  of  Laoonia,  one  of  the  moat  considerable  republics  of  the  Pelo* 
ponneaos,  and  the  formidable  riyal  of  Athens.    Though  without  walls,  it  resisted 


I  I 


8PB 


[482] 


8PI 


the  attacks  of  its  eDemiet  by  the  Taloor  of  its  citizens,  for  eight  centuries.  "^ 
epoch  of  its  foundation  is  mnch  disputed.  Lelex  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  k 
king.  Prom  Lacedssmon  the  foarth  king,  and  his  wife  Sparta,  who  are  also  spok 
of  as  the  foonders  of  the  city,  it  obtained  the  names  by  which  it  is  most  known. 


Lelex  begins  the  kingdom  .  b.c.  1516 
Laoedvmon  marries  Sparta  .  1490 

Sparta  fomided  ( Fautamioi)  .    .  1490 

TyndaruB  marries  Loda ;  Haleabom  .  *** 
Helen  stolen  bj  Tbeseos        .  .  1913 

The  Trojan  war  oommenoed  .    .  1193 

Return  of  Helen  and  Menelaus  .1176 

Reign  of  Orestes  (Pautanliu)  .    .1176 

Irruption  of  the  Ileradidc  .  .  .1104 
Rule  of  Lycurgus,  who  estabUBhes  the 

Senate  (£it#r&jia)  .    .    884 

Battle  of  the  Argives*  .735 

The  progeny  of  the  Farthenlc,  or  the 

sons  of  Virgins  .  ....    733 

Camian  festivals  Institnted  .         .    675 

The  Meaaenians  settle  in  Sicily  .    •    669 

Tyranny  of  the  Pislstratids ends  .  .  506 
The  States  of  Greece  unite  against  the 

Persians 482 

Leonidas,  at  the  bead  of  300  Spartans, 


defile  of  Thermopyls  (tee  Tkermojpyla, 
BattU  <if)       •         '        .       .      B.C  a 


Persians  defeated  by  Pausanias    . 
His  treason:  the  Grecian  amies  choose 

an  Athenian  general 
Athens  taken  by  Lysander        .       .  > 
Epaminondas,  heading  50,000  Thebam, 

appears  before  Sparta 
Battle  of  Mantinaea  .       .      •  ■ 

Battle  of  Arbela  {see  both) 
Pyrrhus  defeated  before  the  walls 
Antigonus  defeats  Cleomenesat  Sellasu, 
and  enters  Sparta  .  .       .      . 

The  Romans  besiege  Sparta  •  • 

The  iEtolians  obtain  it  by  trrachery  • 
The  laws  of  Lycurgos  abolished 
Sparta,  under  the  protection  or  rather 
subjugation  of  Rome,  retains  its  autho- 
rity fur  a  short  time 
Its  name  is  soon  afterwards  swept  irosi 
the  historic  page. 


C 


P 


'A 


If 


vrithstanda  the  Persian  arms  at  the 

SPEAKER  OF  THE  HOUSE  of  COMMONS.  Peter  de  Montfort,  afterwards  ^^ 
at  the  battle  of  Evesham,  was  the  first  speaker,  45  Henry  III.  1260.  ButorPf 
de  la  Mare  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  regular  speaker,  50  Edward  ^^^"^^ 
The  king  refused  his  assent  to  the  choice  of  sir  Edward  Seymour  as  speaker,  »^ 
6,  1678 ;  when  sergeant  William  Gregory  was  chosen  in  his  room.  Sir  John  Tit*^ 
was  expelled  the  chair  and  the  house  for  taking  a  gratuity  after  the  act  for  ^ 
benefit  of  orphans  had  passed,  March  20,  1694. 

SPEAKING-TRUMPET.  One  is  said  to  have  been  used  by  Alexander,  335  R 
One  was  constructed  from  Kircber's  description  by  Saland,  1652.  PhilosopDics- 
explained  and  brought  into  notice  by  Moreland,  1671. 

SPECTACLES  AND  READING-GLASSES.  See  Opiies,  Spectacles  were  nnbj^ 
to  the  ancients.  They  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  Invented  in  the  i^ 
century,  by  Alexander  de  Spina,  a  monk  of  Florence,  in  Italy,  aboat  a.d.  l^j^ 
Gen»  HUt,  They  were  invented  by  Roger  Bacon,  our  own  illustrious  co«^^^ 
according  to  Dr.  Plott.  The  hint  was  certainly  given  by  Bacon  about  1280.  ^^^ 
affirm  that  the  real  inventor  was  Salvino  ;  and  Mr.  Manni  gives  proofs  in  »^ 
Salvino  in  his  TreaUse  on  Spectacles. 

SPHERES.  The  celestial  and  terrestrial  globes,  and  also  sun-dials,  were  }^^^^ 
Anaximander,  552  B.C.  The  armillary  sphere  is  said  to  have  been  ^°^^^ 
Eratosthenes  about  255  b.c.  The  planetarium  was  constructed  by  ^"JJ  "  j,, 
before  212  b.c.  It  was  maintained  by  Pythagoras  that  the  motions  of  the  ^ 
spheres  must  produce  delightful  sounds,  inaudible  to  the  ears  of  mortaJ^i  ^"^'^ 
called  the  music  of  the  spheres. 

SPINNING.    The  art  of  spinning  was  ascribed  by  the  ancients  to  Minerva,  the  god  ^ 
of  wisdom,  such  was  their  veneration  for  it.     Arnaa.  kinor  of  Arcadia,  taug 
le  art  of  spinning  about  1500  B.C. 

"a 


,  such  was  their  veneration  for  it.     Areas,  king  of  Arcadia 

subjects  the  art  of  spinning  about  1500  b.c.  Lucretia  with  her  maids  was  ^ 
spinning,  when  her  husband  CoUatinus  paid  a  visit  to  her  from  the  cainp-^^ 
wife  of  Tarquin  was  an  excellent  spinner ;  and  a  garment  made  by  ber,  wo  • 
Servius  Tullius,  was  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Fortune.  Augustus  Cesaf  ^• 
wore  no  garments  but  such  as  were  made  by  his  wife,  sister,  or  ^""^  j-Jy  tin 
spinning-wheel  was  invented  at  Brunswick,  about  a.d.  1530.  Till  ' '  '^  ,| 
spinning  of  cotton  was  performed  by  the  hand-spinning-wheel,  when  Hargr* 


♦  This  celebrated  battle  was  fought  between  300  select  heroes  of  each  nation,  and  ^  7^^ 
except  two  Argives  and  one  Spartan.     The  latter  remained  on  the  field,  whilst  the  t    ^^ 
repaired  to  Argos  to  amiounce  their  victory.     Bach  party  claimed  the  advantage;  \^(j6ii 
because  they  had  lost  the  fewest  men  ;  the  Lacedemonians,  because  they  remained  mts^^ 
field.    A  seoond  battle  was  fought,  in  which  the  Argives  were  beaten.— Pat««ania#. 


SPI  []  483  ]  STA 

ingenious  mechanic^  near  Blackburn,  made  a  spinning-jenny,  with  eight  spindles. 
Hargrave  also  erected  the  first  carding-machine,  with  cylinders.  Arkwright's 
machine  for  spinning  by  water  was  an  extension  of  the  principle  of  Hargrave's ; 
but  he  also  applied  a  large  and  small  roller  to  expand  the  thread,  and,  for  this 
ingenious  contrivance,  took  out  a  patent  in  1769.  At  first,  he  worked  his  machinery 
by  horses  ;  but  in  1771  he  built  a  mill  on  the  stream  of  the  Derwent,  at  Cromford. 
In  1779y  Crompton  invented  the  mule,  which  is  a  further  and  wonderful  improvement 
of  this  art. — Phillips* 

SPIRES.  In  ancient  times  the  emperors  held  many  diets  at  Spires,  and  it  was  the  seat 
of  the  imperial  chamber  till  1689,  when  the  city  was  burnt  by  the  French,  and  not 
rebuilt  till  after  the  peace  of  Ryswick  in  1697.  The  diet  to  condemn  the  reformers 
was  held  at  Spires,  called  there  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  1529.  This  was  the  era 
of  Protestantism.    See  Proieitants, 

SPIRITS.  See  Distillation.  No  human  invention  has  ever  tended  more  to  corrupt 
the  morals,  and  ruin  the  character,  constitution,  and  circumstances  of  numbers  of 
mankind,  than  distillation.  In  all  nations  spirituous  liquors  have  been  considered 
as  a  proper  subject  of  heavy  taxation  for  the  support  of  the  state.  In  1840  England 
made  about  ten  millions  of  gallons  of  spirits,  Scotland  made  about  seven  millions  of 
gallons,  and  Ireland  about  nine  millions  of  gallons.  In  England,  Ireland,  and 
Scotland,  duty  was  paid,  in  1840,  on  the  following  quantities  of  spirits,  viz. — Rum, 
2,830,263  gallons;  brandy,  1,167,756  gallons;  Geneva,  18,640  gallons;  on  other 
foreign  spirits,  8,758  gallons;  and  on  British,  Irish,  and  Scotch  spirits, 25,190,843 
gallons ;  making  in  the  whole  nearly  thirty  millions  of  gallons,  upon  which  the  duty 
amounted  to  about  eight  millions  of  pounds  sterling ! — Pari,  Retumt, 

SPITZBERGEN.  Discovered  in  1533,  by  sir  Hugh  Willoughby,  who  called  it  Green- 
land, supposing  it  to  be  a  part  of  the  western  continent.  In  1595  it  was  visited  by 
Barentz  and  Cornelius,  two  Dutchmen,  who  pretended  to  be  the  original  discoverers, 
and  called  it  Spitzbergen,  or  sharp  mountains,  from  the  many  sharp-pointed  and 
rocky  mountains  with  which  it  abounds.     See  Phipps, 

SPURS.  Anciently  the  difference  between  the  knight  and  esquire  was,  that  the  knight 
yforegilt  spurs  (eques  auratus)  and  the  esquire  silver  ones.  Two  sorts  of  spurs 
seem  to  have  been  in  use  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  one  called  a  pryck,  having 
only  a  single  point,  the  other  a  number  of  points  of  considerable  size.  Spurs  near 
to  the  present  kind  came  into  use  about  a.d.  1400.    See  article  Plating. 

STAGE  COACHES.  The  stage-coach  duty  act  passed  in  1785.  These  coaches  were 
made  subject  to  salutary  provisions  for  the  safety  of  passengers,  50  George  III. 
1809.  They  were  made  subject  to  mileage  duties,  55  George  III.  1814.  The  duty 
upon  stage  coaches  is  about  half  a  million  sterling.  See  Coaches ;  Hackney 
Coaches  ;  Mail  Coaches,  ^c. 

STAMP-OFFICE.  The  first  institution  of  stamp-duties  was  by  statute  5  and  6 
William  and  Mary,  June  23, 1694,  when  a  duty  was  imposed  upon  paper,  vellum,  and 
parchment.  The  stamp-duty  on  newspapers  was  commenced  in  1713,  and  every 
year  added  to  the  list  of  articles  upon  which  stamp-duty  was  made  payable.  The 
American  Stamp  Act,  a  memorable  statute,  one  of  those  imposts  levied  by  the  par- 
liament of  Great  Britain  which  produced  the  American  war,  and  led  to  the  inde- 
pendence of  that  country,  was  passed  March  22,  1765.  Stamp-duties  in  Ireland 
commenced  1774.  Stamps  on  notes  and  bills  of  exchange  in  1782.  The  stamp- 
duties  produced  in  England,  in  1800,  the  revenue  of  3,126,535/. ;  and  in  1840,  for 
the  United  Kingdom,  6,726,817/.    See  Newspapers,  &c. 

STANDARD.  First  fixed  by  law  for  gold  and  silver  in  England,  a.d.  1300. 
Standard  gold  is  22  parts  out  of  24  of  pure  gold,  the  other  two  parts  or  carats  being 
silver  or  copper.  The  standard  of  silver  is  11  oz.  2  dwts.  of  fine  silver  alloyed  with 
18  dwts.  of  copper,  or  37  parts  out  of  40  of  pure  silver,  and  3  parts  copper.  In 
A.D.  1300,  these  12  oz.  of  silver  were  coined  into  20  shillings.  In  1412  they  were 
coined  into  30  shillings  ;  and  in  1527  into  45  shillings.  In  1545,  Henry  VIII. 
coined  6  oz.  of  silver  and  6  oz.  of  alloy  into  48  shillings ;  and  the  next  year  he  coined 
4  oz.  of  silver  and  8  oz.  of  alloy  into  the  same  sum.  Elizabeth,  in  1560,  restored  the 
old  standard  in  60  shillings ;  and  in  1601  in  62  shillings.  It  is  now  66  shillings. 
The  average  proportions  of  silver  to  gold  at  the  Royal  Mint  are  15jh  to  1.  The 
standard  of  plate  and  silver  manufactures  was  affirmed,  6  George  I.  1719,  et  seq, 

ii2 


KTA ^  484  ] 8TA 

STANDARDS.     See  Bannert^  Flafft,  &e.    The  practice  in  the  urmy  of  vsiog  tlbe 
cron  OD  ftandardf  and  thielda  aroee  in  the  miracaloos  appearance  of  a  cross  to  Cot- 
stantine,  previootly  to  hia  battle  with  Mazentina :  this  fact  rests  on  the  anthohty  i 
Eoaebioa,  who  itatea  that  he  had  received  it  from  the  emperor  himself,  a.d.  312. 
For  the  celebrated  French  standard,  see  LUy.    Standard  of  Mahomet  :  on  Hiis 
eosif  n  no  infidel  dare  look.     It  was  carried  in  procession  about  1768,  when  serenl 
hnndred  Christians  who  ignorantly  looked  upon  it  were  massacred  by  the  Tnrkkk 
populace.    The  iMPBniAL  St  and  Ann  was  first  hoisted  on  the  Tower  of  Londot 
and  on  Bedford  Tower,  Dublin,  and  displayed  by  the  Foot  Goarda,  on  the  nnion  d 
the  kingdoms,  January  1,  1801. 

STAR-CHAMBER,  Covmr  or.  So  called  haply  from  its  roof  being  garnished  inc 
stars. — Coke.  This  court  of  justice,  so  tremendous  in  the  Tudor  and  part  of  t!x 
Stuart  reign^  was  called  Star-^iambcur,  not  from  the  stars  on  its  roof  (which  wc 
obliterated  even  before  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth),  but  from  the  Starra,<r 
Jewiah  covenanta,  deposited  there  by  order  of  Richard  I.  No  Star  was  allowed : 
be  valid  except  found  in  those  repositories,  and  here  they  remained  till  the  ham 
ment  of  the  Jews  by  Edward  I.  The  court  was  instituted  2  Henry  VII.  1487,  for 
trials  by  a  committee  of  the  privy  council.  In  Charles  I.'s  reign,  it  exercised  iti  \ 
power,  independent  of  any  law,  upon  several  bold  innovatora  in  liberty,  who  ooir 
gloried  in  their  sufferings,  and  contributed  to  render  government  odious  and  can- 
tempt\hle.^Goldsmiih.  It  was  abolished  16  Charks  I,  1641.  There  were  firom2i 
to  42  judges,  the  lord  chancellor  having  the  casting  voice. — Gibbon. 

STARS.  They  were  classed  into  constellations,  it  is  supposed,  about  1200  b.c.  HioetL*. 
of  Syracuse,  taught  that  the  sun  and  the  stars  were  motionless,  and  that  the  eiit) 
moved  round  them  (this  is  mentioned  by  Cicero,  and  probably  gave  the  first  ics^ 
of  this  system  to  Copernicus),  about  344  B.C.  Job,  Hesiod,  and  Homer,  mentis 
several  of  the  constellations.  The  Royal  Library  at  Paris  contains  a  Chinese  chfi 
of  the  heavens,  made  about  600  b.c,  in  which  1460  stars  are  correctly  insert^  j 
The  aberration  of  the  sUra  discovered  by  Dr.  Bradley,  1727.  See  Jstrmmi^ 
Solar  System. 

STARCHING  of  LINEN.  Starch  is  a  sediment  produced  at  the  bottom  of  vessel 
wherein  wheat  has  been  steeped  in  water;  is  soft  and  friable,  easily  broken  in^ 
powder,  and  is  used  to  stiffen  and  clear  linen,  with  blue  ;  its  powder  is  emphjei  b 
powder  the  hair.  The  art  of  starching  linen  was  brought  into  England  by  Mi( 
Dinghein,  a  Flemish  woman,  1  Mary,  1553. — Siowe. 

STATES-GENERAL  of  FRANCE.  An  ancient  assembly  of  France.  PrenW/^ 
the  Revolution  it  had  not  met  since  a.d.  1614.  The  states  consisted  of^ 
ordera,  the  nobility,  clergy,  and  commons.  They  were  convened  by  Louis  ^ 
and  assembled  at  Venailles,  May  5,  1789.  Here  a  contest  arose,  whether  the^"' 
orders  should  make  three  distinct  houses,  or  but  one  assembly.  The  coibs^ 
insisted  upon  the  latter,  and,  assuming  the  title  of  the  National  Asseipbly,  ded*^ 
that  they  were  competent  to  proceed  to  business,  without  the  concurrence  of  tl><^ 
other  orders,  if  they  refused  to  join  them.  The  nobility  and  clergy  found  it  ^ 
dient  to  concede  the  point,  and  they  all  met  in  one  hall.    See  National  Assem^l 

STATIONERS.  Books  and  paper  were  formerly  sold  only  at  stalls,  hence  the  dealers 
were  called  stationers.  The  company  of  stationers  of  London  is  of  great  antiqiuvj 
and  existed  long  before  printing  was  invented  ;  yet  it  was  not  incorporated  ob^ 
3  Philip  and  Mary,  1555.    Their  old  dwelling  was  in  Paternoster-row.—i/t'''^*^' 

STATUES.  See  Moulds,  Sculpture,  &c.  Phidias,  whose  statue  of  Jupiter  f>^ 
for  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world,  was  the  greatest  statuary  among  the  aDcieBts> 
440  B.C.  He  had  previously  made  a  statue  of  Minerva  at  tiie  request  of  ^^^ 
which  was  placed  in  the  Parthenon.  It  was  made  with  ivory  and  gold,  and  ^^'^^ 
39  feet  in  height.  Acilius  raised  a  golden  statue  to  his  father,  the  first  that  ^Vf^ 
in  Italy.  Lysippus  invented  the  art  of  taking  likenesses  in  plaster  mouldsi  uod 
which  he  afterwards  cast  models  in  wax,  326  b.c.  Michael  Angelo  was  the  f^ 
artist  among  the  moderns.  The  first  equestrian  statue  erected  in  Great  BnUis 
was  that  of  Charles  I.  in  1678  *.  Among  the  public  statues  erected  in  the  I^odoob 
squares  and  other  public  places,  are  the  following : — 

*  This  statue  is  of  brass,  cast  by  Le  Sueur,  in  1633,  at  the  expense  of  the  Howard* Arondd  A^ 
During  the  civil  war,  the  Parliament  sold  it  to  John  River,  a  brazier,  in  Holborn,  with  strict  (H^ 


8TA 


[485] 


STE 


STATUES,  continued, 

Achilles,  Hyde-park,  in  honour  of  the 
duke  of  Wellington,  by  the  ladies  of 
Great  Britain         .         .        June  18,  1822 


George!.,  Grosvenor-square  .   a.d.  1726 

George  I.,  Leicester-squue         .        .    «  *** 
George  III.,  Somerset-house  .        .  1788 

George  III.,  Cockspur-street      .        .    .  1836 
Howard,  John ;  first  erected  in  St.  Paul's 

cathedral 1796 

James  U.,  Whitehall         .        .        .    .  1687 
Nelson,   lord,   Trafalgar -square;  com- 
menced in 1841 

Pitt,  William,  Hanover-square  .    .  1831 

William  III.,  St.  James's^uare  .  1717 

York,  duke  of,  Waterloo-place  .    .  1834 


Anne,  queen,  St.  Paul's  Churchyard  .  1711 
Bedford,  duke  of,  Russell-square  .  .  1809 
Canning,  George,  New  Palace-yard  .  1832 
Cartwright,  major.  Burton  Crescent  .  1831 
Charles  I.,  Charing-cross  .  .  .  1678 
Charles  IL,  Soho-square  .        .    .  *** 

Cumberland,  duke  of,  Cavendish-square  1770 
Elizabeth,  St.  Dunstan's,  Fleet-street  .  1586 
Fox,  Charles  James,  Bloomsbuiy-square  1816 

STATUTES.  The  following  are  among  the  most  celebrated  early  statutes  :— Statutes 
of  Clarendon,  to  restrain  the  power  of  the  clergy,  enacted  10  Henry  II. ,  1164. 
Statutes  of  Marlborough,  1267.  The  statute  of  Gloucester ,  the  earliest  statute  of 
which  any  record  exists,  6  Edward  I.,  1277.  Statute  of  Mortmain,  1279.  Quo  War- 
ranto, October  1280.  Of  Winchester,  October  1284.  Statute  forbidding  the  levying  of 
taxes  without  the  consent  of  parliament,  1297.  Of  Praemunire,  1306.  The  first  printed 
bear  date  1483,  and  are  in  English.  The  Statutes  of  the  Realm,  from  the  original 
records  and  MSS.,  were  compiled  under  commissioners,  appointed  in  1801 :  the 
first  volume,  from  20  Henry  III.,  appeared  1811  ;  the  second  volume  in  1816. 

STEAM  ENGINE.  This  is  the  most  important  prime  mover  that  the  ingenuity  of 
man  has  yet  devised.  The  first  idea  of  it  was  suggested  by  the  marquis  of  Worcester 
in  his  Century  of  Inventions,  as  *'  a  way  to  drive  up  water  by  fire,"  a.d.  1663.  It 
does  not,  however,  appear  that  the  noble  inventor  could  ever  interest  the  public  in 
favour  of  this  great  discovery. 

1681 


1698 


1699 


Papin's  digester  invented  .        a  j>. 

Captain  Savory's  engine  constructed  for 
raising  water  .... 

Papin's  engine,  exhibited  to  the  Royal 
Society,  about 

Atmospheric  engine  by  Savery  and  New- 
comen I713 

First  idea  of  steam  navigation  set  forth 
in  a  patent  obtained  by  Hulls         .    .  1736 

Watt's  invention  of  performing  conden- 
sation in  a  separate  vessel  from  the 
cylinder  1765 

His  first  patent 1769 

His  engines  upon  a  large  scale  erected  in 
manufactories,  and  his  patent  renewed 
by  act  of  parliament 

Thomas  Paine  proposed  the  application 
of  steam  in  America      .         .         .    . 

Engine  made  to  give  a  rotary  motion     . 

Watt's  expansion  engine  .        .    . 

Double  acting  engines  proposed  by  Dr. 
Faick  on  Newcomen's  principle 

Watt's  double  engine,  and  his  first  pa- 
tent for  it  granted 

The  marquess  Jouffroy  constructed  an 
engine  on  the  Sadne 

Two  Americans  published  upon  the 
steam-engine 

W.  Symington  made  a  passage  on  the 
Forth  and  Clyde  canal 

First  steam-engine  erected  in  Dublin  by 
Henry  Jackson 

First  experiment  on  the  Thames  . 

The  experiment  of  Mr.  Symington  re- 
peated with  success  .        •         .  1802 

Trevethick's  high-pressure  engine      .    .  1802 


1775 

1778 
1778 
1778 

1779 

1781 

1781 

1785 

1789 

1791 
1801 


Woolf 's  double  cylinder  expansion  en- 
gine constructed         .         .         .   A.D. 

Manufactories  warmed  by  steam        .   . 

Fulton  started  a  steam-boat  on  the  river 
Hudson,  America      .         .         .         . 

Steaxn  power  to  convey  coals  on  a  rail- 
way, employed  by  Blenkinsop         .    . 

Steam-vessels  first  commenced  plying  on 
the  Clyde 

Steam  applied  to  printing  in  the  Timet 
office.    See  Press  *        .        .    • 

There  were  five  steam-vessels  in  Soot- 
land  {Pari.  Returns)  in 

First  steam-vessel  on  the  Thames  brought 
by  Mr.  Dodd  from  Glasgow  .    . 

The  first  steamer  built  in  England  (Pari. 
Returns) 

The  Savannah  steamer,  of  350  tons,  came 
from  New  York  to  Liverpool  in  26 
days July  15, 

First  steamer  in  Ireland 

Captain  Johnston  obtained  10,000{.  for 
making  the  first  steam  voyage  to  India, 
in  the  Enterprise,  which  sailed  from 
Falmouth  .        .    Aug.  16, 

The  locomotive  steam-carriages  on  rail- 
ways, at  Liverpool  .         .     Oct. 

The  Railway  opened  (see  Liverpool) 

The  Great  Western  arrives  from  Bristol 
at  New  York,  being  her  first  voyage, 
in  18  days  .        .         .    June  17» 

War  steamers  built  in  England         .    . 

War  steamers  built  at  Berkenhead, 
named  the  Nemesis  and  Phlegethon, 
carrying  each  two  thirty-two  pounders, 
sent  by  government  to  China  .    • 


1804 
1806 

1807 

1811 

1812 

1814 

1814 

1815 

1815 


1819 
1820 


182{f 

1829 
1830 


1838 
1838 


1840 


to  break  it  to  pieces ;  but  he  concealed  it  under  ground  till  the  Restoration,  when  it  was  erected  in 
1678,  on  a  pedestal  executed  by  Grinlins  Gibbons,  and  ornamented  with  the  royal  arms,  trophies, 
^*— Leigh,  The  first  equestrian  statue  of  bronze,  founded  at  one  cast,  was  that  of  Louis  XIY.  of 
France,  a.  d.  1699 ;  it  was  elevated  about  1724. 


C486] 


STO 


STEAM  ENGINES,  MiOifiiiMl. 

SrSAM  TBHKLS  BSUmomO  TO  TBS  BSmBB  KMrOLK  AT  THS  FOXJiOWINO  PSBIOSS: 


Yrar. 
1814. 
1815. 
1816. 
1017. 

U:^ 

1831). 

isns. 
iiwa 


0 
.      3 

.     7 

17 
.  Hi 

803 
.  944 

9tl7 


S<0tlamd,  I    Ireland, 


S 

7 
6 
14 
36 
61 
85 
944 


0 
0 
0 

1 

3 

3 

31 

68 

79 


Dependetieie*. 

1 

2 

3 

5 

9 

17 

20 

48 

519 


Total 

7 

10 

15 

19 

43 

168 

315 

538 

1829 


STEELrYARD.  A  mott  ancient  initniment,  the  same  that  is  translated  balance  in: 
Pentateach.    The  Staiera  Ramafui,  or  Roman  steel-yard,  is  mentioned  in  315  b. 

STEEUYARD  COMPANY.  A  company  of  London  merchants  had  the  Steelnr 
assigned  to  them  by  Henry  III.,  a.d.  1232.  They  were  aU  Flemings  and  Gtrm 
and  the  only  exporters,  for  many  years  after,  of  the  staple  commodities  of  1*0^1^ 
'•^  Anderson, 

STENOGRAPHY.  The  art  of  writing  in  short-hand  is  said  to  have  been  practised V 
most  of  the  ancient  nations.  It  is  said  to  haye  followed  from  the  hieroglyph^- 
the  Egyptians.  It  is  also  attributed  to  the  poet  Ennius,  improved  upon  hj  Tr 
Cicero's  freed-man,  and  stiU  more  by  Seneca.  The  Art  Scribendi  Charatlr 
printed  about  a.d.  1412,  is  the  oldest  system  extant.  Peter  Bales,  the  famonsj^ 
nan,  pnblished  on  stenography  in  1590.  There  are  now  numerous  sjstemst^- 
many  of  them  of  easy  acquirement  and  great  simplicity. 

STEREOMETRY.  The  instrument  by  which  is  compassed  the  art  of  talcin?^ 
contents  of  Tcssels  of  liquids  by  gauging,  invented  about  a.d.  1350. — Anderm- 

STEREOTYPE.  See  PHnHng,  It  is  said  that  stereotyping  was  known  in  1' 
but  this  ii  doubted.  It  is  said  to  have  been  suggested  by  Wm.  Ged  of  Edim- 
V^b^—NichoU.  This  species  of  printing  is  ascribed  by  others  to  Mr.  Tiu- 
1779.  The  invention  of  it  is  also  attributed  to  Francis  Ambrose  Didot,  of  ^ 
about  that  year. — Ferguson,  But  stereotype  printing  was  in  use.  in  "''^ 
in  the 
Phiilipt 

STIRRUPS  were  unknown  to  the  ancients.  Gracchus  fitted  the  highways  ^^^ 
to  enable  the  horsemen  to  mount.     Stirrups  were  used  in  the  fifth  century. 

STOCKHOLM.    See  Sweden.    Peace  of  Stockholm,  between  the  king  of  ^J 
Britain  and  the  queen  of  Sweden,  by  which  the  former  acquired  the  QQ^^ 
Bremen  and  Verden  as  elector  of  Brunswick,  November  20,  1719»     "^^L^. 
Stockholm,  between  Sweden  and  Russia,  March  24,1724.    Treaty  of^ 
HOLM,  between  England  and  Sweden,  March  3, 1813. 

STOCKINGS.    Those  of  silk  were  first  worn  by  Henry  II.  of  France,  1547.   Jn^J. 
queen  Elizabeth  was  presented  with  a  pair  of  black  knit  silk  stockings,  b/^^  ^ 
woman  Mrs.  Montague,  and  she  never  wore  cloth  ones  any  more. — Bov^\  ^ 
adds,  *•  Henry  VIII.  wore  ordinarily  cloth  hose,  except  ther€  came  from  rrt^ 
great  chance,  a  pair  of  ^ilk  stockings ;  for  Spain  very  early  abounded  ynta  s 
Edward  VI.  was  presented  with  a  pair  of  Spanish  silk  stockings  by  his  '^^^.  J 
sir  Thomas  Gresham ;  and  the  present  was  then  much  taken  notice  ot" 
Others  relate  that  William  Rider,  a  London  apprentice,  seeing  at  theboosf^^ 
Italian  merchant,  a  pair  of  knit  worsted  stockings  from  Mantua,  ingeniously     . 
a  pair  like  them,  which  he  presented  to  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  the  first  of  tb^ 
made  in  England,  1564. — Stowe,  ^ . 

after*' 


>ut  that  year. — Ferguson,  But  stereotype  printing  was  in  use,  in  o^"^  i 
the  last  century ;  and  a  quarto  Bible  and  Dutch  folio  Bible  were  printed  that  i 
iUips.    Stereotyping  was  introduced  into  London,  by  Wilson,  in  1804.--'i»^  | 


STOCKING  FRAME.    The  art  of  weaving  stockings  in  a  frame  was 
England  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Lee,  of  Cambridge,  in  1589,  twenty-five  years 
,  had  first  learned  to  knit  them  with  wires  or  needles.     Silk  stockings  were  Srs 
at  the  courts  of  France  and  England  about  the  same  time.     They  afterwards  w 
a  very  considerable  article  of  commerce  to  both  countries. — Stowe ;  Ander^^' 


STOCKS.     The  public  funding  system  originated  in  Venice,  and  was  introdj 
Florence  in  1340.    The  English  funding  system  may  be  said  to  have  had  its  n&e 


ID 


STO 


[487] 


STO 


1694.  The  Act  to  prevent  stock-jobbing  passed  Marcb  1734.  The  foundation  of 
the  Stock  Exchange,  in  Capel-court,  was  laid  in  May  1800.  The  memorable  Stock 
Exchange  hoax,  for  which  Cochrane  Johnstone,  and  others,  were  convicted,  and  lord 
Cochrane  was  afterwards  expelled  the  house  of  commons,  Feb.  22,  1814.  Stock< 
exchange  coffee-house  destroyed  by  fire,  Feb.  11,  1816.  The  number  of  stock- 
holders in  1840  amounted  to  337,481.  By  a  return  of  the  average  price  of  the 
public  funds  by  the  commissioners  for  the  reduction  of  the  national  debt,  it  appears 
that  Consols  averaged  in  the  year — 


1780  . 

X63  13  6 

1795   . 

£74  8  6 

1810 

.  £^  16  3  1825  . 

£90  0  8 

1785. 

.   68  6  6 

1800  . 

.   66  3  3 

1815  . 

.   58  13  9  1830  . 

.   89  15  7 

1790  . 

71  2  6 

1805  . 

58  14  0 

1820 

68  12  0  1840  . 

89  17  6 

'if 
i- 


STOICS.  Disciples  of  Zeno,  the  cynic  philosopher ;  they  obtained  the  name  of  stoics 
because  they  listened  to  his  instructions  and  harangues  in  a  porch  or  portico  at 
Athens,  called  in  Greek  Stoa.  Zeno  taught  that  man's  supreme  happiness  consisted 
in  living  according  and  agreeable  to  nature  and  reason,  and  that  God  was  the  soul 
of  the  world.  The  Pharisees  affected  the  same  stiffness,  patience,  apathy,  austerity, 
and  insensibility,  which  this  sect  is  famous  for. — Stanley, 

STONE.  The  operation  of  extracting  stone  from  the  bladder  was  first  performed  by 
Ammonias  of  Alexandria,  about  a.d.  240. — Nouv,  Diet,  Cutting  for  the  stone  was 
first  performed  on  a  criminal,  at  Paris,  in  1474,  with  success. — LengleL  A  remedy 
discovered  by  Mrs.  Stevens,  for  which  she  was  rewarded  by  government,  1739. 
See  Lithotomy, 

STONE.  Stone  buildings  were  introduced  into  England,  a.d.  670.  A  stone  bridge 
was  built  at  Bow  in  1087,  and  is  accounted  the  first ;  but  a  bridge  exists  at  Crow- 
land,  which  is  said  to  have  been  built  in  860.  See  Bridges.  The  first  stone  build- 
ing in  Ireland  was  a  castle,  1161.  See  Building,  Stone  china-ware  was  made  by 
Wedgwood  in  1762.  Artificial  stone  for  statues  was  manufactured  by  a  Neapolitan, 
and  introduced  into  England,  1776.    Stone  paper  was  made  in  1796. 

STONE HENGE.  Among  the  most  celebrated  monuments  of  British  antiquity.  Said 
to  have  been  erected  on  the  counsel  of  Merlin  by  Aurelius  Ambrosius,  in  memory  of 
460  Britons  who  were  murdered  by  Hengist,  the  Saxon,  a.d.  475. — Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth.  Erected  as  a  sepulchral  monument  of  Ambrosius,  a.d.  500. — Polydore 
Vergil,  An  ancient  temple  of  the  Britons,  in  which  the  Druids  officiated.— Dr. 
Stukeley,  The  Britons  had  annual  meetings  at  Abury  and  Stonehenge,  where  laws 
were  made,  and  justice  administered,  and  heinous  crimes  punished,  by  burning  alive 
in  wicker-baskets. 

STORMS.  The  following  are  among  the  best  authenticated  and  most  memorable.  In 
London  a  storm  raged  which  destroyed  1500  houses,  a.d.  944.  One  in  several 
parts  of  England,  the  sky  being  very  dark,  the  wind  coming  from  the  S.W. ;  many 
churches  were  destroyed  ;  and  in  London  500  houses  fell,  October  5,  1091.  One 
on  the  coast  of  Calais,  when  Hugh  de  Beauvais,  and  several  thousand  foreigners,  on 
-     their  voyage  to  assist  king  John  against  the  barons,  perished,  1215. — Holinshed, 

It  thundered  15  days  successively,  with  tem-  Richard's  second  queen  also  brought  a  storm 

pests  of  rain  and  wind,  a.d.  1233.  with  her  to  the  English  coasts,  in  which  the 

A  storm,  with  violent  lightnings ;  one  flash  king's  baggage  was  lost,  and  many  ships 

passed  through  a  chamber  where  Edward  T.  cast  away,  1389. — Idem, 


and  his  queen  were  conrersing,  did  them  no 
damage,  but  killed  two  of  their  attendants; 
l29[u—Hoveden. 

A  violent  storm  of  hail  near  Chartres,  in 
France,  which  fell  on  the  army  of  Edward 
III.,  then  on  its  march.  The  hail  was  so 
large  that  the  army  and  horses  suffered  very 
much,  and  Edward  was  obliged  to  conclude 
a  peace,  1339. — Matt,  Paris, 

When  Richard  I.'s  queen  came  from  Bohemia, 
on  her  setting  foot  on  shore  an  awful  storm 
arose,  and  her  ship  and  a  number  of  others 
were  dashed  to  pieces  in  the  harbour,  Jan. 
\2»2.—Hol%Mhed. 


A  hurricane  throughout  Europe,  which  did 
very  considerable  damage  ;  more  remarked 
in  England,  happening  Sept.  3,  1658,  the 
day  that  Cromwell  di^— Mortimer. 

A  storm  on  the  eastern  coasts  of  England; 
200  colliers  and  coasters  lost,  with  most  of 
their  crews,  1696. 

The  storm  called  the  "  Great  Storm,"  one  of 
the  most  terrible  that  ever  raged  in  Eng 
land.  The  devastation  on  land  was  im- 
mense ;  and  in  the  harbours,  and  on  the 
coasts,  the  loss  in  shipping  and  in  lives  was 
still  greater,  Nov.  26, 1703*. 

A  snow-storm  in  Sweden,  when  7000  Swedes, 


*  The  loss  sustained  in  London  alone  was  calculated  at  2,000,000^  sterling.    The  number  of  persons 
drowned  in  the  floods  of  the  Severn  and  Thames,  and  lost  on  the  coast  of  Holland,  and  in  ships 


STO 


C488] 


SIR 


STORMS,  eaniinued, 

it  is  said,  perifltaed  upon  the  mountains,  in 
their  mardi  to  attack  Drontheim,  A.D  1719. 

One  in  India,  when  many  hundreds  of  ves- 
sels  were  cast  away,  a  fleet  of  Indiamen 
greatly  damaged,  and  some  ships  lost,  and 
30,000  persons  perished,  Oct  II,  1737* 

A  dreadlU  horrloane  at  theHaTimuih ;  many 
pubUo  edifioea  and  4048  houses  were  de- 
stroyed, and  1000  inhabitants  perished, 
Oct  25,  ITtiS— ^niiua/  JUgister. 

An  awful  storm  in  the  north  of  England,  in 
which  many  yessels  were  destroyed,  and  4 
Dublin  packets  foundered,  Oct.  29, 1775> 

At  Surat,  fai  the  Bast  Indies ;  destroyed  7000  of 
the  inhabitants,  April  22, 1782. 

Onehundred  and  thirty-one  Tillages  and  farms 
laid  waste  in  Fnmce,  1785. 

One  general  throughout  Great  Britain:  se- 
yeral  hundred  sail  of  shipping  destroyed  or 
damaged,  Oct.  6, 1794. 

One  which  did  TBst  damage  in  London,  and 
throughout  almost  the  whole  d  England, 
Not.  8,  1800. 

A  tremendonsstorm  throughout  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  by  which  immense  damage 
was  done,  and  many  ships  wrecked,  Dec. 
16-17. 1814. 

An  awiful  gale,  bj  which  a  great  number  of 
yesseln  were  lost,  and  much  damage  was 
d(nie  to  the  shipping  in  general  on  the  Eng- 
lish coasts,  Aug.  31, 1816. 

A  dreadful  hurricane,  which  ravaged  the  Lee- 
ward Islands,  from  20th  to  22d  Sept  1819. 
At  the  Island  of  St  Thomas  alone,  104  ves- 
sels were  lost. 


to  Cknrnwall,  in  which  great  numbenof 
vessels  were  lost,  Nov.  1821. 

In  Ireland,  particularly  in  the  vicinity  d 
Dublin,  when  many  houses  were  thiovi 
down,  and  vast  numbers  unroofed,  Dea  li, 
1822. 

Awful  storm  on  the  coast  of  England ;  nuoy 
vessels  lost,  and  13  driven  ashore  uA 
wrecked  in  Plymouth  alone,  Jan.  12U 
18S8. 

At  Gibraltar,  where  more  than  a  bundni 
vessels  were  destroyed,  Feb.  18, 1828. 

Dreadful  storm  at  the  Cape  of  Good  HQ{e 
where  imnrenne  property  was  lost,  July  >'. 
1831. 

A  hurricane  visited  London  and  its  neighbor 
hood,  which  did  great  damage  to  the  bi# 
ings,  but  without  the  destruction  of  hmntt 
life,  though  many  serious  accidents  oocuirai. 
Oct  28,  1836. 

AwfU  hurricane  on  the  western  coast  a! 
England,  and  in  Ireland.  The  storm  n^ 
through  Cheshire,  Staffordshire,  and  Wtr- 
wickshire ;  20  persons  were  killed  in  Um 
pool,  by  the  falling  of  buildings,  and  I'* 
were  drowned  in  the  neighbourhood;  tbf 
coast  and  harbours  were  covered  fiili 
wrecks ;  the  value  ef  two  of  the  vessels  te 
being  nearly  half  a  million  sterling.  Ii 
Limerick,  Galway,  Athlone,  and  otia 
places,  more  than  200  houses  were  Uon 
down,  and  as  many  more  were  burnti  t)K 
wind  spreading  the  fires.  Dublin  saSe^ 
dreadfully ;  London  and  its  neighboaThoi]| 
scarcely  sustained  any  damage,  JaO'*^' 
1839. 


A  great  storm  along  the  coast  from  Durham 

STOVES.    The  ancients  used  stoves  which  concealed  the  fire,  as  the  German  stors 

yet  do.    They  lighted  the  fire  also  in  a  large  tube  in  the  middle  of  the  Toom,tiK 

roof  being  open.  Apartments  were  warmed  too  by  portable  braziers.  See  Ctttmnif^' 

STRAND,  London.  Houses  first  built  upon  it  about  a.d.  1353,  at  which  pemxl  i^ 
was  the  court  end  of  the  town,  or  formed  the  communication  between  the  twociEK! 
of  London  and  Westminster,  being  then  open  to  the  Thames  and  the  ^ 
Somerset  and  other  palaces  were  erected  in  1549. — Stowe.  The  Strand  bri(ije>*^ 
commenced  Oct  11,  1811. — See  Waterloo  Bridge.  The  Strand  improTemeiits«°^ 
commenced  in  1829. 

STRASBURG.  The  attempt  at  insurrection  in  the  city  of  Strasburg,  by  Louis-Nipo* 
leon  Buonaparte,  a  nephew  of  the  deceased  emperor^  aided  by  two  officers  and  ff^ 
privates,  which  was  instantly  suppressed  by  the  arrest  of  the  parties.  The  pnn*^ 
was  afterwards  shipped  off  to  America  by  the  French  government,  Oct.  29,  l^^' 
This  enthusiast  made  another  attempt,  by  a  descent  at  Boulogne,  Aug.  6, 1840.  See 
France, 

STRATHMORE,  Countess  of.  Miss  Bowes  of  Durham,  the  then  richest  heiress  in 
Europe,  whose  fortune  was  1,040,000/.,  with  vast  additions  on  her  mother's  deatA. 
and  immense  estates  on  the  demise  of  her  unde,  married  the  earl  of  Strathmort, 
Feb.  25, 1766.  Having,  after  the  earl's  death,  married  Mr.  Stoney,  she  was  forcil)^ 
carried  off  by  him  and  other  armed  men,  Nov.  10,  1786.  She  was  brought  up  ^ 
the  King's  Bench  by  habeas  corpus  and  released,  and  he  committed  to  pnso"' 
Nov.  23.  She  recovered  her  estates,  which  she  had  assigned  to  her  husband  under 
the  influence  of  terror,  in  May,  1788.  . 

hlown  from  their  anchors  and  never  heard  of  afterwards,  is  thought  to  have  been  800ft  Tvel« 
men-of-war,  with  more  than  1800  men  on  board,  were  lost  within  sight  of  their  own  ^^^'\^ 
were  torn  up  by  the  roots,  17,000  of  them  in  Kent  alone.  The  Eddystone  light-house  was  *fi*[^ 
and  in  it  the  ingenious  contriver  of  it,  Winstanley,  and  the  persons  who  were  with  him.  The  wwop 

Bath  and  Wells  and  his  lady  were  killed  in  bed  in  their  palace  in  Somersetshire,   tfultitudes 

^Ue  were  also  lost ;  in  one  level  15,000  sheep  were  drowned. 


8TR  [[  489  "I  SUI 

STRATTON-HILL,  Battle  of,  in  DeTonshire,  between  the  royal  army  and  the  forces 
of  the  parliament  headed  by  the  poet  Waller ;  in  this  battle  the  Tictory  was  gained 
over  the  parliamentarians,  who  lost  numbers  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  Waller  was 
obliged  to  fly  to  Bristol;  fought  May  16,  1643. 

STUCCO-WORK.  The  art  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  was  much  prized  by  them, 
particularly  by  the  Romans,  who  excelled  in  it. — Abb4  Lenglet.  It  was  revived  by 
D'Udine  about  a.d.  1550 ;  and  is  now  exquisitely  performed  in  Italy  and  France, 
and  is  advancing  rapidly  to  perfection  in  England. 

STYLE.  The  style  was  altered  by  Augustus  Csesar's  ordering  leap-year  to  be  but  once 
in  four  years,  and  the  month  Sextilis  to  be  called  Augustus,  8  B.C.  Again  at  Rome, 
by  taking  twelve  days  off  the  calendar,  a.d.  1582. — See  Calendar,  Introduced  into 
most  of  the  other  states  of  Europe,  1710.  Act  passed  to  change  the  style  in  England 
from  the  Julian  to  the  Gregorian,  1751.  It  took  effect  Sept.  3, 1752. — See  New 
Style^  and  Year, 

STYLE,  ROYAL,  of  the  KINGS  of  ENGLAND.    See  articles  Majesty,  and  Titles. 

SUBSIDIES.  Subsidies  to  the  kings  of  England  formerly  gpranted  in  kind,  particularly 
in  wool ;  30|000  sacks  were  voted  to  Edward  III.  on  account  of  the  war  with  France, 
1340. — Anderson.  Subsidies  raised  upon  the  subjects  of  England  for  the  last  time 
by  James  I.,  1624,  but  they  were  contained  in  a  bill  for  the  redress  of  grievances, 
1639.  England  granted  subsidies  to  foreign  powers  in  several  wars,  particularly  in 
the  war  against  the  revolutionists  of  France,  and  the  war  against  Buonaparte.  One 
of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  latter  was  June  20,  1800,  when  a  treaty  of  subsidies 
was  ratified  at  Vienna,  between  Austria  and  England,  stipulating  that  the  war  should 
be  vigorously  prosecuted  against  France,  and  that  neither  of  the  contracting  powers 
should  enter  into  a  separate  peace.  Subsidies  to  Austria,  Prussia,  Russia,  the  Porte, 
and  other  powers,  were  afterwards  given  by  England,  to  the  amount  of  many  tens  of 
milUons  sterling. — Phillips. 

SUCCESSION,  ACT  of.  The  memorable  act  to  exclude  Roman  Catholics  from 
ascending  the  throne  of  these  realms  was  passed  in  1689  ;  and  the  crown  of  England 
was  settled  upon  the  present  royal  family  by  the  act  of  June  12,  1701-2. 

SUCCESSION,  The  WAR  of.  This  celebrated  war,  alike  distinguished  by  the  glorious 
achievements  of  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and  its  barren  and  unprofitable  results, 
arose  in  the  question  whether  an  Austrian  or  a  French  prince,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV., 
should  succeed  to  the  throne  of  Spain.  Our  court  opposed  Louis,  and  Marlborough 
was  victorious ;  but  the  allies  withdrew  one  after  another,  and  the  French  prince 
succeeded;  1702  to  1713.    See  Utrecht,  Peace  of. 

SUGAR,  Saccharum  officinarum.  Sugar  is  supposed  to  have  been  known  to  the 
ancient  Jews.  Found  in  the  East  Indies  by  Nearchus,  admiral  of  Alexander,  325  b.c. 
— Strabo.  An  oriental  nation  in  alliance  with  Pompey  used  the  juice  of  the  cane  as 
a  common  beverage. — Luean.  The  best  sugar  was  produced  in  India. — Pliny.  It 
was  prescribed  as  a  medicine  by  Galen. — Encyclop.  Brought  into  Europe  from 
Asia,  A.D.  625.  In  large 'quantities,  1150.  It  was  attempted  to  be  cultivated  in 
Italy ;  but  not  succeeding,  the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  carried  it  to  America  about 
I5\0.—Robertson*s  History  of  Charles  V.* 

SUGAR-REFINING.  The  art  of  refining  sugar  was  made  known  to  the  Europeans 
by  a  Venetian,  a.d.  1503.  It  was  first  practised  in  England  in  1659,  though  some 
authorities  say  that  we  had  the  art  among  us  a  few  years  sooner.  Sugar  was  first 
taxed  by  name,  1  James  II.,  1685. — Anderson;  Mortimer,    See  Beet  Root, 

SUICIDE.  The  first  instance  of  it  (passing  that  of  Samson)  recorded  in  Jewish 
history  is  that  of  Saul,  1055  b.c. — Apolhdorus.    The  Greek  and  Roman  philoso- 

*  About  the  year  1138  the  sugar-cane  was  transported  from  Tripoli  and  Syria  to  Sicily,  thence  to 
Madeira,  and  finally,  to  the  West  Indies  and  America.  It  is  not  knoim  at  what  date  sugar  was 
introduced  into  England,  but  it  seems  to  have  been  prior  to  the  reign  of  Henry  Till.  Mr.  Whittaker, 
in  the  History  of  Whalley,  p.  109,  quotes  an  earlier  instance,  in  1497.  A  manuscript  letter  from  sir 
Edward  Wotton  to  lord  Gobham,  dated  Calais,  6th  March,  1546,  advertises  him  that  sir  Edward  had 
taken  up  for  his  lordship,  95  sugar-loaves  at  six  shillings  a  loaf,  '*  whiche  is  eighte  pence  a  pounde.'* 
In  1840,  the  imports  of  sugar  into  the  United  Kingdom  were  nearly  5,000,000  owta.,  of  which  nearly 
four  millions  were  for  home  couBumption ;  and  the  duty  amouted  to  about  five  millionfl  and  a  half 
sterling. 


6UL  [[  490  2  SUN 

phert  deemed  it  a  crime,  aad  burned  the  offeading  hand  apart  from  the  rest  of  tk 
body.  In  the  early  part  of  the  Roman  history,  the  only  instance  recorded  occuisi& 
the  reign  of  Tarqoin  I.,  when  the  soldiers,  thinking  themselves  disgraced  by  bein; 
ordered  to  make  common  sewers,  destroyed  themselves,  606  B.C.  Instances  after- 
wards occorred,  howcTcr,  of  illustrioas  men  committing  suicide,  as  Cato,  45  B.C.  h 
the  Catholic  chnrch,  in  the  sixth  century,  it  was  ordained  that  no  commemoratioii 
should  be  made  in  the  Eacharist  for  such  as  committed  self-mnrder.  This  ecclesi- 
astical law  continned  till  the  Reformation,  when  it  was  admitted  into  the  statute  U« 
of  England  by  the  aathority  of  parliament,  with  the  confiscation  of  land  and  goods. . 

▲  raw  or  thb  most  mbmorabuk  aacaiiT  casks  or  buicidb  in  xnoi^and,  Btc  f 

Of  admiral  sir  George  Campbell  Jan.  S3, 1£ 
Of  marquesB  of  Iiondonderry  •  Aug.  12,  lii: 
Of  hon.  colonel  Stanhope  .  Jan.  96,  !<& 
Of  rev.  Mr.  Lee        .  .         .    May  21,  lb! 

Of  Mr.  Montgomery  in  Newgate  ( 

Prussic  Acid)  .         .         July4,  la 

Of  Miss  Charlotte  Both  .     Jan.  3. 1$ 


8oicideofgen.Plehegra  April  7>  1804 

Of  Mils  Champante  .   Aug.  15,  1804 

Of  Selling  the  Taletof  the  dnke  of  Cumber- 
land       ....         May  31,  1810 
Of  Willlama,  the  murderer  of  the  Marr 

funily  .         .         .  I>ec.  15,  1811 

Of  marshal  Berthier  .    June  1,  1815 


Of  lord  Greaves  .         •  Feb.  7.1^ 

Of  colonel  Brereton         .         .     Jan- 13J««? 
Of  major  Thompson  .         June  ^^  ^^ 

Of  Mr.  Simpson,  the  traTeUear,    July  24,  I3W 


Of  Samuel  Whitbrsad,  esq.    .  Sept  6,  1815 

Of  sir  Samuel  RomiUy     .         .  Not.  2,  1818 

Of  sir  Richard  Croft  Nov.  6,  1818 

Of  Christophe,  king  of  Hayti  Oct  8,  1890 

There  have  been  only  three  instances  of  self-destruction  by  fire :  that  of  the  phi^o^ 
pher  Empedocles,  who  threw  himself  into  the  crater  of  Mount  Etna ;  of  a  FreDcit- 
man,  who,  in  imiUtion  of  him,  threw  himself,  in  1820,  into  the  crater  of  YesaTioj; 
and  of  an  Englishman,  who  jumped  into  the  furnace  of  a  forge  about  the  year  18ii< 
Plutarch  relates  that  an  unaccountable  passion  for  suicide  seized  the  Milesian  virgu^ 
from  which  they  could  not  be  prevented  by  the  tears  and  prayers  of  their  fnen<b; 
but  a  decree  being  issued  that  the  body  of  every  young  maid  who  did  self-mo^ 
should  be  drawn  naked  through  the  streets,  a  stop  was  soon  put  to  the  extraordio^ 
frenzy.     In  England,  the  body  was  buried  in  cross-roads,  a  stake  being  previoasll 
driven  through  it,  nntil  the  statute  4  George  IV.,  1823. 
SULPHURIC  ACID.   This  acid  is  usuaUy  called  oil  of  vitriol.    It  was  first  mentioBfc 
by  Basil  Valentine,  who  flourished  a.d.  1447.     Sulphuric  acid,  the  spirit  of  snlphO'' 
was  obtained  in  a  separate  state  by  Priestley  in  1774. 

SULTAN.  A  Turkish  title,  from  the  Arabic,  signifying  king  of  kings,  and  given  to  ^ 
grand  signior  or  emperor  of  Turkey.  It  was  first  given  to  the  Turkish  "^^ 
Angrolipex  and  Musgad,  about  a.d.  1055.— Fa^^^.  It  was  first  given,  tceom 
to  others,  to  the  emperor  Mahmoud,  in  the  fourth  century  of  the  Hegira. 

SUMPTUARY  LAWS.  Laws  to  restrain  excess  in  dress,  furniture,  eating,  &c.  ^<^ 
of  Zaleucus  ordained  that  no  woman  >should  go  attended  by  more  than  one  !iif|"  . 
the  street,  unless  she  were  drunk  ;  and  that  she  should  not  wear  gold  or  embroideTeA 
apparel,  unless  she  designed  to  act  unchastely,  450  b.c. — Diog.  Laert.  ^  ^ 
checked  luxury.  The  Lex  Orchia  among  the  Romans  limited  the  guests  at  re>^ 
and  the  number  and  quality  of  the  dishes  at  an  entertainment ;  and  it  also  ^^j^^ 
that  during  supper,  which  was  the  chief  meal  among  the  Romans,  the  doors  ^^^!^ 
house  should  be  left  open.  The  English  sumptuary  laws  were  chiefly  in  ^he  reigi» 
of  Edward  III.  and  Henry  VIII.    See  Dress,  Luxury,  &c. 

SUN.     Pythagoras  taught  that  the  sun  was  one  of  the  twelve  spheres,  ^^^^.■^i^ 
The  relative  distances  of  the  sun  and  moon  were  first  calculated  geometrically  I 
Aristarchus,  who  also  maintained  the  stability  of  the  sun,  about  280  b.c.  ^^"f^^g 
theories  were  ventured  during  fifteen  centuries,  and  astronomy  lay  neglectaa  "^ 
about  A.D.  1200,  when  it  was  brought  into  Europe  by  the  Moors  of  ^*'^*?L, 
Spain.    The  Copernican  system  was  made  known  in  1530. — See  Coperniean  Sffs 
and  Solar  System.     Galileo  and  Newton  maintained  that  the  sun  was  an  ^"^ 
globe.    Maculse  were  first  discovered  by  Chr.  Scheiner,  1611.    Transit  of  ^^^^'j 
observed  by  Gassendi.    By  the  observations  of  Dr.  Halley  on  a  spot  which  ^  !L 
the  sun's  disk  in  July  and  August  1 676,  he  established  the  certainty  of  its  J^o 
round  its  own  axis.     Parallax  of  the  sun,  Dr.  Halley,  1702.     A  macula,  three  o* 
the  si2e  of  the  earth,  passed  the  sun's  centre,  April  21,  1766,  and  frequently  sid^' 
Herschel  measured  two  spots  whose  length  taken  together  exceeded  50,000  v>^ 
\prU  19,  1779. 


SUN  C  ^9A  ]  ^^^ 

SUN-DIALS.  Invented  by  Anazimander,  550  b.c. — Plinp,  1.  2.  The  first  erected  at 
Rome  was  that  by  Papirius  Cursor,  when  time  was  divided  into  hoursi  293  b.c. 
Sun-dials  were  first  set  np  in  churches,  a.d.  613. — Abb^  Lenglet. 

SUNDAY,  OR  LORD'S  DAY.  Sunday  was  the  day  on  which,  anciently,  divine 
adoration  was  paid  to  the  Sun.  Among  Christians  it  is  called  the  Lord's  day,  on 
account  of  our  Saviour's  rising  from  the  dead  on  that  day,  which,  according  to  the 
Jewish  account,  was  the  next  day  after  the  sabbath.  The  apostles  transferred  that 
religious  rest  observed  by  the  Jews  on  the  sabbath  to  this  day.  The  first  civil  law 
for  its  proper  observance  was  made  by  Constantine,  a.d.  321. — Eusebius,  The 
council  of  Orleans  prohibited  country  labour,  d38.  The  Book  of  Innocent  Sunday 
Sports,  authorising  certain  sports  and  pastimes  after  divine  service  on  Sundays, 
published  in  England  14  James  I.  in  1617,  was  violently  opposed  by  the  clergy  and 
puritans.  Its  sanction  by  the  unfortunate  Charles  I.  was  a  primary  cause  of  the  civil 
war  which  ended  in  his  death.  This  book  was  burnt  by  the  hangman,  and  the  sports 
suppressed  by  order  of  parliament. — Rapin,  Sunday  schools  were  established  in 
England  first  by  Mr.  Raikes  in  1780.    The  Sunday  act  passed  1781. 

SUPREMACY  OVER  the  CHURCH.  The  supremacy  of  the  kmg  over  the  church, 
as  well  as  sovereignty  over  the  state,  whereby  the  king  was  made  the  head  of  the 
church  of  England,  was  established  in  1534,  when  Henry  VIII.  shook  off  the  yoke 
of  Rome,  and  settled  the  supremacy  in  himself.  Our  kings  have  from  that  time 
had  the  title  of  supreme  head  of  the  church  conferred  upon  them  by  parliament.  The 
bishop  of  Rochester  (Fisher)  and  the  ex-lord  chancellor  (sir  Thomas  More)  were, 
among  numerous  others,  beheaded  for  denying  the  king's  supremacy,  1535. 

SURAT.  Before  the  English  East-India  Company  obtained  possession  of  Bombay,  the 
presidency  of  their  affairs  on  the  coast  of  Malabar  was  at  Surat ;  and  they  had  a 
factory  here,  established  under  captain  Best  in  1612.  The  Great  Mogul  had  then  an 
officer  here,  who  was  styled  his  admiral.  Memorable  attack  of  the  Mahratta  chief 
Sivagee,  on  the  British  factory,  defeated  by  sir  George  Oxenden,  1664.  The  English 
were  again  attacked  in  1670  and  1702,  and  often  subsequently.  The  East-India 
Company,  in  1759,  fitted  out  an  armament,  which  dispossessed  the  admiral  of  the 
castle ;  and,  soon  after,  the  possession  of  this  castle  was  confirmed  to  them  by  the 
court  of  Delhi.    The  Surat  was  vested  in  the  British  by  treaty  in  1800  and  1803. 

SURGERY.  It  was  not  until  the  age  of  Hippocrates  that  diseases  were  made  a 
separate  study  from  philosophy,  &c.,  about  410  B.C.  Hippocrates  mentions  the 
ambe,  the  ancient  instrument  with  which  they  reduced  dislocated  bones.  Celsus 
flourished  about  a.d.  17  ;  Galen,  170 ;  ^tius,  500 ;  Paulus  JSgineta  in  640.  The 
Arabians  revived  surgery  about  900 ;  and  in  the  16th  century  sprung  up  a  new  era 
in  the  science  ;  between  these  periods  surgery  was  confined  to  ignorant  priests  or 
barbers.  Anatomy  was  cultivated  under  the  illustrious  Vesalius,  the  father  of 
modem  surgery,  in  1538.  Surgeons  and  doctors  were  exempted  from  bearing  arjns 
or  serving  on  juries,  1513,  at  which  period  there  were  only  thirteen  in  London. 

SURGEONS,  College  of.  The  first  charter  for  surgeons  was  granted  by  Henry 
VIII.,  1540.  Formerly  barbers  and  surgeons  were  united,  until  it  was  enacted  that 
*'  no  person  using  any  shaving  or  barbery  in  London  shall  occupy  any  surgery, 
letting  of  blood,  or  other  matter,  excepting  only  the  drawing  of  teeth.''  The  surgeons 
obtained  another  charter  in  1745 ;  and  a  new  charter  in  1800.  Since  that  period, 
various  legislative  and  other  important  regulations  have  been  adopted  to  promote 
their  utility  and  respectability ;  and  no  person  is  legally  entitied  to  practise  as  a 
surgeon  in  the  cities  of  London  and  Westminster,  or  within  seven  miles  of  the 
former,  who  has  not  been  examined  at  this  college.  The  college  in  Lincoln's-ion 
Fields  was  re-modelled  in  1836,  and  the  interior  completed  in  1837. 

SURPLICES.  First  worn  by  the  Pagan  priests.  First  used  in  churches,  a.d.  316, 
and  generally  introduced  by  Pope  Adrian,  786.  Every  minister  saying  public 
prayers  shall  wear  a  comely  surplice  with  sleeves,  Can,  58.  The  garb  prescribed 
by  Stat.  2  Edward  VI.,  1547  ;  again,  1  Elizabeth,  1558 ;  and  13  and  14  Charles 
II.,  1662. 

SUSPENSION  BRIDGES.  The  greatest  and  oldest  in  the  world  is  in  China,  near 
King-tung ;  it  is  formed  of  chains.  Rope  suspension  bridges,  from  rocks  to  rocks, 
are  also  of  Chinese  origin.  In  these  realms  chain  suspension  bridges  are  of  recent 
construction.  The  bridge  over  the  Menai  Strait  is  the  most  surprising  work,  every 
way  considered,  of  modern  times.     See  Menai  Strait. 


8DT 


C492] 


SWB 


SUTTEES,  om  thk  BURNING  or  WIDOWS.  This  castDm  hegtok  in  India  froa 
one  of  the  wives  of  **  Bramah,  the  Bon  of  Grod,*'  saaificiiig  herself  at  his  death,  thit 
she  might  attend  him  in  heaven.  So  many  as  seventeen  widows  have  barned  them- 
selves on  the  funeral  pile  of  a  njah ;  and  in  Bengal  alone,  700  have  thus  perished, 
vntil  lately,  in  each  year.  Mr.  HolweU  was  present  at  many  of  these  sacrifices.  On 
Pebraary  4,  1 743,  he  saw  a  young  and  beautilnl  creature,  only  seventeen  yean  of 
age,  the  mother  of  two  children,  thus  sacrifice  herself,  with  a  fortitude  and  coonge 
thiit  astonished  every  witness  of  the  scene. — HolweU.  The  English  government  in 
India  have  discouraged  these  self-immolations^  while  yet  avoiding  any  undne  inter- 
ference with  the  religion  and  prejudices  of  the  natives.  Suttees  were  abolished 
Dec.  7,  1829 ;  but  they  have  since  occasionally,  though  rarely,  taken  place. 

SWAN  RIVER  SETTLEMENT.  Projected  by  Colonel  Peel  in  1828.  Regulation 
issued  from  the  Colonial-office,  and  captain  Stiriing  appointed  to  the  colony  l< 
lieutenant-governor,  Jan.  17,  1829.  The  three  towns  of  Perth,  Freemantle,  an^ 
Guildford,  were  founded  the  same  year.  A  journal,  called  the  Freemantle  Gazetu^ 
was  published  here  in  March  1831.    See  article  Colonies. 

SWEARING  ON  THK  GOSPEL.  First  used  a.d.  528.  Introduced  in  judicial  pro- 
ceedings about  600. — Hoptia.  Prof  ans  Swearing  made  punishable  by  fine;! 
labourer  or  servant  forfeiting  It.,  others  2s,  for  the  first  offence;  for  the  second 
offence,  4s. ;  the  third  offence,  6s, ;  6  Wm.  III.,  1695.    See  Oaths. 

SWEATING  SICKNESS.  An  English  disease,  which  caused  great  mortality  in  148), 
soon  after  the  accession  of  Henry  VII.  It  raged  with  great  violence  in  Londoo, 
where  two  mayors  and  six  aldermen  died  of  it  in  one  week  ;  many  thoasands  of 
persons  were  carried  off  by  this  complaint. — HalTs  Chronicle.  Again  in  lh\i, 
when  it  carried  off  the  afflicted  in  three  hours,  and  destroyed  one-half  of  the  inhi- 
bitants  in  many  parts  of  England ;  the  terms  were  obliged  to  be  adjourned  for  a  year.- 
Saimoru  It  broke  out  again  in  1528,  1529,  and  1551,  but  with  less  violence,  it 
Oxford,  where  in  one  month  510  persons  (all  men,  no  women)  died,  July  1575.- 
Coghlan, 

SWEDEN.  The  ancient  inhabitants  were  the  Fins,  now  the  modem  inhabitants  d 
Finland,  a  diminutive  race,  who  retired  to  their  present  territory  on  the  appeanoot 
of  the  Scandinavians  or  Groths,  who  have  ever  since  been  masters  of  the  coontrj. 

Christian  n.,  *<  the  Xero  of  the  North." 
masBsorea  all  the  Swedish  nobility,  to 
fix  his  despotism    .  .        .      .1^ 

The  Swedes  delivered  from  the  DaaiA 
yoke  by  the  valour  of  Gustavna  Tasa .  ^ 

He  makes  the  crown  hereditary,  and  in- 

troduces  the  reformed  religion   .      -^ 
The  titles  of  eountand  baron  introdoced 

byEricXrV.  .         .         ,       .  .l»» 

The  conq^e8ts  of  Gustavus  AdoIplnU) 

between  1612  and       .        .        -      '^^1 
He  is  dain  at  Lntzen  .        .       •  ■ '^ 

Rugen  ceded  to  Sweden  by  Denmark  •  ^^ 
Abdication  of  Christina  .  .  •  •  ^'^ 
Charles  X.  oyerruns  Poland  .      *  '^' 

Arts  and  sciences  b^in  to  flourish  •  •  ^^ 
Charles  XII.,   «*the  Tm^man  of  tlie 

North,"  begfais  his  reign     .        .      •  1® 
He  makes  himself  absolute ;  abolisbes 
the  senate  .        .        .       •  * 

Battle  of  Pultowa,  where  Charles  is  de- 
feated by  the  czar  of  Russia.  See 
Pultowa  .        .        .       .      •1'^ 

He  escape  to  Bender,  where,  after  three 
years'  protection,  he  is  madea  pri«»*    , 
by  the  Turks  .        .        .       •  • '' 

He  is  restored ;  and  after  ruinous  waWi 
and  fighting  numerous  battles,  he  iB»t 
length  killed  at  the  siege  of  Fredericks- 
haU  ....      DeciyTl* 

Queen  Ulrica  Eleanor  abolishes  deovotit^ 
guvemment 


Oylf  reigns  in  Sweden        .        .       b.c.     57 

During  this  reign,  Odin,  somamad  the 
Divine,  at  the  head  of  a  swarm  of  bar- 
barians, fallsupon  thenorthof  Europe, 
making  vast  conquests  ,   ,  *** 

Ynge,  founder  of  the  family  of  the  Yn- 
llngars,  reigns  ....     32 

[The  early  history  of  the  kingdom  is  al- 
together involved  in  fables  and  ob- 
scurity.] 

Olif  the  Infant  isbaptised,  and  introduces 
Christianity  among  his  people,  about 

A.D.  1000 
Gothland,  so  celebrated  for  its  warlike 
people  and  invasions  of  other  countries, 
is  annexed  to  Sweden         .        .        .  1132 
Waldemar  L  of  Denmark  subdues  Rogea, 

and  destroys  the  pagan  temples  .  .1168 
Stockholm  founded  .  .  .  .1260 
Magnus  Ladelus  establishes  a  regular 

form  of  government        .        .         .    .  1279 
The  crown  of  Sweden,  which  had  been 
hereditary,    is  made  elective ;    and 
Steenchel  Alagnus,  sumamed  Smeek 
orthe  Fooli8h,king  of  Norway  ,iselected  1318 
The  crown  made  elective  .        .    .1320 

'Waldemar  lays  Gothland  waste     .        .  1361 
Albert  of  Mecklenburg  reigns  .    .  1365 

Sweden  united  to  the  crown  of  Denmark 
and  Norway,  under  Margaret     .        .  1394 
niversity  of  Upsal  founded  .    .  1476 


1715 


«WE 


[493] 


SWI 


S;W£DEN,  continwd. 

Royal  Acadeifiy  founded  by  Linn^,  after- 
wards called  Linnaeus 

Conspiracy  of  counts  Brahe  and  Homeiy 
who  are  iMheaded  .         .    . 

DespotiBin  re-established 

Order  of  the  Sword  instituted      .         .    . 

Assassination  of  Gustavus  IIL  by  count 
Ankerstrom,  at  a  ball»  March  16 :  he 
expired  the  29th        .... 

The  r^cide  was  dreadfully  scourged 
with  whips  of  iron  thongs  three  suc- 
cessive days  i  his  right  hand  was  cut 
off,  then  his  head,  and  his  body  im- 
paled     ....        May  18,  1792 

Gustavus  IV.  dethroned,  and  the  govem- 
ment  assumed  by  his  uncle,  the  duke 
ofSudermania        .  March  13,  1809 


1741 

1756 
1772 
1772 


1792 


Sweden  cedes  Finland  to  the  czar  of 

Russia  .        .        .        Sept.  17,  1809 

Marshal  Bemadotte,  the  prince  of  Ponte 

Corvo,  is  chosen  the  crown  prince  of 

Sweden  ....  Aug.  21,  1810 
Gustavus  lY.  arrived  in  London,  Nov.  12,  1810 
Swedish  -  Pomerania  seized  by  Napoleon 

Buonaparte  .        .      Jan.  9,  1812 

Alliance  with  England  .  July  12,  1812 
Sweden  joins  the  grand  alliance  against 

Napoleon  .        .  March  13,  1813 

Norway  is  ceded  to  Sweden  by  the  treaty 

of  Kiel  .  Jan.  14,  1814 

Bemadotte  ascends  the  throne  of  Sweden 

as  Charles  John  XIV.  .  .  Feb.  5,  1818 
Treaty  of   navigation  between  Great 

Britain  and  Sweden         .         May  19,  1826 


KINGS  or  SWKDBN. 


AD,  825. 

*** 

966. 

994. 
1026. 
1035. 
1041. 
1066. 
1060. 
1064. 
1060. 
1100. 
1130. 
1133. 
1144. 
1150. 
1162. 

1168. 
1192. 

1211. 
1220. 
122a 
1250. 
1276. 
1290. 
I    1318. 


R^;nard  Lobrock. 

[Reigns  uncertain.] 

Eric,  the  Victor. 

Olaf,  or  Olif  Sckotkong. 

Edmund  Jaoobeon. 

Edmund,  or  Amand  IIL 

Haquin. 

Stenkell,  or  SteencheL 

Ingo  L ;  assassinated  by  his  brother. 

Halstan. 

PhiUp. 

Ingo  n.  i  died  in  a  monastery. 

Ragwald ;  murdered  by  the  Visigoths. 

Magnus  L ;  afisassinated  in  Scania. 

Suercher  II. 

Eric  X. ;  beheaded  by  rebels. 

Charles  VIL ;  made  prisoner  by  Canute, 

who  reigns. 
Canute,  son  of  Eric  X. 
Suercher  IIL,  son  of  Charles ;  killed  in 

battle. 
Eric  XL 
John  I. 

Eric  xn. 

Waldemar. 
Magnus  n. 
Birgerll. 
Magnus  m. 


1365.  Albert. 

1397.  Margaret 

1411.  Eric  XUL ;  abdicated. 

1441.  Christopher. 

1448.  Charles  Vin. 

1458.  Christian  I. 

1497.  JohnIL 

1520.  Christian  U. 

1528.  Gustavus  I.,  VasB. 

1556.  Eric  XIV. ;  died  in  prison. 

1569.  John  ni. 

1592.  Sigismond  L,  king  of  Poland. 

1606.  Charles  IX. 

1611.  Gustavus  Adolphus  n. 

1632.  Christina ;  resigned  her  crown  to 

1664.  Charles  X.,  Gustavus  duke  of  Denz- 

Fonts. 
1660.  Charles  XL 
1699.  Charles  XII. ;  killed  at  the  siege  of 

Frederickshall. 
17I8.  Ulrica  Eleanora;  resigned  when  her 

husband  was  elected. 
1720.  Frederick,  landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel. 
1751.  Adolphus  Frederick,  duke  of  Holstein. 
1771*  Gustavus  IIL,  Adolphus. 
1799.  Gustavus  Adolphus  IV. 
1809.  Charles  XDL 
1818.  Charles  John  XIV.,  Bemadotte,  Feb.  5. 


SWEDENBORGIANS.  A  sect  of  mystics,  so  called  from  the  learned  but  eccentric 
Emanuel  Svredenborg,  a  Swedish  nobleman.  He  considered  the  New  Jerusalem, 
foretold  in  the  Apocalypse,  to  be  a  church  now  about  to  be  established,  in  which 
will  be  known  the  true  nature  of  God  and  of  man,  of  the  Word,  of  heaven  and  of 
hell — concerning  all  which  subjects  error  and  ignorance  now  prevail,  and  in  which 
church  this  knowledge  will  bear  its  proper  fruits — ^love  to  the  Lord  and  to  one^s 
neighbour,  and  purity  of  life.  His  first  work  on  theology  was  published  in  1743 ; 
his  sect  arose  about  1760,  but  it  did  not  spread  in  England  until  1782. 

SWEET-BAY,  Laurus  nobilis^  was  brought  to  these  realms  from  Italy  before  the 
year  1548.  The  Sweet-Fern  Bnsh,  Comptonia  asplenifolia^  came  from  North 
America,  1714. 

SWITZERLAND.  The  ancient  Helvetians  were  a  Gaulish  people,  conquered  by 
Julius  Csesar,  and  afterwards  subject  to  the  Burgundians  and  Germans.  Many 
Franks  also  settled  here,  in  the  early  ages.  The  canton  of  Schweitz  was  peopled  by 
the  Cimbrians,  who,  leaving  their  original  habitation  in  Scandinavia,  invaded  Italy, 
and  were  defeated  by  the  Roman  general  Marina ;  after  which  they  fled  into  Hel- 
vetia, about  100  B.C.    This  canton  has  given  name  to  the  whole  conifederacy* 


8WI 


C*w3 


BYN 


SWITZERLAND,  eQmHmmed. 

Tb0  UdTttians  cuawtod  to  Cliftatluiity 

b]r  bi«h  miMJonaries  .    a.bl   6U 

BclT«tiArmT«fBdbyUieHiiiM   .        .    .    900 
BecufDM  nibjeci  to  Germany  .  1038 

Fribimry  built  by  Bertbold  IT.  .    .1179 

Tyranny  of  Goaler,  which  occaitoiw  the 

memorable  reroU  under  the  imtriot 

William  TtU.'-^See  TtU     ,  .1306 

8w1m  Independenee  .  Nor.  7»  13U7 

A  malignant  fever  canriea  off,  in  the  oan> 

tonof  Bade.lMmOaoala  .1314 

Ponn  of  foTemment  made  perpetual     .  1315 
Luoi.*rae  join*  the  ooofederacy  •  1335 

The  canton  of  Zorkh  Joio%  and  beoomea 

head  of  the  league  .    .  1351 

Berne,  Glaria,  and  Zng  Join  .  1350 

The  GriMoe  league  (aee  Ca<l<lM)         .    .  1400 
Second  league  of  the  Griaone  .  1424 

The  third  league  of  the  Griaona  .    .  1436 

Swlaa  aoidien  first  enter  into  the  pay  of 

France,  under  Louia  XL  •        •  1480 

Union  of  Pribonrg  and  Soleore  .    .  1481 

Maximilian  I.  emperor,  adaunrledgee 

8wiM  independence  •  1499 

flchaffhauaen  joine  the  union  .    .  1501 

The  Bwiaa  oonfederaoy  acknowledged  by 

France  and  other  powera   .  .  1516 

The  Reformation  begina  at  Bade ;  the 

biihop  compelled  to  retire  .    .  1519 

The  Grlaon  league*  Join  the  Bwiei  oonfe- 
deraoy aa  alliea  ....  1544 
Appenael  Joina  the  other  oantona      .    .  1597 
Charlee  Emanuel  of  SaToy  attempta  Ge- 


penetratea  the  town ;  bat  in  tbe  ed 

ia  defeated >' 

[Thiadrcomstance  gives  rise  toanumml 
festival  oommemoratiTe  of  ibdi  escape 

from  tynuiiiy.3 

Independenee  of  Switzerland  leoognwd 
by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  (see  Wttir 
phalia.  Peace  of)  • -'^ 

[From  this  period  until  theFrecch  Reso- 
lution the  cantons  enjoyed  tranquillitj, 
disturbed  only  by  the  changefl  ariaisg 
out  of  their  Tariona  c(HistltatioQ&] 

Alliance  with  France  May  23. ' 

Domestic  strife  in  Geneva,  between  the 
aristocratio  and  democratic  parties: 
France  interferes  .      •  - 

1000  fogitive  Genevans  seek  an  asylna 
in  Ireland  (see  6et%eva) 

Swiss  guards  ordered  to  quit  France 

Helvetio  oonfederation  dissolved;  iis 
■ubjugation  by  France 

The  number  of  csantons  increased  to  19; 
the  federal  govemmoit  restored;  lod 
1^  lanii^^mwta^ti  appointed  by  France 

iaayli.> 

Uri,  BohweitB,  and  Underwald  sepanK 

from  the  repubUe        .       •  ^^J^'' 
Swltierland  Joins  Ftanoe  witheooona. 

The  Allies  entered  Switxerland  in  tk 
spring  of  1814.  The  number  of  c»to«^ 
increased  to  22,  and  the  independente 
of  Switxerland  secured  by  the  titatj 
<rf  Vienna 


neva  by  surprise,  scales  the  walls,  and 

SWITHIN,  ST.  This  saint  Uved  in  the  ninth  century,  and  was  bishop  ofVfmAt 
in  838,  he  being  the  seventeenth  prelate  of  that  see.  The  tradition  that  if  r 
upon  St.  Swithin's  day,  July  15,  it  will  rain  forty  days  foUowing,  is  suppo^^ 
have  a  shadow  of  reason  only  from  the  circumstance  of  some  particular  constelli!:^ 
which  have  the  character  of  portending  rain^  rising  cosmically  about  thetiiBec! 
Swithin's  festival. 

SWOKDS.  They  were  formed  of  iron  taken  from  a  mountain  by  the  Chinese,  1^^ 
— Univ,  Hist.  The  sword  is  one  of  the  earliest  implements  of  war.  The^ 
swords  were  from  20  to  30  inches  long.  The  broad-sword  and  scimiti^''||^ 
modem  adoption.  The  sword  of  state  carried  at  an  English  king's  coron^* 
king  of  Scotland,  1194.  Damascus  steel  swords  are  the  most  prized;  andiK^'^ 
sword  of  Ferrara  steel.  The  Scotch  Highlanders  were  accustomed  to  P^^^l 
latter  from  a  celebrated  artificer,  named  Andrea  di  Ferrara,  and  used  to  ^^ ' 
their  Andrew  Ferraras,  The  broad-sword  was  forbidden  to  be  worn  in  ^°^' 
in  1724. 

SYCAMORE-TREE.  This  tree  is  called  by  some  the  Egyptian  Fig-tree.  Th<^; 
of  its  being  planted  in  England  is  not  known,  but  it  was  very  early*  ^^^^ 
Jamieson's  Memoirs  of  Female  Sovereigns,  we  are  told  that  Mary  queen  01  ^^ 
brought  over  from  France  a  little  sycamore-tree,  which  she  planted  in  the  g«  ^ 
of  Holyrood,  and  that  from  this  little  tree  have  sprung  all  the  beautiful  ^^^ ' 
sycamore  now  to  be  seen  in  Scotland.  p . 

SYDNEY,  New  South  Wales.  Founded  by  governor  Philip,  on  a  00^.^ 
Jackson,  in  1788,  as  a  British  settlement  for  the  colony  of  convicts  original/ '°  |. 
for  Botany  Bay ;  but  now  the  principal  seat  of  the  government  of  the  ^''*?^ 
was  denominated  Sydney  in  compliment  to  lord  Sydney.  The  town  is  nov  ^ 
ing  considerable  in  extent  and  population  ;  and  it  has  a  legislative  cooocu/ 

S(     "" 


first  li»i 


was  first  held  July  13, 1829.    See  Aew  South  Wales  ;  ConvktSf  ^c, 

SYNAGOGUE.     Authors  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  time  when  the  Je«s  - ^^ 
synagogues.    Some  refer  it  to  the  time  of  the  ceremonial  law,  and  ota^ 
times  i3ter  the  Babylonish  captivity.     In  Jerusalem  were  480  synagogo^ 


SYN 


[495] 


SYR 


)YNOD.  The  first  general  synods  were  called  by  emperors,  and  afterwards  by 
Christian  princes  ;  but  the  pope  ultimately  usurped  this  power,  one  of  his  legates 
usually  presiding  (see  Councils).  National,  were  those  of  one  nation  only.  The 
first  of  this  kind  held  in  England  was  at  Hertford,  a.d.  673  :  the  last  was  held  by 
cardinal  Pole  in  1555.  Made  unlawful  to  hold  synods  but  by  royal  authority, 
25  Henry  VIII.,  1533. 

SYNOD  OF  DORT.  The  famous,  or  general  assembly  of  Dort  in  Holland,  to  which 
deputies  were  sent  from  England  and  all  the  reformed  churches  in  Europe,  to  settle 
the  difference  between  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  Calyin,  and  Arminius,  principally 
upon  the  points  of  justification  and  grace,  1618. — Aitzema, 

SYRACUSE.     Founded  by  Archias,  732  B.c.—Euseb%u8,    749  b.c Univ.  Hist. 

Taken  by  Marcellus,  when  Archimedes,  the  illustrious  mathematician,  was  skin, 
212  B.C.  (see  Sicily),  Syracuse  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  with  many 
thousands  of  its  inhabitants,  January  1693.    Again  nearly  destroyed,  Aug.  6,  1757. 

SYRIA.  Of  the  early  history  of  ancient  Syria,  a  few  particulars  are  gleaned  from 
Scripture ;  and  it  otherwise  affords  nothing  peculiar,  being  involyed  in  the  histories 
of  the  Assyrian,  Babylonian,  and  Persian  empires  {which  see).  The  capital  of 
Syria  was  originally  Damascus  ;  but  after  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  Seleucus  (the  chief  of 
the  Seleucidoe)  founded  the  celebrated  city  of  Antioch. 


>T 


.^ 


IT 

ii » 

r 

t 


Seleucus,  sumamed  Nieator,  i.e.  Con- 
queror, enters  Babylon  .        B.a 

iEra  of  the  Seleucidae  {which  gee)    . 

Great  Battle  of  Ipsus,  defeat  and  death 
of  Antigonus 

The  city  of  Antioch  founded 

AntiochuB,  son  of  Seleucus,  falling  in 
love  with  hisfather's  queen,  Stratonioe, 
he  pines  away  nearly  to  death ;  but 
the  secret  being  discorered,  she  is  di- 
Yorced  by  the  father,  and  married  by 
the  sun  * 

Battle  of  Gyropcdion        .        .        .    . 

Seleucus  is  foully  assassinated  by  Ce- 
raunus. — LengM        .... 

Antiocbus  defeats  the  Oauls,  and  takes 
the  name  of  Sotett  or  Saviour  .    . 

Reign  of  Antiochus  II.,  sumamed  by  the 
Milesians  Theos,  or  God ! 

Seleucus  II.  makes  a  treaty  of  allianoe 
with  Smyrna  and  Magnet  f  •    • 

Reign  of  Seleucus  III.,  sumamed  Ce- 
rauntii,  or  Thunder 

Battle  of  Raphia,  in  which  Antiochus 
III.  is  signally  defeated  .        .    . 

Antiochus'  conquest  of  Judaea 

War  with  the  Romans  begins    .         .    . 

Reign  of  Antiochus  lY.,  who  assumes 
the  title  of  Theos-Epiphanes,  or  the 
Ilustrious  God !  .         .        .         . 

He  sends  ApoUonius  into  Judaea ;  Jeru- 
salem is  taken;  the  temple  pillaged; 


312 
312 

301 
299 


297 
281 

280 

275 

261 

243 

226 

217 
204 
192 


175 


40,000  inhabitants  destroyed ;  and 
40,000  more  sold  as  slaves        .        .    .    170 

Cleopatra,  the  queen,  murders  her  son 
Seleucus  with  hear  own  hand      .        .    124 

Reign  of  her  son  Antiochus  Grypus, 
whom  she  attempts  to  poison ;  but  he 
compels  his  mother  to  swallow  the 
deadly  draught  herself  .         .    .    123 

Reign  of  Cyzicenus  at  Damascus,  and  of 
Grypus  at  Antioch  .         .         .111 

Defeat  of  Tigranes  by  Pompey,  who  en- 
ters Syria,  and  dethrones  Antiochus 
Asiatious,  about 65 


Conquest  of  Syria  .        .        .    a.d.    970 

[This  conquest  is  made  by  the  Fatimlte 

caliphs  who  rule  in  Egypt] 
Revolt  of  the  emirs  of  Damascus        .    .  1067 
The  emirs  of  Aleppo  revolt    .         .         .  1068 
The  Crusades  from  Europe  commence 

(see  article  Crusades)     .        .        .    .  1095 
[The  Christians  ultimately  conquer  that 

part  of  Syria  called  the  Holy  Land.— See 

Jerusalem.'] 
Noureddin  conquers  Syria     .        .         .1166 
Saladin  puts  an  end  to  the  power  of  the 

Fatimite  dynasty  .    .  1171 

The  Tartars  overrun  all  Syria        .         .  1259 
Recovered  by  the  sultans  of  Egypt,  who 

expel  the  Crusaders       .        .        .    .  1291 
Syria  overrun  by  Tamerlane  .  1400 


*  This  is  related  as  one  of  the  most  strange  events  connected  with  the  early  history  of  physic. 
Erasistratus,  the  illustrious  father  of  anatomy  (jointly  with  Herophilus),  had  observed,  that  whenever 
the  queen  appeared,  tbe  young  prince  her  step-son  blushed,  a  tremor  overspread  his  frame,  his  pulse 
quickened,  and  his  voice  grew  weak.  She  was  of  his  own  age,  and  of  exceeding  beauty.  On  dis- 
covering the  true  cause  of  his  patient's  disorder,  Erasistratus  adopted  an  expedient  which  was  the 
foundation  of  his  great  fame.  He  informed  the  king  that  his  heir  must  die,  as  he  languished  under  a 
hopeless  passion.  '*  Who,"  asked  Seleucus,  "  is  the  object  of  his  love  ?  "  *'  My  u>i/e,"  answered  the 
physician.  "  Thai  resign  her  to  him,"  said  the  king.  '*  But  if,"  said  Erasistratus,  "  it  were  the 
queen  he  loved,  would  you,  Seleucus,  yield  up  the  idol  of  your  affections  to  another  ?  **  *'  Yes," 
replied  Seleucus,  *'  I  would  readily  relinquish  both  my  queen  and  kingdom  to  save  my  son's  life." 
"  Then  be  at  ease,"  Erasistratus  rejoined,  **  for  the  object  of  his  love  is  Stratonioe  l*'—Biog.  DicU 

t  This  treaty  was  engraved  on  a  marble  column,  now  in  the  court  of  the  Theafare  of  Oxfcnd.  It  was 
presented  to  Oxford  by  the  earl  of  Arundel,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II* 


OosfMrad  bj  the  Ttoks  nder  flelimA  A  1517 


SYR [496] TAN 

SYRIA,  mmimmtd, 

Ifanham  Pndia,  lus  aon,  deitetstbeainy 

of  the  grand  signior  i^lh 

CNommms  iMttttos  and  oonffictB  foilOT 

with  TsrioiiB  aaooMs.] 
Ibnhim  PiudiadereatBtheTDzldEfaanDj, 

making  10,000  pnaanas       .  imeiS. 
The  Tnrkiah  fleet  azrireB  at  Aloandm. 

and  plnoes  itsdf  at  the  dtsposalof  Hs- 

hemetAIi  .        •        •    J^^J^^ 

The  PiTO  PiowerB  propoae  tothe  Porteb 

negotiate  with  Mdiemet  All,  July  16, 
Death    of   tl&e  celebrated  lady  Hester 

Stanhope         .  Jo^ea 

n«at7  of  liondon  (not  signed  by  offended 

France)  ....  ^^1^^^ 
Capture  of  Sidan  (see  Stdon)  •  Sept  ?/. 
FaU  of  Beyzont  (see  Be^rout)  Oct !«. 
FaU  of  Acre  (see -<<cr«)    .        .    NorJ, 


Afttr  the  eon^wt  hjSeUm.  Syria 

tiBMd  in  pnaiiMlon  of  the  Tnite  tiU 

the  invMion  of  Egypt  hy  the  French, 

Joly  1,  1796 
IhwpaMwdiiMte  the  Mametakee  with 

great  loa,    •        •        .        .  'Ang*  ^  1796 
De  OTwroM  the  ODantry,  and  takae  Qan 

and  JaAi  .....  1796 

MrtvofAcre    .        llarv^  6  to  May  S7.  1799 
Itonoapaiie  letiuus    to  France  from 

Kgypt         ....    Aog.  89^  1799 
Egypt  li«Tac«ialed  hy  the  Fnndi  army, 

Sept.  10,  1801 
Mehemet  Ali  attacks  and  eaptoree  Acre, 

and  oremuu  the  whole  of  ^yria,    1831-1832 

After  mtich  cxpostoUtion  with  the  saltan,  the  four  powers,  England,  Anstru,  Sae 
and  PruMia,  prerail  upon  him  to  make  the  pachaiic  of  Egypt  hereditary  in  tbe&s 
of  Mehemet  AU,  who  aiinenders  to  the  Turkish  fleet,  and  whose  troops  evasB 
Syria.  This  result  conciliates  France,  and  promises  peace  in  the  East,  andi^oi 
tinuanoe  among  the  great  powers  of  Europe,  1841. 

T. 

TAFFETY.  A  species  of  silken  mannfactnre,  more  prized  formerly  than  now,«||^ 
tery  smooth  and  glossy.  It  was  worn  by  oar  elder  qaeens,  and  was  first  m 
England  by  John  Tyoe  of  Shoreditch,  London,  41  Elizabeth,  l&Q^.—StoteeUQr 

TALAVERA,  Battle  or,  between  the  onited  British  and  Spanish  amies  iin(is> 
Arthur  Wellesley  (19,000  BritUh  and  30,000  Spaniards),  and  the  French  isj 
amounting  to  47,000,  commanded  by  marshals  Victor  and   Sebastiani,  /aZ/^'T 
28, 1809.    After  a  battle  on  the  27th,  both  armies  remained  on  the  fi«l<^.<^^ 
night,  and  the  French  at  break  of  day  renewed  the  attack,  bat  were  *&^^^, 
by  the  British  with  great  slaughter.    At  noon  Victor  charged  the  ^hok  f^j 
line,  but  was  repulsed  at  all  points,  and  sir  Arthur  Wellesley  secured  the  v^ 
the  enemy  retreating  with  the  loss  of  10,000  men  and  20  pieces  of  cannoD.  i- 
British  lost  800  killed,  and  4000  wounded  or  missing.     Soolt,  Nej^  andm-^ 
being  in  the  rear,  obliged  the  British  to  retire  after  the  battle. 

TALLY-OFFICE.  The  tally  coart  in  the  exchequer  takes  its  name  from  ^ 
word  tailUr,  to  cut,  a  tally  being  a  piece  of  wood  wrote  upon  both  sides^  <^ 
an  acquittance  for  money  received ;  which  being  cloven  asunder  by  tb(«^ 
chamberlains,  one  part,  cslled  the  stock,  is  delivered  to  the  person  who  V^P'^  g. 
money  to  the  government ;  and  the  other  part,  called  the  coonter-stoclr,  ^'^f'V 
foil,  remains  in  the  office,  to  be  kept  till  called  for,  and  joined  with  the  stock. 
method  of  striking  tallies  is  very  ancient. — Beatson,  J 

TALMUD.  There  are  two  books  of  the  doctrine  of  the  religion  and  mo"^^^ 
Jews,»the  Talmud  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  Talmud  of  Babylon.  The  one  coop 
by  the  Rabbi  Juda  Hakkadosh,  about  the  close  of  the  second  century ;  the  se^ 
being  commentaries,  &c.  by  succeeding  rabbis,  were  collected  hj  Ben  Elif^i^ 
the  siith  century.    Abridged  by  Malmonides  in  the  twelfth  century* 

TAMERLANE.    The  conqueror  of  Persia,  India  and  Egypt,  and  plunderer  o!^ 
dad,  Delhi  and  Cairo.     He  subdued  the  renowned  warrior  Bajazet,  ^^^^.  ^jk 
Turks,  whom  he  exposed  in  a  large  iron  cage,  the  fate  the  latter  had  destined 
his  adversary  if  he  had  been  the  victor.    Bajazet  dashed  his  head  sgaiost  the 
of  this  prison,  and  killed  himself,  1403. — Chaic<mdiia*s  Hist.  Ture. 


TANDY,  JAMES  NAFFER,  his  Arrest.    This  celebrated  man  proposed bis^ 

acted  as  j/«^ 
ui  iiri((auc,  jExugusi  nao,     xie  xuieu,  ananea  \q  xiamourga,  ana  there  wasQcU 
up  to  the  English — an  act  that  caused  a  great  sensation  and  outcry,  and  vx  ^ 


of  reform  in  1791.    In  the  French  expedition  against  Ireland  he  acted  as  s/^ 


of  brigade^  August  1 798.    He  failed,  and  fled  to  Hamburgh,  and  there  was^ 

piece  of  treachery  Buonaparte  declared  war  upon  Hamburgh,  October  1^/^^ 
Napper  Tandy  was  liberated  after  the  peace  of  Amiens. 


TAN  [[  497  ]  TAR 

A.KGIERS.  Besieged  by  prince  Ferdinand,  who  was  beaten,  1437.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Portugnese  in  1471»  and  given  as  a  dower  to  princess  Catherine,  on  her 
marriage  with  Charles  II.  of  England  ;  but  he  did  not  think  it  worth  the  expense 
of  keeping,  and,  in  1683,  caused  the  works  to  be  blown  np,  and  the  place  was 
abandoned. 

A.NISTRY.  Introduced  into  England  in  the  time  of  the  Saxons.  In  Ireland,  upon 
the  death  of  any  one,  his  land  was  divided  among  all  the  males  of  his  family,  legi- 
timate or  not;  and  if  any  of  them  afterwards  died,  his  portion  was  not  shared  out 
among  his  sons,  but  the  chieftain  or  tanist  made  a  new  partition  at  his  discretion 
among  the  surviving  brothers.    Abolished  1604. — Davies  on  Ireland. 

ANKARD.  Perhaps  the  oldest  vegsel  for  drinking  wine  brought  down  to  our  times. 
It  is  mentioned  in  many  of  our  classic  authors.  Marius,  the  Roman  general,  seven 
times  consul,  was  the  first  who  drank  out  of  a  silver  tankard  after  the  manner  of 
Bacchus,  about  100  b.c. — Arbuthnot, 

i^ANNING.  Was  early  practised  by  various  nations.  The  use  of  tan  was  introduced 
into  these  countries  from  HoUand  by  WiUiam  III.  for  raising  orange-trees.  It  was 
discontinued  until  about  1 719,  when  ananas  were  first  brought  into  England.  Since 
then,  tan  has  been  in  general  use  in  gardening.  Great  improvements  were  made  in 
tanning  in  1795,  el  seq. 

TAPESTRY.  An  art  of  weaving  borrowed  from  the  Saracens,  and  hence  its  original 
workers  in .  France  were  called  Sarazinois.  The  invention  of  tapestry  hangings 
belongs  [the  date  is  not  mentioned]  to  the  Netherlands. — Guicoiardini,  Manu- 
factured in  France  under  Henry  IV.,  by  artists  invited  from  Flanders,  1606.  The 
art  was  brought  into  England  by  William  Sheldon  ;  and  the  first  manufactory  of  it 
was  established  at  Mortlake  by  sir  Francis  Crane,  17  James  I.,  1619. — Salmon. 
Under  Louis  XIV.  the  art  of  tapestry  was  much  improved  in  France.  See  Gobelin 
Tapestry.  Very  early  instances  of  making  tapestry  are  mentioned  by  the  ancient 
poets,  and  also  in  Scripture  ;  so  that  the  Saracens'  manufacture  is  a  revival  of  the 
art.  For  the  tapestry  wrought  by  Matilda  of  England,  queen  of  William  I.  of 
England,  see  Bayetue  Tapestry, 

TAR.  The  chemist  Becher  first  proposed  to  make  tar  from  pit-coal — the  earl  of 
Dundonald's  patent,  1781.  The  mineral  tar  was  discovered  at  Colebrook-dale, 
Shropshire,  1779  ;  and  in  Scotland,  October  1792.  Tar- water  was  first  recommended 
for  its  medicinal  virtues  by  Berkeley  bishop  of  Cloyne,  about  a.d.  1744. 

TARA,  Battle  of,  in  Ireland,  between  the  royalist  troops,  only  400  strong,  and  the 
insurgent  Irish,  then  in  rebellion  against  the  crown  of  England.  The  rebels 
amounted  to  4000  men,  yet  were  completely  defeated,  losing  500  killed.  May  26, 1 798. 

TARBES,  IN  France.  The  French  army  under  marshal  Soult  was  forced  from  its 
position  here,  with  considerable  loss,  by  the  British  army  commanded  by  the  duke 
of  WeUington,  March  20,  1814. 

TARENTUM,  War  of.  The  war  which  the  people  of  Tarentum  supported  against 
the  Romans,  assisted  by  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  and  which  is  gready  celebrated  in 
history.  This  war,  which  had  been  undertaken  b.c.  281,  by  the  Romans,  to  avenge 
the  insults  the  Tarentines  had  offered  to  their  ships  when  near  their  harbours,  was 
terminated  after  ten  years ;  300,000  prisoners  were  taken,  and  Tarentum  became 
subject  to  Rome. 

TA.RRAGONA.  Occupied  as  a  naval  station  by  the  British  before  their  capture  of 
Gibraltar,  in  1704.  It  was  stormed  by  the  French,  and  the  inhabitants,  man, 
woman,  and  child,  put  to  the  sword,  June  28,  1811.  Tarragona  was  besieged  by 
sir  James  Murray,  in  May  1813  ;  but  the  siege  was  soon  raised. 

TARTAN,  OR  HIGHLAND  PLAID.  This  dress  of  the  Scottish  Highbinders  is  said 
to  have  been  derived  from  the  ancient  Gauls,  or  Celtse,  the  GaUi  Non-braccati, 

TARTARIC  ACID.  The  first  discovery  of  the  eminent  chemist  Scheele,  who  pro- 
cured this  acid  in  a  separate  state,  by  boiling  tartar  with  lime,  and  in  decomposing 
the  tartrate  of  lime  thus  formed  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid,  a.d.  1770. 

TARTARY.  This  name  is  givep  to  several  nations  of  the  East.  The  Tartar  race 
was  known  and  celebrated  in  antiquity  under  the  )iame  of  Scythians.  It  was  during 
the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire  that  these  tribes  began  permanently  to  forsake 
their  own  plains,  in  search  of  more  fertile  regions  ;  and  the  first  of  these  ravagera 

K  K 


TAV  Q  498  ]  TEA 

whoM  terror  and  ftme  reached  the  frontier  of  Italy  were  the  Hans,  the  ancestors  of 
the  modem  race  of  Mongols.  The  first  acknowledged  soTereign  of  this  Tast  coantrj 
was  the  famom  Jenghis  Khan,  a.o.  1206.  His  empire,  by  the  conquest  of  China, 
Perria,  and  all  Central  Asia,  became  one  of  the  most  formidable  ever  established; 
bnt  it  was  split  into  parts  in  a  few  reigns.  Timnr,  or  Tamerlane,  again  cooqaered 
Persia,  broke  the  power  of  the  Turks  in  Asia  Minor,  1402,  and  founded  a  dynisty 
in  India,  which  formed  the  most  splendid  court  in  Asia,  till  the  dose  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

TAVERNS.  In  this  country  were  places  of  entertainment,  under  varions  names,  h 
ancient  times.  Taverns,  as  so  called,  may  be  traced  to  the  13th  century.  "Ii 
the  raigae  of  king  Edward  the  Third  onlp  three  taoems  were  allowed  in  London:  ov 
in  Chepe,  one  in  Walbroke,  and  the  oUier  in  Lombard-street'' — Sir  Henry  % 
man.  The  Boar^e  Head,  in  Eastcheap,  existed  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  t 
was  the  rendesrous  of  prince  Henry  and  his  dissolute  companions.  Shaksper^ 
mentions  it  as  the  residence  of  Mrs.  Quickly,  and  the  scene  of  sir  John  Falsi 
merriment^ — ShaJctpeare,  Henry  IV,  Of  little  less  antiquity  is  the  Whxie  B 
Btsbopsgate,  established  in  1480 :  this  house  was  rebuilt  in  1829.  Taverns « 
restrained  by  an  Act  of  Edward  VI.,  1552,  to  40  in  London,  8  in  York,  4  inN- 
wich,  3  in  Westminster,  6  in  Bristol,  3  in  Lincoln,  4  in  Hull,  3  in  ShrewsbDry^ 
in  Exeter,  3  in  Salisbury,  4  in  Gloucester,  4  in  Chester,  3  in  Hereford,  3  inf^ 
cester,  3  in  Southampton,  4  in  Canterbury,  3  in  Ipswich,  3  in  Winchester,  33 
Oxford,  4  in  Cambridge,  3  in  Colchester,  4  in  Newcastle-upon-Tyne.  TaTenuie: 
licensed  in  1752. 

TAXES.  The  first  levied  on  the  people  was  by  Solon,  the  first  Athenian  legite 
540  B.C.  The  first  class  of  citizens  paid  an  Attic  talent  of  silver,  about  55/.oft: 
money.  The  next  was  by  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  which  was  a  land•taI^ 
assessment,  and  deemed  so  odious  that  his  subjects  styled  him,  by  way  of  deris» 
Darius  the  Trader,  480  b.c. — D*Eon*8  Histoire  des  Finances.  Taxes  in  si^^ 
were  first  introduced  into  England  by  William  I.,  1067^  and  he  raised  them  k 
trarily ;  yet  subsidies  in  kind,  ss  in  wool,  corn,  leather,  and  other  products  of' 
country,  continued  till  the  accession  of  Richard  II.,  lZ77.^Camd€n, 


AfeSSBSSD  TAXB8. 

LAND  TAX. 

FROPERTT  TiX 

1800. 

•                      • 

£3,488.131 

1800. 

*                      ■ 

£1,307.941 

1801.      .      .  ♦jtf5;in 

laiA. 

•                       • 

4,508.752 

1805.    . 

• 

1.536,481 

1804.    .         .            4^ 

1810. 

•                       • 

6,233,161 

1810. 

•                      • 

1,418,337 

1805.         .         .       5^ 

1815. 

•                      • 

6,524,766 

1815.    . 

• 

1,084,251 

1806.    .         .          t".*» 

1820. 

•                      • 

6,311.346 

1820. 

• 

1,192.257 

1808.       .      .     16;*- 

1835, 

•                       • 

5,176,722 

1825.    . 

* 

1,288,393 

1815.J  .         .           14,S^ 

1830. 

•                       • 

5,013,405 

1830. 

•                      • 

1,189,214 

*  5  per  cent. 

1835. 

•                       • 

3,733.997 

1835.    . 

• 

1,203,579 

t  10  per  cent 

1840. 

•                      • 

3,866,467 

1840. 

•                      • 

1,298.622 

i  Last  year  of  this  ttf 

*ni*  The  property  tax  ceased  with  1815,  the  last  year  of  the  war.   The  onprodactit' 
of  the  assessed  taxes  in  Ireland,  and  the  diminution  in  amount,  year  after  year,  of  tho) 
abolished  in  the  period  immediately  following  the  peace,  led  to  the  total  repeal  of  theii^ 
taxes  in  that  country  in  1823.    For  the  amount  of  the  general  taxation  of  the  United  &^ 
dom,  see  Revenue. 

TE  DEUM.  A  kind  of  hymn  or  song  of  thanksgiving  used  in  the  church,  beginB<1 
with  the  words  Te  Deum  laudamua — ^We  praise  thee,  O  God.  It  is  generally  :if 
posed  to  be  the  composition  of  Augustin  and  Ambrose,  about  a.d.  390 ;  ux^  ' 
sung  in  the  Romish  church  with  eztraorfinary  pomp  and  solemnity  on  some  bapii 
event,  such  as  a  national  thanksgiving  for  a  great  victory,  or  for  a  bounteous  barve^ 

TEA.  First  known  in  Europe,  being  brought  from  India  by  the  Dutch,  1610.  Broos' 
into  England  in  1666,  by  lord  Ossory  and  lord  Arlington,  from  Holland;  and  bed 
admired  by  persons  of  rank,  it  was  imported  from  thence,  and  generally  sold » 
60  shillings  per  pound,  till  our  East  India  Company  took  up  the  trade. — And^f^ 
Green  tea  began  to  be  used  in  1715.  The  duty  imposed  on  tea  in  America,  I'O 
This  tax  occasions  the  destruction  of  17  chests  at  New  York,  and  340  at  fiosti^ 
November  1773,  and  ultimately  leads  to  the  American  war  (see  Boston),  y^ 
dealers  obliged  to  have  sign-boards  fixed  up,  noticing  their  sale  of  tea,  August  1" 
Commutation  Act  for  reducing  the  duty  on  tea  from  50  to  12^  per  cent.,  and  tax'i 
windows  in  lieu,  June  1784.  New  duties  were  charged,  1796.  The  duty  * 
96  and  100  per  cent,  until  July  1, 1836,  when,  by  the  6th  William  IV.,  it  was  oiv 
2s.  Id,  per  pound. 


1726.  .      lbs.    7oo,ooe 

1766.  .         .          7,000,000 

1792.  .             13,185,000 

1800.  .         .       23,723,000 


1805.  .      lbs.  24,133.000 

1810.  .         .        25.414,000 

1815.  .             26,368,000 

1820.  .         .        25,862,474 


TEA C  499  3 TEM 

QA,  continued. 

TEAB  UIPORTBD  INTO  BNOLAND  OR  CHARGED  WITH  DUTY  IN  THB  FOXXOWINO  VXAR8. 

1825.  .      lbs.  27,803.668 

1830.  .         .        30.544,404 

1835.  .             44,360,550 

184a  .         .        38,068,555 

The  duty  derived  on  the  import  of  tea  is  now  about  4,000,000/.  annually.  Millions 
of  pounds  weight  of  sloe,  liquorice,  and  ash- tree  leaves,  are  every  year  mixed  with 
Chinese  teas  in  England. — Report  of  the  House  of  Commons,  1818.  The  con- 
snmption  of  the  whole  civilised  world,  exclusively  of  England,  is  about  22,000,000 
of  pounds,  while  the  annual  consumption  in  Great  Britain  is  30,000,000. — Evidenee 
in  House  of  Commons,  1830.  The  first  tea-sale  in  London  on  the  abolition  of  the 
ezclusiye  privilege  of  the  East  India  Company  took  phice  in  Mincing-lane, 
August  19,  1834. 

BA-TREE.  Thea  Bohea.  Brought  to  these  realms  from  China,  about  176S.  The 
finest  tea-plant  known  in  England  was  raised  in  Kew  Gardens  ;  but  the  first  that 
ever  flourished  in  Europe  was  one  belonging  to  the  duke  of  Northumberland  at  Sion. 

BLEGRAPHS.  They  were  early  in  use.  Polybius  calls  the  different  instruments 
used  by  the  ancients  for  communicating  information />yf«ue,  because  the  signals 
were  always  made  by  fire.  The  most  ingenious  of  the  modems  had  not  thought  of 
such  a  machine  as  a  telegraph  until  1663,  when  the  plan  was  suggested  by  the 
marquis  of  Worcester.  The  first  idea  of  a  telegraph  on  the  modern  construction 
was  suggested  by  Dr.  Hooke,  1684.  M»  Amontons  is  also  said  to  have  been  the 
inventor  of  telegraphs  about  this  period.  It  was  not  till  1793  that  the  instrument 
was  applied  to  useful  purposes  :  M.  Chappe  then  invented  the  telegraph  first  used 
by  the  French.  Two  erected  over  the  Admiralty-office,  London,  1796.  The  Sema^^ 
phore  was  erected  there  1816.  The  naval  signals,  by  telegraph,  enable  400 
previously-concerted  sentences  to  be  transmitted  from  ship  to  ship,  by  varying  the 
combinations  of  two  revolving  crosses ;  and  also  to  spell  any  particular  words,  letter 
by  letter. 

'ELESCOPES.  This  invention  is  noticed  by  Leonard  Digges,  about  1571.  Roger 
Bacon,  about  a.d.  1250,  described  telescopes  and  microscopes  exactly,  and  yet 
neither  were  made  till  one  Metius,  at  Alkmaer,  and  Jansen,  of  Middleburgh,  made 
them  about  the  same  time ;  the  latter  from  an  accidental  discovery  made  by  his 
children,  1590 — 1609.  Galileo  imitated  their  invention  by  its  description,  and 
made  three  in  succession,  one  of  which  magnified  a  thousand  times.  With  these  he 
discovered  Jupiter's  moons  and  the  phases  of  Venus.  Telescopes  became  very 
popular,  and  were  improved  by  Zucchi,  Huygens,  Gregory,  and  Newton ;  and  finally 
by  Martin,  Hall,  Dolland,  and  HerscheL  Achromatic  telescopes  were  made  by 
More  Hall,  about  1723.  A  telescope  was  made  in  London  for  the  observatory  of 
Madrid  which  cost  11,000/.  in  1802  ;  but  the  Herschel  telescope,  made  1789 — 1795, 
is  superior :  it  has  the  great  speculum  48  inches  diameter,  3^  inches  thick,  weighs 
2118  lbs.,  and  magnifies  6400  times.     See  Herschel  Telescope. 

TEMPERANCE  SOCIETIES.  They  originated  with  Mr.  Calhoun,  who,  while  he 
was  secretary  of  war  in  America,  in  order  to  counteract  the  habitual  use  of  ardent 
spirits  among  the  people,  had  them  prohibited  altogether  to  the  United  States 
army,  1818.  The  first  public  temperance  society  in  America  was  projected  in  1825, 
and  formed  February  )3,  1826*  Temperance  societies  immediately  afterwards 
spread  in  England  and  Scotland ;  and  in  1831  there  were  1000  such  societies  in  the 
United  States,  and  several  hundreds  in  the  latter  countries.  In  Ireland,  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Edgar,  of  Belfast,  published  upon  temperance  in  1829-31  ;  and  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Mathew,  a  Roman  Catholic  clergyman,  has,  he  affirms,  in  1839,  40,  and  41,  made 
more  than  a  million  of  converts  to  the  abstaining  principle  in  drink. 

TEMPLARS.  The  first  military  order  of  Knights  Templars  was  founded  in  a.d.  1118, 
by  Baldwin  II.,  king  of  Jerusalem.  The  templars  were  numerous  in  several 
countries,  and  came  to  England  in  1185.  The  order  wag  suppressed  by  the  couneil 
of  Vienna,  and  its  revenues  were  bestowed  upon  other  orders,  in  1 312.  Numbers  of 
the  order  were  burnt  alive  and  hanged,  and  it  suffered  great  persecutions  throughout 
Europe,  particularly  in  France  in  the  reign  of  Philip  of  Valois,  1342.  They  were 
several  times  suppressed  in  England,  and  finally  in  1340. 

K  K  2 


TKM Q  500  ]         TEW 

TEMPLE,  Lovooif.  Thw  edled,  beeaue  it  was  anciently  the  dwemng-boose  ii 
Kbtglits  Teapbn.  At  the  svppreaion  of  that  CMrdcr,  it  was  purchased  fay  the  y 
IcMora  of  the  coiaaoB  Uw,  and  cooveited  into  inns.  They  are  called  the  Inseri 
Middle  Teaple,  in  relation  to  Bnei-honse,  which  was  also  a  part  of  theks' 
the  Templare,  and  called  the  Outer  Temple,  hccanae  it  was  ntnated  vithovt  Tc 
Bar.  St.  Mary's,  or  the  Temple  Church,  sitnated  in  the  Inner  Tempk,  i 
ancient  Gothic  stone  building,  erected  by  the  Temfdnrs  in  the  reign  of  Henn 
and  is  remarkable  for  its  dreular  vestibule,  and  for  the  tombs  of  the  cnisadei&< 
were  buried  here.  The  Temple-hall  was  built  in  1572,  and  Temple-bar  >  1 
The  church  was  reeased  with  stone  by  Mr.  Smirke  in  1828. 

TEMPLES.    They  originated  in  the  sepulchres  built  for  the  dead.— £umMi». 
Egypttaat  were  the  first  who  erected  temples  to  the  gods.—Heroiotiu.  Tbe 

errcted  in  Greece  is  ascribed  to  Deucalion ApoUonius.     For  temple  of  Belii^ 

BaUi,    The  temple  of  Jerusalem,  built  by  Solomon,  1012  b.c.    Fired  bj> 
chadnenar,  &87  •.€.     Rebuilt,  536  b.c    Pillaged  by  Antiochns,  170  bc.  Ri 

by  Herod,  18  b.c.     Destroyed  by  Titus,  a.d.  70 The  temple  of  Apollo,  at 

PHos,  first  a  cottage  with  boughs,  built  of  stone  by  Trophorios,  about  12i^ 
Burnt  by  the  Pisistratida,  548  b.c.  A  new  temple  raised  by  the  family  of  tbei 
miroiiidK,  about  513  m.c.— Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesns,  built  seren  times  ;f^ 
by  ('tesiphon.  544  b.c  Fired  by  Erostratas,  to  perpetuate  his  name,  356  u 
rebuild  it,  employed  220  years.  Destroyed  by  the  Goths,  a.d.  260.— TbeK'^ 
of  Piety  was  built  by  Acilius,  on  the  spot  where  once  a  woman  iiad  id  ^ 
milk  her  sged  father,  whom  the  senate  had  imprisoned,  and  excluded  trc 
aliments.— To/.  Jlfor.  Temple  of  Theseus,  built  480  years  b.c.,  is  at  tkff 
most  perfect  ancient  edifice  in  the  world. — The  heathen  temples  were  i^^ 
throughout  the  Roman  empire  by  Constantine  the  Great,  a.d.  331.  See  bs- 
Templet, 

TENERIPFE,  Canabibs.    The  celebrated  Peak  of  Teneriffe  is  15,396  feetaiK 
level  of  the  sea.    An  earthquake  in  this  island  destroyed  several  toffo^  ^"^^ 
thousands  of  people  in  1704.     In  an  unsaccessfal  attack  made  at  Santa  Cm. 
ral  Nelson  lost  his  right  arm,  and  141  officers  and  men  were  killed,  July  2^. 

TERMS  OF  LAW  AND  VACATIONS.    They  were  instituted  in  England  fij^ 
Norman  usage,  the  long  vacation  being  suited  to  the  time  of  the  vinta^^" 
14  William  I.  1079.— G/onui//*  de  Leg.  Anglic,    They  were  graduaUyjjr^ 
Spelman,     The  terms  were  fixed  by  statute  11  George  IV.,  and  1  w"*" 
July  22,  1830  :   Hilary  Term  to  begin  Jan.  11,  and  end  Jan.  31 ;  Easter,  Jf| 
and  to  end  May  8  ;  Trinity,  May   22,  and  to  end  June  12 ;  Michaelma^, 
and  to  end  Nov.  25.     This  act  was  amended  1  William  IV.,  Nov.  15, 1830  ^^ 

TEST  ACT.     The  sUtnte  of  Charles  II.,  directing  aU  officers,  civil  and  dhW^. 
government,  to  receive  the  sacrament  according  to  the  forms  of  the  Chorct'^, 
land,  and  to  take  the  oaths  against  transubstantiation,  &c.,   was  ^^^^,< 
1673.    The  Test  and  Corporation  Acts  were  repealed  by  statute  9Gm 
May  1828. 

TESTER.     Testone.   A  silver  coin  struck  in  France  by  Louis  XII.,  1513 ;  ^^^ 
Scotland  In  the  time  of  Francis  II.,  and  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  2^^^  .  ^^ 
called  from  the  head  of  the  king,  which  was  stamped  upon  it.    ^^ /f^ 
tester  was  of  \2d.  value  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  afterwards  of  6a.    ^ 

TEUTONI,  OR  TEUTONES.     A  people  of  Germany,  who  with  the  Cimb"^^ 
incursions  upon  Gaul,  and  cut  to  pieces  two  Roman  armies,   .'^^^^^igisr 
defeated  by  the  consul^  Marius,  and  an  infinite  number  made  prisoners^         . 
See  CimbH.  ^ 

TEUTONIC  ORDER.     The  order  of  mUitary  knights  estabHshed  in  the  »o^j„ 
towards  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century.     The  institution  arose  in  ^^  "^gtirt':- 
the  Teutones  to  the  sick  and  wounded  of  the  Christian  army  under  the    ^^ 
Guy  of  Lusignan  when  before  Acre.    The  order  was  confirmed  by  &  ^^ 


Caelestine  111.,  a.d.  1191.     See  Prussia^  &c.  ^ 

TEWKESBURY,  Battle  of,  in  which  Edward  IV.  gained  a  decisive  victory  J^^^, 


Lancastrians.     Queen  Margaret,  the  consort  of  Henry  VI.,  and  her  son,  *  ^^j^ 


prisoners.     The  queen  was  conveyed  to  the  Tower  of  London,  ^^^,    Ipoet^ 
expired  a  few  days  after  this  fatal  engagement ;  being,  as  is  generaUy  ^  pr 


THA  C  501  D  '^^^ 

xnurdered  by  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  afterwards  Richard  III.  The  queen  was 
ransomed  ia  1475,  by  the  French  king,  Lewis  XI.,  for  50,000  crowns.  This  was 
the  last  battle  between  the  adherents  of  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  May  4, 
1471.     See  Roses. 

SAIVIBS,  London*    The  richest  river  in  the  world.     It  has  been  erroneously  said 

that  its  name  is  Isis  till  it  arrives  at  Dorchester,  when,  being  joined  by  the  Thame 

or  T'ame,  it  assumes  the  name  of  Thames.     What  was  the  origin  of  this  vulgar 

erro  t  cannot  now  be  traced  :  poetical  fiction,  however,  has  perpetuated  the  error, 

and   invested  it  with  a  kind  of  classical  sanctity.  It  was  called  Thames  or  Terns  before 

it  came  near  the  Thame. — Camden.    The  riv^  rose  so*  high  at  Westminster,  that 

the  lawyers  were  brought  out  of  the  hall  in  boats,  a.d.  1235.     Again  it  rose  to  great 

beight,  1736,  1747,  1762,  and  1791.    The  conservation  of  the  Thames  was  given 

to  th6  mayors  of  London,  1489.     The  Thames  -was  made  navigable  to  Oxford,  1624. 

It  ebbed  and  flowed  twice  in  three  hours,  1658.     Again,  three  times  in  four  hours, 

March  22, 1682.     Again,  twice  in  three  hours,  November  24,  1777.     Extraordinary 

'  spring-tide,  which  did  considerable  damage  to  the  contiguous  wharfs,  &c.,  March  5, 
1828.      See  Frosts,  &c. 

HAMES  TUNNEL.     Projected  by  Mr.  Brunei,  to  form  a  communication  between 

the  two  sides  of  the  river,  at  Rotherhithe  and  Wapping,  the  most  extraordinary 

construction  of  ancient  or  modem  times.     The  bill  received  the  royal  assent,  June 

^24,  1824.     The  shaft  was  begun  in  1 825  ;  the  first  brick  was  laid  by  Mr.  Smith, 

March  2  ;  the  excavation  commenced  April  1  ;  and  the  first  horizontal  excavation,  in 

''  December  1825.  At  a  distance  of  544  feet  from  the  shaft  the  first  irruption  took 
place,  May  18,  1827.  The  second  irruption,  by  which  six  workmen  perished,  Jan. 
12,  1828.    The  length  of  the  tunnel  is  1300  feet ;  its  width  is  35  feet ;  height,  20 

'  feet ;  clear  width  of  each  archway,  including ;  footpath,  about  14  feet ;  thickness  of 
earth  beneath  the  crown  of  the  tunnel  and  the  bed  of  the  river,  about  15  feet. 

I'HANE.  A  title  much  in  use  anciently,  and  which  sometimes  signified  a  nobleman, 
'  sometimes  a  freeman,  and  sometimes  a  magistrate ;  but  most  properly,  an  officer 
''  under  the  king.  The  Saxons  had  a  nobility  called  thanes,  and  the  Scots  also.  The 
title  was  abolished  in  England  at  the  Conquest,  upon  the  introduction  of  the  feudal 
system.  Abolished  in  Scotland  by  king  Malcolm  III.,  whea  the  title  of  earl  was 
>      adopted,  1057. 

CHEATINES.     An  order  of  religious,  the  first  who  assumed  the  title  of  regular  clerks. 
r     This  order  was  founded  by  Caraffa,  bishop  of  Theate  in  Naples,  who  was  afterwards 
^      pope  Paul  IV.,  1524.     The  Theatines  endeavoured,  but  vainly,  to  revive  among  the 
clergy  the  poverty  of  the  apostles. — Ashe. 

THEATRES.  That  of  Bacchus,  at  Athens,  built  by  Philos,  420  B.C.,  was  the  first 
erected.  Marcellus'  theatre  at  Rome  was  built  about  80  B.C.  Theatres  were  after- 
(  wards  nuiherous,  and  were  erected  in  most  cities  of  Italy.  There  was  a  theatre  at 
r  Pompeii,  where  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  were  assembled  on  the  night 
I  of  August  24,  A.D.  79,  when  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius  covered  Pompeii.  Scenes 
f  were  introduced  into  theatres,  painted  by  Balthazar  Sienna,  a.d.  1533.  See  Drama, 
PlaySy  &c. 

:  THEATRES  in  ENGLAND.  The  first  royal  licence  for  a  theatre  in  England  was  in 
1574,  to  master  Burbage  and  four  others,  servants  of  the  earl  of  Leicester,  to  act 

,  plays  at  the  Globe,  Bankside. — See  Globe.  But  long  before  that  time,  miracle  plays 
were  represented  in  the  fields.  The  prices  of  admission  in  the  reign  of  queen  Eliza- 
beth were,  gallery,  2d.;  lords'  room.  Is. — Dickens.  The  first. play-bill  was  dated 
April  8, 1663,  and  issued  from  Drury-lane;  it  runs  thus :  **  By  his  Majestic,  his  com- 
pany of  Comedians  at  the  New  Theatre  in  Drury  Lane,  will  be  acted  a  comedy  called 
the  Humovrovs  Lievtenant.**  After  detailing  the  characters,  it  concludes  thus : 
"  The  play  will  begin  at  three  o'clock  exactly."  Lincoln's-inn  theatre  was  opened 
in  1695.     See  Covent  Garden,  Drury  Lane,  Opera  Hoitse,  Drama,  Sec 

DRURY  LANS.  Interior  rebuilt  by  Adams         .        .    .  1775 

Killigrew's  patent    .        .        April  25,  1668  Sheridans' management        .        .         .  1776 

Theatre  burnt  down     ....  1671  Theatrical  fund  founded  by  Mr.  Oanick  1777 

Rebuilt  by  sir  Christopher  Wren        *    .1674  Mrs.  Siddon's  dibut  as  a  star    .   Oct.  10,  1782 

Gibber,  Wilkes,  Booth           .         .         .  1713  Mr.  Kemble's  d^but  as  Hamlet    Sept.  30,  1783 

Garrick's  d^but  here          .        .        «    .  1742  The  theatre  rebuilt  on  a  large  scale,  and 

Gacrick  and  Lacy's  tenure    ^.        »        .  1747  re-opened     •        *        .      March  12,  1794 


TRB 


Csoa] 


THEATRES,  MnHmifrf. 

Hittald  iwd  at  (hrngt  m.    . 

Mqrll.  180O 

TtetlMBlMbant     . 

Mb.  M»  1808 

B^boOt  by  Wyatl»radm«|NBed  Oct.  IC.  1812 

Kmn's  appaunm  (m  SkgUek) 

Jan.  88,  1814 

Mr.  EllMaa.  tan* 

.  1819 

lIr.PHo0,l«M 

.     Joly.  1896 

Mr.AJeuBdirliM^adeaptFlDlhiU     .1830 

Mr.Bau^Umm          .        . 

.  1831 

Mr.  BMUMid.  I«M 

.    .  1839 

Mr.M«a«i4r      • 

.  ]8tt 

Wtr  WdUMD  DavMMat'apaUnt,  April  95, 1082 
Tbe  theatro  opeoed  hj  Rteb  .  1739 

Tbaatrical  fond  InaUtotod  .    .  1765 

Mr.  Harria*!  tannre  ....  1767 
MiM  Raay  klllad  by  Mr.Hadman,  oom- 

iB8  from  tha  bonaa  April  7»  1779 

Mr.  KamUa'smanaffniMnt  .1808 

Appoarauoa  of  Maater  Bat^,  Uia  It\fimt 

Rotcitu 1804 

Tbeatra  bnnit  down  .     Sept  SO,  1806 

Baboilt  by  Mr.  Baaaley,  aad  r»-openad 

with  Macbetk  8apt.  18,  180O 

The  O.P.  riot  (Ma  0,F,  RM)  from  8apt. 

18  tn  Dec  10 1809 

MlM  Kally  fired  at  1^  Gaone  Bamat,  In 

the  bouae  Fab.  7*  1818 

Henry  Harrfa 1818 

Charlea  Kambla        .  .   .  1893 

Mr.  Macmdy't  manafement  .  1837 

Madame  VeatrU' managament  .    .  1839 

'iTAUAH  oraiu-Houas. 
Opera-bonae  opened.— PmnanC  •  1704 

The  theatre  waa  anlarfed  .    .  1780 

Burnt  donn  .    June  17*  1788 

Bcbuilt  and  reopened  Sept.  22,  1791 

Exterior  improTed  by  Mr.  Naih  •  •  1818 
The  reUero,  by  Mr.  Bubb  .    .  1881 

KATMAaXST. 

Bunt  in  1708,  and  altered 

Mr.  Foote'e  patent 

The  Bottle-ooi^uror'tdapery  ( 

The  theatre  rebuilt 

Mr.  Colman's  tenure 

Fatal  accident  from  an  OYor-crowd,  30 

personB  killed  and  wounded    .  Feb.  3,  1794 
Mr.  EUiaton^  d^bui  here  June  84,  1796 

Mr.  Morria 1806 

Theatre  rebuilt  by  Mr.  Naah         .        .  1881 

XNOLISH  0PBRA-HOV8X. 

Opened  as  the  Lyceum  .  .  1809 

Again,  with  an  address  spoken  by  Miss 

Kelly June  Ifi,  1816 

Destroyed  by  fire        .        .        Feb.  16,  1830 
Rebuilt  by  Beazley,  and  reK)pened,  July  1834 

AfiTLXir'S  AMPHrrBBATKX. 

First  established  as  a  riding-house         .  1767 
Opened  as  an  amphitheatre       .        .    .  1780 
Destroyed  by  fire,  with  numerous  ad- 
jacent houses         .        .        Sept.  17,  1794 
Again,  with  40  houses    .        .      Sept.  2,  1803 

THX  AnXLPHI  THSATaX. 

Formerly  called  the  Sam  Sottd,  under 

the  management  of  Mr.  and  Miss  Scott  *** 
New  management  commenced  in  .  1880 


.  1720 
.    .  1747 

Jan.  16,  1748 

.    .  1767 

Jan.  1,  1777 


TBS 


MatiMfwa  and  Yates 


a  •  .  •Is 

HOW  auaaxT  THum. 

Or^tnalty  deffoted  to  eqnestriaa  em- 
^  etea,  under  dlraetkm  of  Mr.  Hngba. " 
Daetroyad  by  five  Aog-U,'.^ 

Mr.  lg^lia*ffl^V  w»««Mipj|i«n^«nt    .        .      .J 

OLYMPIC 

Breoted  ^  the  late  Mr.  Astky 
Hera  the  oelebnted  Emston,  aad  ate- 
wards  Madame  Vestris,  had  manage- 
;  the  latter  until      . 


OQBDBO,  KOW  TICTOSIA. 

The  erection  waa  commenced  under  the 
patronage  of  the  late  princess  Char- 
lotte and  the  prince  Leopold  of  8iie^ 
Coburg 

The  honae  waa  opened 

Messrs.  Egerton  and  Abbott  had  tbe 
management  in 

VKaiCM.%  lATs  T.  Jjjas's. 
Thia  theatre  waa  opened  under  the  ii» 

nagement  of  Mr.  Braham 
German  opoaa  were  performed  hm 

imder  the  management  of  Sfr*  Bmn  ■' 

Besidea  tbe  preceding  are  the  Mia^ 
theatres  in  London  :— 

Miss  Kelly's  Theatre    . 
City  Theatre,  Norton  Folgate  . 
Garriok  Theatre,  Qoodmaa's^SeldB 
Queen's  Theatre,  Tottenham-ooart«»» 
Princess*  Theatre,  Oxford-street     • 
Bowery  Theatre,  Lambeth   * 
The  Strand  Theatre  •     *' 

Sadler's  Wells  (aee  Sadler's  WeOt.)  W'^ 

present  house         .        •       •     '" 
And  acme  less  considerable  theati* 
The  Brunswick  Theatre  fell,  owingtoj 

weight  of  a  newly-erected  "*^ 

numbers  of  persona  were  ^'^^"^^^ 

some  killed        . 


F**'' 


nUBLIN  THXATIfflS. 

Werbuigh-street,  conunenoed 
Orange-street,  now  Bmock-aUey 
Aungiovstreet  ( Victor) 


Ditto,  management  of,  Mr.  Hitcbtt**  J 
Crow-street  Music-hall  •       '      rl 


Rainsford-street  Theatre 
Smock-alley  Theatre,  rebuilt 
Fishamble-Btreet,  Music  hall    • 
Capel-street  Theatre     .        •       ' 
Crow-street,  Theatre  Royal 
Ditto,  Mr.  Daly's  patent 
Ditto,  Mr.  Fred.  Edw.  Jones's  I»ta»* 
Peter-street,  Theatre  Royal     • 
Hawkins-street,  Theatre  Royal    • 
Ditto,  Mr.  Abbott,  lessee 
Ditto,  Mr.  Bunn,  lessee 
Ditto*  Mr.  Calcraft,  lessee 

KDINBUBOH  THXATB0. 

Theatre  of  Music 
Allan  Ramsay's    .         .        •      ' 
Theatre,  Shakspeare-square 
Tbe  Caledonian  Theatre 


.r 
X' 
.r 

.ir» 

J* 

.is: 
, .«» 

.Iff? 

.0 


THE  []  603  ]  THE 

HEBBS.  The  ancient  celebrated  city  of  Thebaig  in  Egypt,  called  also  Hecatompylos, 
on  account  of  its  hundred  gateB,  and  Diospolia,  as  bdng  sacred  to  Jupiter.  In  the 
time  of  its  splendour,  it  extended  aboye  twenty>three  miles,  and  upon  any  emergency 
could  send  into  the  field,  by  each  of  its  hundred  gates,  20,000  fighting  men  and  200 
chariots.  Thebes  was  ruined  by  Gambyses,  king  of  Persia,  and  few  traces  of  it  were 
seen  in  the  age  of  JavenaL — Plutarch.  Also  Thebes,  the  capital  of  the  country 
successively  called  Aonia,  Messapia,  Ogygia,  Hyantis,  and  Boeotia. — See  BoBotia, 
Thebes  was  called  Cadmeis  from  Cadmus,  the  founder  of  the  city.  It  rose  to  a  cele- 
brated republic,  styled  the  Theban,  about  820  b.c.  It  was  dismantled  by  the 
Romans,  145  b.c. — Livy  ;  Thucpdides, 

THEFT,  This  offence  was  punished  by  heavy  fines  among  the  Jews.  By  death  at 
Athens,  by  the  laws  of  Draco. — See  Draoo.  The  Anglo-Saxons  nominally  punished 
cheft  with  death,  if  above  \2d,  value ;  but  the  criminal  could  redeem  his  life  by  a 
ransom.  In  the  9th  of  Henry  I.  this  power  of  redemption  was  taken  away,  1108. 
The  laws  against  theft,  until  lately,  were  very  severe  in  England ;  they  were  revised 
by  Mr.  (af^rwards  sir  Robert)  Peel's  acts,  9  and  10  Greorge  IV.    See  Acts, 

PHEISTS.  The  sect  so  called  came  in  with  the  Restoration,  and  they  taught  a  union 
with  all  men  who  believed  in  one  God,  but  who  rejected  public  worship  and  exterior 
forms  of  religion.  They  maintained  that  their  religion  was  better  because  older  and 
more  simple  than  that  which  was  given  by  God  to  the  Hebrews,  about  1660. 

THELUSSON'S  WILL.  One  of  the  most  singular  testamentary  documents  ever 
executed.  Mr.  Peter  Isaac  Thelusson,  an  affluent  London  merchant,  left  100,000/. 
to  his  widow  and  children ;  and  the  remainder,  amounting  to  more  than  600,000/., 
he  left  to  trustees,  to  accumulate  during  the  lives  of  his  three  sons,  and  the  lives  of 
their  sons ;  then  the  estates  directed  to  be  purchased  with  the  produce  of  the  accu- 
mulating fund,  to  be  conveyed  to  the  eldest  male  descendant  of  his  three  sons,  with 
benefit  of  survivorship.  This  singular  will,  being  contested  by  the  heirs-at-law,  was 
finally  established  by  a  decision  of  the  house  of  lords,  June  25,  1805.  Mr.  Thelusson 
died  July  21,  1797,  and  from  that  time  the  stock  may  accumulate  to  a  period  of 
about  120  years,  and  amount  to  140,000,000/.  sterling.  Should  no  heir  then  exist, 
the  whole  is  to  be  applied,  by  the  agency  of  the  sinking  fund,  to  the  discharge  of  the 
national  debt 

THELWALL,  HARDY,  HORNE  TOOKE,  and  JOYCE,  Messrs.  These  gentle- 
men were  taken  into  custody  for  alleged  high-treason.  May  20,  1794.  They  were 
tried,  and  honourably  acquitted,  in  November  and  December  following. — See  Hardy. . 
Mr.  Thelwall's  political  lectures  commenced  in  January  1795.  They  were  attended 
by  prodigious  audiences,  until  they  were  interdicted  by  statutes  passed  avowedly  for 
their  suppression.    See  Gagging  Bill. 

THERMOMETER.  The  invention  of  this  instrument  is  aseribed  to  several  scientific 
persons  all  about  the  same  time.  Invented  by  Drebbel  of  Alcmaer,  a.d.  1609. — 
Boerkaave.  Invented  by  Paulo  Sarpi,  1609. — Fulgentio,  Invented  by  Sanctorio  in 
1610. — Borelli.  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  was  invented  about  1726 ;  and  the  scale 
called  Reaumur's  soon  after,  1730.  The  mode  of  construction  by  substituting  quick- 
silver for  spirits  was  invented  some  years  subsequently. 

THERMOPYL^,  Battlb  of.  Leonidas  at  the  head  of  300  Spartans,  at  the  defile  of 
Thermopylae,  withstands  the  whole  force  of  the  Persians  during  three  days,  when 
Ephialtes,  a  Trachinian,  perfidiously  leading  the  enemy  by  a  secret  path  up  the 
mountains,  brings  them  to  the  rear  of  the  Greeks,  who,  thus  placed  between  two 
assailants,  devote  themselves  to  the  good  of  tbeir  country,  and  perish  gloriously  on 
heaps  of  their  slaughtered  foes.  Of  300  heroes  who  engaged  in  this  conflict'  with 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  the  Persians,  one  man  only  returned  home,  and  he  was 
received  with  reproaches  and  insults  for  having  fled  from  a  battle  in  which  his  brave 
companions,  with  their  royal  leader,  had  fallen.  Twenty  thousand  Persians  perished 
by  the  hands  of  the  Spartans,  Aug.  7,  480  b.o. — Voasitu  de  Grao.  Hist, 

THESSALY.  This  country  is  much  celebrated  in  dasstcal  history,  as  being  the  seat 
of  many  of  the  adventures  described  by  the  poets.  The  first  king  of  whom  we  have 
any  certain  knowledge  was  Hellen,  son  of  Deucalion,  from  whom  his  subjects  were 
called  Hellenists,  a  name  afterwards  extended  to  all  Greece.  From  Thessaly  the 
most  powerful  tribes  of  Greece  derived  their  origin,  as  the  Achseans,  the  ^toUans, 
the  Dorians,  the  Hellenists,  &c.     The  two  most  remarkable  events  in  the  earl 


Till  [  504  ]  THR 

httlory  of  tkb  cooBtry,  an  te  deitge  off  Deocalkm,  1503  B.C.,  md  theei 
offtbe  Afgoiiasta.  1263.    See  tlwa  levenUy. 

THIMBLE.    This  ninple  yet  useful  eppeodi^  to  the  ladies'  work-table  is  oC  Ihc 
iatention.    The  ait  of  VBaking  them  was  brought  to  England  bj  Jobn  Loftis; 
■lechaaic,  froaa  HoUand,  who  set  up  a  workshop  at  Islington,  near  London,  m 
practised  the  maniilactuie  with  profit  and  sncoess,  sbout  1695. — Anderson. 

TH ISTLE.  Oblobr  or  tbb.  in  Scotland.  Foanded  by  James  Y.,  1540.  It  consr- 
oriicinaUy  of  hisoself  as  sovereign  and  twelve  knights,  in  imitation  of  Christ  and!. 
twrUe  apostles.  Sosm  Scottish  historians  make  the  origin  of  tins  order  very  ande 
The  abbot  Jostinian  says  it  was  instituted  by  Achains  I.  of  Scotland,  a.o.  809, w^' 
that  monarch  made  an  alliance  with  Chariemagne,  and  then  took  for  his  device: 
thistle.  It  is  told  that  king  Hnngns,  the  Pict.  had  a  dream,  in  which  St.  Andrew  lu 
him  a  midnight  visit,  and  promised  him  a  sure  victory  over  his  foes,  the  Nortb: 
bnans ;  and  that  the  nett  day  St.  Andrew's  cross  appeared  in  the  air,  sod 
Northambrians  were  defeated.  On  this  story,  it  is  said,  Achains  framed  thee 
more  than  700  years  before  James  V.  revived  it.  In  1542  James  died,  and  the  er 
was  discontinoed.  This  was  aboat  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  when  religioi^^ 
paira  ran  to  a  great  height,  and  it  was  deemed  impioos  to  imitate,  in  an  om 
knighthood,  Christ  and  his  apostles;  nor  was  this  honourable  order  thought o: 
king  James  VII.  of  Scotland  and  II.  of  England  renewed  it,  by  making  eight  bip 
May  2y,  1687 — Beaiton'$  PoiU.  Index, 

THB  OBWUCAI.  KJf lOBTa. 


Jamea,  earl  of  Perth  ;  attainted. 
Kenneth,  earl  of  Seaforth ;  attaintei 
George,  earl  of  Dumbarton. 
John,  earl  of  Melf  ord ;  attainted. 


C3«<or|{v.  diika  of  Qordoo. 
John,  marquia  of  AthoL 
Jamea.  earl  of  Arrao,  aftflrwarda  duke  of 

llamllkm ;  killed  In  a  dud,  171S. 
Alexander,  earl  of  Moray. 

THISTLEWOOD,  BRUNT,  INGS,  DAVISON,  and  TIDD.     The  princtf 
the  mytteriotts  and  memorable  conspiracy  known  as  the  **  Cato-street  conspi» 
These  criminals  were  arrested  Feb.  23,  1820 ;  their  trial  commenced  Monda/;^  j 
17  ;  and  being  convicted,  their  execution  followed,  May  1,  1820. 

THOMITBS.    The  name  given  to  a  body  of  enthusiasts  who  assembled  at  Boi# 
near  Canterbury,  May  31,  1838.     A  lunatic  named  Thorn,  but  who  ^^^^ 
name  of  sir  W.  Courtenay,  knight  of  Malta  and  king  of  Jerusalem,  ha^^J^ 
released  from  confinement,  attached  himself  to  the  lowest  rabble,  and  ^^^  .^ 
against  the  Poor  Law  Act.     On  this  day,  a  farmer  of  the  neighbonriiood,^ 
servant  had  joined  the  crowd  which  attended  this  sir  W.  Courtenay,  or  Tdoib^^ 
constable  to  fetch  him  back ;  but  on  his  arrival  on  the  ground  he  was  J^^'^^^ 
the  madman  Thorn.    On  this  outrage  the  military  were  called  out,  and  ^^^'Z\ 
proceeded  to  take  the  murderer  into  custody ;  but  Thorn  advanced,  and,  -^ 
pistol,  killed  the  lieutenant  on  the  spot.     His  death  was  avenged  by  one  ^^ 
soldiers,  who  fired  at  Thorn,  and  laid  him  dead  by  the  side  of  Heut  Beo^^^^^^ 
people  then  attacked  the  military,  who  were  compelled  to  fire ;  and  it  was  do 
several  were  killed  that  the  mob  dispersed.     Many  considered  Thorn  a  sam 

THORACIC  DUCT.  It  was  first  discovered  in  a  horse,  by  Eustacbiu*,  a*^°^^ 
1563 ;  in  the  human  body,  by  Ol.  Rudbec,  a  Swedish  anatomist— Thomas  Barm  \ 
of  Copenhagen,  and  Dr.  Joliflfe,  of  England,  about  1653.--See  Lacieals. 

THRACE.    So  called  from  Thrax,  the  son  of  Mars.     Conquered  by  Phiiip  ^?^i 
der,  and  annexed  to  the  Macedonian  empire  about  335  b.c.  ;  and  it  so  ^^°^^  -^.j 
the  conquest  of  Macedonia  by  the  Romans,  168  B.C.     Byzantium  was  ^^®  ^^^^r 
Thrace,  on  the  ruins  of  which  Constantinople  was  built.  The  Turks  took  tbeco 
under  Mahomet  II.,  a.d.  1453. — Priestley,  ,^ 

THRASHING-MACHINES.  The  flail  was  the  only  instrument  formerly  in  us^^ 
Romans  used  a  machine  called  the  tribulunit  a  sledge  loaded  with  sCod^  ^  .^ 
drawn  over  the  corn-sheaves  by  horses.  The  first  machine  attempted^*^ .  ,yjj. 
times  was  Invented  by  Michael  Menzies,  at  Edinburgh,  about  1732;  Miel^ifi^ 

THRASYMENUS,  Battle  of.  A  most  bloody  engagement  between  the  Cart^"^"!^ 
under  Hannibal  and  the  Romans  under  Flaminius,  217  B.C.     No  less  ^^^  ^' 
Romans  were  left  dead  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  10,000  taken  prisoners;  ^l^..^(s. 
ing  to  Livy,  6000;  or  Polybius,  15,000.     The  loss  of  Hannibal  was  about  13".^^^ 
About  10,000  Romans  made  their  escape,  all  covered  with  wounds. — Livj/i '  ^^ 


THR  []  505  ]  TIL 

tlRE  A.T£N1NG  LETTERS,  Sending  letters,  whether  anonymously  written,  or  with 
a  Petitions  name,  demanding  money,  or  threatening  to  kill  a  person  or  fire  his  house, 
was  made  punishable  as  a  felony  without  benefit  of  clergy,  1730.  Persons  extorting 
money  by  threatening  to  accuse  others  of  such  offences  as  are  subjected  to  death,  or 
other  infamous  punishments,  were  to  be  adjudged  imprisonment,  whipping,  or  trans- 
portation, 30  Greorge  II.,  1756. 

HXJMB-SCREW.  An  inhuman  instrument  which  was  commonly  used  in  the  first 
stages  of  torture  by  the  Spanish  inquisition.  It  was  in  use  in  England  also.  The 
Rev.  Wm.  Carstairs  was  the  last  who  suffered  by  it  before  the  privy  council,  to  make 
him  divulge  secrets  entrusted  to  him,  which  he  firmly  resisted.  After  the  revolution- 
in  1688,  the  thumb-screw  was  given  him  as  a  present  by  the  council.  King  William 
expressed  a  desire  to  see  it,  and  tried  it  on,  bidding  the  doctor  to  turn  the  screw ; 
but  at  the  third  turn  he  cried  out,  "  Hold!  hold  I  doctor ;  another  turn  would  make 
fne  confess  anything. '* 

rHUROT*S  INVASION.  An  enterprising  Irish  commodore  in  the  French  service, 
named  Thurot,  had  so  signalised  himself  by  his  courage  and  daring,  that  his  name  became 
a  terror  to  all  the  merchant-ships  of  this  kingdom.  He  had  the  command  of  a  small 
armament,  and  landed  1000  men  at  Carrickfergus  in  Ireland,  which  place  he  soon 
quitted,  after  having  plundered  the  town.  On  leaving  Ireland,  he  reached  the  Isle 
of  Man,  but  was  overtaken  by  captain  Elliot,  with  three  frigates,  who  engaged  his 
little  squadron,  which  was  taken,  and  the  commodore  killed.  Thurot's  true  name 
was  O'Farrell ;  his  grandfather  had  followed  the  fortunes  of  James  II. ;  but  his 
mother  being  of  a  femily  of  some  dignity  in  France,  he  had  assumed  her  name.  The 
engagement  was  fought  February  28,  1760. — Burns. 

THURSDAY.  The  fifth  day  of  the  week,  derived  from'Thor,  a  deified  hero  worshipped 
by  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  northern  nations,  particularly  by  the  Scandinavians 
and  Celts.  The  authority  of  this  deity  extended  over  the  winds  and  seasons,  and 
especially  over  thunder  and  lightning.     He  is  said  to  have  been  the  most  valiant  of 

'  the  sons  of  Odin.  This  day,  which  was  consecrated  to  Thor,  still  retains  his  name 
in  the  Danish,  Swedish,  and  Low-Dutch  languages,  as  well  as  in  the  English.  Thurs- 
day, or  Thors-day,  has  been  rendered  into  Latin  by  dies  Jovis,  or  Jupiter's  day. 

TIARA.  The  triple  crown  of  the  pope,  indicative  of  his  civil  rank,  as  the  keys  are  of 
his  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction ;  and  on  the  death  of  a  pope,  his  arms  are  represented 
with  the  tiara  alone,  without  the  keys.  The  ancient  tiara  was  a  high  round  cap. 
Pope  Damasius  II.  first  caused  himself  to  be  crowned  with  a  tiara  a.d.  1053.  John 
XIX.  was  the  first  who  encompassed  the  tiara  with  a  crown,  1276.  Boniface  VIII. 
added  a  second  crown,  1295  ;  and  Benedict  XII.  formed  the  tiara  or  triple  crown, 
about  1334. 

TIDES.  Homer  is  the  earliest  profane  author  who  speaks  of  the  tides.  Posidonius  ef 
Apamea  accounted  for  the  tides  from  the  motion  of  the  moon,  about  79  B.C. ;  and 
Caesar  speaks  of  them  in  his  fourth  book  of  the  Gallic  War.  The  theory  of  the  tides 
was  first  satisfactorily  explained  by  Kepler,  a.d.  1598 ;  but  the  honour  of  a  complete 
explanation  of  them  was  reserved  for  sir  Isaac  Newton,  who  laid  hold  of  this  class  of 
phenomena  to  prove  universal  gravitation,  about  1683. 

TILES.  Tiles  were  originally  flat  and  square,  and  afterwards  parallelogrammic,  &c. 
First  made  in  England  about  a.d.  1246.  They  were  taxed  in  1784.  The  number 
taxed  in  England  was  81,924,626  tiles  in  1820 ;  and  the  number  in  1830  was 
97,318,264.    The  tax  was  discontinued  in  1833. 

TILSIT,  Peace  of.  The  memorable  treaty  concluded  between  France  and  Russia, 
when  Napoleon  restored  to  the  Prussian  monarch  one-half  of  his  territories,  and 
Russia  recognised  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  elevation  of  Napoleon's 
three  brothers,  Joseph,  Louis,  and  Jerome,  to  the  thrones  of  Naples,  Holland,  and 
Westphalia.     Signed  July  7,  1807,  and  ratified  July  19  following. 

TILTS  AND  TOURNAMENTS.  Were  greatly  in  vogue  in  England  in  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries.  Notwithstanding  many  edicts  against  them,  and  anathemas 
from  Rome,  they  were  not  abolished  till  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  about  a.d.  1400. — 
Rapin,  They  first  took  their  rise  in  Italy  upon  the  suppression  of  the  gladiators  in 
the  fifth  century.  They  were  suppressed  in  France  in  1560.— Fo/toire's  General 
Hist. 


TIM  C  506  ]  TIT 


TIMBBiL  Tb«  MMwl  doBaad  ol  timber  for  tbe  royal  naTj,  ia  mr,  is  60pVs& 
or  40,000  foU-grora  trees,  a  ton  each,  of  wbidi  Hmrty-five  wiU  itaad  on  m  am 
|mc«,  32,000  tOM,  or  48,000  loads.  Aoevcaty-foargan  shipconsiimesSOQOk 
or  2000  tOM  or  tncs,  the  prodooe  of  fiftr-eeren  aeres  in  a  century.  Hens. 
vkole  navy  coata aai  102,600  acres,  and  1026  per  anaum.—^iZnttf.  ^e  n 
aboat  800,000  kiads  of  timber  annaally,  ezdonvely  of  masts,  yards,  sUTes,\ai)ii» 
Ac,  together  with  aboat  8,000,000  of  deals  and  deal-ends.— /'or/.  ReL 

TIME-MBASURE.  That  of  Seipio  Nasica  was  invented  159  b.c.  Eariy  nJ» 
inform  as  that  Alfred's  time-keeper  was  six  large  wax-tapers,  each  tweWe  m 
loag ;  bat  as  they  barat  nneqaally,  owing  to  the  wind,  he  ioTented  a  lantern  e. 
of  wood,  and  thin  plates  of  ox-horns,  glass  being  a  great  rarity,  a.d.  887.  . 
ancients  had  three  time-measares :  hoar-glasees,  san-dial8y  and  a  Yessel  foUof  r 
with  a  hole  la  its  bottom.    See  Clocks,  Waiehet^  ftc 

TIN.    The  Phcenictsns  traded  with  Englsnd  for  this  artide  for  more  than  1100  j 
before  the  Christian  era.    It  is  said  that  this  trade  first  gave  them  commercui 
portaace  in  the  ancient  world.    Under  the  Saxons,  our  tin-mines  appear  M 
been  neglected ;  bat  sfler  the  eommg  in  of  the  Nonnana,  they  produced  coosr 
rerenaes  to  the  earls  of  Cornwall,  particalariy  to  Richard,  brother  of  Benrjln 
charter  and  ▼arioos  immonities  were  granted  by  Edmund,  earl  Bicbardsbt^' 
who  also  framed  the  stannary  lawi,  laying  a  duty  on  the  tin,  payable  to  the  tr: 
ComwaU.    Edward  III.  oonfirmed  the  tinners  in  their  privileges,  tad  erecte<n 
wall  into  a  dokedom,  with  which  he  inrested  his  son,  Edward  the  BUckJ:^ 
l&:i&.    Sioce  that  time,  the  heirs-apparent  to  the  crown  of  England,  if  eld<^ 
have  enjoyed  it  soccessi? ely.   Tm-minei  were  diacovered  in  Germany,  wMcb  1^- 
the  Tsloe  of  thoie  in  Enghmd,  till  then  the  only  tin-mines  in  Europe,  a-o. i;, 
Anderion.    Discorered  in  Barbary  1640;  in  India,  1740;    in  NewSpaD,|^ 
We  eiport  at  preaent,  on  an  average,  1500  tons  of  unwrought  tin,  besides  m^ 
tared  tin  and  tin-plates,  of  the  Talae  of  about  400,000(. 

TITHES  AND  TENTHS.    Were  fint  given  by  Moaea  to  the  tribe  of  Le^.  ^^^'^ 
-^otephui.    For  the  first  800  yeara  of  the  Christian  church  they  were  gi^eo  f 
as  slms,  and  were  ▼oluntary.— FF«cWi/iy.    "  I  wiU  not  put  the  title  of  the  c^ 
to  tithes  upon  any  difine  right,  though  auch  a  right  certainly  commenced,  t 
believe  as  certainly  ceaaed,  with  the  Jewiah  theocracy."— ^/!flw?**'««^-   ^".J 
mention  of  them  in  any  Engliah  written  law,  ia  a  conatitutional  decree  m> 
synod  stioogly  enjoining  tithes,  a.d.  786.    Offa  king  of  Mercia  gave  unto  Uie», 
the  tithes  of  all  hia  kingdom,  to  expiate  for  the  death  of  Ethelbert  king  o\^ 
Anglea,  whom  he  had  cauaed  to  be  baaely  murdered,  a.d.  794. — -^''*'!^/^<r 
Law.    Tithea  were  firat  granted  to  the  Engliah  clergy  in  a  general  assemblt^^ 
Ethelwold,  a.d.  ^U,^Henry's  Hist,  of  Eng.    They  were  established  in  \^: 
Charlemagne,'about  800 — Nenauli.  Tenths  were  confirmed  in  the  Laterani^ 
1215.— /loinaWi. 

TITHES  IN  ENGLAND.   Sec  preceding  article.  The  amount  is  variously  st«t»  ^ 
in  parliamentary  documenta,  owing  to  defective  retuma.    Various  "c^^^*  ^^^j 
recently  paaaed  in  relation  to  tithea.     A  tithe  act  was  passed  3  William  I V^  ^ 
1832.     Another  act,  5  William  IV.,  August  1834  ;  and  again,  6  William  l^^ 
tember  1835.    The  important  tithe  commutation  act  was  passed  6  ^°^  Li.^) 
IV.,  August  13,  1836.    An  amendment  followed,  1  Victoria,  July  15/  ^^^^ 
again,  3  Victoria,  June  4,  1840.— Tithbb  in  Ikeland.    Several  acts  reWQ^.^ 
tithea  have  been  passed  during  the  last  ten  yeara,  for  altering  and  impr^   i^^ 
tithe  system.     Act  for  the  relief  of  the  clergy,  2  William  IV.,  June  ^^'^^'^^ 
composition  act,  August  16, 1832.    Act  to  aboliah  composition,  and  to  i^    ^ 
rent-chargea  in  lieu  thereof  2  Victoria,  August  1838.     CoDQposition  afi^^ 
2  Victoria,  March  27,  1839.    Amendment  act,  3  Victoria,  May  19, 1840- 


TITHING.    The  number  or  company  of  ten  men  with  their  familiea  knit  ^^i 
society,  all  of  them  being  bound  to  the  king  for  the  peaceable  and  good  ^''V,^> 
each  of  their  society :  of  these  companies  £ere  waa  one  chief  person,  '^^i    ^ 
office,  was  called  (toothingman)  tithingman ;  but  now  he  is  nothing  butaco 
formerly  called  the  headborough. — CoweL  .,^ 

TITLES,  ROYAL.    The  following  ia  the  succeaaion  in  which  the  royal  tit2^  <  ^,1 
England.     Henry  IV.  had  the  title  of  "  Grace  "  and  "  My  liege  "  cm&^  ^ 


TOB  £  507  "]  TON 

liim,  1399.  The  title  of  **  Excellent  Grace  *'  was  conferred  upon  Henry  VI.,  1422. 
Edward  IV.  had  that  of  <<  Most  High  and  Mighty  Prince,"  1461.  Henry  VII.  had 
the  title  **  Highness,"  1485 ;  and  Henry  VIII.  had  the  same  title,  and  sometimes 
*'  Grace,"  1509,  et  $eq.  But  these  two  last  were  absorbed  in  the  title  of  **  Majesty," 
being  that  with  which  Francis  I.  of  France  addressed  Henry  at  their  memorable 
interview  in  1520. — See  Field  of  the  Cloth  cfGold.  Henry  VIII.  was  the  first  and 
last  king  who  was  styled  '*  Dread  Sovereign."  James  I.  coupled  to  ^  Majesty  **  the 
present  **  Sacred,"  or  **  Most  Excellent  Majesty."  *'  Majesty  ''  was  the  style  of  the 
emperors  of  Germany ;  the  first  king  to  whom  it  was  given  was  Louis  XI.  of  France, 
about  1463. 

TOBACCO,  Nieotiana  Tab(teum»    This  plant  received  its  name  from  Tabacco,  a  pro- 
vince of  Yucatan,  New  Spain.     Some  say  from  the  island  of  Tobago,  one  of  the 
Caribees  ;  others,  from  Tobasco*  in  the  gulf  of  Florida.     It  was  first  observed  at 
St.  Domingo,  a.d.  1496 ;  and  was  used  freely  by  the  Spaniards  in  Yucatan  in  1520. 
Tobacco  was  first  brought  to  England,  7  Elizabeth,  1565,  by  sir  John  Hawkins ; 
but  sir  Walter  Raleigh  and  sir  Francis  Drake  are  also  mentioned  as  having  first 
introduced  it  here.     It  was  manufactured  only  for  exportation  for  some  years. — 
Siowe's  Chron,    The  Pied  Bull  inn,  at  Islington,  was  the  first  house  in  England 
where  tobacco  was  smoked.     In  1584  a  proclamation  was  issued  against  it    The 
star-chamber  ordered  the  duties  to  be  6ff.  lOcf.  per  pound,  1614.   Its  cultivation  was 
prohibited  in  England  by  Charles  II.    Act  lajring  a  duty  on  the  importation  was 
passed,  1684.    The  cultivation  was  allowed  in  Ireland,  1779.    The  tax  was  increased, 
and  put  under  the  excise,  1789. — Anderson;  Ashe.    Various  statutes  have  passed 
relative  to  tobacco.    Act  to  revive  the  act  prohibiting  the  culture  of  tobacco  in 
Ireland  passed  2  William  IV.,  August  1831.     Act  directing  that  tobacco  grown  in 
Ireland  be  purchased  in  order  to  its  being  destroyed,  March  24, 1832.   The  quantity 
consumed  in  England  in  1791  was  nine  millions  and  a  half  of  pounds,  and  in  1829 
about  fifteen  millions  of  pounds. — Chan,  of  the  Ex.    In  1840  the  quantity  had 
reached  to  forty  millions  of  pounds. — Pari,  Ret. 

TOBAGO.  Settled  by  the  Dutch,  a.d.  1642.  Taken  by  the  English,  1672 ;  retaken, 
1674.  In  1748  it  was  declared  a  neutral  island;  but  in  1763  it  was  ceded  to  the 
English.  Tobago  was  taken  by  the  French  under  De  Grasse  in  1781,  and  confirmed 
to  them  in  1783.  Again  taken  by  the  English,  April  14,  1793,  but  restored  at  the 
^  peace  of  Amiens,  Oct.  6,  1802.  The  island  was  once  more  taken  by  the  British 
under  general  Grinfield,  July  1,  1803,  and  was  confirmed  to  them  by  the  peace  of 
Paris  in  1814. 

,  TOKENS,  BANK.  These  were  silver  pieces  issued  by  the  Bank  of  England,  of  the 
value  of  5«.,  Jan.  1,  1798.  They  were  raised  to  the  value  of  5«.  6(/.,  Nov.  14, 1811. 
I  Bank  tokens  were  ^so  current  in  Ireland,  where  those  issued  by  the  bank  passed  for 
I  6«.  and  lesser  sums  until  1817.  They  were  called  in  on  the  late  revision  of  the 
I         coinage. 

TOLERATION  ACT.    To  William  III.  is  due  the  honour  and  wisdom  of  the  first 
I         toleration  act  known  in  the  history  of  this  country,  passed  in  1689.     The  dissenters 
have  ever  since  enjoyed  the  benefits  of  this  act  without  interruption,  though  their 
liberties  were  greatly  endangered  in  the  latter  end  of  queen  Anne*s  reign. 

TOLLS.  They  were  first  paid  hy  vessels  passing  the  Stade  on  the  Elbe,  a.d.  1109. 
They  were  first  demanded  by  the  Danes  of  vessels  passing  the  Sound,  1341.  Toll- 
bars  in  England  originated  in  1267,  on  the  grant  of  a  penny  for  every  waggon  that 
passed  through  a  certain  manor ;  and  the  first  regular  toll  was  collected  a  few  years 
after  for  mending  the  road  in  London  between  St.  Giles'  and  Temple-bar.  Gathered 
for  repairing  the  highways  of  Holbom-inn-lane  and  Martin' s-lane,  1346.  Toll-gates 
or  turnpikes  were  used  in  1663.  Numerous  acts  relating  to  tolls  and  turnpike-roads 
have  been  passed  in  every  reign. 

TONNAGE  AND  POUNDAGE.  An  ancient  duty  levied  on  wine  and  other  goods, 
commenced  in  England  about  21  Edward  III.,  1346.  The  first  granted  to  the  kings 
of  England  for  life,  5  Edward  IV.,  1465. — Cuningham's  Hist,  Taxes, 

TONTINES.  Loans  giv6n  for  life  annuities  with  benefit  of  survivorship,  so  called 
from  the  inventor  Laurence  Tonti,  a  Neapolitan.  They  were  first  set  on  foot  at 
Paris  to  reconcile  the  people  to  cardinal  Mazarin's  government,  by  amusing  them 
with  the  hope  of  becoming  suddenly  rich,  a.d.  1653. — Voltaire,    The  late  celc" 


TOP  C  ^*>8  D  T4)U 


br«te«i  Mr.  Jniiiiimi  wm  an  original  tnbamber  for  a  1001.  sbare  in  a  tontine  r 
pan? ;  and  bcisf  the  last  avrrivor  of  the  ahareholdera,  hia  share  prodaced  i 
3000/.  pet  MJiwai.     He  died  worth  2,115,244/.,  aged  103  years,  June  19,  \1% 

TOPLITZ,  Battle  or.  A  battle  was  feoght  at  Toplitx  between  the  Aostnans  £ 
Pnustaas,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeated,  1762.  Battle  of  Toplitz,  hx^- 
1813.  Here  the  allied  sovereigns  had  their  head-qnarters  a  considerable  tK 
this  latter  year.  Treaty  of  Toplits,  being  a  triple  alliance,  between  Russia,  KnF 
and  Pmssia,  Sept  9,  1813.  Treaty  of  Toplits,  between  Austria  and  Great  Ben: 
October  3^  same  year. 

TORGAU,  Battle  op»  between  Firederick  II.  of  Prussia  and  the  Anstrians,  w^ 
the  former  obtained  a  signal  rietory ;  the  Austrian  general,  count  Dann,  \t- 
wounded,  Not.  1 1, 1760.    Torgan  was  taken  by  the  allies  in  1814. 

TORTURE.  It  has  disgraced  humanity  in  the  earliest  ages  in  every  country.  It 
only  permitted  by  the  Romans  in  the  examination  of  slaves.  It  was  used  ei''| 
the  Catholic  church  against  heretics.  Occasionally  used  in  England  so  late  >: 
Itt  Elizabeth.  1558  ;  and  in  Scotland  until  1690.  The  trial  by  torture  was  abol: 
in  Portugal,  1776;  in  Prance,  by  order  of  Louis  XVI.,  in  1780,  although  it  bai; 
been  practised  there  some  time  before.  Ordered  to  be  discontinaed  in  Swede 
Gustavtts  III.,  1786.    It  yet  continues  in  other  countries.  i 

TORY.     Various  authors  have  differently  described  this  term.     It  is  said  to  bedr 
from  an  Irish  word,  originally  signifying  a  savage,  or  rather  a  collector  of  '- 
and  taxes. — Entychp,    The  names  of  Ca? aliers  and  Round-heads  which  exL^ir- 
the  time  of  Charles  I.  were  changed,  some  tell  us,  into  those   of  Tories  aod  J- 
The  Tories  were  those  who  vindicated  the  divine  right  of  kings,  and  helJ  - 
notions  of  their  prerogatives ;  while  "  the  Whigs  *'  denoted  a  friend  to  civil  aoc* 
gious  liberty. — Aah9,  The  name  of  Tory  was  given  by  the  country  party  to  tbf  > 
psrty,  comparing  them  to  Popish  robbers ;  and  arose  out  of  the  Meal-tab 
{which  $ee\  in  1679.    The  terms  are  defined  by  extreme  politicians,  as  of  tvo;^' 
in  the  aristocracy  :  the  Whigs,  who  would  curb  the  power  of  the  crown ;  «^ 
Tories,  who  would  carb  the  power  of  the  people. — Phillips.     Ba(  these  names 
perhaps,  of  uncertain  derivation.    See  Whigs. 

TOULON,  France.     In  1706  this  town  wss  bombarded  by  the  allies,  hothhjl 
and  sea,  by  which  almost  the  whole  town  was  reduced  to  a  heap  of  ruins,  aDdK|^ 
ships  burned  ;  but  they  were  at  last  obliged  to  raise  the  siege.     It  surrendr 
August  23,  1793,  to  the  British  admiral  lord  Hood,  who  took  possession  botfa'V 
town  and  shipping,  in  the  name  of  Louis  XVII.,  under  a  stipulation  toass: 
restoring  the  French  constitution  of  1789.     A  conflict  took   place  betweet 
English  and  French  forces,  when  the  latter  were  repulsed,  Nov.  15,  1793.   7-' 
was  evacuated  by  the  British,  Dec.  19,  same  year,  when  great  cruelties  wer' 
cised  towards  such  of  the  inhabitants  as  were  supposed  to  be  favourable  to  thei^ 

TOULOUSE,  Francs.  Founded  about  615  b.c.  A  dreadful  tribunaJ  vas'^^ 
blished  here  to  extirpate  heretics,  a.d.  1229.  The  troubadours,  or  rhetoricU' 
Toulouse,  had  their  origin  about  a.d.  850,  and  consisted  of  a  fraternity  of  p^' 
whose  art  was  estended  throughout  Europe,  and  gave  rise  to  the  Italian  and  Frf^^' 
poetry.  See  Troubadours^  The  allied  British  and  Spanish  army  entered  tins  t. 
on  April  12,  1814,  immediately  after  the  memorable  battle.     See  nest  articU. 

TOULOUSE,  Battlk  op,  the  final  battle  between  the  British  Peninsular /ir/n/'J"^ 
lord  Wellington  and  the  French — one  of  the  most  bloody  that  had  been  fought  ^^' 
the  time  lord  Wellington  had  received  the  command  of  the  troops  in  Portugal*  - 
French  were  commanded  by  marshal  Soult,  whom  the  victorious  British  herofi^^ 
to  retreat,  after  twelve  hours'  fighting,  from  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning '»'''' 
seven  at  night,  the  British  forcing  the  French  intrenched  position  before  Toulon^: 
The  loss  of  the  allies  in  killed  and  wounded  was  between  four  and  fivff  tboai'^ 
men  ;  that  of  the  French  exceeded  10,000,  At  the  period  of  this  battle  Buonap«^ 
had  abdicated  the  throne  of  France ;  but  neither  of  the  commanders  was  aware 
that  fact,  or  the  close  of  the  war  at  Paris*  Fought  April  10,  1814. 

TOURNAMENTS  or  JOUSTS.     Some  authors  refer  them  to  Trojan  origin,  w^  J 
Ascanius  instituted  among  the  Romans.     The  tournament  is  a  martial  ^j 
exercise  which  the  ancient  cavaliers  used  to  perform^  to  show  their  hnr^'^ 
address.     It  is  derived  from  the  French  word  taumert  **  to  turn  round/'  b^ 


TOU  Q  509  ]  TRA 

to  be  expert  in  these  exercises,  much  agility,  hoth  of  horse  and  man,  was  necessary. 

They   were  much  practised  a.d.  890 ;   and  were  regulated  and   countenanced  hy 

Henry  I.,  emperor,  about  919.     The  Lateran  council  published  an  article  against 

their  continuance  in  1136.     One  was  held  in  Smithfield  so  late  as  the  12th  century, 

when  the  taste  for  them  declined  in  England.     Henry  II.  of  France,  in  a  tilt  with 

the  count  de  Montgomery,  had  his  eye  struck  out,  an  accident  which  caused  the 

king's  death  in  a  few  days,  June  29,  1559.     Tournaments  were  from  this  event 

abolished  in  France,  and  with  them  **  the  age  of  chivalry  is  fled."     A  magnificent 

and  costly  feast,  and  splendid  tournament,  took  place  at  Eglintoun  castle,  Aug.  29, 

1839,   and  the  following  week  :  many  of  the  visitors  assumed  the  characters  of 

ancient  knights,  lady  Seymour  being  the  **  Queen  of  Beauty,"  as  fairest  of  the 

female   throng.      But  this  festivity  is  not  likely  to  lead  to  a  revival  of  the  old 

tournament. 

COURNAY.  Taken  by  the  allies  in  1709,  and  ceded  to  the  house  of  Austria  by  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht ;  but  the  Dutch  were  allowed  to  place  a  garrison  in  it,  as  one  of 
the  barrier  towns.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  under  general  Labourdonnaye, 
November  11,  1792.  Battle  near  Tournay,  by  the  Austrians  and  British  on  one 
side,  and  the  French  on  the  other,  the  former  victorious.  May  8,  1793.     Another 

£  battle  was  fought  between  the  British  and  French,  when  the  latter  were  repulsed,  at; 
Rousalaer,  losing  200  men  and  three  field-pieces.  May  6,  1794. 

TOURNIQUET.     An  instrument  for  trepanning,  invented  by  Morelli  at  the  siege  of 
Besan^on,  a.d.  1674.     Petit,  of  France,  invented  the  screw  tourniquet  in  1718. 

^TOURS,  Battle  of.     One  of  the  glorious  victories  of  Charles  Martel,  and  that  which 

most  established  his  fame,  gained  over  the  Saracens  near  Tours,  and  from  which  he 

'        acquired  the  name  of  Martel,  signifying  hammer.     We  are  told  that  but  for  this 

^        timely  victory  of  Charles  Martel,  all  Europe,  as  well  as  Asia  and  Africa,  must  have 

become  Mahomedan  ;  October  10,  a.d.  732. 

;  TOWERS.     That  of  Babel,  the  first  of  which  we  read,  built  in  the  plains  of  Shinar 

I         (Genesis  zi.),  2247  B.C.     See  Babel.     The  Tower  of  the  Winds  at  Athens,  built 

[         650  B.C.     The  Tower  of  Pharos  (see  Pharos) t  280  B.C.     Towers  were  built  early 

''        in  England  ;  and  the  round  towers  in  Ireland  may  be  reckoned  among  most  ancient 

curiosities.     They  were  the  only  structures  of  stone  found  in  Ireland  before  the  first 

'        arrival  of  the  English,  except  some  buildings  in  the  maritime  towns  founded  by  the 

Danes.     These  towers  were  tall,  hollow  piUars,  nearly  cylindrical,  but  narrowing 

towards  the  top,  pierced  with  lateral  holes  to  admit  the  light,  high  above  the  ground, 

*        and  covered  with  conical  roofs  of  the  same  materials.     Of  these  productions  of  old 

^         Irish  masonry,  fifty-six  still  remain,  from  50  to  130  feet  high. 

i  TOWER  OP  LONDON.  Anciently  a  royal  palace,  and  consisted  of  no  more  than 
^  what  is  now  called  the  White  Tower,  which  appears  to  have  been  first  marked  out 
'^  by  William  the  Conqueror,  a.d.  1076,  commenced  in  1078,  and  completed  by  his 
son  William  Rufus,  who,  in  1098,  surrounded  it  with  walls,  and  a  broad,  deep  ditch. 
0  Several  succeeding  princes  made  additions  to  it,  and  king  Edward  III.  built  the 
s  church.  In  1638  the  White  Tower  was  rebuilt ;  and  since  the  restoration  of  king 
^  Charles  II.  it  has  been  thoroughly  repaired,  and  a  great  number  of  additional  build- 
(•  ings  made  to  it.  Here  are  the  Armoury,  Horse  Armoury,  Jewel-office,  and  various 
t  other  divisions  and  buildings  of  peculiar  interest ;  and  here  were  many  executioner 
t  of  high  and  illustrious  persons,  and  many  murders.     See  England. 

ti     TOWTON,  Battle  of.    This  great  battle  is  supposed  to  be  the  most  fierce  and 

bloody  that  ever  happened  in  any  domestic  war.     It  was  fought  between  the  houses 

a  of  York  (Edward  IV.),  and  Lancaster  (Henry  VI.)  to  the  latter  of  whom  it  was 

t  fatal,  and  on  whose  side  more  than  37,000  of  his  subjects  fell.     Edward  issued 

t  orders  to  give  no  quarter,  and  the  most  merciless  slaughter  ensued.     Henry  was 

made  prisoner  and  confined  in  the  Tower ;  his  queen,  Margaret,  fled  to  Flanders, 

fought  March  29,  1461. 

'  TRAFALGAR,  Battle  of,  the  most  glorious  naval  victory  ever  obtained  by  England, 
fought  by  the  British,  under  command  of  the  immortal  Nelson,  against  the  com- 
bined fleets  of  France  and  Spain,  commanded  by  admiral  Villeneuve  and  two 
Spanish  admirals.  The  enemy's  force  was  eighteen  -French  and  fifteen  Spanish 
vessels,  all  of  the  line ;  that  of  the  British,  twenty-seven  ships.  After  a  bloody  and 
protracted  fight,  admiral  Villeneuve  and  the  other  admirals  were  taken,  and  nine- 


TRA  Q  610  ]  TRA 

teen  of  their  ships  csptnred,  sank,  or  destroyed.  Bat  the  hero  of  England  lost  hii 
life  in  this  memorable  battle ;  and  admiral  ColUngwood  succeeded  to  the  commani 
Ndson's  ship  was  the  Vieiorp;  and  his  last  signal  on  going  into  the  engagement,  wu 
"  England  expects  OTery  man  to  do  his  duty.*'  Oct  21, 1805.  See  Nelson's  Funeral. 

TRAGEDY.  That  of  Alcestis  was  the  first  represented  by  Thespis,  the  first  tngic 
poet  at  Athens,  536  b.c. — Arund.  Marbles.  Prizes  instituted,  and  the  first  gained 
by  JBschyloSy  486  B.C. — Ibid,  Another  prize  carried  by  Sophocles,  470  B.c,—Ibii 
Another  by  Euripides,  442  •B.c^tbid.  Another  by  Astydamas,  377  b.c.— /ftut 
See  Drama  ;  Plays  ;  Theatres. 

TRAJAN'S  PILLAR.  Erected  a.d.  114,  by  the  directions  of  the  emperor  Trajan, 
and  executed  by  Apollodorus.  This  column,  which  still  exists  at  Rome,  was  built 
in  the  large  square  called  the  Forum  Romanum  ;  it  is  140  feet  high,  of  the  Tuscai 
order,  and  commemorates  the  victories  of  the  emperor. 

TRANSFIGURATION,  Thb.  Among  divines  by  this  term  is  meant  the  miraculou! 
change  of  our  Saviour's  appearance  on  Mount  Tabor,  in  the  presence  of  Peter, 
James,  and  John,  when  he  appeared  in  his  glory,  in  company  with  Moses  and 
Elias.  The  word  is  also  applied  to  a  feast  held  in  the  Romish  church  on  the  6tb  of 
August,  in  commemoration  of  that  miracle. 

TRANSFUSION  of  the  BLOOD.  It  began  to  be  practised  in  the  fifteenth  centnrj, 
and  was  successful  in  France,  where  Louis  XI.,  when  dying,  went  farther  still,  and 
drank  the  warm  blood  of  infants,  in  the  vain  hope  of  prolonging  life,  a.d.  1483.- 
Henault,  After  trials  of  the  efficacy  of  transfusion  upon  animals,  M.  Denis  xmd 
the  practice  in  Paris,  where,  out  of  five  persons  upon  whom  he  operated,  two  died, 
and  the  magistracy  prohibited  the  experiment  upon  human  bodies  afterwards,  1668. 
Lower,  an  English  physician,  who  died  in  1691,  practised  in  this  way. — FrM 
Hisi,  of  Phys.  Transfusion  again  attempted  in  France,  in  1797  ;  and  recently  in 
these  countries,  but  seldom  with  success.    See  article  Blood. 

TRANSLATION  to  HEAVEN.  The  translation  of  Enoch  to  heaven  for  his  piety tt 
the  age  of  365  years,  took  place  3017  b.c.  The  prophet  Elijah,  a  zealous  advocate 
for  the  law,  in  an  idolatrous  generation,  translated  to  heaven  in  a  chariot  of  fire>^9^ 
B.C.  The  possibility  of  translation  to  the  abode  of  eternal  life  has  been  muntaine^ 
by  some  extravagant  enthusiasts.  The  Irish  house  of  commons  expelled  Mr.  Asgi^ 
from  his  seat  for  his  book  asserting  the  possibility  of  translation  to  the  other  vorid 
without  death,  1703. 

TRANSPORTATION  o»  FELONS.  The  first  criminals  were  ordered  for  transpor- 
tation instead  of  execution,  a.d.  1590  ;  but  banishment  for  lighter  offences  ^ 
those  adjudged  death  was  much  earlier.  England  is  reproached  abroad  for  trutf- 
porting  persons  whose  offences  are  comparatively  venial.  John  Eyre,  esq.fif'"' 
of  fortune,  was  sentenced  to  transportation  for  stealing  a  few  quires  of  paper,  A"^* 
1,  1771. — Phillips.  More  recently,  the  reverend  Dr.  Halloran,  tutor  to  thet>^ 
of  Chesterfield,  was  transported  for  forging  a  frank  (10^.  po8tage)|Sept.  9,1^^°' 
The  first  transportation  of  felons  to  Botany  Bay  was  in  May  1787  ;  they  arrived  tf 
the  settlement  in  January  1788.  Returning  from  transportation  was  punished  witn 
death  until  5  William  IV.,  August  1834,  when  an  act  passed  making  the  offence 
punishable  by  transportation  for  life. 

TRANSUBSTANTI ATION.  This  doctrine  was  first  introduced  by  a  friar,  about  aJ. 
840.  It  became  a  confirmed  article  of  Christian  faith  about  1000.  It  was  o^^ 
in  England  about  1019  ;  but  the  English  church  admitted  the  doctrine  before  lOfi^ 
Belief  in  it  as  necessary  to  salvation  was  finally  established  by  the  coancil  of  P»* 
centia,  1005.  The  word  "  transubstantiation"  was  first  used  by  Peter  of  BIob 
about  1165.  John  Huss,  in  subsequent  times,  was  the  first  opposer  of^ 
doctrine ;  he  was  burnt  by  order  of  the  council  of  Constance,  a.d.  1415.-^^'^' 
Bist.  Liu 

TRAPPISTS,  OR  MONKS  of  LA  TRAPPE.  A  French  order  in  the  dep*^^?*."^ 
Orne,  famed  in  the  days  of  superstition  for  their  austerity  of  discipline,  and  i 
keeping  a  perpetual  silence.  This  order  was  charged  with  rebellion  and  conspir*^ 
in  France,  and  64  English  and  Irish  Trappists  were  shipped  by  the  French  gov«^ 
ment  at  Paimbceuf,  Nov.  19,  and  were  landed  from  the  H6bi  French  fiig*^ 
Cork,  Nov.  30,  1831.  They  have  esUblished  themselves  at  Mount  Mellersji  am 
of  Waterford* 


TRA 


[511] 


TRE 


'RAlVELLING  abroad.  See  article  Absentees.  In  order  to  discourage  English 
subjects  from  travelling  to  foreign  countries  and  spending  money  there,  a  tax  was 
IcTied  (but  of  very  inadequate  amount)  by  way  of  licence  for  going  abroad,  and  paid 
to  the  crown,  10  Charles  I.,  1635. — Rapin, 

7READ-MILL.  An  invention  of  the  Chinese,  and  used  in  China  to  raise  water  for 
the  irrigation  of  the  fields.  The  tread-mill  lately  introduced  into  the  prisons  of 
Great  Britain  is  of  a  more  complicated  construction.  It  is  the  invention  of  Mr. 
Cubitt  of  Ipswich.    The  first  was  erected  at  Brixton  gaol,  1817. 

TREASON.  See  High  Treason.  It  was  punished  in  England  only  by  banishment 
till  after  Henry  I. — Baker* s  Chronicle.  Ascertained  by  law,  Edward  III., 
1349.  Trials  regulated,  and  two  witnesses  required  to  convict,  1695.  The  laws 
relating  to  treason  are  numerous,  and  formerly  the  punishment  was  dreadful — 
hanging,  quartering,  beheading,  &c.,  and  even  burning  alive.  Mr.  Martin  brought 
in  a  bill  for  the  abolition  of  bumiag  alive  for  treason,  which  passed  both  houses  in 
1788.  Petty  t&eason  may  happen  three  ways  :  a  wife's  murder  of  her  husband  ; 
a  servant's  murder  of  his  master ;  and  an  ecclesiastical  person's  murder  of  his 
prelate  or  other  superior — so  declared  by  Statute  25  Edward  III.,  1350. 

TREASURER,  LORD  HIGH,  ov  ENGLAND.  The  third  great  officer  of  the  crown, 
a  lord  by  virtue  of  bis  office,  having  the  custody  of  the  king's  treasure,  governing 
the  upper  court  of  exchequer,  and  formerly  sitting  judicially  among  the  barons. 
The  first  lord  high  treasurer  in  England  was  Odo,  earl  of  Kent,  in  the  reign  of 
William  I.  Tbis  great  tntst  is  now  confided  to  a  commission ;  it  is  vested  in  five 
persons,  called  lords  commissioners  for  executing  the  office  of  lord  high  treasurer, 
and  of  these  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  is  usually  one.  '  The  first  officer  of  this 
rank  in  Ireland  was  John  de  St.  John,  Henry  III.,  1217.  William  Cheevers, 
second  justice  of  the  King's  Bench,  first  held  the  office  of  vice-treasurer  for  Ireland, 
22d  Henry  VI.,  1443. 

TREATIES.  The  first  formal  and  written  treaty  made  by  England  with  any  foreign 
nation  was  entered  into  a.d.  1217.  The  first  commercial  treaty  was  with  the 
Flemings,  1  Edward,  1272 ;  the  second,  with  Portugal  and  Spain,  1308. — Ander- 
son. The  chief  treaties  of  the  principal  civilised  nations  of  Europe  will  be  found 
described  in  their  respective  places  :  the  following  forms  an  index  to  them.  See 
Conventions  ;  Coalitions  ;  LeagueSf  &c. 


Abo,  peace  of   . 
Aix-la-Ghapelle 
Aix-Ia-Chapelle,  peace  of 
Akennann,  peace  of 
Alt  RadBtadt     . 
America,  peace  with 
Amiens,  peace  of 
Armed  Neutrality 
Arras,  treaty  of 
Arras,  ditto 
Augsburgh,  league  of 
Baden,  peace  of 
Barrier  treaty 
Basle,  peace  of 
Bassein,  India 
Bayonne,  treaty  of 
Belgium,  treaty  of  London 
Belgrade,  peace  of 
Berlin,  peace  of 
Berlin  decree 
Berlin  convention 
Breda,  peace  of 
Bretigny,  peace  of 
Bucharest,  treaty  of 
Cambray,  league  of 
Cambray,  peace  of 
Campo-Formio,  treaty  of 
Carlowitc,  peace  of 
Carlsbad,  congress  of 
Cateau-Cambresis,  peace  of 
Chaumont,  treaty  of 


.  1743 
.  1668 
.  1748 
.  1826 
.  1706 
.  1783 
.  1802 
.  1800 
.  1435 
.  1482 
.  1686 
.  1714 
.  1715 
.  1795 
.  1802 
.  1808 
.  1839 
.  1739 
.  1742 
.  1806 
.  1808 
.  1667 
.  1360 
.  1812 
.  1508 
.  1529 
.  1797 
.  1699 
.  1819 
.  1559 
.  1814 


Chunar,  India  • 

Cintra,  convention  of 
Closterseven,  convention  of 
Coalition,  first,  against  France 
Coalition,  second,  ditto 
Coalition,  third,  ditto 
Coalition,  fourth,  ditto 
CoaUtion,  fifth,  ditto    . 
Coalition,  sixth,  ditto 
Concordat 
Conflans,  treaty  of 
Constantinople,  peace  of 
Constantinople,  treaty  of 
Copenhagen,  peace  of 
Cres^ 
Dresden    . 
Family  compact 
Fontainebleau,  i>eace  of 
Fontainebleau,  treaty  of 
Fontainebleau,  concordat  at 
Friedwald,  treaty  of 
Fuessen,  peace  of 
Ghent,  pacification  of 
Ghent,  peace  of  (America) 
Golden  Bull     . 
Grand  Alliance 
Greece,  treaty  of  London 
Hague,  treaty  of  the 
Hague,  treaty  of  the 
Halle,  treaty  of 
Hamburgh,  peace  of 


1781 
1808 
1757 
1792 
1799 
1805 
1806 
1809 
1813 
1801 
1465 
1712 
1833 
1660 
1544 
174S 
1761 
1679 
1785 
1813 
1551 
1745 
1576 
1814 
1356 
1689 
1829 
1659 
1669 
1610 
1762 


TRB 


[512] 


TRI 


TRRATIES,  eanimued. 

HuMTcr  teMty 

.  17S5 

Hidland,  ]M«M  with 

.    .  17M 

Holy  AlUanoe 

.  1815 

flobortalMsg,  pm»  of 

.    .1763 

Interimt 

.  1548 

Kiel,trm«jof 

.    .  1814 

I^ybacb,  oimgiPM  of 

.  18S1 

LmguA              .        .        .        . 

.    .  1578 

Leipsio,  alUBiice  of 

.  1631 

Leoben,  peace  of 

.    .  1797 

LieboD,  peace  of 

.  1668 

London,  treaty  of  (Greece) 

.    .  1829 

London,  oouTention  of  (TuAbj) 

.  1840 

Lnbeok,  peace  of 

.  1689 

Limeville,  peace  of 

1801 

Madrid,  treaty  of 

.  15S6 

Jf  ethuen  treaty 

.    .  1703 

Milan  decree 

.  1807 

Munster,  peace  of 

.    .  1648 

Nantee,  edict  of 

.  1596 

Naombenr,  treaty  of 

.    .  1554 

Nice,  treaty  of     . 

.  1518 

Nimeguen,  peace  of 

.    .  1678 

Noyon,  treaty  of 

.  1516 

Nuremberg,  treaty  of 

.    .  1532 

OUva,  peace  of 

.  1060 

Pftris,  peace  of  (tee  Paris) 

.    .  1763 

Paris,  treaty  of 

.  1796 

Fbrie,  peace  of  (Sweden) 

.    .  1810 

Paris,  capitulation  of 

.  1814 

Paris,  treaty  of         .        .        . 

.    .  1814 

Paris,  peace  of 

.  1815 

Paris,  treaty  of         *        •         . 

.    .  1817 

Partition,  iirst  treaty 

.  1698 

Partition,  second  treaty 

.    .  1700 

Passarowitz,  peace  of 

.  1718 

Passau,  treaty  of 

.    .  1552 

Petersburgh,  peace  of 

.  1762 

Petersburgh,  treaty  of 

.    .  1772 

Petersburgh ,  treaty  of 

.  1805 

Petersburgh,  treaty  of 

.     .  1810 

Peterswalden,  convention  of 

.  1813 

PUnitz,  convention  of 

.    .  1791 

Poland,  partition  of 

.  1795 

Pragmatic  Sanction 

.    .  1439 

Pragmatic  Sanction 

.  1713 

Pra^e,  peace  of 

.    .  1653 

Presburg,  peace  of 

.  1805 

Public  good,  league  for  the 

.    .  1464 

P>Tenees,  treaty  of  the 

.  1659 

Quadruple  Alliance 

.   .  1718 

Radstadt,  peace  of 

.  1714 

Radstadt,  caogreaB  of 

Ratisban,  peace  of 

Ratisbon,  treaty  of 

Religion,  peace  of 

Rhine,  Confederation  of  the 

Ryswick,  peace  of 

St.  Germain's,  peace  of 

St.  Gennaln-en-Laye 

St.  Ddefonao,  aUlanoe  of  Spahi  vith 

France 
Seville,  peace  of 
SiOrdd,  peace  of 
Rmalcald,  league  of 
Spain,  pacification  of  (London) 
•Stettin,  peace  of 
Stockholm    . 
Stockholm,  i>eaoe  of 
Stockholm,  treaty  of 
Steekholm,  treaty  of 
Temeswar,  truce  of 
Teschen,  peace  of 
Tensin,  peace  of 
Tilsit,  peace  of 
Tolentino,  treaty  of 
Toplitc,  treaty  of 
Triple  Alliance 
Triple  Alliance  of  the  Hague 
Troppau,  congress  of 
Troyes,  treaty  of 
Turkmauohay,  peace  of 
Ulm,  peace  of  . 
Utrecht,  union  of 
Utrecht,  peace  of 
Yalrai^ay,  treaty  of  • 

Terona,  congress  of 
Versailles,  peace  of 
Tienna,  treaty  of 
Tienna,  treat}'  of  alliance 
Vienna,  definitive  peace 
Vienna,  i>eace  of 
Vienna,  treaty  of,  Alarch  23 
Vienna,  treaty  of.  May  31 
Vienna,  treaty  of,  June  4 
Vossem,  peace  of 
Warsaw,  treaty  of 
Warsaw,  alliance  of 
Westminster,  peace  of 
Westminster  (with  Holland) 
Westphalia,  peace  of 
Wilna,  treaty  of 
Worms,  edict  of 
Wurtzburg,  treaty  of 


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TRENT,  Council  op.     This  celebrated  councU  is  reckoned  in  the  CathoHc  chorcl|^* 
the  eighteenth  or  last  general  council.     Its  decisions  are  implicitly  receivea  as 
standard  of  faith,  morals,  and  discipline  in  that  church.     The  first  coanci^  '^f^^ill., 
A.D.  1545,  and  continued  (but  with  interruptions)  under  pope  Paul  lll-t  J^^ 
and  Pius  IV.^  to  1563,  when  the  last  council  was  held.  , 

"  TRIA  JUNCTA  IN  UNO.*'     The  motto  of  the  knights  of  the  miUUryordf  ^^ 
the  Bath,  signifying  the  three  theological  yirtues,  ''faith,  hope,  and  cbantj*   ^^ 
is  supposed  to  have  been  first  used  by  Richard  II.,  and  adopted  by  Henry 
1399,  as  the  motto  of  this  order.     See  Bath.  i 

TRIALS.     Alfred  is  said  to  have  been  the  contriver  of  trial  by  jury ;  but  ^^^'^^ 
evidence  of  such  trials  long  before  his  time.     In  a  cause  tried  at  HawardeDi 
a  hundred  years  before  the  reign  of  Alfred,  we  have  a  list  of  the  twelve  jn^*^^ '   Jf 
firmed,  too,  by  the  fact  that  the  descendants  of  one  of  them,  of  ^^^ri^ 
Corbyn,  of  the  Gate,  still  preserves  their  name  and  residence  at  a  spot  in  tbep 
yet  called  the  Gate. — Phillips, 


TRI  [[  513  ]  TRI 

TRIALS,  continued, 

RBMARKABLB  AND  UEMORABLB  TRIALS  DURING  THE  LAST  HUNORBD  YEARS. 

Of  the  infamous  colonel  Charteris,  for  the  rape  of  Ann  Bond  .         .     February  25,  1730 

Of  captain  Porteous,  at  Edinburgh,  for  murder  (see  Porteotis)  .        .  July  6,  17d6 

Of  the  celebrated  Jenny  Diver ^  for  felony,  executed    .  ...         March  18,  1740 

Of  William  Duell,  executed  for  murder  at  Tyburn,  but  who  came  to  life  when  about 

undergoing  dissection  at  Surgeons'  Hall  ....         November  24,  1740 

Of  lords  Kilmarnock  and  Balmerino,  for  high  treason  .         .         .  July  28,  1746 

Of  Mary  Hamilton,  for  marrying  with  her  own  sex,  14  wives  .         .      October  7,  1746 

Of  lord  Lovat,  80  years  of  age,  for  high  treason;  beheaded       .         .         .  March  9,  1747 

Of  Freney,  the  celebrated  Irish  robber,  who  surrendered  himself  ,         .      '   July  9,  1749 

Of  Amy  Hutchinson,  burnt  at  Ely,  for  the  murder  of  her  husband  .       November  5,  1750 

Of  Miss  Blandy,  for  the  murder  of  her  father ;  hanged  ....  March  3,  1752 
Of  Ann  Williams,  for  the  murder  of  her  husband ;  burnt  alive  .        .    April  11,  1753 

Of  Eugene  Aram,  for  murder  at  York ;  executed  ....     August  13,  1759 

Of  the  earl  Ferrers,  for  the  murder  of  his  steward ;  executed  .         .         .    April  16,  1760 

Of  Mr.  Mac  Naughten,  at  Strabane,  for  the  murder  of  Miss  Knox        .  December  8,  1761 

Of  Ann  Bedingfield,  for  the  murder  of  her  husband ;  biunt  alive  .         .      April  6,  1763 

Of  Mr.  Wilkes,  the  celebrated  alderman  of  London,  for  an  obscene  poem,  called  an 

**  Essay  on  Woman"  February  21,  1764 

Of  the  murderers  of  captain  Glass,  his  wife,  daught^,  mate,  and  passengers,  on  board 

the  ship  Earl  of  Sandwich^  at  sea  March  3,  1766 

Of  the  celebrated  Elizabeth  Brownrigg,  for  the  murder  of  one  of  her  apprentices,  a 

female ;  hanged September  12,  1767 

Of  lord  Baltimore,  the  notorious  libertine,  and  his  female  accomplices,  for  rape,  March  28,  1768 
Of  the  great  cause  between  the  families  of  Hamilton  and  Douglas       .  February  27,  1769 

Of  the  great  Talentia  cause  in  the  house  of  peers,  in  Ireland  .        .  March  18,  177^ 

Of  the  cause  of  Somerset  the  slave,  establishing  the  great  point  of  freedom  to  slaves  upon 

British  ground ;  judgment  given,  after  a  long  trial  (see  Somerset  the  Black)  .  June  22,  1772 

**  Slaves  cannot  breathe  in  England ; 
They  touch  our  country,  and  their  shackles  fall." 

Of  Mrs.  Herring,  at  Dublin,  for  the  murder  of  her  husband ;  burnt  in  St.  Stephen's 

Green,  in  that  city October  24,  1773 

Of  the  two  brothers,  Messrs.  Perreau,  bankers  and  wine-merchants,  for  forgery ;  hanged 

(see  Forgery)  January  17,  1776 

Of  the  duchess  of  Kingston,  for  marrying  two  husbands ;  guilty  (see  Kingtton,  Duchess 

of,  her  Trial, ,      .         .    April  15,  1776 

Of  Dr.  Dodd,  for  forging  a  bond  of  4200/.,  in  the  name  of  the  earl  of  Chesterfield ;  foimd 

guilty,  February  22  (see  Forgery) ;  executed June  27,  1777 

Of  admiral  Keppel,  by  court  martial ;  honourably  acquitted  .        .     February  11,  1779 

Of  Mr.  Hackman,  for  the  murder  of  Miss  Reay,  when  coming  out  of  the  theatre  royal, 

Covent-garden  April  16,  1779 

Of  lord  George  Gordon,  on  a  charge  of  high  treason  ;  acquitted  .  February  5,  1781 

Of  Mr.  Woodfall,  the  celebrated  printer,  for  a  libel  on  lord  Loughborough,  afterwards 

lord  chancellor November  10,  1786 

Of  lord  George  Gordon,  for  a  libel  on  the  queen  of  France ;  guilty         .  January  28,  1788 

Of  Mr.  Warren  Hastings ;  a  trial  which  lasted  seven  years  and  three  months  (see  Hast- 

ingst  Trial  c/),  commenced February  13,  1788 

Of  the  proprietors  of  The  Times  London  newspaper,  for  a  libel  on  the  prince  of  Wales ; 

guilty February  3,  1790 

Of  Renwick  Williams,  called  the  Monster,  for  stabbing  women  in  the  streets  of  London 

(aee  Monster)  July  8,  1790 

Of  the  celebrated  Barrington,  the  pickpocket,  the  most  extraordinary  adept  in  his  art ; 

transported September  22,  1790 

Of  Thomas  Paine,  the  celebrated  political  writer  and  Deist,  for  his  libels  in  the  Rights  of 

Man ;  guilty December  18,  1792 

Of  Louis  XYI.  of  France;  began  Decemb^  11,  1792;  condenmed  January  20;   and 

beheaded  (see  JVance) January  21,  1793 

Of  the  queen  of  France,  Marie  Antoinette,  consort  of  Louis  XYL  ;  guillotined  .  Oct.  16,  1793 
Of  Archibald  Hamilton  Rowan,  for  libel ;  sentenced  to  two  years'  imprisonment,  and 

a  fine  of  5002.  January  29,  1794 

Of  madame  Elizabeth  of  France,  sister  to  the  king,  Louis  XYI. ;  beheaded  .  May  10,  1794 
Of  Mr.  Purefoy,  arraigned  for  the  murder  of  colonel  Roi>er,  in  a  very  memorable  duel ; 

acquitted  .  August  14,  1794 

OfMr.  Robert  Watt,  and  Downie,  at  Edinburgh,  for  treason  .  .  September  3,  1794 
Of  Messrs.  Hardy,  Home  Tooke,  Thelwall,  and  Joyce,  for  high  treason;  acquitted  (see 

JETartfy,  and  also  27i«;ioa2;, October  29,  1794 

Of  the  earl  of  Abingdon,  for  his  libel  on  Mr.  Sennan ;  guilty  December  6, 1794 

L  L 


TRI  C  SA4  ]  TRI 

TRIALS,  continued. 

OfiheoelebratedmiO<vSempIe,alia#  Lisle,  for  felony  •   February  18, 17% 

Of  the  rer.  William  Jaduon,  on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  in  Dublin ;  he  soon  after  died 

in  prison .        •       April  24, !/» 

Of  Kr.  Redhead  Torke»  at  York,  for  a  aeditioaB  libel  .  November  27, 1793 

Of  lord  Weetmeath  v.  Bradshaw,  for  erim.  con, ;  damages,  lO.OOOL  .    March  4, 17% 

Of  lord  Yalentia  v.  Mr.  Gawler,  for  adultery ;  damages  20001.     .  June  16,  m 

Of  Daniel  Isaac  Eat<ni,  for  Ubds  on  kingly  government ;  guilty  •      July  ^i  ^"i^ 

Of  sir  Godfirey  Webster  v.  lord  HoUand,  for  adultery ;  60002.  .  February  27. 1?9; 

Of  Parker,  the  mutineer  at  the  Nore,  called  admiral  Parker  (see  Mutiniet  in  the  BriiUh 

FleeU June27, 17S7 

Of  Boddington  «.  Boddtaigton.  for  erim.  eon. ;  damages  10,0002.  September  5,  0, 

Of  William  Orr,  at  Carrickfergus,  for  high  treason ;  executed  .  October  12.  ]1^ 

Of  Ifrs.  Phepoe,  alia*  Benson,  the  celebrated  murderess  .         .  December  9, 17? 

Of  the  murderers  of  colonel  St.  George  and  Mr.  Uniacke,  at  Cork  April  15,  0 

Of  the  celebrated  Arthur  O'Connor,  the  barrister,  and  O'Coigley,  at  Maidstone,  for  treason ; 

the  latter  hanged May21,  ir* 

Of  sir  Edward  Crosbie  and  others,  for  high  treason ;  hanged  •      June  1, 1?^ 

Of  Beauchamp  Bagenal  Harvey,  at  Wexford,  for  high  treason  June  21,  I> 

Of  the  two  Messrs.  Sheares,  at  Dublin,  for  high  treason ;  executed  .        •     July  1^'  '^ 

Of  Theobald  WoulfiTe  Tone,  by  court  martial  (he  died  on  the  18th)  .  November  W,  l/« 
Of  lord  Thanet,  for  his  conduct  at  Arthur  O'Connor's  trial  .         .        .    June  10,  ITS 

OfsirHarryBrowneHayes.  for  carrying  off  Miss  Pike,  of  Cork  .        •        Aprill3,lP 

Of  Hatfield,  for  shooting  at  George  m.  (see  ^af^W)  .         .         •        •    June  SB,  m 

Of  Mr.  Tlghe  of  Westmeath  v.  Jones,  for  erim.  can. ;  damages  10,0002.  •  December  2,  P 
Of  the  mutineers  at  Bantry  Bay ;  hanged  (see  Bantry  Bap)  .         .         January  8.  l»' 

Of  Charles  Hayes,  for  the  obscene  libel  The  Man  of  Fashion  .        •     January  9,  m 

Of  the  mutineers  of  the  Tim^aire  and  other  ships,  at  Portsmouth  .  January  H.  "^ 
Of  governor  Wall,  for  cruelty  and  murder,  twenty  years  before  (see  Goree)  January  28,  J- 
Of  Crawley,  for  the  murder  of  two  females  in  Peter's-row,  Dublin  .  March  16,  wc 

Of  colonel  Despard  and  his  associates,  for  high  treason ;  hanged  on  the  top  ot  Hors^ 

monger-lane  gaol  (see  D««pard)  February  7,  »^ 

Of  M.  Peltier,  for  a  libel  on  N^ioleon  Buonaparte,  then  first  consul  of  France,  in  VAn- 

bigus  guilty  Febniaiy21,''^ 

Of  Robert  Aslett,  cashier  of  the  Bank  of  England,  for  embezzlement  and  frauds ;  tbelos 
to  the  Bank.  320,0002. ;  found  not  guilty  fin  account  of  the  invalidity  of  the  billa,  July  8.  • 
Of  Robert  Emmett,  at  Dublin,  for  high  treason ;  executed  next  day  .         September  19,  i^- 
Of  Keenan,  one  of  the  murderers  of  lord  Kilwarden ;  hanged         .         .  October) 

Of  Mr.  Smith,  for  the  murder  of  the  supposed  ^atnmer«miM  Ci«M£  .  .  *^^'^  g  ijtM 
Of  Lockhart  and  Laudon  Gordon,  for  carrying  off  Mrs.  Lee  .  '^^  »  ii^ 

Of  general  Moreau  and  others,  for  conq>iracy,  in  France 
Of  the  rev.  C.  Massy  v.  Bfarquess  of  Headfort.  for  erim.  eon. ;  10,0002. 


•jBly27,'"'** 
»7. 19^ 


-     -       ^     — ji -» — -— — , ,  — •|u7 

Of  William  Cooper,  the  Hackney  Monster ^  for  offences  against  females  •  yl\  0 

Of  Hamilton  Rowan,  in  Dublin ;  pleaded  the  king's  pardon  .  ^^'  ^^ 

Of  Judge  Johnson,  for  a  Ubel  on  the  earl  of  Hardwicke ;  guUty  .  Novemter£)> 

Of  general  Picton,  for  applying  the  torture  to  Louisa  Calderon,  to  extort  confe8Q0ii>|  ^^^ 

Trinidad ;  tried  in  the  court  of  King's  Bench ;  guilty        .        .         .  Fehmary  *i'  ^^ 
OfMr.  Patch,  for  the  murder  of  his  partner,  Mr.  Bligh            .        .  ^    12  I8i« 

Of  lord  Melville,  impeached  by  the  house  of  commons ;  acquitted  .  ^°°f  J  i^f 


Aogurt 


23,  # 


Of  the  Warrington  gang,  for  unnatural  offences ;  executed  .        •       Aas>»      ^^ 

Of  Palm,  the  bookseller,  by  a  French  military  commission,  at  Brennau  An^    '  ^^. 

Of  lord  Cloncurry  v.  sir  John  B.  Piers,  for  erim.  con. ;  damages  20,0002.    .    ^®^*"*'^gjj 
Of  HoUoway  and  Haggerty,  the  murderers  of  Mr.  Steele ;  thirty  persons  were  cm       ^^^ 

to  death  at  theh:  execution,  at  the  Old  Bailey         ....         ^^"^^i^^ 
Of  sir  Home  Popham,  by  court  martial ;  reprimanded  .        .        .  Te  27*  ^^^ 

Of  Knight ».  Dr.  Wolcot,  a2<af  Peter  Pindar,  for  erim.  co«.         .        .  i!^2,l*' 

Of  lieut.  Berry,  of  H.M.S.  Hazard^  for  an  unnatural  offence  .        .         ^  hLr  22,'  ^^ 

Of  lord  Elgin  v.  Ferguson,  for  erim.  eon. ;  damages  10,0002.         .        .        ^^®*'*S^b  4!  1»^ 
Of  Simmons,  the  murderer  of  the  Boreham  family,  at  Hoddesd<m  .  ^y:  \i  ^^ 

Of  sir  Arthur  Paget,  for  erim,  eon.  with  lady  Borringdon  -.        .        •      ^^  ^^  ^^  jjiH 

Of  msjor  Campbell,  for  killing  captain  Boyd  in  a  duel ;  hanged  ber  %  1^ 

Of  Peter  Finnerty  and  others,  for  a  libel  on  the  duke  of  York  .        •  JU^^Jldns* 

Of  the  duke  of  York,  by  inquiry  in  the  house  of  onnmons,  on  charges  P'*^®''\|!!^20,  l*^ 

him  by  colonel  Wardle ;  from  January  26  to  .  ...      ^^  12,'  i** 

Of  Wellesley  v.  lord  Paget,  for  erim.  con. ;  damages  20,0002.       .         .        •         ^  <^  ifli* 
Of  the  King  v.  Valentine  Jones,  for  breach  of  duty  as  commissary-g^ieral  f^  ^9, 1^ 

Of  earl  of  Leicester  v.  Morning  Herald,  for  a  libel ;  damages,  10002.  •  ,^„  j,  0 

Of  Wright  V.  colonel  Wardle,  for  Mrs.  Mary  Ann  Clarke's  furniture      .  .^j-  9,  llJDJ 

Of  William  Cobbett,  for  a  libel  on  the  German  Legion ;  convicted  • 


TRI 


[515] 


TRI 


?RIALSy  continued. 

Of  the  hon.  captain  Lake,  for  putting  Robert  Je£Pery,  a  British  seaman,  on  shore  at 


February  10, 

February  24, 

September  20, 

January  31, 

February  22, 

March  7> 

March  12, 

June  15, 

June  19, 

June  28, 

November  21, 

November  26, 

January  23, 

March  18, 

May  15, 

November  19, 

December  9, 

December  16, 

January  7, 


Sombrero ;  dismissed  the  service  (see  Sombrero) 
Of  Mr.  Perry,  for  libels  in  the  Morning  Chronicle  ;  acquitted 
Of  the  Vere-street  gang,  for  unnatural  offences ;  guilty 
Of  Peter  Finnerty,  for  a  libel  on  lord  Castlereagh ;  Judgment 
Of  the  King  v.  Messrs.  John  and  Leigh  Hunt,  for  libels ;  guilty     . 
Of  ensign  Hepburn,  and  White,  the  drummer;  both  were  executed  . 
Of  Walter  Cox,  in  Dublin,  for  libels ;  he  stood  in  the  pillory 
Of  the  King  v.  William  Cobbett,  for  libels ;  convicted 
Of  lord  Louth,  in  Dublin ;  sentenced  to  imprisonment  and  fine 
Of  the  Berkeley  cause,  before  the  house  of  peers ;  concluded 
Of  Dr.  Sheridan,  physician,  on  a  charge  of  sedition ;  acquitted 
Of  Gale  Jones,  for  seditious  and  blasphemous  libels ;  convicted 
Of  Mr.  Thomas  Kirwan,  in  Dublin,  a  Catholic  delegate ;  convicted 
Of  Daniel  Isaae  Eaton,  on  a  charge  of  blasphemy ;  convicted 
Of  Bellingham,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Perceval,  prime  minister 
Of  the  King  v.  Mr.  Lovell,  of  the  Statesmant  iot  libel ;  guilty 
Of  Messrs.  John  and  Leigh  Himt,  for  libels  in  the  Examiner  /  convicted 
Of  the  marquis  of  Sligo,  for  concealing  a  sea  deserter 
Of  the  murderers  of  Mr.  Horsfall,  at  York ;  executed 
Of  Mr.  Hugh  Fitzpatrick,  for  publishing  Scully's  History  of  the  Penal  Laws  February  6, 
Of  the  divorce  cause  against  the  duke  of  Hamilton,  for  adultery  April  11, 

Of  Mr.  John  Magee,  in  Dublin,  for  libels  in  the  Evening  Post;  guilty      .  July  26, 

Of  Nicholson,  the  murderer  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Bonar ;  hanged  .  .  .  August  21, 
Of  Tuite,  the  murderer  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Ooulding ;  executed  .         .         October  7, 

Of  the  celebrated  Mary  Ann  Clarke,  for  a  libel  on  the  right  hon.  Wm.  Vesey  Fitzgerald, 

now  lord  Fitzgerald February  7, 

Of  admiral  Bradley,  at  Winchester,  for  frauds  in  ship  letters  .         .         August  18, 

Of  lord  Cochrane,  Cochrane  Johnstone,  Berenger,  Butt,  and  others,  for  frauds  in  the 

public  funds;  conyicted {see  Stocks)  February  22, 

Of  colonel  Quentin,  of  the  10th  hussars,  by  court-martial  .         .    November  10, 

Of  sir  John  Henry  Mildmay,  hart,  for  crim,  con.  with  the  countess  of  Roseberry ; 

damages,  15,0002. December  5, 

Of  the  King  v.  Brider,  on  a  charge  of  incest ;  guilty  ....  February  17, 
Of  George  Bamett,  for  shooting  at  Miss  Kelly,  of  Covent-garden  theatre  .  April  8, 
Of  captain  Hutchinson,  sir  Robert  Wilson,  and  Mr.  Bruce,  in  Paris,  for  aiding  the  escape 

of  count  Lavalette  (see  Lavalette*s  Escape) April  24, 

Of  '<  captain  Grant,"  the  famous  Irish  robber,  at  Maryborough  .    August  16, 

Of  Vaughan,  a  police-officer,  Mackay,  and  Browne,  for  conspiracy  to  induce  men  to 

commit  felonies  to  obtain  the  rewi^ ;  convicted  ....  August  21, 
Of  colonel  Stanhope,  by  court-martial,  at  Cambray,  in  France  .        September  23, 

Of  Cashman,  the  intrepid  seaman,  for  the  Spa-fields  riots,  and  outrages  on  Snow-hill ; 

convicted  and  hanged  (see  Sporfields) January  20, 

Of  count  Maubreuil,  at  Paris,  for  robbing  the  queen  of  Westphalia     .         .  May  2, 

Of  Mr.  R.  G.  Butt,  for  a  libel  on  lord  chief-justice  Ellenborough  .         .     May  23, 

Of  Mr.  Wooller,  for  libels  on  the  government  and  ministers         .         .  June  6, 

Of  Thistlewood,  Dr.  Watson,  Hooper,  and  others,  for  treason  .  June  9, 

Of  the  murderers  of  the  Lynch  family,  at  Wildgoose-lodge,  Ireland  .  .  July  19, 
Of  Mr.  Roger  O'Connor,  on  a  charge  of  robbing  the  mail ;  acquitted         .  August  5, 

Of  Brandreth,  Turner,  and  others,  at  Derby,  for  high  treason  .        .    October  15, 

Of  Hone,  the  bookseller,  for  parodies ;  three  trifds  before  lord  Bllenborough ;  remarkable 

for  his  extemporaneous  and  successful  defence  .  .  .  December  18, 19,  20, 
Of  Mr.  Dick,  for  the  abduction  and  rape  of  Miss  Crockatt  .  .  .  March  21, 
Of  the  memorable  appeal  of  murder  case,  Ashford,  the  brother  of  Mary  Ashford,  against 


her  murderer,  Abraham  Thornton  (see  Battel,  Wager  of) 
Of  the  rev.  Dr.  O'Halloran,  for  forging  a  frank  (see  Transportation) 
Of  Robert  Johnston,  at  Edinburgh  ;  his  dreadful  execution 
Of  sir  Manasseh  Lopez,  for  bribery  at  Grampound  (see  Bribery) 
Of  Bagueley,  Drummond,  and  others,  at  Chester,  for  sedition 
Of  Moseley,  Woolf,  and  others,  merchants,  for  conspiracy  and  fraud 
Of  Carlile,  for  the  publication  of  Paine's  Age  of  Reason,  &c. 
Of  Mr.  John  Scanlan,  at  Limerick,  for  the  murder  of  Ellen  Hanly 
Of  sir  Francis  Burdett,  at  Leicester,  for  a  seditious  libel 
Of  Mr.  Henry  Hunt  and  others,  for  their  conduct  at  the  Manchester  meeting ;  convicted 

(see  Manchester  Pbeform  Meeting)  March  27,  1820 

Of  sir  Charles  Wolseley  and  rev.  Mr.  Harrison,  for  sedition ;  guilty  April  10,  1820 

Of  Thistlewood,  Ings,  Brunt,  Davidson,  and  Tidd,  for  the  conspirapy  to  murder  the 

king's  ministers ;  commenced  (see  Cato-street  Conspiracy)  .  April  17,  1820 

LL  2 


.  April  16, 
September  9, 
December  30, 

March  18, 

.      April  17, 

•    April  20, 

.   October  15, 

March  14, 
.     March  23, 


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TRI  [  516  ]  TRI 

TRIALS,  eoniintud, 

OfLo«TFt*lBPfaiie0,fortta«inarteroftta«diik»deBerri  JoneT,'. 

or  lord  (jletrnwley  r.  Mr.  John  Bam.  for  «rtai.  row.  ....  JmelS,'. 

or  the  iodlTldnalt  duurfed  with  high  frtatoa,  at  GlaiKOir  .        .      Joly  £. 

or  M^iorC«rtwrl«fat  and  oUiera,ftt  Warwick,  for  aeditioa  An^nstl  : 

or  **  Uttl«  Waddingtoo.**  ror  a  aediUoat  Ubd ;  acquitted  September  19, 

or  llnilciiant-coloael  Frmdi,  6th  dragoon  goavda,  bj  court-martial  .  September  \'}. . 

or  CamliDe.  qnecn  or  ftigland,  before  the  boose  oT  lords,  for  adnlteiy,  commenced 

Aotrwt  16 :  it  tcnninatcd  (aee  Qmetm  Cardin^t  THal)  •  NoYcmber  ;• . 

or  thr  rraiale  mnrdercrB  or  MIm  Thompeon.  In  Dublin ;  hanged  Miy  1, .. 

or  IhiTld  Ilacgart,  an  extnordinary  robber,  and  man  of  aingnlaiiy  erentfol  life,  at 

Bdinbunch,  ror  tbemiuderoratamkoy Ju^eS, 

or  Hamoel  l>.  Ilayward,  the  raToorite  man  oT  raahlon.  for  borglazy  •   October  8. 

or  the  mnrderera  oT  Mn.  Torrance,  in  Ireland ;  oonricted  and  hanged  .  December  U. 
or  ruawn.  Leahy,  and  otbera.  for  the abdnctlon  or  Mi89  Gould      .  July^ 

or  Harthelcmi.  in  Paris,  ror  the  abduction  of  EUaabeth  Florence      .  September  iX 

or  ratbbert  r.  Browne,  singular  action  for  deceit        ....  JaniurySl. 

or  the  ramous  *•  Bottie  Conspirators.  **  in  Ireland,  by  ex-^dficio  .  .  Febniary  ^>. 
C»r  the  extraordinary  *'  Earl  or  Portsmouth  case,**  commenced  •     March  is 

or  Prohert.  Hunt,  and  ThurteU.  the  muiderera  oT  Mr.  Weare ;  Frobert  turned  W^ 

evidence,  but  was  aTterwards  hanged  (see  fx^CMtioiw)  Januarr:-^ 

or  Mr.  C'onoUy,  for  the  murder  of  Grange,  the  bailiiT  ....  January  ? 

or  .Mr.  Henry  Fauntleroy.  banker  of  London,  for  forgery ;  hanged  October  i 

or  FfMtte  r.  Hayne,  for  breach  <tf  promise  or  marriage ;  damages  300M.     .    December  i- 
or  Mr.  Jowph  Haydn,  for  a  libel  on  marquess  Welledey ;  continued  three  days  in  t[<^ 

court  of  King's  Bench  ;  the  Jury  discharged  without  coming  to  a  verdict .  January  »' 
or  .M r.  1  lenry  Havary,  a  banker's  son  at  Bristol,  for  forgery  ipril  ^' ; 

Of  O'Kcrfo  and  Bourke,  the  murdeien  of  the  Franks  family    .  .         August  !<- 

or  John  (troavt  Mnirhead.  esq.,  for  Indecent  practices  ....  October  31 - 
or  the  i-aae  of  Mr.  WeUesley  Pole  snd  the  Misses  Long ;  commenced  .  NoTemterX  • 
Of  capUin  Bligh  ».  the  hon.  Wm.  WeUesley  Pole,  ror  adultery  Norember  t- 

Of  Fisher  p.  8tockdale.  for  a  Ubel  hi  HarrietU  WiUon  ....  March  f 

Of  Edward  Gibbon  Wakefield  and  others,  for  abduction  of  Miss  Turner    .        March  ?i 
or  the  rer.  Robert  Taylor,  for  blasphemy ;  found  guilty  .         .        October H. 

Of  Richmond  Seymour,  esq.  and  Macklin,  for  an  unnatural  crime  ^^^^^.}'. . 

Of  Richard  Otllam,  for  the  murder  of  BfariaBagster,  at  Taunton     .  .  Apnl&<' 

Of  Mr.  Montgomery,  for  forgery ;  he  committed  suicide  in  prison  on  the  jDormngit 

pointed  for  his  execution ^^^'l 

Of  Brinklett.  for  the  death  of  lord  Mount  Sandford  by  a  kick  •    J^^';,!. 

or  William  Corder.  for  the  murder  of  Maria  Marten ;  executed  .         •      Aogn^^^ 

Of  Grace,  the  murderer  of  Mr.  Chad  wick,  at  Clomnel ;  hanged      .         .  Auio^^/, 

Of  Joseph  Uunton,  a  quaker  merchant,  for  forgery ;  hanged  .  .  •  October*  ' 
Of  Burke,  at  Edinburgh,  for  the  Burking  murdera:  Hare,  his  aooompUoe.  became  ^^, 

prover  (see  BurMti^)         ....  ....      Decenift'f.; 


Of  the  King  v.  Buxton  and  oth^s,  for  a  fraudulent  marriage    .  '^i;  "^ 

Of  Jonathan  Martin,  for  setting  fire  to  York  Minster  .  ^^V'fi 

Of  Stewart  and  his  wife,  noted  murderers,  at  Glasgow ;  hanged        .  ^^^ . 


Of  Reinbauer,  the  Bavarian  priest,  for  his  murders  of  women       .  Augii»^  ^^ 

Of  captain  Dickenson,  by  court  martial,  at  Portsmouth ;  acquitted  August. s 

Of  Mr.  Alexander,  editor  of  the  Morning  Journal,  for  Ubels  on  the  duke  of  Welling^-  „ 
convicted Febraarj '"< ';^ 

Of  Clune,  &c.,  at  Ennis,  for  cutting  out  the  tongues  of  the  Doyles        .  .     ^^^V'.  J. 

Of  Mr.  Comyn,  for  burning  his  house,  in  the  county  of  Clare ;  hanged  }i»x^  ^ 

Of  Mr.  Lambrecht,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Clayton  in  a  duel         .         .  •       '^i  «xi^ 

Of  captain  Moir,  for  the  murder  of  William  Malcolm ;  hanged        .        .  .    J'"?  J"  .^ 

Of  captains  Smith  and  Markham,  for  killing  Mr.  O'Grady  in  a  duel     .  .   -^'^  J^if 

Of  captain  Helsham,  for  the  murder  of  lieut.  Crowther  hi  a  duel             .  ^***'^,  y 

Of  Mr.  St.  John  Long,  for  the  manslaughter  of  Miss  Cashin  (see  Quacks)  .    October  x  ^^ 

Of  Polignac,  Peyronnet,  and  other  ministers  of  France  (see  France)        .  Deceinb«'  •  j^ 
Of  Carlile,  for  a  seditious  libel,  incitmg  to  a  riot ;  guilty   ....   January  w'-  ^^ 

Of  Mr.  D.  O'Connell,  for  breach  of  a  proclamation ;  pleaded  guilty          .  Fehruac*  -'  ^^ 

Of  St.  John  Long,  for  manslaughter  of  Mrs.  Lloyd  (see  Quacks)          .  .  Fe^™*^,.'  jji 

Of  Mr.  Luke  Dillon,  for  the  violation  of  Miss  Frizell ;  convicted     .        .  .  ^P"^  ^  ,sS 

Of  major  Dundas,  for  the  seduction  of  Miss  Adams ;  damages  30001.  tf^'y   '..># 


Of  Mr.  Cobbett,  for  a  seditious  libel ;  the  jury  could  not  agree        .        .        •      '*^lJ 

Of  the  rev.  Robert  Taylor  (who  obtained   the  revolting  distinction  of  "the  '''"   jjji 

Chaplain"),  for  reviling  the  Rxoksmkr  ;  convicted         ....  ^f^..  0 

Of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Deacle  v.  Mr.  Bmgham  Baring,  M.P ^'^^  '  jjsl 

Of  Bird,  a  boy  14  years  of  age,  for  the  murder  of  a  child ;  hanged       .  ^^  ' 


_-- _  -  ---  . ^ 

TRI  C  ^  '  ^  D  TRI 

RIALS,  continued. 

Of  the  great  cause,  earl  of  Kingston  v.  lord  Lorton ;  oommoiced  .  .  Noyember  9,  1831 
Of  Bishop  and  Williams,  for  murder  of  the  Italian  boy  (see  Burking)  .  December  3,  1831 
Of  the  earl  of  Marr,  in  Scotland,  for  shooting  at  Mr.  Oldham  .         .      December  17,  1831 

Of  ElizabethCkx)ke,  for  the  murder  ofMrs.  Walsh,  by  "Burking"  .  .  Januarys,  1832 
Of  colons  Brereton,  by  court  martial,  at  Bristol  (see  Bristol)         .         .  January  9,  1832 

Of  the  murderers  of  Mr.  Blood,  of  Applevale,  county  of  Clare  .  .  .  February  28,  1832 
Of  William  Duggan,  at  Cork,  for  the  murder  of  his  wife  and  others        .         .  March  26,  1832 

Of  the  murderers  of  the  five  policemen,  at  Ennis April  2,  1832 

Of  Mr.  Hodgson  (son  of  the  celebrated  Miss  Aston)  v.  Greene  .         .         .       July  26,  1832 

Of  the  mayor  of  Bristol,  for  neglect  of  duty  in  the  Bristol  riots  .         .      October  26,  1832 

Of  rev.  Mr.  Irving,  by  his  own  (the  Scots)  church,  for  heresy  .  .  .  March  13,  1832 
Of  lord  Teynham  and  Donlan,  a  tailor,  for  swindling ;  guilty   .         .         .  May  10,  1833 

Of  Mr.  Baring  Wall,  M.P. ;  most  honourably  acquitted      .  ...      May  II,  1833 

Of  captain  Wathen,  15th  hussars,  by  court-martial,  at  Cork ;  honourably  acquitted  ;  his 

colonel,  lord  Brudenell,  removed  from  his  command  .         .         .     January  — ,  1834 

Of  the  proprietors  of  the  True /Sft4n  for  libels;  guilty    ....  February  6,  1834 

Of  Mary  Ann  Burdock,  the  celebrated  murderess,  at  Bristol  .         .  April  10,  1835 

Of  sir  John  de  Beauvoir,  for  perjury ;  acquitted May  29,  1835 

Of  Fieschi,  at  Paris,  for  attempting  the  life  of  the  king,  Louis-Philippe,  by  exploding  an 

infernal  machine  (see  Fieschi) January  30,  1836 

Of  the  hon.  G.  C.  Norton  v.  lord  Melbourne,  in  court  of  Common  Pleas,  for  crim.  con. 

with  the  Hon.  Mrs.  Norton  ;  verdict  for  the  defendant     ....      June  22,  1836 
Of  Dr.  Morrison  v.  proprietors  of  Weekly  Dispatch,  for  libel  .        .    February  10,  1837 

Of  lord  De  Roos  v.  Cumming,  for  defamation,  charging  lord  de  Roos  with  cheating  at 

cards ;  verdict  for  Mr.  Cumming  February  10,  1837 

Of  James  Greenacre  and  Sarah  Gale,  for  the  murder  of  Hannah  Browne :  Grcenacre 

convicted  and  himged  ;  Gale  transported  April  10,  1837 

Of  Francis  Hastings  Medhurst,  esq.,  for  killing  Mr.  Joseph  Alsop ;  guilty      .      April  13,  1839 
Of  Bolam,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Millie ;  verdict,  manslaughter  ,         .       July  30,  1839 

Of  rev.  Mr.  Stephens,  at  Chester,  for  inflammatory  language    .        .         .       August  15,  1839 
Of  John  Frost,  an  ex-magistrate,  and  others,  on  a  charge  of  high  treason ;  guilty :  sentence 

commuted  to  transportation  (see  Aeurport) December  31,  1839 

Of  Courvoisier,  for  the  murder  of  lord  William  Russell ;  hanged  .         June  18,  20,  1840 

Of  Gould,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Templeman ;  transported       .         .         .  June  22,  1840 

Of  Edward  Oxford,  charged  with  attempting  the  life  of  the  queen  ;  adjudged  insane, 

and  confined  in  Bethlehem-hospital  (see  Oxford)       ....  July  9, 10,  1840 

Of  prince  Louis  Napoleon,  for  his  descent  upon  France  (see  France)  .       October  6,  1840 

Of  captain  R.  A.  Reynolds,  11th  hussars,  by  court-martial ;  guilty :  the  sentence  excited 

great  popular  displeasure  against  his  colonel,  lord  Cardigan       .         .  October  20,  1840 

Of  lord  Cardigan,  before  the  house  of  peers,  capitally  charged  for  wounding  captain 

Harvey  Tuckett,  in  a  du^i  acquitted February  16,  1841 

Of  the  earl  of  Waldegrave  and  captain  Duff,  for  an  aggravated  assault  on  a  police  con-| 
stable;  guilty,  six  months'  imprisonment,  and  fines  of  2002.,  and  201. ;  judgment.  May  3,  1841 

TRIBUNES  OF  THE  PEOPLE.  Tribuni  Plebis,  Magistrates  of  Rome,  first  chosen 
from  among  the  commons  to  represent  the  people,  492  b.c.,  at  the  time  the  people, 
after  a  quarrel  with  the  senators,  had  retired  to  Mons  Sacer.  The  first  two 
were  C.  Licinias,  and  L.  Albinus  ;  but  their  number  was  soon  after  raised  to  five, 
and  37  years  after  to  ten,  which  remained  fixed.  Their  office  was  annual,  and  as 
the  first  had  been  created  on  the  4th  of  the  ides  of  December,  that  day  was  ever 
after  chosen  for  the  election. 

TRICHINOPOLI,  East  Indies,  Siege  of,  from  1751  to  1755.  Blown  up  by  the 
magazine  of  gunpowder  taking  fire  :  300  of  the  inhabitants  lost  their  lives ;  340,000' 
ball-cartridges  were  destroyed  ;  and  the  whole  foundation  shaken,  1772. 

TRIENNIAL  PARLIAMENTS.  Parliaments  every  three  years  were  established 
shortly  after  the  period  of  the  Revolution.  The  bill  for  the  triennial  assembling  of 
parliament  was  passed  6  William  and  Mary,  1694.  This  act  was  repealed,  and 
septennial  parliaments  were  voted,  which  have  ever  since  continued,  1  George  I., 
1715.    See  Parliaments, 

TRINCOMALEE.  Reckoned  the  finest  harbour  in  the  East  Indies.  Trincomalee  was 
taken  from  the  Dutch,  by  the  English,  in  1782 ;  it  was  retaken  by  the  French  the 
same  year;  but  was  restored  to  the  Dutch  by  the  peace  of  1783.  It  surrendered 
to  the  British,  under  colonel  Stewart,  August  26,  1/95,  and  was  confirmed  to  Eng- 
land by  the  peace  of  Amiens,  in  1802.     See  Ceylon. 

TRINIDAD.  This  island  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  14^8,  and  was  taken  from 
the  Spaniards  by  sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1595  ;  but  the  French  took  it  from  the 


TRI  [  518  ]  TRO 

Eogliah  in  1676.  Taken  by  the  British,  with  four  ships  of  the  line,  and  a  military 
force  under  command  of  sir  Ralph  Abercrombie,  to  whom  the  island  capitulated, 
Feb.  21, 1797  :  they  captured  two,  and  burnt  duree  Spanish  ships  of  war  in  the 
harbour.  This  possession  was  confirmed  to  England  by  the  peace  of  Amiens  in 
1802.    The  insurrection  of  the  negroes  occurred  January  4, 1832.  See  Colonies. 

TRINITY  AND  TRINITARIANS.  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  generally  leceired 
by  all  Christians.  Theophilus,  bishop  of  Antioch,  who  flourished  in  the  second 
century,  the  first  who  used  the  term  Trinity*  to  express  the  three  sacred  persons  in 
the  Godhead.  His  Defence  of  Christianity  was  edited  by  Gesner,  at  Zurich,  in 
1M6. —  Watkins,  An  order  of  the  Trinity  was  founded,  a.d.  1198,  by  John  de 
Matha  and  Felix  de  Valois.  The  Trinity  finitemity,  originally  of  fifteen  persons, 
was  instituted  at  Rome  by  St.  Philip  Neri,  in  1548.  The  act  to  exempt  from 
penalties  persons  denying  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  passed  in  1813. 

TRINITY  COLLEGES.  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  was  founded  by  Henry  VIII 
1546.  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  was  founded  by  William  Bateman,  bishop  c 
Norwich  (see  Cambridge)^  in  1351.  Trinity  College,  Oxford  :  founded  by  si: 
Thomas  Pope,  1554  (see  Oxford),  Trinity  College,  Dublin:  grant  of  the 
Aagustine  monastery  of  All  Saints  within  tiie  suburbs  for  erecting  this  college, 
conferred  by  queen  Elizabeth,  1591.  First  stone  laid  by  Thomas  Smith,  mayor  of 
Dublin,  January  1,  1593.  New  charter,  1637.  Made  a  barrack  for  soldiers,  16S9. 
— Burns,    The  principal  or  west  front  erected,  1759.     Library  erected,  1732. 

TRINITY  HOUSE,  London.  Founded  by  sur  Thomas  Spert,  a.d.  1512.  Itw»s 
incorporated  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1514,  and  re-incorporated  in  1685.  The  present 
Trinity-house  was  erected  in  1795.  Trinity  Houses  were  founded  at  Deptford, 
at  Hull,  and  at  Newcastle  :  these  three  societies  were  instituted  and  incorporated  by 
Henry  VIII.,  the  first  in  1512,  the  other  two  in  1537.  By  their  charter  they  imi 
the  power  of  examining,  licensing,  and  regulating  pilots,  and  of  erecting  beacoot 
and  lighthouses,  and  of  placing  buoys  in  the  channels  and  rivers  :  their  powers  and 
privileges  have  been  greatly  augmented  by  succeeding  kings. — GibsorCs  Camden. 

TRINITY  SUNDAY.  The  festival  of  the  Holy  Trinity  was  instituted  by  pope 
Gregory  IV.  in  828,  on  his  ascending  the  papal  chair,  and  is  observed  by  the  Latit 
and  Protestant  churches  on  the  Sunday  next  following  Pentecost  or  Whitsuntide,  i 
which,  originally,  it  was  merely  an  Octave.  The  observance  of  the  festival  wfi 
first  enjoined  in  the  council  of  Aries,  1260.  It  was  appointed  to  be  held  on  tbe 
present  day  by  pope  John  XX.  in  1334. 

TRIPLE  ALLIANCE.  This  celebrated  treaty  of  alliance  was  ratified  between  the 
States- General  and  England,  against  France,  for  the  protection  of  the  Spui^o 
Netherlands ;  Sweden  ^terwards  joining  the  league,  it  was  known  as  the  T/ip>e 
Alliance,  January  28,  1668. 

TRIUMPHS.  The  triumph  was  a  solemn  honour  done  generals  of  armies  after  they 
had  won  great  victories,  by  receiving  them  into  the  town  with  great  magnificence 
and  public  acclamations.  Among  the  Romans  there  were  two  sorts — ^e  ^^ 
that  was  called  simply  the  triumph  ;  and  the  little,  styled  the  ovation.  They  also 
distinguish  triumphs  into  land  and  sea  triumphs,  accordingly  as  the  battles  vere 
fought.     See  Ovation. 

TRIUMVIRI.  Three  magistrates  appointed  equally  to  govern  the  Roman  state  with 
absolute  power.  These  officers  gave  a  fatal  blow  to  the  expiring  independence  oi 
the  Roman  people,  and  became  celebrated  for  their  different  pursuits,  their  ambi* 
tion,  and  their  various  fortunes.  The  first  triumvirate,  B.C.  60,  was  in  th^.^*?j 
of  Julius  Caesar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus,  who  at  the  expiration  of  their  office  kindled 
a  civil  war.  The  second  and  last  triumvirate,  B.C.  43,  was  under  Augustus,  Mw» 
Antony,  and  Lepidus,  through  whom  the  Romans  totally  lost  their  liberty.  AugQ^^ 
disagreed  with  his  colleagues,  and  after  he  had  defeated  them,  he  made  hiffiseu 
absolute  in  Rome.  The  triumvirate  was  in  full  force  at  Rome  for  about  twelte 
years.     See  Rome, 

TROPPAU,  Congress  of.  The  emperors  Francis  and  Alexander  of  Austria  aB*^ 
Russia  met  at  Troppau,  October  20.  The  conference  between  them  and  the  ^H 
of  Prussia,  against  Naples,  took  place  November  10  ;  and  the  congress  was  Jtoi' 
ferred  to  Laybach,  nearer  to  Italy,  Dec.  17, 1820.     Sec  Laybach,  Congress  of. 


TRO  [_  519  2  TUA 

TROUBADOURS  or  JONGLEURS.  They  first  appeared  in  the  ninth  century,  and 
were  so  ^icouraged  by  the  patronage  of  the  court  of  Poitou,  and  by  several  powerful 
princes,  that  they  spread  in  process  of  time  throughout  Europe.  They  cultivated 
poetry  and  music,  and  refinement  followed  in  their  steps,  greatly  improving  the  taste 
and  temper  of  the  times.    To  the  troubadours  we  owe  Latin  and  French  poetry. 

TROY.  The  history  of  Troas,  or  Phrygia  Minor,  is  at  best  but  obscure,  and  more 
particularly  so  in  times  prior  to  the  reign  of  Dardanus,  who  came  hither  from  Italy 
(or  Crete)  about  the  year  1506  b.c,  and  married  the  daughter  of  Xencer,  prince  of 
the  country,  whom  he  succeeded.  Dardanus  built  a  city,  and  named  it,  after  him- 
self, Dardania :  Troas,  the  second  in  succession  from  Dardanus,  changed  the  name 
to  Troy  ;  and  Ilus,  his  successor,  converted  it  into  Ilium. 

War  of  Hercules  and  Laomedon    .    b.c.  1224 
Reign  of  Priam,  or  Podarces      .         .    .  1224 
Rape  of  Helen,  by  Alexander  Paris,  son 
of  Priam,  20  years  before  the  sacking 
of  Troy. — Homer's  Iliad,  book  xxir., 
line  964,  Pope's  edit.  .        .         .  1204 

Commencement  of  the  invasion  of  the 

Greeks  to  recover  Helen  .         .    .  1193 

Troy  taken  and  burned  in  the  night  of 
the  11th  June,  t.  e.  23d  of  the  month 
Thargelion. — Parian  Marbles.  408 
years  before  the  first  Olympiad.— ^po{- 

lodorus 1184 

^neas  arrives  in  Italy.— Xen^^et        .    .1183 


Arrival  of  Scamander  in  Phrygia  Minor. 

—Blair  ....  b.c.  1.546 
Teucer  succeeds  his  father  .  .  .  1502 
Dardanus  succeeds  Teucer,  and  builds  the 

city  of  Dardania 1480 

Reign  of  Erictbonius  .         .         .  1449 

Reign  of  Troas,  from  whom  the  people 

are  called  Trojans  .         .        ...  1374 

The  rape  of  Ganymede  .        .        .  1341 

Hus,  son  of  Troas,  reigns  .         .    .  1314 

Reign  of  Lactmedon  ....  1260 
Arrival  of  Hercules  in  Phrygia;    He- 

sione  delivered  from  the  sea-monster. — 

Blair,  VsJier 1225 


Some  time  after  the  destruction  of  old  Troy,  a  new  city  was  built,  about  thirty  stadia 
distant  from  the  old  site ;  but  though  it  bore  the  same  name,  and  received  ample 
donations  from  Alexander  the  Great  in  his  Asiatic  expedition,  it  never  rose  to 
much  importance,  and  in  the  age  of  Strabo  was  nearly  in  ruins. — Priestley. 

TROY  WEIGHT.  The  Romans  left  their  ounce,  now  our  avoirdupois  ounce,  in 
Britain. — Arbuthnot.  The  present  ounce  of  this  weight  was  brought  from  Grand 
Cairo  into  Europe,  about  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  a.d.  1095.  It  was  first  adopted 
at  Troyes,  a  city  of  France,  whence  the  name ;  and  is  used  to  weigh  gold,  silver, 
and  precious  stones.  The  troy  weight,  Scots,  was  established  by  James  VI.  (our 
James  I.)  in  1618. 

TROYES,  Treaty  of,  between  England,  France,  and  Burgundy,  whereby  it  was 
stipulated  that  Henry  V.  should  marry  Catherine,  daughter  of  Charles  YI.,  be 
appointed  regent  of  France,  and  after  the  death  of  Charles  should  inherit  the  crown, 
May  24,  1420.  The  French  were  driven  from  Troyes  by  the  allied  armies,  Feb.  7 ; 
it  was  retaken  by  Napoleon,  Feb.  23 ;  and  was  finally  re-occupied  by  the  allies, 
March  4,  1814. 

TRUMPET.  Some  of  the  Greek  historians  ascribe  the  invention  of  the  trumpet  to 
the  Tyrrhenians,  and  others  to  the  Egyptians.  It  was  in  use  in  the  time  of  Homer, 
but  not  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war.  First  torches,  then  shells  of  fish,  sounded 
like  trumpets,  were  the  signals  in  primitive  wars. — Potter,  The  speaking-trumpet 
is  said  to  have  been  used  by  Alexander  the  Great  in  335  b.c.  Trumpets  were  first 
sounded  before  the  king  in  the  time  of  Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  a.d.  790.  Speaking- 
\  trumpets  were  improved  by  Kircher  in  1652.  Made  by  Salland,  1654.  Philoso- 
phically explained  by  Moreland,  1671. 

TRUMPET-FLOWER,  Bignonia  radicansy  was  brought  hither  from  North  America, 
about  1640.  The  Trumpet  Honeysuckle,  Lonicera  sempervirens,  came  from  North 
America  in  1656.  The  Bignonia  capensis  was  brought  to  England,  from  the  Cape, 
in  1823.  The  Large-flowered  Trumpet-flower,  or  Bignonia  grandijiora^  was 
brought  from  China  in  1800. 

TUAM,  Archbishopric  of.  St.  Jarlath,  the  son  of  Loga,  who  sat  in  a.d.  501,  is 
looked  upon  as  the  first  founder  of  the  cathedral  of  Tuam,  though  the  abbey  is  said 
to  have  been  founded  in  487.  The  church  was  anciently  called  Tuaim'da-GueUand. 
In  the  year  1151,  Edan  O'Hoisin  was  the  first  archbishop,  at  least  the  first  who 
had  the  use  of  the  pall,  for  some  of  his  predecessors  are  sometimes  called  bishops  of 
Connaught,  and  sometimes  archbishops,  by  Irish  historians.  The  see  of  Mayo  was 
annexed  to  Tuam  in  1559.     This  arch-see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books,  by  an 


TrE  [[  520  ]]  TDR 

extent  retained  oitMo  28  EUxabeth,  at  50/.  sterling  per  anniun. — Beatson. 
ceMed  to  be  arduepiacopel,  oonformably  with  the  statute  3  and  4  William  IT 
1833,  and  is  now  a  bishopric  only.    See  ArehbUhopg, 

TUESDAY.  The  third  day  of  the  week,  so  called,  as  is  supposed,  from  Turn, 
THw,  a  Saxon  deity,  that  was  particolarly  worshipped  on  this  day.  Tuesday « 
called  the  third  day  among  the  Jews.     See  Week  Days, 

TUILERIES,  Pabis.  One  of  the  royal  palaces  of  that  city,  commenced  by  Catbas 
de  Medici,  after  the  plans  of  Philibert  de  Lorme,  a.d.  1564  ;  continued  by  Hei 
IV. ;  and  finished  by  Louis  XIV.  This  palace  was  the  scene  of  great  events  doi 
the  two  memorable  rcTolutions. 

TULIPS.  Tbey  came  to  England  from  Vienna,  a.d.  1578,  and  have  always  b 
among  our  most  esteemed  flowers.  It  is  recorded  in  the  register  of  the  cit 
Alcmaer,  in  HolUnd,  that  in  the  year  1639,  120  tulips,  with  the  offsets,  sold 
90,000  florins ;  and  in  particular,  that  one  of  them,  called  the  viceroy t  soldfoH 
guilders !  The  States  at  last  put  a  stop  to  this  extravagant  and  ruinous  passion 
flowers.  The  tnlip-tree,  Liriodendran  iulipifera,  was  brought  to  these  realms  ii 
North  America,  about  1663. 

TUNBRIDGE-WELLS.  The  celebrated  springs  here  were  first  discovered  byDsi 
lord  North,  who  had  retired  into  the  neighbourhood  in  the  last  stage  of  consmoptii 
and  became  perfectly  restored  to  health  by  the  use  of  its  waters,  a.d.  1606. 

TUNIS  AND  TRIPOLI.  The  former  stands  near  where  Carthage  was  built? 
territories  of  both  formed  part  of  the  celebrated  Carthaginian  state,  and  were enti'^ 
destroyed  by  the  Romans  after  the  third  Punic  war,  148  b.c.  Besieged  by  L:i 
IX.  of  France,  1270.  It  remained  under  African  kings  till  taken  bjBarM 
under  Solyman  the  Magnificent.  Barbarossa  was  expelled  by  Charles  \.'M^ 
country  was  recovered  by  the  Turks,  under  Selim  II.  Taken,  with  great  slaof^^ 
by  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  when  10,000  Christian  slaves  were  set  at  liberty,  1^^ 
The  bey  of  Tunis  was  first  appointed  in  1570.  Tunis  was  reduced  by  adc: 
Blake,  on  the  bey  refusing  to  deliver  up  the  British  captives,  1656. 

TUNNELS.  The  earliest  tunnel  for  the  purpose  of  internal  navigation  was  exec^ 
by  M.  Riguet,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  at  Bezi^res,  in  France.  The  £i^' 
England  was  by  Mr.  Brindley,  on  the  duke  of  Bridgewater*s  navigation,  near  Mi 
Chester,  about  1 760.  Mn  of  the  Gravesend  tunnel,  1800 — the  report  upon  it,  ^^ 
The  Thames  tunnel  projected  by  Mr.  Brunei  in  1823.     See  Thames  Tunnel 

TURBAN.  The  head-dress  of  many  of  the  Eastern  nations,  consisting  of  tvof^' 
cap  and  a  sash,  the  latter  artfully  wreathed  about  the  head.  The  sash  of  theTsn^ 
turban  is  white  linen ;  that  of  the  Persians,  red  woollen.  These  are  the  distjif'^ 
ing  marks  of  their  different  religions.  Sophi,  king  of  Persia,  being  of  tbei<^ 
All,  was  the  first  who  assumed  the  red  colour,  to  distinguish  Mmself  ft^-'' 
Turks,  who  are  of  the  sect  of  Omar. 

TURIN.  The  French  besieged  this  city  in  1706  ;  but  prince  Eugene  def&ttei^^ 
army,  and  compelled  them  to  raise  the  siege.  In  1798,  the  French  repubU»n«J 
took  possession  of  Turin,  seized  all  the  strong  places  and  arsenals  of  Piedmont, 
obliged  the  king  and  his  family  to  remove  to  the  island  of  Sardinia.  In  1^^' 
French  were  driven  out  by  the  Austrians  and  Russians  ;  but  shortly  afterffards 
city  and  all  Piedmont  surrendered  to  the  French.  In  1814,  it  was  delivered  up 
the  allies,  when  they  restored  it  to  the  king  of  Sardinia. 

TURKEY.     The  Turks  themselves  were  originally  a  tribe  of  Tartars  ;  batbyr««^j 
of  the  number  of  people  whom  they  conquered,  and  with  whom  they  became  id 
porated,  the  modern  Turks  must  be  regarded  as  a  mixture  of  many  races  of  men. 

The  Turkish  empire  first  formed  under  ^^ 


Birth  of  Mahomet,  the  prophet,  at  Mecca 

(see  Mecca)  .         .         .        a.d.    571 

His  imposture  commenced  (see  Maho- 

metanism) 604 

The  Koran  written  (see  Koran)  .    .    610 

Flight  to  Medina  (see  Medina)       .         .    622 
MrsL  of  the  13ie^T&  (see  Hegira)  .    .    622 

Death  of  Mahomet  .        .         .631 

Holy  wars  begin  (see  Crusades)  .    .  1095 


Othman  at  Bithynia  ,' 

The  Turks  penetrate  into  Thrace,  an"  ^^ 

take  Adrianople  .       •    , '  ' 

Amurath  L  institutes  the  Jan'*^**L 

guard  composed  of  Christian  8Uit»  ^ 

bred  Mahometans     .  '/^ 

Bajazet  I.  overruns  the  provinceew^  ^^  , 
Eastern  empire         .       .  ■  ^*o. 


TUR 


[521] 


TUR 


TURKEY,  continued. 

He  lays  siege  to  Constantinople ;  but  is 
at  length  taken  by  Tamerlane  (see 
Tamerlane) 

The  Turks  invading  Hungary,  are  repelled 
*  byHuniades 

Constantinople  taken  by  the  Turks  un- 
der Mahomet  II.,  which  ends  the 
Eastern  Roman  empire 

Greece  made  subject  to  the  Mahometans 
(see  Oreece)  .        .        .        .    . 

The  Turks  penetrate  into  Italy,  and  take 
Otrsnto,  which  diffuses  terror  through- 
out Europe        

Selim  I.  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  Ja- 
nissaries :  he  murders  his  father,  bro- 
thers, and  their  sons      .        .        .    . 

He  takes  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago 
from  the  Christians 

He  overruns  Syria  .        .        .    . 

Adds  Egypt  to  his  empire 

Solyman  n.  takes  Belgrade        .        .    . 

Rhodes  taken  from  the  knights  of  St. 
John,  who  go  to  Malta 

Battle  of  Mohatz  {which  tee)     ;         .    • 

Solyman  IL,  with  250,000  men,  is  repulsed 
before  Vienna  .... 

Cjrprus  taken  from  the  Tenetians      •    . 

Great  battle  of  Lepanto,  which  puts  an 
end  to  the  fears  of  Europe  from  Turkish 
power  (see  Lepanto) 

Amurath  IL  ascends  the  throne ;  stran- 
gles his  five  brothers  .        .    . 

[Dreadful  persecutions  of  the  Christians 
during  this  reign.] 

The  Turks  driven  out  of  Persia  by  the 
famous  Schah  Abbas 

Bloody  reign  of  Mahomet  HL     .        .    . 

Reign  of  Achmet  L       .... 

Great  fire  in  Constantinople       .         .    . 

Reign  of  Amurath  IV.,  who  strangles  his 
father  and  four  brothers     . 

The  Turks  defeat  the  Persians,  and  take 
the  city  of  Bagdad  .         .    . 

The  island  of  Candia,  or  Crete,  taken 
after  a  25  years' siege 

Vienna  besieged  by  Mahomet  IV.,  but 
relieved  by  John  of  Poland     .         .    . 

Mahomet  IV.  deposed  by  Solyman 

Peace  of  Carlovitz  .         .         .    . 

Mustapha  III.  deposed 

The  Morea  retaken  by  the  Turks        .    . 

Belgrade  taken  from  Austria ;  and  Russia 
relinquishes  Azof       .... 

Great  sea-fight  in  the  channel  of  Scio ; 
the  English  and  Russian  fleets  defeat 
the  Turkish  

The  Crimea  falls  to  Russia    .        .  Jan. 

Cession  of  Oczacow  .         .        .    . 

[This  ends  the  disastrous  war  with  Russia 
and  Austria  (b^un  in  1787)  >  the  Turks 
having  lost  more  than  200,000  men.^ 
Ashe."] 

War  against  Russia       .  Dec.  90,  1806 

Passage  and  repassage  of  the  Dardanelles 
effected  by  the  British  fleet,  but  with 
great  loss  (see  Dardanelles)      Feb.  19,  1807 

Murder  of  Hali  Aga      .        .      May  25,  1807 

The  sultan  Sclim  is  deposed  and  mur- 


1403 


1450 


1453 


1458 


1480 


1512 

1.514 
1515 
1516 
1521 

1522 
1526 

1529 
1571 


1571 
1574 


1585 
1595 
1603 
1606 

1624 

1639 

1669 

1683 
1687 
1699 
1703 
1715 

1739 


1770 
1783 
1791 


dered,  and  Mustapha  IV,  called  to  the 
throne        ....    May  29,  1807 

Treaty  of  Bucharest  {tohich  tee)  May  28,  1812 

A  caravan,  consisting  of  2000  souls,  re- 
turning from  Mecca,  destroyed  by  a 
pestilential  wind  in  the  deserts  of 
Arabia ;  20  only  were  saved      Aug.  9,  1812 

Subjection  of  the  Wachabees         .        .  1819 

Ali  Pacha  of  Janina,  in  Greece,  declares 
himself  independent       .        .        .    .  1820 

Insurrection  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 

March  6,  1821 

The  Greek  patriarch  put  to  death  at 
Constantinople  .         .    April  23,  1821 

Horrible  massacre  at  Scio ;  the  most 
dreadful  in  modem  history  (see  note 
to  Greece)  .        .  April  23,  1822 

Sea-fight  near  Mitylene         .        Oct.  6,  1824 

New  Mahometan  army  announced  to  be 
organised    ....    May  29,  1826 

Insurrection  of  the  Janissaries  at  Con- 
stantinople    .         .        .        June  14,  1826 

Firman  of  the  sultan  abolishing  the  Ja- 
nissaries .         .         .     June  16,  1826 

Fire  at  Constantinople ;  6000  houses  re- 
duced to  ashes        .         .    August  30,  1826 

Battle  of  Navarino ;  the  Turkish  fleet  de- 
stroyed by  the  fleetsof  England,  France 
and  Russia  (see  Navarino)    .   Oct.  20, 

Banishment  of  132  French,  120  English, 
and  85  Russian  settlers,  from  the 
Turkish  empire  •        January  5, 


1827 


1828 


takes 


April  26,  1828 

the  field 
May  20,  1828 
June  19,  1828 
June  23,  1828 


War  with  Russia 

The  emperor  Nicholas 

against  the  Turks 
Capitulation  of  Brahilow 
Surrender  of  Anappa 
The  eminences  of  Shumla  taken  by  the 

Russians         .         .  July  20,  1828 

The   Russian  emperor  arrives  before 

Varna  ....  Aug.  5,  1828 
Battle  of  Akhalzic     .  Aug.  24,  1828 

Fortress  of  Bajazet  taken         .    Sept.  9,  1828 
The  sultto  leaves  his  capital  for  the 

camp,  bearing  with  him  the  sacred 

standard  .        .        .    Sept.  26,  182 

Dardanelles  blockaded        .  Oct.  1,  1828 

Surrender  of  Varna        .         .      Oct.  15,  1828 
Russians  retreat  from  before  Schumla, 

October  16,  1828 
Surrender  of  the  castle  of  the  Morea  to 

the  French    .        .         .  Oct.  30,  1828 

Siege  of  Silistria  raised  by  the  Russians 

November  10,  1828 
Victory  of  the  Russians  at  Kulertscha, 

near  Shumla  .  .  June  11,  1829 
Battle  near  Erzeroum  .  .  July  2,  1829 
Adrianople  is  entered  by  the  Russian 

troops  .        .         .         Aug.  20,  1829 

Armistice  between  the  Russian  and 

Turkish  armies  .  .  Aug.  29,  1829 
Treaty  of  peace  .  .  Sept.  14,  1829 
Fire  at  Constantinople ;  extinguished  by 

the  seamen  and  marines  of  H.  M.  6. 

Blonde  .         .         .       Jan.  22,  1830 

Treaty  with  America       .         .    May  7,  1830 
St.  Jean  d'Acre taken  by  Ibraham  Pacha, 

son  of  Mehemet  Ali  .         July  2,  1832 


TUR 


f  522  2 


TUB 


TURKEY,  eomHntud. 

He  Jefaati  tbe  army  of  Um  Miltaii  in  ^j- 
vte,  with  srau  loa  .    Jnlyao,  183S 

MriflB  of  monMM  tetags  tte  amy  of 
Ibrahim  Fafdia  within  eighty  leasues 
of  Cottitantinfi^le,  and  the  sultan  has 
reeomae  to  the  aid  of  Rnaria    .     Jan.  1833 

A  Roflrfan  foroe  ontera  the  Tnridah  ca- 
pital       ....       Aprils,  1833 


l^eaty  wi0i  RBaBia»  ofEteBBfre  sod  de- 
fensive ....    Jnlj8,IC 

Ofitoe  of  grand  viaier  ahcdiBhed  \ij  tbe 
sultan  .         .        .    Marcfa%,l& 

Treaty  of  oommerce  with  England,  con- 
cluded by  Mr.  Bulwer,  ratified.  Not.  16,  IK 

For  tile  events  of  1839  and  1840  inn- 
lation  to  Syria,  see  Syria. 


TUaSIBH  KMPKRORS. 


]296.  Onman*  OF  Ottonian  L 
132a.  Orcham,  his  youngest  son. 
ISOBl  Amnmth  L,  his  son; 
1388.  Bajaaot  L»  his  son;  died  in  prison. 
13B7.  Isa  Bells:  hiUed  by  his  brother. 
1403.  Solyman  ;  kllled  by  his  brother. 
1410.  Mum  ;  strangled  by  his  brother. 
1413.  Mahomet  L ;  snooeeded  by  his  son. 
1421.  Amurath  IL ;  snooeeded  by  his  son. 
1451.  Mahomet  IL ;  left  the  cmpbe  to  his 

two  sons. 
1481.  Cortaous,  his  giandaon ;  ■noceeded  by 

his  tether. 
1481.  Xemin ;  obliged  to  abdicate  in  fftvoor  of 

his  brother. 
1481.  Iligaactll.;  deposed  by  his  ion. 
1A19.  Belim  ;  suooeeded  by  his  son. 
IfiSO.  Solyman  the  Magnificent. 
IMS.  Belim  II. ;  suooeeded  by  his  son. 
Iff74.  Amurath  III. ;  suooeeded  by  his  son. 
IB05.  Mahomet  III. ;  suooeeded  by  his  son. 
1604.  Acfamet ;  suooeeded  by  his  brother. 


1617.  Osman  L ;  strangled  by  the  itmsr^ 

and  his  unde  restored. 
1682.  Mustapha  I. ;  again  deposed,  and  slj 

oeeded  by  his  grandson.  J 

162&  Amurath  IV. ;  suooeeded  by  hisbftiN 
1640.  Ibrahim,  strangled  by  the  Janissariej 

succeeded  by  hifl  scm. 
1655.  Mahomet  TV^  deposed;  sacceeded' 

his  brother. 
1687.  Solyman  UL  ;  succeeded  by  his  brotls 
1691.  Achmet  U. ;  succeeded  by  hisnep^ 
lans.  Mustapha  IL,  ddest  son  of  lbl>c:s 

rv.,  deposed  and  sooceeded  bj - 

brother. 
17ra.  Achmet  UL ;  deposed. 
1730.  Mahomet  V. ;  succeeded  by  his  Wi* 
1754.  Osman  IL  ;  succeeded  by  bisbrotbff 
1767.  Mustaphain.;  succeeded  bybisbni^ 
1774.  Abelhamet,  or  Adtuiet  IV. 
178d.  Selim  IIL 

1807.  Mustapha  IV. 

1808.  Mah.  Khan  n 
1838.  Abdul-Medjid,  June  27. 


1617«  Mustapha  I. ;  succeeded  by  his  nephew. 

TURKEY  TRADE.    This  trade,  one  of  the  most  lucrative  at  the  time,  uidfot^ 
afterwards,  to  England,  commenced  in  1550.     The  Turkey  or  Iicvant  compaoj 
London  was  instituted  by  charter  of  Elizabeth,  in  1579. — Anderson, 

TURKEYS  AND  GUINEA  FOWLS.  First  brought  to  England  a.d.  1523,  and 
France  in  1570.  Turkeys  are  natives  of  America,  and  were,  consequently,  anla»«" 
to  the  ancients.  Mr.  Pennant  has  established  this  fact  by  various  particulars  lo  ^ 
history  of  these  birds ;  evincing  that  they  are  natives  neither  of  Europe,  A^ jf^ 
Africa ;  a  circumstance  since  placed  beyond  controversy,  by  the  researches  d/^ 
Beckmann.  Wild  turkeys  are  met  with  in  flocks  of  some  thousands  in  parts  iit 
new  world. — Smyth, 

TURNING.  According  to  Pliny  this  art  was  known  to  the  ancients,  by  whom  ij«^ 
of  wood,  ivory,  iron,  and  gold  were  formed.  The  precious  vases,  ennchd  ^ 
figures  in  half  relief,  which  at  this  day  adorn  the  cabinets  of  the  &°^^^^ 
curious,  were  produced  by  turning.  The  lathes  made  for  turnery  in  ^"^^fu; 
many  of  them,  wonderful  in  their  machinery ;  and  in  some  of  our  dock-yari^. 
and  other  materials  for  our  ships  of  war  are  now  produced  by  an  almost  is^ 
taneous  process,  from  rough  pieces  of  oak,  by  the  machinery  of  Mr.  Brunei. 

TURNPIKES.    See  Tolls,    Turnpike-gates  for  exacting  tolls,  which  were  o^^ 
previously  collected,  were  set  up  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  1663. — C"^ 
The  statutes  relating  to  turnpike-roads  are  very  numerous. 

TURPENTINE  TREE,  Pistaoia  Terebinihinus,  came  from  Barbary,  before  i^ 
Spirits  of  turpentine  were  first  applied,  with  success,  to  the  rot  in  sheep  '•  ^^ 
of  the  spirit  diluted  with  two-thirds  water,  1772. — Annual  Register, 

TUSCANY.    This  country  was  created  into  a  dukedom,  a.d.  1530.     It  came  into^j 

Austrian  family  in  1737.    It  was  seized  by  the  French  in  March  1799.    FerdiBw 

IV.,  the  grand-duke,  was  dispossessed  by  France,  and  his  dominions  given  ^^*^^^ 

,  son  of  the  king  of  Spain,  with  the  title  of  king  of  Etruria,  February  26, 18"*- 


died  June  30,  1803  ;  and  soon  afterwards  this  state  was  transformed  ^^^  iLL 


dage  to  the  crown  of  Italy ;  but  was  restored  to  Austria  in 
grand-duke  Leopold  II.  ascended  June  18,  1824. 


1814.    Thepr 


TWE  [  523  ]  UMB 

TWBLFTH-DAY.  The  church- festival  called  the  Epiphany,  or  manifestation  of 
Christ  to  the  Gentiles.  See  Epiphany,  The  custom  of  drawing  king  and  queen 
on,  this  day  was  borrowed  from  the  Greeks  and  RomanSr  who,  on  the  tabernacle,  or 
Christmas  festivals,  drew  lots  for  kings,  by  putting  a  piece  of  money  in  the  middle 
of  a  cake,  which  whoever  found,  was  saluted  as  king. 

TYBURN.  The  ancient  place  in  London  for  the  execution  of  malefactors.  Formerly 
Oxford-road,  now  Oxford-street,  had  trees  and  hedges  on  both  sides  ;  and  beyond, 
all  was  country,  both  northward  and  westward  :  at  the  west-end  of  Oxford-road 
Tyburn  turnpike  stood.  In  1778,  a  German  writer,  describing  the  metropolis,  and 
speaking  of  Tyburn,  the  place  for  executing  criminals  at  that  time,  mentions  it  as 
being  **  distant  from  London  about  two  English  miles.'' 

TYLER,  WAT,  his  Insurrection.  It  arose  in  the  opposition  of  the  people  to  the 
poll-tax,  which  was  levied  in  1378.  Owing  to  the  indecent  rudeness  of  one  of  the 
collectors  to  Tyler's  daughter,  with  a  view  to  proTe  her  of  sufficient  age  (fifteen)  to 
pay  the  tax  (Tyler  striking  him  dead  for  the  offence),  the  provoked  populace 
gathered  upon  Blackheath  to  the  number  of  100,000  men.  The  king,  Richard  II., 
invited  Tyler  to  a  parley  at  Smithfield,  where  the  latter  addressed  the  king  in  a 
somewhat  menacing  manner,  now  and  again  lifting  up  his  sword.  His  insolence 
raised  the  indignation  of  the  mayor,  Walworth,  who  stunned  Tyler  with  a  blow  of 
his  mace,  and  one  of  the  knights  attending  the  king  despatched  him.  The  death  of 
their  leader  awed  the  multitude,  to  whom  Richard  promised  a  charter,  and  they 
dispersed,  1381. 

TYRE.  This  great  city  was  first  built  by  Agenor.  Another  city  was  built  1257  B.C. 
It  was  besieged  by  the  Assyrians,  719  b.c,  and  they  retired  from  before  it,  after  a 
siege  of  upwards  of  five  years,  713  b.c.  Taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  572  b.c,  and 
the  city  demolished,  when  the  Tyrians  removed  to  an  opposite  island,  and  built  a 
new  and  magnificent  city.  It  was  taken  by  Alexander  witli  much  difficulty,  and  only 
after  he  had  joined  the  island  to  the  continent  by  a  mole,  after  a  siege  of  seven 
months,  Aug.  20,  332  b.c — Strabo.  Two  of  the  most  atrocious  acts  in  the  history 
of  human  crimes  were  the  siege  and  destruction  of  Tyre  by  Alexander,  and  of  Jeru- 
salem by  Titus.  Histories  which  laud  such  monsters  ought  to  be  consigned  to  the 
flames. — Phillips. 

TYRE,  Era  of.  Began  on  the  19th  of  October,  125  b.c,  with  the  month  Hyper- 
beretseus.  The  months  were  the  same  as  those  used  in  the  Grecian  era,  and  the 
year  is  similar  to  the  Julian  year.  To  reduce  this  era  to  ours,  subtract  124 ;  and  if 
the  given  year  be  less  than  125,  deduct  it  from  125,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the 
year  before  Christ. 

U. 

UBIQUARIANS.  A  sect  of  Lutherans  which  arose  and  spread  through  Germany 
and  other  countries,  and  who  believed  the  natural  body  of  Christ  to  be  everywhere 
present.    This  sect  arose  under  Brentius,  about  a.d.  1540. 

UKRAINE.  The  name  signifies  a  frontier.  By  a  treaty  between  Russia  and  Poland, 
these  states  divided  the  Ukraine  in  1693.  Poland  having  the  west  side  of  the 
Dnieper,  and  Russia  the  east.  But  the  whole  country  (the  borders  of  Poland, 
Russia,  and  Little  Tartary)  was  assigned  to  Russia  by  the  treaty  of  Partition  in  1795. 

ULM,  Peace  or,  by  which  Frederick  V.  lost  Bohemia  (having  been  driven  from  it 
previously),  July  3,  1620.  Ulm  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1796.  Great  battle 
between  the  French  and  Austrians,  in  which  the  latter,  under  general  Mack,  were 
defeated  with  dreadful  loss,  by  marshal  Ney,  whose  victory  was  consummated  by  the 
surrender  of  Ulm,  and  36,000  men,  the  flower  of  the  Austrian  army,  Oct.  17, 19, 
1805.  From  this  time  the  ruin  of  the  confederates,  and  grandeur  and  power  of 
Napoleon,  had  their  date. 

UMBRELLA.  Described  in  early  dictionaries  as  "  a  portable  pent-house  to  carry  in  a 
person's  hand  to  screen  him  from  violent  rain  or  heat."  Umbrellas  are  very  ancient : 
it  appears,  by  the  carvings  at  Persepolis,  that  umbrellas  were  used  at  very  remote 
periods  by  the  Eastern  princes.  Niebuhr,  who  visited  the  southern  part  of  Arabia, 
informs  us  that  he  saw  a  great  prince  of  that  country  returning  from  a  mosque, 
preceded  by  some  hundreds  of  soldiers,  and  that  he  and  each  of  the  princes  of  his 


■ -  -  -         ■" 

UNC  Q  524  ]  UNI 

nmiieroiii  family  cansed'a  lai^ge  umbrella  to  be  carried  by  his  side.  The  old  dust 
ware  in  our  pantries  and  cupboards  show  the  Chinese  shaded  by  an  umbrelk.  ltL« 
said  that  the  first  person  who  used  an  umbrella  in  the  streets  of  London  wsstl^ 
benevolent  Jonas  Hanway,  who  died  in  1786  *. 

UNCTION,  EXTREME.  Unction  was  frequent  among  the  Jews.  At  their  ieaSL 
and  other  times  of  rejoicing,  they  anointed  sometimes  their  whole  body,  and  at  oti» 
times  their  head  or  feet  only:  their  kings  and  high  priests  were  anointed  at  tkir 
inauguration ;  they  also  anointed  the  Teasels  of  the  temple  to  consecrate  them.  Nur^ 
of  the  emperorSy  it  is  said,  were  anointed  before  Justinian,  Aug.  1,  a.d.  527.  Aii 
religious  rite,  extreme  unction  was  in  common  use,  a.d.  550.  St.  Asaph  was  tk 
first  who  received  uoction  from  the  pope,  590. — Bayle.  It  is  administered  in  ^w. 
cases  as  extreme  unction.     See  Anointing, 

UNIFORMS.  Military  uniforms  were  first  used  in  France,  ''in  a  regular  manoer 
by  Louis  XIV*,  1668.  In  England  the  uniform  was  soon  afterwards  adopted.  I 
an  account  of  naval  uniforms,  see  Naval  Uniforms, 

UNIFORMITY,  Act  of.  An  Act  of  Uniformity  passed  1  Elizabeth,  1559.  fiot: 
statute  known  as  the  Act  of  Uniformity  was  passed  13  and  14  Charles  II.,  1661.. 
It  enjoined  uniformity  in  matten  of  religion,  and  obliged  all  clergy  to  subscribe' 
the  thirty-nine  articles,  and  use  the  same  form  of  worship,  and  same  book  of  m 
mon  prayer.  This  act  caused  upwards  of  2000  conscientious  ministers  to  quit  c: 
church  of  England,  and  take  their  lot  among  the  dissenters,  who  thereby  receiTeli^ 
large  an  addition  to  their  numbera  that  they  may  be  considered  as  tke  fathers  o!^ 
dissenting  interest. 

UNION  or  THE  CROWNS.  The  crowns  of  England  and  Scotland  were  umted 
the  accession  of  James  VI.  of  Scotiand  as  James  I.  of  England,  March  24, 1(^ 
The  legislative  union  of  the  two  kingdoms  was  attempted  in  1604,  but  the  pnjec 
failed.  It  was  again  attempted,  but  again  failed,  in  1670.  In  the  reign  of  Ano^' 
was  once  more  tried,  and  in  the  end  with  better  success.  Commissioners  vr 
appointed,  the  articles  discussed,  and,  notwithstanding  great  opposition  made  by  c-' 
tories,  every  article  in  the  union  was  approved  by  a  great  majority,  first  in  tbe  b»' 
of  commons,  and  afterwards  by  the  peera,  Joly  22, 1 706,  and  ratified  by  the  Scoi& 
parliament,  Jan.  16,  1707.     It  became  a  law,  May  1,  same  year. 

UNION  WITH  IRELAND.    The  Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  proF 
in  the  Irish  parliament,  Jan.  22, 1799.     Rejected  by  the  commons  of  IreMJ^ 
24,  the  Yotes  being  105  for,  to  106  against  the  union.  The  English  house  of  conuc^ 
on  the  same  question  divided,  140, 141,  and  149  for  the  union  ;  against  it, l^-' 
and  28,  respectively.     Lord  Castiereagh  detailed  his  plan  of  the  union,  in  tbel'^ 
house  of  lords,  founded  on  the  resolutions  of  the  British  parliament  thereon,  F^- 
1800.     Votes  of  the  commons  agreeing  to  it,  161  against  115,  Feb.  17  ;  ai><i«^ 
152  against  108,  Feb.  21.    Tbe  houses  of  lords  and  commons  wait  on  tbt^' 
lieutenant  with  the  articles  of  union,  March  27.    The  act  passed  in  tbe  Brr^^ 
parliament,  July  2,  1800.     The  imperial  united  standard  was  firat  displajeii  i^!^ 
Bedford  Tower,  Dublin  Castle,  in  consequence  of  the  act  of  legislative  union  becoi 
ing  an  operative  law,  Jan.  1,  1801. 

UNION  REPEAL  ASSOCIATION.    An  association  which  has  just  sprang  np' 

*  For  a  long  while  it  was  not  usnal  for  men  to  carry  them  without  incurring  the  brand  of  enai^ 
nacy.    At  first,  a  single  umbrella  seeaas  to  have  been  kept  at  a  coffee-house  fur  extraordi^ 
occasions—lent  as  a  coach  or  chair  in  a  heavy  shower,  but  not  commonly  carried  by  tbe  wbU^ 
The  Female  Taller  advertises  "  The  young  gentleman  belonging  to  the  Custom-house,  who,  in  fear 
rain,  borrowed  the  umbrella  from  Wilks's  Coffee-house,  shall  the  next  time  be  welcome  to  t^^*"^' 
pattens**    As  late  as  1778>  one  John  Maodonald,  a  footman,  who  wrote  his  own  life,  infonns  us.  ^ 
he  had  "  a  fine  silk  umbrella,  which  he  brought  from  Spain ;  but  he  could  not  with  any  ^^  .^ 
himself  use  it,  the  people  calling  out  *  Frenchman  I  why  don't  you  get  a  coach  ?' "    The  ^^^"^^^ 
hackney-coachmen  and  chairmen,  joining  with  the  true  esprit  de  corps,  ^ere  clamoroiuasvD^^ 
portentous  rival.    The  footman,  in  1778>  gives  us  some  farther  information.    "At  this  time.  u> 
were  no  umbrellas  worn  in  London,  except  in  noblemen's  and  gentlemen's  houses,  where  there    ' 
large  one  himg  in  the  hall  to  hold  over  a  lady  if  it  rained,  between  the  door  and  her  carriBge. 
man's  sister  was  compelled  to  quit  his  arm  one  day  from  the  abuse  he  drew  down  on  bimseu  an 
umbrella.    But  he  adds,  that  *♦  he  persisted  for  three  months,  till  they  took  no  further  ^^^^^^^^ 
novelty.    Foreigners  b^;an  to  use  theirs,  and  then  the  English.    Now  it  is  become  a  greats 
London."— i^Teto  Monthly  Magazine. 


UNI 


[525] 


UNI 


Ireland,  under  the  auspices  of  Mr.  O'Connell,  1840,  with  the  object  of  obtaining  a 
repeal  of  the  l^slative  union  between  the  two  countries.  A  simUar  association  was 
projected  by  Mr.  O'Connell  about  ten  years  previously,  when  a  proclamation  was 
issued  by  the  lord  lieutenant,  prohibiting  the  meetings  of  a  society  "  formed  for  the 
avowed  puipose  of  procuring  a  repeal  of  the  union,  under  the  name  of  the  Irish 
Society  for  Legal  and  Legislative  Relief,  or  the  Anti-Union  Society,"  Oct.  18, 1830. 

UNITARIANS.  This  sect  began  a.d.  1550.  The  Unitarians  believe  in  and  worship 
one  only  self-existent  God,  in  opposition  to  those  who,  besides  the  Father,  worship 
his  Son  Jesus.  They  arose  under  Servetus.  This  learned  man,  excited  by  the  dis- 
cussions of  the  reformers,  began  to  read  the  Scriptures,  and  conducted  his  researches 
with  so  firee  a  spirit,  that  he  printed  a  tract  in  disparagement  of  the  orthodox  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity.  In  1553,  proceeding  to  Naples  through  Geneva,  Calvin  indaced  the 
magistrates  to  arrest  him  on  a  charge  of  blasphemy  and  heresy ;  and  refusing  to 
retract  his  opinions,  he  was  condemned  to  the  flames,  which  sentence  was  carried 
into  execution,  Oct.  27,  1553.  Servetus  is  numbered  among  those  anatomists  who 
made  the  nearest  approach  to  the  doctrine  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  before 
Harvey  established  that  doctrine.    The  Unitarian  marriage  bill  was  passed  June  1827. 

UNITED  KINGDOM  or  GREA.T  BRITAIN  and  IRELAND.  The  British  realm 
was  so  named,  on  the  union  with  Ireland,  Jan.  1, 1801,  when  a  new  imperial  standard 
was  hoisted  on  the  Tower  of  London  and  Castle  of  Doblin.     See  Union, 

UNITED  PROVINCES.  Established  by  throwing  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  a.d.  1579, 
when  the  revolted  states,  with  William  prince  of  Orange  at  tbeir  head,  enter  into  a 
treaty  at  Utrecht,  for  their  mutual  defence,  and  appoint  the  prince  of  Orange  their 
stadtholder.  Their  independence  was  acknowledged  in  1609.  United  to  France  in 
1796.  Louis  Buonaparte  was  crowned  king  by  tiie  authority  of  Napoleon,  June  5, 
1806.  Louis  abdicated,  July  1,  1810.  Restored  to  the  house  of  Orange,  and 
Belgium  annexed,  Nov.  18,  1813.  Belgium  separated  from  Holland,  and  Leopold 
of  Saxe-Coburg  elected  king,  July  12,  1831.     See  Holland  and  Belgium, 

UNITED  STATES  of  AMERICA.  A  great  part  of  North  America  was  colonised 
by  British  subjects,  and,  till  the  late  disastrous  American  war,  formed  part  of  the 
British  empire.  The  first  colonists,  to  avoid  civil  and  religious  t3rranny,  fled  from 
the  cultivated  plains  of  England,  the  comforts  of  civilised  life,  and  the  stronger 
attachment  of  kindred  and  habits,  to  take  refuge  in  the  woods  and  marshes  of 
America.  The  revolted  provinces  from  the  sway  of  Great  Britain  were  first  styled 
the  United  States  by  a  resolution  of  congress,  Sept.  9, 1776.  Their  flag  was  declared 
to  be  thirteen  stripes  alternately  red  and  white,  and  thirteen  stars  in  a  blue  field, 
corresponding  with  the  then  number  of  states  of  the  union,  June  20,  1777.  The 
independence  of  the  United  States  was  acknowledged  by  France,  Feb.  6, 1778. 
Recognised  by  Holland,  April  19, 1782 ;  and  by  Great  Britain  in  the  treaty  of  Paris, 
Nov.  30,  same  year.     See  America. 


Act  of  the  British  parliament,  imposing 
new  and  heavy  duties  on  imported 
merchandise        .        .  March  11, 1764 

Obnoxious  stamp  act        .       March  22,  1765 

First  American  congress  held  at  New 
York         ....       June  7, 1765 

British  act,  levying  duties  on  tea,  paper, 
painted  glass,  &c.  .  June  14, 1767 

340  chests  of  tea  destroyed  by  the  popu- 
lace at  Boston,  and  17  chests  at  New 
York         ....  Nov.,  1773 

Boston  Port  BiU         .  March  25, 1774 

Deputies  from  the  States  meet  at  Phila- 
delphilk  .  Sept.  5,  1774 

First  action  between  the  British  and 
Americans,  at  Lexington    .    April  19, 1775 

Act  of  perpetual  union  between  the  States 

May  20, 1776 

George  Washington  appointed  oomman- 
der-in-chief         .  .  June  16, 1775 

America  declared  **  free,  sovereign,  and 
independent "...     July  4, 1776 


[For  the  various  actions  fought  with  the 
British,  see  Battles.'^ 

Surrender  of  lord  Comwallis  and  his 
whole  army  of  7000  men  to  generals 
Washington  and  Rochambeau,  at  York- 
town         ....        Oct.  19, 1781 

Arrival  of  sir  Guy  Carleton  to  treat 
for  peace        .        .        .  May  5, 1782 

Provisional  articles  signed  at  Paris  by 
commissioners         .         .         Nov.  30, 1782 

Definitive  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Paris 

Sept.  3,  1783 

Ratified  by  congress  .      Jan.  4, 1784 

John  Adams,  first  American  ambassador, 
had  his  first  Interview  with  the  king  of 
England         .         .         .  June  2,  1785 

New  American  constitution  proposed  to 
the  States       .        .        .        Sept.  17, 1787 

The  quakers  of  Philadelphia  emancipate 
their  slaves  Jan.  1, 1788 

New  government  for  the  States  organised 
at  New  York  .        .        March  4, 1789 


TM 


[626] 


UNI 


UNITED  STATES  or  AMERICA,  ctmOmmmL 


GcMral  WMhli««oa  dedaredtote  flnl 

April  C  I'tW 
tlM  OBpital  10,000.000 
ofdoUan  Jiiiie7.i7U 

Cbok*  oufteoC  Waahingtan  m  tlwcmpitel 
of  the  HUlM  Julj  8»  179S 

ll»«l«ctioii  of  g«Mna  W«Uiigtan  m 
prNtdcBt  lUrah4.]7»3 

II«  ffMifiu  tW  piwIiliULj      .     Beiit  17. 1796 

Mr.  AdanMclactod  Mareb  4. 1797 

Ommwl  WMhiBgtoo  dtaaamid  nnivenal 
•orrow  ....       Dec  14, 1799 

[The  Mat  of  gorenunent  now  raowTed 
to  WMhlngtoo.] 

AmeriottD  emlMrgo  laid  Dee.  9,  I9lfl 

War  witli  Ormt  BrHaln     .        June  18.  ItOS 

Aetioo  betweeu  the  Amartoan  riiip  dm- 
#lilMl<Mi  an*  the  Brttiah  fHgate  €hur- 
rierty  an  unequal  oonteat  (lee  Neufol 
BattUi)  Aug.  19, 1812 

FoH  Detroit  taken  Aug.  21, 1812 

The  Britiah  aloop  Frolic  taken  hy  the 
American  ship  Woip  Oct  18, 1812 

The  ship  United  States  of  54  guns,  great 
calibre  (commodore  Decatur),  captures 
the  Uritisb  frigate  If  a4;ed<mton,0ct.  25, 1812 

Battle  of  Prenchtown  Jan.  22, 1813 

The  Hornet  oapturea  the  Brltiah  doop  of 
war  Peacock  Feh.  25, 1813 

Fort  Erie  and  Fort  George  abandoned  by 
the  British  May  27, 1813 

The  American  frigate  Chesapeake  cap- 
tured by  the  Shannon  frigate,  captain 
Broke June  1, 1813 

Battle  of  Burlington  Heighta ;  the  Ame- 
ricans defeated  .        June  6, 1813 

H.  M.  sloop  Peiiean  takes  the  Amerioan 
sloop  Argus  .        .    Aug.  14, 1813 

Buffalo  town  taken  by  the  British,  and 
burnt        ....       Dec.  9, 1813 

Amerioan  frigate  Essex  taken  by  the 
Phabe  and  Cherub  March  29, 1814 

The  British  defeat  the  Americans  in  a 
severe  oonfliot  .  .         July  2, 1814 

[Several  engagements  with  various  suo- 
cess  now  followed.] 

Alexandria  capitulates  to  the  Britiah 
forces     ....        Aug.  17, 1814 

The  city  of  Washington  taken  by  the 
British  forces,  and  the  public  edifices 
and  offices  reduced  to  ashes,     Aug.  24, 1814 

The  British  sloop  of  wax  Avon,  of  small 
size,  sunk  by  the  Amerioan  sloop 
Wasp  .        .       ,       .       .       Sept.  8, 1814 


neBHUflh  aqiMwlrononLakeClMmplm 

fiepLll.- 
ItimovB  by  ttie  Bii^; 
killed        .        Septli, 
Trea^  of  peace  with  Great  Britain  sip4 

at  Ghent  .         .         •       De^.^^ 

The  British  abip  JBttdfmion  captniestk 
President  i«a.\j, 

GhcBt  treaty  of  peace  is  this  da; 

.   Feb.i:.. 

OBntrefoandatfon  of  the  capitol  of  Wash- 
ington laid  .  •     Aog.ii 
Spain  cedes  Florida  to  the  United  Stata 

Oct  21 
The  Btatesacknowledge  theindependencf 
of  South  Amexica       .         .     M^trcb^ 
Treaty  with  Colombia  ^^^ 

Mr.  Adams  elected  president       Feb  ^ 
Death  of  the  two  ex-presidents,  Adai» 
and  Jefferson,  on  the  50th  amuVensT 
of  the  indeiiende&oe  of  the  AmeiiQE 
States        ....     M^ 
Convention  with  G^reat  Britain  ooooes 

ing  indemnities  ^('^  >' 

American  Tariff  BUI  >^y'' 

General  Jackson  president    .      F^bK- 
Treaty  between  the  Vnited  States  m 

Ottoman  Porte  .  ^^ 

Ports  re-open  to  Britiah  oommerce;  tbc 

restriction  ceases  ^* 

New  tariff  laws  i^y^\ 

Great  fire  at  New  York,  647  houses  at 

many  public   edifices    bunit;   iot 

20,000,000    dollars    (see  New  Yat^  , 

In  the  Canadian  insurrection.  vm7  ^ 
the  American  people  aa^st  tbe  in^' 
gents,  Oct,  Nov.,  and  Dec.    > 

The  American  steam-boat  Caroli^i^ 
attacked  and  burnt  by  the  Biit^ 
near  Schlosser,  to  the  east  of  tbeN^ 
gara,  on  the  territory  of  the  Un"^ , 
States  .         .         .        I>»^" 

Prochunatlon  of  the  president  ag^ 
American  citizens  aiding  the  Ci»^ 
dians  against  Great  Britain  •   J><^''' 

The    Great   Western   steam-^bip  ^";,- 
arrives  at  New  York  •   if^^^ 

The  American  banks  suspend  tbeir  cast 
payments        .         .         .       OetH- 

Affair  of  Mr.  MacLeod 

Election  of  general  Harrison  »s  ^ 
dent      ...         .       ifa«J*',f 

He  dies  the  next  month     .       iO?^J  \^ 

J.  Tyler,  vice-president,  snt 


PRKSIDKNTB  OF  THE  UNITBD  STATJB8. 


General  George  Washington,  first  presi- 


dent, elected 
Washington  re-elected    . 
John  Adams 
Thomas  Jefferson 
Mr.  Jefferson,  reelected 
James  Madison 
Mr.  Madison,  re-elected 


April  6,  1789 
March  4,  1793 
March  4,  1797 
March  4,  1801 
March  4,  1805 
March  4,  1809 
March  4,  1813 


Maith*.'* 
March  4. 1'- 

March  4.1^ 

General  Wm.  Henry  Harrison,  M»«**' „; 
John  Tyler        .        .        .      April*'' 


James  Monroe 
Mr.  Monroe,  re-elected 
John  Quinoy  Adams 
General  Jackson        . 
General  Jackson,  reelected 
M.  Van  Buren 


UNIVERSALISTS.     Those  wfao  believe  in  the  fined  salvation  of  all  men. 


Sects 


i 


(0^ 


Universalists  existed  in  various  countries  and  ages.    The  leuned  and  oel^^ 
Dr.  Tillotson  appears  from  some  of  his  sermons  to  have  adopted  the  opinion  01 


adopted  the  opinioQ' 


tbii 


1 


UNI 


[527] 


UNI 


uniyeraal  salvation. — Johnson,  Certain  it  is,  about  1691,  he  entertained  a  design 
for  forming  a  new  book  of  homilies ;  and  a  sermon  which  he  preached  before  the 
queen  (Mary)  against  the  absolute  eternity  of  hell  torments,  involved  this  doctrine. 

NIVERSITIES.  They  sprang  from  the  convents  of  regular  clergy,  and  from  the 
chapters  of  cathedrals  in  the  church  of  Rome.  The  most  ancient  uniTeraities  in 
Europe  are  those  of  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Paris,  Salamanca,  and  Bologna.  In  Old 
Aberdeen  was  a  monastery,  in  which  youth  were  instructed  in  theology,  the  canon 
law,  and  the  school  philosophy,  at  least  200  years  before  the  University  and  King's 
College  were  founded.  The  British  universities  were  vested  with  the  lands  of  ex- 
Catholics,  and  permitted  to  send  members  to  parliament,  by  James  I.  The  follow- 
ing are  the  principal  universities.  For  other  particulars  relating  to  them  severally, 
see  them  through  the  volume. 


Aberdeen,  founded 
Abo>  Finland 
Aix,  1409 ;  re-established 
Alba  Julia,  Tranqrlvania 
Altorf ,  Franconia 
Andrew's,  St.,  Scotland 
AngeiB,  chiefly  law 
Anjou,  1349 ;  enlarged 


1494 
1640 
1603 
1629 
1581 
1411 
1398 
1364 


Avignon,  France 1388 

Bamberg 1685 

Basle,  Switzerland  .  .    •  1458 

Berlin 1812 

Beeaofon,  Burgundy  .    .  1540 

Bologna,  Italy 423 

Bruges,  French  Flanders  .         .    .  1665 

Caduris,  or  Quercy,  France  .  1320 

Caen,  Normandy 1417 

Cambridge,  began,  626— according  to 
others,900 ;  revived  1 1 10  (see  Cambridge) 
Cambridge,  New  England,  projected      .  1630 
Cologne,  in  Germany,  re-fonnded      .    .  1389 
Compostella,  Spain       ....  1617 
Coimbra,  Portugal 1391 


Copenhagen,  147 ;  enlarged    .        , 

Cordova,  Spain 

Cracow,  Poland,  700 ;  enlarged 

Biijon,  France 

Dillingin,  Swabia 

Dole,  Burgundy 

Douay,  French  Flanders 

Dresden,  Saxony 

Dublin  (see  Trinity  College) 

Edinburgh,  founded  by  James  TI. 

Erfurt,  Thuringia ;  enlarged 

Evora,  Portugal 


1539 
968 
1402 
1722 
1565 
1426 
1562 
1694 
1591 
1582 
1390 
1559 


Ferrara,  Italy 1316 

Florence,  Italy,  enlarged  .    .  1438 

Franeker,  Friesland  .  1585 

Frankfort-on-the-Oder  .    .  1506 

Fribourg,  Germany       ....  1460 
Geneva     .......  1365 

Glasgow 1450 

Gottingen 1734 

Granada,  Spain  ....  1537 

Gripswald 1547 

Groningen,  Friesland    ....  1614 

Halle.  Saxony  1694 

Heidelberg  1346 

Ingoldstadt,  Bavaria  .        .  .  1573 

Jena,  or  Sala,  Thuringia  .         .    .  1548 

Kiel,  Holstein 1665 

King's  College,  London  {whieh  tee)     .    .  1829 
Konigsberg,  Prussia      ....  1544 


Leipae,  Saxony 
Leyden,  Holland 

Lima,  in  Peru  .... 

Lisbon,  1290;  removed  to  Coimbra 
London  University  {which  see) 
Louvaine,  Flanders,  926 ;  enlarged 
Lyons,  France       .... 
Mechlin,  Flanders    .... 
Mentz  .         •         .         .         . 

Montpelier 

Moscow 

Munster  .         >         .         .         . 

Naples 

Orleans,  France        .... 
Oxford  (see  Oaiford) 

Paderbom 

Padua,  Italy         .... 
Palenza,  1209 ;  removed  to  Salamanca 
Paris,  792 ;  renovated 

Parma 

Pavia,  791 ;  enlarged    . 

Perpignan 


1409 
1576 
1614 
1391 
1826 
1427 
830 
1440 
1482 
1196 
1754 
1491 
1216 
1312 
886 
1592 
1179 
1249 
1100 
1599 
1361 
1349 

Perugia.  Italy 1307 

Petersburgh      1747 

Pisa,  1339 ;  enlarged  ....  1552 

Poictiers 1430 

Prague    1348 

Rheims,  1145 ;  enlarged    .         .         .    .  1560 
Rome,  Sapienza  ....  1303 

Rostock,  Meoklenburgh  .    .  1419 

Salamanca 1240 

Salerno 1233 

Saltzburg  1623 

Saragossa,  Arragon  .        .        .    .  1474 

SeviUe 1531 

Sienna  1387 

Siguenza,  Spain  •  .         .1517 

Sorbonne,  France 1253 

Strasburg  1538 

Toledo,  Spain  1518 

Treves,  Germany  ....  1473 

Tubingen,  Wirtemberg  .        .    .  1477 

Turin  ......  1406 

Upsal,  Sweden 1477 

Utrecht,  HolUnd 1636 

Valence,  Dauphiny  .        .    .  1475 

Valencia,  in  the  thirteenth  oentnry. 
ValladoUd  .... 

Venice  

Vienna 

Wirtemberg  .... 

Wittenberg  .... 


.  1346 
.  1592 
.  1236 
.  1502 
.  1502 
Wurtzburg 1403 


UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE,  Oxford.    The  foundation  of  this  college  continues  to 
be  erroneously  ascribed  to  Alfred ;  but  it  was  founded  by  William  of  Durham  in 


rxK ^  528  ] VAC 

1249.  The  Ubnrj  was  oompletad  in  1699.  The  UiuTenitj  College  of  LondoD  r.' 
foaaded  1826,  aiid  wu  opened  by  the  introdnctoiy  lectures  of  profmor  Bell,  Oct  i 
1828.    See  OM/vrd  mud  Lamdom  UnkrertUy, 

UNKNOWN  TONGUE.    A  distnrbuice  in  tlie  !«▼.  Mr.  Irvin^s  cbapel,  in  Mc 
oecefloned  hj  a  Min  Hall  intermptiDg  a  disooorae  on  prophecf,  by  holding  fonii 
what  «aa  denominated  the  *'  UmknowH  Tongue."    She  was  removed  to  theveri'; 
On  the  nme  crening,  a  Mr.  Taplin  rose,  and  commenced,  with  the  pennissio?. 
Mr.  Irving,  a  nolent  harangue  in  the  saoie  unknown  language.    A  scene  of  o 
alarming  confusion  ensued,  the  whole  congregation  rising  fh>m  their  seats  in  aifrir. 
and  the  females  screaming,  while  Mr.  Inring  listened  with  the  most  profoond  attf 
tion  to  the  ravings  of  the  inspired  ieat^er,  Oct.  16,  1831.     From  this  period,  m 
of  the  same  mvmmery,  followed  by  a  translation  into  English  rhapsody,  waspla: 
off;  and  large  crowds  assembled,  not  on  Sundays  only,  but  as  early  as  six  o'd . 
on  the  mornings  of  week-days  also,  some  to  be  edified  by  prophetic  spirits,  sahyi 
to  laugh  at  the  ravings  of  fenatics. — ^^nn.  Regiater, 

URANUS.  This  planet,  with  its  satellites,  was  discovered  by  Herachel,by  vbos 
was  called  the  Gleorgian  planet :  the  name  of  Herschel  is  also  given  to  it,  in  cois:. 
ment  to  its  discoverer ;  but  by  foreigners  it  is  called  Uranus.  It  is  twice  as  diri 
from  the  sun  as  Saturn ;  March  13,  1781. 

URINE.  The  inhabitants  of  London  and  Westminster,  &c.  commanded  bypnie 
mation  to  keep  all  their  urine,  throughout  the  year,  for  making  saltpetre,  t 
Uric,  or  lithic  add,  was  obtained  from  human  urine  by  Scheele,  1776.^£)Kjfc 

URSULINE  NUNS.  A  sisterhood  in  church  history,  being  an  order  fonndedor: 
nally  by  St.  Angela,  of  Brescia,  in  1537  ;  and  so  called  from  St.  Ursols,  tor^ 
they  were  dedicated.    A  community  of  Ursoline  nuns  exist  in  Ireland. 

USHANT,  Naval  Battls  or,  between  the  British  and  French  fleets,  when,a{la: 
indecisive  action  of  three  hours,  the  latter,  under  cover  of  the  night,  witbdrer^ 
deceptive  manner  to  the  harbour  of  Brest.  The  brave  admiral  Keppel  commo^ 
the  English  fleet ;  the  count  d'Orvilliers,  the  French.  The  failure  of  a  comp^ 
victory  was  by  many  attributed  to  sir  Hugh  Falliser's  non-compliance  wiU  - 
admiral's  signals.  This  gentleman,  who  was  vice-admiral  of  the  blue,  pref^- 
articles  of  accusation  against  his  commander,  who  was  in  consequence  tried  X 
court-martial,  but  acquitted  in  the  most  honourable  manner,  and  the  charge  i^ 
him  declared  by  the  court  to  be  **  malicious  and  ill-founded,"  July  27, 1778. 

USURY.     Forbidden  by  parliament,  1341.    Two  shillings  per  week  were  pst^^^ 
loan  of  twenty,  in  1260.    This  was  at  the  rate  of  43/.  6«.  8^.  per  annum  for'- 
which  was  restrained  by  an  act,  1275,  against  the  Jews.    Until  the  fifteenth  c< 
no  Christians  were  allowed  to  receive  interest  of  money,  and  Jews  were  o['^ 
usuren,  and,  therefore,  often  banished  and  persecuted  (see  Jews).    By  tlie<'j 
Henry  y I II.,  the  rate  of  interest  was  fixed  at  10  per  cent,  1545.    Tbis^ 
confirmed  by  the  13th  Eliiabeth,  1570.     Reduced  to  8  per  cent.,  21  James  I.'^ 
when  the  word  interest  was  first  used  for  the  word  usury.     Lowered  dorini ' 
usurpation  to  6  per  cent,  (the  present  rate  in  Ireland),  1650.    This  rate  (Xi^^^ ' 
by  statute  of  Charles  II.,  1660.     Reduced  to  5  per  cent.,  13  Anne,  1714.   1^' 
does  not  now  apply  to  bills  having  only  60  days  to  nm.     See  Interest. 

UTRECHT,  Treaty  of,  &c.  The  Union  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces  begaflj^ 
(sec  United  Provinces),  a.d.  1579.  The  celebrated  Treaty  of  Utrechf,  "^^ 
terminated  the  wan  of  queen  Anne,  was  signed  by  the  ministers  of  Great  Bnt>i^^ 
France,  as  well  as  of  aU  the  other  allies,  except  the  ministers  of  the  empif^  ^ 
most  important  stipulations  of  this  treaty  were  the  security  of  the  Protestant  sof  - 
sion  in  England,  the  disuniting  the  French  and  Spanish  crowns,  the  destrocboY^ 
Dunkirk,  tibe  enlargement  of  the  British  colonies  and  plantations  in  Ainerica><^^ 
full  satisfaction  for  the  claims  of  the  allies,  April  11,  1713.  Utrecht  surrender^ 
the  Prussians,  May  9,  1787  ;  and  was  possessed  by  the  French,  Jan.  18i  17"^' 


VAG  [|  529  ]  VAN 

became  general  in  1799.  The  cure  was  introduced  January  21,  in  that  year.  The 
genuine  cow-pox  appears,  in  the  form  of  vesicles,  on  the  teats  of  the  cow.  Dr. 
Jenner  received  10,000/.  for  the  discovery  from  parliament  in  1802  ;  and  the  first 
national  institution  for  the  promotion  of  the  cure,  called  the  Royal  Jennerian  Insti- 
tution, was  founded  January  19,  1803.  Vaccination  was  practised  throughout  all 
Europe  previously  to  1816.  The  important  Vaccination  Act  was  passed  3  and  4 
Victoria,  July  23,  1840.     See  Inoculation  ;  SmcUl-poXt  &c. 

VAGRANTS.  After  being  whip'ped,  a  vagrant  was  to  take  an  oath  to  return  to  the 
place  where  he  was  bom,  or  had  last  dwelt  for  three  years,  22  Henry  VIII.,  1530. 
A  vagrant  a  second  time  convicted,  to  lose  the  upper  part  of  the  gristle  of  his  right 
ear,  27  Henry  Ylll.,  1535  ;  and  a  third  time  convicted,  death.  By  1  Edward  III., 
a  vagabond  to  be  marked  with  a  V,  and  be  a  slave  for  two  years.  Vagrants  were 
punished  by  whipping,  gaoling,  boring  the  ears,  and  death  for  a  second  offence, 
14  Elizabeth,  1571.  The  milder  statutes  were  those  of  17  George  II. ;  32,  35,  and 
59  George  III.  The  laws  against  vagrancy  are  still  very  severe  in  England,  and 
operate  unequally  as  respects  the  character  of  the  offender. 

VALENCIA.  Its  university  was  founded,  it  is  said,  in  the  13th  century^  and  was 
revived  in  1470.  Valencia  was  taken  by  the  earl  of  Peterborough  in  1705,  but  was 
soon  lost  again.  It  was  taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  the  French,  under  Suchet, 
with  a  garrison  of  more  than  16,000  men,  and  immense  stores,  Jan.  9,  1812. 

VALENCIENNES,  Sieg^  of.  This  city  was  besieged  from  May  23  to  July  14,  when 
the  French  garrison  surrendered  to  the  allies  under  the  duke  of  York,  1793.  It  was 
retaken,  together  with  Cond^,  by  the  French,  on  capitulation,  the  garrison  and  1100 
emigrants  made  prisoners,  with  immense  stores,  viz. — 200  (pieces  of  cannon,  one 
million  pounds  of  gunpowder,  eight  millions  of  florins  in  specie,  six  millions  of 
livres,  1000  head  of  cattle,  and  vast  quantities  of  other  provisions,  Aug.  30,  1794. 

VALENCAY,  Treaty  of,  between  Napoleon  of  France  and  Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain, 
whereby  the  latter  was  put  in  full  possession  of  that  kingdom,  on  agreeing  to  main- 
tain its  integrity.    This  celebrated  treaty  was  signed  December  8,  1813. 

VALENTINE'S  DAY.  The  practice  of  "  choosing  a  Valentine,"  as  it  is  called,  on 
this  day,  is  too  well  known  to  need  explanation.  The  origin  of  the  custom  has  been 
much  controverted ;  it  is  indisputably  of  very  ancient  date.  Valentine  was  a 
presbyter  of  the  church,  who  suffered  martyrdom  under  Claudius  II.  at  Rome,  a.d. 
271.  It  is  said  that  on  this  day  the  birds  choose  their  mates  ;  whence,  probably, 
came  the  custom  of  young  people  choosing  Valentines  or  particular  friends  on  the 
feast  of  Valentine. 

VALENTINIANS.  This  sect  of  enthusi^stics  were  followers  of  the  opinions  of  one 
Valentine,  a  priest,  who,  upon  his  being  disappointed  of  a  bishopric,  forsook  the 
Christian  faith,  and  published  that  there  were  thirty  gods  and  goddesses,  fifteen  of 
each  sex,  which  he  called  ^ones,  or  Ages.  He  taught  in  the  second  century,  and 
published  a  gospel  and  psalms :  to  these  his  followers  added  several  other  errors, 
declaring  there  was  no  obligation  to  suffer  martyrdom;  some  declared  against 
baptism,  and  others  practised  it  in  a  peculiar  manner,  and  all  indulged  themselves 
in  licentiousness. 

VALTELINE,  Switzerland.  Here  took  place  a  general  and  horrid  massacre  of  the 
Protestants  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  July  20,  1620.  It  began  at  Tirano,  extended 
to  all  the  towns  of  the  district,  and  lasted  three  days,  neither  man,  woman,  nor 
child  being  spared  in  this  religious  slaughter. — Ashe* 

VANCOUVER'S  VOYAGE.  Captain  Vancouver  served  as  a  midshipman  under 
captain  Cook ;  and  a  voyage  of  discovery,  to  ascertain  the  existence  of  any  navigable 
communication  between  the  North  Pacific  and  North  Atlantic  oceans  being  deter- 
mined on,  he  was  appointed  to  command  it.  He  sailed  in  1790,  and  returned 
Sept.  24,  1795.  He  compiled  an  account  of  this  voyage  of  survey  of  the  North-west 
coast  of  America,  and  died  in  1798. 

VANDALS.  The  Vandal  nations  began  their  ravages  in  Germany  and  Gaul,  a.d. 
406-414.  Their  kingdom  in  Spain  was  founded  in  411.  They  invaded  and  con- 
quered the  Roman  territories  in  Africa,  under  Genseric,  who  took  Carthage,  Oct. 
24,  439.  They  were  driven  out,  and  attacked  in  turn  by  the  Saracen  Moors.  The 
Vandalii  overran  a  vast  portion  of  Europe,  and  spread  devastation  wherever  they 
appeared. 

.       M  M 


VAX [  530  ] VEG 

VAN  DIBMEN'S  LAND.  This  ooimtry  was  dtscoTered  by  Tasman  in  1633.  \in 
vldtad  by  Fnraeam  in  1773 ;  by  captain  Cook  in  1777 ;  and  was  deemed  the  son:: 
eitreinity  of  New  Holland  nntil  1799.  A  Britiib  settlement  was  ertabtishedonpii 
toiitli-«ast  part,  within  the  month  of  the  Derwent,  and  named  Hobart  Town,  vhifl 
is  the  seat  of  govenunent,  1804. 

VARBNNES.  This  town  of  France  is  celebrated  by  the  arrest  of  Louis  XVI.  Hs> 
he,  his  qneen,  sister,  and  two  children  were  arrested  in  their  flight  from  theToilene 
on  the  21st  Jane,  and  were  taken  on  the  22d,  and  condncted  back  to  Paris,  K^! 
Dronet,  the  postmaster  at  an  intermediate  town,  discovered  the  king.  He  im» 
diately  informed  the  mnnicipality,  who  despatched  messengers  to  Varennes.  DroK 
went  first,  and  seeing  a  waggon  laden  with  fomiture  npon  th«  bridge,  oTenetr. 
this  obttrncted  the  passage  of  the  king  and  his  suite,  who  were  forthwith  anesttd 

VARNA.    Hie  emperor  Nicholas  of  Russia  arrived  before  Varna,  the  head-qnartei 
his  army,  then  besieging  the  place,  August  5,  1828.    The  Turkish  garrison  wxk: 
vigorous  attack  on  the  besiegers,  August  7;  and  another  attack  on  tht2\^* 
were  repulsed.     Varna  surrendered,  after  a  sanguinary  conflict,  to  the  Sxissa 
arms,  October  1,  1628. 

VASSALAGE.  See  Feudal  Laws  and  Villanagfi.  Vassalage  was  introduced  bj: 
Saxons,  and  its  slavery  increased  under  William  I.  Under  the  Norman  pno^ 
there  were  vassal  boors  and  free  boors ;  those  who  were  sold  with  the  land,::' 
those  who  were  free  to  choose  an  employer.  To  this  day  the  distinction  prenili' 
some  countries,  and  particularly  in  Russia,  where  the  vassal  boors  are  divided  i£^ 
classes  ;  as  boors  belonging  to  the  sovereign  ;  mining  boors,  who  are  lold  ^^^'■^ 
property ;  and  private  boors,  who  belong  to  the  nobility,  and  perform  thelii'osr'c 
their  estates.  In  England,  a  vassal  did  homage  to  a  lord  on  account  of  lajvi^ 
held  of  him  in  fee.  Vassalage  was  abolished  in  Hungary  in  October  1783  ;- 
Holstein,  in  May  1797  ;  and  Courland,  in  September  1818.  I 

VATICAN.    The  mag^nificent  palace  of  the  pope  at  Rome,  said  to  contain  7000  row 
In  this  palace,  the  Ubrary,  founded  a.]).  1448,  is  so  beautiful  a  fabric,  that  it  is^'  | 
it  will  admit  of  no  improvement ;  and  it  is  also  the  richest  in  the  world,  hd- 
printed  books  and  manuscripts.    The  phrase  **  thunders  of  the  Vatican,"  wist^ 
used  by  VolUire,  1748. 

VAUXHALL,  London.    It  is  denominated  from  the  manor  of  VauzhaU,  orFiu» 
ball ;  but  the  tradition  that  this  house,  or  any  other  adjacent,  was  the  P'^P^^ 
Guy  Fawkes,  is  erroneous.    The  premises  were,  in  1615,  the  property  <»' 
Vauz,  and  the  mansion-house  was  then  called  Stockden's.     From  her  it  r^ 
through  various  hands,  till,  in  1752,  it  became  the  property  of  Mr.  Tyers.  1°, 
is  no  certain  account  of  the  time  when  these  premises  were  first  opened  for 
entertainment  of  the  public ;  but  the  Spring  Gardens  at  VauzhaU  are  mentioD^j 
the  Spectator  as  a  place  of  great  resort.    Some  writers  of  accounts  of  ^'^"^ 
pose  1730  to  be  the  first  year  of  the  opening  of  Vauxhall  gardens,  which  si»^ 
Ranelagh  gardens.    The  greatest  season  of  Vauxhall  was  in  1823,  when  13^"^ 
persons  visited  the  gardens,  and  the  receipts  were  29,590/.    The  greatest  njuB^ 
persons  in  one  night  was  August  2,  1833,  when  20,137  persons  paid  for*^ 
The  number  on  the  laei  night,  September  5,  1839,  was  1089  persoM.-^"^ 
from  Bankrupte*  Reports, 

VAUXHALL  BRIDGE.  OriginaUy  projected  by  Mr.  R.  Dodd,  but,  in  contef^ 
of  some  disagreement,  he  was  succeeded,  first  by  Mr.  Rennie,  and  ^^'^^^  l« 
Walker,  under  whose  direction  the  present  elegant  fabric  was  constructed, 
expense  of  about  150,000/.,  which  is  to  be  defrayed  by  a  toll.  Tbe  ^f^^^^^> 
laid  May  9, 1811,  by  prince  Charles,  the  eldest  son  of  the  late  duke  of  Brao^*'  ' 
and  the  bridge  was  completed  in  1816.     It  is  of  irofa,  of  nine  equal  arches. 

VEGETABLES.  See  Gardening,  &c.  Our  chief  table-vegetables  were  bron^  ^ 
Flanders  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  about  1520,  et  seq.  Linnseus  ^^^^ 
vegetable  kingdom  into  twenty-four  classes  and  twenty-six  orders,  ^^^^^1^^\ 
denominated  the  sexual  system,  in  which  he  arranged  the  various  plants  *^^^ 
to  the  number  and  situation  of  the  sexual  parts,  and  made  the  flower  ana  ^^ 
test  of  various  genera.  Linnaeus  commenced  his  system  about  a.d.  1'^  ^^ 
Botany,    Most  of  the  vegetables  now  in  use  were  raised  in  England  in  ^ 


VEL  Q  631  ]  YEN 

century,  before  which  period  they  were  imported  from  the  Netherlands,  there  being 
no  kitchen-gardens  in  these  countries.  Previously  to  1509,  sugar  was  eaten  with 
meat  to  correct  its  putrescency. 

VELLORE,  India.  Residence  of  the  family  of  the  late  sultan  of  Mysore,  strongly 
garrisoned  by  English  troops.  Revolt  and  massacre  of  the  Sepoys,  in  which  the 
family  of  the  late  Tippoo  took  an  active  part,  July  10,  1806.  The  insurgents  were 
subdued,  and  mostly  put  to  the  sword,  by  colonel  Gillespie :  800  Sepoys  were  killed 
before  the  mutiny  was  suppressed. 

VELOCIPEDES.  Vehicles  of  German  construction.  They  first  appeared  in  England 
in  April  1818,  and  obtained  the  name  from  being  impelled  by  tiie  feet  with  great 
celerity.    They  seem  to  have  fallen  into  disuse. 

VENEREAL  DISEASE.  Lties  Venerea,  Morbus  Gallicw.  This  disease  is  said  to 
have  broken  out  in  the  French  army,  at  the  siege  of  Naples,  in  1494  ;  whence  the 
French  term  mal  de  Naples.  In  the  Netherlands  and  England  it  obtained  the 
appellation  of  nuH  de  France  ;  though  in  the  latter  country  it  was  known  so  early 
as  the  12th  century.  About  the  same  period,  too,  at  Florence,  one  of  the  Medici 
family  died  of  it. — Ahbi  LengleL  Most  writers  suppose,  that  as  Columbus  returned 
from  his  first  expedition  to  the  West  Indies,  on  March  13,  1493,  his  followers 
brought  the  disorder  vrith  them  from  the  new  to  the  old  world.  Yet  many  writers 
maintain  that  the  venereal  was  well  known  upon  the  old  Continent,  and  that  it  pre- 
vailed among  the  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  and  their  descendants,  long  before  the 
discovery  of  America. — Phil*  Trans.,  vols.  30,  31.  Some  suppose  that  though 
Syphilis  was  brought  to  Europe  by  the  followers  of  Columbus,  there  existed  pre- 
viously to  that  event  throughout  the  old  Continent  various  disorders,  both  local  and 
constitutional,  which  strongly  resembled  the  newly-imported  disease,  and  were  for 
more  than  three  centuries  confounded  with  it. — Dr.  R,  Carmichael. 

VENEZUELA.  When  the  Spaniards  landed  here  in  1499,  they  observed  some  huts 
built  upon  piles,  in  an  Indian  village  named  Cora,  in  order  to  raise  them  above  the 
stagnated  water  that  covered  the  plain ;  and  this  induced  them  to  give  it  the  name 
of  Venezuela,  or  Little  Venice.  This  state  declared  in  a  congressional  assembly  the 
sovereignty  of  its  people,  in  July  1814.  It  separated  from  the  federal  union  and 
declared  itself  sole  and  independent  in  1830.     See  Columbia. 

VENI,  VI DJ,  VIC  I. — "  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered."  This  well-known  sentence 
formed  the  whole  of  Csesar^s  despatch  to  the  Roman  senate  when  he  vanquished 
Pharnaces,  king  of  the  Cimmerian  Bosphorus,  47  b.c.     See  Zela,  Battle  of. 

VENICE.  So  called  from  the  Venetii  who  inhabited  its  site,  when  it  was  made  a 
kingdom  by  the  Gauls,  who  conquered  it  about  356  B.C.  Marcellus  conquered  it  for 
the  Roman  republic,  and  slew  the  Gaulish  king,  221  b.o.  The  islands  on  which  the 
city  is  built  began  to  be  inhabited,  a.d.  421,  by  Italians,  who  fled  here  as  a  place  of 
safety  from  the  Goths,  and  other  barbarous  nations,  when  they  ravaged  Italy.  The 
first  house  was  erected  on  the  morass  by  Entinopus,  by  whom  the  people  of  Padua 
were  assisted  in  building  the  eighty  houses  which  first  formed  the  dty. — Priestley. 
Venice  was  first  governed  by  a  doge  (Anafesto  PauluUo),  a.d.  697.  The  republic 
was  not  completely  founded  until  803.  The  city  reduced  to  ashes,  1101.  The 
ceremony  of  the  doges  of  Venice  marrying  the  Adriatic  was  instituted  by  pope 
Alexander  III.  in  1173.  Venice  carried  on  a  vast  commerce  until  the  discovery  of 
America,  and  a  passage  to  the  East  Indies  by  the  Cape,  gave  it  another  direction, 
about  1500.  By  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  the  territory  to  the  north  and  west 
of  the  Adige  were  ceded  to  Austria,  and  the  rest  was  annexed  to  what  the  French 
then  styled  the  Cisalpine  Republic,  1797.  This  disposition  was  altered  by  the  treaty 
of  Presburg,  and  the  whole  country  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  1805.  Venice 
returned  under  the  power  of  Austria  in  1814.  The  city  declared  a  free  port, 
January  24,  1830. 

VENTILATORS.  Invented  by  the  rev.  Dr.  Hales,  and  his  account  of  them  read  to 
the  Royal  Society  of  London,  May  1741.  The  ventilator  for  the  use  of  the  king's 
men-of-war  was  announced  in  London  by  M.  Triewald,  in  November,  same  year. 
The  marquess  Chabanne's  plan  for  warming  and  ventilating  theatres  and  houses  for 
audiences  was  applied  to  those  of  London  in  1819. 

VENTRILOQUISM.  Persons  who  had  this  art  were  by  the  Latins  called  Ventriloqui, 
and  by  the  Greeks,  Engastrimythoi,  «.  e.  people  that  speak  out  of  their  bellies,  or 

M  M  2 


VEN  Q  532  ]  VER 

who  have  the  art  of  throwing  oat  the  voice  in  an  extraordinary  manner.  Exhibiton 
of  this  kind  have  appeared  in  England  in  varions  ages,  bat  some  of  extraordiiu.7 
capabilities  in  their  art  exhibited  in  the  last  centnrf.  Mr.  Thomas  King*  is  saiii  a 
have  been  the  first  man  whose  experimental  philosophy,  shown  in  this  line,  excited 
great  wonder,  about  1716.  One  of  the  most  accomplished  professors  of  Tcntrik- 
qoism  that  ever  appeared  in  France  or  England,  was  M.  Alexander,  abont  1822. 

VENX^S.  This  planet's  transit  over  the  san,  it  was  ascertained  by  Horrox,  in  163.!. 
woald  take  place  November  24,  1639.  He  was  the  first  who  predicted,  or  ntk 
calculated  this  passage,  from  which  he  deduced  many  useful  observations.  Mtsb 
lyne  was  sent  to  St.  Helena  to  observe  her  transit,  in  January  1761.  Capt.  Coa 
made  his  first  voyage,  in  the  Endeavour,  to  Otaheite,  to  observe  a  transit  of  Vac 
in  1769.  See  notb  to  article  Cock*s  Vojfaget.  The  diurnal  rotation  of  Veniu^ 
discovered  by  Cassint  in  1712.  This  pliuiet  will  not  be  again  so  brilliant  as  in  !.''> 
to  our  globe  until  1874. 

VERSAILLES,  Pa  lacs  op.  In  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  was  only  a  small  village. ' 
a  forest  thirty  miles  in  circuit ;  and  here  this  prince  built  a  hunting-seat  in  lio^ 
Louis  XIV.  in  1687  enlarged  it  into  a  magnificent  palace,  which  was  finished  -'^ 
1708,  and  was  the  usual  residence  of  the  kings  of  France  till  1789,  when  Louis  X^l 
and  his  family  were  removed  from  it  to  Paris.  It  is  now  the  residence  of  liOsL^^ 
Philippe. 

VERSAILLES,  Pbacb  of.  The  definitive  treaty  of  peace  between  Great  Britain  c- 
British  North  America,  signed  at  Paris ;  when  the  latter  power  was  admitted  to  y. 
a  sovereign  and  independent  State.  On  the  same  day,  the  definitive  treatj  w 
signed  at  Versailles  between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain,  Sept.  3,  1783.  I: 
pursuance  of  the  treaty  of  Versailles,  Pondicherry  and  Carical,  with  the  former  por 
sessiona  in  Bengal,  were  restored  to  France.  Trincomalee  at  the  same  time  restonsi 
to  the  Dutch. 

VERSE.  See  Poetry,  First  known  in  Thrace,  1249  B.C.  It  is  uncertain  what  sper  £$ 
of  poetry  was  first  cultivated  in  Greece.  Homer  shone  as  the  first  epic,  and  FiGd** 
was  the  prince  of  lyric  poets. —  Vontius.  The  father  of  pastoral  poetry  was  Theo- 
critus, who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Hiero,  about  265  b.c. — Fabric,  Bibl.  Grcr. 
Ennius,  one  of  the  elder  Roman  poets,  first  produced  satire,  about  200  b.c.  After 
the  barbarous  nations  had  conquered  Rome,  modern  poetry  or  rhyme  sprung  fra 
the  Arabs  or  the  Goths.  Hilary,  bishop  of  Poictiers,  and  St.  Ambrose  were  the  Df>' 
who  composed  hymns,  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century.  Poetry  was  intrcdocfi 
into  England  by  Aldhelme,  first  bishop  of  Sherbom,  about  a.d.  700.  The  minstrei 
of  Provence  first  introduced  metrical  tales  or  ballads.  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  was  tW 
first  who  introduced  Italian  numbers  into  English  versification. — AfUcelL  Anti^. 
vol.  ii.  page  8. 

VERSE,  BLANK.  Blank  verse  and  the  heroic  couplet,  now  in  general  use  forgnc 
or  elevated  themes,  are  both  of  comparatively  modem  date.  Surrey  translated  ps^ 
of  VirgiVt  Mneid  into  blank  verse,  which  is  the  first  composition  of  the  krac. 
omitting  tragedy,  extant  in  the  English  language ;  and  the  other  measure  was  be' 
little  affected  till  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  The  verse  previously  used  in  oar  gnT; 
compositions  was  the  stanza  of  eight  lines,  the  ottava  rimoy  as  adopted  with  t 
addition  of  one  line  by  Spenser  (in  his  Fairy  Queen)^  who  probably  borrowed  :• 
from  Ariosto  and  Tasso,  the  Italian  language  being  at  that  time  in  high  repd^ 

*  He  was  called  the  famous  Tom  King.  At  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  he  first  exbiti^i! 
and  was  attended  by  the  whole  fashionable  world,  for  a  succession  of  many  nights,  to  hear  him"t 
a  calf."  This  performance  was  done  in  a  separated  part  of  the  place  of  exhibition,  into  which  t'k 
exhibitor  retired  alone ;  and  the  imagination  of  his  polite  hearers  was  taxed  to  supply  the  calf  i:- 
three  butchers,  besides  a  dog,  who  sometimes  raised  his  voice,  and  was  checked  for  his  unnecessc: 
exertions.  It  appears,  from  traditional  narrative,  that  the  calf  was  heard  to  be  dragged  in,iK< 
without  some  efforts  and  conversation  on  the  part  of  the  butchers,  and  noisy  resistance  from  the  ai- 
that  they  conversed  on  the  qualities  of  the  animal,  and  the  profits  to  be  expected  from  the  veal;  ic- 
that  as  they  proceeded,  all  the  noises  of  knife  and  steel,  of  suspending  the  creature,  and  of  the  Its 
fatal  catastrophe,  were  heard  in  rapid  succession,  to  the  never-failing  satisfaction  of  the  attendtfs& 
who,  upon  the  rise  of  the  curtain,  saw  that  all  these  imaginary  personages  had  vanished,  and  T.-3 
King  alone  remained  to  claim  the  applause.  It  was  by  a  supposed  supernatural  voice  of  this  HU^ 
from  a  ventriloquist,  that  the  famous  musical  small-ooal  man,  Thomas  Britton,  received  a  warnist 
of  his  death,  which  so  greatly  affected  him  that  he  did  not  survive  the  fright 


VES [  533  ] VIC 

Boccaccio  first  introdaced  it  into  Italy  in  his  heroic  poem  La  Teteidet  having  copied 
it  from  the  old  French  chansons, — Metropolitan,  Trissino  is  said  to  htfve  been  the 
first  introducer  of  blank  verse  among  the  modems,  about  1508.—  Vossius. 

VESPERS,  Thb  SicfLiAx.  The  French  occupying  the  country  were  exterminated  on 
Easter-day,  without  distinction  of  age  or  sex,  at  the  sound  of  the  first  vesper-bell ; 
and  hence  that  horrid  massacre  is  known  in  history  by  the  name  of  the  Sicilian 
Vespers  ;  March  30,  1282.    See  Siciiian  Vespers, 

VESPERS,  The  Fatal.  In  the  house  of  the  French  ambassador  at  Blackfriars,  in 
London,  a  Jesuit  was  preaching  to  upwards  of  three  hundred  persons  in  an  upper 
room,  the  floor  of  which  gave  way  with  the  weight,  and  the  whole  congregation  was 
precipitated  to  the  street,  and  the  preacher  and  more  than  a  hundred  of  his  auditory, 
chiefly  persons  of  rank,  were  killed.  This  catastrophe,  which  was  known  as  the 
Fatal  Vespers,  occurred  Oct.  26,  l623.Stowe*s  Chron. 

VESTA.  The  planet  Vesta  (the  ninth)  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Olbers,  of  Bremen,  on  Mar. 
28,  1807.     She  appears  like  a  star  of  the  sixth  magnitude. — Annual  Register, 

VESTALS.  Priestesses  of  the  goddess  Vesta,  who  took  care  of  the  perpetual  fire  con- 
secrated to  her  worship.  This  office  was  very  ancient,  as  the  mother  of  Romulus 
was  one  of  the  vestals,  ^heas  is  supposed  to  have  first  chosen  the  Vestals.  Numa, 
in  710  B.C.,  first  appointed  four,  to  which  number  Tarquin  added  two.  They  were 
always  chosen  by  the  monarchs ;  but  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins,  the  high- 
priest  was  entrusted  with  the  care  of  them.  As  they  were  to  be  virgins,  they  were 
chosen  young,  from  the  age  of  six  to  ten  ;  and  if  there  was  not  a  sufficient  number 
that  presented  themselves  as  candidates  for  the  office,  twenty  virgins  were  selected, 
and  they  upon  whom  the  lot  fell  were  obliged  to  become  priestesses.  The  vestal 
Minutia  was  buried  alive  for  violating  her  virgin  vow,  337  B.C.  The  vestal  Sextilia 
was  buried  alive  for  incontinence,  274  b.c.  ;  and  the  vestal  Cornelia  Maximiliana  on 
the  same  charge,  a.d.  92. — Bibliotheque  Universelle. 

VESUVIUS,  MOUNT.  The  dreadful  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  when  it  emitted 
such  a  quantity  of  flame  and  smoke  that  the  air  was  darkened,  and  the  cities  of  Pom* 
peii  and  Herculaneum  were  overwhelmed  by  the  burning  lava,  a.d.  79.  More  than 
250,000  persons  perished  by  the  destruction  of  those  cities ;  the  8un*s  light  was 
totally  obscured  for  two  days  throughout  Naples ;  great  quantities  of  ashes  and 
sulphureous  smoke  were  carried  not  only  to  Rome,  but  also  beyond  the  Mediterra- 
nean into  Africa ;  birds  were  suffocated  in  the  air  and  fell  dead  upon  the  ground, 
and  the  fishes  perished  in  the  neighbouring  waters,  which  were  made  hot  and  infected 
by  it :  this  eruption  proved  fatal  to  Pliny,  the  naturalist.  Herculaneum  was  disco- 
vered in  1737,  and  many  curious  articles  have  been  dug  from  the  ruins  since  that 
time ;  but  everything  combustible  had  the  marks  of  having  been  burned  by  fire. 
Numerous  eruptions  have  occurred,  causing  great  devastation  and  loss  of  lives.  In 
1631  the  town  of  Torre  del  Greco,  with  4000  persons,  and  a  great  part  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  were  destroyed.  One  of  the  most  dreadful  eruptions  ever  known 
took  place  suddenly,  Nov.  24,  1759.  The  violent  burst  in  1 767  was  the  34th  from 
the  time  of  Titus,  when  Pompeii  was  buried.  One  in  1794  was  most  destructive  : 
the  lava  flowed  over  5000  acres  of  rich  vineyards  and  cultivated  lands,  and  the  town 
of  Torre  del  Greco  was  a  second  time  burned ;  the  top  of  the  mountain  fell  in,  and 
the  crater  is  now  nearly  two  miles  in  circumference.  Vesuvius  has  burst  forth  several 
times  since. 

VICE,  The.  An  instrument  of  which  Archytas  of  Tarentum,  disciple  of  Pythagoras,  is 
said  to  have  been  the  inventor,  along  with  the  pulley  and  other  articles,  420  B.C. 

VICE-CHANCELLOR.  A  new  equity  judge,  appointed  by  act  of  parliament,  and 
who  took  his  seat  in  the  court  of  Chancery  May  5,  1813.  A  handsome  new  court 
was  erected  about  1816,  contiguous  to  LincolnVinn-hall ;  but  in  term-time  his 
honour  sits  at  the  court  erected,  in  1823,  at  Westminster-hall.  There  existed  in 
Ireland  a  similar  judicial  officer,  in  the  person  of  Geoffry  Turville,  archdeacon  of 
Dublin,  vice-chancellor  in  1232.     See  Chancellor, 

VICTORY  Man-of-war,  of  100  guns,  the  finest  first-rate  ship  in  the  navy  of  England, 
was  lost  in  a  violent  tempest  near  the  race  of  Alderney,  and  its  admiral,  Balchen, 
and  100  gentlemen's  sons,  and  the  whole  crew,  consisting  of  1000  men,  perished, 
Oct.  8, 1744.    Th^  flag-ship  of  the  immortal  Nelson  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar  was 


TIC  C  534  ]  VIG 

odied  the  Vidorp  ;  and  it  is  a  reproach  to  the  patriotism  and  good  taste  of  Engbs: 
that  this  vessel,  instead  of  being  preserred  as  a  monument  of  national  glory,  ':^ 
been  broken  up  and  sold. 

VICTUALLERS.  The  trade  of  victoaller  in  England  is  traced  to  Tery  etaij  timt 
bat  ander  this  particular  toame  no  date  can  be  assigned  to  it ;  it  was  eaiiy  under  t. 
regulation  of  statutes.  The  Vintners'  Company  of  London  was  founded  1437 ;  t}:: 
hall  was  rebuilt  in  1823.  The  Licensed  Victuallers'  Sdiool  was  established  in  18'il 
and  the  Licensed  Victuallera'  Asylum,  Feb.  22,  1827.  It  was  enacted,  that  Dcat 
shall  sell  less  thsn  ooe  full  quart  of  the  best  beer  or  ale  for  !</.,  and  two  qosrta  ^ 
the  smaller  sort  for  Id.,  James  1.,  1603.    See  Porter,  Beer,  &c. 

VICTUALLING  OFFICE.  The  business  of  this  office  is  to  manage  the  TictusUiDg  • 
the  royal  navy,  and  its  first  institution  wss  in  December  1663.  Original]/ 'J^ 
number  of  commissioners  was  five,  afterwards  seven,  and  then  redaeed  to  six.  T^ 
office  hss  undergone  yarious  modifications ;  its  yarions  departments  on  Tower-hi- 
St.  Catherine's,  and  Rotherhithe  were  removed  to  Deptford  in  August  1785,  and  2^ 
office  to  Somerset-house,  1783. 

VIENNA.    The  former  capital  of  the  German  empire,  and  from  1806  the  capital  of -: 
Austrian  dominions  only.     Vienna  was  made  an  imperial  city  in  1 1 36,  and  wij 
walled  and  enlarged  with  the  ransom  paid  for  Richard  I.  of  England,  40,000/.,  i: 
1194.     Besieged  by  the  Turks  under  Solyman  the  Magnificent »  with  an  armjJt 
300,000  men  ;  but  he  was  forced  to  raise  the  siege  with  the  loss  of  70,000  of  his  ber 
troops,  1529.     Again  besieged  in  1683,  when  the  siege  was  raised  by  John  Sobiesh 
king  of  Poland,  who  totally  defeated  the  Turkish  army  of  100,000,  which  had  ca: 
nonaded  the  city  from  July  24  to  the  beginning  of  November.    Vienna  was  taken  by 
the  French,  under  prince  Murat,  Nov.  14,  1805  ;  and  evacuated  January  12,  foUov 
ing.    They  again  captured  it.  May  13,  1809  ;  but  restored  it  once  more  on  the  coc 
elusion  of  peace  between  the  two  countries,  Oct.  14,  same  year.     Conference  of  i- 
ministers  of  the  allies  and  France,  Sept.  28,  1814.    Congress  of  sorereigns,  Oct : 
1814.    See  next  articles. 

VIENNA,  Treaty  op,  with  Spain.  The  celebrated  treaty  signed  betweeo  'V 
emperor  of  Germany  and  the  king  of  Spain,  by  which  they  confirmed  to  each  ol.. 
such  parts  of  the  Spanish  dominions  as  they  were  respectively  possessed  of,  and  by 
private  treaty  the  emperor  engaged  to  employ  a  force  to  procure  the  restoratioD  .' 
Gibraltar  to  Spain,  and  to  use  means  for  placing  the  Pretender  on  the  throne  ^< 
Great  Britain.     Spain  guaranteed  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  April  30,  1725. 

VIENNA,  Trbatt  of  Alliance,  between  the  emperor  of  Germany,  the  kingof  Gre^ 
firitain,  and  Holland,  by  which  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  was  guaranteed,  and  tk 
disputes  as  to  the  Spanish  succession  terminated  (Spain  acceded  to  the  treaty  <m  th< 
22nd  of  July);  signed  March  16,  1731. 

VIENNA,  Treaty  of,  with  France.  A  definitive  treaty  of  peace  between  tie 
emperor  of  Germany  and  the  king  of  France,  by  which  the  latter  power  agreed  tj 
guarantee  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  Lorraine  was  ceded  to  France ;  signed  Kot 
18,  1738. 

VIENNA,  Peace  of,  between  Napoleon  of  France  and  Francis  (II.  of  Grermany)lo^ 
Austria.  By  this  treaty  Austria  ceded  to  France  the  Tyrol,  Dalmatia,  and  dik 
territories,  which  were  shortly  afterwards  declared  to  be  united  to  France  under  ot 
title  of  the  Illyrian  Provinces,  and  engaging  to  adhere  to  the  prohibitory  systcs 
adopted  towards  England  by  France  and  Russia,  Oct.  14,  1809. 

VIENNA,  Treaties  of.  The  treaty  of  Vienna  between  Great  Britain,  Anstri*. 
Russia,  and  Prussia,  confirming  the  principles  on  which  they  had  acted  by  the  treaty 
of  Chaumont,  March  1,  1814;  signed  March  23,  1815.  The  treaty  of  Vieniu 
between  the  king  of  the  Low  Countries  on  the  one  part,  and  Great  Britain,  Rossi. 
Austria,  and  Prussia,  on  the  other,  agreeing  to  the  enlargement  of  the  Duteh  terri- 
tories, and  vesting  the  sovereignty  in  the  house  of  Orange,  May  31,  1815.  He 
treaty  of  Vienna :  Denmark  cedes  Swedish  Pomerania  and  Rugen  to  Prussia,  b 
exchange  for  Lauenburg,  June  4,  1815.  The  federative  constitution  of  Gennu} 
signed  at  Vienna,  June  8,  1815. 

VIGILS.  Instituted  as  festivals,  on  the  days  of  dedication  of  the  churches,  or  on  those 
saints'  days  to  whom  the  buildings  were  devoted,  a^d  comn\^nced  on  the  eveniDS> 


VIG  Q  535  ]  VIN 

preceding  those  d&yi.     They  are  of  early  origin,  John  x.  22,  23.    The  first  institu* 
tion  was  religious ;  but  now  feasts  have  degenerated  into  days  of  festivity. 

VIGO.  Sir  Greorge  Rooke,  with  the  combined  English  and  Dutch  fleets^  attacked  the 
French  fleet  and  the  Spanish  galleons  in  the  port  of  Vigo,  when  several  men-of-war 
and  galleons  were  taken,  and  many  destroyed,  and  abundance  of  plate  and  other 
-valuable  effects  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors,  Oct.  12,  1702.  Vigo  was 
taken  by  lord  Cobham  in  1719,  but  relinquished  after  raising  contributions.  It  w^ 
taken  by  the  British,  March  27,  1809. 

VILiLiA  FRANCA,  Battle  of,  in  Portugal.  Engagement  here  between  the  British 
cavalry,  under  sir  Stapleton  Cotton,  and  the  French  cavalry  of  Marshal  Soult,  which 
ended  in  the  defeat  and  flight  of  the  latter,  April  10,  1812.  The  next  day  the  whole 
province  of  Estremadura  was  freed  from  the  enemy. 

VILLAIN.  The  name  of  a  vassal  under  our  Norman  princes,  his  hard  labour  being  the 
tenure  by  which  he  lived  upon  the  land.  Of  and  pertaining  to  the  vill  or  lordship  ; 
was  a  servant  during  life,  and  was  devisable  as  chattels  in  the  feudal  times.  Queen 
Flizabeth  gave  the  principal  blow  to  this  kind  of  severe  service,  by  ordering  her 
bondsmen  of  the  western  counties  to  be  made  free  at  easy  rates,  a.d.  1574. — Stowe*s 
Chron. 

YIMEIRA,  Battle  of,  between  the  British,  under  sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  and  the  whole 
of  the  French  and  Spanish  forces  in  Portugal,  under  marshal  Junot,  duke  of  Abrantes, 
whom  the  British  signally  defeated,  Aug.  21,  1808.  For  this  victory  the  British 
hero  and  the  officers  and  soldiers  under  his  command  were  voted  the  thanks  of 
parliament,  the  first  of  many  similar  honours  that  marked  sir  Arthur's  (now  duke  of 
Wellington's)  triumphant  career. 

I    VINCENT'S,  St.    This  was  long  a  neutral  island  ;  but  at  the  peace  of  1763,  the  French 
I  agreed  that  the  right  to  it  should  be  vested  in  the  English.     The  latter,  soon  after, 

engaged  in  a  war  against  the  Caribs,  on  the  windward  side  of  the  island^  who  were 
obliged  to  consent  to  a  peace,  by  which  they  ceded  a  large  tract  of  land  to  the 
British  crown.  The  consequence  of  this  was,  that  in  1779  they  greatly  contributed 
to  the  reduction  of  this  island  by  the  French,  who,  however,  restored  it  in  1783.  In 
1795  the  French  landed  some  troops,  and  again  instigated  the  Caribs  to  an  insurrec- 
tion, which  was  not  sqbdued  for  several  months.  The  great  eruption  of  the  Scouf- 
frier  mountain,  after  the  lapse  of  nearly  a  century,  occurred  in  1812. 

VINE.  The  vine  was  known  to  Noah.  A  colony  of  vine-dressers  from  Phocea,  in 
Ionia,  settled  at  Marseilles,  and  instructed  the  South  Gauls  in  tillage,  vine-dressing, 
and  commerce,  about  600  B.C.  Some  think  the  vines  are  aborigines  of  lianguedoc, 
Provence,  and  Sicily,  and  that  they  grew  spontaneously  on  the  Mediterranean  shores 

'  of  Italy,  France,  and  Spain.    The  vine  was  carried  into  Champagne,  and  part  of 

Germany,  a.d.  279.  The  vine  and  sugar-cane  were  planted  in  Madeira  in  1420.  It 
was  planted  in  England  in  1552 ;  and  in  the  gardens  of  Hampton-court  palace  is  an 
old  and  celebrated  vine,  said  to  surpass  any  known  vine  in  Europe.     See  Grapes, 

,  and  fFine*. 

VINEGAR.  Known  nearly  as  soon  as  wine.  The  ancients  had  several  kinds  of  vinegar, 
which  they  used  for  drink.  The  Roman  soldiers  were  accustomed  to  take  it  in  their 
marches.  The  Bible  represents  Boaz,  a  rich  citizen  of  Bethlehem,  as  providing 
vinegar  for  his  reapers,  into  which  they  might  dip  their  bread,  and  kindly  inviting 
Ruth  to  share  with  them  in  their  repast :  hence  we  may  infer  that  the  harvesters,  at 
that  period,  partook  of  this  liquid  for  their  refreshment;  a  custom  still  prevalent  in 
Spain  and  Italy.  It  is  conjectured  that  the  vinegar  which  the  Roman  soldiers 
offered  to  our  Saviour  at  his  crucifixion  was  that  which  they  used  for  their  own 
drinking.  There  was,  however,  a  kind  of  potent  vinegar,  which  was  not  proper  for 
drinking  till  diluted. 

*  The  following  is  a  tradition  in  relation  to  the  vine :— When  Adam  planted  the  first  vine,  uid  left 
it,  Satan  approached  it,  and^eaid,  **  Lovely  plant !  I  will  oherisfa  thee ;"  and  thereupon  taking  three 
animals,  a  lamb,  a  lion,  and  a  hog,  he  slayed  them  at  the  root  of  the  tree,  and  their  blood  has  been 
imbibed  by  the  fruit  to  this  day.  Thus,  if  you  take  one  goblet  of  wine,  you  are  cheered  by  its  influ- 
ence, yet  are  mild  and  docile  as  the  lamb ;  if  you  take  two  goblets,  you  become  furious,  and  rave 
and  bellow  like  the  lion ;  and  if  you  drink  of  the  third  goblet,  your  reason  sinks,  and,  like  the  hog, 
yott  wallow  in  the  miie.-^Athe. 


TIN  [^  536  ]  TIT 

VINEGAR-HILL.  Battlb  op,  hi  Ireland,  between  the  British  troops  and  the  ]^.-. 
insur^t  force*,  io  the  memorable  rri>eUion  of  1 798.  This  was  an  obstinate  cocS 
in  which  much  bkxMl  was  shed  on  both  sides,  and  the  rebels  suffered  a  severe  de^ 
June  21,  in  that  year. — Sir  J?.  Mtuffnme. 

VIOL  AND  VIOLIN.  As  the  lyre  of  the  Greeks  was  the  harp  of  the  moderns,  soOs 
viol  and  Tielle  of  the  middle  ages  became  the  modem  violin.  The  viol  was  of  ^nimi 
•  shtes  formerly,  as  it  is  at  present,  and  was  anciently  very  mnch  in  use  for  cham'>j 
airs  and  songs.  That  of  three  strings  was  introdaced  into  £oiope  by  the  joggkrs  ~ 
the  thirteenth  oentvry.  The  violin  was  invented  towards  the  close  of  the  sz- 
eentnry. — Abb^  Lengiet.  The  fiddle,  however,  is  mentioned  as  early  as  a.d.  12^' 
in  the  legendary  life  of  St.  Christopher.  It  was  introdaced  into  England,  some  »' 
by  Charles  II. 

VIRGIN.  The  Assumption  of  the  Virgin  is  a  iSestival  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  chiutl>&. 
in  honour  of  the  miracnloos  ascent  of  Mary  into  heaven,  according  to  their  beli^- 
Ang.  15,  A.D.  45.  The  Presentation  of  the  Virgin,  is  a  feast  celebrated  Not.  i^ 
said  to  have  been  instituted  among  the  Greeks  in  the  eleventh  centaiy ;  its  insti- 
tution in  the  West  is  ascribed  to  Gregory  XL,  1372.  A  distinguished  writer  an 
**  The  Indian  incarnate  god  Cbrishna,  the  Hindoos  believe,  had  a  virgin-mother  c 
the  royal  race,  and  was  sought  to  be  destroyed  in  his  infancy^  about  900  years  b-:- 
It  appears  that  he  passed  his  life  in  working  miracles  and  preaching,  and  wis  i-? 
humble  as  to  wash  his  friends'  feet :  at  length  dying,  but  rising  froni  the  dead,  k 
ascended  into  heaven  in  the  presence  of  a  multitude.  The  Cingalese  relate  near j 
the  same  things  of  their  Budda." — Sir  William  Jones. 

VIRGINIA,  daughter  of  the  centurion  L.  Virginius.  Appius  Clandins,  the  deoenmr, 
became  enamoured  of  her,  and  attempted  to  remove  her  from  the  place  where  sbe 
resided.  She  was  claimed  by  one  of  his  favourites  as  the  daughter  of  a  slave,  asi 
Appius,  in  the  capacity  and  with  the  authority  of  judge,  had  pronounced  the  sentence. 
and  delivel^d  her  into  the  hands  of  his  Mend,  when  Virginius,  informed  of  his  vid- 
lent  proceedings,  arrived  from  the  camp.  The  father  demanded  to  see  his  daughter. 
and  when  this  request  was  granted,  he  snatehed  a  knife  and  plunged  it  into  Yirginii> 
breast,  exclaiming,  '*  This  is  all,  my  daughter  I  I  can  give  thee,  to  preserve  tht: 
from  the  lust  of  a  tyrant."  No  sooner  vras  the  blow  given  than  Virginius  ran  to  tk 
camp  with  the  bloody  knife  in  his  hand.  The  soldiers  were  astonished  and  incense-i 
not  against  the  murderer,  but  the  tyrant,  and  they  immediately  marched  to  Rome- 
Appius  was  seized,  but  he  destroyed  himself  in  prison,  and  prevented  the  execntia 
of  the  law.  Spurius  Oppius,  another  of  the  decemvirs,  who  had  not  opposed  tke 
tyrant's  riews,  killed  himself  also  ;  and  Marcus  Claudius,  the  favourite  of  Appius. 
was  put  to  death,  and  the  decemviral  power  abolished,  449  B.C. 

VIRGINIA,  discovered  by  John  Cabot,  in  1497.  It  was  taken  possession  of,ui^ 
named  by  Raleigh,  after  the  virgin. queen  Elizabeth,  July  13,  1584.  Attempts  were 
made  to  settle  it  in  1585.  Two  colonies  went  out  by  patent  in  1606,  and  others  Li 
1610.  In  1626,  it  reverted  to  the  crown  ;  and  a  more  permanent  colony  was  esu- 
blished  soon  afterwards.  This  was  the  first  British  settlement  in  North  America-- 
See  Colonies. 

VISCOUNT.  This  was  anciently  the  name  of  an  office  under  an  earl,  Vice  Coma, 
who  being  oftentimes  required  at  court,  was  his  deputy,  to  look  after  the  affairs  cf 
the  county ;  but  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  it  became  a  degree  of  honour,  and  v>i 
made  hereditary.  The  first  viscount  in  England  created  by  patent  was  John,  lord 
Beaumont,  whom  Henry  created  viscount  Beaumont,  giving  him  precedence  aboie 
all  barons,  1439,  Feb.  1440. — Ashmole,  This  title,  however,  is  of  older  date  in 
Ireland  and  France.  John  Barry,  lord  Barry,  was  made  viscount  Buttevant,  is 
Ireland,  9  Richard  II.,  1385. — Beatson. 

VISIER,  GRAND.  An  officer  of  the  Ottoman  Porte,  first  appointed  in  1370.  For. 
merly  this  officer  governed  the  whole  empire  immediately  under  the  grand  seignior; 
he  is  sometimes  called  the  grand  seignior's  lieutenant,  or  vicar  of  the  empire  ;  at  his 
creation,  the  prince's  seal  is  put  into  his  hand,  upon  which  is  engraven  the  emperor's 
name,  which  he  places  in  his  bosom,  and  carries  away  with  him. — Knolles. 

VITTORIA,  Battle  of.-  One  of  the  most  glorious  and  brilliant  victories  recorded  ia 
the  annals  of  England,  obtained  by  the  illustrious  Wellington  over  the  French  annj 


TOL [[  537  ]  WAG 

commanded  by  Jerome  Buonaparte  and  marshal  Jourdan,  June  21,  1813.  Marshal 
Jourdan  lost  151  pieces  of  cannon,  451  waggons  of  ammunition,  all  his  baggage, 
provisions,  cattle,  and  treasure,  with  his  baton  as  a  marshal  of  France.  Continoing 
the  pursuit,  on  the  25th  Wellington  took  Jourdan's  only  remaining  gun  ! 

-  VOLCANOES.  In  different  parts  of  the  earth's  surface,  there  are  above  200  volcanoes^ 
which  have  been  active  in  modern  times.  The  eruptions  of  Mount  Etna  are  recorded 
as  early  as  734  B.C.  by  authentic  historians. — See  Eina,  The  first  eruption  of 
Vesuvius  was  in  a.d.  79. — See  Vesuvius,  The  first  eruption  of  Hecla  is  said  to  have 
occurred  a.d.  1004.  For  an  account  of  the  awful  eruption  of  this  volcano  in  1783, 
see  Iceland,     In  Mexico,  a  plain  was  filled  up  into  a  mountain  more  than  a  thou- 

.  sand  feet  in  height  by  the  burning  lava  from  a  volcano,  in  1759.     A  volcano  in  the 

isle  of  Ferro  broke  out,  Sept.  13,  1777,  which  threw  out  an  immense  quantity  of 
red  water,  that  discoloured  the  sea  for  several  leagues.  A  new  volcano  appeared  in 
one  of  the  Azore  islands.  May  1,  1808. 

.  VOLUNTEERS.  This  species  of  force  armed  in  England,  in  apprehension  of  the 
threatened  invasion  of  revolutionary  France,  1794.  Besides  our  large  army,  and 
85,000  men  voted  for  the  sea,  we  subsidized  40,000  Germans,  raised  our  militia  to 
100,000  men,  and  armed  the  citizens  as  volunteers.  Between  the  years  1798  and 
1804,  when  this  force  was  of.  greatest  amount,  it  numbered  410,000,  of  which 
70,000  were  Irish.     The  English  volunteers  were,  according  to  official  accounts, 

;  341,600  on  Jan.  1, 1804. 

I    VOLUNTEERS,  The  IRISH.     The  first  regiment  of  Irish  volunteers  was  formed  at 

Dublin,  under  command  of  the  duke  of  Leinster,  Oct.  12,  1779.     They  armed 

generally  to  the  amount  of  20,000  men,  and  received  the  unanimous  thanks  of  the 

-^  houses  of  lords  and  commons  in  Ireland,  for  their  patriotism  and  spirit,  for  coming 

'*  forward  and  defending  their  country.     At  the  period  when  the  force  appeared,  Irish 

^  affairs  bore  a  serious  aspect ;  manufactures  had  decreased,  and  foreign  trade  had 

'  been  hurt  by  a  prohibition  of  the  export  of  salted  provisions  and  butter.     No  notice 

^  of  the  complaints  of  the  people  had  been  taken  in  the  English  parliament,  when, 

owing  to  the  alarm  of  an  invasion,  ministers  allowed  the  nation  to  arm,  and  an 

'"*  immense  force  was  soon  raised.     The  Irish  took  this  occasion  to  demand  a  free 

trade,  and  government  saw  there  was  no  trifling  with  a  country  with  arms  in  its 

^-  hands.    The  Irish  parliament  unanimously  addressed  the  king  for  a  free  trade,  and 

f^  it  was  granted,  1779. 

VOLUNTARY  CONTRIBUTIONS.     Public  contributions  for  the  support  of  the 

British  government  against  the  policy  and  designs  of  France :  they  amounted  to  two 

^l  millions  and  a  half  sterling  in  1798.     About  200,000/.  were  transmitted  to  England 

'"  from  India  in  1799.     Sir  Robert  Peel,  of  Bury,  among  other  contributors  of  equal 

amount,  subscribed  10,000/. 

VOSSEM,  Peace  of,  entered  into  between  the  elector  of  Brandenburgh  and  the  king 
/.  of  France  ;  by  this  treaty  the  latter,  Louis  XIV.,  engaged  not  to  assist  the  Dutch, 

^'  against  the  elector,  the  object  of  the  treaty,  signed  June  16,  1673. 

w 

K       VOYAGES.     The  first  great  voyage,  or  voyage  properly  so  called,  was  by  order  of 

Necho,  pharaoh  of  Egypt,  when  some  Phoenician  pilots  sailed  from  Egypt  down  the 

Arabic  Gulf,  round  what  is  now  called  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  entered  the  Medi- 

terannean  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  coasted  along  the  north  of  Africa,  and  at 

length  arrived  in^gypt,  after  a  navigation  of  about  three  years,  604  B.C. — Blair ^ 

*  Herodotus,     The  first  voyage  round  the  world  was  made  by  a  ship,  part  of  a  Spanish 

'  squadron  which  had  been  under  the  command  of  Magellan  (who  was  killed  at  the 

^  Philippine  Islands  in  a  skirmish)  in  1519-20.     The  era  of  voyages  of  discovery  was 

^  ^heend  of  the  eighteenth  century. — See  Circumnavigators f  and  North-  West  Passage* 

W. 

WADHAM  COLLEGE,  Oxford,  founded  by  Nicholas  Wadham,  esq.,  of  Edge,  in 
Somersetshire,  and  Dorothy,  his  wife,  in  a.d.  161 1-12.  It  was  in  this  college,  in  the 
chambers  of  Dr.  Wilkins,  that  the  Royal  Society  was  organised,  1658. — See 
Royal  Society, 

WAGER  OF  BATTEL.    The  trial  by  combat  anciently  allowed  by  law,  whereby  the 


^ 
p 


WAO 


C538] 


WAI. 


dflfenduit  in  aa  appei^  might  fight  with  the  ^peU«nt»  and  make  proof  therebj 
whether  he  was  gnilty  or  innocent  of  the  crime  chaiged  against  him.  Repealed  br 
atatnte  59  Geoi^ge  IIL,  1819.    See  BaiUL 

WAGES.  Hie  wages  of  sondry  workmen  were  first  fixed  hy  act  of  parliameot,  2' 
Edward  1I1.»  l&O.  Haymakers  had  hut  <»ie  penny  a  day.  Master  carpeoten 
masons,  tylers,  and  other  covereia  of  houses,  had  not  more  than  3iL  per  day  (ab<%: 
fkL  of  oar  money) ;  and  their  servants,  l^d. — Viner'g  Statutes,  By  the  23d  Hear 
VI.,  1444,  the  wages  of  a  hailiff  of  husbandry  was  23«.  4d.  per  annum,  and  dotfaiif 
of  the  price  of  6t»  with  meat  and  drink ;  chief  hind,  carter,  or  sh^herd,  20«.,  doth- 
ing  4s.;  common  servant  of  husbandly  I^.,  dothiag  4(k/.;  woman-earant  lOi. 
clothing  4s.  By  the  1 1th  Henry  VII.,  1495,  there  was  a  like  rate  of  wages,  only  wi-i 
a  littls  advance  x  aa,  for  instance,  a  free  mason,  master  carpenter,  rough  masov. 
brieklaver,  master  tyler,  plumber,  glazier,  carver,  or  joiner,  was  allowed  from  Easter 
to  Michaelmas  to  take  6a.  a  day,  without  meat  and  drink ;  or  with  meat  and  drink. 
4(/. ;  from  Michaelmas  to  Easter,  to  abate  \d.  A  master  having  under  him  six  ma 
was  allowed  IdL  a  day  extra.    The  following  were  the 

WAGCs  or  HARTBsr^acH  nr  aNouLiCD  at  oiFFaRBirr  pebiobs. 


Tear, 

#.  d. 

Tear, 

«.   d* 

Tear. 

1. 

In  1390 

per  diem. 

0    1 

In  1688 

perdUm. 

0    8 

Inl788 

per  diem. 

1 

Inl46U 

ditto 

0    S 

In  1716 

ditto 

0    9 

In  1794 

ditto 

1 

In  IMS 

ditto 

0    4 

In  1740 

ditto 

0  10 

In  1800 

ditto 

9 

Inl63S 

ditto 

0    6 

In  1760 

ditto 

1    0 

In  1840 

ditto 

3 

WAGGONS.  Those  of  the  description  now  going  out  of  London  from  the  carriers' 
inns  were  rare  in  the  last  century.  Joseph  Brasbridge,  writing  in  1824,  says, "  I 
recollect  the  first  large  broad-wheeled  waggon  that  was  used  in  Oxfordshire,  and  i 
wondering  crowd  of  apectators  its  vast  size  attracted.  I  believe  at  the  time  tiien 
was  not  a  post-coach  in  England,  except  two-wheeled  ones.  Lamps  to  carriages  are 
also  a  modem  improvement.  A  shepherd,  who  was  keeping  sheep  in  the  vicinity  of 
a  village  in  Oxfordshire,  came  running  over  to  say,  that  a  frightful  monster,  with 
saucer-eyes,  and  making  a  great  blowing  noise,  was  coming  towards  the  villase. 
This  monster  turned  out  to  be  a  post-chaise  with  lamps."  Waggons,  together  with 
carts,  vans,  &c.,  not  excepting  those  used  in  agriculture,  were  taxed  in  1783. — StaL 

WAGRAM,  Battle  of,  between  the  Austrian  and  French  armies,  in  which  the  latter 
was  completely  victorious,  and  the  former  entirely  overthrown.  The  slaughter  ob 
both  sides  was  dreadful;  20,000  Austrians  were  taken  by  the  French,  and  the 
defeated  army  retired  to  Moravia,  July  5,  1809.  This  battle  led  to  an  armistice, 
signed  on  the  12th ;  and  on  Oct.  24,  to  a  treaty  of  peace,  by  which  Austria  ceded  ■ 
all  her  sea-coast  to  France,  and  the  kingdoms  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria  were  enlarged 
at  her  expense.  The  emperor  was  obUged  also  to  yield  a  part  of  his  plunder  of 
Poland  in  Gallicia  to  Russia.  The  emperor  also  acknowledged  Joseph  Buonaparte 
as  king  of  Spain. 

WAITS.  Those  at  Christmas  are  derived  from  those  choirs  of  angels  that  attended  the 
birth  of  Christ ;  in  imitation  of  these,  shepherds  in  ancient  times  used  to  usher  is 
Christmas  with  music  and  carols  :  the  pastoraliy  or  rural  music,  performed  by  tbf 
Calabrian  shepherds,  on  bag-pipes,  are  of  this  nature. 

WAKEFIELD,  Battle  of,  between  Margaret,  the  queen  of  Henry  VI.,  and  the  dnke 
of  York,  in  which  the  latter  was  slain,  and  3000  Yorkists  fel^  upon  the  field.  Tie 
death  of  the  duke,  who  aspired  to  the  crown,  seemed  to  fix  the  good  fortune  of  Mir- 
garet ;  but  the  earl  of  Warwick  espoused  the  cause  of  his  son,  the  earl  of  March, 
afterwards  Edward  IV.,  and  the  cinl  war  that  was  continued  from  that  time  dens- 
tated  all  England.    This  battle  was  fought  December  31,  1460. 

WAKES.  See  Vigxh,  Every  church  at  its  consecration  received  the  name  pf  some 
particular  saint ;  this  practice  existed  among  the  Romans  and  Britons,  and  was  con- 
tinued among  the  Saxons. —  Whitaker,  Women  were  hired  among  the  ancieat 
Romans  to  weep  at  funerals  :  they  were  called  Carina,  The  Irish  howl  originated 
from  this  Roman  outcry  at  the  decease  of  their  friends.  They  hoped  thus  to  awakes 
the  soul,  which  they  supposed  might  lie  inactive. 

WAL6ROOK  CHURCH,  London.  Famous  all  over  Europe,  and  justly  reputed  the 
masterpiece  of  sir  Christopher  Wren.  It  is  more  celebrated  on  the  Continent  than 
the  cathedral  of  St.  Paul's  or  Westminster  Abbey.    Perhaps  Italy  itself  can  produce 


WAL 


C539] 


WAL 


no  modern  building  that  can  vie  with  this  in  taste  or  proportion.     There  is  not  a 

beauty  which  the  plan  woald  admit  of,  that  is  not  to  be  found  in  perfection.     There 

was  a  church  in  this  parish  as  early  as  1135.    A  new  church  was  erected  in  1429. 

The  first  stone  of  the  present  church  was  laid  in  1672  ;  and  the  edifice,  as  it  now 

stands,  was  completed  in  1679. 

WALCHEREN  EXPEDITION.    The  memorable  and  unfortunate  expedition  of  the 

British  to  Walcheren  consisted  of  35  ships  of  the  line,  and  200  smaller  Tcssels, 

principally  transports,  and  40,000  land  forces,  the  latter  under  the  command  of  the 

earl  of  Chatham,  and  the  fleet  under  sir  Richard  Strahan.     For  a  long  time  the 

destination  of  this  expedition  remained  secret;  but  before  July  28,  1809,  when  it  set 

sail,  the  French  journals  had  announced  that  Walcheren  was  the  point  of  attack. 

Perhaps  a  more  powerful  and  better  appointed  armament  never  left  the  British  ports, 

and  none  ever  more  completely  disappointed  public  expectation.    Flushing  was 

invested  in  August,  and  a  dreadful  bombardment  followed ;  but  no  suggestion  on  the 

part  of  the  naval  commander,  nor  urgency  on  the  part  of  the  officers,  could  induce 

the  earl  to  vigorous  action,  until  the  period  of  probable  success  was  gone,  and 

necessity  obliged  him  to  return  with  the  troops  that  disease  and  an  unhealthy 

climate  had  spared.    The  place  was  completely  evacuated,  December  23,  1809. 

The  house  of  commons  instituted  an  inquiry,  and  lord  Chatham  resigned  his  post 

of  master-general  of  the  ordnance,  to  prevent  greater  disgrace ;  but  the  policy  of 

ministers  in  planning  the  expedition  was,  nevertheless,  approved. 

WALDENSES.  The  persecution  of  this  sect  in  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century 
led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Holy  Office  or  Inquisition.  Pope  Innocent  III.  had 
commissioned  some  monks  to  preach  against  the  heresies  of  the  Waldenses  in  Nar- 
bonne  and  Provence ;  but  the  Catholic  bishops  were  at  first  jealous  of  this  mission, 
armed  as  it  was  with  great  power,  and  the  feudal  chiefs  refused  to  obey  the  orders  of 
the  legates,  a.d.  1203,  4.  One  of  the  monks,  the  first  inquisitor,  Peter  Chateauneuf, 
having  been  assassinated,  the  aspiring  pontiff  called  on  all  the  neighbouring  powers 
to  march  into  the  heretical  district.  All  obstinate  heretics  were  placed  at  the  dis- 
posal of  Simon  de  Montfort,  commander  of  this  crusade,  and  the  whole  race  of  the 
Waldenses  and  Albigenses  were  ordered  to  be  pursued  with  fire  and  sword.  Neither 
sex,  age,  nor  condition  was  spared ;  the  country  became  a  wilderness,  and  the  towns 
heaps  of  smoking  ruins.  Such  was  the  era  of  the  Inquisition.  Dominic  de  Guzman 
was  constituted  first  inquisitor-general,  1208. 

WALES.  After  the  Roman  emperor  Honorius  quitted  Britain,  Yortigern  was  elected 
king  of  South  Britain,  and  he  invited  over  the  Saxons  to  defend  his  country  against 
the  Picts  and  Scots  ;  but  the  Saxons  perfidiously  sent  for  reinforcements,  consisting 
of  Saxons,  Danes,  and  Angles,  by  which  they  made  themselves  masters  of  South 
Britain,  and  most  of  the  ancient  Britons  retired  to  Wales,  and  defended  themselves 
against  the  Saxons,  in  its  inaccessible  mountains,  about  a.d.  447.  In  this  state 
Wales  remained  unconquered  till  Henry  II.  subdued  South  Wales  in  1157 ;  and  in 
1282  Edward  I.  entirely  reduced  the  whole  country,  putting  an  end  to  its  independ- 
ency by  the  death  of  Llewellyn,  the  last  prince.  The  Welsh,  however,  were  not 
entirely  reconciled  to  this  revolution,  till  the  queen  happening  to  be  brought  to  bed  of 
a  son  at  Carnarvon  in  1284,  Edward  with  great  policy  styled  him  prince  of  Wales, 
which  title  the  heir  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain  has  borne  almost  ever  since. 
Wales  was  united  and  incorporated  with  England  by  act  of  parliament,  28  Henry 
VIll.  1536.— See  Briiain. 

993.  Edwal  ap  Meyrio  ap  Eidwal  Yoel. 

998.  Adaea  ap  Blegored,  a  usurper. 
1015.  Llewellyn  ap  Sitsyllt,  and  Angharad  his 

wife, 
1021.  Jago  ap  Edwal  ap  Meyric. 
1038.  Griffith  ap  Llewelyn  ap  Bitsyllt. 
1061.  Bleddyn  and  Rygwallon. 
1079.  Trahaem  ap  Caradoc. 
1079.  Griffith  ap  Conan. 
1137.  Owen  Gwynedh. 
1169.  David  ap  Owen  Gwynedh. 
1194.  Leolinus  Magnua. 
1240.  David  ap  Llewelyn. 
1246.  LIcwelyii  ap  Griffith  ;  last  prince  of  the 
bloody  slain  in  1282. 


fUNGfl  OF  WALBS. 

Aj>.  668.  Idwallo. 
720.  Roderick. 
755.  Conan. 
818.  Mervyn. 
843.  Roderick,  sumamed  the  Great 

PHINCaS  OF  NORTH  WALES. ' 

877*  Anarawd. 
913.  Eidwal  Yoel. 

.  939.  Howel  Dha,  prince  of  all  Wales. 
948.  Jevaf  and  Jago. 
972.  Howel  ap  Jevaf. 

984.  Cadwallon  ap  Jevaf. 

985.  Meredith  ap  Owen  ap  IIowcl  Dha. 


WAL 


[640] 


WAR 


1222.  Owen  ap  Griffifh. 

123S.  Meredith  ap  Owen  ;  he  died  in  lasj. 

PRINCKS  AKD  L0K08  OF   FOWYS-IAND. 

877*  Merfyn. 

900.  Cadeth,  prince  of  South  Wales. 

927.  Howel  Dha,  prince  of  all  Wales. 

927.  Gwaithvoed  Yawr. 

927.  Gwerj'stan  ap  Gwaithroed. 

927«  Convyn  ap  Gwerygan. 
1061.  Bledbyn  ap  Ck>nv7n. 
1073.  Meredith  ap  Bledhyn. 
1122.  Madoc  ap  Meredith. 
HOD.  Griffith  ap  Meredith. 
HGOl  Owen  Cyvelioc 
1256.  Gwenwinwin. 
1256.  Griffith  ap  Gwenwinwin. 
1256.  Owen  ap  Griffith. 


WALES,  c9tU%nued, 

piuMcae  or  mmttb  wai.18. 
aj>.  877.  f^ttdeth. 
907.  Howel  Dha. 
948.  Owen  ap  Howel  Dha. 
987*  Meredith  ap  Owen. 
983.  Llewelyn  ap  SitqrUt  and  Angharad  his 

wife. 
1021.  Rythoreh  ap  Jeetyn,  a  asurper. 
1031.  Howel  and  Meredith. 
1042.  Kytheroh  and  Rye,  the  eons  of  the 

usorper. 
1061.  Meredith  ap  Owen  Vj^  Edwyn. 
1073.  Rya  ap  Owen,  and  Yythercfa  ap  Camdoe. 
1077>  Ryt  ap  Teudwr  Mawr. 
111&  Griffith  ap  Rye. 
1 137.  Rye  ap  Griffilth,  caUed  the  lord  Rye. 
1196.  Griffith  apRya 
1202.  Rye  ap  Griffith. 

WALES,  Paincbss  op.  Before  the  birth  of  male  issue  to  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  be 
created  his  daughter,  Mary,  princess  of  Wales,  the  first  and  only  princess  of  Wales 
in  her  own  right,  a  title  she  enjoyed  until  the  birth  of  a  son  to  Henry,  who  wai 
sfterwards  Edward  VI.  i  1537. 

WALL1S'  VOYAGE.  Captain  Wallis  set  sail  from  England  on  his  voyage  round  the 
world  July  26,  1766;  and  accomplishing  his  Toyage,  he  returned  to  England  May 
20,  1768,  a  period  of  less  than  two  years. — See  Circumnavigators. 

WALLOONS.  The  people  who  fled  to  England  from  the  persecution  of  the  cruel  duke 
of  Alva,  the  governor  of  the  Low  Countries  for  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  On  acooant  of 
the  dttke*s  religious  proscriptions,  those  countries  revolted  from  Philip,  1566.— 
Mariana^t  IHmL  of  Spain,  The  Walloons  were  well  received  in  England.  Ahr^ 
protestant  church  was  given  to  them  by  queen  Elizabeth,  at  Canterbury,  and  muy 
of  their  posterity  still  remain  in  this  part  of  England. — Pardon. 

WALNUT-TREE.  This  tree  has  existed  a  long  time  in  England.  Near  Welwyn,  in 
Hertfordshire,  there  was  the  largest  walnut-tree  on  record ;  it  was  felled  in 
1627,  and  from  it  were  cut  nineteen  loads  of  planks :  and  as  much  was  sold  to  a 
gunsmith  in  London  as  cost  10/.  carriage;  besides  which  there  were  thirty  loads 
of  roots  and  branches.  When  standing,  it  covered  seventy-six  poles  of  ground; 
consequently  this  tree  covered  a  space  equal  to  2299  square  yards  statute  measure. 
A  sitting-room  twelve  feet  in  diameter  was  lately  shown  in  London,  hollowed 
from  an  American  walnut-tree,  eighty  feet  in  the  trunk,  and  150  feet  in  the 
branches.  The  black  walnut-tree  {Juglam  nigra)  was  brought  from  North  Amezia 
before  1629. 

WANDERING  JEW.  The  following  is  the  strange  account  given  of  this  personage. 
— His  original  name  was  Calaphilus,  Pontius  Pilate's  porter.  When  they  were  draf- 
ging  Jesus  out  of  the  door  of  the  Judgment-hall,  he  struck  him  on  the  back,  sayiis. 
*'  Go  faster,  Jesus  !  go  faster ;  why  dost  thou  linger  V  Upon  which  Jesus  looked 
on  him  with  a  frown,  and  said,  *'  I  am  indeed  going;  but  thou  shalt  tarry  tiC 
I  come."  Soon  after  he  was  converted,  and  took  the  name  of  Joseph.  He  lives  for 
ever ;  but  at  the  end  of  every  hundred  years  falls  into  a  fit  or  trance,  upon  which, 
when  he  recovers,  he  returns  to  the  same  state  of  youth  he  was  in  when  our  Sarioor 
suffered,  being  about  thirty  years  of  age.  He  always  preserves  the  utmost  gravity  of 
deportment.  He  was  never  seen  to  smile.  He  perfectly  remembers  the  death  and 
resurrection  of  Christ. — Calmet's  Hist,  of  the  Bible. 

WANDSWORTH.  In  this  village,  near  London,  was  established  the  first  place  of 
worship  for  Dissenters  in  England,  Nov.  20,  1572.  And  in  Garret-lane,  near  this 
place,  a  mock  election  was  formerly  held,  after  every  general  election  of  parliament, 
of  a  mayor  of  Garret ;  to  which  Footers  dramatic  piece  of  that  name  gave  no  small 
celebrity. 

WARBECK'S  INSURRECTION.  Perkin  Warbeck,  the  son  of  a  Florentine  Jew,  to 
whom  Edward  IV.  had  stood  godfather,  was  persuaded  by  Margaret,  duchess  of  Bar- 
gundy,  sister  to  Richard  III.,  to  personate  her  nephew  Richard,  Edward  V.'s  brother, 
which  he  did  first  in  Ireland,  where  he  landed,  1492.    The  imposture  was  discovered 


WAR 


[541] 


WAR 


bj  Henry  Vll.,  1493.  Made  an  attempt  to  land  in  Kent  with  600  men,  when  150 
were  taken  prisoners  and  executed,  1495.  Recommended  by  the  king  of  France  to 
James  IV.  of  Scotland,  who  gave  him  his  kinswoman,  Lord  Huntley's  daughter,  in 
marriage,  the  same  year.  James  IV.  invaded  England  in  his  favour,  1496.  Left 
Scotland,  and  went  to  Bodmin,  in  Cornwall,  where  3000  joined  him,  and  he  took 
the  title  of  Richard  lY.,  1497.  Taken  prisoner  by  Henry  VIL,  1498.  Set  in  the 
stocks  at  Westminster  and  Cheapside,  and  sent  to  the  Tower^  1499.  Plotted  with 
the  earl  of  Warwick  to  escape  out  of  the  Tower,  by  murdering  the  lieutenant,  for 
which  he  was  hanged  at  Tyburn,  1499. 

WARE,  Great  Bed  of.  In  the  town  of  Ware,  Herts,  at  a  public  inn,  was  the  cele- 
brated bed  called  the  great  bed  of  Ware.  It  was  twelve  fe^t  square,  and  it  is  said 
that  forty  people  could  sleep  at  a  time  in  it.  The  only  method  possible,  however,  to 
realise  this  seems  to  be  to  place  them  in  a  circle  with  their  feet  to  the  centre. 

WARS.  War  is  called  by  Erasmus  "  the  malady  of  princes.''  Scriptural  writers  date 
the  first  war  as  having  been  begun  by  the  impious  son  of  Cain,  3563  b.c.  Osyman- 
dyas  of  Egypt  was  the  first  warlike  king ;  he  passed  into  Asia,  and  conquered  Bactria, 
2100  B.C. —  Usher,  He  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  Osiris  of  the  priests.  The 
most  famous  siege  recorded  in  the  annals  of  antiquity  was  that  of  Troy,  1193 — 1184 
B.C.  The  longest  siege  was  that  of  Azoth,  647  b.c.  The  most  famous  sortie  was 
that  of  the  Platseans  from  their  city,  428  B.C.  It  is  computed  that  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  world  to  the  present  time,  no  less  than  6,860,000,000  of  men  have 
perished  in  the  field  of  battle,  being  about  seven  times  as  many  of  the  human  species 
as  now  inhabit  our  whole  earth. 

WARS,  Civil,  of  Great  Britain.  The  most  remarkable  civil  wars  of  Great  Britain 
are  the  following : — That  of  a.o.  1215-16.  The  war  of  the  barons  against  Henry  III., 
1265;  of  the  usurpation  of  Henry  IV.,  1400;  of  the  White  and  Red  Roses,  or 
houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  from  1452  to  1471.  The  war  between  Richard  III. 
and  Henry  VII.,  1485.  The  war  against  Charles  I.  from  1642  to  1651.  The  Scot- 
tish civil  war  under  the  Pretender,  1715-16  ;  that  under  the  Young  Pretender,  1745. 
In  Ireland,  that  under  Tyrone,  1599 ;  under  O'Neill,  1641 ;  and  that  produced  by 
the  great  rebellion,  1798. — See  Rebellions^  &c. 

WARS,  Foreign,  of  Great  Britain.  The  wars  in  France,  in  which  England  was 
involved  for  nearly  two  centuries,  arose  from  the  dukes  of  Normandy  being  kings  of 
England.  They  held  Normandy  as  a  fief  of  the  crown  of  France ;  and  when  William 
I.  conquered  England,  it  became  an  English  province,  but  was  lost  in  the  reign  of 
king  John,  1204.  Our  wars  with  France  were  many  :  the  English  princes  gained 
bloody  victories  at  Cressy,  Poictiers,  and  Agincourt ;  but  they  were  finally  driven 
out  of  France  in  the  reign  of  our  Henry  VI.,  and  lost  Calais,  by  surprise,  in  the 
reign  of  Mary.  It  was  to  the  English  people  a  fortunate  loss  ;  but  the  rival  policy 
and  interests  of  the  two  governments  have,  ever  since  then,  caused  half  as  many 
years  of  war  as  of  peace. — See  the  countries  respectively.  Battles,  ^c. 


FORXION  WARS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  BINGE  THE  CONQUEST. 


War  with  Scotland,  1068 

France,  1116 

■  Scotland,  U38 

France,  1161 

■  France,  1194 

France,  1201 

France,  1224 

France,  1294 

Scotland,  1296 

Scotland,  1327 

France,  1339 

■  France,  1368 

France,  1422 

France,  1492 

■  France,  1512 

France,  1522 

Scotland,  1522 


Peace 


1092 
1118 
'  1139 
1186 
1195 
1216 
1234 
1299 
1323 
1328 
1360 
1420 
1471 
sameyr. 
1514 
1627 
1542 


War  with  Scotland,  1542 

• Scotland,  1547 

■  France,  1549 
I  ■  France,  1557 

■  Scotland,  1557 

France,  1562 

Spain,  1588 

Spain,  1624 

-  France,  1627 
■  Holland,  1651 

■  Spain,  1665 

France,  1666 

-  Denmark,  1666 

Holland,  1666 

Algiers,  1669 

^  Holland,  1672 

'  France, 


The  general  peace 
Spain,  was  signed 
Sept.  20,  1697.     It 


of  Ryswick  between  England,  Germany,  Holland, 
by  the  ministers  of  these  powers,  at  the  palace 
concluded  this  last  war. 


Peace  1546 

15.'M) 

1550 

1659 

1560 

1564 

1604 

1629 

1629 

1654 

1660 

1668 

1668 

1668 

1671 

1674 

1697 

France,  and 
of  Ryswick, 


War  with  Spain,  April  17, 1780.  dosed  aanifi 
time»  Jan.  20, 1783. 

War  with  Holland,  Dec.  21,  1780.  Peace 
signed,  Sept.  3, 17^ 

War  of  the  Bevolvtion,  Feb.  1, 179a  Peace 
of  Amiens,  March  27, 1802. 

War  against  Buonaparte,  April  29,  1803.  Fi- 
nally closed,  Jane  18, 1815. 

War  with  America,  June  18,  1812.  Peaoe  o£ 
Ghent,  Dec.  24. 1814. 

For  the  wars  with  India  and  China,  fleefboae 
countries  respectively. 


WAR  f  542  ]  WAS 

WARS,  FoRBiON,  OP  Grbat  Britain — continued. 

TBB  ORBAT  IIODBRN  AND  KZPKIf 8TVX  WARS  OF  ORXAT  BBITAIN. 

War  of  the  Succession,  commenced  May  4,     War  with  France,  Feb.  6,  177&      Peace  <4 
1702.    Peaoe  of  Utrecht,  March  13, 1713.  Paris,  Jan.  20, 1783. 

War  with  Spain,  Dec  16, 1718.    Peaoe  con- 
cluded, 1721. 

War ;  the  ^rjMifiiM  War,  Oct  23,  iTaa    Pfeaoe 
of  Aiz-lA^liapelle,  Aprfl  30, 174a 

War  with  France,  March  31,  1744.    Closed 
also  on  April  30, 1748. 

War;  the  Seven  pears*  tsar,  June  9,  1756. 
Peaoe  of  Paris,  Feb.  10, 1763. 

War  with  Spain,  Jan.  4, 1762.    General  peace 
of,  Feb.  10, 1763L 

War  with  America,  July  14,  1774.    Peaoe  of 
Paris,  Not.  30, 1782. 

In  the  war  againit  Baonapaite,  the  gpreat  powers  of  Earope  leagued  sometiines  with, 
and  sometimes  against  Great  Britain.  England  spent  65  years  in  war,  and  62  in. 
peace,  in  the  127  years  prenons  to  the  close  of  the  last  war  in  1815.  In  the  war  of 
1688,  we  spent  36  millions  sterling ;  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  SuecesHoBf  62 
millions ;  in  the  SpanUh  waTf  54  millions ;  in  the'  Seven  Years'  war,  112  milliona ; 
in  the  American  war,  136  millions ;  in  the  war  of  the  French  Revolution,  464 
millions  ;  and  in  the  war  against  Buonaparte^  1159  millions ;  thns  forming  a  total 
expenditure  for  war,  in  127  years  (from  the  Revolation  in  1688  to  the  downfal  of 
Napoleon  in  1815),  of  2023  millions  of  pounds  sterling.  M.  de  Pradt  estimates  the 
loss  of  life  sustained  by  the  French  forces  in  the  six  campaigns  of  the  Peninsular 
war  at  six  hundred  thousand  men.  The  loss  sustained  by  the  Spaniards  and  their 
allies  was  probably  as  great.  During  the  war  many  districts  of  the  Peninsula  were 
from  time  to  time  laid  waste  by  the  contending  armies,  and  the  inhabitants  were 
victims  to  all  the  calamities  and  horrors  thus  produced.  The  total  destruction  of  hu- 
man beings  in  this  last  war  must  have  amounted  to  one  million  two  hundred  thoosand. 

WARSAW.  Late  the  metropolis  of  Poland.  The  diet  was  transferred  to  this  city 
from  Cracow,  in  1566.  Warsaw  surrendered  to  Charles  XII.  in  1703.  It  has  been 
a  great  prey  to  war  of  late  years.  In  the  beginning  of  1794,  the  empress  of  Russia 
put  a  garrison  into  this  city,  in  order  to  compel  the  Poles  to  acquiesce  in  the  usur- 
pations she  had  in  view;  but  this  garrison  was  expelled  by  the  citizens,  with  the  loss 
of  2000  killed  and  500  wounded,  and  36' pieces  of  cannon,  April  17,  1794.  The 
king  of  Prussia  besieged  Warsaw  in  July  1794,  but  was  compelled  to  raise  the  siege 
in  September,  same  year.  It  was  taken  by  the  Russians  in  the  November  following. 
See  next  article.  Warsaw  was  constituted  a  duchy  and  annexed  to  the  house  of 
Saxony  in  August  1807  ;  but  the  duchy  was  overrun  by  the  Russians  in  1813,  and 
soon  afterwards  Warsaw  again  became  the  residence  of  a  Russian  viceroy.  The  late 
Polish  revolution  commenced  here,  November  29, 1830.     See  Poland, 

^yARSAW,  Battles  of.  The  Poles  suffered  a  great  defeat  in  a  battle  with  the 
Russians,  October  10,  12,  1794;  and  Suwarrow,  th6  Russian  general,  after  the 
siege  and  destruction  of  Warsaw,  cruelly  1)utchered  30,000  Poles,  of  aU  ages  and 
conditions,  in  cold  blood,  Nov.  8,  1794.  The  battle  preceding  tiie  surrender  was 
very  bloody ;  of  26,000  men,  more  than  10,000  were  killed,  nearly  10,000  were 
made  prisoners,  and  2000  only  escaped  the  fiiry  of  the  merciless  conqueror.  Battle 
of  Growchow,  near  Warsaw,  in  which  the  Russians  were  defeated,  and  forced  to 
retreat  with  the  loss  of  7000  men,  Feb.  20,  1831.  .  Battle  of  Warsaw,  when,  after 
two  days*  hard  fighting,  the  city  capitulated,  and  was  taken  possession  of  by  the 
Russians.  Great  part  of  the  Polish  army  retired  towards  Plock  and  Modlin.  This 
last  battle  was  fought  Sept.  7  and  8,  1831. 

WARSAW,  Treaties  of.  The  treaty  of  alliance  of  Warsaw,  between  Austria  and 
Poland,  against  Turkey,  in  pursuance  of  which  John  Sobieski  assisted  in  raising  the 
siege  of  Vienna  (on  the  18th  of  September  following),  signed  March  31,  1683. 
Treaty  of  Warsaw,  between  Russia  and  Poland,  Feb.  24, 1768. 

WASqiNGTON.  The  capital  of  the  United  States,  founded  in  1791,  and  first  made 
the  seat  of  government  in  1800.  The  house  of  representatives  was  opened  for  the 
first  time,  May  30,  1808.    Washington  was  taken  in  the  late  war  by  the  British 


WAS  Q  543  ]  WAT 

'  «^  forces  under  general  Ross,  when  all  its  saperb  national  stmctnres  were  consumed  by 

'^  w  a  general  conflagration,  the  troops  not  sparing  even  the  national  library,  August  24, 

_  ..  1814.    General  Ross  was  soon  afterwards  killed  by  some  American  riflemen,  in  a 

\  '  desperate  engagement  at  Baltimore,  Sept.  12,  following. — See  United  Slates, 

"s-VASTE  LANDS.    The  inclosure  of  waste  lands  and  commons,  in  order  to  promote 

agriculture,  first  began  in  England  about  the  year  I547>  and  gave  rise  to  Ket's 

-  '     rebellion,  1549.     Inclosures  again  promoted  by  the  authority  of  parliament,  1785. 

The  waste  lands  in  England  were  estimated  in  1794  to  amount  to  14  millions  of 

acres,  of  which  there  were  taken  into  cultivation,  2,837,476  acres  before  June  1801. 

1      There  are  now  about  6,700,000  acres* of  waste  land,  of  which  more  than  half  is 

r      capable  of  improvement.     See  Agriculture, 

"WATCH  OF  LONDON.    The  nighdy  watch  of  London  was  first  appointed  38  Henry 

III.,  1253.     This  species  of  protection  was  not  thought  of  previously  to  that  year. — 

'"'       Stowe*s  Chron.    Watchmen  were  first  appointed  in  London  with  a  bell,  with  which 

'"^       they  proclaimed  the  hour  of  the  night  before  the  introduction  of  public  clocks. — 

'.-'S       Hardie,    The  old  watch  were  discontinued,  and  a  new  force  commenced  duty,  Sept. 

29,  1829.     See  Police. 

-'^'WATCHES.  They  are  said  to  have  been  first  invented  at  Nuremberg,  a.d.  1477 ; 
although  it  is  affirmed  that  Robert,  king  of  Scotland,  had  a  watch  about  a.d.  1310. 

"  -  Watches  were  first  used  in  astronomical  observations  by  Purbach,  1500.  Authors 
assert  that  the  emperor  Charles  V.  was  the  first  who  had  anything  that  might  be 
called  a  watch,  though  some  call  it  a  small  table-clock,  1530.  Watches  were  first 
brought  to  England  from  Germany,  in  1577. — Hume,  Spring  pocket- watches 
(watches  properly  so  called)  have  had  their  Invention  ascribed  to  Dr.  Hooke  by  the 
English,  and  to  M.  Huygens  by  the  Dutch.  Dr.  Derham,  in  his  Artificial  Clock- 
maker f  says  that  Dr.  Hooke  was  the  inventor ;  and  he  appears  certainly  to  have 
produced  what  is  called  the  pendulum  watch.  The  time  of  this  invention  was  about 
1658 ;  as  is  manifest,  among  other  evidences,  from  an  inscription  on  one  of  the 
double-balance  watches  presented  to  Charles  II.,  viz.,  "  Rob.  Hooke  inven.  1658.    T. 

T  Tompion  fecit,  1675."     Repeating  watches  were  invented  by  Barlowe,  1 676.     Har- 

^  rison's  time-piece  was  invented  in  1735 ;  improved  1739, 1749,  and  1753.     In  1759, 

he  made  the  time-piece  which  procured  him  the  reward  of  20,000/. ,  offered  by  the 
Board  of  Longitude,  1763.  Watches  and  clocks  were  taxed  in  1797.  The  tax  was 
repealed  in  1798.     See  Clocks. 

-     WATER.     Thales  of  Miletus,  founder  of  the  Ionic  sect,  looked  upon  water  (as  also 

did  Homer,  and  several  of  the  ancient  philosophers)  as  being  the  original  principle 

of  everything  besides,  about  594  b.c. — Stanley,    It  is  the  universal  drink  of  man. 

\'  The  ancients  usually  diluted  their  vrines  with  much  water ;  and  Hesiod  prescribes 

^.  three  measures  of  water  to  one  of  wine  in  summer. — Madame  Dacier.    In  the  Roman 

^  church  water  was  first  mixed  with  the  sacramental  wine,  a.d.  122. — Lenglet.  '*  Honest 

."  water  is  too  weak  to  be  a  sinner  ;  it  never  left  a  man  in  the  mire." — Shahspeare. 

",  WATER  IN  LONDON.  Water  was  first  conveyed  to  London  by  leaden  pipes,  21 
Henry  III.,  1237. — Stowe,   It  took  near  fifty  years  to  complete  it ;  the  whole  being 

'  finished,  and  Cheapside  conduit  erected,  only  in  1285.     The  New  River  water  was 

brought  to  London  from  Amwell  in  Hertfordshire,  at  an  immense  expense,  by  sir 

^  Hugh  Middleton,  in  1613.     The  city  was  supplied  with  its  water,  by  conveyances  of 

wooden  pipes  in  the  streets  and  small  leaden  ones  to  the  houses,  and  the  New 

^  River  Company  incorporated,  J  620.     So  late  as  queen  Anne's  time  there  were  water- 

carriers  at  Aldgate  pump.     London  is  now  supplied  by  eight  companies.     The 

'  water- works  at  Chelsea  were  completed,  and   the  company   incorporated,    1722. 

*  London- bridge  ancient  waterworks  were  destroyed  by  fire,  Oct.  29,  1779. 

\\  WATER-CLOCKS.  The  first  instruments  used  to  measure  the  lapse  of  time,  inde- 
pendently  of  the  sunshine,  were  clepsydra^  or  water-clocks.  These  were  most 
probably  vessels  of  water,  with  a  small  hole  through  the  bottom  :  through  this  hole 

|,  the  water  ran  out  in  a  certain  time,  possibly  an  hour ;  after  which  the  vessel  was 

'  again  filled  to  be  emptied  as  before.     This  invention  was  a  manifest  improvement 

on  the  old  sun-dials,  whose  perpendicular  gnomon  gave  hours  of  different  length  at 
the  various  seasons  of  the  year.     Something  similar  to  the  hour-glass  w«s  occa- 

I  sionally  used ;  and  our  Alfred,  probably  ignorant  of  these  methods,  adopted  the 

^  burning  of  a  taper  as  a  measure  of  time. 


WAT  £  644  ]  M^AT 

WATER-MILLS.  Used  for  grinding  corn,  invented  by  Belisarios,  the  general  of  JoaD- 
niuii  while  besieged  in  Rome  by  the  Goths,  a.i>.  555.  The  ancients  parched  tlic: 
com,  and  poanded  it  in  mortars.  Afterwards  mills  were  invented,  which  were  taroec 
by  men  and  beasts  with  great  labour ;  and  yet  Pliny  mentions  wheels  turned  by  water. 

WATER  TOP  ANA,  o&  Wit£s'  Poison.  See  article  Poia<ming.  The  poison  k 
finely  administered  by  Italians  in  the  1 7th  centory,  called  aqua  tofana,  from  tbr 
name  of  the  woman  Tofania,  who  made  and  sold  it  in  small  flat  vials.  She  canir. 
on  this  traffic  for  h«lf  a  century,  and  eladed  the  police  ;  but  on  being  taken,  oos- 
fessed  that  she  had  been  a  party  in  poisoning  600  people.  Namerous  persons  wm 
implicated  by  her,  and  many  of  them  weipe  pablidy  executed.  All  Italy  was  thro«i 
into  a  ferment,  and  many  fled,  and  some  persons  of  distinction,  on  conviction,  were 
strangled  in  prison.  It  appeared  to  have  been  chiefly  used  by  married  women  who 
were  tired  of  their  husbands.  Four  or  six  drops  were  a  fatal  dose  ;  but  the  effect 
was  not  sudden,  and  therefore  not  suspected.  It  was  as  clear  as  water,  but  the 
chemists  have  not  agreed  about  its  real  composition.  A  proclamation  of  the  Pope 
described  it  as  aquafortis  distilled  into  arsenic,  and  others  considered  it  as  a  soiutioi 
of  crystallised  arsenic.  The  secret  of  its  preparation  was  conveyed  to  Paris,  where 
the  marchioness  de  Brinvilliers  poisoned  her  father  and  two  brothers  ;  and  she  with 
many  others  were  executed,  and  the  preparers  burnt  alive. — Phillips, 

WATERFORD.  Originally  built  a.d.  879,  but  was  totally  destroyed  by  fire  in  981. 
Rebuilt  and  considerably  enlarged  byStrongbow  in  1171,  and  still  further  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.,  who  granted  considerable  priTileges  to  the  citizens.  Richanl 
II.  landed  and  was  crowned  here  in  1399  ;  in  1690,  Jan^es  II.  embarked  from  hecce 
for  France,  after  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  ;  and  William  III.  resided  here  twice,  and 
confirmed  its  privileges.  Memorable  storm  here,  April  18,  1792.  The  interior  of 
the  cathedral,  oigan,  &c.  destroyed  by  fire,  Oct.  25,  1815. 

WATERFORD,  Bibhop&ic  of.  The  cathedral  of  Waterford  is  dedicated  to  the 
blessed  Trinity,  and  was  first  built  by  the  Ostmen,  and  by  Malchus,  the  first  bishop 
of  Waterford,  after  his  return  from  England  from  his  consecration,  a.d.  1096.  This 
see  was  united  with  that  of  Lismore  in  1363.  It  was  valued  in  the  king's  books,  bj 
an  extent  returned,  29  Henry  VI II.,  at  72/.  8«.  1^,  Irish  per  annum.  By  statute 
3  and  4  William  IV.,  the  see  of  Waterford  and  Lismore  was  united  with  the 
see  of  Cashel  and  Emly,  August  14,  1833. 

WATERLOO,  Battle  of.  The  most  glorious  victory  ever  won  by  British  arms,  and 
the  most  decLsive  and  happy  in  its  consequences.  In  this  great  battle  the  French 
army,  with  Napoleon  as  its  chief,  was  signally  overthrown  by  the  British  and  allies 
under  the  illustrious  duke  of  Wellington,  June  18,  1815.  Napoleon  attacked  the 
British,  whom  he  expected  to  overwhelm  by  superior  numbers,  but  they  maintained 
their  ground,  and  repulsed  the  enemy  from  about  nine  in  the  morning  till  seven  at 
night,  when  the  French  line  began  to  waver.  The  commander  then  gave  orders  to 
charge  ;  a  total  route  ensued,  and  Blucher,  who  opportunely  came  up  at  this 
juncture,  joined  in  the  pursuit.  On  both  sides  the  carnage  was  immense  ;  but  that 
of  the  French  was  double  the  amount  of  the  British.  Napoleon  quitted  the  wreck 
of  his  flying  army,  and  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  attempted,  after  the  destruction 
of  three  great  armies,  to  raise  a  fourth  ;  but  finding  this  impossible,  his  abdication 
followed.     See  Buonaparte  and  France  *. 

WATERLOO  BRIDGE,  London.  The  erection  of  a  bridge  over  this  part  of  the 
Thames  was  repeatedly  suggested  during  the  last  century,  but  no  actual  preparations 
to  carry  it  into  effect  were  made  till  1806,  when  Mr.  6.  Dodd  procured  an  act  of 
parliament,  and  gave  the  present  Site,  plan,  and  dimensions  of  the  bridge  ;  but,  in 
consequence  of  some  disagreement  with  the  committee,  he  was  superseded  by  Mr. 
Rennie,  who  completed  this  noble  structure.  The  bridge  was  commenced  Oct.  ]  1, 
1811,  and  finished  June  18,  1817,  on  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo, 
when  the  prince  regent,  duke  of  Wellington,  and  other  distinguished  personages 


*  It  is  an  historical  fact,  that  the  British  forces  have  been  twice  signally  successful  over  those  of 
France  on  the  same  ground— Waterloo ;  and  that  by  the  side  of  the  very  chapel  of  Waterloo,  whidi 
was  remarked  for  being  uninjured  by  shot  or  shell  on  the  memorable  18th  of  June,  1815,  did  Marlbo- 
rough clft  off  a  large  division  of  the  French  forces  opposed  to  him  on  the  1 7th  August,  1705.  It  ia  no 
less  a  fact,  that  the  conquerors  of  each  of  those  days,  on  the  same  field,  are  the  only  commanders  in 
the  British  service  whose  military  career  brought  jthem  to  the  summit  of  the  peerage— to  dukedoms. 


WAT  []  545  3  WED 

were  present  at  the  opening.  Its  length  within  the  abutments  is  1242  feet;  its 
width  within  the  balustrades  is  42  feet,  and  the  span  of  each  arch,  of  which  there 
are  nine,  is  120  feet. 

WATERSPOUT.  Whirlwinds  and  waterspouts  proceed  from  the  same  cause,  the 
only  difference  being  that  waterspouts  pass  over  the  water,  and  whirlwinds  over  the 
land. — Dr.  Franklin.  Two  waterspouts  fell  on  the  Glatz  mountains  in  Germany, 
and  caused  dreadful  devastation  to  Hautenbach,  and  many  other  villages  ;  a  prodi- 
gious number  of  houses  were  destroyed,  and  many  persons  perished,  July  13,  1827. 
A  waterspout  at  Glanflesk,  near  Killarney,  in  Ireland,  passed  over  a  farm  of  Mr. 
John  Macarthy,  and  destroyed  his  cottage,  two  other  farmhouses,  and  other  build- 
ings, of  which  not  a  vestige  remained.  In  this  catastrophe  seventeen  persons 
perished,  August  4,  1831. 

WAWZ,  Battle  of.  The  Poles  under  Skrzynecki  attacked  the  Russians  at  Wawz, 
and  after  two  days'  hard  fighting,  all  the  Russian  positions  were  carried  by  storm, 
and  they  compelled  to  retreat  with  the  loss  of  12,000  men  and  2000  prisoners.  The 
Polish  loss  was  comparatively  small,  March  31,  1831. 

WAX.  This  substance  came  into  use  for  candles  in  the  twelfth  century ;  and  wax 
candles  were  esteemed  a  luxury  in  1300,  being  but  little  used.  In  China,  candles  of 
vegeiable  wax  have  been  in  use  for  centuries.  See  Candleberry.  Wax  candles  are 
made  very  cheap  in  America,  from  the  berry  of  a  particular  species  of  myrtle,  which 
yields  excellent  wax,  of  a  green  colour.  Sealing-wax  was  not  brought  into  use  in 
England  until  about  1556.  The  wax-tree,  Ligustrum  lucidunif  was  brought  from 
China  before  1794. 

WE.  The  common  language  of  kings  is  wet  which  plural  style  was  begun  with  king 
John,  A.D.  1199. — Coke's  Instit.  Before  this  time  sovereigns  used  the  singular 
person  in  all  their  edicts. — Idem.  The  German  emperors  and  French  kings  used 
the  plural  about  a.d.  1200. — HenaulL  It  is  now  the  style  royal  of  all  monarchs. 
In  the  articles  of  public  journals  they  also  adopt  the  plural,  indicating  that  what 
they  write  proceeds  from  a  plurality  of  pens. 

WEALTH.  This  is  a  relative  term  ;  for  as  there  is  only  a  certain  amount  of  property 
in  a  country,  so  the  possession  of  a  large  share  by  one  man  is  the  poverty  of  others. 
The  wealth  of  individuals  is  therefore  no  benefit  to  the  country,  while  as  to  others 
it  is  the  cause  of  their  poverty.  The  instances  of  wealth  in  the  early  ages  are  many 
and  most  extraordinary.  The  mightiest  conflagration  of  wealth  on  record  is  that  of 
Sardanapalus,  where  riches  amounting  to  one  thousand  four  hundred  millions  sterling 
were  destroyed. — AtheruBtu.  Caecilius  Isidorus  died  at  Rome  possessed  of  4116 
slaves,  3600  oxen,  200,000  head  of  other  cattle,  and  three  millions  of  our  money  in 
coin,  8  B.C. — Univ.  Hist. 

WEAVING.  The  art  of  weaving  appears  to  have  been  practised  in  China  from  the 
earliest  antiquity — more  than  a  thousand  years  before  it  was  known  in  Europe  or 
Asia.  Poets  assign  the  art  to  the  spider.  Women  originally  spun,  wove,  and 
dyed  ;  and  the  origin  of  these  arts  is  ascribed,  by  ancient  nations,  to  different  women 
as  women's  arts.  The  Egyptians  ascribed  it  to  Isis  ;  the  Greeks,  to  Minerva ;  and 
the  Peruvians,  to  the  wife  of  Manco  Capac.  In  most  eastern  countries,  the  employ- 
ment of  weaving  is  still  performed  by  the  women.  Our  Saviour's  vest,  or  coat,  had 
not  any  seam,  being  woven  from  the  top  throughout,  in  one  whole  piece.  Perhaps, 
says  Dr.  Doddridge,  this  curious  garment  might  be  the  work  and  present  of  some 
pious  women  who  attended  him,  and  ministered  unto  him  of  their  substance,  Luks 
viii.  3.  The  print  of  a  frame  for  weaving  such  a  vest  may  be  seen  in  CalmeVs 
Dictionary,  under  the  word  Vestments. 

WEAVING  IN  ENGLAND.  Two  weavers  from  Brabant  settled  at  York,  where  they 
manufactured  woollens,  which,  says  king  Edward,  "  may  prove  of  great  benefit  to 
us  and  our  subjects,"  1331.  Flemish  dyers,  cloth-drapers,  linen-makers,  silk- 
throwsters,  &c.  settled  at  Canterbury,  Norwich,  Colchester,  Southampton,  and  other 
places,  on  account  of  the  duke  of  Alva's  persecution,  1567. 

WEDGWOOD  WARE.  A  fine  species  of  pottery  and  porcelain,  produced  by  Mr. 
Josiah  Wedgwood,  of  Staffordshire,  in  1762.  The  manufactories  for  thit  ware 
employ  10,000  families  in  this  country.  Previously  to  1763,  most  of  the  superior 
kinds  of  earthenwares  were  imported  from  France. 

N  N 


WED  Q  646  ]  WES 

WEDNESDAY.  The  fourth  day  of  the  week,  so  called  from  a  Saxon  idol,  callci 
Woden,  auppoaed  to  be  Mars,  worshipped  on  this  day.  The  name  given  to  oar 
Wednesday  by  the  Saxons  was  Woden's  day,  which  was  afterwards  Gormpted  t: 
Wednesday.     See  fi«jr<  ariiele* 

WEEK.  The  space  of  seven  days,  supposed  to  be  first  used  among  the  Jews,  ^h 
observed  the  sabbath  every  setenth  day ;  they  had  three  sorts  of  weeks,  the  first  trc 
common  one  of  seven  days,  the  second  of  years,  which  was  seven  years,  the  third  ^ 
seven  times  seven  years,  at  the  end  of  which  was  the  jubilee.  All  the  present  Eof- 
lish  names  are  derived  from  the  Saxon : — 


LaUn. 

Enplish. 

Saxon, 

Presided  over  bjf 

Dies  Batumi. 

Batnrdajr, 

Seteme'8  day. 

Saturn . 

Dies  SolU, 

Bunday, 

Son's  day. 

The  Bun. 

I>i«8  Lunc, 

Monday, 

Moon's  day. 

The  moon. 

Dies  Mariis. 

Tuesday, 

Tiw's  day. 

Mars. 

Di«8  Mereuril, 

Wednesday, 

Woden's  day. 

Mercury. 

Dies  Jovia, 

Thursday, 

Thor'B  day. 

Jupiter. 

Dies  Veneris, 

Friday. 

Friga's  day. 

Venus. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.  These,  and  the  stamping  of  gold  and  silver  money 
were  invented  by  Phydon,  tyrant  of  Argoa,  895  b.c.  et  seq. — Arundettan  Marbkt. 
Weights  were  originally  taken  from  grains  of  wheat,  the  lowest  being  still,  called  i 
grain. — Chalmert.  The  standard  measure  was  originally  kept  at  Winchester  bytbe 
law  of  king  Edgar,  a.d.  972.  Standards  of  weights  and  measures  veere  provided  for 
the  whole  kingdom  of  England  by  the  sheriffs  of  London,  8  Richard  I.,  1197.  A 
public  weighing-machine  was  set  up  in  London,  and  all  commodities  ordered  to  be 
weighed  by  the  city. officer,  called  the  weigh-master,  who  was  to  do  justice  between 
buyer  and  seller,  statute  3d  Edward  II.,  1309.  Stowe.  The  first  statute,  directiv 
the  use  of  avoirdupois  weight,  is  that  of  24  Henry  VIII.,  1532. — PhUowphka 
Tramaetunu,  vol.  65,  art.  3.  The  French  adopt  the  metre  of  3.28084,  or  the  1- 
millionth  part  of  the  distance  from  the  Pole  to  the  Equator,  as  the  standard  y 
measure ;  and  the  kilogramme,  equal  to  2,255  pounds  avoirdupois,  as  the  standar! 
of  weight.  Weights  and  measures  were  ordered  to  be  examined  by  the  justices  i: 
Quarter  Sessions,  35  George  III.  1794.  Again  regulated,  1800.  Statute  for  esta- 
blishing a  uniformity  of  weights  and  measures,  June  17,  1824.  This  equalisatioa 
took  place  throughout  the  United  Kingdom,  January  1,  1826.  The  new  actsrelit- 
ing  thereto  were  passed  4  and  5  William  IV.,  and  5  and  6  William  lY.,  Sept.  9, 1835- 

WELLS,  Bishopric  of.  United  with  that  of  Bath,  which  see.  The  bishop's  seat  i' 
at  Wells,  whose  cathedral  church  was  built  by  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  a.d. 
704,  and  by  him  dedicated  to  St.  Andrew.  Several  other  of  the  West  Saxon  kinr 
endowed  it,  and  it  was  erected  into  a  bishopric  in  905,  during  the  reign  of  king  Edvtrd 
the  Elder.  The  present  church  was  begun  by  Robert,  the  18th  bishop  of  this  see. 
and  completed  by  his  immediate  successor.  The  first  bishop  of  Wells  was  AdeloL^ 
(afterwards  archbishop  of  Canterbury),  905. 

WESLEY  AN  METHODISTS.  A  large  body  of  Christians,  whose  sect  was  founiW 
by  an  excellent  and  pious  man,  John  Wesley.  In  1730  he  and  his  brother,  witai 
few  other  students,  formed  themselves  into  a  small  society  for  the  purpose  of  mntail 
edification  in  religious  exercises.  So  singular  an  association  excited  considerable 
notice,  and  among  other  names  bestowed  upon  the  members,  that  of  Methodists «&s 
applied  to  them.  Mr.  Wesley  went  to  Georgia  in  America,  in  1735,  withavie^ 
of  converting  the  Indians.  On  his  return  to  England,  he  commenced  itinenat 
preacher,  and  gathered  many  followers ;  but  the  churches  being  shut  against  him. 
he  built  spacious  meeting-houses  in  London,  Bristol,  and  other  places.  For  sobk 
time  he  was  united  with  Mr.  Whitefield  ;  but  differences  arising  on  account  (^  tbe 
doctrine  of  election,  they  separated,  and  the  Methodists  were  denominated  accordict 
to  their  respective  leaders.  Mr.  Wesley  was  indefatigable  in  his  labours,  an^ 
almost  continaally  engaged  in  travelling  over  England,  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireluxl- 
His  society  was  well  organised,  and  he  preserved  his  influence  over  it  to  the  Itf! 
He  died  in  London  in  1791. 

WEST  INDIES.  Discovered  by  Columbus,  St.  Salvador  being  the  first  land  be 
made  in  the  new  world,  and  first  seen  by  him  in  the  night  between  the  11th  aixi 
12th  October,  1492.  See  the  Islands  respectively.  The  following  statement  of  tbe 
trade  of  Great  Britain  with  the  West  Indies  is  drawn  from  official  documents  latek 
printed  by  order  of  the  house  of  commons.     See  Colonies, 


WES 


[547] 


WES 


WEST  INDIES,  continued. 


Islands, 

Sugar, 

Coffee. 

Bum. 

Value  of  Ex- 
ports. 

Value  (if  Itn 
ports. 

Antigua     .    . 

Cwt  169,000 

lb. 

Gal.  160,000 

£270,000 

£115,000 

Bahamas . 

82,500 

21,000 

59,000 

Barbadoes  .    . 

322,000 

27,000 

542,000 

360,000 

Berbioe    . 

122,000 

1,585,000 

220,000 

371,000 

74,000 

Bermuda    .    . 

4.000 

60,000 

Demerara 

737,000 

1,940,000 

2,320,000 

1,627.000 

450,000 

Dominica   .    . 

56,000 

613,000 

63,000 

150.000 

16.000 

Grenada 

186,000 

6,000 

330,000 

338,000 

79.000 

Honduras  .    . 

229,000 

572,000 

Jamaica 

1,396,000 

15,460,000 

3,506,000 

3,653,000 

1,800,000 

Montserrat 

26.000 

41,000 

33,000 

8,000 

Nevis      .    .    . 

50,000 

150,000 

80,000 

14,000 

St.  Kitt's  .      . 

102,000 

►— 

257,000 

203,000 

70.000 

St.  Lucia 

50,000 

83.000 

12.000 

149,000 

32,000 

St.  Vincent's  . 

228,000 

160,000 

395,000 

82.000 

Tobago .    .     . 

121,000 

500,000 

165,000 

41,000 

Tortola        .  . 

16.000 

— — 

•25,000 

3,000 

Trinidad 
Totals 

241,000 

62,000 

355,000 

200,000 

3,816,000 

19,769,500 

7.808,000 

£8,603,000 

£4,035.000 

WEST  SAXONS.  The  kingdom  of  the  West  Saxons  contained  the  connties  of  Corn- 
wally  Devon,  Dorset,  Somerset,  Wilts,  Hants,  and  Berks.  It  was  commenced  by 
Cerdicus,  or  Cherdick,  in  a.d.  519.  The  first  Christian  king  of  this  branch  of  the 
Heptarchy  was  Kingil,  who  reigned  in  612.  The  West  Saxon  kingdom  terminated 
with  Egbert,  its  18th  king,  and  the  first  king  of  the  whole  Heptarchy,  in  828. 

WESTERN  EMPIRE.  The  Roman  empire  was  divided  into  Eastern  and  Western 
by  Valentinian  and  Valens,  of  whom  the  former  had  the  western  portion,  or  Rome, 
properly  so  called,  a.d.  364.  Odoacer,  a  chief  of  the  Heruli,  entered  Italy,  defeated 
Orestes,  took  Rome  and  Ravenna,  deposed  Augustalus,  and  assumed  the  title  of 
king  of  Italy,  August  23,  which  ended  the  Western  empire,  507  years  after  the  battle 
of  Actium,  A.D.  476.     See  Eastern  Empire. 

WESTMINSTER.  This  city  is  so  called  upon  account  of  its  western  situation  in 
respect  to  St.  Paul's  cathedral  in  particular,  or  of  London  in  general,  there  being  in 
former  days  a  monastery  on  the  hill  now  called  Great  Tower-hill,  named  East- 
minster.  Where  the  bounds  of  this  city  eastward  end,  those  of  London  begin,  viz. 
at  Temple-bar.  Formerly  Westminster  was  called  Thomey,  or  Thorney  Island ; 
and  in  ancient  times  Canute  had  a  palace  here,  which  was  burnt  in  126.3.  West- 
minster and  London  were  one  mile  asunder  so  late  as  1603,  when  the  houses  were 
thatched,  and  there  were  mud  walls  in  the  Strand  :  the  great  number  of  Scotsmen 
who  came  over  after  the  accession  of  James  I.  occasioned  the  building  of  West- 
minster, and  united  it  with  London. — HoweVa  Londinopolis. 

WESTMINSTER  ABBEY.  As  regards  this  magnificent  cathedral,  the  miraculous 
stories  of  monkish  writers  and  of  ancient'  historians  have  been  questioned  by  sir 
Christopher  Wren,  who  was  employed  to  survey  the  present  edifice,  and  who,  upon 
the  nicest  examination,  found  nothing  to  countenance  the  general  belief  that  it  was 
erected  on  the  ruins  of  a  pagan  temple.  Historians,  agreeably  to  the  legend,  have 
fixed  the  era  of  the  first  abbey  in  the  sixth  century,  and  ascribed  to  Sebert  the  honour 
of  erecting  it  This  church  becoming  ruinous,  it  was  splendidly  rebuilt  by  Edward 
the  Confessor,  between  a.d.  1055  and  1065  ;  and  he  stored  it  with  monks  from 
Exeter.  Pope  Nicholas  II.  about  this  time  constituted  it  the  place  for  the  inaugu- 
ration of  the  kings  of  England.  The  church  was  once  more  built  in  a  magnificent 
and  beautiful  style  by  Henry  III.  In  the  reigns  of  Edward  II.,  Edward  III.,  and 
Richard  II.,  the  great  cloisters,  abbot's  house,  and  the  principal  monastic  buildings 
were  erected.  The  western  parts  of  the  nave  and  aisles  were  rebuilt  by  successive 
monarchs,  between  the  years  1340  and  1483.  The  west  front  and  the  great  window 
were  built  by  those  rival  princes,  Richard  III.  and  Henry  VII. ;  and  it  was  tlie 
latter  monarch  who  commenced  the  magnificent  chapel  which  bears  his  name,  and 
the  first  stone  of  which  was  laid  January  24,  1502-3.     The  abbey  was  dissolved, 

N  N  2 


WBS  C  548  ] 


•nd  made  a  bishopric,  1541  ;  and  was  finally  made  a  collegiate  church  by  Eliiabetk 
1556.  Made  a  barrack  for  soldiers,  July  1643. — Mereuritu  RnsHctu.  Thegrei: 
west  window,  and  the  western  towers,  reboilt  in  the  reigns  of  Gveorge  I.  and  II. 
The  choir  injared  by  fire,  July  9,  1803.  Mr.  Wyatt  commenced  restonog  ts£ 
dilapidated  parts  in  1809,  at  an  expense  of  42,000iL  A  fire,  but  without  any  serua 
injury  being  done,  occnrred  April  27,  1829. 

WESTMINSTER,  Bishopkic,  and  Dbambrt  or.  At  the  dissolution  of  monasteria. 
Westminster  Abbey  was  Talaed  at  3977/.  per  annum  ;  king  Henry  VIII.,  in  Vo^fi. 
erected  it  into  a  deanery  ;  and  in  1541,  he  erected  it  into  a  bishopric,  and  appoin-it 
John  Tbirleby  prelate.  But  he  having  wasted  the  patrimony  allotted  by  the  \m 
for  the  support  of  the  see,  was  translated  to  Norwich,  and  with  him  ended  in 
bishopric  of  Westminster.  This  dignity  continued  only  nine  years  ;  and  MiddJesa 
which  was  the  diocese,  was  restored  to  London.  The  dean  continued  to  preade 
until  the  accession  of  queen  Mary,  who  restored  the  abbot ;  but  queen  EliiabeD 
displaced  the  abbot,  and  erected  the  abbey  into  a  collegiate  church,  of  a  dean  sal 
twelve  prebendaries,  as  it  still  continnes.  On  the  revival  of  the  order  of  the  Ba:: 
in  1725,  the  dean  of  Westminster  was  appointed  dean  of  that  order ;  and  thishonoe: 
has  been  continned  to  his  successors. 

WESTMINSTER  BRIDGE.  Accounted  one  of  the  most  beautiful  structures  of  \k 
kind  in  the  known  world.  It  was  begun  after  a  design  of  M.  Labelye,  Sept.  V. 
1738  ;  and  the  first  stone  was  laid  Jan.  29,  1738-9.  It  was  opened  for  passeneen 
Nov.  17,  1750,  and  cost  426,650/.  Is  built  of  Portland  stone,  and  crosses  tif 
river  where  the  breadth  is  1223  feet.  On  each  side  is  a  stone  balustrade,  6  feet . 
inches  in  height,  with  places  of  shelter  from  the  rain  ;  and  the  width  of  the  bridge 
is  44  feet.  It  consists  of  14  piers,  and  13  large  and  two  small  arches,  allseiBi- 
circular,  that  in  the  centre  being  76  feet  wide,  and  the  rest  decreasing  foor  ki 
each  from  the  other,  so  that  the  last  two  arches  of  the  thirteen  great  ones  are  eadt 
52  feet.     The  width  of  the  two  small  arches  at  the  abutments  is  about  20  feet. 

WESTMINSTER  HALL.  One  of  the  most  venerable  remains  of  English  archita^ 
ture,  first  built  by  William  Rufus  in  1097,  for  a  banqueting-hall ;  and  here  b 
1099,  on  his  return  from  Normandy,  '*  he  kept  his  feast  of  Whitsuntide  t&t 
royally."  The  hall  became  ruinous  before  the  reign  of  Richard  II.,  who  repaine 
it  in  1397,  raised  the  walls,  altered  the  windows,  and  added  a  new  roof,  as  well  as  i 
stately  porch  and  other  buildings.  In  1236,  Henry  III.,  on  New-year's  day,  cansei 
6000  poor  persons  to  be  entertained  in  this  hall,  and  in  the  other  rooms  of  b 
palace,  as  a  celebration  of  queen  Eleanor's  coronation.  And  here  Richard  II.  kd 
his  Christmas  festival  in  139  7 1  when  the  number  of  the  guests  each  day  thefo^ 
lasted  was  10,000. — Stowe,  The  courts  of  law  were  established  here  by  king  Jobs. 
^Idem,  Westminster-hall  is  universally  allowed  to  be  the  largest  room  in  Europe 
unsupported  by  pillars  :  it  is  270  feet  in  length,  and  74  broad.  The  hall  undervot 
a  general  repair  in  1802. 

WESTMINSTER  SCHOOL.  Founded  by  queen  Elizabeth  in  1560,  for  the  edoci- 
tion  of  forty  boys,  denominated  the  Queen's  Scholars,  who  are  prepared  for  tk 
university.  It  is  situated  within  the  walls  of  the  abbey,  and  is  separated  into  tvc 
schools  or  divisions,  comprising  seven  forms  or  classes.  Besides  the  scholars  on  tk 
foundation,  many  of  the  nobility  and  gentry  send  their  sons  to  Westminster  bi 
instruction,  so  that  this  establishment  vies  with  Eton  in  celebrity. 

WESTPHALIA.  This  duchy  belonged,  in  former  times,  to  the  dukes  of  Saxony.  Oe 
the  secularisation  of  1802,  it  was  made  over  to  Hesse  Darmstadt ;  and  in  1814,  w 
ceded  for  an  equivalent  to  Prussia.  The  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  one  of  the  tempo> 
rary  kingdoms  of  Buonaparte,  composed  of  conquests  from  Prussia,  Hesse-Cassei. 
Hanover,  and  the  smaller  states  to  the  west  of  the  Elbe,  created  Dec.  1,  1807,  ao^ 
Jerome  appointed  king.  Hanover  was  annexed  March  1, 1810.  This  kingdom  vaa 
overturned  in  1813. 

WESTPHALIA,  Peace  of,  signed  at  Munsterand  at  Osnaburg,  between  France,  tls 
emperor,  and  Sweden ;  Spain  continuing  the  war  against  France.  By  this  pesee 
the  principle  of  a  balance  of  power  in  Europe  was  first  recognised :  Alsace  given  t« 
France,  and  part  of  Pomerania  and  some  other  districts  to  Sweden ;  the  Electa 
Palatine  restored  to  the  Lower  Palatinate ;  the  civil  and  political  rights  of  the  Germic 
States  established ;  and  the  independence  of  the  Swiss  Confederation  recognised  br 
Germany,  October  24,  1648. 


WHA  f  549  ]  WHI 

WHALE-FISHERY.  This  fishery  was  first  carried  on  by  the  Norwe^ans  so  early,  it 
is  said,  as  a.d.  837. — Lenglet,  Whales  were  killed  at  Newfoundland  and  Iceland 
for  their  oil  only  till  1578  ;  the  use  of  their  fins  and  bones  was  not  yet  known,  con- 
sequently (a  writer  quaintly  adds)  no  stays  were  worn  by  the  ladies.  The  English 
whale-fishing  commenced  at  Spitzbergen  in  1598  ;  but  the  Dutch  had  been  previously 
fishing  there.  The  fishery  was  much  promoted  by  an  act  of  parliament  passed  in 
1749.  From  1800  to  2000  whales  have  been  killed  annually  on  the  coast  of  Green- 
land, &c.  The  quantity  of  whale-oil  imported  in  1814  was  33,567  tons.  The 
quantity  in  1826,  when  gas-light  became  general,  was  reduced  to  25,000  tons  ;  so 
that  the  consumption  of  oil  had  become,  on  this  account,  greatly  diminished.  In 
1840  the  quantity  was  about  22,000  tons. 

WHEAT.  The  Chinese  ascribe  to  their  emperor  Chin-Noung,  who  succeeded  Fohi, 
the  art  of  husbandry,  and  method  of  making  bread  from  wheat,  about  2000  years 
before  the  Christian  era.  Wheat  was  introduced  into  Britain,  in  the  sixth  century, 
by  CoUap  Coll  Frewi. — Roberts*  Hist,  Anc.  Brit*  The  first  wheat  imported  into 
England,  of  which  we  have  a  note,  was  in  1347.  Various  statutes  have  regulated 
the  sales  of  wheat,  and  restrained  its  importation,  thereby  to  encourage  its  being 
raised  at  home.  By  the  act  to  amend  the  laws  relating  to  the  importation  of  corn, 
passed  9  George  IV.,  July  15,  1828,  wheat  is  allowed  to  be  imported  on  paying  a 
duty  of  1/.  5«.  8(/.  per  quarter,  whenever  the  average  price  of  all  England  is  under 
62«. ;  from  62s.  to  63s.,  \L  As,  9d. ;  and  so  gradually  reduced  to  Is.,  when  the 
average  price  is  73s.  and  upwards. 

WHEEL,  Breaking  on  the.  This  barbarous  mode  of  death  is  of  great  antiquity. 
It  was  used  for  the  punishment  of  great  criminals,  such  as  assassins  and  parricides, 
first  in  Germany  ;  it  was  also  used  in  the  Inquisition,  and  rarely  anywhere  else,  until 
Francis  I.  ordered  it  to  be  inflicted  upon  robbers,  first  breaking  their  bones  by 
strokes  with  a  heavy  iron  club,  and  then  leaving  them  to  expire  upon  the  wheel, 
A.D.  1515.     See  RavillaCt  &c. 

WHEEL- WORK.  Curious  works  of  this  kind  will  be  found  mentioned  under  the  head 
of  Automaton  Figures.  Cotton-spinning  machinery,  and  manufacturing  machinery  in 
general,  are  merely  varieties  of  the  inventions  of  Androides  and  toy-makers  ;  a 
central  power,  with  axles,  wheels,  cogs,  ketches,  ratchets,  straps,  lines,  levers, 
screws,  &c.  &c.  variously  combined,  constitute  the  wonders  of  Lancashire,  York- 
shire, and  Warwickshire.     See  Spinning, 

WHIG  AND  TORY.  See  article  Tory,  Numerous  authors  trace  the  origin  of  these 
designations  to  various  occasions  and  various  epochs.  Referring  to  what  is  stated 
under  the  head  Tory,  it  may  here  be  added,  that  we  are  told  the  name  Whig  was  a 
term  of  reproach  given  by  the  court  party  to  their  antagonists  for  resembling  the 
principles  of  the  Whigs,  or  fanatical  conventiclers  in  Scotland ;  and  the  other  was 
given  by  the  country  party  to  that  of  the  court,  comparing  them  to  the  Tories,  or 
Popish  robbers  in  Ireland. — Baker.  This  distinction  of  parties  arose  out  of  the 
discovery  of  the  meal-tub  plot  {which  see).  Upon  bringing  up  the  meal-tub  plot 
before  parliament,  two  parties  were  formed  ;  the  one,  who  called  the  truth  of  the 
whole  plot  in  question  ;  and  this  party  styled  those  who  believed  in  the  plot  Whigs, 
The  other  party  crediting  the  truth  of  the  plot,  styled  their  adversaries  Tories.  But 
in  time,  these  names,  given  upon  this  occasion  as  marks  of  opprobrium,  became  dis- 
tinctions much  boasted  of  by  the  parties  bearing  them. — Hume,  The  Whig  club 
was  established  by  Charles  James  Fox ;  one  of  its  original  and  most  distinguished 
members  was  the  great  and  good  Francis,  duke  of  Bedford,  who  died  in  1802. 

WHISKEY.  The  distilled  spirit  produced  from  malt  and  other  com  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  and  of  which  about  eight  millions  of  gallons  are  distilled  annually  in  the 
former,  and  upwards  of  nine  millions  of  gallons  in  the  latter.  The  duty  upon  this 
article  now  produces  an  annual  revenue  of  about  five  millions.  The  distillation  of 
whiskey  in  these  countries  is  referred  to  the  16th  century ;  but  some  authors  state 
it  to  have  been  earlier.     See  Distillation, 

WHITEBOYS.  A  dangerous  body  of  persons  in  Ireland,  and  so  called  on  account  of 
linen  frocks  over  their  coats  ;  and  who,  with  levellers,  excited  insurrection  in 
Ireland.  They  committed  dreadful  outrages  in  1 761  ;  but  were  suppressed  by  a 
military  force  and  the  ringleaders  executed  in  1762.  They  rose  into  insurrection 
again,  and  were  suppressed  1786-7.  Whiteboys  have  appeared  at  various  times 
since,  marking  their  steps  by  the  most  frightful  crimes. 


WHI  Q  550  ]  WIG 

WHITEHALL,  London.  OriginaUy  built  by  Hubert  de  Burgh,  earl  of  Kent,  before 
the  middle  of  the  13tb  century.  It  afterwards  devolved  to  the  archbishop  of  York, 
whence  it  received  the  name  of  York-place,  and  continued  to  be  the  town  residence 
of  the  archbishops  till  purchased  by  Henry  YIII.  of  cardinal  Wolsey,  in  1530.  At 
this  period  it  became  the  residence  of  the  court  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  died  at 
Greenwidi,  was  brought  from  thence  to  Whitehall,  by  water,  in  a  grand  procession. 
It  was  on  this  occasion,  Camden  informs  as,  that  tiie  following  quaint  panegyric 
on  her  majesty  was  written : — 

"  The  queen  was  brought  1^  water  to  Whitehall, 
At  every  stroke  the  oars  did  teart  let  fall. 
More  dung  about  the  barge ;  flah  under  water 
Wept  oat  their  epe*  dptarl,  and  swam  blind  after. 
I  think  the  bargemen  might,  with  easier  thighs. 
Have  rowed  her  thither  in  her  people's  eyes ; 
For  howBoe'er,  thus  much  my  thoughts  have  scann'd, 
She  had  come  by  water,  had  she  oome  by  land." 

In  1697,  the  whole  was  destroyed  by  an  accidental  fire,  except  the  banqneting-house, 
which  had  been  added  to  the  palace  of  Whitehall  by  James  I.,  according  to  a  design 
of  Inigo  Jones,  in  1619.  In  the  front  of  Whitehidl  Charles  I.  was  beheaded,  Jan. 
30,  1649.  George  I.  converted  the  hall  into  a  chapel,  1723-4.  The  exterior  of  this 
edifice  underwent  repair  between  1829  and  1833. 

WHITE  PLAINS,  Battlv  of,  in  America,  between  the  revolted  Americans  and  the 
British  forces  under  sir  William  Howe,  by  whom  the  enemy  was  defeated  with  con- 
siderable loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  Nov.  30, 1776.     See  Untied  States. 

WHITE  TOWER.  The  keep  or  citadel  in  the  Tower  of  London  is  a  large,  square, 
irregular  building,  erected  in  1070,  by  Gandulph,  bishop  of  Rochester  :  it  measures 
116  feet  by  96,  and  is  92  feet  in  height.  The  walls,  which  are  eleven  feet  thick, 
have  a  winding  staircase  continued  along  two  of  the  sides,  like  that  in  Dover  Castle. 
It  contains  the  sea  armoury,  and  the  volunteer  armoury— the  latter  for  30,000  men. 
Within  this  tower  is  the  ancient  chapel  of  St.  John,  originally  used  by  the  English 
monarchs.  The  turret  at  the  N.E.  angle,  which  is  the  highest  and  largest  of  the 
four  by  which  the  White  Tower  is  surmounted,  was  used  for  astronomical  purposes 
by  Flamsted,  previously  to  the  erection  of  the  Royal  Observatory  at  Greenwich. 

WHITSUNTIDE.  The  festival  of  Whitsunday  is  appointed  by  the  church  to  com- 
memorate the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  upon  the  apostles :  in  the  primitive 
church,  the  newly- baptized  persons,  or  catechumens,  used  to  wear  white  garments 
on  Whitsunday*  This  feast  is  moveable,  and  sometimes  falls  in  May  and  sometimes 
in  June ;  but  is  always  exactly  seven  weeks  after  Easter.  Rogation  week  is  the 
week  before  Whitsunday ;  it  is  said  to  have  been  first  instituted  by  the  bishop  of 
Yienne  in  France,  and  called  Rogation  week  upon  account  of  the  many  extraor- 
dinary prayers  and  preparatory  petitions  made  for  the  devotion  of  Holy  Thnrsday, 
for  a  blessing  on  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  and  for  averting  the  dismal  effects  of  war 
and  other  evils. 

WICKLIFFITES.  The  followers  of  John  Wickliffe,  a  professor  of  divinity  in  the 
university  of  Oxford.  He  was  the  father  of  the  Reformation  of  the  English  church 
from  popery,  being  the  first  who  opposed  the  authority  of  the  pope,  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  bishops,  and  the  temporalities  of  the  church,  in  1377.  Wickliffe  was  pro- 
tected by  John  of  Gaunt,  Edward's  son  and  Richard's  uncle,  yet  virulently  perse- 
cuted by  the  church,  and  rescued  from  martyrdom  by  a  paralytic  attack,  in  his 
60th  year.-^ilfor/tm^r. 

WIDOWS.  For  the  burning  of  widows  in  India,  see  Suttees.  In  numerous  countries 
widows  are  devoted  to  great  privations  from  the  time  their  husbands  die  ;  and  at  the 
isthmus  of  Darien,  when  a  widow  dies,  such  of  her  children  as,  from  tender  age, 
cannot  provide  for  their  own  subsistence  are  buried  in  the  same  grave  with  her. — 
Abb^  Raynal,  Widowers  were  taxed  in  England — a  duke  12/.  10«.,  a  common 
person  1«.,  7  William  III.,  1695. 

WIGHT,  Isle  of.  Conquered  by  Vespasian,  a.d.  23.  This  island  was  taken  by 
the  French,  July  13,  1377,  and  has  several  times  suffered  from  invasions  by  that 
people.  In  the  year  1442,  Henry  VI.  alienated  the  Isle  of  Wight  to  Henry  de 
Beauchamp,  first  premier  earl  of  England,  and  then  duke  of  Warwick,  with  a  prece- 
dency of  all  other  dukes  but  Norfolk,  and  lastly  crowned  him  king  of  the  Isle  of 


WIL 


[551] 


WIL 


Wight,  with  his  own  hands ;  but  this  earl  dying  without  heirs  male,  bis  regal  title 
died  with  him,  and  the  lordship  of  the  isle  returned  to  the  crown.  In  the  time  of 
Charles  II.,  timber  was  so  plentiful  here,  that,  it  is  said,  a  squirrel  might  have 
travelled  on  the  tops  of  the  trees  for  many  leagues  together  ;  but  it  is  now  much 
reduced,  from  supplying  the  dockyards  for  the  British  navy. 

WILDFIRE.  An  artificial  fire,  which  burns  under  water.  The  French  call  it  feu 
Grecquois^  because  it  was  discovered  by  the  Greeks,  by  whom  it  was  first  used,  about 
A.D.  660.  Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Callinicus  of  Heliopolis. — Nouv,  Diet. 
See  Greek  Fire* 

WILLIAM  AND  MARY  PACKET.  This  packet,  regularly  plying  between  Bristol 
and  Waterford,  struck  on  the  rocks  called  the  Willeys,  or  Wolvers,  about  three 
miles  N.W.  of  the  Holmes  lighthouse,  on  the  English  coast,  and  sunk  in  about 
fifteen  minutes.  By  this  disastrous  occurrence,  nearly  sixty  persons,  of  whom  more 
than  fifty  were  passengers,  unhappily  perished.  Many  ladies  of  fortune,  beauty, 
and  accomplishments,  lost  their  lives  ;  the  Misses  Barron,  four  young  ladies,  sisters, 
were  among  the  drowned,  and  sunk  a  group  in  each  other's  arms.  Nine  persons 
(being  most  of  the  crew,  and  two  passengers)  were  saved,  Oct.  24,  1817. 

WILLS,  LAST,  AND  TESTAMENTS.  Wills  are  of  very  high  antiquity.  See  Genesis, 
c.  48.  Solon  introduced  them  at  Athens,  578  b.c.  There  are  many  regulations 
respecting  wills  in  the  Koran.  The  Romans  had  this  power,  and  so  had  the  native 
Mexicans  ;  so  that  it  prevailed  at  least  in  three  parts  of  the  globs.  Trebatius  Testa, 
the  civilian,  was  the  first  person  who  introduced  codicils  to  wills  at  Rome,  31  b.c. 
The  power  of  bequeathing  lands,  by  the  last  will  or  testament  of  the  owner,  was 
confirmed  to  English  subjects,  1  Henry  I.,  1100 ;  but  with  great  restrictions  and 
limitations  respecting  the  feodal  system  ;  which  were  taken  off  by  the  statute  of  32 
Henry  VIII.,  1541. — Blackstone*s  Commentaries.  The  first  will  of  a  sovereign  on 
record  is  stated  (but  in  error)  to  be  that  of  Richard  II.,  1399.  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor made  a  will,  1066.  The  following  is  the  will  of  Napoleon  Buonaparte,  a 
document  of  great  interest,  from  the  extraordinary  character  of  the  man,  his  prodi- 
gious exaltation  and  power,  and  the  space  he  filled  in  the  world.  He  died  May  5, 
1821,  eleven  days  after  he  had  signed  this  instrument. 

X<A8T  WILL  OF  NAPOLXON,  LATK  TH£  BMPBROR  OF  FRANCS. 


'*  This  day,  April  24. 1821,  at  Longwood,  in 
the  Island  of  St.  Helena.  This  is  my  testa- 
ment, or  act  of  my  last  will : 

"  I  leave  to  the  comte  de  Montholon, 
2,000,000  francs,  as  a  proof  of  my  satisfaction 
for  the  attentions  he  has  paid  tome  for  these 
six  years,  and  to  indemnify  him  for  the  losses 
which  my  residence  in  St.  Helena  has  occa- 
sioned him.  I  leave  to  the  oomte  Bertrand, 
500,000  francs.  I  leave  to  Marchand,  my  first 
valet-de-chambre,  400,000  francs :  the  services 
he  has  performed  for  me  are  those  of  a  friend. 
I  desire  that  he  may  marry  a  widow,  sister, 
or  daughter  of  an  officer  or  soldier  of  my  old 
guard.  To  Saint  Denis,  100,000  francs.  To 
Novarre,  100,000  francs.  To  Pijeron,  100,000 
francs.  To  Archambaud,  50,000  francs.  To 
Guvier,  50,000  francs.    To  Chandelle,  idem, 

*'  To  the  abb^  Yisnale,  100,000  francs.  I 
desire  that  he  may  build  his  house  near  Ponte 
Novo  de  Rossino.  To  the  comte  Las  Cases, 
100,000  francs.  To  comte  Lavalette,  100.000 
francs.  To  the  surgeon  in  chief,  Larrey, 
100,000.  He  is  the  most  virtuous  man  I  have 
known. 

'*  To  general  Lefevre  Desnouettes,  100,000 
francs.  To  general  Drouet,  100,000  francs. 
To  general  Cambronne,  100,000  francs.  To 
the  children  of  general  Muton  Duvernais, 
100,000  francs.  To  the  children  of  the  brave 
LabMoy^re,  100,000  francs.  To  the  children 
of  general  Girard,  killed  at  Ligny,  100,000 


francs.  To  the  children  of  general  Chartrau , 
100,000  francs.  To  the  children  of  the  vir- 
tuous general  Travost,  100,000  francs.  To 
general  Lallemand,  the  elder,  100,000  francs. 
To  general  Clausel,  100,000  francs.  To  Costa 
Bastilioa,  also  100,000  franca  To  the  baron  de 
Menevalle,  100,000  francs.  To  Arnault,  au- 
thor of  Martug,  100,000  francs. 

**  To  colonel  Marbot,  100,000  francs :  I  re- 
quest him  to  continue  to  write  for  the  defence 
and  glory  of  the  French  armies,  and  to  con- 
found the  calumniators  and  the  apostates.  To 
thebaronBignon,100,000franos:  I  request  him 
to  write  the  history  of  French  Diplomacy  from 
1792  to  1815.  To  Poggi  de  Talaro,  100,000  francs. 
To  the  surgeon  Emmery,  100,000  francs. 

"  These  sums  shall  be  taken  from  the  six 
millions  which  I  deposited  on  leaving  Paris  in 
1815,  and  from  the  interest  at  the  rate  of  6 
per  cent,  since  July  1815;  the  account  of 
which  shall  be  adjusted  with  the  bankers  by 
the  counts  Montholon  and  Bertrand,  and  by 
Marchand. 

**  These  legacies,  in  the  case  of  death,  shall 
be  paid  to  the  widows  and  children,  and  in 
their  default,  shall  revert  to  the  capital.  I 
institute  the  counts  Montholon,  Bertrand, 
and  Marchand  my  testamentary  executors. 
This  present  testament,  written  entirely  by 
my  own  hand,  is  signed  and  sealed  with  my 
arms.  ••  NAPOLEON. 

"  April  34, 1821,  Longwood." 


WIN 


[  552  ] 


WIN 


LKTTKR  TO  M.  JLAFITTK. 

**  MoNsiRUR  Lafittk. — I  remitted  to  yon 
in  1815,  at  the  moment  of  my  departiue  from 
Paris,  a  sum  of  nearly  six  millions,  f<ir  whidi 
you  gave  mc  a  double  receipt.  I  have  can- 
celled one  of  these  receipts,  and  I  faaTe  chai^sed 
comte  de  Montholon  to  present  to  ynu  the 
other  rec^pt,  in  order  that  you  may,  after 
my  death,  delirer  to  him  the  said  sum  with 
interest,  at  the  rate  of  five  per  cent,  from  the 
Istof  July,  1815,  deducting  the  paymoits  with 
which  you  have  been  charged  in  virtue  of  my 
order.  I  have  also  remitted  to  you  a  box 
containing  my  medallion.  I  b^  you  will 
deliver  it  to  comte  Montholon. 

**  This  letter  having  no  other  object,  I  pray 
God,  Monsieur  Lafitte,  that  fa^  may  have  you 
in  his  holy  and  worthy  keeping. 

"  NAPOLEON. 

**  Longwood,  in  the  island  of  St.  Helena, 
April  25,  1821." 


The  Ibllowiiig  it  the  Codicil  to  the  preceding  will  of  the  emperor  : 

"  On  the  UquidatiOD  of  my  civil  list  of 
Italy— 4Nich  as  money.  Jewels,  plate,  linen, 
coffers,  caskets,  of  which  the  viceroy  is  the 
depositary,  and  which  belong  to  me,  I  dispose 
of  two  millions,  which  I  leave  to  my  most 
faithful  servants.  I  hope  that  without  their 
showing  any  cause,  my  son  Eugene  Napoleon 
will  discharge  them  fiiithfuUy.  He  cannot 
forget  the  forty  millions  which  I  have  given 
him  in  Italy,  or  by  the  right  (parage)  of  his 
mother's  inheritance. 

*'  From  the  funds  remitted  in  gold  to  the 
empress  Maria  Louisa, my  very  dear  and  well- 
beloved  spouse,  at  Orleans,  in  1814,  there 
remain  due  to  me  two  millions,  which  I  dis- 
pose of  by  the  present  codicil,  in  order  to 
recompense  my  most  faithful  servants,  whom 
I  beside  recommend  to  the  protection  of  my 
dear  Maria  Louisa.  I  leave  2(Ki,000  francs  to 
count  Montholon.  100,000  francs  of  which  he 
shall  pay  into  the  chest  of  the  treasurer  (Las 
Casott)  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  above,  to 
be  employed  according  to  my  dispodticms,  in 
legacies  of  conscience." 

Various  laws  have  regulated  the  wills  and  testaments  of  British  subjects.  The 
statutes  of  32,  34,  35  Henry  VIII.  •  10  Charles  I. ;  all  the  statutes  relating  to  wills 
of  Charles  II. ;  the  statute  7  William  III.,  and  various  statutes  of  Anne  and  George 
II.,  have  been  repealed  by  the  statute  1  Victoria,  and  the  laws  with  relation  to  wiUs 
have  been  thereby  amended — July  3,  1837. 

WINCHESTER,  Bishopric  of.  This  see  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  has  always  con- 
tinued in  this  place,  which  was  the  capital  of  the  West  Saxon  kingdom.  The  cathe- 
dral  church  was  first  founded  and  endowed  by  Kingil  or  Kenegilsus,  the  first  Christian 
king  of  the  West  Saxoos.  The  church  first  built  becoming  ruinous,  the  present 
fabric  was  begun  by  Walkin,  the  34th  bishop,  1073  ;  but  not  finished  till  the  time  of 
William  of  V\  ickham,  1405.  The  church  was  first  dedicated  to  St.  Amphibalus, 
then  to  St.  Peter,  and  afterwards  to  St.  Swithin,  once  bishop  here.  St.  Birine  was 
bishop  A.D.  636.  The  see  has  given  to  the  church  of  Rome  ten  saints  and  two 
cardinals,  and  to  the  English  nation  nine  lord  chancellors,  two  lord  treasurers,  and 
one  chief  justice.     It  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  2793/.  4s.  2d,  annually. 

WIND-MILLS.  They  are  of  great  antiquity,  and  some  writers  state  them  to  be  of  Roman 
invention ;  but  certainly  we  are  indebted  for  the  wind-mill  to  the  Saracens.  They 
are  said  to  have  been  originally  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  knights  of  St.  John, 
who  took  the  bint  from  what  they  had  seen  in  the  crusades. — Bcdcer,  Wind-mills 
were  first  known  in  Spain,  France,  and  Germany,  in  1299. — Anderson,  Wind 
saw-mills  were  invented  by  a  Dutchman,  in  1633,  when  one  was  erected  near  the 
Strand,  in  London. 

WINDOWS.  See  Glass.  There  were  windows  in  Pompeii,  a.d.  79,  as  is  evident 
from  its  ruins.  It  is  certain  that  windows  of  some  kind  were  glazed  so  early  as  the 
third  century,  if  not  before,  though  the  fashion  was  not  introduced  until  it  was  done 
by  Bennet,  a.d.  633.  Windows  of  glass  were  used  in  private  houses,  but  the  glass  waa 
imported  1177. — Anderson.  In  England  about  6000  houses  now  have  fifty  windows 
and  upwards  in  each  ;  about  275,000  have  ten  windows  and  upwards ;  and  725,000 
have  seven  windows,  or  less  than  seven.  The  window-tax  was  first  enacted  in  order 
to  defray  the  expense  of  and  deficiency  in  the  re-coinage  of  gold,  7  William  III., 
1695.  •  The  tax  was  increased  Feb.  5,  1746-7  ;  again  in  1778  ;  and  again,  on  the 
commutation  tax  for  tea,  Oct.  1,  1784.  The  tax  was  again  increased  in  1797,  1802, 
and  1808 ;  and  was  reduced  in  1823.  The  revenue  derived  from  windows  is  at 
present  about  a  million  and  a  quarter  sterling. 

WINDS.  Their  present  names  were  given  to  the  winds  by  Charlemagne,  a.d.  788. 
When  the  wind  blows  strong  or  flies  swift,  it  is  called  a  high  wind,  and  moves  above 
fifty  miles  an  hour.  In  one  of  Dr.  Lind's  experiments  he  found  that  the  velocity 
of  the  wind  was  ninety-three  miles  an  hour ;  a  swiftness  of  motion  which,  since 


WIN  []  553  ]  WIR 

M.  Garneria's  aerial  voyage  to  Colchestery  must  be  considered  within  the  limits  of 
probability. 

WINDSOR  CASTLE.  A  royal  residence  of  the  British  sovereigns,  originally  bnilt  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  but  enlarged  by  Henry  I.  The  monarchs  who  succeeded 
him  likewise  resided  in  it,  till  Edward  III.,  who  was  bom  here,  caused  the  old 
building,  with  the  exception  of  three  towers  at  the  west  end,  to  be  taken  down,  and 
re-erected  the  whole  castle,  under  the  direction  of  William  of  Wykeham.  He  like- 
wise built  St.  George's  chapel.  Instead  of  alluring  workmen  by  contracts  and  wages, 
Edward  assessed  every  county  in  England  to  send  him  so  many  masons,  tilers,  and 
carpenters,  as  if  he  had  been  levying  an  army.  Several  additions  were  made  to  this 
pile  of  building  by  Henry  VIII.  The  Cottage,  Windsor,  first  built  1543.  Henry  VIII., 
Edward  VI.,  and  Mary  caused  water  to  be  brought  into  the  fountain  from  Black- 
moor-park.  Queen  Elizabeth  made  the  grand  terrace  on  the  north  side ;  and  Charles 
II.  thoroughly  repaired  and  beautified  it,  1680. — Camden;  Mortimer.  The  chapel 
thoroughly  repaired  and  opened,  October  1790.  The  castle  repaired  and  enlarged, 
1824-8  ;  and  his  majesty  George  IV.  took  possession  of  it,  Dec.  8,  in  the  latter  year. 

WINES.  The  invention  of  wine  is  given  to  Noah. — Abh^  Lenglet,  The  art  of  making 
wine  from  rice  is  ascribed  by  the  Chinese  to  their  king,  Ching  Noung,  about  1998 
B.C. — Univ.  Hist  The  art  of  making  wine  was  brought  from  India  by  Bacchus,  as 
other  authorities  have  it.  Hosea  speaks  of  the  wine  of  Lebanon  as  being  very 
fragrant.— -/Tof^a,  xiv.  7.  Our  Saviour  changed  water  into  wine  at  the  marriage  of 
Cana  in  Galilee. — John  ii.  3,  10. 

*'  The  conscious  waters  saw  their  God,  and  hluaix'd.'*— Addison. 
No  wine  was  produced  in  France  in  the  time  of  the  Romans. — Bosauet.  Spirits  of 
wine  were  known  to  the  alchymists. — Idem.  Concerning  the  acquaintance  which 
our  progenitors  had  with  wine,  it  has  been  conjectured  that  the  Phoenicians  might 
possibly  have  introduced  a  small  quantity  of  it ;  but  this  liquor  was  very  little  known 
in  our  island  before  it  was  conquered  by  the  Romans.  Wine  was  sold  in  England 
by  apothecaries  as  a  cordial  in  a.d.  1300,  and  so  continued  for  some  time  after, 
although  there  is  mention  of  **  wine  for  the  king''  so  early  as  1249  ;  and  we  are 
even  sent  to  a  much  earlier  period  for  its  introduction  and  use  in  Britain.  In  1400 
the  price  was  twelve  shillings  the  pipe.  A  hundred  and  fifty  butts  and  pipes  con- 
demned for  being  adulterated,  to  be  staved  and  emptied  into  the  channels  of  the 
streets  by  Rainwell,  mayor  of  London,  in  the  6th  of  Henry  VI.,  1427. — Stowe's  Chron. 
The  first  importation  of  claret  wine  into  Ireland  was  on  June  17,  1490.  The  first 
act  for  licensing  sellers  of  wine  in  England  passed  April  25, 1661.  In  1800  England 
imported  3,307,460  gallons  of  all  kinds  of  wine.  In  1815,  the  United  Kingdom 
imported  4,306,528  gallons.  In  1830  were  imported  6,879,558  gallons  ;  and  in  the 
year  ending  Jan.  5,  1840,  were  imported  9,909,056  gallons,  of  which  7,000,486  were 
for  home  consumption. — Pari.  Bet.  Wine-duties  to  be  28.  9d.  per  gallon  on  Cape 
wine,  and  5s.  6d,  per  gallon  on  all  other  wines,  2  William  IV.,  1831. 

WINIFRED'S  WELL,  Holywell.  At  this  place  is  a  well  mentioned  as  early  as 
A.D.  660.  It  is  an  extraordinary  natural  spring,  of  which  popish  superstition  has 
availed  itself.  The  rock  from  which  it  fiows  discharges  20  tons  a  minute,  which,  in 
two  miles,  falls  into  the  Dee,  and  in  the  intermediate  space  turns  from  15  to  20 
water-wheels  connected  with  some  large  manufactories.  The  well  is  the  drainage  of 
three  stupendous  hills  which  lie  above  it.  St.  Winifred,  who  was  bom  at  Kirton  in 
Devonshire,  took  the  name  of  Boniface,  and  adopted  a  missionary's  life :  he  was 
killed  by  the  pagans  in  East  Friesland,  June  5,  a.d.  754. 

WIRE.  The  invention  of  drawing  wire  is  ascribed  to  Rodolph  of  Nuremberg,  a.d. 
1410.  Mills  for  this  purpose  were  first  set  up  at  Nuremberg  in  1563.  The  first 
wire-mill  in  England  was  erected  at  Mortlake  in  1663..~~Mortimer.  The  astonishing 
ductility  which  is  one  of  the  distinguishing  qualities  of  gold,  is  no  way  more  con- 
spicuous than  in  gilt  wire.  A  cylinder  of  48  ounces  of  silver,  covered  with  a  coat  of 
gold  weighing  only  one  ounce,  is  usually  drawn  into  a  wire  two  yards  of  which  only 
weigh  one  grain  *,  so  that  98  yards  of  the  wire  weigh  no  more  than  49  grains,  and 
one  single  grain  of  gold  covers  the  whole  98  yards  ;  and  the  thousandth  part  of  a 
grain  is  above  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long. — Halley.  Eight  grains  of  gold  covering 
a  cylinder  of  silver  are  commonly  drawn  into  a  wire  13,000  feet  long ;  yet  so  perfectly 
does  it  cover  the  silver,  that  even  a  microscope  does  not  discover  any  apjuflBirance  of 
the  silver  underneath.  —  Boffle.  ^ 


wtB i_  554  ] wrr     

WIRTEMBURG.  One  of  the  most  ancient  states  of  Germany,  and  most  populous  for 
its  extent.  The  dukes  were  Protestant  until  1772,  when  the  reigning  prince  became 
a  Catholic.  Wirtemburg  has  been  repeatedly  traversed  by  hostile  armies,  particu- 
larly since  the  revolution  of  France.  Moreau  made  his  celebrated  retreat  Oct  23, 
1796.  The  prince  of  M'^irtemburg  married  the  princess  royal  of  England,  daughter 
of  George  I1I.»  May  17,  1797.  This  state  obtained  new  acquisitions  in  territory  in 
1802  and  1805.  The  elector  assumed  the  title  of  king  Dea  12,  1805,  and  was  pro- 
claimed Jan.  1, 1806.  His  majesty,  as  an  ally  of  France,  lost  the  flower  of  his  army 
in  Russia,  in  1812.     The  kingdom  obtained  a  free  constitution  in  1819. 

WIRTEMBURG,  Houss  or.  The  house  of  Wirtemburg  is  very  ancient,  and  amongst 
the  most  powerful  of  the  German  princes.  They  have,  like  many  others,  suffered 
much  from  the  oppressions  of  the  house  of  Austria,  who  form  pretensions  to  the 
succession  of  their  dominions  on  the  extinction  of  the  heirs-male ;  and  this  for  no 
other  reason  than  that  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  having  turned  the  duke  Ulrick  out 
of  his  dominions  in  1519,  aud  having  afterwards  seized  them  ;  although  he  was 
restored  to  them  in  1534,  not  through  any  good  will  of  the  emperor,  but  by  the 
assistance  the  duke  had  obtained  from  the  lung  of  France  and  the  landgrave  of 
Hesse-Cassel. — See  Wirtemburg, 

WITCHCRAFT.  The  punishment  of  witchcraft  was  first  countenanced  by  the  church 
of  Rome ;  and  persons  suspected  of  the  crime  have  been  subjected  to  the  most  cruel 
and  unrelenting  punishments.  In  tens  of  thousands  of  cases,  the  victims,  often 
innocent,  were  burnt  alive,  while  others  were  drowned  by  the  test  applied;  for  if,  on 
being  thrown  into  a  pond,  they  did  not  sink,  they  were  presumed  witches,  and  either 
killed  on  the  spot,  or  reserved  for  burning  at  the  stake.  Five  hundred  witches  were 
burnt  in  Geneva,  in  three  months,  in  1515.  One  thousand  were  burnt  in  the 
diocese  of  Como  in  a  year.  An  incredible  number  in  France,  about  1520,  when  one 
sorcerer  confessed  to  having  1200  associates.  Nine  hundred  were  burnt  in  Lorraine, 
between  1580  and  1595.  One  hundred  and  fifty-seven  were  burnt  at  Wurtzburgfa, 
between  1627  aod  1629,  old  and  young,  clerical,  learned^  and  ignorant.  At  Lind- 
heim,  thirty  were  burnt  in  four  years,  out  of  a  population  of  600  ;  and  more  than 
100,000  perished,  mostly  by  the  flames,  in  Germany.  Grandier,  the  parish  priest  of 
Loudun,  was  burnt  on  a  charge  of  having  bewitched  a  whole  convent  of  nuns,  1634. 
In  Bretagne,  twenty  poor  women  were  put  to  death  as  witches,  1654.  Disturbances 
commenced  on  charges  of  witchcraft  in  America,  at  Massachusetts,  1648-9  ;  and 
persecutions  raged  dreadfully  in  Pennsylvania  in  1683.  Maria  Renata  was  burnt  at 
Wurtzburg  in  1749.  At  Kalisk,  in  Poland,  nine  old  women  were  charged  with 
having  bewitched,  and  rendered  unfruitful,  the  lands  belonging  to  that  palatinate,  and 
were  burnt,  Jan.  17,  1775. — Ann.  Reg,  Five  women  were  condemned  to  deaU&  by 
the  Bramins,  at  Patna,  for  sorcery,  and  executed,  Dec.  15,  1802. — Idem, 

WITCHCRAFT  and  CONJURATION  in  ENGLAND.  Absurd  and  wicked  laws 
were  in  force  against  them  in  these  countries  in  former  times,  by  which  death  vras 
the  punishment,  and  thousands  of  persons  suffered  both  by  the  public  executioners 
and  the  hands  of  the  people.  A  statute  was  enacted  declaring  all  witchcraft  and 
sorcery  to  be  felony  without  benefit  of  clergy,  33  Henry  VIII.,  1541.  Again,  5 
Elizabeth,  1562,  and  1  James,  1603.  Barrington  estimates  the  judicial  murders  for 
witchcraft  in  England  in  200  years  at  30,000.  The  English  condemned  and  burnt 
the  beautiful  and  heroic  Joan  of  Arc,  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  as  a  sorceress,  a.d.  1431. 
See  Joan  of  Arc.  Sir  Matthew  Hale  burnt  two  persons  for  witchcraft  in  1664. 
Three  thousand  were  executed  in  England  under  the  long  parliament  Northamp- 
tonshire and  Huntingdon  preserved  the  superstition  about  witchcraft  later  than  any 
other  counties.  Two  pretended  witches  were  executed  at  Northampton  in  1705, 
while  the  Spectator  was  in  course  of  publication  in  London,  and  five  others  seven 
years  afterwards.  In  1716,  Mrs.  Hicks  and  her  daughter,  aged  nine,  were  hanged 
at  Huntingdon.  In  Scotland,  thousands  of  persons  were  burnt  in  the  period  of 
about  a  hundred  years.  Among  the  victims  were  persons  of  the  highest  rank,  while 
all  orders  in  the  state  concurred.  James  I.  even  caused  a  whole  assize  to  be  prose- 
cuted for  an  acquittal.  This  king  published  his  Dialogues  of  Damonologie  first  in 
Edinburgh,  and  afterwards  in  London*.    The  last  sufferer  in  Scotland  was  in  1722, 

*  All  persons  at  court  who  sought  the  favour  of  James,  praised  his  Damonologie;  and  parliament, 
to  flatter  him,  made  its  twelfth  law  against  witchcraft  in  1603.  By  this  statute  death  was  inflicted 
on  sorcerers  in  these  words :  '*  If  any  person  sh^  use  any  invocation  or  conjuration  of  any  evil  or 


WIT  [  565  J  WOM 

at  Dornoch.  The  laws  against  witchcraft  had  lain  dormant  for  many  years,  when 
an  ignorant  person  attempting  to  revive  them,  by  finding  a  bill  against  a  poor  old 
woman  in  Surrey  for  the  practice  of  witchcraft,  they  were  repealed,  10  George  II., 
1736, — Viner*s  Abridgment, 

WITENA-MOT,  or  WITENA-GEMOT.  Among  our  Saxon  ancestors,  this  was  the 
term  which  was  applied  to  their  deliberations,  and  which  literally  signified  the 
assembling  of  the  wise  men  in  the  great  council  of  the  nation.  A  witena-mot  was 
called  in  London,  a.d.  833,  to  consult  on  the  proper  means  to  repel  the  Danes. 
This  name  was  dropped  about  the  period  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  and  that  of  par- 
liament adopted.     See  Parliament, 

WITEPSK,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  army  under  marshal  Victor,  and  the 
Russian  army  commanded  by  general  Wittgenstein.  The  French  were  defeated  after 
a  desperate  engagement  with  the  loss  of  3000  men,  Nov.  14,  1812. 

WITNESSES.  The  evidence  of  two  witnesses  required  to  attaint  for  high  treason,  25 
Edward  III.,  1352.  In  civil  actions  between  party  and  party,  if  a  man  be  subpoenaed 
as  a  witness  on  a  trial,  he  must  appear  in  court  on  pain  of  100/.  to  be  forfeited  to 
the  king,  and  10/.  together  with  damages  equivalent  to  the  loss  sustained  by  the 
want  of  his  evidence  to  the  party  aggrieved.  Lord  Ellenborough  ruled  that  no 
witness  is  obliged  to  answer  questions  which  may  tend  to  degrade  himself,  Dec.  10, 
1802.  New  act  relating  to  the  examination  of  witnesses  passed  13  George  III.,  1 773. 
Act  to  enable  courts  of  law  to  order  the  examination  of  witnesses  upon  interrogations 
and  otherwise,  1  William  IV.,  March  30,  1831. 

WOLVES.  These  animab  were  very  numerous  in  England.  Their  heads  were 
demanded  as  a  tribute,  particularly  300  yearly  from  Wales,  by  king  Edgar,  a.d.  961, 
by  which  step  they  were  totally  destroyed. — Carte,  j^dward  I.  issued  his  mandate 
for  the  destruction  of  wolves  in  several  counties  of  England,  a.d.  1289.  Ireland 
was  infested  by  wolves  for  many  centuries  after  their  extirpation  in  England  ;  for 
there  are  accounts  of  some  being  found  there  so  late  as  1710,  when  the  last  present- 
ment for  killing  wolves  was  made  in  the  county  of  Cork.  Wolves  still  infest  France, 
in  which  kingdom  834  wolves  and  cubs  were  killed  in  1828-9.  When  wolves  cross 
a  river,  they  follow  one  another  directly  in  a  line,  the  second  holding  the  tail  of  the 
first  in  its  mouth,  the  third  that  of  the  second,  and  so  of  the  rest.  This  figure  was, 
on  this  account,  chosen  by  the  Greeks  to  denote  the  year,  composed  of  twelve  months 
following  one  another,  which  they  denominated  Lycabas,  that  is,  the  march  of  the 
wolves. — Abb^  Pluche. 

WOMAN.  Among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  women  seem  to  have  been  con- 
sidered merely  as  objects  of  sensuality  and  domestic  convenience,  and  were  commonly 
devoted  to  seclusion  and  obscurity  :  it  was  not  until  the  northern  nations  had  settled 
themselves  in  the  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire  that  the  female  character  assumed 
new  consequence.  They  brought  with  them  the  respectful  gallantry  of  the 
North,  and  a  complaisance  towards  females  which  inspired  generous  sentiments 
hitherto  little  known  to  the  polished  nations  of  antiquity,  and  which  ultimately  led 
to  the  institution  of  chivalry.  England  is  called  the  paradise  of  women ;  Spain, 
their  purgatory  ;  and  Turkey,  their  hell.  The  following  lines  beautifully  describe 
Adam  8  first  sight  of  Eve  : 

"  He  laid  him  down  and  slept— and  from  his  side 
A  woman  in  her  magic  beauty  rose ; 
Dazzled  and  charmed,  he  called  that  woman  '  bride,' 
And  his  first  sleep  became  his  last  repoee."— Baser,  translated  by  Bowring. 

The  following  distinguished  men,  though  married,  were  unhappy  in  that  state  :  Ari- 
stotle, Socrates,   Pittacus,  Periander,   Euripides,  and  Aristophanes.     Among  the 

wicked  spirit,— shall  entertain,  employ,  feed,  or  reward  any  evil  or  cursed  spirit,— take  up  any  dead 
body  to  employ  in  witchcraft,  sorcery,  or  enchantment, — or  shall  practise,  or  shall  exorcise,  any 
sort  of  witchcraft,  sorcery,  &c.,  whereby  any  person  shall  be  killed,  wasted,  consumed,  pined,  or 
lamed."  This  being  the  law  of  the  land,  no  person  presumed  to  doubt  the  existence  of  witchcraft ; 
hence  Shakspeare  gave  countenance  to  the  error,  and  the  learned  bishop  Hall  mentions  a  place  where, 
he  said,  there  were  more  witches  than  houses.  Allaying  of  ghpsts,  driving  out  evil  spirits,  and  ab- 
juring witches  became  in  consequence,  for  a  century,  a  profitable  employment  to  the  clergy  of  all 
denominations.  Witch-finders  existed,  too,  as  public  officers ;  and,  besides  the  public  executions, 
which  disgraced  every  assizes,  multitudes  of  accused  were  destroyed  by  popular  resentment— 
PhiUips. 


woo  [_  556  ]  woo 

modems: — Boccaccio,  Dante,  Milton,  Steele,  Addison,  Dryden,  Moli^re,  Racine, 
Sterne,  Garrick,  and  lord  Bacon. —  Woman;  as  the  u,  and  as  she  should  be. 
Among  the  most  beantifal  eologies  on  woman  is  the  following,  addressed  to  a  lovely 
Italian  nan  by  an  English  nobleman  : 

**I>ie  when  yon  will,  yon  need  not  wear. 
At  taeaTen*a  oonit,  a  Conn  more  fair 
Than  beauty  at  your  bixUi  has  given ; 
Keep  but  the  lipe,  the  eyes  we  see. 
The  Toice  we  hear,  and  you  will  be 
An  angel  ready-made  for  heaven  \"-^Lord  Herbert. 

WOOD-CUTS,  on  WOOD-ENGRAVING.  See  article  Engraving  on  Wood,  The 
invention  is  ascribed  by  some  to  a  gunsmith  of  Florence ;  by  others,  to  Renss,  a 
German,  a.d.  1460  ;  but  it  has  an  earlier  origin,  as  shown  in  the  article  referred  to. 
Brought  to  perfection  by  Durer  and  Lucas.  Brought  to  great  perfection  by  Bewick, 
Nesbett,  Anderson,  &c.,  in  1789-1799;  and  more  recently  by  Cruikshank,  aud 
others. 

WOOD'S  HALF-PENCE.  Wood's  celebrated  patent  for  coining  half-pence  for  cir- 
culation in  Ireland  and  America,  passed  9  George  I.,  1722-3.  Against  this  pro- 
jector, Dr.  Jonathan  Swift  appeared  in  the  character  of  the  Draper,  and  his  letters 
so  exposed  the  designs  of  the  coiner,  and  raised  such  a  spirit  against  him,  that  he 
was  effectually  banished  the  kingdom. — Bums. 

WOODEN  PAVEMENT.  This  is  a  new  description  of  pavement,  which,  notwith- 
standing its  eipensiveness,  and  the  employment  of  so  valuable  and  perishable  a 
product  as  wood,  is  likely  to  supersede  every  other  species  of  pavement  in  the  prin- 
cipal streets  and  great  thoroughfares  of  London.  A  wooden  pavement  was  laid 
down  at  Whitehall  in  1839  ;  and  it  has  been  followed  by  similar  paving  in  Oxford- 
street,  part  of  the  Strand,  Cheapside,  High-street,  Holborn,  the  Old  Bailey, 
Coventry-street,  and  various  other  streets. 

WOODSTOCK.  In  Woodstock,  now  Blenheim-park,  originally  stood  a  royal  palace, 
the  favourite  retreat  of  several  of  the  kings  of  England,  till  the  reign  of  Charles  I., 
when  it  was  almost  wholly  in  ruins.  King  Ethelred  held  a  parliament  at  Woodstock 
palace  ;  and  there  Alfred  the  Great  translated  Boetius  de  Consolatione  Philosophug. 
Henry  1.  beautified  the  palace ;  and  here  resided  Rosamond,  mistress  of  Henry  II., 
1191.  Edmund,  second  son  of  Edward  I.,  was  born  at  this  palace;  also  Edward, 
eldest  son  of  Edward  III.,  1331  ;  and  here  the  princess  Elizabeth  was  confined  by 
her  sister  Mary,  1554.  A  splendid  mansion,  built  at  the  expense  of  the  nation,  for 
the  duke  of  Marlborough,  was  erected  here  to  commemorate  the  victory  he  obtained 
at  Blenheim  in  1704.  At  that  time  every  trace  of  the  ancient  edifice  was  removed, 
and  two  elms  were  planted  on  its  site.     See  Rosamond. 

WOOL.  Dr.  Anderson,  in  a  memorial  subjoined  to  the  **  Report  of  the  Committee  of 
the  Highland  Society,"  proves,  from  indisputable  records,  that  from  the  earliest  times 
down  to  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth,  the  wool  of  Great  Britain  was  not  only  superior 
to  that  of  Spain,  but  accounted  the  finest  in  the  universe  ;  and  that  even  in  the  times  of 
the  Romans,  a  manufacture  of  woollen  cloths  was  established  at  Winchester  for  the  use 
of  the  emperors.  In  later  times,  wool  was  manufactured  in  England,  and  is  men- 
tioned in  A.D.  1185,  but  not  in  any  quantity  until  1331,  when  the  weaving  of  it  was  in- 
troduced by  John  Kempe  and  other  artisans  from  Flanders.  This  was  Sie  real  origin 
of  our  now  unrivalled  manufacture,  6  Edward  III.,  1331. — Bgmer*s  Fcedera.  The 
exportation  prohibited,  1337.  Staples  of  wool  established  in  Ireland,  at  Dublin,  Wa- 
terford,  Cork,  and  Drogheda,  18  Edward  III.,  1343.  Sheep  were  first  permitted 
to  be  sent  to  Spain,  which  has  since  injured  our  manufacture,  1467. — Stowe,  First 
legislative  prohibition  of  the  export  of  wool  from  Ireland,  1521.  The  exportation 
of  English  wool,  and  the  importation  of  Irish  wool  into  England,  prohibited,  1696. 
Bill  to  prevent  the  running  of  wool  from  Ireland  to  France,  1738.  The  duty  on 
wool  imported  from  Ireland  taken  off",  1739.  The  export  forbidden, by  act  passed 
1718.  Wool-combers  act,  35  George  III.,  1794.  The  non-exportation  law  repealed, 
5  George  IV.,  1824. 

WOOLLEN  CLOTH.  The  manufacture  of  cloth  was  known,  it  is  supposed,  in  all 
civilised  countries,  and  in  very  remote  ages,  and  probably  of  linen  also.  Woollen 
cloths  were  made  an  article  of  commerce  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  and  are  fami- 
liarly alluded  to  by  him.     They  were  made  in  England  before  a.d.  1200,  and  the 


woo 


[557] 


WOR 


manufacture  became  extensive  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  1331.  They  were  then 
called  Kendal  cloth,  and  Halifax  cloth.  See  preceding  article.  Blankets  were  first 
made  in  England  about  a.d.  1340. — Camden,  No  cloth  but  of  Wales  or  Ireland  to 
be  imported  into  England,  1463.  The  art  of  dyeing  brought  to  England,  1608. 
See  article  Dyeing.  Medleys,  or  mixed  broad-cloth,  first  made,  1614.  Manufacture 
of  fine  cloth  begun  at  Sedan,  in  France, under  the  patronage  of  cardinal  Mazarine,  1 646. 
British  and  Irish  woollens  prohibited  in  France,  1677.  All  persons  obliged  to  be  bu- 
ried in  woollen,  or  the  persons  directing  the  burial  otherwise  to  forfeit  5/.,  29  Chas. 
II.,  1678.  The  manufacture  of  cloth  greatly  improved  in  England  by  Flemish 
settlers,  1688.  Injudiciously  restrained  in  Ireland,  11  William  III.,  1698.  The 
exportation  from  Ireland  wholly  prohibited,  except  to  certain  ports  of  England, 
1701.  English  manufacture  encouraged  by  10  Anne,  1712,  and  2  George  I.,  1715. 
Greater  in  Yorkshire  in  1785,  than  in  all  England  at  the  Revolution. — Chalmers, 

QUANTITY  AND  DECLABKD  VALUB  OF  CLOTHS  IIXFORTBD  FROM  ORBAT  BRITAIN  IN  THE  FOLLOWINO 

YEARS : — 


Quantity. 

1800. 

1825. 

1830. 

1840. 

xlGCCS            •             • 

1,022,838 

1,741,983 

1,747.036 

2,143,796 

Yards    .         .    . 

4.213,677 

7.798,610 

6.561,877 

8,170,642 

Declared  Yalue  . 

£3,914,661 

£6,194,926 

£4,608,592 

£5,921,116 

WOOLWICH.  Distinguished  for  the  most  ancient  military  and  naval  arsenal  in 
England,  and  for  its  royal  dockyard,  where  men-of-war  have  been  built  as  early  as 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  1512.  The  royal  arsenal  was  formed  about  1720,  on  the 
site  of  a  rabbit-warren  ;  it  contains  vast  magazines  of  great  guns,  mortars,  bombs, 
powder,  and  other  warlike  stores  ;  a  foundry,  with  three  furnaces,  for  casting  ord- 
nance ;  and  a  laboratory,  where  fireworks  and  cartridges  are  made,  and  grenados,  &c. 
charged  for  the  public  service.  The  royal  military  academy  was  erected  in  the  royal 
arsenal,  but  the  institution  was  not  completely  formed  until  19th  George  II.,  1745. 
The  arsenal,  storehouses,  &c.,  burnt,  to  the  value  of  200,000/.,  May  20,  1802. 
Another  great  fire  occurred  June  30,  1805.  Fatal  explosion  of  gunpowder,  Jan.  20, 
1813.  The  hemp-.store  burnt  down,  July  8,  1813.  Another  explosion  by  gan- 
powder,  June  16,  1814. 

WORCESTER,  Bishopric  of.  This  see  was  founded  by  Ethelred,  king  of  the 
Mercians,  a.d.  679,  and  taken  from  the  see  of  Lichfield,  of  which  it  composed  a  part. 
The  married  priests  of  the  cathedral  displaced,  and  monks  settled  in  their  stead,  964. 
The  church  rebuilt  by  Wolstan,  25th  bishop,  1030.  The  see  has  yielded  to  the  church 
of  Rome  four  saints,  and  to  the  English  nation  five  lord  chancellors  and  three  lord 
treasurers.  It  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  1049/.  16«.  3^^.  per  annum. — 
Beatson. 

WORCESTER,  Battle  of,  in  the  Civil  War,  fought  between  the  royalist  army  and  the 
forces  of  the  parliament,  the  latter  commanded  by  Cromwell.  A  large  body  of 
Scots  had  marched  into  England  with  a  view  to  reinstate  Charles  II.,  but  Cromwell 
signally  defeated  them  ;  the  streets  of  the  city  were  strewed  with  the  dead,  the  whole 
Scots  army  having  been  either  killed  or  taken  prisoners.  This  famous  battle  afforded 
Cromwell  what  he  called  his  crowning  mercy.  Charles  with  difficulty  escaped  to 
France.  Of  8000  prisoners,  most  were  sold  as  slaves  to  the  American  colonies, 
September  3,  1651. 

WORLD.  According  to  Julias  Africanus,  as  quoted  by  Gibbon,  the  world  was  created 
September  1,  5508  B.C.  Most  chronologers,  however,  mention  the  year  4004  b.c. 
as  the  period  of  its  first  existence.  The  Jews  celebrate  the  19th  of  September  as 
the  day  of  the  creation,  and  some  suppose  that  it  was  created  in  spring.  Its  globular 
form  was  first  suggested  by  Thales  of  Miletus,  about  640  b.c.  The  first  geographical 
table  and  map  of  the  world  was  made  by  Anaximander,  about  560  b.c. — Pliny, 
Discoveries  of  Pythagoras  and  his  system,  about  539  b.c. — Stanley.  The  magnitude 
of  the  earth  calculated  by  Eratosthenes,  240  b.c.  The  system  of  Copernicus  pro- 
mulgated, A.D.  1530.  Map  of  the  world  on  Mercator's  projection,  in  which  the 
Earth  is  taken  as  a  plane,  1556.  The  notion  of  the  magnetism  of  the  Earth  started 
by  Giiberd,  1583.     Magnitude  of  the  Earth  determined  by  Picart,  1669. 

WORMS,  Diet  of.  The  celebrated  imperial  diet  before  which  Martin  Luther  was 
summoned,  April  4,  1521 ,  and  by  which  he  was  proscribed.     Luther  was  met  by 


WOB 


C  558  ] 


wou 


2000  peraoBB  oo  foot  and  on  koneback,  at  the  distance  of  a  leag^ue  from  Wonns. 
Such  waa  hia  connction  of  the  justice  of  his  cause,  that  when  Spalatin  sent  a  mes- 
senger to  warn  him  of  his  danger,  he  answered,  "  If  there  were  as  many  devils  in 
Wonns  as  there  are  tiles  upon  the  roofs  of  its  houses,  I  would  go  on."  Before  the 
emperor,  the  archduke  Ferdinand,  six  electors,  twenty-fonr  dukes,  seven  margrsTes, 
thirty  bishops  and  prelates,  and  many  princes,  counts,  lords,  and  ambassadon, 
Luther  appeared,  April  17th,  in  the  imperial  diet,  acknowledged  all  his  writings  and 
opinions,  and  Idft  Worma,  in  fact,  a  conqueror.  But  Frederick  the  Wise  advised 
him  to  seclude  himself  to  save  his  life,  which  he  did  for  about  ten  months,  and  his 
triamph  was  afterwards  complete. 

WORMWOOD.  This  plant  and  its  seed  were  in  use,  on  account  of  their  bitterness, 
for  the  preservation  of  malt  liquors,  previously  to  the  virtues  of  hops  becoming 
known.  Wormwood  and  other  plants  are  mentioned  as  being  used  for  ibia  purpose 
so  late  as  A. D.  1492. 

WORSHIP.  Athotes,  son  of  Menes,  king  of  Upper  Egypt,  is  said  to  have  been  the 
author  of  religious  worship :  he  is  supposed  to  be  the  Copt  of  the  Egyptians,  and 
the  Toih  or  Hermet  of  the  Greeks ;  the  Mercury  of  the  Latins,  and  the  Teutates 
of  the  Celts  or  Gauls,  2112  b.c.<— £7«A«r.  Religious  worship  had  an  origin  in  most 
tribes  and  nations,  in  their  ignorance  of  the  causes  of  natural  phenomena.  Benefits 
were  ascribed  to  a  good  spirit,  and  evils  to  a  bad  one.  This  primary  idea  was 
enlarged  and  diversified  by  dreaming  during  imperfect  sleep,  or  thinking  while  the 
volition  was  torpid,  and  by  illusions  of  the  senses,  which  led  to  belief  in  ghosts, 
signs,  and  omens,  and  these  causes  were  augmented  by  enthusiasts. — PhkUipg.  In 
all  nations,  whether  civilised  or  barbarous,  worship  prevails,  but  is  purest  in  Pro- 
testant states. — Sherlock, 

WORSHIP  IN  ENGLAND.  In  this  country  were  many  forms  of  worship  at  the 
period  of  the  Roman  invasion.  The  first  Saxons  were  idolaters,  and  dedicated  to 
their  gods  groves  of  the  tallest  trees  and  thickest  forests,  and  there  worshipped 
them  without  building  any  temples  to  them,  or  representing  them  by  any  figures  or 
images.  Our  days  of  the  week  are  named  after  Saxon  divinities — the  Sun,  Moon, 
Tuesco,  Woden,  Thor,  Friga,  and  Saturn.  Easter  is  named  from  their  goddess 
Eostre ;  and  Christmas  was  from  their  great  Festival  Geoli.  Faul,  or  Fola,  was 
their  dreaded  enemy ;  and  they  believed  in  elves  and  fairies,  sorcery  and  witchcraft. 
The  Saxon  religion  waa  afterwards  mingled  with  the  Christian  ;  but  the  former  was 
in  time  wholly  superseded  by  the  latter,  and  in  the  end,  the  Reformation  introduced 
our  present  pure  and  simple  mode  of  worship.  In  Sootiandi  the  benign  influence 
of  the  Reformation  soon  put  aside  all  other  forms.  The  following  is  a  remarkable 
document,  given  in  M'Crie's  Life  of  John  JE'noj?,  1(Blackwood,  Edinburgh,  1831,) 
relating  to  the  removal  of  images  from  Catholic  places  of  worship  in  Scotland,  at 
the  period  of  the  Reformation  : — 


'*  To  our  traitt  /Hendii,  the  Laird$  of  Am- 
tiUy  ai^  Kinvaid, 
"  Traiit  /Hendi,  afUt  main  hariy  com- 
iMndaciony  we  pray  yow  faill  not  to  pate 
incontinent  to  the  kyrk  nf  Dunkeld,  and  tak 
doun  thehaill  images  therenf,  and  bring  fur th 
to  the  kyrkgardf  and  burn  thaym  oppinly. 
And  iiclyk  cast  down  the  altariSt  and  purge 
the  kyrk  qfall  kynd  <tf  monuments  ofidolatrye. 
And  this  ye  faill  not  to  do,  as  ze  will  do  us 


singular  empleseur  /  and  so  committis  yow 
to  the  protection  of  God.  From  Edinburgh, 
the  xii  of  August,  1560. 

"  Faill  not,  bot  zetak  gold  heyd  that  neither 
the  dasks,  windooks,  nor  durris,  be  ony  waja 

hurt  or  broken either  glassin  wark  or  irm 

wark.- 

*<Ak.  Erovix, 
"  Jambs  SrswAitT, 

*•  RCTHVBW." 


WORSTED.  A  species  of  woollen  fabric,  being  spun  wool,  which  obtained  its  name 
from  having  been  first  spun  at  a  town  called  Worsted,  in  Norfolk,  in  which  the 
inventor  lived,  and  where  manufactures  of  worsted  are  still  extensively  carried  on, 
14  Edward  III.,  1340. — Anderson,  Worsted-stocking  knave  is  a  term  of  reproach 
or  contempt  used  by  Shakspeare. 

WOUNDING.  Malicious  wounding  of  another  was  adjudged  death  by  all  the  English 
statutes.  By  the  late  statute,  usually  called  Lord  EUenboroagh's  Act,  persons  who 
stab  or  cut  with  intent  to  murder,  maim,  or  disfigure  another  are  declared  guilty  of 
felony  without  benefit  of  clergy.  Those  guilty  of  maliciously  shooting  at  another 
in  any  dwelling-house,  or  other  place,  are  also  punishable  under  the  same  statute  in 
the  same  degree,  43  George  III.,  1802.    This  offence  is  met  by  some  later  atatutes, 


WRE 


C  659  ] 


WRE 


particularly  the  act  for  consolidating  'and  amending  the  acts  relating  to  offences 
against  the  person,  9  George  IV.,  June  1828.  This  last  act  is  extended  to  Ireland 
by  10  George  IT.,  1829.  Act  for  the  prevention  of  malicious  shooting,  stabbing, 
&c.  in  Scotland,  6  George  IV.,  1825  ;  amended  by  10  Geo.  IV.^  June  4,  1829. 

WRECKS  OF  SHIPPING.  The  wreckers  of  Cornwall  are  the  inhabitants  of  a  few 
parishes,  on  the  rocky  coast,  between  Mount's  Bay  and  the  Lizard.  When  a  wreck 
takes  place,  thousands  assemble  with  axes,  hatchets,  crow>bars,  &c.  ;  and  many 
women  and  children  fight,  by  habit,  for  the  plunder,  utterly  regardless  of  the  suf- 
ferers.— Phillips.  The  loss  of  merchant  and  other  ships  by  wreck  upon  lee-shores, 
coasts,  and  disasters  in  the  open  sea,  was  estimated  at  Lloyd's,  in  1800,  to  be  about 
an  average  of  365  ships  a  year.  In  1830,  it  appeared  by  Lloyd's  Lists ^  that  677 
British  vessels  were  totally  lost,  under  various  circumstances^  in  that  year.  The 
annual  loss  varies  ;  but  it  is  always  many  hundreds. 

MOST  REMARKABLE  SHIPWRECKS  OF   BRITTSH  VESSELS  IN  THE  LAST  SIXTY  YEARS. 

Of  the  Royal  Charlotte  East  Indiaman ; 
blown  up  at  Culpee  Aug.  1,  1798 

Of  the  Proserpine  frigate,  in  the  river 
Elbe;  crew  saved        .         .     Feb.  I,  1799 

Of  the  Nassauy  64  guns,  on  the  Haak 
Bank;  100  perished  .         Oct.  25,  1799 

Of  the  Ethalion  frigate,  38  guns,  on  the 
coast  of  France  .         .    Dec.  24,  1799 

Of   the   Queen  transport,   on   Trefusis 
Point,  369  souls  perished    .     Jan.  14,  1800 

Of  the  Mastiff  gun-brig,  lost  on   the 
Cockle  Sands         .         .  Jan.  19,  1800 

Of  the  Brazen,  king's  ship,  near  New- 
haven  ;  105  souls  perished        Jan.  25,  1800 

Of  the  Repulse,  64  guns,  on  the  rocks  off 
Ushant         .         .        .         March  12,  1800 

Of  the  Danag,  lost  through  a  conspiracy, 
off  Ushant        .         .         .  March  14,  1800 

Of  the  Queen  Charlotte,  110  gujiB{whieh 
see) ;  700  souls  perished         March  16,  1800 

Of  the  Queen  East  Indiaman,  by  fire,  on 
the  coast  of  Brazil         .         .    July  9,  1800 

Of  the  Marlborough,  74  guns,  near  Belle- 
Isle  ;  crew  saved  .  Nov.  4,  1800 

Of  the  Invincible,  74  guns,  off  Winter- 
ton  ;  400  souls  perished         March  20,  1801 

Of  the  Ambuscade  (late  French)  frigate, 
in  the  Downs  .         .  July  7>  1801 

Of  the  Margate  hoy  Margate,  near  Re-' 
culver ;  23  persons  perished     Feb.  10,  1802 

Of  the  Assistance,  50  guns,  off  Dunkirk ; 
crew  saved         .         .  March  29,  1802 

Of  the  Bangalore,  East  Indiaman,  in  the 
Indian  Sea    .         .  April  12,  1802 

Of  the  Melville,  Dutch  East  Indiaman, 
off  Dover  .         .         .       Nov,  23,  1802 

Of  the  Active  West  Indiaman,  in  Mar- 
gate Roads  .  Jan.  10,  1803 

Of  the  Hindostan  East  Indiaman,  went 
to  pieces  on  the  Culvers     .      Jan.  11,  1803 

Of  La  Diterminie,  24   guns,  in  Jersey 
Roads ;  many  drowned         March  26,  1803 

Of  the  Resistance  36  guns,  off  Cape  St. 
Vincent         .         .         .  May  31,  1803 

Of  the  Lady  Hobart  packet,  on  an  island 
of  ice         ....      June  28,  1803 

Of  La  Minerve  frigate,  44  guns,  grounded 
off  Cherbourg      .  .         .    July  2,  1803 

Of  the  Seine  frigate,  44  guns,  off  Schelling, 
in  Holland         .         .         .       July  31,  1803 

Of  the  Antelope,  captain  Wilson,  off  the 
Pelew  Islands  .         .         Aug.  9,  1803 

Of  the  Victory  Liverpool  ship,  at  Liver- 
pool; 37  drowned  .  Sept.  30,  1803 


Of  the  Thunderer,  74  guns  ;  Stirling 
Castle,  64 ;  Phoenix,  44 ;  La  Blanche, 
42;  Laurel,28;  Andromeda, 2H;  Deal 
Castle,  24;  Scarborough,  20;  Barba- 
does,  14 ;  Cameleon,  14 ;  Endeavour, 
14 ;  and  Victor,  10  guns ;  all  lost  in  the 
same  storm,  in  the  West  Indies,  in 

October,  1780 

Of  the  General  Barker,  EaBtJndiamaa, 
off  Schevelhig  .        .        Feb.  17,  1781 

Of  the  Royal  Oeorge  {which  see),  when 
1000  persons  perished  .     June  28,  1782 

Of  the  G'rofvenor  Indiaman,  on  the  coast 
ofCaffraria    .         •         .  Aug.  4,  1782 

Of  the  Swan  sloop-of-war,  off  Waterford ; 
130  persons  drowned    .         .     Aug.  4,  1782 

Of  the  Ramilies,  74  guns,  off  Newfound- 
land ;  100  souls  perished    .       Sept.  21,  1782 

Of  the  Hector  frigate,  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean ;  150  perished         .  Oct.  5,  1782 

Of  the  Ville  de  Paris  of  110  guns,  one  of 
admiral  Rodney's  prizes,  the  Glorieux,^ 
Centaur,  KaH  Ramilies,  of  74  guns  each,' 
all  lost  in  the  West  Indies    .      Oct.  5,  1782 

Of  the  Cato,  admiral  Sir  Hyde  Parker, 
on  the  Malabar  coast        .         .  .  1783 

Of  the  Count  Belgiosa  Indiaman,  off  Dub- 
lin Bay ;  147  souls  perished  March  13,  1783 

Of  the  Menai  ferry-boat,  in  passing  the 
Strait;  60 drowned  .         Dec. 5, 


1785 
1786 


Of  the  HalseweU  East  Indiaman ;  100 
persons  i)eri8hed  .         .     Jan.  6, 

Of  the  Hartwell  East  Indiaman,  with 
immense  wealth  on  board  .     May  24,  1787 

Of  the  Charlemont  Packet,  from  Holy- 
head to  Dublin  ;  104  drowned  Deo.  22,  1790 

Of  the  Pandora  frigate,  on  a  reef  of 
rocks ;  100  souls  perished    .     Aug.  28,  1791 

Of  the  Union  packet  of  Dover,  lost  off 
the  port  of  Calais ;  a  similar  occurrence 
had  not  happened  for  105  years  before, 

Jan.  28,  1792 

Of  the  Winterton  East  Indiaman ;  many 
of  the  crew  perished         .        Aug.  20,  1792 

Of  the  Boyne,  by  fire,  at  Spithead ;  many 
perished  (see  Boyne)    .         .      May  4,  1795 

Of  the  Droits  de  V Homme  British  ship 
of  the  line,  and  Amazon  frigate,  lost 
off  Hodieme  Bay;  many  hundreds 
perished  .         .         .      Jan.  14,  1797 

Of  La  Tribune  frigate,  off  Halifax ;  300 
souls  perished      .  .  Nov.  17,  1797 

Of  the  Resistance,  blown  up  in  the  Straits 
of  Banca  .         .         .      July  24,  1798 


WRB 


[560] 


WRE 


WRECKS  OP  SHIPPING,  eoniintted. 

Of  Che  Ciree  frigate,  32  guns,  on  the  coast, 
near  Yannoath  .  Noy.  16.  1803 

Of  the  Nautilus  Eaat  IndJaman,  on  the 
Ladronee  Not.  18,  1803 

Of  the  FanHy,  in  the  Chinese  sea;  46 
souls  perished  Nor.  29,  1803 

Of  the  SnjfiMHU  slooiH>f-war.  16  guns,  off 
Curk  harbour  .         .         Dec.  25,  1803 

Of  the  Apollo  frigate,  on  the  coast  of 
Portugal  (see  Apollo)  April  2,  1804 

Of  the  CupUterland  PadUt,  on  the  coast 
of  Antigua     .  .  Sept.  4,  1804 

Of  the  Romne^t  50  guns,  on  the  Haak 
Bank,  in  the  Texel  .      Nov.  18,  1804 

Of  the  VfHfrablff  74  guns,  at  Torbay ; 
crew  sared,  less  8  men  Not.  24,  1804 

Of  the  TartaruM^  74  guns,  in  Margate 
Roads ;  crew  saved  Dec.  20.  1804 

Of  the  S^vern^  74  guns,  on  a  rock  near 
(iruuTiUe  .    Dea  21,  1804 

Of  the  Dori*  frigate,  on  the  Diamond 
Rock.  QuiberoD  Uay  Jan.  12,  1805 

Of  the  AUrffavfnn^  East  Indiaman,  on 
the  Bill  of  Portland  ;  the  captain  and 
more  than  300  persons,  passengers  and 
crew,  perished  .         Feb.  6,  1805 

Of  the  Blanche  frigate  (first  captured  by 
the  French)  .  July  19.  1805 

Of  the  A'aiat  transport,  on  the  coast  of 
Newfoundland  .         Oct.  23,  1805 

Of  the  AintoM  transport,  off  Newfound- 
land ;  340  perished         .         .    Oct.  23,  1805 

Of  the  Aurora  transport,  on  the  Godwin 
Sands;  3IH)  perished         .         Dec.  21,  1805 

Of  the  Sidney  king's  ship,  near  Dampier's 
Straits         ....    May  20,  1806 

Of  the  Kinci  George  packet,  from  Park- 
gate  to  Dublin,  lost  on  the  Iloyle  Bank, 
125  persons,  passengers  and  crew, 
drowned  .         .  Sept  21,  1806 

Of  the  Atht^nienne,  64  guns,  off  Sardinia  ; 
347  souls  perished      •         •         Oct.  20. 1806 

Of  tl»o  aiaspow  packet  off  Farm  Island ; 
several  drowned      .         .         Nov.  17,  1806 

Of  the  Felix,  king's  schooner,  near  San- 
tander  ;  79  souls  lost  Jan.  22, 1807 

Of  the  Ajax.hy  Bre,  off  the  island  of  Tene- 
dos,  30()  perished  .      Feb.  14, 1807 

Of  the  Blanche  frigate,  on  the  French 
coast,  many  perished      .         March  9, 1807 

Of  the  Ganges  East  Indiaman,  off  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope        .         .  May  29, 1807 

Of  the  Prince  of  Wales  Parkgate  packet, 
and  Rochdale  transport,  on  Dunleary 
Point,  near  Dublin ;  nearly  300  souls 
perished  .         .         .         Nov.  19,  1807 

Of  the  Boreas  man-of-war,  upon  the  Han- 
nois  Rock  in  the  Channel   .      Not.  28, 1807 

Of  the  Anson  frigate,  near  the  Land's-end ; 
125  persons  drowned         .  Dec.  29, 1807 

Of  the  Agatha,  near  Memel ;  Lord  Roys- 
ton  and  others  drowned         .    April  7, 1808 

Of  the  Astrea  frigate,  on  the  Anagada 
coast      ....         May  23, 1808 

Of  the  Frith  passage-boat,  in  the  Frith  of 
Dornoch ;  40  i)er8ons  drowned   Aug.  13,  1809 

Of  the  Magicienne  frigate:  she  ran 
aground  at  the  Mauritius,  and  was  aban- 
doned and  burnt  by  her  crew,  Aug.  16,  1810 


Of  the   Satellite  sloop-of-war,    16   guns, 

upset,  and  all  on  hoard  periidied,  Dec.  14, 1810 
Of  the  Minotaur  of  74  guns,  wrecked  <m 

the  Haak  Bank;  of.  600    jiersons  on 

hoard,  about  480  were  drowned  Dec.  22,  IRIO 
Of  the  Eliza  East  India  ship,  on  the  coast 

of  Dunkirk  .  Dec.  27, 1810 

Of  the  Pandora  sloop-of-war,  off  Jutland, 

30  persons  perished  .  Feb.  13,  1811 

Of  the  Amethyst  frigate,  of  36  guns,  lost 

in  the  Sound  .  Feb.  15, 1811 

Of  the  Barham,  of  74  guns,  foundered  on 

the  coast  of  Corsica  July  29, 1811 

Of  the  Pomone  frigate,  on  the  Needle 

rocks ;  crew  saved    .         .  Oct.  14, 1811 

Of  the  Saldanha  frigate,  on   the   Irish 

coast ;  300  perished         .         .     Dec.  4,  1811 
Of  the  St.  George  of  96  and  D^i/ence  of  74 

gtms,  stranded  on  the  coast  of  Jutland, 

and  all  souls  perished  except  16  seamen 

Dec.  24,  1811 
Of  the  Manilla  frigate,  on  the  Haak  Sand ; 

130  persons  perished  .  Jan.  20, 1812 

Of  the  British  Queen  packet  from  Ostend 

to  Margate,  wrecked  on  the  Godwin 

Sands,  and  all  on  board  perished  Dec  17, 1814 
Of  the  Bengal  East  Indiaman,  l(»t  in  the 

East  Indies  .  Jan.  19. 1815 

Of  the  Duchess  of  Wellington  at  Calcutta, 

by  fire  ....    Jan.  21, 1816 

Of  the  Seahorse  transport,  near  Tramore 

Bay ;  365  persons,  chiefly  soldiers  of  the 

59th  regiment,  and  most  of  the  crew. 

drowned  .  Jan.  du,  1816 

Of  the  Lord  Melville  and  Boadicea  trans- 
ports, with  several  hundred  of  the  82nd 

regiment,  lost  near  Kinsale,  and  almost 

all  on  board  perished         .         Jan.  31, 1816 
Of  the  Harpooner  transport,  near  New- 
foundland; 100  persons  drowned  Nov.  10, 1816 
Of  the  William  and  Mary  packet  in  the 

English   Channel;  many    passengers 

drowned  .         .  Oct.  24,  1817 

Of  the  Queen  Charlotte  East  Indiaman,  at 

Madras ;  aU  on  board  perished  Oct  24,  1818 
Of  the  ^  riel,  in  the  Persian  Gulf ;  79  souls 

perished       .  March  18,  1830 

Of  the  Earl  of  Moira^  on  the  Burbo 

Bank,   near   Liverpool;    40  drowned 

Aug.  8, 1821 
Of   the  Blenden  Hall,  on  Inaccessible 

Island ;  many  perished       .      July  23, 1821 
Of  the  Juliana  East  Indiaman,  on  the 

Kentish  Knock ;  40  drowned     Dea  26,  1821 
Of  the  Thames  Indiaman.  off  Beachy 

Head;  several  drowned         .      Feb.  3, 1822 
Of  the  Drake,  10  guns,   near  Halifax ; 

several  drowned  .         June  20^  1822 

Of  the  Ellesmere  steam-packet ;  11  souls 

perished        .  Dec.  14,  1822 

Of  the  u4  lert  Dublin  and  Liverpool  packet ; 

70  souls  perished     .         .      March  26, 18?3 
Of  the  Robert,  from  Dublin  to  Liverpool ; 

60  souls  perished  May  16,  1823 

Of  the  Fanny,  in  Jersey  Roads;   lord 

Barley  and  many  drowned        Jan.  1 ,  1828 
Of  the  Stirling  steamer,  on  the  Ardgower 

shore,  Scotland        .  Jan.  17,  1828 

Of  the  Venus  packet  from  Waterford  to 


WRE 


[5613 


XAN 


WRECKS  OF  SHIPPING,  continued. 

Dublin,  near  Gorey ;  9  persons  were 
drowned         .         .         .       March  19, 1828 

Of  the  Newrjft  from  'Nevrry  to  Quebec, 
with  360  passengers;  cast  away  near 
Bardsey,  and  40  persons  were  drowned 

April  16. 1830 

Of  the  St.  George  steam-packet ;  wrecked 
off  Douglas,  Isle  of  Man      .      Not.  19, 1830 

Of  the  Rothesay  CastUt  near  Beaumaris 
(see  Rothesay  Castle)        .         Aug.  17, 1831 

Of  the  Lady  Sherbrooke,  from  London- 
derry to  Quebec ;  lost  near  Cape  Ray ; 
273  souls  perished,  32  only  were 
saved    ....  Aug.  19, 1831 

Of  the  Experiment,  from  Hull  to  Quebec ; 
wrecked  near  Calais        .        April  15, 1832 

Of  the  Eari  ofWemyss,  near  Wells,  Nor- 
folk ;  the  cabin  filled,  and  11  ladies  and 
children  were  drowned;  all  on  deck 
escaped         .         .         .  July  13, 1833 

Of  the  AmphUrite  ship,  with  female  con- 
victs to  New  South  Wales ;  lost  on 
Boulogne  Sands;  out  of  131  persons, 
three  only  were  saved.  (See  Amphi- 
trite)       ....         Aug.  30, 1833 

Of  the  United  Kingdom  West  Indiaman, 
with  a  rich  cargo ;  run  down  by  the 
(iueen  of  Scotland  steamer  off  North- 
fleet,  near  Gravesend        .         Oct.  15, 1833 

Of  the  Watenoitch  steamer,  on  the  coast 
of  Wexford ;  4  drowned       .     Deo.  18, 1833 

Of  the  Lady  Munro,  from  Calcutta  to 
Sydney ;  of  90  persons  on  board,  not 
more  than  20  were  saved       .     Jan.  9, 1834 

Of  the  CameUon  cutter;  run  down  off 
DovOT  by  the  Castor  frigate ;  14  persons 
drowned ;  the  lieutenant  of  the  Castor 


Of  the  Apollo  steamer ;  run  down  by  the 
Monarch,  near  Northfleet    .     Sept.  9, 1837 

Of  the  Killarney  steamer,  off  Cork  har- 
bour ;  29  persons  perished      .    Jan.  26, 1838 

Of  the  Forfarshire  steamer,  from  Hull  to 
Dundee;  38  persons  drowned.  Owing 
to  the  courage  of  Grace  Darling  and 
her  father,  15  persons  were  saved  (see 
Forfarshire)       .        .         .       Sept.  5, 1838 

Of  the  Protector  East  Indiaman,  at 
Bengal ;  of  178  persons  on  board,  170 
perished  .         .         .         Nov.  21, 1838 

Of  H.  M.  S.  Fairy,  capt  Hewett ;  sailed 
frcfm  Harwich  on  a  surveying  cruise, 
and  was  lost  next  day,  in  a  violent  gale, 
off  the  coast  of  Norfolk         .     Nov.  13, 1840 

Of  the  Thames  steamer,  capt.  Gray,  from 
Dublin  to  Liverpool,  wrecked  off  St. 
Ives;  the  captain,  nearly  the  whole 
crew,  and  passengers  were  lost.-  Of  61 
persons  who  were  on  board,  three 
females  and  two  kien  only  were  saved ; 
56  perished        .         .         .         Jan.  4,  1841 

Of  the  Governor  Fenner,  from  Liverpool 
for  America ;  rtm  down  off  Holyhead 
by  the  Nottingham  steamer,  out  of 
Dublin.  Of  124  persons,  crew  and  pas- 
sengers, on  board  the  former  vessel, 
two  only,  the  captain  and  mate,  were 
saved ;  122  souls  perished      .    Feb.  19, 1841 

Of  the  Amelia  from  London  to  Liverpool ; 
lost  on  the  Heme  Sand     .        Feb.  26, 1841 

Of  the  President  steamer,  from  New 
York  to  Liverpool,  with  many  passen- 
gerson board;  6ailedonMarchll,1841; 
encountered  a  terrific  storm  March  13, 
and  following  days,  and  is  siipi)osed  to 
have  foimdered. 


was  dismissed  the  service    .     Aug.  27, 1834 

WRITING.  Pictures  were  undoubtedly  the  first  essay  towards  writing.  The  most 
ancient  remains  of  writing  which  have  been  transmitted  to  us  are  upon  hard  sub- 
stances, such  as  stones  and  metals,  used  by  the  ancients  for  edicts,  and  matters  of 
public  notoriety.  Athotes,  or  Hermes,  is  said  to  have  written  a  history  of  the 
Egyptians,  and  to  have  been  the  author  of  the  hieroglyphics,  2112  b.c. — Usher, 
Writing  is  said  to  have  been  taught  to  the  Latins  by  Europa,  daughter  of  Agenor, 
king  of  Phoenicia,  1494  b.c. — Thucydides.  Cadmus,  the  founder  of  Cadmea,  1493 
B.C.,  brought  the  Phoenician  letters  into  Greece. — VosHus,  The  commandments 
were  written  on  two  tables  of  stone,  1491  b.c. — Usher.  The  Greeks  and  Romans 
used  waxed  table-books,  and  continued  the  use  of  them  long  after  papyrus  was 
known.     See  Papyrus^  Parchment^  Paper. 

WURTZSCHEN,  Battle  of,  between  the  allied  Russian  and  Prussian  armies,  and 
the  French  army  commanded  by  Napoleon  in  person.  The  carnage  was  dreadful  on 
both  sides,  but  in  the  end  the  allies  retreated  from  the  field ;  fought  May  21,  1813. 


X. 

XACCA.  The  first  founder  of  idolatry  in  the  Indies  and  eastern  countries :  the  history 
of  his  life  reports,  that  when  his  mother  was  enceinte  with  him,  she  dreamt  that  she 
brought  forth  a  white  elephant,  which  is  the  reason  the  kings  of  Siam,  Tonquin,  and 
China  have  so  great  a  value  for  them.  The  Brahmins  affirm  that  Xacca  has  gone 
through  a  metempsychosis  80,000  times,  and  that  his  soul  has  passed  into  so  many 
different  kinds  of  beasts,  whereof  the  last  was  a  white  elephant :  they  add,  that  after 
all  these  changes,  he  was  received  into  the  company  of  the  gods. 

XANTHICA.  The  festival  observed  by  the  Macedonians  in  the  month  called  Xanthicus, 
the  same  as  April.    It  was  then  usual  to  make  a  lustration  of  the  army  with  great 

0  o 


XAN  C  662  ]  YEA 

Bolemnity.  The  soldiers  had  mimic  battles,  and  the  people  indulged  in  great  excesses; 
392  B.C. 

XANTHUS,  Siioi  or,  by  the  Romans  nnder  Brutus.  After  a  great  straggle,  and  the 
endurance  of  great  privations,  the  inhabitants,  being  no  longer  able  to  sustain  them- 
■elyes  against  the  enemy,  and  determined  not  to  survive  the  loss  of  their  liberty,  set 
fire  to  their  city,  destroyed  their  wives  and  children,  and  then  themselves  perished  in 
the  conflagration.  The  conqueror  wished  to  spare  them,  but  though  he  offered 
rewards  to  bis  soldiers  if  they  brought  any  of  the  Xanthians  alive  into  his  presence^ 
only  150  were  saved,  mudi  against  their  will ;  42  B.C. — Plutarch. 

XANTHOXYLUM  CLAVA  HERCULIS,  or  Tooth-ache  tree,  was  brought  to  these 
countries  from  North  Carolina  before  1736.  The  Xanthorhiza  apUfolia  was  brought 
to  England  from  North  America  about  1766.    See  Flowert, 

XATIVA,  IN  Talbncia.  This  town,  also  known  as  St.  Philip,  having  espoused  the 
cause  of  Charles  III.,  the  king,  Philip  V.,  ordered  it  to  be  demolished,  and  a  new 
town  called  St  Philip  to  be  founded  on  its  ruins,  a.d.  1707. 

XENOPHON,  Rbtbbat  of.  Xenophon,  sumamed  the  Attic  Muse,  led  in  the  memo- 
rable retreat  of  the  Greeks,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  events  in  ancient  history. 
The  Greeks  were  mercenaries  of  the  younger  Cyrus,  after  whose  defeat  and  fall  at 
the  battle  of  Cunaza,  they  were  obliged  to  retreat ;  but  Xenophon  kept  them  in  a 
compact  body,  aA  retreated  through  Asia  into  Thrace.  The  Greeks  proceeded 
through  various  fierce  and  barbarous  nations,  surmounted  all  the  obstacles  and 
dangers  that  arose  at  every  step,  and  accomplished  their  arduous  enterprise,  after 
repeated  triumphs  over  toils,  fraud,  and  force.  This  retreat  is  esteemed  the  boldest 
and  best-conducted  exploit  on  record ;  401  b.c. —  Votsitu. 

XERXES'  CAMPAIGN  in  GREECE.  Xerxes  entered  Greece  in  the  spring  of  480 
B.C.  with  an  army,  which,  together  with  the  numerous  retinue  of  servants,  eunuchs, 
and  women  that  attended  it,  amounted  to  5,283,220  souls.  This  multitude,  which 
the  fidelity  of  historians  has  not  exaggerated,  was  stopped  at  Thermopyls,  by  the 
valour  of  300  Spartans  under  Leonidas.  Xerxes,  astonished  that  such  a  handful  of 
men  should  oppose  his  progress,  ordered  some  of  his  soldiers  to  bring  them  alive 
into  his  presence ;  but  for  three  successive  days  the  most  valiant  of  the  Persian  troops 
were  defeated,  and  the  courage  of  the  Spartans  might  perhaps  have  triumphed  longer, 
if  a  Trachinian  had  not  led  a  detachment  to  the  top  of  the  mountain,  and  suddenly 
fallen  upon  the  devoted  band.  The  battle  of  Thermopylae  (which  see)  was  the 
beginniDg  of  the  disgrace  of  Xerxes,  Aug.  7,  480  b.c.  The  more  he  advanced,  the 
more  he  experienced  new  disasters.  His  fleet  was  defeated  at  Artemisiumand  Salamis, 
and  he  hastened  back  to  Persia,  leaving  Mardonius,  the  best  of  his  generals,  behind 
with  an  army  of  300,000  men.  The  rest  that  had  survived  the  ravages  of  war, 
famine,  and  pestilence,  followed  Xerxes  on  his  route  home. 

XIMERA,  Battle  of,  between  the  Spanish  army  under  Ballasteros,  and  the  French 
under  general  Regnier,  and  in  which  the  Spaniards  defeated  their  adversaries  ;  but 
on  both  sides  the  loss  was  considerable  in  killed  and  wounded  ;  Sept.  10,  1811. 

Y. 

YARD.  The  precise  origin  of  our  yard  is  uncertain.  It  is,  however,  likely  that  the 
word  is  (as  some  authorities  state)  from  the  Saxon  term  ffyrd,  or  ffirthy  being 
anciently  the  circumference  of  the  body,  until  Henry  I.  decreed  that  it  should  be 
the  length  of  his  arm.  There  has  been  no  alteration  made  in  the  length  of  the  yard 
•  since  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  who  altered  and  revised  most  of  our  measures  and 
weights.  It  was  directed  that  the  old  standard  yard  of  a.d.  1760,  in  the  custody  of 
the  clerk  of  the  house  of  commons,  should  continue  to  be  the  standard  unit  of 
extension,  or  lineal,  superficial,  and  solid  measures ;  statute  5  Geo.  IV.,  June  17, 1824. 

YEAR.  The  Egyptians,  it  is  said,  were  the  first  who  fixed  the  length  of  the  year.  The 
Roman  year  was  introduced  by  Romulus,  738  b.c  Corrected  by  Numa,  713  b.c  ; 
and  again  by  Julius  Cssar,  45  b.c  See  Calendar,  The.  solar  or  astronomical 
year  was  found  to  comprise  365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes,  51  seconds,  and  6  deci- 
mals, 265  B.C.  The  siderial  year,  or  return  to  the  same  star,  is  365  days,  6  hours, 
9  minutes,  and  11  seconds.  A  considerable  variation  prevailed  generally  among  the 
nations  of  antiquity,  and  still  partially  prevails,  with  regard  to  the  ooaimenoement 


YEA  [|  563  ]  YEL 

of  the  year.  The  Jews  dated  the  beginning  of  the  sacred  year  in  the  month  of 
March ;  the  Athenians  in  the  month  of  June ;  the  Macedonians  on  the  24th  Sept. ; 
the  Christians  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  on  the  29th  or  30th  of  August ;  and  the  Per- 
sians and  Armenians,  on  the  11th  of  that  month.  Nearly  all  the  nations  of  the 
Christian  world  now  commence  the  year  on  the  1st  of  January.  Charles  IX.  of 
France,  in  15^4,  published  an  arrest,  the  last  article  of  which  ordered  the  year  for 
the  time  to  come  to  be  constantly  and  universally  begun,  and  written  on  and  from 
January  1.     See  New  Style ^  &c. 

YEAR  IN  ENGLAND.  The  English  began  their  year  on  the  25th  December,  until 
the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror.  This  prince  having  been  crowned  on  Jan.  1, 
gave  occasion  to  the  English  to  begin  their  year  at  that  time  to  make  it  agree  with 
the  then  most  remarkable  period  of  their  history. — Stowe,  But  though  the  historical 
year  began  on  the  day  of  the  Circumcision,  yet  the  civil  or  legal  year  did  not  com- 
mence till  the  day  of  the  Annunciation,  namely,  the  25th  of  March.  Until  the  act 
for  altering  the  style,  as  late  as  1752  (see  Style) j  the  year  did  not  legally  and  gene- 
rally commence  in  England  until  the  last-mentioned  day.  In  Scotland,  at  that 
period,  the  year  began  on  the  Ist  of  January.  This  difference  caused  great  practical 
inconveniences  ;  and  January,  February,  and  part  of  March  sometimes  bore  two 
dates,  as  we  often  find  in  old  records,  as  1745-1746,  or  1745-6,  or  174}.  Such  a 
reckoning  often  led  to  chronological  mistakes  ;  for  instance,  ^e  popularly  say  ^'  the 
revolution  of  1688,'*  as  that  great  event  happened  in  February  of  the  year  1688, 
according  to  the  then  mode  of  computation ;  but  if  the  year  were  held  to  begin,  as  it 
does  now,  on  the  Ist  of  January,  it  would  be  the  revolution  of  1689. 

YEAR  OF  OUR  LORD,  The  first  sovereign  who  adopted  this  distinction  was  Charles 
III.,  emperor  of  Germany :  he  added  "  In  the  year  of  our  Lord''  to  his  reign,  a.d. 
879.  It  was  followed  by  the  French  kings,  and  afterwards  by  the  English ;  and  is 
the  mode  of  designating  the  year  from  the  birth  of  the  Redeemer  in  all  Christian 
countries.     See  Eras,  ^ 

YEAR  or  the  REIGN.  From  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror,  a.d.  1066,  the 
year  of  the  sovereign's  reign  has  been  given  to  all  public  instruments.  The 
king's  patents,  charters,  proclamations,  and  all  acts  of  parliament,  have  since  then 
been  generally  so  dated.  The  same  manner  of  dating  is  used  in  most  of  the  European 
states  for  all  similar  documents  and  records. 

YEAR,  Platonic.  The  doctrine  of  the  Platonic  year  was  believed  among  the  Chal- 
deans, and  in  the  earliest  ages.  It  is  that  space  of  time  at  the  end  whereof  all  the 
planets  are  to  return  to  l^e  same  point  from  whence  they  set  out,  and  have  the 
same  aspects  and  configurations  one  upon  another.  Some  affirm  this  return  to  be 
in  15,000  common  years,  others  in  36,000.  The  ancient  heathens  were  of  opinion, 
that  when  this  period  was  completed,  the  world  would  be  renewed  again,  and  the 
departed  souls  re-enter  their  bodies,  and  go  through  a  second  course  of  being. 

YEAR,  Siberian  and  Lapland.  The  year  in  the  northern  regions  of  Siberia,  and  in 
Lapland,  is  described  in  the  following  calendar,  as  given  by  a  recent  traveller : — 


July  25.  Plants  in  flower. 
Aug.    2.  Fniitaripa 

Aug.  10.  Plants  shed  their  seed. 

Aug.  18.  Snow. 


June  23.  Snow  melts. 
July    1.  Snow  gone. 
July    9.  Field  quite  green. 
July  I7«  Plants  at  full  growth. 

The  snow  then  continues  upon  the  ground  for  about  ten  months,  from  August  I8th 
of  one  year,  to  June  23d  of  the  year  following,  being  309  days  out  of  365 ;  so  that 
while  the  three  seasons  of  spring,  summer,  and  autumn  are  together  only  fifty-six 
days,  or  eight  weeks,  the  winter  is  of  forty-four  weeks'  duration  in  these  countries. 

YELLOW  FEVER.  This  dreadful  pestilence  made  its  appearance  at  Philadelphia, 
where  it  committed  great  ravages,  a.d.  1699.  It  appeared  in  several  islands  of  the 
West  Indies  in  1732,  1739,  and  1745.  It  raged  with  unparalleled  violence  at 
Philadelphia,  in  Oct.  1762  ;  and  most  awfully  at  New  York  in  the  beginning  of 
Aug.  1791.  This  fever  again  spread  great  devastation  at  Philadelphia  in  July  1793 ; 
carrying  off  several  thousand  persons. — HardieU  Ann.  It  again  appeared  in  Oct. 
1797  ;  and  spread  its  ravages  over  the  northern  coast  of  America,  Sept.  1798.  It 
re-appeared  at  Philadelphia  in  the  summer  of  1802  ;  and  broke  out  in  Spain,  in 
Sept.  1803.  The  yellow  fever  was  very  violent  at  Gibraltar  in  1804  and  1814 ;  in 
the  Mauritius,  July  1815  ;   at  Antigua,  in  Sept.  1816  ;  and  it  raged  with  dreadful 


YEO C564] TOR 

oomeqnenoes  at  Gadii,  and  the  Itle  of  St.  Lion,  in  Sept  1819.     A  malignant  fever 
raged  at  Gibraltar  in  Sept.  1828,  and  did  not  terminate  mitil  the  following  year. 

YEOMEN  OP  THB  GUARD.  A  peculiar  bodj  of  foot-guards  to  the  king's  person, 
institated  at  the  coronation  of  Henry  YII.,  Oct  30,  1485.  It  originally  consisted 
of  fifty  men,  nnder  a  captain  ;  they  were  of  larger  stature  than  other  guards,  being 
required  to  be  over  six  feet  in  height,  and  they  were  armed  with  lirquebusses  and 
other  arms.  This  band  was  incrt»sed  by  the  royal  successors  of  Henry  to  one 
hundred  men^  and  serenty  supernumeraries ;  and  when  one  of  the  hundred  died,  it 
was  ordered  that  his  place  should  be  supplied  out  of  the  seventy.  They  were  clad 
after  the  manner  of  king  Henry  YIII. — Ashmole*s  InstiL  This  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  permanent  military  band  instituted  in  England.  John,  earl  of  Oxford,  was 
the  first  captain,  in  XA^S.—BtaUotCs  Pol.  Index. 

YEW-TREE  (  Tasut),  The  origin  of  planting  yew-trees  in  church-yards  was  (these 
latter  being  fenced)  to  secure  the  trees  from  cattle,  and  in  this  manner  preserve 
them  for  the  encouragement  of  archery.  A  general  plantation  of  them  for  the  use  of 
archers  was  ordered  by  Richard  111.,  1483. — Stowe's  Chron,  Near  Fountain's- 
abbey,  Ripon,  Yorkshire,  were  lately  standing  seven  yew  trees,  called  the  seven 
sisters,  supposed  to  have  been  planted  before  a.d.  1088,  and  the  circumference  of 
the  largest  of  which  was  thirty-four  feet  seven  inches  round  the  trunk.  A  yew  is  now 
growing  in  the  church-yard  of  Gresford,  North  Wales,  whose  circumference  is  nine 
yards  nine  inches.  This  is  the  largest  and  oldest  yew-tree  in  the  British  dominions ; 
but  it  is  affirmed  on  traditionary  evidence  that  there  are  some  of  these  trees  in  Eng- 
land  older  than  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  The  old  yew-tree  mentioned  in 
the  survey  taken  of  Richmond  palace  in  1649  still  exists. 

YEZDEGIRD,  o&  PERSIAN  ERA.  It  was  formeriy  universally  adopted  in  Persia, 
and  is  still  used  by  the  Parsees  in  India,  and  by  the  Arabs,  in  certain  computations. 
This  era  began  on  the  26th  of  June,  a.d.  632.  The  year  consisted  of  365  days 
only,  and  therefore  its  commencement,  like  that  of  the  old  Egyptian  and  Armenian 
year,  anticipated  the  Julian  year  by  one  day  in  every  four  years.  This  difference 
amounted  to  nearly  112  days  in  the  year  1075,  when  it  was  reformed  by  Jelaledin, 
who  ordered  that  in  future  the  Persian  year  should  receive  an  additional  day  when- 
ever it  should  appear  necessary  to  postpone  the  commencement  of  the  following  year, 
that  it  might  occur  on  the  day  of  the  sun's  passing  the  same  degree  of  the  ecliptic. 

YOKE.  The  ceremony  of  making  prisoners  pass  under  it,  was  first  practised  by  the 
Samnites  towards  the  Romans,  321  b.c.  This  disgrace  was  afterwards  inflicted  by 
the  Romans  upon  their  vanquished  enemies. — AbbS  Lenglet  Dufresnoy, 

YORK.  The  Eboracum  of  the  Romans,  and  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  England. 
Here  Severus  held  an  imperial  court,  a.d.  207  ;  and  here  also  Constantius  kept  his 
court,  and  his  son  Constantine  the  Great  was  bom,  in  274.  York  was  burnt  by  the 
Danes,  and  all  the  Normans  slain,  1069.  The  city  and  many  churches  were  de- 
stroyed by  fire,  June  3,  1137.  York  received  its  charter  from  Richard  II.,  and 
the  city  is  the  only  one  in  the  British  kingdoms,  besides  London  and  Dublin,  to 
whose  mayors  the  prefix  of  lord  has  been  granted.  The  Guildhall  was  erected  in 
1446.  The  castle  was  built  by  Richard  III.,  1484,  and  was  rebuilt  1701.  The 
corporation  built  a  mansion-house  for  the  lord  mayor,  1728.  The  famoua  York 
petition  to  parliament  to  reduce  the  expenditure  and  redress  grievances  was  gotten 
up,  Dec.  1779.  This  act  was  followed  by  various  political  associations  in  other 
parts  of  England. 

YORK,  Archbishopric  of,  the  most  ancient  metropolitan  see  in  England,  being,  it  is 
said,  so  made  by  king  Lucius,  about  a.d.  180,  when  Christianity  was  first,  although 
partially  established,  in  England.  But  this  establishment  was  overturned  by  the 
Saxons  driving  out  the  Britons.  When  the  former  were  converted,  pope  Gregory 
determined  that  the  same  dignity  should  be  restored  to  York,  and  Paulinus  was 
made  archbishop  of  this  see,  about  a.d.  622.  York  and  Durham  were  the  only 
two  sees  in  the  north  of  England  for  a  large  space  of  time,  until  Henry  'I.  erected  a 
bishopric  at  Carlisle,  and  Uenry  YIII.  another  at  Chester.  York  was  the  metro- 
politan see  of  the  Scottish  bishops  ;  but  during  the  time  of  archbishop  Nevil,  1 464, 
they  withdrew  their  obedience,  and  had  archbishops  of  their  own.  Much  dispute 
arose  between  the  two  English  metropolitans  about  precedency,  as,  by  pope  Gre- 
gory's institutions,  it  was  thought  he  meant,  that  whichever  of  them  was  first  con- 


YOR  [_  565  ]  ZAM 

firmed,  should  be  superior :  appeal  was  made  to  the  court  of  Rome  by  both  parties^ 
and  it  was  determined  in  iavour  of  Canterbury ;  but  York  was  allowed  to  style  himself 
primate  of  England^  while  Canterbury  styles  himself  primate  of  all  England.  Yorlc 
has  yielded  to  the  church  of  Rome  eight  saints,  and  three  cardinals ;  and  to  the 
civil  state  of  England  twelve  lord  chancellors,  two  lord  treasurers,  and  two  lord  pre- 
sidents of  the  north.  It  is  rate4  in  the  king's  books,  39  Henry  VIII.,  1546,  at 
1609/.  I9s,  2d,  per  annum. — BeaUon, 

YORK  CATHEDRAL.  This  majestic  fabric  was  erected  at  different  periods,  and  on 
the  site  of  former  buildings,  which  have  again  and  again  been  destroyed  by  fire. 
The  first  Christian  church  erected  here,  which  appears  to  have  been  preceded  by  a 
Roman  temple,  was  built  by  Edwin,  king  of  Northumbria,  about  the  year  630^  It 
was  damaged  by  fire  in  1741,  and  was  rebuilt  by  archbishop  Albert,  about  780.  It 
was  again  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  year  1069,  and  rebuilt  by  archbishop  Thomas. 
It  was  once  more  burnt  down  in  1 137,  along  with  St.  Mary's  Abbey,  and  39  parish 
churches  in  York.  Archbishop  Roger  began  to  build  the  choir  in  1171 ;  Walter 
Gray  added  the  south  transept  in  1227 ;  John  de  Romayne,  the  treasurer  of  the 
cathedral,  built  the  north  transept  in  1260.  His  son,  the  archbishop,  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  the  nave  in  1291.  In  1330,  William  de  Melton  built  the  two  western 
towers,  which  were  finished  by  John  de  Birmingham  in  1342.  Archbishop  Thoresby, 
in  1361,  began  to  rebuild  the  choir,  in  accordance  with  the  magnificence  of  the  nave, 
and  he  also  rebuilt  the  lantern  tower.  And  thus  by  many  hands,  and  with  the  con- 
tributions of  many  families,  and  of  multitudes  who  were  promised  indulgences  for 
their  liberality,  this  magnificent  fabric  was  completed.  It  was  set  on  fire  by  Jona- 
than Martin,  a  lunatic,  and  the  roof  of  the  choir  and  its  internal  fittings  destroyed, 
Feb.  2,  1829  :  the  damage,  estimated  at  60,000/.,  was  repaired  in  1832.  An  acci- 
;  dental  fire  broke  out,  which  in  one  hour  reduced  the  belfry  to  a  shell,  destroyed  the 
roof  of  the  nave,  and  much  damaged  the  edifice,  May  20, 1840. 

YORK  AND  LANCASTER,  WARS  of  the  HOUSES  of.  The  first  battle  between 
these  houses  was  that  of  St.  Albans,  fought  May  22,  1455.  The  last  was  that 
of  Tewkesbury,  fought  May  4,  1471.  In  these  battles  the  Yorkists,  or  White 
RoseSf  were  victorious  against  the  house  of  Lancaster,  or  the  Red  Roses.  But  in 
the  sixteen  years  between  these  two  dates  more  than  thirty  great  battles  were  fought 
with  different  success,  and  half  the  country  was  depopulated,  and  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  nobility  exterminated'".     See  Roses. 

YORK,  Uppea  Canada.  In  the  late  war  between  America  and  Great  Britain,  the 
United  States'  forces  made  several  attacks  upon  the  province  of  Upper  Canada,  and 
succeeded  in  taking  York,  the  seat  of  the  government,  April  27,  1813  ;  but  it  was 
soon  afterwards  again  possessed  by  the  British. 

YORK  TOWN,  British  Surrender  at.  Memorable  surrender  of  the  British 
forces  under  lord  Comwallis,  to  the  army  of  the  revolted  colonies,  in  the  war  of 
independence.  Lord  Comwallis  had  taken  possession  of  York-town  in  August  1781 ; 
and  after  sustaining  a  disastrous  siege,  was  obliged  to  surrender  his  whole  army, 
consisting  of  about  7000  men,  to  the  allied  armies  of  France  and  America,  under  the 
command  of  general  Washington  and  count  Rochambeau,  Oct.  19, 1781.  This  mis- 
chance was  attributed  to  sir  Henry  Clinton,  who  had  not  given  the  garrison  the 
necessary  succour  they  expected ;  and  it  mainly  led  to  the  close  of  the  war. — See 
United  States, 

Z. 

ZAM  A,  Battle  of,  between  the  two  greatest  commanders  in  the  world  at  the  time, 
Hannibal  and  Scipio  Africanus.  This  battle  has  been  called  the  most  important 
that  was  ever  fought ;  it  was  won  by  Scipio,  and  was  decisive  of  the  fate  of  Carthage ; 
it  led  to  an  ignominious  peace  which  was  granted  the  year  after,  and  closed  the 
second  Punic  war.  The  Romans  lost  but  2000  killed  and  wounded,  while  the  Car- 
thaginians lost,  in  killed  and  prisoners,  more  than  40,000 ;  some  historians  make 
the  loss  greater ;  b.c.  202. 

*  The  reign  of  Henry  IV.  ia  remarkable  for  the  first  capital  punishment  inflicted  on  a  clergyman 
of  high  rank.  Dr.  Richard  Sorope,  archbishop  of  York,  having  been  concerned  in  an  insurrection 
against  the  king,  whom  he  regarded  as  a  cruel  usurper,  and  having  attempted  to  restore  Richard  II., 
was  beheaded  by  Henry,  without  either  indictment,  trial,  or  defence,  a.d.  1400. 


ZA.S  Q  566  ]]  ZEL 

ZANTE.  This  island,  with  the  rest  of  the  islands  now  forming  tiie  Ionian  repablic, 
was  snbjcct  to  Tenioe  prior  to  the  Fretich  Revolution ;  bat  the  ^ole  group  were 
ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  {wduch  see)^  Oct.  17,  1797.  They 
were  taken  by  a  Bnssian  and  Torkish  fleet,  and  were  erected  into  an  independent 
republic  by  the  name  of  the  Seven  Islanda,  in  1799.  They  fell  into  different  hands 
in  Uie  course  of  the  snooeeding  year,  and  were  snrrendered  to  the  French  by  the 
Rnssians,  together  with  Ragnsa,  Angnst  14,  1807.  They  submitted  to  the  British 
army,  Oct.  3,  1809.  In  the  arrangements  at  the  congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815,  they 
were  pat  under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain.  The  treaty  was  ratified  at  Paris 
for  this  purpose,  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  Nov.  5,  1815.  The  new  consti- 
tution was  ratified  by  the  prince  regent,  February  2*2,  1817. 

ZANZALEENS.  This  sect  rose  in  Syria^  under  Zanzalee,  a.d.  535  ;  he  taught  that 
water  baptism  was  of  no  efficacy,  and  that  it  was  necessary  to  be  baptised  with 
fire,  by  the  application  of  a  red-hot  iron.  The  sect  was  at  one  time  very  nume- 
rous.— Ashe» 

ZE,  ZOW,  ZIERES.  For  y^,  yoti,  and  yours.  The  letter  x  was  retained  in  Scotland, 
and  was  commonly  written  for  the  letter  y,  so  late  as  the  reign  of  queen  Mary,  up 
to  which  period  many  books  in  the  Scottish  language  were  printed  in  Edinburgh 
with  these  words,  a.d.  1543. 

ZEALAND,  NEW,  in  the  Pacific  Discovered  by  Tasman  in  1642.  He  traversed 
the  eastern  coast,  and  entered  a  strait  where,  being  attacked  by  the  natives  soon 
after  he  came  to  anchor,  he  did  not  go  ashore.  From  the  time  of  Tasman,  the 
whole  country,  except  that  part  of  the  coast  which  was  seen  by.  him,  remained  alto- 
gether unknown,  and  was  by  many  supposed  to  make  part  of  a  southern  continent, 
till  1770,  when  it  was  circumnavigated  by  captain  Cook,  who  found  it  to  consist  of 
two  large  islands,  separated  by  Uie  strait.  The  introduction  of  potatoes  into  New 
Zealand  has  saved  many  lives,  for  the  natives  give  this  root  a  decided  preference  to 
human  flesh,  under  every  circumstance,  except  that  of  wreaking  vengeance  on  a 
chief  of  the  foe  whom  they  have  taken  in  battle.  Captain  Cook,  in  1773,  planted 
several  spots  of  ground  on  this  island  with  European  garden-seeds ;  and  in  1777,  he 
found  a  few  fine  potatoes,  greatly  improved  by  change  of  soil. 

ZELA,  Battle  of,  in  which  Julius  Caesar  defeated  Pharnaces,  king  of  Pontus,  son  of 
Mithridates.  Caesar,  in  announcing  this  victory,  sent  his  famous  despatch  to  the 
senate  of  Rome,  in  three  words:  **  Venif  vidit  vici**—**  I  came,  I  saw,  I  con- 
quered," so  rapidly  and  easily  was  his  triumph  obtained.  This  battle  concluded  the 
war ;  Pharnaces  escaped  into  Bosphorus,  where  he  was  slain  by  his  lieutenant, 
Asander;  and  Pontus  was  made  a  province  of  Rome,  and  Bosphorus  given  to 
Mithridates  of  Pergamus,  47  b.c. — Sue.  Cas. 

ZELICHOW,  Battle  of,  between  the  Polish  and  Russian  armies,  one  of  the  most 
desperate  and  bloody  battles  fought  by  the  Poles  in  their  late  struggle  for  the 
freedom  of  their  country.  The  Russians,  who  were  commanded  by  general 
Diebitch,  were  defeated,  losing  12,000  men  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners  ;  and 
Diebitch  narrowly  escaped  being  taken  in  the  pursuit  of  his  flying  army,  April  6, 1831 . 

ZELL,  Castle  of.  The  prison  of  the  queen  Matilda  of  Denmark,  sister  to  George 
111.  of  England.  A  new  ministry  in  Denmark,  being  headed  by  the  dowager-queen, 
were  opposed  in  their  policy  by  the  reigning  queen  Matilda,  and  counts  Brandt  and 
Struensee,  new  favourites  at  court.  The  king  had  displaced  several  of  the  queen- 
dowager's  friends,  and  in  revenge  against  Matilda,  to  whom  these  ministers  paid 
great  attention,  she  insinuated  that  the  queen  had  condescended  to  have  an  intrigue 
with  Struensee.  This  unfounded  charge  was  steadily  persisted  in,  and  in  the  end 
the  unfortunate  Matilda  was  doomed  to  imprisonment  for  life.  His  Britannic 
Majesty  so  far  interfered  as  to  send  a  small  squadron  of  ships  to  convoy  the  unhappy 
princess  to  Germany.  The  castle  of  Zell  was  appointed  for  her  residence,  and  here 
she  died  at  four-and-twenty  years  of  age,  denying  in  her  last  moments  that  she  had 
ever  been  unfaithful  to  the  king.     She  embarked  at  Elsineur,  May  10,  1772  *. 

*  It  was  resolved  to  surprise  the  king  in  the  middle  of  the  night,  and  force  him  to  sign  an  order 
for  committing  the  ministers  to  separate  prisons ;  and  to  accuse  them  of  a  design  to  dethrone  and 
poison  the  king,  and  report  a  criminal  correspondence  of  the  queen  with  her  favourite.  This  design 
was  executed  on  the  night  of  January  16,  1772,  when  a  masked  ball  was  given  at  the  palace.  The 
queen  had  danced  most  of  the  evening  with  Struensee,  and  had  retired  to  her  chamber  about  two  in 


ZEN  1^567  ]  zoo 

ZENO,  Sect  of^  foimded  by  Zeno.  This  sect  also  took  the  name  of  Stoic,,  from  a 
public  portico,  so  called,  from  which  the  philosopher  deli^red  his  harangues.  It 
was  the  most  famous  portico  in  Athens,  and  was  called,  by  way  of  eminence,  :Xroaf 
the  porch.  See  Stoics,  In  order  to  form  his  own  school  of  philosophy,  and  to 
collect  materials  for  a  new  system,  Zeno  had  attended  the  schools  of  various  masters, 
and  among  others  he  ofiered  hin^self  as  a  disciple  of  Polemo.  This  philosopher, 
aware  of  Zeno's  object,  said,  ''  I  am  no  stranger,  Zeno,  to  your  Phoenician  arts. 
I  perceive  that  your  design  is  to  creep  silly  into  my  garden,  and  steal  away  my 
fruit.''  He  taught  about  312  b.c. 

ZEUTA,  Batixb  op,  fought  between  the  Germans  under  prince  Eugene  against  the 
Turks,  and  memorable  for  the  prodigious  overthrow  of  the  latter,  a.d.  1697.  This 
victory  of  the  Austrian  arms  led  to  Uie  peace  of  Carlowitz,  negotiated  in  1698,  and 
ratified  in  January  of  the  following  year. 

ZINC.  The  discovery  of  this  metal,  so  for  as  the  fact  is  known,  is  due  to  the  modems. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  long  known  in  China,  however,  and  is  noticed  by  European 
writers  as  early  as  a.d.  1231 ;  though  the  method  of  eztractiug  it  from  the  ore  was 
unknown  for  nearly  five  hundred  years  after.  A  mine  of  zinc  was  discovered  on 
lord  Ribblesdale's  estate,  Craven,  Yorkshire,  in  1809.  Zincography  was  introduced 
in  London  shortly  after  the  invention  of  hthogm^^hy  became  known  in  England,  in 
1817.     See  Lithography. 

ZIZYPHUS  VULGARIS.  This  shrub  was  brought  to  these  countries  from  the  south 
of  Europe,  about  a.d.  1640.  The  Ziztphus  Paliurus  shrub,  better  known  as 
the  Chrisfs  Thorn,  was  first  brought  from  Africa,  before  1596.     See  Flowers, 

ZODIAC.  The  obliquity  of  the  zodiac  was  discovered,  its  twelve  signs  named,  and 
their  situations  assigned  them  in  the  heavens,  by  Anaximander,  about  560  b.c. 
The  Greeks  and  Arabians  borrowed  the  zodiac  from  the  Hindoos,  to  whom  it  has 
been  known  from  time  immemorial. — Sir  William  Jones,  The  invention  of 
geographical  maps,  and  of  sun-dials,  belongs  also  to  Anaximander. — Pliny, 

ZOE,  Reion  of.  This  extraordinary  woman,  daughter  of  the  emperor  Constantino 
IX.,  married  Romanus,  who,  in  consequence,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  the  Eastern 
empire,  a.d.  1028.  Zoe,  after  prostituting  herself  to  a  Paphlagonian  money-lender, 
caused  her  husband  Romanus  to  be  poisoned,  and,  afterwards,  married  her  favourite, 
who  ascended  the  throne  under  the  name  of  Michael  IV.,  1034.  Zoe  adopted  for  her 
son  Michael  the  Fifth,  the  trade  of  whose  father  (careening  vessels)  had  procured 
him  the  surname  of  Calaphates,  1041.  Zoe  and  her  sister,  Theodora,  were  made  sole 
empresses  by  the  populace  ;  but  after  two  months,  Zoe,  though  60  years  old,  took 
for  her  third  husband  Constantino  the  Tenth,  who  succeeded,  1042. 

ZOOLOGY.    The  animal  kingdom  was  divided  by  Linn»us  into  six  classes,  viz. — 

the  morning.  About  four,  the  queen  dowager  and  her  party  entered  the  king's  chamber,  and  Informed 
him  that  the  queen,  with  Struensee,  his  brother,  and  Brandt,  were  at  that  moment  busy  in  drawing 
up  an  act  of  renunciation  of  the  crown,  which  they  would*  immediately  after  compel  him  to  sign, 
and  they  therefore  demanded  their  arrest.  Christian,  through  importunities  and  threats^ consented, 
after  some  remonstrance,  to  this  scandalous  requisition,  and  count  Rantzau  was  despatched  to  the 
queen's  apartments,  at  this  untimely  hour,  to  execute  the  king's  orders.  She  was  conveyed  to  the 
castle  of  Cronenburgh,  and  Brandt  and  Struensee  were  also  seized  in  their  beds,  imprisoned,  and  put 
in  irons.  The  queen  dowager  and  hor  adherents  now  assumed  the  government.  Struensee,  threatened 
with  torture,  and  to  avoid  it,  after  repeated  examinations,  confessed  that  he  had  conducted  a  cri- 
minal intrigue  with  Matilda,  and  at  length  he  and  Brandt  were  beheaded,  April  28,  1772.  The 
evidence  against  the  queen  consisted  in  a  number  of  circumstances,  all  of  them  susceptible  of  an 
innocent  explanation,  sworn  to  by  her  attendants,  who  were  employed  as  spies.  It  is  true  that  her 
own  signature  affixed  to  a  confession  was  alleged  i^;ainst  her ;  but  this  signature  proves  nothing  but 
the  baseness  of  her  enemies,  and  their  malice.  Schack,  who  was  sent  to  interrogate  her  at  Cronen- 
burgh, was  received  by  Matilda  with  indignation,  when  he  spoke  of  her  connexion  with  Struensee. 
When  he  showed  Struensee's  confession  to  her,  he  artfully  intimated  that  the  fallen  minister  would 
be  subjected  to  a  cruel  death  if  he  was  found  to  have  falsely  criminated  the  queen.  "  What ! ' ' 
exclaimed  lifatilda, "  do  you  think  if  I  were  to  confirm  his  declaration,  I  should  save  the  life  of  that 
unfortunate  man  ?"  Schack  answered  with  a  low  bow.  The  queen  took  a  pen,  wrote  the  first  syl- 
lable of  her  name,  and  fainted  away.  Schack  completed  the  signature,  and  bore  away  the  fatal 
document  in  triumph.  Struensee's  confession  was  obtained  by  threats  of  torture,  facilitated  by  some 
hope  of  life,  and  influenced  by  a  knowledge  that  the  proceedings  against  the  queen  could  not  be 
carried  beyond  a  divorce. 


ZOR  f  568  ]]  ZUR 

Jlfaiiiiiui/itf,  which  indndet  all  animals  that  snckle  their  young ;  Aves,  or  birds ; 
jimphibia,  or  amphibious  animals  ;  PUees^  or  fishes  ;  Intecta,  or  insects  ;  Vermes, 
or  worms;  a.d.  1741.  From  this  period,  the  science  of  zoology  has  had  many 
distingvished  professors,  the  most  Ulnstrioos  of  whom  was  the  baron  Gamier,  who 
died  in  Pluis,  May  13,  1832.  The  Zoological  Gardens  of  London  were  opened  in  April 
1827 ;  the  society  was  chartered  March  27, 1829.  On  the  demolition  of  Exeter 
'Change^  in  1829,  the  menagerie  of  Mr.  Cross  was  temporarily  lodged  in  the  King's 
Mews,  from  whence  it  was  removed  to  the  Sorrey  Zoological  Grardens,  1832. 
The  Zoological  Gardens  of  Dublin  were  opened  in  the  same  year. 

ZORNDORFF,  Battle  op,  between  the  Prussian  and  Russian  armies,  the  former 
commanded  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  obtaining  a  memorable  yictory  oyer  the  forces 
of  the  Csarina,  whose  loss  amounted  to  21,529  men,  while  that  of  the  Prussians  did 
not  exceed  2000,  Aug.  25  and  26, 1 758. 

ZURICH.  It  was  admitted  to  be  a  member  of  the  Swiss  confederacy,  of  which  this 
canton  was  made  the  head,  a.d.  1351.  Cession  of  Utznach,  1436.  This  was  the 
first  town  in  Switzerland  that  separated  from  the  church  of  Rome,  in  consequence 
of  the  opposition  given  by  Zuinglius  to  a  Franciscan  monk  sent  by  Leo  X.,  to 
publish  indulgences  here,  1519,  et  teq.  A  grave-digger  of  Zurich  poisoned  the 
sacramental  wine,  by  which  eight  persons  lost  their  fives,  and  many  others  were 
grievously  injured,  Sept.  4,  1776.  The  French  were  defeated  here,. losing  4000 
men,  June  4, 1799.  The  Imperialists  were  defeated  by  Massena,  the  former  losing 
20,000  men  in  killed  and  wounded,  Sept.  24, 1799.    See  Switzerland, 


THE  EKD. 


LONDON: 
BRADBURY  AND  SVANS*  FRTNTBR8,  WHTTXFRIARa. 


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