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DICTIONARY   OF   DATES, 


AVD 


UNIVERSAL   REFERENCE, 

RELATING  TO  ALL  AGES  AND  NATIONS ; 

OOMmCHBVDtHO  WYMKY  »"**»»  *»«^  OOOOBBBITOB,  AJTCmrt  AlTO  MODtSV— TBI  fOUVDATfOV, 

LAWS,  AHD  OOTSEmunrXB  or  OOinnBUS--TBSIB  PBOORBM  IV  oiYxuaAnov,  un>iiirftT» 

▲n>  KIDICB— TBKIB  AOHIBVSMBim  DT  ABMS— TBC  POUTICAL  AVD  aOCIAli 

TEAlffftAOnOIIS  or  THS  BRITIflH  ■!(»>■— 1TB  CITIX^  mUTABT, 

AKO  BIUOIOUB  mWITUTlOWa— TM  OWGIV  AMD 

APTAVOB  or 

HUMAN  AETS  AND  INVENTIONS, 

WITH  O0PIO1T8  PSTAIU  OT 

ENGLAND,  SCOTLAND,  AND   IRELAND; 

THB  WHOLB  OOMPBBBXIISIirO 

A  BODY  OF  INFOEMATION,  CLASSICAL,  POLITICAL,  AND  DOMESTIC, 

FBOM  TBI  BABLIEBT  ACCOUNTS  TO  THB  PRASKNT  TIMB. 


By  JOSEPH    HAYDN. 


EIOHTH  EDITION. 

WITH  ADDinOira  AITD  OOBRBCnOIM, 

By  B.  VINCENT, 

AMiitant  Secretary  and  Keeper  of  the  Library  of  the  Royal  Inatitution  of  Great  Britain. 


LONDON: 
EDWARD    MOXON,  DOVER    STREET. 

1857. 


D  ITAS^  rBurm^ 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


Thb  design  of  the  Author  has  been  to  attempt  the  compression 
of  the  greatest  body  of  general  information  that  has  ever  appeared 
in  a  single  volume,  and  to  produce  a  Book  of  Reference  whose 
extensive  usefulness  may  render  its  possession  material  to  every 
individual — ^in  the  same  manner  that  a  London  Directory  is  indis- 
pensable, on  business  aSiairs,  to  a  London  merchant. 

He  grounds  his  hope  of  the  Public  taking  an  interest  in  this  work 
altogether  upon  its  own  intrinsic  utility.  Its  articles  are  drawn 
principally  from  historians  of  the  first  rank,  and  the  most  authentic 
annalists;  and  the  Dictionabt  of  Dates  will,  in  almost  every 
instance,  save  its  possessor  the  trouble  of  turning  over  voluminous 
authors  to  refresh  his  memory,  or  to  ascertain  the  date,  order,  and 
features  of  any  particular  occurrence. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  name  all  the  authors  from  whose  works 
the  Compiler  of  this  volume  has  copiously  extracted ;  but  he  may 
mention  among  the  classics,  Herodotus,  Livy,  Pliny,  and  Plutarch. 
He  has  chosen,  in  general  chronology,  Petavius,  Usher,  Blair, 
Prideaux,  and  the  Abb6  Lenglet  Dufresnoy.  For  the  events 
embraced  in  foreign*  history,  he  has  relied  upon  Henault,  Voltaire, 
La  Combe,  RoUin,  Melchior  Adam,  the  Nouveau  Dictionnaire,  and 
chief  authors  of  their  respective  countries.     On  subjects  of  general 


vi  PREFACE. 

literature,  his  authorities  are  Cave's  Hiatoria  Literaria^  Moreri^ 
Bayle,  Priestley,  and  others  of  equal  repute.  And  English  occur- 
rences are  drawn  from  Camden,  Stow,  Hall,  Baker^  Holinshed, 
Chamberlayne,  Bapin,  Hume,  Gibbon,  Goldsmith,  &c.  Besides 
these,  the  Compiler  has  freely  used  the  various  abridgments  that 
have  brought  facts  and  dates  more  prominently  forward ;  and  he  is 
largely  indebted  to  Chambers,  Aspin,  Beatson,  Anderson,  Beckmann, 
the  Cyclqpadias,  Annual  Register ,  Statutes  at  Large y  and  numerous 
other  compilations.  In  almost  every  instance  the  authority  is  quoted 
for  the  extract  made  and  date  assigned,  though  inadvertence  may 
have  prevented,  in  some  few  cases,  a  due  acknowledgment. 

The  leading  events  of  every  country,  whether  ancient  or  modem 
kingdoms,  are  to  be  found  in  the  annals  of  each  respectively,  as  in 
the  cases,  for  instance,  of  Greece,  Rome,  the  Eastern  Empire, 
England,  France,  and  Germany.  But,  independently  of  this 
plan  of  reference,  when  any  historical  occurrence  claims,  from  its 
importance,  more  specific*  mention,  it  is  made  in  a  separate  article, 
according  to  alphabetical  arrangement.  Thus,  in  the  annals  of 
England,  the  dates  are  given  of  the  foundation  of  our  universities, 
the  institution  of  honorary  orders,  and  signature  of  Magna  Charta ; 
we  find,  in  those  annals,  the  periods  of  our  civil  wars,  and  remark- 
able eras  in  our  history,  set  down  as  they  have  occurred ;  but  if  more 
ample  information  be  necessary  to  the  Reader,  and  if  he  desire  to 
know  more  than  the  mere  date  of  any  fact  or  incident,  the  particulars 
are  supplied  under  a  distinct  head.  In  the  same  way,  the  pages  of 
Battles  supply  the  date  of  each,  in  the  order  of  time ;  yet  in  all 
instances  where  the  battle  has  any  relation  to  our  own  country,  or  is 
memorable  or  momentous,  the  chief  features  of  it  are  stated  in 
another  part  of  the  volume. 

The  Compiler  persuades  himself  that  the  Dictionary  of  Dates 


PREFACE.  Tii 

will  be  received  as  a  useful  companion  to  all  Biographical  works, 
relating,  as  it  does,  to  things  as  those  do  to  persons,  and  affording 
information  not  included  in  the  range  or  design  of  such  publi- 
cations. 

Joseph  Haydn. 

LuVDOV,  May,  1841.  [Died /cm.  17,  IBM.] 


In  submitting  the  Eighth  Edition  of  this  work  to  the  public, 
I  have  merely  to  state  that  very  much  labour  has  been  bestowed 
upon  it,  with  the  sole  view  of  making  it  more  and  more  in 
accordance  with  its  comprehensive  title-page.  The  Chronological 
Tables  have  been  brought  down  to  the  present  time,  and  a  great 
many  articles  respecting  politics,  science,  and  art,  have  been  added ; 
to  make  room  for  which  many  repetitions  and  much  unimportant 
matter  have  been  omitted.  I  have  to  return  thanks  to  many  friends 
for  their  kind  communications, — ^not  one  of  which  has  been  passed 
over  without  due  consideration. 

B.  Vincent. 

BOTAL  IVSnTUTION, 

Odober  1,  1857. 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


ABA  ABB 


ABACUS.  The  capital  of  the  Corinthian  order  in  architecture  had  its  origin  in  a  simple 
incident: — On  the  death  of  a  young  maid  of  Corinth,  her  lover  gathered  the 
ornaments  she  had  most  valued  when  living,  and  placed  them  in  a  wicker  basket, 
covered  by  a  tile,  upon  her  tomb.  Close  to  her  grave  an  acanthus  had  taken  root, 
and  the  flower  shooting  forth  in  the  spring,  its  leaves  twined  around  the  basket,  and 
convolved  beneath  the  tile  in  the  form  of  volutes.  Attracted  by  this  ditplav, 
Callimachus,  the  founder  of  the  Corinthian  order,  made  it  the  model  for  his  capital ; 
the  tile  being  the  abacus,  the  foliage  of  the  acanthus  the  volutes,  and  the  whole 
forming  the  capital  which  adorns  his  column,  about  540  B.a — Peravlt.  Thia 
name  is  also  given  to  a  frame  traversed  by  stiff  wires,  on  which  beads  or 
counters  are  strung,  now  used  in  infants'  schools  for  instruction  in  arithmetia  It 
was  used  by  the  Greeks,  Romans,  Chinese,  &c.  The  multiplication  table  has  been 
called  the  Pythagorean  abacus.    M.  Lalanne  published  an  abacus  at  Paris  in  1845. 

ABATTOIRS.  Slaughter-houses  for  cattle  in  France.  In  1818  there  were  five  in 
Paris,  created  by  decree  of  Napoleon  in  1810.  The  money  raised  from  them  in  1842 
was  about  £48,000.  An  abattoir  was  erected  at  Edinburgh  in  1851.  Abattoirs  form 
part  of  the  New  London  Metropolitan  Cattle  Market. 

ABBASSIDES.  The  descendants  of  Mahomet's  uncle,  Abbas-BenAbdul  Motalleb. 
Thirty-six  caliphs  of  this  race  (including  Haroun  Alraschid)  reigned  at  Bagdad,  from 
A.D.  733  to  1257. 

AB6AYE.  A  military  prison  near  Si  Germain  des  Prte,  Paris.  At  this  place  164 
prisoners  were  murdered  by  infuriated  republicans  led  by  Maillard,  Sept.  2 
and  3,  1792. 

ABBETS,  monasteries  for  either  men  or  women,  governed  by  an  abbot  or  abbess, 
were  founded  in  the  third  century,  near  the  close  of  which  the  sister  of 
St  Anthony  is  said  to  have  retired  to  one.  An  abbev  was  founded  by  St.  Anthony 
at  Phaim,  in  Upper  Kgypt,  a.i>.  305.  The  first  founded  in  France  was  at  Poitiers, 
in  360.  The  fint  in  Ireland  was  in  the  fifth  century :  see  Clogher,  Mphin,  Dovm, 
The  first  in  Scotland  was  in  the  sixth  century :  see  JtUt,  And  the  first  in  Britain 
was  in  560 :  see  Bangor,  The  abbey  of  Mount  Caasino,  near  Naples,  founded  by 
St  Benedict  about  529,  was  esteemed  the  richest  in  the  world,  and  furnished  many 
thousands  of  saints  to  the  Church.  110  monasteries  and  priories  were  suppressed  in 
England  by  order  in  ooimcil,  2  Henry  Y.  1414. — Salmon.  These  foundations  were 
totally  suppressed  throughout  the  realm,  31  Henry  VIII.  1539.  According  to 
Tanner  they  consisted  of  374  laiger  monasteries  (revenue  104,9192.  13«.  3d.),  186 
lesser  monasteries  (revenue  83,479/.  13a.  7J<Q,  and  48  houses  of  the  knights 
hospitallers  (revenue  2385^  12«.  8<i.):  total  houses,  608;  revenue,  140,7852.  6i.  3d 
The  number  of  persons  resident  in  Religious  houses  at  the  Reformation  has  been 
computed  to  amount  to  47,721.  Abbeys  were  suppressed  in  France  in  1790.  See 
MonoiUrita, 

ABBOT.  From  Ah  (father) ;  a  rank  adopted  by  the  Jewish  doctors,  asd  the  heads  of 
primitive  monasteries.  There  are  cafdinal  abbots,  bishop  abbots,  mitred  abbots,  and 
crosiexed  abbots,  when  holding  their  dignities  from  the  Pope.    In  England,  mitred 

B 


ABD 


ABE 


abbots  were  lords  of  parliament;  twenty-seven  abbots  and  two  priors  were  thus 
distinguished  in  the  4th  Edward  III.  1329 ;  but  the  number  was  reduced  to  twenty* 
five  in  the  parliament  20  Richsrd  II.  IZ9S.— Coke,  The  abbots  of  Reading,  Glaston- 
bury, and  St.  John's,  Colchester,  were  hanged  and  quartered  for  denying  the  king's 
supremacy,  and  not  surrendering  their  abbeys,  1539.    See  Olastonbury, 

ABDICATION  of  KINOS.  They  are  numerous  in  ancient  history.  Those  in  later 
times  of  most  remarkable  character  and  greatest  political  importance,  and  to  which 
reference  may  more  frequently  be  made,  are  the  following : — 


Henry  IV.,  of  Oermany  .  .1080 

Stephen   II.,   of  Hungary,   aumamed 

Thunder 1114 

Albert,  of  Saxony 1142 

LestiM  V.,ofPoland 1200 

UladiBlaus  III.,  of  Poland       .  .1206 

John  Baliol,  of  Scotland     .  .    .1306 

Otho,  of  Hungary 1309 

£ricIX..  of  Denmark  .        .    .1439 

Eric  XIII.,  of  Sweden     .  .1441 

Charles  V.,  Emperor 1556 

Christina,  of  Sweden  ....  1654 
John  Casimir.  of  Poland  .  ...  1669 
James  II.,  of  England  ....  1688 
Frederick  Auguatua  II.,  of  Poland  .  .1704 
PhUipV.,ofHpaln  .  .1724 

Victor,  of  Sardinia 1730 

Charles,  of  Naplea 1759 

Btanialatu.  of  Poland 1795 

Victor,  of  Sardinia  .  .    June  4.  1802 

Francis  II.,  of  Oermany,  who  became 

Emperor  of  Austria  only  .  Aug.  11,  1804 
Charles  IV.,  of  Spain,  in  fkyoar  of  his 

son March  19,  1808 


He  again  abdicates  in  favour  of  the  Bona- 
parte femily.    See  SjMiin.     .    Hay  1,  1808 
Joseph  Bonaparte,  of  Nafdes,  to  take 

the  crown  of  Spain  .       .         June  1,  1808 
The  same  (by  fleeing  before  the  British 

from  Madnd)  .   July  29,  1808 

Louis,  of  Holland  .  July  1,  1810 

Jerome,  of  Westphalia  .  .  Oct  20,  1813 
Napoleon,  of  France  .  .  April  5,  1814 
Emmanuel,  of  Sardinia  .  March  13,  1821 
Pedro  IV.,  of  Portugal  .  May  2,  1826 

Charles  X.,  of  France      .  Aug.  2,  1830 

Pedro  I.,  of  Brazil  April  7,  1831 

Dom  Miguel,  of  Portugal  (by  leaving  the 

kingdom)      ....    May  26,  1834 
William  I.,  of  Holland  .  Oct  8,  1840 

Christina,  of  Spain,  queen  dowager  and 

queen  regent  .       .    Oct  12,  1840 

Louis-Philippe,  of  France  .        Feb.  24,  1848 

(immediately  afterwards  deposed.) 
Louis  CharIe^  of  Bavaria         March  21,  1848 
Ferdinand,  of  Austria  .     Deo.  2,  1848 

Charles  Albert^  of  Sardinia      March  26^  1849 


ABELARD  and  HELOISK  Their  amour,  so  celebrated  for  its  passion  and  misfortunes, 
commenced  at  Paris,  a.d.  1118,  when  Helolse  (a  canon's  daughter)  wss  under 
seventeen  years  of  age.  Abehird,  after  suffering  an  ignominious  injury,  became  a 
monk  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis,  and  died  at  St  Marcel,  of  grief  which  never  left  his 
heart,  in  1142.  Heloise  begged  his  body,  and  had  it  buried  in  the  Paraclete,  of 
which  she  was  abbess,  with  the  view  of  reposing  in  death  by  his  side.  She  waa 
famous  for  her  Latin  letters,  as  well  as  love,  and  died  in  1163.  The  ashes  of  both 
were  carried  to  the  Museum  of  French  Monuments  in  1800;  and  the  museum 
having  been  subsequently  broken  up,  they  were  finally  removed  to  the  burying- 
ground  of  P5re  La  Chsise,  in  1817.  The  works  of  Abelard  and  Heloise  were  pub- 
ushed  in  one  volume  in  1616.  Their  letters  have  been  frequently  paraphrased  and 
imitated.    Pope's  imitation  is  well  known. 

ABENCERAQES.  A  powerful  Moorish  tribe  of  Qrenada  opposed  to  that  of  the  Zegris. 
From  1480  to  1492  their  quarrels  deluged  Grenada  with  blood  and  hastened  the  fall 
of  the  kinsdom.  They  were  exterminated  by  Boabdil  (Abu  Abdallah)  the  last  king, 
who  wss  himself  dethroned  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in  1492,  when  his  dominions 
were  annexed  to  Castile. 

ABERDEEN.  A  seat  of  learning  of  considerable  antiquity.  Qregory  the  Qreat 
conferred  peculiar  privileges  on  Aberdeen,  in  a.d.  893.  The  university  was  founded 
by  bishop  William  Elphinstone ;  for  which  purpose  he  had  a  bull  from  the  Pope, 
Alexander  VI.,  in  1494.  King's  College  was  erected  in  1500-6.  Marischal  College 
was  founded  by  Gteoi^e  Keith,  earl  marischal  of  Scotland,  in  1593 ;  rebuilt  in  1837. 

ABERDEEN,  EARL  of,  hib  ADMINISTRATION.  Earl  of  Aberdeen,  first  lord  of  the 
treasury;  lord  Cranworth,  lord  Chancellor;  earl  Qranville,  president  of  the  Council; 
duke  of  Ai^ll,  lord  privy  seal;  lord  John  Russell,  viscount  Palmerston,  and  the 
duke  of  Newcastle,  foreign,  home,  colonial,  and  war  secretaries ;  right  hon.  William 
Ewart  Gladstone,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer ;  Sir  James  Graham,  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty;  sir  Qiarles  Wood,  president  of  the  India  Board;  right  hon.  Edward 
Card  well,  president  of  the  Boanl  of  Trade;  hon.  Sidney  Herbert,  secretary  at  war; 
sir  William  Molesworth,  chief  commissioner  of  works  and  public  buildings ;  marquess 
of  Lansdowne,  a  member  of  the  cabinet,  without  office;  viscount  Canning,  lord 
Stanley  of  Alderley,  right  hon.  Edward  Strutt,  &&  Sworn  December  28,  1852. — 
Lord  John  Russell  was  succeeded  as  foreign  secretary  by  the  earl  of  Clarendon,  but 
continued  a  member  of  the  cabinet^  withoiu  office ;  he  afterwards  became  president 


^^^u^m^mmmKmtmmB^mmmmmtmmtBBB^m^s^^^^'^^ms^ssa 


ABE  8  ABS 

of  the  oouncil,  in  the  room  of  earl  GInnTille,  appointed  to  the  duchy  of  Lancaster. 
On  the  division  of  hia  office  (June  11, 1854)  the  Duke  of  Newcastle  retained  that  of 
war,  and  air  Qeorae  Grej  was  made  colonial  secretarj.  This  ministry  resigned  Jan. 
30, 1855.    See  Palmenton  AdnUniitraium, 

ABERDEEN,  SEE  or.  King  Malcolm  III.,  having  guned  a  great  Victory  oyer  the 
Danes  in  the  year  1010,  resolved  to  found  a  new  biuiopric,  in  token  of  his  gratitude 
for  his  success,  and  pitched  upon  Mortlach  in  Banffiahire,  where  St.  Beanus  was  first 
bishop,  101&  The  see  was  removed,  early  in  the  twelfth  century,  to  i^berdeen,  and 
was  discontinued  at  the  revolution,  1689.  Now  a  Poet-Revolution  bishopric^ 
instituted  in  1721.    See  Bahopt  ofSeotkmd. 

ABHORRERS.  A  political  court-party  in  England,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IL ;  and  so 
called,  in  oontrardistinction  to  another  party,  named  the  Addressers,  (afterwards 
Whiffg)  from  their  address  to  the  king.  The  former  (afterwards  Tariet)  expressed 
their  abhcrreiue  of  those  who  endeavoured  to  encroach  on  the  royal  prerogative, 
1680. — Hume,  The  commons  expelled  several  members  for  being  Abhorrers,  among 
them  sir  Francis  Withens  (whom  they  sent  to  the  Tower),  and  prayed  his  majesty  to 
remove  others  from  places  of  trust.  They  also  resolved  **  that  it  is  the  undoubted 
right  of  the  subject  to  petition  for  the  calling  of  a  parliament,  and  that  to  traduce 
such  petitions  as  tumultuous  and  seditious,  is  to  contribute  to  the  design  of  altering 
the  constitution."    Oct  1680.— -&i2flioii. 

ABINGDON  LAW.  In  the  civil  war  against  Charles  L,  lord  Essex  and  Waller  held 
Abingdon,  in  Berks  :  the  town  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  sir  Stephen  Hawkins 
in  1644,  and  by  Prince  Rupert  in  1645 :  on  these  occasions  the  defenders  put  every 
Irish  prisoner  to  death  wiUiout  trial ;  hence  the  term  ''  Abingdon  Law." 

ABJURATION.  The  abjuration  of  particular  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  Rome  was 
enjoined  by  statute  25  Charles  IL,  1672.  The  oath  of  abjuration  of  the  pope  and  the 
pretender,  denying  the  authority  of  the  one  and  the  claims  of  the  other,  was  first 
administered  by  statute  13  William  IIL,  1701. 

ABO.  A  port  of  Russia,  founded  prior  to  1157,  (till  1809  capital  of  Swedish  Finland). 
It  has  suffered  much  by  fire,  especially  in  1776  and  1827.  The  peace  of  Abo  between 
Russia  and  Sweden  was  signed  in  1748.  It  was  ceded  to  the  Russians  in  1809,  who 
rebuilt  it  in  1827  after  the  fire.  The  University  was  erected  by  Qostavus  Adolphua 
and  Christina. 

ABORIGINEa  The  original  inhabitants  of  Italy;  or,  as  others  have  it,  the  nation 
conducted  by  Saturn  into  Latium,  founded  by  Janus,  1450  B.O. — Univ.  BiUory.  Their 
posterity  was  oslled  Laliniy  firom  Latinos,  one  of  their  kings;  and  Rome  was  built  in 
their  country.  They  were  called  Aborigines,  being  ahiqiu  origine,  the  primitive 
planters  here  after  the  flood. — St,  Jerome,  The  word  signifies  without  origin,  or  whose 
origin  is  not  known,  and  is  now  applied  to  any  original  inhabitants. 

ABOUKIR.  The  ancient  Canopus,  the  point  of  debarkation  of  the  British  expedition  to 
Egypt  under  general  sir  Ralph  Abercrombie.  Aboukir  surrendered  to  tJie  British, 
under  Abercrombie,  after  an  obstinate  and  sanguinary  conflict  with  the  French, 
March  8, 1801.  See  Alexandria.  The  bay  is  famous  for  the  defeat  of  the  French 
fleet  by  the  unmortal  Nelson,  August  1, 1798.  See  Nile.  A  Turkish  army  of  15,000 
defeated  here  by  5000  French  under  Bonaparte,  July  24, 1799. 


ABRAHAK,  ERA  or.  So  called  from  the  patriarch  Abraham,  anciently  Abram,  who 
died  &a  1821.  Used  by  Eusebius ;  it  began  October  1, 2016  B.a  To  reduoe  this  era 
to  the  Christian,  subtract  2015  years  and  three  months. 

ABRAHAHITES.  A  sect  which  adopted  the  errors  of  Paulus ;  but  it  was  suppressed 
by  Cyriacus,  the  patriarch  of  Antioch.  -  In  the  ninth  century  there  sprung  up  a 
community  of  monks  under  a  like  designation,  and  it,  too,  was  suppressed,  or  ra&er 
exterminated,  for  worshipping  images. 

ABSENTEES^  The  complaint  is,  in  Ireland,  that  the  wealthy  of  that  country  retire  to 
England;  and  in  England,  that  the  rich  squander  their  fortunes  abroad.  According 
to  late  returns  made  to  the  prefect  of  police  at  Paris,  the  entire  number  of  British 
residents  in  France  was  estimated  at  54,000;  but  the  thoueands  of  continental 
tourists  who  pass  annually  through  France,  are  not  included  in  this  estimate.  The 
number  of  British  settled  in  the  Netherlands,  France,  Germany,  Switiserland,  and 
Italy,  is  supposed  to  far  exceed  100,000. 

b2 


ABS 


ACA 


ABSENTEE  TAX  In  Ireland,  a  tax  of  four  shillings  in  the  pound  was  levied  on  tho 
profits,  fees,  emoluments,  and  pensions  of  absentees,  in  1715.  This  tax  oeased  in 
1753.  In  1773,  Mr.  Flood,  the  great  Irish  orator,  proposed  a  tax  of  two  shillings  in 
the  pound,  which  was  lost  by  a  majority  in  the  commons,  of  122  to  102.  The 
question  was  renewed  in  the  IrUh  parliament  in  1783  by  Mr.  Molyneuz,  and  again  lost, 
on  a  division  of  184  to  122,— StiUuUt  al  Large;  Pari  Jtepartt. 

ABSTINENCE.  St  Anthony  lived  to  the  age  of  105,  on  twelve  ounces  of  bread  and  water 
daily.  James  the  Hermit  lived  in  the  same  manner  to  the  age  of  104.  St.  Epiphanius 
lived  thus  to  115;  Simeon,  the  Stylite,  to  112;  and  Kentigem,  commonly  called 
St.  Mungo,  lived  by  similar  means  to  185  years  of  age. — SpoUiswood.  A  man  may 
live  seven,  or  even  eleven,  days  without  meat  or  drink. — Pliny,  Hitt.  Nai.  lib.  iu 
Ann  Moore,  the  fasting  woman  of  Tutbury,  Staffordshire,  was  said  to  have  lived  twenty 
months  without  food ;  but  her  imposture  was  detected  by  Dr.  A.  Henderson,  Nov. 
1808.  At  Newry,  in  Ireland,  a  man  named  Cavanagh  was  reported  to  have  lived  two 
years  without  meat  or  drink,  Aug.  1840 ;  hia  imposture  was  afterwards  discovered  in 
England,  where  he  was  imprisoned  as  a  cheat,  Nov.  1841.    See  article  Fatting, 

ABSTINENTS.  The  abstinents  were  a  sect  that  wholly  abstained  from  wine,  flesh,  and 
marriage ;  and  were  a  community  of  harmless  and  mild  ascetics.  They  appeared  in 
France  and  Spain  in  the  third  century ;  and  some  authorities  mention  such  a  sect  as 
having  been  numerous  elsewhere  in  a.d.  170. — BoKueU 

ABYSSINIA.  A  lanugo  countiy  in  N.E.  Africa.  Its  ancient  history  is  very  uncertain. 
The  kingdom  of  AuxumitsD  (from  its  chief  town  Auxume)  flourished  in  the  1st  and 
2nd  centuries  after  Christ.  About  960  Judith,  a  Jewish  princess,  murdered  a  great 
part  of  the  royal  family,  and  reigned  40  years.  The  young  king  escaped  :  and  the 
royal  house  was  restored  in  1268  in  the  person  of  hia  descendant  Icon  Amlac  In 
the  middle  ages  it  was  said  to  be  ruled  by  Prester  John  or  Prete  JannL  The 
Portuguese  missions  commenced  in  the  15th  century,  but  they  were  expelled  about 
1632  in  consequence  of  the  tyranny  of  Mendez  and  the  Jeauitsi  The  encroachments 
of  the  Qallas  and  intestine  disorders  soon  after  broke  up  the  empire  into  petty 
governments.  The  religion  of  the  Abyssinians  is  a  corrupt  form  of  Christianity 
introduced  about  the  4th  century.  Missions  were  sent  from  England  in  1829,  and 
1841.  Much  information  respecting  Abyssinia  has  been  given  by  Bruce  (1790),  Salt 
(1805—9),  Ruppell  (1838),  and  Parkyns  (1853). 

ABYSSINIAN  ERA.  This  era  is  reckoned  from  the  period  of  the  creation,  which  they 
place  in  the  549Srd  year  before  our  era,  on  the  29th  Aug.  old  style ;  and  their  dates 
consequently  exceed  ours  by  5492  years,  and  125  days.  To  reduce  Abyssinian  time 
to  the  Julian  year,  subtract  5492  years,  and  125  days. 

ACADEMIES.  Societies  of  learned  men  to  promote  literature,  sciences,  and  the  arts, 
are  of  veiy  early  date.  Academia  was  a  shady  grove  without  the  walls  of  Athens, 
(bequeathed  to  Academus  for  gymnastic  exercises),  where  Plato  first  taught  philo- 
sophy, and  his  followers  took  the  title  of  Academics,  878  B.a — Sianktf.  Ptolemy 
Soter  is  said  to  have  founded  an  academy  at  Alexandria,  about  314  B.a  Theodosius 
the  Younger  and  Charlemagne  are  also  named  as  founders.  Italy  has  been  celebrated 
for  its  academies ;  and  Jarckius  mentions  650,  of  which  25  were  in  the  city  of  Milan. 
The  first  philosophical  academy  in  France  was  established  by  P^re  Mersenne,  in  1635, 
Academies  were  introdueed  into  England  by  Boyle  and  Hobbes ;  and  the  Royal  Society 
of  London  was  formed  in  1660.    The  following  are  among  the  principal  aoodemiea : — 


AnooDA,  of  the  (bgUnoH,  1642. 

Basil,  1460. 

Berlin,  Royal  Society.  1700 ;  of  PrinoM^  1703 ; 

Architecture,  1799. 
Bologna,  EodesUstiaal,  1687;  Mathematics, 

1690;  Bcieaoes  and  Arts,  1712. 
Bresota,  of  the  RrrunH,  1636. 
Brest  and  Toolon,  Military.  1682. 
Bnissela,  BtOet  LeUru,  1773. 
Caen,  BdU$  LeUra,  1706. 
Copenhagen,  Polite  Aria,  1742. 
Cortona,  AntiquitioiL  1726. 
Dublin,  Arts,  1742 ;  Royal  Irish,  Bdenoe  and 

Literature,  1786 ;  FaintimE,  Sculpture,  dtc., 

182S. 
Erfixrt,  Saxony,  Sciences,  1754. 
Faaaaa,  the  PkilopwU,  1612. 
Florence^  BtOu  LtUrtt,  1272;  DeUa  Crutea 


(now  united  with  the  l^orerUinej  and  meiiged 
under  that  nameX  1582;  J)d  Oimento,  1657 
(by  Cardinal  Do'  Medici ;)  AnUquiUes,  1807. 

Oeneva,  Medical,  1715. 

Genoa,  Painting,  Ac,  1751 ;  Sciences,  1783. 

Germany,  Medical,  1617;  Natural  Histoiy, 
1652 ;  Military,  1752. 

Gfittlngen.  1750. 

Haeriem,  the  Sciences,  1760. 

Lisbon.  History.  1720;  Sciences,  1770. 

London.    Bee  Societieg. 

Lyons,  Sciences,  1710;  had  Physic  and  Mathe- 
matics added,  1758. 

Madrid,  the  Royal  Spanish,  1718 ;  History, 
1780 ;  Palntiaf  and  the  Art%  175S. 

Mannheim,  Sculpture,  1776. 

Mantuik  the  ViffUtuUi,  Scienoea^  1704. 

MazBollle^  JStUu  Ldbtru,  1726. 


ACA 


ACH 


Fhtt«delphia»  Arts  and  BdflDces,  1749. 

Portamouth,  Naval,  1732 ;  eolarged.  1806. 

Rome.  Umoristi,  1611 ;  Famtatein,  1626;  Jitff 
amdi,  1663 ;  Painting;  1666 ;  Areadi,  1600 ; 
EngUah,  1762;  Uneti,  about  1600;  HuaH 
Lincti,  1847. 

Stockholm,  of  Science.  1741 ;  MUt  LtUm, 
1753 ;  Agriculture,  1781. 

Toulon,  Military,  1688. 

Turin,  Sciencea^  1760 ;  Fine  Aria,  1778. 

Turkey,  Military  School,  1776. 

Upeal,  Royal  Society,  Scienoea,  1720. 

Venice^  Medical,  Ac.,  1701. 

Verona,  Music.  1648;  Scienoea,  1780. 

Vienna,  Sculpture  and  the  Arte,  1705;  Sur- 
gery, 1783 :  Oriental,  1810. 

Wamw,  Languagee  and  Hiatoiy,  1768. 

Woolwich,  Military,  1741. 


ACADEMIES,  ecmtmned, 

Maaaaehuaetta,  Arte  and  Sdenoea,  1780. 
Milan,  Architecture,  1880 ;  Scienoea,  1719. 
Munich,  Arte  and  Sdenoea,  1760. 
Kaplea,  RoMaana,  1640;  Mathematioik  1660; 

Sdencei^  1606;  Hereulaneum,  1766. 
Kew  York.  LItemture  and  Philoaophy,  1814. 
Niamey  Royal  Academy,  1682. 
Fftdua»  for  Poetry,  1613 ;  Sdenoea,  1792. 
Palermo^  MedloJ,  1646. 
Faria,  Svrbonne,  1266;  Painting,  ISOl ;  Music, 

1643;  French  (by  Richelieu^  1636 ;  Jtuerip- 

ti<m$  H  BtUa  lettrei  (by  ColbertX  1663 ;  of 

Sdenoea  (by  CdbertX  1666 ;  Architecture, 

1671 ;  Surgery,  1731 ;  Military.  1761 ;  Na- 
tural Phikaophy.  1706. 
Faxma,  the  Amoiatfuili,  1660. 
Peronaa.  InaenKli,  1661:  FUiraiH,  1674. 
Peterabuig.  Sdencea,  1725;  Military,  1782; 

the  School  of  Arte.  1764. 

ACAKTHUa.    See  Ahaetu. 

ACAPULCOy  SHIP.  This  wai  the  celebrated  prize,  a  Spanish  galleon,  from  Acapnlco^ 
laden  with  gold  and  precious  wares,  and  estimated  by  some  azmaUsts  at  1,000,00(M. 
sterling,  and  upwards;  taken  by  lord  Anson,  who  had  previously  acquired  booty  in 
hJB  memorable  Toyage  amounting  to  600,000/.  Admiral  Anson  arrived  at  Spithead  in 
the  CerUwHon  with  his  gains,  after  having  circumnavigated  the  globe,  June  15,  1744. 

ACCENTS.  The  most  ancient  manuscripts  are  written  without  accents,  and  without  any 
sepaiation  of  words ;  nor  was  it  until  after  the  ninth  century  that  the  copyists  began 
to  leave  spaces  between  the  words.  Michael  is,  after  Wetstein,  ascribes  the  insertion 
of  accents  to  Euthalius,  bishop  of  Sulca,  in  Egypt,  A-D.  458.  Accents  were  first  used 
by  the  French  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  (1610). 

ACCESSION,  Thx.  By  this  term  is  usually  understood  the  accession  of  the  house  of 
Hanover  to  the  throne  of  England,  in  the  person  of  Qeoi^ge  I.  the  elector  of  Hanover, 
as  the  Protestant  descendant  of  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  James  I. ;  he  being  the 
son  of  Sophia,  who  was  the  daughter  of  that  princess.  He  succeeded  to  the  crown 
Aug.  1,  1714,  by  virtue  of  the  act  of  settlement  passed  in  the  reign  of  William  IIL, 
June,  12, 1701.  which  limited  the  succession  to  his  mother  in  the  event  of  Queen 
Anne  dying  without  issue. 

ACCUSERS.  By  the  occult  writers,  such  as  Agrippa,  accusers  are  the  eighth  order  of 
devils,  whose  chief  is  called  Asteroth,  or  spy,  and  who,  in  the  Revelation  of  St.  John, 
is,  by  way  of  eminence,  called  the  accuser  of  the  brethren.  He  is  an  accuser  who 
charges  another  with  a  crime,  whether  the  charge  be  true  or  false.  False  accusers 
were  hanged  in  England  by  statute  24  Henry  VI.  1446.  They  were  burnt  in  the  face 
with  an  F  by  statute  87  Henry  YIII.  1545.— <Sroi0*«  Chron, 

ACELDAMA  (Chakeldam).  The  field  which  the  Jewish  priests  bought  with  the  thirty 
pieces  of  silver  given  to  Judas  Iscariot  for  betraying  Our  Saviour.  It  is  still  shown  to 
travellers;  and  being  small,  is  covered  with  an  arched  roof;  and  retains  the  name 
Aceldama,  that  is,  "the  field  of  blood,"  to  this  day.  Matthew,  zxviL  8—11 ;  AetB  L 
15 — 23. — This  name  was  also  given  to  an  estate  purchssed  by  Judge  Jeffreys  after 
the  "bloody  assizes"  In  1685. 

ACHAIA.  This  countiy  was  governed  by  a  race  of  kings,  but  even  their  names  are  all 
forgotten.  The  capital,  Acbaia,  was  founded  by  Acheeus,  the  son  of  Xuthus,  1080  B.a 
The  kingdom  was  united  with  Sicyon  or  subject  to  the  ^tolians  until  about  284  9.0. 
The  Achei  were  descendants  of  Achaeus,  and  originally  inhabited  the  neighbourhood 
of  Argos ;  but  when  the  Heraclidse  drove  them  thence,  they  retired  among  the  lonians, 
expelled  the  natives,  and  seized  their  thirteen  cities,  viz.,  Pelene,  JSgira,  .£geum, 
Bura,  Tiitsea,  Leontium,  Rhypse,  Ceraunia,  Olenos,  Helioe,  Patne,  X^mie,  and  Pharvs. 


The  AchKan  league  .  .  al}outB.c.  281 
Aratua  made  pnetor  .  .    .  261 

Fortreaa  of  Atbenieuin  hoilt  .  .  .228 
Defeat  of  the  Aclueaxia  by  the  SpartanB. 

aod  Lysladea  killed 226 

BatUe  of  SeUaaia 222 

The  Social  war  begun ;  battle  of  Caphyae^ 

in  Armdla ;  Aratua  defeated  .  .  .  220 
The  Peloponnesua  nvaged  by  the  Atollana  219 


AratuB  poiaoned  at  .^4um  .  .  B.a  216 
Battle  of  Mantinea ;  FhiloiKBmon  defeata 

the  Spartan  tyrant  Machanldaa  .  .  208 
Alliance  with  tbe  Romana  .  .  .201 
Philopoemen  defeated  by  Nabla,  In  a  naval 

battle 194 

Sparta  ioined  to  the  league  .       .191 

The  Aciueaua  overrun  Meaaenia  with  fire 

and  sword 182 


ACH  6  ACT 


ACHAIA,  continued. 

The  Ronuuia  eater  Achaia,  aad  carry  off 
numbers  of  the  peonle,  among  whom  is 
the  celebrated  Poly Diue        .        .  b.0.  166 

If  etellus  eaten  Oroeoe  .    .  147 


The  Aohann  league  diasolTed  .       .  b.o.  146 
Oorinth  taken  by  Mummiua  .    .  140 

Greece  subjected  to  Rome,  and  named  the 
proTlnoeof  Acbala.       ....  146 


The  United  States  of  America  aeem  to  have  adopted  the  plan  of  the  Aehsean  league 
in  forming  their  constitution ;  and  the  Swiss  cantons  also  had  a  great  resemblance  to 
it  in  their  confederacy. 

ACHONRY,  BISHOPRIC  or.  Founded  by  St  Finian,  who  erected  the  church  of  Achad, 
usually  called  Achonry,  about  the  year  520.  St.  Finian  having  built  this  church, 
conferred  it  on  his  disciple  Nathy,  named  in  Irish,  Dathy,  or  David,  who  was  the  first 
biahop,  and  a  man  of  great  sanctity.  In  the  ancient  annalB  of  Ireland,  the  prelates  of 
this  see  are,  for  the  most  part,  called  bishops  of  Luigny,  or  Liny,  from  the  subdivision 
of  the  county  wherein  it  is  situated.  The  see  of  Achonry  has  been  held  tn  oommendam 
with  Killala  since  1612.— See  KUlala. 

ACHROMATIC  Telescopes  are  those  contrived  to  remedy  the  aberrations  in  colour. — 
See  TeluGopa. 

ACOLYTES.  An  inferior  order  of  clergy  in  the  Latin  Church,  unknown  to  the  Qreek 
Church  for  400  years  after  Christ. 

ACOUSTICS.  The  doctrine  of  the  different  sounds  of  vibrating  strings,  and  communi- 
cation of  sounds  to  the  ear  by  the  vibration  of  the  atmosphere,  was  probably  first 
explained  by  Pythagoras,  about  500  b.o.  Mentioned  by  Aristotle,  880  &o.  The 
speaking-trumpet  is  said  to  have  been  used  by  Alexander  the  Great,  885  B.a  The 
discoveries  of  Galileo  were  made  about  a.d.  1600.  The  velocity  of  sound  was 
investigated  by  Newton  before  1700.  Ghilileo*s  theorem  of  the  harmonic  curve  was 
demonstrated  bv  Dr.  Brook  Taylor,  in  1714;  and  further  perfected  by  D*Alembert» 
Euler,  Bemouilli,  and  La  Grange,  at  various  periods  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Chladni  published  his  most  important  discoveries  on  the  figures  produced  in  layers 
of  sand  by  harmonic  chords,  &c.,  in  1787,  and  since.  Biot,  Savart,  Lissajous,  and 
others  in  the  present  century  have  greatly  increased  our  knowledge  of  Acoustics. 

ACRE.  This  measure  was  formerly  of  uncertain  quantity,  and  differed  in  various  parts 
of  the  realm,  until  made  standard  by  statute  81  Edward  I.,  1803,  and  fixed  at  40  poles 
or  perches  in  length,  and  4  in  breadth— or  160  square  poles,  containing  4840  square 
vanis,  or  48,560  square  feet,  a.d.  1808.  In  certain  counties  and  places  Uie  measure  is 
larger. — Pardon, 

ACRE,  ST.  JEAN  D*.  Aoca,  anciently  Ptolemais.  Taken  by  Richard  I  and  other 
crusaders,  July  12, 1191,  after  a  siege  of  two  years,  with  the  loss  of  6  arohbi^ope,  12 
bishops,  40  earls,  500  barons,  and  800,000  soldiers.  Retaken  bv  the  Saracens,  when 
60,000  Christians  perished,  1291.  This  capture  was  rendered  memorable  by  the 
murder  of  the  nuns,  who  had  mangled  their  fiices  to  repress  the  lust  of  the  Infidels. 
Acre  was  attacked  by  Bonaparte  in  July,  1798;  and  was  relieved  by  Sir  Sydney 
Smith,  who  gallantly  resisted  twelve  attempts  during  the  memorable  siege  by  the 
French,  between  Msrch  6  and  May  27, 1799 ;  till,  baffled  by  the  British  squadron  on 
the  water  and  the  Turks  on  shore,  Bonaparte  relinquished  his  object  and  retreated. 
St  Jean  d'Acre  is  a  pachalic  subject  to  the  Porte ;  seized  upon  by  Ibrahim  Paoha, 
who  had  revolted,  July  2, 1882.  It  became  a  point  of  the  Syrian  war  in  1840,  and 
was  stonned  by  the  British  fleet  under  Sir  Robert  Stopford,  and  taken  after  a  bom- 
bardment of  a  few  hours,  the  Egyptians  losing  upwards  of  2000  in  killed  and  wounded, 
and  3000  prisoners,  while  the  British  had  but  12  killed  and  42  wounded,  November 
8, 1840.    See  Syria  and  Turkey. 

ACROPOLIS  OF  ATHENS.  The  citadel  of  Athens  was  built  on  a  rock,  and  accessible 
only  on  one  side  :  Minerva  had  a  temple  at  the  bottom. — Pan*,  tn  Attic,  The  roof 
of  this  vast  pile,  which  had  stood  2000  years,  was  destroyed  in  the  Venetian  siege, 
A.D.  1687. — Atpin.  The  Acropolis  of  Mycense  was  marked  by  terraces,  and  defended 
by  ponderous  walla,  on  which  were  high  towers,  each  at  the  distance  of  fifty  feet 

ACTINOMETER.  An  instrument  to  measure  the  solar  rays,  invented  by  Sir  J.  F. 
Hersohel,  about  1825. 

ACTIUM,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  fleets  of  Octavianus  CsBsar  on  the  one  side,  and 
of  Marc  Antony  and  Cleopatra  on  the  other,  and  which  decided  the  fate  of  Antony, 
800  of  his  galleys  going  over  to  CsDsar ;  fought  Sept  2,  81  B.0.    This  battle  made 


ACT  7  ADE 

AtigDStoB  (the  iAiXd  afterwarda  conferred  by  the  Senate  upon  Oeaar)  maater  of 
the  world,  and  the  commencement  of  the  Roman  empire  ia  commonly  dated  from  thia 
year.  In  hononr  of  hia  victory,  the  conqueror  built  the  aty  of  Nicopolia,  and 
inatitated  the  Actian  gamea. — BUUr, 

ACTRESSESb  Women  in  the  drama  appear  to  have  been  unknown  to  the  ancienta ;  men 
or  eunuchs  performing  the  female  parta.  Charles  II.  ia  said  to  have  first  encouraged 
the  public  appearance  of  women  on  the  stage  in  England,  in  1662 ;  but  the  queen  of 
Jamea  L  had  preriously  performed  in  a  theatre  at  court. — Theat.  Biog,  Mrs.  Coleman 
was  the  first  actress  on  the  stage ;  ahe  performed  the  part  of  lantke  in  DaTenanfv 
"^ege  of  Rhodea,"  in  1656.— Fictor. 

ACTS  OF  PARLIAMENT.  The  first  promulgated,  16  John,  1215.  See  Parliament 
and  SUitnUt,  Between  the  4th  and  1 0th  of  Geoi^e  lY.  1126  acta  were  wholly  repealed, 
and  443  repealed  in  part,  chiefly  arising  out  of  the  conaolidation  of  the  lawa  by  Mr. 
Peel  (afterwarda  air  Robert)  :  of  these  acts,  1844  related  to  the  kingdom  at  large, 
and  225  to  Ireland  aolely.  The  greatest  number  of  acta  paased  in  any  one  year 
fiinoe  1800,  was  562,  in  1846  :  of  these  4Q2  were  local  and  personal,  48  private,  and 
117  of  public  interest.  In  1841,  only  18  were  passed  (the  lowest  number),  of  which 
two  were  private.  In  three  inatanoea  only,  the  annual  number  was  imder  a  hundred. 
The  average  number  of  the  first  ten  yean  of  the  present  century  was  132  public  acta. 
In  the  ten  years  ending  1850,  the  average  number  of  acta,  of  public  intereat,  was 
112.  In  1851,  the  number  waa  106;  in  1852,88;  in  1858, 137;  inl854.125;  in  1855, 
134 ;  and  in  1856, 120.— In  1850, 13  Yid  c.  13,  was  passed,  for  curtailing  repetitiona 
in  ststnte& — Pari.  JUtwms, 

ACTS»  in  dramatic  poetry,  first  employed  by  the  Romans.  Five  acts  are  mentioned  by 
Horace  (Art  of  Poetry)  as  the  rule  (about  B.C.  8). 

ADAM  AKD  EYE,  ERA  of.  Set  down  by  Christian  writers  as  being  4004  B.O.  There 
have  been  aa  many  aa  one  hundred  and  forty  opinions  on  the  distance  of  time 
between  the  creation  of  the  world  and  the  birth  of  the  Redeemer :  some  make  it  3616 
yean,  and  some  aa  great  as  6484  years.    See  Creatum. 

ADAMITES.  A  sect  that  imitated  Adam's  nakedness  before  the  fidl,  arose  A.D.  130. 
They  assembled  quite  naked  in  their  placea  of  worship,  ssserting  that  if  Adam  had 
not  sinned  there  would  have  been  no  marriages.  Their  chief  was  named  Prodicus ; 
they  deified  the  elements,  rejected  prayer,  and  said  it  waa  not  neoeesaiy  to  confess 
ChnBt,—£u»ebiut.  This  sect,  with  an  addition  of  many  blasphemies,  and  teaching 
from  the  text  "increase  and  multiply,"  was  renewed  at  Antwerp  in  the  twelfth 
century,  under  a  chief  named  Tandemus,  Tandamus,  or  Tanchelin,  who,  being  followed 
by  8000  soldiers,  violated  females  of  every  age,  calling  their  orimea  by  spiritual  namea. 
This  sect  became  extinct  soon  after  the  death  of  its  chief;  but  snother  of  the  same 
kind,  named  Turlupins,  appeared  shortly  after  in  Savoy  and  Dauphiny.  A  Fleming, 
named  Picard,  again  revived  this  sect  in  Bohemia,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  whence 
they  apread  into  Poland  and  existed  some  time. — BayU;  Pwdon, 

ADDINOTON  ADMINISTRATION.  Mr.  Pitt  having  identified  himself  with  Roman 
Catholic  emancipation  to  secure  the  union  with  Ireland,  and  being  thus  unable  to 
propose  his  "  resolutions  "  in  relation  to  that  measure,  a$  a  minister ^  resigned,  and  a 
new  ministry  was  formed.  Right  hon.  Henry  Addington,  first  lord  of  the  treasury 
and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer ;  lord  Eldon,  lord  chancellor;  duke  of  Portland,  lord 
president ;  earl  of  Westmoreland,  lord  privy  seal;  lord  Pelham,  home,  lord  Hawkes- 
bury,  foreign,  and  lord  Hobart,  colonial  secretaries ;  earl  St.  Yincent,  admiralty ;  earl 
of  Chatham,  ordnance;  right  hon.  Charles  Yorke,  secretary-at-war;  viscount  Lewisham, 
lord  Auckland,  &c.    March,  ti  teq,  1801.    Terminated  May  11,  1804. 

ADDISCOMBE  COLLEGE,  near  Croydon,  was  established  by  the  East  India  Company, 
in  1809,  for  the  education  of  candidates  for  the  scientific  branches  of  the  Indian  army. 

ADELAIDE,  the  capital  of  South  Australia,  was  founded  in  1836.  It  contained 
14,000  inhabitants  in  1850. 

ADEN.  A  free  port  on  the  S.  W.  comer  of  Arabia.  In  1837  a  British  ship  was  wrecked 
and  plundered.  The  sultan  promised  compensation,  and  agreed  to  cede  the  place  to 
the  Engliidi.  The  sultan's  son  refusing  to  fulfil  this  agreement  to  captain  Haynes,  a 
naval  and  military  force  waa  despatched  to  Aden,  wluch  captured  it,  Jan.  16,  1839. 
It  is  now  a  coal  dep6t  for  Indian  steamers,  &c 


ADM 


8 


ADM 


ADMINISTRATIONS  of  ENGLAND,  and  of  QUEAT  BRITAIN,  from  the  aooMnon 
of  Heniy  VIU.  The  following  were  the  prime  minUters,  or  favourites,  or  the  6bi»U 
of  administrAtionB,  m  the  respective  reigns.  For  a  fuller  account  of  each  administer 
tion  iec  them  reapectively  throitgh  the  volume. 


KXSO  HKKBT  TIU. 

Bishop  FUher,  bishop  Fox,  and  the  earl 
ofSurrey 150» 

Cardinal  Thomas  Wolsey    ....  1614 

The  Eari  of  Surrey,  and  Tunstall,  bish<9 
ofLoadoQ 1528 

Sir  Thomas  More,  bishops  Tunstall  and 
Gardiner,  and  Cranmer,  afterwards 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  .    .  1629 

Archbishop  of  Canterbuiy,  lord  Crom- 
well, n/tervardt  earl  of  ^nex ;  Thomas 
Boleyn,  earl  of  Wiltshire,  Ac  .1682 

Heurv,  earl  of  Surrey;  Thomas,  lord 
Audley;  bishop  OanUner.  sir  Ralph 
Sadler^  Ao. 1540 

Lord  wriothesley;  Thomas,  duke  of 
Norfolk ;  lord  Lisle,  sir  William  Petn^ 
sir  William  Paget,  &a  .  .  1544 

KIVO  SDWARD  Tt. 

Lord  Wriothesley,  now  earl  of  Hertford, 
lord  protector,  created  duke  of  Somer- 
set ;  John,  lord  Russell ;  Henry,  earl  of 
Arundel ;  Thomas,  lord  Seymour ;  sir 
William  Paget,  sir  William  Petre,  Ac    1647 

John  Dudley,  late  lord  Lisle  and  earl  of 
Warwick,  created  duke  of  Northum- 
berland ;  John,  earl  of  Bedford ;  bishop 
Goodrich,  sir  William  Cecil,  Ac.  .       .  1661 

QUBKN  MART. 

Stephen  Gardiner,  bishop  of  Winchester ; 
Kdmund  Bonner,  bishop  of  London  ; 
William,  marquess  of  Winchester ;  sir 
WUliKm  Hastings,  Ac  .  1564 

QUKBN  XLXZABBTB. 

Sir  Nicholas  Bacon ;  Edward,  lord  Clin- 
ton; sir  Robert  Dudley,  afttrwardt 
earl  of  Loioestor;  sir  William  Cecil, 
ofterwmU  lord  Burleigh,  Ac.  .        .    .  1668 

Sir  William  Cecil,  now  lord  Burieigh 
(who  continued  minister  during  nearly 
the  whole  of  this  long  reign);  sir 
Nicholas  Bacon.  Ac.         ....  1572 

William,  lord  Burleiffh ;  sir  Thomas 
Bromley;  Robert  Devereux,  earl  of 
Essex  (a  (kyourite) ;  the  earl  of  Leices- 
ter, earl  of  Ltncoho.  sir  Walter  Mild- 
may,  sir  Francis  Walsingham.  Ac.      .  1570 

Lord  Burleigh ;  Robert,  earl  of  Essex ; 
sir  Christopher  Hatton,  Ac.     .        .    .  1687 

Thomas  Sackyille.  lord  Buckhurst,  after- 
vardi  earl  of  Dorset ;  Sir  Thomas  Eger- 
ton,  afterwards  lord  EUesmere  and  vis- 
count Brackley ;  sir  Robert  Cecdl,  Ac   1699 

KIXO  JAXn  L 

Thomas,  earl  of  Dorset;  Thomas,  lord 
EUesmere;  Charles,  earl  of  Notting- 
ham ;  ThoDUM,  earl  of  Suffolk,  Edward, 
earl  of  Worcester :  Robert  Cecil,  q/ter- 
war(£«  earl  of  Salisbury,  Ac         .       .1603 

Robert  Cedl.  earl  of  Salisbury ;  Thomas, 
lord  EUesmere ;  Henry,  earl  of  North- 
ampton ;  Charles,  earl  of  Nottingham ; 
Thomas.  Earl  of  Suffolk,  Ac.   .        .    .  1609 

Heunr,  eari  of  Northampton ;  Thomas, 
lord  EUesmere ;  Edward,  earl  of  Wor- 
cester ;  sir  Ralph  Wiawood  :  Charles, 
earl  of  Nottingham ;  Robert,  Tisoount 
Rochester,  c^fierwards  earl  of  Somor- 
Mt,  Ac 1612 


Thomas,  lord  EUesmere:  Thomas,  earl  of 
Suffolk ;  Charles,  earl  of  Nottingham ; 
sir  George  VUliers  (a  &vourite),  after- 
wards vueount  VUUoxs^  and  sucees- 
siyely  earl,  marquess,  and  duke  of 
Buckingham 1615 

Sir  Henry  Montagu,  aJUrwirds  visooant 
Mandeville  and  earl  of  Manchester     .  1690 

Lionel,  lord  Cranfield,  qfterwards  earl  of 
Middlesex ;  Edward,  earl  of  Worcester ; 
John,  earl  of  Bristol ;  John  Williams, 
dean  of  Westminster ;  George  ViUiers, 
now  marquess  of  Buckingham;  air 
Edward  Conway,  Ac   ....  1621 

KINO  CHARLES  I. 

Richard,  lord  Weston,  c^/terwards  esri  of 
Portland;  sir  Thomas  Coventry,  <i^ter- 
wards  lord  Coventry ;  Henry,  .earl  of 
Manchester  (succeeded  by  James,  earl 
of  Marlborough,  who^  in  turn,  gave 
place  to  Edwatti,  lord,  afterwards  vis- 
count, Conway);  WUllam  Laud,  bishop 
of  London ;  su-  Albertus  Morton,  Ac    1628 

William  Laud,  now  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury ;  Francis,  lord  Cottington ;  James, 
marquess  of  Hamilton ;  Edward,  earl 
of  Dorset :  sir  John  Coke,  sir  Francis 
Windebank,  Ac 1685 

William  Juxon,  bishop  of  London ;  sir 
John  Finch,  afterwards  lord  Finch; 
Francis,  lord  Cottlngton ;  Wentworth, 
earl  of  Strafford ;  Algernon,  earl  of 
Northumberland ;  James,  marquess  of 
Hamilton ;  Laud,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury ;  sir  Frtuicis  Windebank,  sir 
Henry  Vane.  Ac 1640 

[When  the  civil  war  commenced  all  went 
into  concision.  The  unfortunate  king 
was  beheaded,  Jan.  30,  1649.] 

OOMMONWSALTH. 

OUver  Cromwell,  made  protector.  He 
named  a  council  whose  number  at  no 
time  was  to  exceed  twenty-one  mem- 
bers, or  be  less  than  thirteen      .        .  1653 

Richard  Cromwell,  son  of  Oliver,  suc- 
ceeded on  the  death  of  the  latter.  A 
oouncU  of  oij&oers  ruled  at  Wallingford 
House 1658 

KINO  CBARLU  U.* 

Sir  Edward  Hyde,  ajterwards  earl  of 
Clarendon ;  George  Monk,  created  duke 
of  Albemarle ;  Edward  Montagu, 
created  earl  of  Sandwich ;  lord  Saye 
and  Sole,  earl  of  Manchester;  lord 
Seymour ;  sir  Robert  Long,  Ac      .    .  1660 

George  Monk,  duke  of  Albemarle,  made 
first  commissioner  of  the  treasury,  Ac  1667 

The  "Cabal"  Ministry.  Sir  Thomas 
CUflbrd,  afterwards  lord  CUflbrd  (C) ; 
Anthony  Ashley,  aftenrards  earl  of 
Shaftesbury  (A);  Gcorve  VilUers,  duke 
of  Buckingham  (B);  Henry,  lord  Ar- 
lington, afterwards  earl  of  Arlington 
(A) ;  and  John,  duke  of  Lauderdale  (L). 
This  private  council  obtained  the  name 
of  the  Cabal  from  the  initial  letters  of 
their  five  names,  which  composed  the 
word.— OUi Wet  Home's  Bngtand    .        .  1670 

Thomas,  lord  CUfford  ;  Anthony,  earl  of 
Shaftesbury ;  Henzy,  earl  of  Arlington ; 


•  UntU  the  Restomtion,  there  was  not,  in  Cict,  anything  that  could  be  exclusively  caUed  a  Cabinet. 
The  sovereign  had  latterly  governed  by  a  oolloction  of  privy  oouncUlors,  sometimes  of  larger,  sometimes 
of  smaller  number,  the  men  and  offices  being  frequently  changed. 


ADM 


ADM 


ADMINISTBATIONS  or  ENGLAND,  and  or  QREAT  BRITAIN,  eontinuid. 


Arthur,  earl  of  AnglMej ;  air  ThonuM 
Oflbome,  created  Tiaoount  Latimer ; 
It.  hoQ.  Heniy  Coventiy,  air  Geotga 
Garteret,  Edward  Seymour,  Ac.  .       .  1672 

Thomaa,  viacount  Latimer,  n/lerwardt 
earl  of  Daobj,  made  lord  high  trea- 
surer.   June*2tf 1673 

Arthur,  earl  of  EaMX  (auooeeded  by  Law* 
rence  Hyde,  q/terwanb  earl  of  Rochea- 
ter);  Robert,  earl  of  Sunderland,  vim 
mrJo8«phWilliamaon,&&  .  .  1679 

(The  king  nominated  a  new  oooncil  thia 
year  (on  Apnl  21 X  ooustating  of  thirty 
membera  only,  of  whom  the  priucipiiu 
were  the  groat  offioera  of  state  and 
great  offioors  of  the  household.  J 

Biduey,  Lord  Godolphin ;  Lawrence,  earl 
of  Rochaitor ;  Damiel,  earl  of  Notting- 
ham ;  Hobertk  earl  uf  Sunderland ;  sir 
Thomas  Chicheloy ;  Qeorge,  lord  Dart- 
mouth; Henry,  earl  of  Clarendon; 
earls  of  Bath  and  Radnor,  Ac        .    .  1664 

JAKB  IL 

Lawrence,  earl  of  Rocheater;  Oeoiigo, 
marquees  of  Halifax  ;  sir  Geo^ 
Jeffreys^  afUrwanU  lord  Jeffireys ; 
Henry,  earl  of  Clarendon;  sir  Jolin 
£mlev,  Tiaoount  Preeton^  Lc.  .  1665 

Hie  eaii  of  Rochester  was  displaced,  and 
John,  lord  Belasyse,  made  first  oom- 
missioner  of  the  treasury  in  his  room, 
Jan.  4 ;  the  earl  of  Buinieriand  made 
president  of  the  council ;  tiscouut 
rreston,  secretary  of  state ;  and  yarioua 
other  changea  took  place  in  this  and 
the  following  year 1687 

[The  king  left  Whitehall  in  the  night  of 
Dec  17,  and  quitting  the  kingdom, 
landed  at  Ambleceuso,  in  Fxmnce,  on 
Dec.  23,  16^J 

Ki3ro  wiluax  nx. 

Charles,  visoouut  Mordaimt;  Thomas 
Osborne,  eurl  of  Danby,  created  mar- 
quess of  Carmarthen,  a/leneard$  duke 
of  Leeds;  George,  marqueiis  of  Halifax ; 
Arthur  Herbert,  <^/tervard8  lord  Tor- 
nngton;  earls  of  Shrewsbury,  Notting- 
ham, and  Sunderland ;  ean  of  Dorset 
and  MidOleeex;  William,  earl  (oAer- 
vardM  duke^  of  Devonshire ;  lord 
Godolphin,  lord  Montagu,  lord  De  la 
If  ere.  tc 1688 

Sidney,  lord  Godolphin;  Thomas,  earl 
of  Dvinby;  rt.  hoD.  Richard  Hamp- 
den ;  Thomas,  earl  of  Pembroke : 
Henry,  Tiacoimt  Sidney ;  Daniel,  earl 
of  Nottingham,  iic 1600 

[Sir  Jolm  Somers  was  created  lord 
Somers  in  16j7,  and  made  lord  chan- 
oellur;  and  Charles  Moutagu,  nor- 
wards lord  Halifax,  was  made  tirst 
coounissioner  of  the  treasury.  May  1, 
lti98,  sucoeeded  by  Ford,  eari  of 
Tiinkerville,  in  1609.  J 

QUKKN  ASKE. 

Sidney,  lord  {afterward*  earl  of)  Godd- 

B*un ;  Thomas,  earl  of  Pembroke  and 
ontgomery ;  John  Sheffield,  mar- 
que«e  of  Normanby,  a/Urwards  duke 
of  Normanby  and  Buckingham ;  hon. 
Henry  Boyle,  tlr  Ctiarles  Hedges  and 
the  eaai  of  Nottingham;  the  latter 
succeeded  by  the  rt  hou.  Robert  Har- 
ley,  created  earl  of  Oxford,  dus.  .  .  1702 
Robert^  eaii  of  Oxford ;  sir  Simon  (after- 
wards  lord)  Harcourt ;  duke  of  rTor- 
mant^  and  Buckingham ;  lord  Dart- 


mouth; Heniy  St  John.  i^fUrwtirdt 
Tisoount  Bolingbroke ;  Robert  Benson, 
(^/ierwards  lord  Bingley,  iic  .  .  .  1711 
Chiuiea,  Duke  of  Shrewsbury,  made  lord 
treasurer  three  days  before  the  queen's 
death,  July  80 1714 

KXVO  OBOROR  I. 

Charles,  eari  of  Hali&x  (succeeded  on 
his  death  by  the  earl  of  Cariiale);  WU- 
liam,  lord  Cowper,  a/Urward*  earl 
Cowper;  Daniel,  earl  of  Nottingham  : 
Thomas,  nuuquess  of  Wharton ;  James 
Stanhope,  a/terward*  earl  Stanhope; 
Charles,  risoount  Townshend ;  sir 
Kichard  Onslow,  rt  hon.  Robert  Wal- 
pole,  Mr.  Pulteney,  A^c.    .        ...  1714 

Rt  hou.  Robert  Wafpole,  fint  lord  of  the 
treasury  and  chancellor  of  the  exche- 
quer, Ac 1716 

Rt  non.  James  Stanhope,  afterward*  eari 
Stanhope ;  William,  lord  Cowper, 
Charles,  esri  of  Sunderland ;  lord  Ber- 
keley, rt  hon.  Juseuh  Addiscm,  Ac.    .  1717 

Charles,  earl  of  Simderiand ;  Thomas, 
lord  Parker ;  the  earl  Stanhope,  lord 
Berkeley,  Mr.  Craggs,  Mr.  AisLtbie,  iui   1718 

Rt  hon.  Robert  Waipole,  <^rward»  sir 
Robert,  and  earl  of  Orfurd ;  Thomas^ 
Ifird  Parker,  afterward*  taxi  of  Maccles- 
field ;  eari  of  Berkeley,  lord  Carteret 
▼ieoount  Townshend,  Tisoount  Tor- 
nngton,  Ac 1721 

KIMO  OBOROS  U. 

Rt  hon.  sir  Robert  Waipole,  coniinmed  .  1727 

[Sir  Robert  remained  prime  minister 
twenty-one  years ;  numerous  ciianges 
occurring  in  the  time.    See  Waipolt.\ 

Earl  or  Wilmington,  lord  Hardwioke, 
earl  Oower,  Mr.  Sandys,  earl  of  Har- 
rington, duke  of  Newcastle,  Mr.  Pel- 
ham,  &c 1742 

Rt  hon.  Henry  Pelbam,  in  the  room  of 
earl  of  Wilmington,  deceased  .  1743 

The  "Bboad  Bottom"  administration. 
Rt  hon.  Henry  Pelham,  lord  Uard- 
wicke,  dukes  of  Dorset,  Montagu,  Bod- 
ford,  Gratton,  and  Aigyll,  eari  Cower, 
duke  of  Newcastle,  &c 1744 

Thomas  Holies  Pelham,  duke  of  New- 
castle;  earl  of  Holdemesae;  Henry 
Bilsun  Legge  ;  sir  Thomas  Robinaon, 
afUrward*  lord  Grauthiun  ;  lord  Grao- 
▼ille,  lord  Anson,  lord  Hardwicke, 
lord  Halifax,  rt.  hon.  George  Gren- 
▼llle,  4cc 1764 

Duke  of  DoTonshiro,  rt  hon.  William 
Pitt  Mtrl  of  Holdernesae,  dukes  of 
Rutland  and  Grafton,  Mr.  Legge,  earl 
Gower,  d:c. 17M 

Duke  of  Newcastle,  and  Mr.  Pitt,  after- 
ward* earl  of  Chatham ;  earl  Temple, 
earl  of  Holdemesse,  lord  Henley,  earls 
Gower  and  Halifax;  rt  hon.  Henry 
Fox,  afterward*  lord  HoUand,  Ac.       .  1757 

KINO  OIOBQK  III. 

Duke  of  Newcastle's  and  Mr.  Pitt's 
ministry,  carUinmtd 1760 

Earl  of  Bute,  lord  Henley,  sir  Francis 
Dashwood,  lord  Granville,  earls  of 
Halifax  and  Egremont,  lords  Sandys 
and  North,  rt  hon.  George  Grenville, 
*«• 1762 

Rt  hon.  George  Grcnville.  earli  of  Hali- 
ihx  and  Sandwich,  lord  Henley,  earl 
Gower,  lord  Egmont,  lord  Holland, 
marquess  of  Granby,  lord  North,  tic  .  1763 

Marquess  of  Rockingham,  earl  of  Win- 


ADM 


10 


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ADMINISTRATIONS  or  ENGLAND,  and  or  GREAT  BRITAIN,  eontmued. 


ohilMft  and  NotUngham*  hoo.  Hemy 
Seymour  Couwav,  duke  of  Gnfton, 
hon.  Charles  TowDshend,  earl  of 
KOTthiogton,  Ac 1706 

Earl  of  Chatham,  duke  of  Grafton,  earl 
of  Shelbume,  lord  North,  lord  Cam- 
den, gen.  Conway,  air  Charlee  Saun- 
den,  marquesBof  Qranby,  hon.  Chaiies 
Townahend,  lord  HiUaborough,  Ac    .  1706 

Duke  of  Grafton,  lord  North,  earl  Cower, 
earl  of  diatham,  earl  of  Bbelbume, 
▼isGount  Weymouth,  marquess  of 
Oranby,  dr  Sdward  Hawke,  Thomas 
Townshend,  lord  Sandwich,  Ac.  .       .  1767 

Frederick,  Lord  North,  earl  of  Haliikx, 
earl  Gower,  lord  Hulsbcrough,  lord 
Weymouth,  lord  Roehford,  lord  Gran- 
by,  sir  Edward  Hawke,  lord  Apsley, 
sir  OUbert  Elliot,  &c 1770 

[Lord  North  eontinued  minister  eleren 
years,  duringthe  whole  of  the  Ame- 
rican war.  The  changes  within  this 
period  were  Teiy  numerous.] 

Marquess  of  Rockingham,  lord  John 
Cavendish,  lord  Camden,  duke  of 
Grafton ;  William,  earl  of  Shelbume ; 
rti  hon.  Chaiies  James  Fox,  rt.  hon. 
Augustus  Keppel,  duke  of  Richmond, 
rt.  non.  Thomas  Townshend,  rt.  hon. 
Isaac  Barr^  rt.  hon.  Edmund  Burke, 
Ac    March 1782 

Barl  of  Shelbume  (c^/Uncardt  Harqueas 
of  Lansdownei  rt.  hon.  William  Pitt, 
lord  Camden,  lord  Thurlow,  duke  of 
Grafton,  lord  Grantham,  yisoount 
Keppel,  rt  hon.  Henry  Dundas^  Ac, 
Julp 1782 

The  "CoAUTXOV  Mivistxt."  Duke  of 
Portland,  lord  North,  Charlee  James 
Fox,  lord  Stormontk  earl  of  Carlisle, 
lord  John  Cavendish,  viscoimt  Towns- 
hend, rt.  hon.  Charles  Townshend, 
Edmund  Burke,  Ac    AprU        .       .  1783 

Rt.  hon.  William  Pitt»  earl  Gower,  duke 
of  Rutland,  marquess  of  Carmarthen, 
earl  Temple  (succeeded  by  lord  Byd- 
neyX  viscount  Howe,  lord  Mulgrave, 
lonl  Thurlow,  rt  hon.  William  Wynd- 
ham  (ofltrwird*  lord  GrenvilleJ^  Henry 
DundaiB,  &c.    Dec 1788 

[During  Mr.  Pitt's  long  administration, 
numerous  modifications  in  the  minis- 
try took  pjace.] 

Rt  hon.  Henry  Addington,  duke  of 
Portland,  earl  of  Westmorland,  lord 
Pelham,  lord  Eldon,  lord  Hawkesbury, 
lord  Hobartk  Earl  St  Vincent  earl  of 
Chatham,  rt  hon.  Charles  Yorke, 
viscount  Lewisham,  lord  Auckland, 
Ac     March,  a$eq 1801 

Rt  hon.  William  Fitt,  lord  Eldon,  duke 
of  Portland  (succeeded  by  lord  Sid- 
mouth,  late  Mr.  AddinslonX  earl  of 
Westmorland,  lord  Hawkesbmy,  lord 
Harrowby  (succeeded  by.  lord  Mul- 
gravej^  earl  Camden  (succeeded  by 
viscount  Castleresgh) :  viscount  Mel- 
ville (succeeded  bv  lord  Barham), 
duke  of  Montrose,  ford  Mulgrave,  rt 
hon.  Mr.  Dundas ;  rt  hon.  George 
Canning,  Ac.    May,  et  My.   .  .  1804 

(The  death  of  Mr.  Pitt  led  te  the  form*- 
tion  of  another  cabinet.  1 

*'All  trk  Talents"  administration: 
lord  Grenville,  lord  Henry  Petty,  lord 
Erskine,  earl  Fitawilliam,  viscount 
Sidmouth,  Charles  James  Fox,  earl 
Spencer,  WilUam  Wmdham,  earl  of 
Moira,  sir  Charles  Grey  (aftertpards 
viscount  Howlck  and  earl  GreyX  lord 


Minto,  lord  Auckland,  &o.— Lord 
EUenborough,  lord  chief  justice,  had 
a  seat  in  the  cabinet    Fd>.  .  .  1806 

[The  death  of  Mr.  Fox  led  to  numerous 
changes  in  the  cabinet] 

Duke  of  Portland,  lord  Eldon,  earl  Cam- 
den, earl  of  Westmorlaiid,  hon.  Spencer 
Perceval,  lord  Hawkesbury,  viacount 
Castlereagh,  Mr.  Canning,  earl  of 
Chatham,  earl  Bathurst  Mr.  Dundas^ 
lord  Mi^grave,  Ac.    March  .  1807 

Rt  hon.  Spencer  Perceval,  earl  Camden, 
earl  of  Westmorland,  lord  Eldon,  hon. 
Richard  Ryder,  msrouess  Wellesley, 
earl  of  Liverpool,  lord  Mulgrave.  Mr. 
Dundas,  earl  Bathurst,  can  of  Chat- 
ham, viscount  Palmerston,  Ae,  Nov, 
ijxdjke. 1800 

THB  RBOSXCT. 

Mr.  Spencer  Perceval  and  his  colleagues 
continued.    Feb.  6 1811 

Earl  of  Liverpool,  lord  Eldon,  earl  of 
Harrowby,  earl  of  Westmorland,  Mr. 
Vanaittart  earl  of  Mulgrave,  lord  Mel- 
ville, viscount  Sidmouth,  viscount 
Castlereagh,  earl  Bathurst  earl  of 
Buckinghamshire^  marauess  Camden, 
lord  Palmerston,  Ac    Jtfay,  June       .  1812 

Kivo  oaoBOX  IV. 

Earl  of  Liverpool  and  his  colleagues  con- 
tinutd,    Jan.  29 1820 

[During  lord  Liverpool's  long  adminis- 
tration, numerous  changea  in,  and 
acoetsions  to,  office  occurred;  they 
included  the  following  names:  Mr. 
Charles  Brsgge  Bathurst,  Mr.  William 
Wellesley  Pom  (afterwardi  lord  Mary- 
borough and  earl  of  Momingtonl  lu:. 
Canning,  Mr.  Frederick  Jomi  Robin- 
son (q/krwaixb  lord  Ooderich  and  earl 
of  Mipon),  duke  of  Wellington,  Mr. 
(aftenMrd*  sir  Robert)  Peel,  Mr. 
Charles  Watkin  Williams  Wynn.  Ac 
Lord  Liverpool's  ministiy  endured 
fifteen  years.] 

Rt  hon.  Gtooxge  Canning,  lord  Lynd- 
hurst,  earl  of  Harrowby.  duke  of 
Portland,  lord  Dudley,  visct.  Goderich, 
Mr.  Stuiges  Bourne,  Mr.  W^nDi  Hr. 
Huskisson,  lord  Bexley,  lord  Palmer^ 
ston,  duke  of  Clarence,  Ac.    April     .  188 

On  the  death  of  Mr.  Canning :  Viscount 
Goderich,  duke  of  Portlimd,  eaii  of 
Carlisle,  lord  Lyndhurst  viscount 
Dudley,  viacount  Palmerston.  mar- 
quess of  Lansdowne,  Mr.  Huskisson, 
Mr.  Charles  Grant  ^    Auffvut .        .  1827 

Duke  of  Wellington,  lord  Lyndhurst^ 
earl  Bathurst,  lord  EUenborough,  Mr. 
Goulbum,  Mr.  Peel,  earl  Dudley,  Mr. 
Huskisson,  Mr.  Grant  (aftenearde  lord 
GlenelgX  lord  Palmerston,  eari  of 
Aberdeen,  Mr.  Henries,  Mr.  Arbuth- 
not  Ac.    Jan 1828 

Duke  of  Wellington,  lord  Lyndhurst  earl 
of  Aberdeen,  earl  Bathurst  Mr.  Peel, 
sir  Geoige  Murray,  lord  EUenborough, 
viscount  Lowther,  viscount  Melville, 
sir  Henry  Hardinge.    May  and  June  .  1828 

[This  last  remodeUmg  of  the  ministry 
was  consequent  upon  the  retirement 
of  the  carl  of  Dudley,  lord  Palmerston, 
Mr.  Grant  and  Mr.  Huskisson.] 

KIKO  WILLIAM  IV. 

Duke  of  Wellington  and  his  coUeagues 

wntinued.    /ufM  26       ....  1880 
1^1  Grey,  marquess  of  Lansdowne,  vis- 


ADM 


11 


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ADMINISTRATIONS  or  ENGLAND,  akd  or  GREAT  BRITAIN,  etmiinwd. 


eannt  Althorpe.  earl  of  Duriiam,  y\B- 
eounts  MelbourxM,  Pahnenton,  and 
Qoderieh:  idr  Jamas  Gmhmm,  Hr. 
Gnntt  lord  Auckland,  lord  John 
RnawU,  kod  Brougham,  4c.    JTov.    .  18S0 

[Earl  Qnj  resigna  office,  owing  to  a 
nu^ority  against  him  in  the  lord%  on 
a  question  relating  to  the  Reform  bill, 
Maf  10,  Ifai;  but  he  resumes  his 
post^  May  18,  following.] 

▼isconnt  Melboame,  marquess  of  lAna- 
downe,  eatl  Mulgrave,  Tiscouut  Al- 
thoipe,  Tisooont  Emersion,  visooimt 
Duncannon,  Hr.  Spnnff  Bloe,  lord 
Brougham,  lord  John  Ruaaell,  lord 
AucUand,  ^r  John  Hobhouae,  Hr. 
Ellioe,  Hr.  Grant,  Hr.  Littleton,  4o. 
July 18S4 

fViscouni  Helboume's  administration 
dissolved.  The  duke  of  Wellington 
takes  the  helm  of  state  proTistooaUy. 
waiting  the  return  of  sir  Robert  Feel 
from  Italy.  J 

Bir  Robert  PeeL  lord  Whamcliflb,  earl  of 
Rosalyn,  lord  JL^jrndhurBt,  Hr.  Goul* 
bum,  duke  of  Wellington,  earl  of 
Aberdeen,  earl  de  Orev,  rt.  hon.  Alex- 
ander Baring,  lord  Ellenborough,  sir 
George  Hurray,  Ac    Nov.  and  JMe.    .  1834 

Tiaoount  Hdbourne,  marquees  of  tans- 
downe,  Tisoount  Duncannon,  Hr. 
Spring  Rice,  lord  John  RusssU,  tIs- 
omnt  Palmenton.  lord  Gleuelg  (laU 
Hr.  Charles  Grant),  earl  of  Hinto,  sir 
John  Hobhouae,  Hr.  Poulett  Thom- 
son, locd  Holland,  Tiacount  Howick, 
air  Henry  Pamell,  Hr.  Labouchexe, 
lord  Horpeth,  4o.    AprU    .  .  1835 

Sir  Charles  C.  Pepys,  created  lord  Ooi- 
»^nhMn  1^  made  lord  chancellor. 
j€M. 1836 


Quanr  tictoria. 

Ylsoonnt  Helbcumo  and  his  colleagues^ 
amtmued.    Jwne  20 18S7 

[Among  the  subsequent  aecesrtons  and 
changes,  were  the  following :  rt.  hon. 
F.  T.  Buiiw,  marquess  of  Normanby, 
late  earl  of  Hulgrave,  earl  of  Claren- 
don, Hr.  T.  R  Macatilay,  Ac] 

[Yiaconnt  Helbounie  resigna,  and  sir 
Robert  Feel  reoelTes  the  queen's  com- 
mands to  form  a  new  adininisti«tion, 
Jfov  8.  This  command  is  withdrawn, 
and  on  Hay  10,  lord  Helboume  and 
his  friends  return  to  powerJ  .  1889 

Bir  Robert  Peel,  duke  of  Wellington, 
lord  WbAmcliflb,  lord  Lyndhtirst,  duke 
of  Buckingham,  sir  James  Graliam, 
earl  of  Aberdeen,  lord  Stanley,  Hr. 
Ooulbum,  earl  of  Haddington,  earl  of 
Ripon,  rir  George  Hurray,  sir  Henry 
Hardinge,  lord  Ellenborough,  Ae. 
Aug.  and  Sept 1841 

[Among  the  many  succeeding  changss 
were :  lord  Fitzgerald,  duke  of  Buc- 
eleuch,  earl  of  Dalhousie,  Hr.  Sidney 
Herbert,  Hr.  W.  K.  Gladstone,  fta] 

Lord  John  RuaseU,  marquess  of  liuis- 
downe,  earl  of  Hinto,  lord  Cottenham, 
fir  George  Grey,  Tiacount  PalmerBton, 
eari  Grey,'Hr.  {now  Sir  Charles)  Wood, 
earl  of  Auckland,  sir  John  Hobhouae, 
earl  of  Clarendon,  lord  (^mpbell.  yIs- 
count  Horpeth  (now  earl  of  OarlialeX 
matquess  of  Clanricarde,  Hr.  Hao- 
aulay,  Hr.  Labouchere,  &c    J%dy       .  1846 

[Among  the  acceaalona  to  office  in  lord 
John  Rosaell's  ministry,  were:  earl 
GranTiUe,  sir  Franda  Baring,  Hr.  Fox 


Hauls,  eatl  of  Oarliale,  sir  Thomas 
Wylde,  created  lord  Truro,  tcJ] 

[Feb.  24.  Lord  John  Ruaeell  announced 
to  the  oommous,  and  the  marquess  of 
Lansdowne  to  the  lorda,  that  the 
ministers  had  resigned,  owing  to  their 
defeat  on  Hr.  Locke  King's  motion  re- 
specting  the  Franchise,  the  minority 
against  them  being  48  (lOO  to  63); 
and  on  Harch  8,  the  same  personages 
informed  parliament,  that  it  havuig 
been  found  Impossible  to  construct  a 
coalition  ministry,  the  queen,  by  the 
advioe  of  the  Duke  of  Welluigton,  had 
called  upon  her  late  ministers  to  re- 
sume office.  Lord  Stanly  had  been 
charged  by  her  m%)estT,  m  the  inter- 
val, to  form  a  new  cabinet,  but  had 
not  succeeded.] 1861 

Lord  John  Baasell  and  his  oollesgues 
WKtmuti,  Lord  John  RusseU,  mar- 
quess of  Lansdowne,  earl  of  Hinto, 
lord  Truro,  sir  Charles  Wood,  sir 
Geoige    OroT,    Tisoount    Palmeratcoi 

Succeeded  by  earl  Granville!  earl 
rey,  sir  Frands  Thomhill  Baring; 
lord  Brouffhton  {late  sir  John  Hob- 
house),  rt  non.  Henry  lAbouchere,  rt. 
hon.  Fox  Haule  (mow  lord  PanmureX 
marquees  of  Clanricarde,  marquess  of 
Anglesey,  kc    March  ...  1861 

Earl  of  Derbv  (tote  lord  StanleyX  lord 
St.  Leonanis,  earl  of  Lonadale,  mai> 

2uess  of  Salisbury,  rt.  hon.  Benjamin 
tlBraeli,  rt.  hon.  Spencer  Horatio 
Walpole,  earl  of  Halmesbuiy,  sir  John 
Pakington,  duke  of  Nort^humberland, 
rt.  hon.  John  C.  Herriee.  rt.  hon. 
Joeeph  Warner  Henley,  earl  of  Hard- 
wickSi  rt  hon.  William  Beresford,  tc 
Feb 1862 

Earl  of  Aberdeen,  lord  John  Russell, 
Tisoount  Palmerston,  sir  James  Gim- 
ham,  Hr.  Gladstone,  marquess  of 
Lansdowne,  lord  Cranworth,  duke  ol 
Newcaatle,  duke  of  Argyll,  earl  Gran- 
ville, hon.  Sidney  Herbert,  sir  Charles 
Wood,  sir  William  Holeswortb,  Ac 
Jke.  28 1862 

[In  this  last  ministry  Tarious  changes  of 
offices  took  place  :  among  tbem,  a 
fourth  secTBtMy  of  state  was  appobited, 
by  a  separation  of  the  tpar  from  Uie 
colonial  department,  the  former  being 
retained  by  the  Duke  of  Newcastle, 
and  sir  Geoige  Grey  being  appointed 
to  the  Utter.  See  Aberdeen  Adminit- 
traHoHt  Secrttariet  of  Sale,  and  War 
MindtUr.] 

[The  retirement  of  lord  John  Russell, 
Jan.  24,  1865,  and  a  majority  in  the 
commons  sgalnst  ministers  of  157  (805 
to  148)  on  Mr.  Roebuck's  motion,  re- 
speotiuff  the  conduct  of  the  war,  led  to 
toe  rengnation  of  lord  Aberdeen  and 
his  oolleagueig  Jan  30,  following,  and 
the  cabinet  was  reconstructed  imder 
lord  Palmerston.] 

Viscount  Palmerston,  lord  Cranworth, 
eari  Granville,  lord  Panmure,  earl  of 
Clarendon,  sir  Ctoorge  Grey,  rt  hon. 
Sidney  Herbert,  sir  Jamea  Graham, 
sir  Charios  Wood,  i4r  William  Holes- 
worth,  duke  of  Ainnrll,  Hr.  Gladstone, 
Hr.  Gardwell,  and  (without  office)  the 
marquess  of  I^msdowne.  iui.    Fd>.  7  .  1865 

[YiscouDt  PaJmerMton,  owmg  to  the  se- 
cession from  office  of  sir  James  Gra- 
ham, Hr.  Gladstone,  and  the  hon. 
Sidney  Herbert^  had  to  rsoonstruet 


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ADMINISTRATIONS  of  ENGLAND,  and  of  GREAT  BRITAIN,  amtimted. 


his  ministry  anew,  almost  immedi- 
ately after  its  formation.] 
Viscount  Palmenton,  lord  Cranworih, 
eari  Granville^  lord  Panmure,  mar- 
quess of  Lansdowne  (without  office^ 
lord  John  Bussell,  earl  of  Clareudcm, 


sir  Geoi^  Orey.  sir  George  Comewall 
Lewis,  sir  Charles  Wood,  sir  William 
Molesworth,  Mr.  Vernon  Smith,  lord 
Stanley  of  Alderley,  duke  of  Aiigyll, 
lord  Canning,  &c.  (Soe  PalmtnUm.) 
J'eb.SA :  1866 


The  average  duration  of  a  ministry  has  been  set  down  at  four,  fivoi  and  six  years ;  but 
remarlukble  instJinceB  have  oecurred  of  the  duration  of  a  ministry  for  much  longer 
periods :  sir  Robert  Walpolo  was  minister  from  1721,  reign  of  Geoige  I.,  to  1742,  reign 
of  (George  II.,  twenty-one  yean.  Mr  Pitfs  tenure  of  offloe  from  1788  to  1801, 
extended  to  eighteen  yean;  and  lord  Liyerpool's  administration,  from  1812'  to  1827, 
embraced  the  term  of  fifteen  yean.  Numerous  ministries,  it  will  be  seen,  ha^e  not 
endured  beyond  a  few  months,  as  the  Coalition  nunistry  in  1788,  and  the  Talents 
ministry  in  1806. 

ADMINISTRATIVE  REFORM  ASSOCIATION.  This  body  derives  its  origin  from  the 
opinion  of  many  eminent  commercial  men  and  othen,  that  Uie  disssten  which  oocun^d 
to  the  army  in  the  Crimea  in  1854-5  are  attributable  to  the  ineflScient  and  irre> 
sponsible  management  of  the  various  departments  of  the  state.  A  meeting  for  oi^gan- 
ising  the  association  was  held  in  .London,  May  5, 1855,  succeeded  by  othen  in  the 
principal  towns  in  the  kingdom.  Mr.  W.  Tite,  a  deputy-chairman,  was  elected  M.P. 
for  Bath,  on  June  4.  1855.  A  meeting  was  held  in  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  on  June  13, 
and  Mr.  Layard's  motion  on  the  subject  in  parliament  was  negatived  June  13  following. 

The  association  was  reoi^anised  in  1856,  Mr.  Roebuck,  M.P.,  becoming  chainnan. 

See  Civil  Service. 

ADMIRAL.  The  distinction  of  admiral  does  not  appear  to  have  been  adopted  in  these 
realms  until  about  the  year  1300,  but  the  title  was  in  use  some  time  previously  in 
France. — 6tr  Hatrie  Nicdae.  Alfred,  Athelstsn,  Edgar,  Hsrold,  and  other  kings 
had  been  previously  the  commanden  of  their  own  fleets.  The  lint  was  appointed  in 
France  in  1284.  The  rank  of  admiral  of  the  English  seas  wss  one  of  great  diBtinction, 
and  was  fint  given  to  William  de  Ley  bourne  by  Edward  I.  in  1297.— iSpe/man;  Rymer, 

ADMIRAL,  LOBD  HIGH,  of  ENGLAND.  The  first  ofiScer  of  this  rank  was  created 
by  Richard  II.  in  1385 :  there  had  been  previously  high  admirals  of  districts— ihe 
north,  west,  and  south.  This  ofiBce  has  seldom  been  entrusted  to  single  hands. 
Prince  George  of  Denmark,  consort  of  Queen  Anne,  was  lord  high  admiral  in  her 
reign.  Since  that  time  (1708)  tlie  duties  were  uninterruptedly  executed  by  lords 
conmiissionera  until  1827,  when  the  duke  of  Clarence,  afterguards  William  lY.,  was 
appointed,  on  the  secession  of  lord  Melville  from  the  Admiralty.  The  duke  resigned 
the  rank,  Aug.  12, 1828,  and  the  ofiSce  was  again  vested  in  a  commission.— A  similar 
dignity  existed  in  Scotland  from  the  reign  of  Robert  III. :  in  1678,  the  king  bestowed 
it  upon  his  natural  son,  Charles  Lenox,  afterwards  duke  of  Richmond* and  Lenox, 
then  an  infant ;  he  resigned  the  office  to  the  crown  in  1708,  and  after  the  union  it 
was  discontinued. — The  dignity  of  lord  high  admiral  of  Ireland  (of  brief  existence) 
was  conferred  upon  James  BuUer  by  Henry  YIII.,  in  May  1534.    See  Navy, 

ADMIRALTY,  COURT  op.  Erected  by  Edward  IIL  in  1857.  This  is  a  civil  court  for 
the  trial  of  causes  relating  to  maritime  affidrs.  In  Criminal  matters,  which  commonly 
relate  to  pincv,  the  proceedings  were  formerly  by  accusation  and  information ;  but 
this  being  found  incouvenient,  it  was  enacted,  by  two  statutes  msde  in  the  reign  of 
Benry  YIII.,  that  criminal  causes  should  be  tried  by  witnesses  and  a  jury,  some  of 
the  judges  at  Westminster  (or,  as  now,  at  the  Old  Bailey)  assisting.  The  judgeship 
of  the  Admiralty  was  constituted,  as  at  present^  in  1514,  and  was  filled  by  two  or  mor« 
functionaries  until  the  Revolution,  when  it  was  restricted  to  ona — BeaiMon,  The 
judge  is  now,  and  has  usually  been,  an  eminent  doctor  of  the  civil  law.  Hiere  are 
appeals  from  the  decisions  of  this  court  to  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy  counoiL 
by  sUtutes  11  George  lY.  and  1  William  lY.  1880  and  1881. 

ADMIRALTY,  LORDS  of  the.  In  1662  the  Admiralty  was,  as  at  present  constituted, 
fint  put  into  ccmmiesion,  the  great  officen  of  state  being  the  commissioners. 
During  the  commonwealth  the  admiralty  affaira  were  managed  by  a  committee  of  Uie 
parliament ;  and  at  the  Restoration  in  1660,  James,  duke  of  York,  became  lord  high 
admiral  In  1684,  Charlea  II.  held  the  admiralty  in  his  own  hands,  until  his  death, 
when  James  II.  made  himself  lord  high  admiral.  In  1688-9,  the  admiralty  was  a 
second  time  put  into  oommisaiony  and  the  board  appeaia  to  have  assembled  at 


ADM 


IS 


ADR 


admiiml  Herbert's  lodgingi  in  Chaanel-Row,  WaBtminster,  he  being  at  that  time  first 
lord.  The  patent  appointing  him,  together  with  six  other  lords,  was  dated 
Jfareh  6, 1688-9. 

FIBST  LORDS  OP  THB  ADMIRALTY  DURING  THB  LAST  TEK  REIGNS. 


1600.  James,  doxb  or  Tobc,  lord  high  ad-  '  1763. 

nUral,  6  June.  ■    — 

167S.  Kxvo  CBABLn  IL,  14  Jane.  176S. 

—  PaiircB  RuPBST,  9  July.  1763. 
1670.  Sir  Heurv  Oapel,  14  Mav.  1766. 
16tM>.  Daniel  Fmob,  eeq.,  14  Feb.  — 
1681.  Daniel,  lord  Flnoti.  20  Jan.  1771. 
1681.  Daniel,  earl  of  NotUi«ham,  17  ApriL  nsi. 

—  Kixo  jAves  II..  17  lUy.  — 
1680.  Arthor  Herbert,  eeq..  8  March.  178S. 
1690.  Tbomasw  oari  of  Pembroke  and  Mont-  1788. 

gomenr,  SO  Jan.  i  1794. 

1692.  Charles,  lord  OomwalUa,  10  March.         t  1801. 

1693.  Antbony.  yieoount  Faildaad,  15  ApriL  1S04. 

1694.  Edward  Rnaell,  eeq.,  2  May.  1805. 
1697.  Edward,  earl  of  Orford.  5  June.  1806. 
1690.  John,  eari  of  firidgewater,  81  May.  — 
170L  Thomaa,  earl  of  Pembroke  and  Mont-  1807. 

gomexy,  4  ApriL  1809. 

1708.  Oaoaos,  raiircE  of  Dsvicabx,  lord  iUfpft  1811 

adakiral,  20  May.  1827. 

1708.  Thomaa,  aari  of  Pembroke  and  Mont- 

gomefy,  29  Not.  1828. 

1709.  Edward,  earl  of  Orford,  8  Not.  1830. 

1710.  Sir  John  Leake.  4  Oct. 

1712.  Thomaa.  earl  of  Strafford,  SO  Sept  1834. 

1714.  Bdwiurd,  earl  of  Orford,  14  Oct.  _ 

1717.  Jamea,  earl  of  Berkeley.  19  March.  1835. 

1727.  George,  Viecount  Torriugton,  2  Aug.  -^ 

1733.  Sir  Cbarles  Wager,  knt,  21  June.  istl. 

1741.  Daniel,   earl  of  Winchilaea  and  Not-  1846. 

tingham.  19  March.  — 

1744.  Joho,  duke  of  Bedford,  27  Doe.  1819. 

1748.  John,  earl  of  Sandwich.  16  Feb.  1851. 
1751.  Oeoige.  lord  Anson,  22  June. 

1756.  Richard,  earl  Temple,  17  Nor.  1853. 

1757.  Daniel,  earl  of  Wmchilaea  and  Not- 

ttagbam,  6  ApriL  1855. 
—     George,  lord  Anson,  2  July. 


George  M.  Dunk,  earl  of  HalUhz,17  Jane. 
George  Grenville,  eaq.,  18  Oct. 
John,  earl  of  Sandwich.  20  ApriL 
John,  eari  of  Bgmont,  16  Sept. 
Sir  Cbarlee  Saundera,  15  Sept. 
Sir  Edward  Hawke,  11  Deo. 
John,  earl  of  Sandwich,  12  Jan. 
Hon.  Auguatua  Keppd,  1  April. 
Auguatua,  viaoount  feeppeL  18  July. 
Richard,  riaoount  Howe,  30  Jan. 
John,  earl  of  Chatham,  16  July. 
George  John,  earl  Spencer,  19  Dec. 
John,  earl  St.  Vincent.  13  Feb. 
Henc7,  riaoount  Melville.  16  May. 
Cbarlea,  lord  Barham^i  2  May. 
Cbarlee,  earl  Grey,  10  Feb. 
Thomaa  Grenrille,  esq.,  90  Sept. 
Henry,  lord  Mulgrave.  6  April. 
Charles  Yorko,  eeq..  24  Nov. 
Robert,  Tiaoount  Melville,  25  Match. 
H.  R.  H.  WiLLiaic  HairaT.   dokb  of 

Clabbho^  lard  high  admirtU^  2  May. 
Robert,  viscount  Melville,  19  Sopt. 
Sir  Jamea  Robert  George  Gruliam,  bart , 

25  Nov. 
George,  lord  Auckland,  11  June. 
Tbomaa  Philip,  earl  de  Grey,  23  Doc. 
Gonrge,  lord  Auckland.  25  ApriL 
Gilbert,  earl  of  Hiuto,  19  Sept. 
Thomast  earl  of  Haddington.  8  Sept. 
Edward,  earl  of  Ellenborough,  13  Jan. 
George,  earl  of  Aucklaad,  24  July. 
Sir  Fruucla  Thomhill  Baring.  18  Jan. 
Algernon,  duke  of  Northumberland, 

28  Feb. 
Sir  Jamea  Robert  George  Graham,  6 

Jan. 
Sir  Charles  Wood,  bart.,  24  Feb.    The 

pftaaEirT  (1857)  First  Lord. 


ADKIRALTT,  WHITEHALL.  <' At  the  south  end  of  Duke-street,  Westminster,  was 
seated  a  large  houae,  made  use  of  for  the  admiralty  office,  until  the  business  was 
remoTed  to  Qreenwich,  and  thenoe  to  Walliogford  House,  against  WhitehalL"  It  was 
rebuilt  by  Ripley  about  1726 ;  the  screen  was  erected,  to  conceal  the  ugliness  of  the 
building,  by  the  brothers  Adam,  in  1776.  Great  alterations  in  the  public  offices  are 
in  contemplation  (1857). — Lord  Kelson  lay  in  state  in  one  of  the  apartments  on  Jan  8, 
1806 ;  and  on  the  next  day  was  buried  at  St.  Paul's. 

^  ADHONITIOK  TO  THK  PARLIAMENT,'*  condemning  all  religious  ceremonies  but  those 
commanded  in  the  New  Testament,  was  published  by  certain  Puritans  in  1571.  It 
was  answered  by  Abp.  Whitgift^  and  its  presumed  authorsy  Field  and  Wilcox,  were 
imprisoned. 

ADRIAN'S  WALL.  The  wall  of  Adrian  and  Severus  (to  prevent  the  irruptions  of  the 
Scots  and  Plots  into  the  northern  counties  of  England,  then  under  the  Roman 
goremment),  extended  from  the  Tyne  to  Solway  Frith,  and  was  eighty  miles  long, 
twelve  feet  high,  and  eight  in  thickness,  with  watch-towers,  built  a.d.  121. 

ADRIANOPLE,  BATTLE  or,  which  got  Constantine  the  empire,  was  fought  July  8, 
A.i>.  828.  Adrianople  (so  called  after  its  second  founder,  the  Emperor  Adrian)  was 
taken  by  the  Ottomans  from  the  Qreeks  in  1860 ;  and  continued  to  be  the  seat  of 
the  Turkish  empire  till  the  capture  of  Constantinople  in  1458.  Mahomet  IL,  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  of  the  sultans^  and  the  one  who  took  Constantinople,  was 
bom  here  in  1480. — PriaUy,  Adrianople  was  taken  by  the  Russians  who  entered 
in  Aug.  20,  1829 ;  but  was  restored  to  the  sultan  at  the  close  of  the  then  war, 
Sept  14,  same  year.    See  Tmrhey, 

ADRIATIC.  The  ceremony  of  the  Doge  of  Venice  wedding  the  Adriatic  Sea  was  insti- 
tuted in  A.D.  1173.  Annually  upon  Ascension-day,  the  doge  manied  the  Adriaticvm 
Moire,  by  dropping  a  ring  into  it  from  his  bucentaur,  or  state  barge,  and  was  attended 


ADU  14  iEGO 

on  these  oocaaions  by  all  the  nobility  of  the  state,  and  foreign  amba«aadon»  in 
gondolas.    The  ceremony  was  intermitted,  for  the  first  time  for  oentuiiea,  in  1797. 

ADULTERY,  ANCIENT  LAWS  AGAINST  IT.  Punished  by  the  law  of  Moses  with 
death. — LeviHcui  zz.  10.  Lycutgos  punished  the  offender  as  he  did  a  parricide,  and 
the  Locrians  and  Spartans  tore  out  the  offender's  eyes.  The  Romans  had  no  formal 
law  against  adultery :  the  Emperor  Augustus  was  the  first  to  introduce  a  positiYe  law 
to  punish  it,  and  he  had  the  misfortune  to  see  it  executed  in  the  persons  of  his  own 
children. — LengUL 

ADULTERY,  ENGLISH  LAWS  AGAINST  IT.  The  early  Saxons  burnt  the  adulteress, 
and  erected  a  gibbet  oyer  her  ashes,  whereon  they  hanged  the  adulterer. — Pardon. 
King  Edmund  punished  the  crime  as  homioida  It  was  punished  by  cutting  off  the 
hair,  stripping  the  female  offender  naked,  and  whipping  her  through  the  streets,  if 
the  husband  so  demanded  it  to  be  done,  without  distinction  of  rank,  during  the 
Saxon  Heptarchy,  a.d.  457  to  S2S.— Stow,  The  ears  and  nose  were  cut  off  under 
Canute,  1081.  Ordained  to  be  punished  capitally,  together  with  incest,  under 
Cromwell,  May  14, 1650:  but  there  is  no  record  of  this  law  taking  effect.  In  New 
England  a  law  was  ordained  whereby  adultery  was  made  capital  to  both  parties,  even 
though  the  man  were  unmarried,  and  several  suffered  under  it,  1662. — Bardie,  At 
the  present  time  the  legal  redress  against  the  male  offender  is  by  civil  action  for  a 
money  compensation ;  the  female  is  liable  to  be  divoroed.  A  bill,  altering  the  law  on 
this  subject,  is  now  before  Piirliament  (July,  1857). 

ADVENT.  In  the  calendar  it  signifies,  properly,  the  approach  of  the  feast  of  the 
Nativity  ;  it  includes  four  Sundays,  the  first  of  which  is  always  the  nearest  Sunday  to 
Saint  Andrew's  day  (30th  November),  before  or  after.  Homilies  respecting  Advent 
are  mentioned  prior  to  378. 

ADVENTURE  BAY.  Captain  Fumeanx  visited  this  bay,  which  lies  at  the  south-east 
end  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  in  his  first  voyage  to  the  Pacific,  and  called  it  Adventure 
Bay,  from  the  ship  AdvetUurt  in  which  he  sailed,  1778.  It  was  visited  by  Captain 
Bllgh  in  1788,  and  subsequentlv  by  various  navigators.  Our  present  interoourse  with 
Australia  now  makes  it  better  known. 

ADVENTURERS,  MERCHANT.  A  celebrated  and  enterprising  oompany  of  merchants, 
was  originally  formed  for  the  discovery  of  territories,  the  extension  of  commerce,  and 
promotion  of  trade,  by  John  dtike  of  Brabant,  in  1296.  This  ancient  oompany  was 
afterwards  trsnalated  into  England,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IIL,  and  queen  Elisabeth 
formed  it  into  an  English  corporation  in  1564. — Andtrooi^ 

ADVERTISEMENTS  in  NEWSPAPERS^  As  now  published,  they  were  not  general  m 
England  until  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  A  penalty  of  502^  was  inflicted 
on  persons  advertising  a  reward  with  "  No  questions  to  be  asked"  for  the  return  of 
things  stolen,  and  on  the  printer,  25  Geo.  II.  llSL—SUitulet,  The  adverUaement 
duty  was  formerly  charged  according  to  the  number  of  lines ;  it  was  afterwards  fixed, 
in  England  at  8«.  6<2.,  and  in  Ireland  at  2«.  6(2.  each  advertisement,  The  duty  was 
further  reduced,  in  England  to  1«.  6cl.  and  in  Ireland  to  1«.  each,  by  8  and  4  WUL  IV. 
1883.  The  du^  was  altogether  abolished  in  the  United  Kingdom,  by  16  and  17 
Vict  a  63,  Ang.  4, 1853. 

ADVERTISING  VANS,  at  that  time  a  great  nuisance,  were  prohibited  by  16  k  17  Vict 
a  33,  June  28, 1853. 

ADVOCATE,  Thb  EING*S.  This  office  was  histitnted  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
oentuiy ;  and  the  advocate  (always  adoctor  of  the  civil  law)  was  empowered  to  proaeeute 
at  his  own  instance  certain  crimes,  1597. — SuuuJta,  Lord  Advocate,  in  Scotland,  is 
the  same  as  the  attorney-general  is  in  England.  It  was  decided  in  the  parliament  of 
Paris,  in  1685,  that  the  king^s  advocate  of  Franoe  might  at  the  same  time  be  a  judge; 
so  in  like  manner  it  was  allowed  in  Scotland,  where  sir  John  Nisbet  and  sir 
William  OHphant  were  lord  advocates  and  lords  of  session  at  the  same  time; — jEKsaCaon. 

^DILES.  Magistrates  of  Rome,  first  created  4  92  b.  o.  There  were  three  degrees  of  Uiese 
officers,  and  the  functions  of  the  principal  were  similar  to  our  justices  of  the  peace. 
The  plebeian  ediles  presided  over  the  more  minute  aflairs  of  the  state,  good  order, 
and  the  reparation  of  the  streets.  They  procured  all  the  provisions  of  ihio  city,  and 
executed  the  decreea  of  the  people. — Varro, 

^GOSPOTAMOS,the  Goat-river,  in  the  Chersonesus,  where  Lysander,theLaoedflBmonian, 
defeated  the  Athenian  fieet  B.a  405,  and  ended  the  Peloponnesian  war. 


^NI  15  AFP 

j£NIGMA.  The  origin  of  the  Knigma  ia  doobtfal :  Oele  thinks  that  the  Jews  borrowed 
their  SBniginAtical  forme  of  epeeeh  from  the  Egyptians*  The  philosophy  of  the  Draide 
me  altogether  anigmaticaL  In  Hero's  time^  the  Romans  were  often  obliged  to  have 
recourse  to  this  method  of  ooncealing  truth  under  obscure  language.  The  following 
epitaph  on  Fair  Rooamond  is  an  elegant  specimen  of  the  senigma : 

Hie  Jaort  in  fcombA  Bon  mondi,  non  Roaa  manda ; 
Hon  redolet,  aed  ol«t,  quae  redoldre  ■olet. 

JEOLIAN  HARP.  The  invention  of  this  instrument  is  ascribed  to  Kircher,  1653 ;  but 
Richardson  proves  it  to  have  been  known  at  an  earlier  period  than  his  time. — 
JHataiaium  on  the  CSutomt  of  the  JSasi,  There  is  a  Rabbinical  story  of  the  atrial 
harmony  of  the  harp  of  David,  whichi  when  hung  up  at  night,  was  played  upon  by 
the  norUi  wind. 

AERIANS.  A  seofc  founded  b^  AeriuSya  presbyter,  in  the  4th  century.  He  maintained 
that  there  was  no  distinction  between  a  bishop  and  presbyter ;  that  there  veas  no 
peach  to  be  observed  by  Christians ;  that  the  Lent  and  other  &sts  should  not  be 
observed ;  and  that  pxayers  should  not  be  offered  for  the  dead. — Epiphamui. 

AERONAUTICa  To  lord  Bacon,  the  prophet  of  art,  as  Walpole  calls  him,  has  been 
erroneously  attributed  the  first  suggestion  of  the  true  theory  of  balloons.  The 
ancient  speculations  about  artificial  wings,  whereby  a  man  might  fly  as  well  as  a  bird, 
was  refuted  by  fiorelli,  1670.  Mr.  Henry  Cavendish  ascertained  that  hydrogen  gas  is 
at  least  twelve  times  lighter  than  common  air,  1766.  The  true  doctrine  of  adro- 
nantics  was  announced  in  France  by  the  two  brothers  Montgolfier,  1782. — See  BalUnm, 

JEQOVS  FABLEa  Written  by  the  celebrated  fabulist,  the  supposed  inventor  of  this 
species  of  entertainment  and  instruction,  about  565  b.  o.  .^Isop'a  Fables  are,  no  doubt, 
a  compilation  of  all  the  &bles  and  apologues  of  wits  both  before  and  after  his  own 
time^  conjointly  with  his  owUi^ — Plutarch. 

^ETHIOPIA.  See  Ethiopia. 

^TNA.  See  Etna. 

^£TOLIA.  A  country  named  after  ^tolus  of  Elis,  who,  having  accidentally  killed  a 
son  of  Phoroneus,  king  of  Argos,  left  the  Peloponnesus,  and  settled  here.  The 
inhabitants  were  very  little  known  to  the  rest  of  Qreece,  till  after  the  ruin  of 
Athens  and  Sparta,  when  they  assumed  a  consequence  in  the  country  as  the  opposers 
and  rivals  of  the  Acbseans,  to  whom  they  made  themselves  formidable  both  as  the  allies 
of  Rome,  and  as  its  enemies.    They  were  conquered  by  the  Romans  under  Fulvius. 


Tbe  JStoUans  begin  to  nvago  the  Polo- 
ponuosui B.a  282 

JnlocM  of  the  growing  power  of  the 
AchmxDs^  they  prevail  on  Sparta  to  war 
with  that  republic 229 

They  dispute  the  paasage  of  the  Hacedo- 
niaoB  at  Thermopylfe     ....  223 

Acamania  oeded  to  Philip  as  the  price  of 
peace 218 

Battle  of  Lamia;  the  iEtoUans  oom- 
maoded  by  Pyrrhus,  are  defeated  by 
Philip  of  Macedon 214 

With  toe  awstatnmw  of  allies,  they  seiae 
Oream,  Opus,  Tiibon,  and  Dryno    .    .  212 


They  put  to  the  sword  the  .people  of 
Therma,  Xenia,  Cyphara,  and  other 
citlea,  and  destrmr  with  fire  all  the 
country  they  invade  .  b.c.  201 

They  next  invite  the  kings  of  Macedon, 
Syria  and   Sparta,  to  coalesce  with  . 
them  agaioBt  the  Romana  .    .  105 

They  seise  CalohiSk  Sparta,  and  Deme- 
trias  in  Thessaly 194 

Their  defeat  near  Thermopjlae     .        .    .  193 

They  loee  Lamia  and  Amphiasa  .  192 

^lolia  kept  by  the  Romans  in  a  state  of 
slavery 168 

Iftade  a  province  of  Rome  .  .140 


This  people,  acoordiog  to  Folybius,  were  more  like  beasts  than  men ;  but  it  must  be 
obeerved,  Uiat  Polybius  was  an  Achsean,  a  great  enemy  of  the  iBtolians.  The  republic 
of  ^tolia  was  governed  by  a  senate,  composed  of  deputies  fi-om  the  several  towns, 
over  which  a  prietor  presided,  and  it  had  its  magistrates,  ephores,  fta,  like  those  of 
Sparta.  In  other  respects  the  commonwealth  bore  a  great  resemblance  to  the 
Achfican  league. 

AFFINITY,  DEGREES  of.  Marriage  withm  certain  degrees  of  kindred  was  prohibited 
by  the  laws  of  almost  all  nations,  and  in  almost  every  age,  but  yet  took  place  to  a 
considerable  extent.  Several  degrees  were  prohibited  in  scriptural  law,  as  may  be 
seen  in  Lemticui,  chap.  xviiL  In  England,  a  table  restricting  marriage  within  certain 
near  degrees  was  set  forth  by  authority,  ▲.  D.  1568.  Many  of  these  are  disputed. 
IVohibited  marriages  were  adjudged  to  be  incestuous  and  unlawful  by  the  ninety- 
ninth  canon,  in  1603.  All  marriages  within  the  forbidden  degrees  of  kindred  are 
declared  to  be  absolutely  void  by  statute  5  and  6  Will  lY.,  cap.  54,  1835.  See 
Mearioffe. 


AFF  16  AFR 

AFFIRMATION.  The  Quakers  conscientiously  objecting  to  oaths,  their  simple  affirma- 
tion is  accepted  instead ;  for  the  first  time,  a.d.  1696.  The  sffirmation  was  altered 
in  1702,  and  again  altered  and  modified  December  1721.  Quakers  were  relieved  from 
oaths  when  elected  to  municipal  offices,  by  an  act  which  extended  relief,  generally,  to 
all  conscientious  Christians  not  of  the  Established  Church,  9  Qeo.  lY.  1828.  Declara- 
tion to  be  made  by  Quakers,  statute  of  1  Yict  1887  :  extension  of  this  act  to  persons 
who  were  formerly  Quakers,  but  who  have  seceded  from  that  sect,  2  Vict.  1888; 
extended  to  other  dissentera  in  Scotland,  18  &  19  Yict.  c.  2  (1855). 

AFGHANISTAN,  Ikdu.  A  large  country,  in  central  Asia,  conquered  by  the  Tartnrs 
about  997.  The  Mahommedan  dynasty  the  Gkusnerides  are  said  to  have  ruled  the 
Afghans  from  1159  to  1206.  They  were  conquered  by  Genghis  Khan  and  Tamerlane. 
Baber  conquered  Caubul  in  1504  ;  on  his  death  Afghanistan  was  divided  between  the 
empire  of  Persia  and  Hindostan.  The  Afghans  revolted  in  1720;  invaded  Persia, 
and  took  Ispahan,  but  were  repulsed  by  Nadir  Shah  in  1728,  who  in  1787  subdued 
the  whole  of  their  country.  On  his  assassination  in  1747  one  of  his  officers,  Ahmed 
Shah,  an  Afghan,  formed  Afghanistan  into  an  independent  kingdom,  and  reigned 
prosperously  till  1773.  His  son  and  successor,  Timour,  died  in  1793;  whose  son, 
Zemaun,  was  dethroned  and  blinded  after  reigning  10  years.  Since  then  to  the 
present  time,  the  history  is  nothing  but  a  series  of  broils,  crimes,  and  murders  :  till 
Runjeet  Sing,  the  Sikh  chief  of  Lahore,  conquered  a  large  part  of  the  country  in  1818. 
For  the  war  with  England,  see  India, 

AFRICA.  Odled  Libya  by  the  Greeks,  one  of  the  three  parts  of  the  ancient  world,  and 
the  greatest  peninsula  of  the  universe ;  first  peopled  by  Ham.  It  was  conquered  by 
Belisarius  in  a.d.  553  e<  Kg,  In  the  seventh  century,  about  687,  the  Mahometan 
Arabs  subdued  the  north  of  Africa;  and  their  descendants,  under  the  name  of  Moora, 
constitute  a  great  part  of  the  present  population.  See  the  several  countries  of  Africa 
through  the  volume.  English  merchants  visited  Guinea  in  1550;  and  Elizabeth 
granted  a  patent  to  a  company  in  1588.  In  1723  captain  Stibbs  sailed  up  the  Gambia. 
Among  the  late  distinguished  travellers  in  this  quarter  of  the  world  may  be  mentioned 
Bruce,  who  commenced  his  travels  in  1768 ;  Mungo  Park,  who  made  his  first  voyage 
to  Africa,  Hay  22,  1795;  and  his  second  voyage,  January  30, 1804,  but  from  which 
he  never  returned  (see  Paric) ;  Salt,  in  1805  and  1809 ;  Burckhardt,  in  1812;  Home- 
mann,  in  1816:  Denham  and  Clapperton,  in  1822;  the  brothers  Lander,  in  1830. 
The  Great  Niger  expedition,  (for  which  parliament  voted  61,0002.,)  consisting  of  the 
Albert,  WUberforce,  and  Soudan  steam-ships,  sailed  in  the  summer  of  1841.  The 
vessels  commenced  the  ascent  of  the  Niger,  Aug.  20 ;  but  when  they  reached  Iddah, 
fever  broke  out  among  the  crews,  and  they  were  successively  obliged  to  return,  the 
A  Ibert  having  ascended  the  river  to  Egga,  320  miles  from  the  sea,  Sept  28.  The 
expedition  was,  in  the  end,  wholly  relinquished  owing  to  disease,  heat,  and  hardships, 
and  all  the  vessels  had  cast  anchor  at  Clarence  Cove,  Fernando  Po,  on  Oct.  17.  same 
year.  James  Richardson  explored  the  great  Sahara  in  1845-6,  and  in  1849  (by 
direction  of  the  Foreign  Office),  ho  left  England  to  explore  central  Africa^  accompanied 
by  Drs.  Berth  and  Overweg.  Richardson  died  March  4, 1851 ;  and  Overweg,  Sept.  27, 
1852.  Dr.  Vd^el  was  sent  out  with  reinforcements  to  Dr.  Berth,  Feb.  20, 1853.  Dr. 
Berth  returned  to  England,  and  received  the  Royal  Geographical  Society's  medal, 
May  16,  1856.  Dr.  Livingston,  also,  returned  to  England  in  Dea,  1856,  after  an 
absence  of  1 6  years,  during  which  he  traversed  a  large  part  of  the  heart  of  Africa, 
and  walked  nbout  11,000  miles.  Accounts  have  been  recently  received  of  the 
assassination  of  Dr.  Yogel  (April  1857). 

AFRICAN  ASSOCIATION  was  formed  in  June  1788,  for  pormoting  the  exploration  of 
Inner  Africa,  principally  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  and  under  its  auspices  many  additions 
were  made  to  African  geography  by  Ledyard,  Park,  Burokhaidty  Homemaan,  Ac 
It  merged  into  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  in  1831. 

AFRICAN  COMPANY.  A  society  of  merchants  trading  to  Africa.  An  association  in 
Exeter,  which  was  formed  in  1588,  gave  rise  to  this  company.  A  charter  was  granted 
to  a  joint-stock  company  in  1618 ;  a  third  company  was  created  in  1631 ;  a  fourth 
corporation  in  1662;  and  another  formed  by  letters*patent  in  1672,  and  remodelled 
in  1695.    The  rights  vested  in  the  present  company  are  by  23  G^.  II.  1749. 

AFRICAN  INSTITUTION.  Founded  in  London  in  1807.  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave 
trade,  and  the  civilisation  of  Africa.  Many  schools  have  been  established  with 
success,  particularly  at  Sierra  Leone,  where  the  number  of  scholars,  male  and  female, 
is  said  to  approach  2000. — Ldgh, 


AQA  17  AQR 

AOAP^  Feasts  of  Charity  (from  iytarfif  love,  charity),  mentioned  Jade  12  ;  of  which 
the  first  Christians  of  all  ranks  partook  in  common,  in  memory  of  the  last  meal 
which  the  Lord  Jesus  took  with  his  disciples.  In  consequence  of  disorders  creeping 
in,  they  were  forbidden  to  be  celebrated  in  churches  by  the  council  of  Laodioea  in 
361 ;  and  by  the  council  of  Carthage  in  891.  . 

AOAPEMONIANS,  SECT  of.  This  fanatic  sect  <'  live  in  a  state  of  brotherly  love, 
deUyering  thomsdYes  up  to  innocent  amusements  of  all  kinds,  not  vexing  them- 
selves with  the  cares  of  ordinary  mortals^  and  believing  that  they  exist  in  communion 
with  Ood."  This  doctrine  originated,  within  the  last  few  years,  with  one  Price,  an 
enthusiast,  who  took  their  name  from  the  Greek,  A7airai,  love  or  friendship  feasts. 
They  have  their  residence  in  a  building  called  '*  Agapemone,"  or  the  abode  of  love, 
near  Bridgewater,  in  Somersetshire.  In  a  case  brought  before  the  viceKihancellor's 
court,  May  22, 1850,  by  a  person  named  Thomas  Robinson,  to  recover  the  possession 
of  his  child  from  the  care  of  its  mother  (from  whom  Thomas  had  separated),  the 
application  was  refused  on  the  ground  that  the  father  would  instil  the  doctrines  of  the 
sect  into  the  child  in  educating  it,  and  the  court  held  it  a  duty  to  **  save  it  from  the 
pollution  of  the  parent's  teaching."  Several  suicides  have  been  committed  by  the 
,  deluded  females  of  this  secK 

AGE.  Historians  and  chronologers  have,  commonly,  divided  the  time  that  elapsed 
between  the  Creation  and  the  birth  of  Christ  into  six  periods,  called  ages.  The  first 
age  was  from  the  Creation  to  the  Deluge,  and  comprehended  1656  years;  the  second 
age  was  from  the  Deluge  to  the  coming  of  Abraham  into  the  land  of  promise,  and 
comprehended  426  years,  terminating  in  the  year  of  the  world  2082  ;  the  third  age, 
from  Abraham  to  Moses  quitting  £^pt,  comprising  4S0  years,  and  ending  in  the 
year  of  the  world  2513 ;  the  fourth  age,  from  the  going  out  of  Egypt  to  the  found*- 
lion  of  the  temple  of  Solomon,  being  479  years,  and  ending  in  the  year  of  the  world 
2992 ;  the  fifth  age,  from  the  building  of  the  temple  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
424  years,  ending  in  the  year  of  the  world  3416;  and  the  sixth  age,  from  the 
Babylonish  captivity  to  the  birth  of  the  Redeemer,  584  years,  ending  in  the  year  of 
the  world  4000,  and  fourth  year  before  the  vulgar  era,  or  4004.    See  next  artide, 

AGE.  Yarious  divisions  of  the  duration  of  the  world  have  been  made  by  historians : 
by  some  the  space  of  time  commencing  from  Constantino,  and  ending  with  the  taking 
of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  is  called  the  middle  age ; 
the  middle  is  sJso  styled  the  barbarous  age.  The  ages  of  the  world  may  be  reduced 
to  three  grand  epochs,  viz.,  the  age  of  the  law  of  nature,  from  Adam  to  Moses ;  the 
age  of  the  Jewish  law,  from  Moses  to  Christ ;  and  the  age  of  grace,  from  Christ  to  the 
present  year. 

AGE,  OF.  In  England  the  minority  of  a  male  terminates  at  twenty -one,  and  of  a  female 
in  some  cases,  as  that  of  a  queen,  at  eighteen.  In  1547,  the  majority  of  Edward  YI. 
was,  by  the  will  of  his  father,  fixed  at  eighteen  years ;  previously  to  completing  which 
age,  Henfy  YIII.  had  himself  assumed  the  reins  of  government,  in  1509.  A  male  of 
twelve  may  take  the  oath  of  allegiance ;  at  fourteen,  he  may  consent  to  a  marriage, 
or  choose  a  guardian ;  at  seventeen  he  may  be  an  executor,  and  at  twenty-one  he  is  of 
age ;  but  according  to  the  statute  of  wills,  7  William  lY.  and  1  Yictoiia,  cap.  26,  no 
will  made  by  any  person  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  shall  be  valid.  A  female 
at  twelve  may  consent  to  a  marriage ;  at  fourteen  she  may  choose  a  guardian,  and  at 
twenty-one  she  is  of  agei 

AGINCOURT,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  French  and  English  armies,  gained  by  Henry 
Y.— one  of  the  most  glorious  of  our  victories.  Of  the  French  there  were  10,000 
killed,  and  14,000  were  taken  prisoners,  the  English  losing  only  100  men.  Among 
the  prisoners  were  the  Dukes  of  Orleans  and  Bourbon,  and  7000  barons,  knights,  and 
genUemen,  and  men  more  numerous  than  the  British  themselves.  Among  the  slain 
were  the  dukes  of  Alengon,  Brabant,  and  Bar,  the  archbishop  of  Sens,  one  marshal, 
thirteen  earls,  ninety-two  barons,  and  1500  knights. — Oct.  25,  1415. — Goldsmith, 

AGITATORS.  In  English  history,  officers  appointed  by  the  army  to  take  care  of  its 
interests:  each  troop  or  company  had  two,  instituted  by  Cromwell,  1647.  The 
I^tector  himself  was,  however,  obliged  to  repress  the  power  and  influence  of  the 
Agitators,  owing  to  the  sedition  they  excited.  At  a  review  he  seized  the  ringleaders 
of  a  mutiny,  shot  one  instantly,  in  the  presence  of  his  companions  and  the  forces  on 
the  ground,  and  thus,  by  a  bold  act,  restored  the  discipline  of  the  army. — JIume. 

AGRA,  FORTRESS  of.    Termed  the  key  of  Hindostan,  surrendered  in  the  war  with  the 

c 


AOR 


18 


AOR 


Mahrattaa,  to  the  BritiBh  forces,  Oct  10, 1803.  This  whs  once  the  most  splendid  of 
all  the  Indian  cities,  and  now  exhibits  the  most  magnificent  rttina.  In  the  17th 
century  the  great  mogul  frequently  resided  here;  his  palaces,  and  those  of  the 
Omrahsy  were  Tery  numerous;  Agni  then  contained  aboYe  60  caravansaries,  800 
baths,  and  700  mosques.    See  Maiuokums. 

AGRARIAN  LAW,  Agraria  lex.  An  equal  diyision  among  the  Roman  people  of  all  the 
lands  which  they  acquired  by  conquest,  limiting  the  acres  which  eadi  person  should 
enjoy.  It  was  first  proposed  by  Sp.  Csssius,  to  gain  the  &TOur  of  the  citiiensy 
486  B.a  It  wss  enacted  under  the  tribune  Tiberius  Qracchus,  182  B.a  The  law 
at  last  proTsd  fatal  to  the  freedom  of  Rome  under  Julius  Cmar,  B.a  60. — Atry ; 
Fosmiti  In  modem  times  the  term  has  been  misinterpreted  to  signify  a  division  of 
the  lands  of  the  rich  among  the  poor,  frequently  proposed  by  demagogues,  such  aa 
Oraochua  Babeuf,  editor  of  the  Tribun  du  Peuple,  in  1794. 

AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.  Sir  Humphry  Davy  deliyered  lectures  on  thk 
subject  (afterwards  published),  at  the  instance  of  the  Bosrd  of  Agriculture,  in  1812 ; 
but  it  excited  little  attention  till  the  publication  of  Liebi^s  work  in  1840,  which 
made  a  powerful  impression.  Boussingault's  "  Economic  Rurale,**  an  equally  im- 
portant work,  appeared  in  1844.  The  immoderate  expectations  from  this  study 
having  been  somewhat  disappointed,  a  partial  reaction  has  taken  place,  and  mu^ 
controveisy  ensued. 

AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES.  The  first  society  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture 
in  the  British  Isles,  of  whose  history  we  have  any  account,  wss  the  Society  of 
Improven  of  AgrieuUvre  in,  Scotland,  instituted  in  1723.  The  establishment  of  the 
DtAHn  AgrievUturcU  Society,  in  1749,  gave  a  stimulus  to  sgriculture  in  Ireland ;  but 
the  origin  of  this  society  may  be  tiaoed  as  early  as  1731,  when  Mr.  Prior  of  Rath- 
downey,  Queen's  County,  and  a  number  of  gentlemen  associated  themselves  for  the 
improvement  of  husbandry.  Societies  for  the  promotion  of  sgriculture  multiplied  in 
every  direction  during  the  eighteenth  century ;  among  them  the  highest  rank  may 
be  claimed  for  the  Bath  trnd  Wat  of  England  Society  in  1777,  and  the  Highlamd 
Society  of  Scotland,  in  1793.  The  London  Board  of  Agriculture  was  eetabliBhed,  by 
act  of  parliament  same  year.  Francis*  duke  of  Bedford,  who  died  March  2, 1808, 
was  a  great  promoter  of  agriculture.  The  Royol  Agricultural  Society  of  BnglaMd  was 
established  in  1838  by  a  number  of  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  the  chief  landed 
proprietors  in  the  kingdom,  and  was  incorporated  by  Royal  Charter  in  1 840.  It  holds 
two  meetings  annually,  one  in  London,  the  other  in  the  country.  The  first  oountrj 
meeting  was  at  Oxford,  in  1839.  It  awards  prisea^  and  publishes  a  valuable  journal, 
of  whidi  17  vols,  are  issued  (1857). 

AGRICULTUREL  The  science  of  agriculture  may  be  traced  to  the  period  immediately 
succeeding  the  Deluge.  In  China  and  tiie  eastern  countries  it  was,  perhaps,  coevid 
with  their  early  plantation  and  government.  Of  the  agricidture  of  the  ancients 
little  is  known.  The  Athenians  pretend  that  it  was  among  them  the  art  of  sowing 
com  began  ;  and  the  Cretans,  Sicilians,  and  Egyptians  lay  claim,  the  last  with  most 
probabiBty,  to  the  honour.  It  wss  brought  into  England  by  the  Romans  about 
A.D.  27.  fltsherbert's  "Book  of  Husbandry"  was  printed  in  1584,  and  Tusser's 
'*Five  Hundred  Points  of  Husbandry  "  in  1662;  Blythe's  *< Improver"  in  1649;  and 
Hartlib's  "Legacy"  in  1650;  and  Jethro  Tull's  "Horse-hoeing  Husbandry*  in 
1701.  The  following  Table  drawn  up  by  Mr.  William  Couling,  C.K,  in  1827,  ia  ex- 
tracted from  the  Third  Report  of  the  Smigraticn  Committee ; — 


CmntrlM. 

CilUvmCed. 

WMtM 

eapaU«  of 
IinprovHnnit. 

UaproflUbla. 

Tout 

BoffUnd 

Wales       .... 

Bcotlmnd 

IreUDd    .... 

British  IsUnds    . 

25.632.000 
3,117,000 
5,266.000 

12.125,280 
383,690 

ACKBI. 

8,454.000 

530.000 

6.960,000 

4,900,000 

166,000 

ACB». 

3,256,400 
1,105,000 
8,523.930 
2,416,664 
569,469 

AOBBI. 

32,342,400 

4.762,000 

19,788,930 

19,441,944 

1,119.159 

46,622,970 

15,000,000          15,871,463 

77,894,438 

At  that  period  it  was  computed  that  the  soil  of  the  United  Kingdom  was  annually 
cropped  in  the  following  proportions :— 


AOR 


19 


ALB 


AGBICULTURE, 


Wheat 7,000.000 

Barley  and  176 1,950,000 

Potatoes,  oata,  and  beans              .  <^&00,000 
TomiiM^  eabbagea,  and  other  rege- 

tablea 1,150,000 

Clorer,  xje-gnm,  Ac.     .        .        .  1,750,000 

Fallow 8,800.000 

Hop-gronnda 6u,000 


Forward 


31,210,000 


Brought  forward  .  21,210.000 
NctrMry-groanda  ....  20,000 
Indoaed  mait,  flfjwer,  kitchen,  and 

other  gardens      ....       110,000 
Pieaaurs-grounds  100,000 

lADd  depastured  by  cattle  .  .  21,000,000 
Hedge-rows,  oopees,  and  woods  .  2,000,000 
Waya^  water.  Ac    ...       .    2,100,000 

ColUvated  land     .    .  44^640^000 


It  was  reckoned  by  the  Agricaltural  Committee,  that  the  caltivation  of  waste  lands 
would  yield  aboTe  20,000,00(M.  a  yew.  It  was  calculated  in  1854  that  there  wera  in 
England  92,160,000  acres  in  caltivation,  of  the  annual  yaluo  of  87,412,000^  In 
August,  1855,  a  Committee  presented  a  report  on  the  best  mode  of  obtaining  accurate 
agricultural  atatiBtios.  There  were,  in  1881, 1,055,982  agricultural  liUwuren  in  Great 
Britain,  and  in  Ireland  1,181,715;  while  the  cultivated  land  of  Great  Britain  amounts 
to  about  34,250,000  acres,  and  that  of  Ireland  only  to  about  14,000,000.    See  Wheat, 

AILESBURT.  Beduoed  by  the  West  Saxons  in  a.t>,  571.  St  O'Syth,  beheaded  by  the 
FlBgans  in  Easex,  was  buried  here,  ▲.]>.  600.  William  the  Conqueror  invested  his 
favourites  with  some  of  its  lands,  under  the  tenure  of  providing  "  straw  for  his  bed- 
chambers; three  eels  for  his  use  in  winter;  and  in  summer,  straw,  rushes,  and  two 
green  geese^  thrice  every  year."    Incorporated  by  charter  in  1553. 

AIB.  Anaximenes  of  Miletus  declared  air  to  be  a  self-existent  deity,  and  the  first  cause 
of  everything  created,  530  B.O.  The  pressure  of  air  was  discovered  by  Torricelli, 
▲.D.  1645.  It  was  found  to  vary  with  the  height  by  Pascal,  in  1647.  Halley, 
Newton,  and  others,  up  to  the  present  time,  have  illustrated  the  agency  and 
influences  of  this  great  power  by  various  experiments,  and  numerous  inventions 
have  followed  from  them;  among  others,  the  air-gun  by  Guter  of  Nuremberg  in 
1656 ;  the  air-pump,  invented  by  Otto  Guericke  of  Msgdeburg  about  1650;  improved 
by  the  illustrious  Boyle  in  1657 ;  and  the  air-pipe,  invented  by  Mr.  Sutton,  a  brewer 
of  London^  about  1756.    See  BaUoon. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLB  (Aachkv).  A  Boman  city,  now  in  Bhenish  Prussia.  Here 
Charlemagne  was  bom  742,  and  died  814 ;  baring  built  the  minster  (796-804),  and 
conferred  many  privileges  on  the  city,  in  which  fifty -five  emperors  have  since  been 
crowned.  The  imperial  insignia  were  removed  to  Yienna  in  1795.  The  first  treaty 
of  peace  signed  here  was  between  France  and  Spain,  when  France  yielded  Franche 
Comt^  but  retained  her  conquests  in  the  Netherlands,  May  2,  1668.  The  second^ 
or  celebrated  treaty,  was  between  Great  Britain,  France,  Holland,  Hungary,  Spain, 
and  Genoa.  By  this  memorable  peace,  the  treaties  of  Westphalia  in  1648,  of 
Nim^uen  in  1678  and  1679,  of  Byswick  in  1697,  of  Utrecht  in  1713,  of  Baden  in 
1714,  of  the  Triple  Alliance  in  1717,  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance  in  171 89  and  of 
Vienna  in  1738,  were  renewed  and  confirmed.  Signed  on  the  part  of  England  by 
John,  earl  of  Sandwich,  and  sir  Thomas  Bobinson,  Oct.  7,  1748.  A  congress  of  the 
soTereigns  of  Austria,  Bussia,  and  Prussia,  assisted  by  ministers  from  England  and 
France,  was  held  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  a  convention  signed,  Oct.  9, 1818.  The  sum 
then  due  from  France  to  the  ulies  was  settled  at  265,000,000  of  francs. 

ALBA«  Founded  by  Ascanius,  1152  b.o.,  and  called  Longa,  because  the  city  extended 
along  the  hill  Albantu.  This  kingdom  lasted  487  years,  and  was  governed  by  a  race 
of  kmgs,  the  descendants  of  ^neas,  in  the  order  following ;  but  little  of  their  history 
is  known : — 


Ascanius,  Sim  of  iEneas  .       .       .  b.o.  1152 

SylTios  Poethumus 114S 

Sylvius 1114 


Bsdgn  of  Latinus 
Alba  reigns 
Atys.  or  Capetus 
BogttofC^pys 


1048 

1038 

1002 

076 


Capetus 016 

Reign  of  Tiberiuus 90S 

Being  deflated  in  battle  near  the  river 
AibutOt  be  thxows  hims^  into  the 


streatn,  Is  drowned,  and  henoe  this 
river  is  now  called  the  Tiber       .  b.o.    896 

Agrippa — 

Remulus 804 

Aventinos 845 

Procas 808 

Numitor 795 

Amulius.  the  brother  of  Numitor,  seizes 

the  throne M 

He  is  restored  by  his  grandson,  Romu- 
lus, who  puts  Amulius  to  death     .    .    764 
The  kinp;dom  is  conquered  by  Tullus 
Hostilius,  who  incorporates  it  with 
his  Boman  dominions  ....    086 

02 


ALB  20  ALC 

When  Amulius  dethroned  his  brother,  he  condemned  Ilia,  the  daughter  of  Numitor, 
to  a  life  of  celibacy,  by  obliging  her  to  take  the  tows  and  office  of  a  veatal,  thereby  to 
assure  his  safety  in  the  usurpation.  His  object  was,  howeyer,  frustrated ;  Tiolenoo 
was  offered  to  Ilia,  and  she  became  the  mother  of  twins,  for  which  Amulius  ordered 
her  to  be  buried  alive,  and  her  offspring  to  be  thrown  into  the  Tiber,  770  B.C.  But 
the  little  bark  in  which  the  infants  were  sent  adrift  stopped  near  mount  Ayentine, 
and  was  brought  ashore  by  Faustulus,  the  king's  chief  shepherd,  who  reared  the 
children  as  his  own,  and  called  them  Romulus  and  Kemua.  His  wife,  Acca-Laurentifi, 
was  sumamed  Lupa;  whence  arose  the  fable  that  Romulus  and  his  brother  were 
suckled  by  a  she-wolf.  At  sixteen  years  of  age,  Romulus  avenged  the  wrongs  of  Ilia 
and  Numitor,  754  B.o.,  and  the  next  year  founded  Rome. —  Varro, 

ALBANIA  (the  ancient  Efirub).  The  Albanians  became  independent  during  the 
decline  of  the  Greek  empire ;  and,  nnder  (Jeorge  Castriot  (Scanderbeg),  baffled  the 
efforts  of  Mahmoud  IL  to  subdue  them  till  the  siege  of  Scutari  in  1478,  when  they 
partially  submitted.  They  again  became  independent  under  All  Pacha,  of  JaniDA» 
in  1812,  who  defeated  the  Turkish  pashas,  and  governed  ably,  but  cruelly  and 
despotically,  till  Feb.  1822,  when  he  and  his  two  sons  were  slain,  after  surrendering 
under  a  solemn  promise  of  safety. 

ALBIQENSES.  They  had  their  origin  about  a.o.  1160,  at  Albigeois,  in  Languedoc,  and 
at  Toulouse ;  they  opposed  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  professed  a 
hatred  of  all  the  corruptions  of  that  religion.  Simon  de  Montfort  commanded 
against  them,  and  at  Bezi^res  he  and  the  pope's  legate  put  friends  and  foes  to  the 
sword.  At  Minerba,  he  burnt  150  of  tiie  Albigenses  alive;  and  at  La  Yaur,  he 
hanged  the  governor,  and  beheaded  the  chief  people,  drowning  the  governor's  wile^ 
and  murdering  other  women.  They  next  defeated  the  cotmt  of  Toulouse  with 
the  loss  of  17,000  men.  Simon  de  Montfort  afterwards  came  to  England.  See 
Waldema, 

ALBION.  The  island  of  Britain  is  said  to  have  been  first  so  called  by  Julius  Caosar,  on 
account  of  the  chalky  olifiGs  upon  its  coast,  on  his  invasion  of  the  country,  54  B.C. 
The  Romans  partially  conquered  it,  and  held  posseesion  about  400  years.  On  their 
quitting  it,  it  was  successively  invaded  by  the  Soots,  Picts,  and  Saxons,  who  drove 
tne  original  inhabitants  from  the  plain  country,  to  seek  refuge  in  Cornwall  and 
Wales;  the  Danes  and  Normans  also  settled  at  various  times  in  England:  from  a 
mixture  of  these  nations,  the  present  race  of  Englishmen  is  derived.    See  Britain* 

ALBUERA,  OB  ALBUHERA,  BATTLE  op.  Between  the  French,  commanded  hj 
marshal  Soult,  and  the  British  and  Anglo-Spanish  army,  commanded  by  marshal 
afterwards  lord  Beresford,  May  16,  1811.  After  an  obstinate  and  sanguinary  engage- 
ment, the  allies  obtained  the  victory,  one  of  the  most  brilliant  achievements  of  the 
peninsular  war.  The  French  loss  exceeded  7000  men  previously  to  their  retreat ; 
but  the  allies  lost  an  equal  number.  On  the  side  of  the  allies,  the  chief  brunt  of  the 
action  fell  on  the  British:  "  Col.  Inglls,  22  officers,  and  more  than  400  men,  out  of 
570  who  had  mounted  a  hill,  fell  in  the  57th  regiment  alone ;  the  other  regiments 
were  scarcely  better  off,  not  one-third  being  left  standing;  1800  unwounded  men, 
the  remnant  of  6000  unconquerable  British  soldiers,  stood  triumphant  on  this  fatal 
hia"— -Sir  W.  P.  P,  Napier. 

ALCHEMY.  A  pretended  branch  of  chemistry,  which  affected  the  transmutation  of 
metals  into  gold,  an  alkahest,  or  universal  menstruum,  and  things  equally  ridiculous. 
If  regard  be  had  to  legend  and  tradition,  alchemy  must  be  as  old  as  the  Flood ;  yet 
few  philosopherB,  poets,  or  physicians,  from  Homer  till  400  years  after  Christy 
mention  any  such  thing.  Pliny  says,  the  emperor  Caligula  was  the  first  who 
prepared  natural  arsenic,  in  order  to  make  gold  of  it,  but  left  it  off,  because  the 
charge  exceeded  the  profit  Others  say,  the  Egyptians  had  this  mystery.  The 
Arabians  are  said  to  have  invented  this  mysterious  art,  wherein  they  were  followed 
by  Roger  Bacon,  Albertus  Magnus,  Aquinas,  Raymond  Lullius,  Paracelsus,  and 
others,  who  never  found  anything  but  ashes  in  their  furnaces.  Another  author  on 
the  subject  is  Zosimus,  about  a.d.  410. — Pab,  Bib,  Grac.  A  license  for  practising 
alchemy  with  all  kinds  of  metals  and  minerals  granted  to  one  Richard  Carter,  1476. — 
Rymer't  Pad,  Dr.  Price,  of  Ouildford,  published  an  account  of  his  experiments  in 
this  way,  and  pretended  to  success :  he  brought  his  specimens  of  gold  to  the  king, 
affirming  that  they  were  made  by  means  of  a  red  and  white  powder;  hebeiuffa 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  was  required,  upon  pain  of  expuUion,  to  repeat  his 


ALC  21  ALE 

experiments  before  MesBra.  Kirwan  and  Woulfe ;  bat  after  some  equivocation  he  took 
poiaon  and  died,  Angusty  1783. 

ALCORAN.    See  Koran,  Mahameianitm,  Mecca,  kc 

ALDERMEK.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Saxon  Ealdorman,  a  aenior,  and  among 
the  Saxons  the  rank  was  conferred  upon  elderly  and  eage,  as  well  as  distinguiahed 
persons,  on  account  of  the  experience  that  their  age  had  given  them.  At  the  time  of 
the  Heptarchy,  aldermen  were  the  govemom  of  provinces  or  districts,  and  are  so 
mentioned  up  to  a.d.  882.  After  the  Banes  were  settled  in  England,  the  title  was 
changed  to  that  of  earl,^  and  the  Normans  introduced  that  of  count,  which  though 
different  in  its  original  signification,  yet  meant  the  same  thing.  Henty  III.  may  be 
said  to  have  given  its  basis  to  this  city  distinotion.  In  modem  British  polity,  an 
alderman  is  a  magistrate  next  in  dignity  to  the  mayor.  Appointed  in  London,  where 
there  are  twenty-six,  in  1242 ;  and  in  Dublin,  where  there  are  twenty-four,  in  1323. 
Chosen  for  life,  instead  of  annually,  17  Richard  II.,  1394.  Present  mode  of  election 
established  11  Qeorge  L,  1725.  Aldermen  were  made  justices  of  the  peace  16 
George  IL,  1741. 

ALDERNET,  RACE  op.  Through  this  strait  the  French  made  their  escape  after  their 
defeat  at  the  battle  of  La  Hogue,  by  admiral  Rooke,  in  1692.  It  is  celebrated  for 
two  memorable  and  fatal  occurrences :  William  of  Normandy,  son  of  Henry  I.  of 
England,  with  a  vast  crowd  of  young  nobility,  (as  many  as  140  youths  of  the  principal 
fiunilies  of  France  and  Britain,)  was  overtaken  by  a  storm,  and  all  were  lost,  in  1120. 
The  British  man-of-war  Victory,  of  110  guns  and  1100  men,  was  also  wrecked  here, 
October  8, 1744,  when  the  admiral,  sir  John  Balchan,  and  all  his  crew,  perished  on 
Uie  rocks. 

ALDERSHOTT  CAMP,  near  Famham,  about  35  miles  from  London.  In  April  1854, 
the  War  Office,  having  obtained  a  grant  of  100,000^.,  purchased  4000  acres  of  land,  for 
a  permanent  camp  for  20,000  men.  It  is  now  (1857)  proposed  to  erect  barracks  for 
4000  infantry,  1500  cavalry,  and  several  batteries  of  artillery.  Great  improvementa 
in  military  cookery  have  been  introduced  under  the  superintendence  of  captain  John 
Grant  See  Cottagers*  Stave.  On  July  7,  1856,  the  Queen  reviewed  the  troops  re- 
turned from  the  Crimea;  and  on  the  16th,  a  grand  review  in  the  presence  of  both 
houses  of  parliament. 

ALDINE  PRESS.  That  of  Aldus  Manutius  at  which  were  printed  many  of  the  fint 
editions  of  the  Claasics,  kc,  commencing  in  1494  with  Musieus. 

ALE  AHD  WINE.  They  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Bacchus ;  the  former  in 
Egypt,  where  the  soil  was  considered  unable  to  produce  grapes.  Ale  was  known  as  a 
beverage  at  least  404  B.a  Herodotus  ascribes  the  fint  discovery  of  the  art  of  brewing 
barley-wine  to  Isis,  the  wife  of  Osiris.  The  Romans  and  Germans  very  early  learned 
the  process  of  preparing  a  liquor  from  com  by  means  of  fermentation,  from  the 
Euptians. — TacUitt.  Ale-houses  are  made  mention  of  in  the  laws  of  Ina,  king  of 
Wessex.  Booths  were  set  up  in  England,  a.d.  728,  when  laws  were  passed  for  their 
regulation.  Ale-houses  were  licensed  in  1621 ;  and  excise  duty  on  ale  and  beer  was 
impoted  on  a  system  nearly  similar  to  the  present,  18  Charles  II.,  1660.  See  Beer, 
Porter,  Wine 

ALEMANNI,  ob  ALL  MEN  (i.e.  men  of  all  nations)  hence  AUemcmdf  German.  A  body  of 
Suevi,  who  took  this  name,  were  defeated  by  Caracalla,  a.d.  21 4.  After  several  repulses 
they  invaded  the  empire  under  Aurelian,  a.d.  270,  who  subdued  them  in  three  battles. 
They  were  sgain  vanquished  by  Julian,  a.d.  357.  They  finally  became  subject  to 
Clovis  by  the  battle  of  Tolbiac,  a.d.  496.    The  Suabians  are  their  descendants. 

ALEPPO.  A  large  city  of  Syria,  called  by  the  natives  Haleb,  and  anciently  Bersea.  The 
pachalie  of  ideppo  is  one  of  the  five  governments  into  which  Syria  is  divided. 
The  depopulation  occasioned  by  the  plague  has  frequently  been  dreadful;  60,000 
persons  were  computed  to  have  perished  by  it  in  1797.  Aleppo  suffered  severely 
from  the  terrible  earthquakes  in  1822  and  1830.  It  has  also  often  been  the  scene  of 
fimatical  massacres.  The  last  massacre  was  caused  by  an  attack  of  the  Mahometans 
upon  the  Christian  inhabitants — numben  falling  victims  to  their  merciless  assailants : 
the  Mahometans  burnt  everything  in  their  way ;  three  churches  were  destroyed,  five 
others  were  plundered,  and  the  total  loss  of  property  amounted  to  about  a  million 
aterling :  no  uterference  wss  attempted  by  the  pacha  or  the  Turkish  soldiers,  Oct, 
16, 1850. 

ALESSANDRIA,  BATTLE  of.    Between  the  Austro-Ruasian  army  under  Suwarrow,  and 


wammrn 


ALE  22  ALO 

the  French  under  Moreau,  when  the  latter  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  4000  men. 
The  French  had  possessed  themselves  of  Alessandria  the  year  before,  but  they  were 
now  driven  out,  May  17, 1799.  It  was  again  delivered  up  to  them  after  the  battle  of 
Marengo,  in  1800.  The  village  and  battle-field  of  Marengo  lie  east  of  the  town.  A 
European  subscription  was*  commenced  in  1856|  to  fortify  this  place. 

ALEXANDER,  ERA  of.  Dated  from  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Nov.  12, 823  B.a 
In  the  computation  of  this  era,  the  period  of  the  creation  was  considered 'to  be  5502 
years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and,  in  consequence,  the  year  1  a.d.  was  equal  to 
5503.  This  computation  continued  to  the  year  284  a.d.,  which  was  called  5786.  In 
the  next  year  (285  a.d.),  which  should  have  been  5787,  ten  years  were  discarded,  and 
the  date  became  5777.  This  is  still  used  in  the  Abyssinian  era,  ta&icA  Me.  The  date 
is  reduced  to  the  Christian  era  by  subtracting  5602  until  the  year  5786,  and  after  that 
time  by  subtracting  5492. 

ALEXANDRIA,  Eotpt.  The  walls  whereof  were  six  miles  in  circuit,  built  by  Alexander 
the  Great,  332  b.o.  ;  taken  by  Cseaar,  47  B.O.,  and  the  library  of  the  Ptolemies,  con- 
taining 400,000  valuable  works  in  MS.,  was  accidentally  burnt  by  a  fire  which 
occurred  during  Cesar's  attack.  Another  library  waa  destroyed  a.d.  390,  when 
paganism  waa  suppressed  by  the  decree  of  Theodosius.  Conquered  by  the  Saracens^ 
when  the  second  library,  consisting  of  700,000  volumes,  was  totally  destroyed  by  the 
victors,  who  heated  the  water  for  their  baths  for  six  months  by  burning  books  instead 
of  wood,  by  command  of  the  caliph  Omar,  a.d.  640.*  This  was  formerly  a  plaoe  of 
great  trade,  all  the  treasures  of  the  east  being  deposited  here  before  the  discovery  of 
the  route  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Taken  by  the  French  under  Bonaparte,  when 
a  massacre  ensued,  July  5, 1798 ;  and  from  them  by  the  British  in  the  memorable 
battle  mentioned  in  next  article,  in  1801.  Alexandria  was  again  taken  by  the  British, 
under  General  Eraser,  March  21, 1807 ;  but  was  evacuated,  Sept.  23,  same  year.  For 
later  events  here,  see  Syria  and  Tua-kcy, 

ALEXANDRIA,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  French  under  Menou,  who  made  the  attack, 
and  the  British  army,  under  sir  Ralph  Aberorombie,  amounting  to  about  15,000  men, 
which  had  but  recently  debarked,  fought  March  21, 1 801.  The  British  were  victorious, 
but  sir  Ralph  Aberorombie  was  mortally  wounded ;  and  after  the  retreat  of  Menou, 
he  waa  carried  to  the  admiral's  ship,  and  died  on  the  28th.  The  command  devolved 
on  migor-general  Hutchinson,  who  baffied  all  the  schemes  of  Menou,  and  obliged  him 
to  surrender,  Sept.  2  following,  the  victor  guaranteeing  the  conveyance  of  the  French 
(whose  number  exceeded  10,000)  to  a  French  port  in  the  Mediterranean. 

ALEXANDRINE  VERSE.  Verse  of  twelve  syllables.  They  were  first  written  by 
Alexander  of  ParLs,  and  have  since  been  called,  after  him.  Alexandrines,  about  a.d. 
ll6i.—Nouv,  Did,  Pope,  in  his  Euay  on  Oriticismt  has  the  following  well-known 
couplet,  in  which  an  Alexandrine  is  happily  exemplified  :— 

*'  A  needless  Alexandrine  ende  the  song, 
Thatk  like  a  wound-ed  snake,  drags  its  alow  length  a-long." 

The  longest  English  poem  wholly  in  Alexandrine  verse  is  Drayton's  Polyolbion,  pub- 
lished in  1612.  Chapman's  Homer  is  in  this  measure  (1598).  The  last  line  of  the 
Spenserian  stanza  is  an  Alexandrine. 

ALFORD,  BATTLE  of.  General  Baillie  with  a  large  body  of  Covenanters  defeated  by 
the  marquess  of  Montrose,  July  2, 1645.  There  was  discovered  some  years  since,  in 
one  of  the  mosses  near  this  place,  a  man  in  armour  on  horseback,  supposed  to  have 
been  drowned  in  attempting  to  escape  from  this  battle. 

ALGEBRA.  Where  Algebra  was  first  used,  and  by  whom,  is  not  precisely  known. 
Diophantus  first  wrote  upon  it,  probably  about  a.d.  170;  he  is  said  to  be  the  inventor. 
Brought  into  Spain  by  the  Saracens,  about  a.d.  900 ;  and  into  Italy  by  Leonardo  of  Pisa, 
in  1202.  The  first  writer  who  used  algebraical  signs  was  Stifelius  of  Nurembei^,  in 
1544.  The  introduction  of  symbols  for  quantities  was  by  Francis  Vieta,  in  1690,  when 
algebra  came  into  general  use. — Mortri,  The  binomial  theorem  of  Newton,  the  basis 
of  the  doctrine  of  fluxions,  and  the  new  analysis,  1668. 

ALGESIRAS,  or  OLD  GIBRALTAR.  By  this  city,  the  Moors  entered  Spain  in  a.d.  718, 
and  it  was  not  recovered  from  them  until  1344.    Engagement  hero  between  a  British 

*  The  celebrated  saying  of  Omar—"  That  if  the  books  agreed  with  the  book  of  Ood,  they  were 
uselees ;  If  they  dUagreed,  they  w«ro  pernioioiLB  "—is  denied  by  Mahomotana.  It  ia  alao  attributed  to 
Theophiloa.  Arohbiahop  of  Alexandria  (S90)^  and  Cardinal  Ximenea  (1600). 


ALG  28  ALI 

■qTiadrozi,  under  nr  Jamee  Saamarez  (alterwarda  lord  de  Saumarez),  and  Bareral  French 
and  SpanJah  ahipa  of  war,  which  doMd  in  the  deatruction  of  two  Spanish  ihipi^  each 
of  112  gone,  and  the  capture  of  the  St.  AnUmio,  of  74  guns,  July  12,  1801. 

ALGIERS.  The  ancient  kingdom  of  Numidia,  reduced  to  a  Roman  Province,  44  b.c.  It 
afterwards  became  independent,  till,  dreading  the  power  of  the  Spaniards,  the  nation 
invited  Barbarossa,  the  pirate,  to  assist  it,  and  he  seized  the  gOTemment,  A.D.  1516 ; 
but  it  afterwards  became  subject  to  Turkey. — PnaUey.  The  Algerinea  for  ages  braved 
the  resentment  of  the  most  powerful  states  in  Christendom,  and  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  lost  a  fine  fleet  and  army  in  an  unsucoenful  expedition  sgainst  them,  in 
1541.  Algiers  was  reduced  by  admiral  Blake  in  1658,  and  terrified  into  pacific 
measures  with  England;  but  it  repulsed  the  vigorous  attacks  of  other  European 
powers,  particularly  those  of  France,  in  1688,  and  1761 ;  and  of  Spain,  in  1775, 1783, 
and  1784.  Bomburded  by  the  British  fleet,  under  admiral  lord  Exmouth,  Aug.  27, 
1816,  when  a  new  treaty  followed,  and  Christian  slavery  was  aboU^ed.  See  next 
artiele,  Algiers  surrendered  to  a  F^nch  armament,  under  Bourmont  and  Duperr^, 
alter  some  severe  conflicts,  July  5, 1830,  when  the  dey  was  deposed,  and  the  barbarian 
government  wholly  overthrown.  The  French  ministry  announced  their  intention  to 
retain  Algiers,  permanently.  May  20,  1834.  Marshal  Clausel  defeated  the  An^  in 
two  battles,  and  entered  Mascara,  Dea  8,  1836.  General  Domremont  attacked 
Constantina  {which  tee),  Oct.  13,  1837 ;  and  eiterwarda  various  engsgements  between 
the  French  and  the  natives  took  place.  Abd-el-Kader,  the  heroic  chieftain  of  Algiers, 
surrendered  Dec  22, 1847,  and  after  a  contest  of  seventeen  years,  his  country  became 
a  colony  of  France,  <^led  "Algeria."  He,  with  his  suite,  was  embarked  at  Oran,  and 
landed  at  Toulon  on  Dea  28  following.  He  was  removed  to  the  castle  of  Amboise, 
near  Tours,  Nov.  2,  1848,  and  released  from  his  confinement  by  Louis  Napoleon, 
Oct.  16,  1852,  after  swearing  on  the  Koran  never  to  disturb  Africa  again ;  he  was  to 
reside  henceforward  at  Broussa,  in  Asia  Minor;  but  in  consequence  of  the  earth- 
quake at  that  place,  Feb.  28,  1855,  he  removed  to  Constantinople. 

ALGIERS,  BATTLE  of.  The  British  fleet,  under  lord  Ezmonth,  anchoring  off 
Algiers,  bombarded  the  town,  which  returned  the  fire ;  bat  all  the  fortiflcations  and 
houses  towards  the  sea  were  soon  reduced  to  ashes,  and  the  fleet  in  the  harbour 
entirely  destroyed,  Aug.  27, 1816.  The  dey  was  compelled  to  conclude  a  treaty  by 
which  he  set  the  Christian  slaves  at  liberty,  and  engaged  to  cease  in  future  from 
reducing  Christian  captives  to  that  ignominious  condition;  a  stipulation  which, 
however,  he  did  not  afterwards  strictly  observe.  In  the  end,  this  breach  of  faith  led 
to  his  final  overthrow.    See  preceding  artiele* 

ALHAMBRA.  A  Moorish  palace  and  fortress  near  Grenada  in  Spain,  surrendered  to 
the  Christians  Jan.  6,  1496.  The  remains  have  been  described  in  a  magnificent 
work  by  Owen  Jones  and  Jules  Goury,  published  1842-5.  There  is  a  court  of  this 
name  in  the  Crystal  Palace  at  Sydenham. 

ALIy  SECT  OF.  Founded  by  the  fSunous  Mahometan  chief,  son-in-law  of  Mahomet, 
(who  married  his  daughter  Fatima,)  about  A.D.  632.  Ali  was  called  by  the  prophet, 
"the  lion  of  God,  always  victorious;"  and  the  Persians  follow  the  interpretation  of 
the  Koran  according  to  Ali,  while  other  Mahometans  adhere  to  that  of  Abubeker 
and  Omar.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  first  four  successors  of  Mahomet — 
Abubeker,  Omar,  Othman  and  Ali,  whom  he  had  employed  as  his  chief  agents  in 
establishing  his  religion  and  extirpating  unbelievers,  and  whom  on  that  account  he 
styled  the  "cutting  swords  of  God,"  all  died  violent  deaths;  and  that  this  bloody 
impostor's  family  was  wholly  extirpated  within  thirty  years  after  his  own  decease. 
Ali  was  assassinated  in  660. 

ALIENSw  In  England,  aliens  were  grievously  coerced  up  to  a.d.  1377.  When  they 
were  to  be  tried  criminally,  the  juries  were  to  be  half  foreigners,  if  they  so  desired, 
1480.  They  were  restrained  from  exerciaing  any  trade  or  handicraft  by  retail,  1483. 
The  celebrated  alien  bill  passed,  January,  1793.  Act  to  register  Aliens,  1795.  Bill 
to  abolish  their  naturalisation  by  the  holding  of  stock  in  the  banks  of  Scotland, 
June,  1820.  New  Registration  act,  7  Geo.  IT.,  1826.  This  last  act  was  repealed 
and  another  statute  passed,  6  Will.  IV.,  1836.  The  celebrated  baron  Geramb,  a 
conspicuous  and  fashionable  foreigner,  known  at  court,  was  ordered  out  of  England, 
April  6, 1812.    These  diBabilities  were  much  mitigated  by  7  &  8  Vict.  c.  66, 1844. 

ALIWAL,  BATTLE  of,  India.  Between  the  Sikh  army  under  sirdar  Runjoor  Singh 
Majeethea,  24,000  strong,  supported  by  68  pieces  of  oaanoUi  and  the  British  under 


'Sue  2*'  x^TMiff  vunrtii..  m  u.  cost  ic  rt^uerik.  otmrnt^miannajc  uf  ikL 
1/  imVtkA  lOii.  iLtf:  'xrtifM:  foinnn.  usre  maaust  i'jc  ^^ssr  oar  jx.  zl«- 

'Uit'T  ^u'jMi:  vruitn,  fltf  Siita^  trme  wart:  mmxaacutd  wtsl  j*ifrtIaK 

viitirtsiL.  17  Ik  ^BawnL  taMuimm^«ncaa&.  xrsr  Cixrtrt  ^ra  lainks  isr 

5r>tru.i^  Tiat  t»^.->i  '  ,*<Lng>i'j£.  euijs^iitewc  'uf  a:>ri  GTis.rrZ^^  irsd  jord  ctf*  tike  Uai4m  ; 
jr-^^-c  iitti:r?'  I'tjsnr.  i:iiKu%_^'jff-  tc  i^je  Ex-csit-v^Mr ;  carl  V:iM.ml2jMSL.  Ijfl  jimiiiViiT  : 
Tjtevcixrtt  f^iiiif'jvTX    ^i:;^  Mr.  Addi-ur:.:^  .  pr.TT  eal:  Oii^jcs  Juds  Fox.  fvaoi* 

<js.«3jf«>«uvr ;  w^  ChiTjffi  Grvr  .K&ervardf  TSMOczzt  Humitk  miA  tmai  Grcr  v  adminHr  ; 
>.Kr4  M^-v,,  itjurl  *A  tKfSjnr,'. ;  >.>ri  Auc^lso^  board  cf  trade:  jotd  Macniy  inMtri 
fwaMTk^  of  U«e  wriiAjuo^:  Mr.  SiaerlihSL.  irttBorer  of  liw  aa^:  nzlt  ken.  Ridwd 
KtSJf«S«-^jvK.  kA.  Iwjrd  EZ'jOt'vjrr/:!^  lord  cL.ef  jizscke  had  a  aett  ia  ib«  eU^iael. 
TW  innnj-U  of  tli»  n^^jLiii;:^  ga^e  it  tiie  a^p&IJaSaon  of  **Ali  the  Till  iiliii,*  wfaiA, 
IxKiif  ^ftiKKwl  ia  denK<'.«  br  the  c^<;<ist:c^.  beeaase  £xed  aj««  ii  ever  after, 
Fr*/.  S,  ]^>e;.  Ti«  doKtl  of' Mr,  Fox,  SeT<L  13,  IKr^-  led  to  wiooi  daaneea.  aad 
Uok  u.>..«ti7  was  iiX./  d»KuT«dy  Mardi.  l^.'7. 

ALLE/;f  AXCEL  TLe  oasb  of  all«ssDM»v  »  ad:riz22sia«d  ia  E&g^aad  for  600  jmi% 
iVM^MiSj^i  a  pTQUs^  **u»  h€  troe  and  f aitbful  to  tike  Kia^  and  kia  bcsn»  aad  tmtfa 
a«*d  UJiL  idj  t0fskr  <d  hit  aod  lisiib  aad  terreoe  boaoiir :  aaid  aot  to  kaov  or  hear  of 
Mtj  iii  or  daiaairv  iatead^id  him,  vitLoot  defending  i-.tto  tbeiefkum.**  A  aev  oath  of 
aii^ripaoee  waa  adoix&ietered  io  1G05.    Altered  by  the  ooaTcntaoo  pariJaaMat^  16SS. 

ALLE<X>KT«    Of  rcrf  az«d«9t  eoaopoeation.    The  Bible  abo>aads  ia  the  finiwt 

lA  wu'ifii  BiMir  preB  Pmdm  Ixxx,  Ter.  8 — 16,  aa  a  apedoieo.  Speaaera  Fmrie  Qi 
k  aa  a.ii<i^/r7  thr*jQ^ovt ;  Addison,  in  his  SpaXaU^,  aboondi  ia  allegoriea :  and  the 
PUyrim^B  Prutgrtm  of  Banjaa,  1^3,  ia  perfect  in  this  waj,  Miltoa,  amoag  other 
Eai^>iKh  poeta,  ia  neb  ia  allegory. 

AfXIAXCE,  TREATIES  or,  between  the  b-gh  European  powcn.  The  foDowiai^  an 
the  priaetpal  treatica  diatin^nished  by  this  aame,  aad  which  are  most  eommonly 
rtiemd  to.    Hee  CoalkiumM,  OtmremtUma,  Treaiia,  Aa 


AJ.^M^je  of  I^r>c:e  Aprils  1631  AHianoeof  Toplitx                         8epC  9,  1813 

At-,;UA«e'>f  V«t:£ix.a    .  .    .        Maj  :rr.  1C57  Auuuwa>  the  Holy    .        .    .      SepC  16^  1815 

A*.*^tf.-*,  XiMt  Tnple  .               Jan-  2b^  IC'*? 

A '>«/«<«  I'f  W^'iMW  .  .    .    March  :sl,  K*<^i  InnomintDti: — 

A«'jA<iUf.  tl«eGratf»4  .       May  12,  l^^ii  Allunce  of  EojfUnd,  France, 

Aiii'MKUt,  U^  H»ic^ ■  '    '         Jan.  4,  1717  aod    Turkey    (aigned    at 

Arii%fi/9«.  th«<|uai4nip!e  Au^.  i,  1718  CoaatantiDople) .        .        .    March  IS.  1SS4 

A...w>jeol  V)«fjfia    .  .    .    March  16,  1731  Allianoe    of    England    and 

A.i.4fiot</fVen»jlka  .                 May  1.  17^  France  Tmttfied               .    .        April  S,  18H 

AJ.uit^'^,  ffermaase  .  .    .       July  23.  I7tt»  Alliance  of  Sardinia  with  the 

AJi.a/*o>;of  Pana   -  May  1«,  1795  Western  Powers  (signed  at 

AlJUtieeofht.  Peierabury   .        April  8,  lSii5  Turin)         ....       Jan.  26^  18S5 

A'i«triMi  Alliance .  .    March  14.  I  hi.!  Alliaude  of  Sweden  with  the 

Aliui>c«  of  Hweden  .  .    .    March  24,  1812  Western  Powexa    .       .    .       Dee.  ig,  1855 

ALMA,  BATTLE  or  tbk.  The  English  and  French  armies  moved  out  of  their  first 
encampment  in  the  Crimea  on  Sept  19, 1854,  and  bivouacked  for  the  night  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Bulganac  The  Russians  (commanded  by  prince  MenscfaikoflT) 
mustering  40,000  infantry,  had  180  field  pieces  on  the  heights,  and  on  the  morning  of 
tlje  20tb,  were  joined  by  6000  cavalry  from  Theodosia  (or  Ka&).  The  English  foroea, 
under  lord  Raglan,  consisted  of  25,000  men ;  the  French,  under  marshal  St.  Amaud, 
of  23,000.  At  12  o'clock  the  signal  to  advance  was  made,  and  the  river  Alma  was 
croised,  while  prince  Napoleon  took  possession  of  the  village  under  fire  of  the  Russian 


ALM  25  ALN 

battfliieflL  At  4,  after  a  Banguinary  fight,  the  alUee  were  completely  ▼ictoriona.  The 
enemy,  utterly  routed,  threw  away  their  arms  and  knapaackii  in  their  flight,  having 
lost  about  6000  men,  of  whom  900  were  made  priaoners,  moatly  wounded.  The  lo«i 
of  the  British  was  26  officers  and  827  men  killed,  and  73  officers  and  1639  men 
wounded  (chiefly  from  the  23rd,  7th,  and  33rd  regiments) ;  that  of  the  French,  3 
officers  and  233  men  killed,  and  54  officers  and  1033  men  wounded.  See  Crimea  and 
Enuo-Titrkiah  War, 

ALMANACS.  The  Egyptians  computed  time  by  instruments.  Log  calendan  were 
anciently  in  use.  Al-mon-aght,  ii  of  Saxon  origin.  In  the  British  Museum  and 
uniTersitiea  are  curious  specimens  of  early  almanacs.  Michael  Nostradamas,  the 
oelebrated  astrologer,  wrote  an  almanac  in  the  style  of  Merlin,  1566. — Dufranojf. 
Among  the  earlier  and  more  remarkable  almanacs  were : 

John    Bomar's    CSalendar,    written    in  i  Moore's  Almanack 1A08 

Oxfonl 1380  !  Lady's  Diary 1705 

One  in  lAmbeth  palace,  writton  In   .    .  1460  i  Season  on  the  Seasona     ....  1785 


Tlmt  printed  one,  published  at  Buda    .  1472 
First  printed  in  England,  by  Richard 

Pynson 1497 

TybiUt's  Proflfnooticationa  .       .  16:)3 

Lilly's  Ephemeris 1644 

Poor  Robin's  Almanack  .  .1052 

Gonnaiaaance  des  Tema  .    .  1008 


Gentleman's  Diarv  ...  1741 

Nautical  Almanack,  beean  by  Dr.  NerQe 
Jfaakelyne  (materially   improved   in 

1834) 1707 

British  Imperial  Kalendar  ....  1800 
Britiah  Almanac  and  Companion  .       .  1828 


Of  Moore's,  at  one  period  (under  the  management  of  the  late  Mr.  Andrews,  who  was 
for  more  than  forty  yean  the  able  computer  of  the  Nautical  EpKemeris),  upwarda  of 
430,000  copies  were  annually  sold.  The  stationers'  company  claimed  the  ezclusiTe 
right  of  publishing  almanacs,  in  yirtue  of  letten  patent  from  James  I.,  granting  the 
priyilege  to  this  company,  and  the  two  uniTeraities;  but  the  monopoly  waa  broken  up 
by  a  decision  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  in  1775.  A  bill  to  renew  the  privilege 
was  lost  in  1779.  Of  foreign  almanacs,  the  principal  are  the  "Almanach  de  France," 
first  published  in  1699,  and  the  "Almanach  de  Qotha,"  1764.  The  stamp  duty  on 
almanacs  was  abolished  in  Angust^  1834 ;  since  when  almanacs  are  numberless. 

ALMAN2^,  BATTLE  or.  Between  the  confederate  forces  under  the  earl  of  Oalway, 
and  the  French  and  Spanish  commanded  by  James  Fitzjamesy  duke  of  Berwick  (the 
illegitimate  aon  of  James  II.),  when  most  of  the  English  were  killed  or  made 
prisoners  of  war,  having  been  abandoned  by  the  Portuguese  at  the  first  charge, 
April  U,  1707. 

ALMEIDA.  An  important  position  as  a  frontier  town  of  Portugal,  in  the  peninsular 
war.  Massena  laid  siege  to  it^  Aug.  15,  1810,  and  the  governor  capitulated,  Aug.  27 
following.  The  French  crossed  into  Spain,  leaving  a  garrison  at  Almeida,  blockaded 
by  the  English,  April  6, 1811.  Almeida  was  evacuated  by  the  French,  May  11.  Id 
the  end,  Wellington  compelled  Massena  to  retire  firom  Portugal,  but  the  route  of  the 
eneiny  was  tracked  by  horrid  desolation. 

ALMONER.  The  precise  date  of  this  office  is  not  certain ;  but  we  read  of  a  lord 
almoner  in  various  reigns,  and  in  varioua  countries.  The  rank  was  anciently  allotted 
to  a  dignified  clergyman,  who  had  the  privilege  of  giving  the  first  dish  from  the 
royal  table  to  the  poor;  or  instead  thereof,  an  alms  in  money.  By  the  ancient 
canons,  all  monasteries  were  to  spend  at  least  a  tenth  part  of  their  income  in  alms  to 
the  poor.  By  an  ancient  canon  all  bishops  were  required  to  keep  almoners.  The 
grand  almoner  of  France  {le  grand  aumonier)  was  the  highest  ecclesiastical  dignity  in 
that  kingdom  before  the  revolution,  1789. 

ALNEY,  BATTLE  of,  or  rather  single  combat  between  Edmund  Ironside  and  Canute 
the  Great,  in  sight  of  their  armies;  the  latter  was  wounded,  when  he  proposed 
a  division  of  the  kingdom,  the  south  part  falling  to  Edmund,  a.d.  1016;  but  this 
prince  having  been  murdered  at*  Oxford,  ahortly  after  the  treaty,  according  to  some, 
by  the  treachery  of  iEdric  Streon,  Canute  was  left  in  the  peaceable  possession  of  the 
whole  kingdom  in  1017. — OokUmith. 

ALNWICK  (Saxon  Ealnwic),  on  the  river  Alne  in  Northumberland,  was  given  at  the 
conquest  to  Ivo  de  Vesco.  It  has  belonged  to  the  Percys  since  1310.  Malcolm, 
King  of  Scotland,  besieged  Alnwick  in  1093,  when  he  and  his  son  were  killed.  It  was 
taken  by  David  L  in  1135,  and  attempted  in  1174  by  William  the  Lion,  who  was 
taken  prisoner.  It  was  burnt  by  King  John  in  1215,  and  by  the  Scots  in  1448. 
Great  improvements  have  been  making  in  the  castle  since  1854,  and  extensive 
works  are  still  in  progress. 


ALP  26  ALU 

ALPACA.  A  species  of  the  S.  American  quadruped  the  Llama,  the  soft  hairy  wool  of 
which  is  now  largely  employed  in  the  fabrication  of  oloth&  It  was  introduoed  into 
this  country  about  18S6,  by  the  Earl  of  Derby.  A  gigantio  factory,  &a  (covering  11 
acres)  for  this  manufacture  was  erected  at  Saltaire,  near  Shipley  in  Yorkshire,  by  lir. 
Titus  Salt  in  1852. 

ALPHABET.  Athotes,  son  of  Menes,  was  the  author  of  hieroglyphics,  and  wrote 
thus  the  history  of  the  Egyptians,  2122  B.c. — Blair.  But  Josephus  affirms  that  he 
had  seen  inscriptions  by  Seth,  the  son  of  Adam ;  though  this  is  doubted,  and  deemed 
a  mistake,  or  fabulous.  The  first  letter  of  the  Phosnician  and  Hebrew  alphabet  was 
aleph,  called  by  the  Qreeks  alpkci,  and  abbreviated  by  the  modems  to  A.  The 
Hebrew  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Phoenician.  Cadmus,  the  founder  of 
Cadmea,  1493  B.a,  brought  the  Phoenician  letters  (fifteen  in  number)  into  Qieeoe; 
they  were  the  following : — 

A,  B,  r,  A,  I,  K,  A,  M,  N,  O,  n,  P.  S,  T,  T. 

These  letters  were  originally  either  Hebrew,  Phoenician,  or  Assyrian  characters,  and 
changed  gradually  in  form  till  they  became  the  ground  of  the  Roman  letters,  now 
used  sll  over  Europe.  Palamedes  of  Ai*gos  invented  the  double  characters,  e,  X,  ^,  B 
about  1224  B.O.  ;  and  Slmonides  added  Z,  V,  H,  A,  about  489  B.O. — ArumUlian 
MarbUi,  When  the  E  was  introduced  is  not  precisely  known.  The  Greek  alphabet 
consisted  of  sixteen  letters  till  399  B.O.,  when  the  Ionic,  of  24  characters,  was  intro- 
duced. The  small  letters  are  of  later  invention,  for  the  conTenienoe  of  writing.  The 
alphabets  of  the  different  nations  contain  the  following  number  of  letters  : — 


English 

.  26 

Oerman 

.  20 

Greek  . 

.  24 

Turkish     . 

.    S3 

French    . 

.    .  23 

Slavonic . 

.    .  27 

Hebrew  . 

.    .  22 

Sanscrit 

.    .    60 

Italian. 

.  20 

Russian 

.  41 

Arabio. 

.  28 

and 

Spanish  . 

.    .  27 

LaUn 

.    .  22 

Fexsian  . 

.    .  82 

Chinese 

.  214 

ALPHONSINE  TABLES.  Celebrated  astronomical  tables,  composed  by  command,  and 
under  the  direction  of  Alphonsus  X  of  Castile,  sumamed  the  Wise.  This  learned 
prince  is  said  to  have  expended  upwards  of  400,000  crowns  in  completing  the  work, 
whose  vahie  was  enhanced  by  a  prefaoOi  written  by  his  own  hand ;  he  commenced 
his  reign  in  1262. 

ALPS.  Roads  over  Mount  Cenis  and  the  Simplon  were  constructed  by  order  of  Napo- 
leon between  1801-6,  connecting  France  and  Italy.    See  Simplon, 

ALT-RANSTADT,  PEACE  of.  The  celebrated  treaty  of  peace  between  Charles  XIL 
of  Sweden,  and  Frederick  Augustus  of  Poland,  was  signed  Sept  24, 1708.  Frederick 
Augustus,  who  was  deposed  in  1704,  was  afterwards  restored  to  his  throne. 

ALTAR.  One  was  built  by  Koah,  B.a  2848.  (Oen.  viii.  20).  They  were  raised  to  Jujater^ 
in  Greece,  by  Cecrops,  who  also  instituted  and  regulated  marriages,  1556  B.a  He 
introduced  among  the  Qreeks  the  worship  of  those  deities  which  were  held  in 
adoration  in  Egypt* — HerodM'UM,  The  term  "  altar  "  was  applied  to  the  Lord's  table  for 
the  first  three  centuries  after  Christ  Christian  altars  in  churches  were  instituted  by 
pope  Sixtus  I.  in  135;  and  they  were  first  consecrated  by  Pope  Sylvester.  The 
first  Christian  alUr  in  Britain  was  in  634.— Sitow.  The  Church  of  England  atill 
retains  the  name,  applying  it  to  the  table  on  which  the  elements  are  placed.  Since 
tbe  time  of  Elizabeth  there  has  been  much  controversy  on  the  subject,  and  the 
Puritans  in  the  civil  war  destroyed  many  of  the  ancient  stone  altars,  substituting 
wooden  tables. 

ALTER  EQO  {anothtr  or  second  7),  a  term  applied  to  Spanish  Viceroys  when  exercising 
regal  power;  used  at  Naples  when  the  crown  prince  was  appointed  vicar^eneral 
during  an  insurrection  in  July  1 820. 

ALUM.  Is  said  to  have  been  first  discovered  at*Rooha,  in  Syria,  about  a.d.  1800;  it 
was  found  in  Tuscany  in  1460;  was  brought  to  perfection  in  England,  in  1608: 
was  discovered  in  Ireland  in  1757 ;  and  in  Anglesey  in  1790.  Alum  is  a  salt  used 
as  a  mordant  in  dyeing ;  it  is  used  also  to  harden  tallow,  to  whiten  bread,  and  in  the 
paper  manufacture.  It  may  be  made  of  pure  clay  exposed  to  vapours  of  sulphuric 
acid,  and  sulphate  of  potash  added  to  the  ley ;  but  it  is  usually  obtained  by  means  of 
ore  called  alum  slate.    Sir  T.  Cballoner  established  large  alum  works  at  Whitby. 

ALUMINIUM,  a  new  metal,  the  base  of  the  earth  alumina  (c/ay),  first  obtained  by  F. 
Wtfhler  in  1827 ;  and  considered  a  scientific  curiosity  from  the  expense  of  the 
process.    The  mode  of  production  was  afterwards  simplified  by  Bunaen,  and  oth«« ; 


AHA  27  AMB 

and  in  1856  M.  Ste.-Glaire  Devillo  suooeeded  in  procormg  considerabld  qoantitiea  of 
this  metaL  It  is  very  light  (sp.  g.  2*25),  malleable,  and  aonoroua :  it  does  not  rust, 
and  is  not  acted  on  by  sulphur  or  any  acid  except  hydrochloric.  These  qualities  will 
raider  it  rery  useful  when  improyed  processes  render  it  cheaper.  In  March  1856,  it 
was  £3  the  ounce ;  it  ui  now  11«.  or  12«.  (June  1857).  The  eagles  of  the  French 
colours  have  been  made  of  it>  and  many  other  articlas. 

AMAZON,  West  India  mail  steam-ihip,  left  Southampton  on  her  first  Toyage,  Friday, 
Jan.  2, 1852,  and  on  Sunday  morning,  Jan.  4,  was  destroyed  by  fire  at  sea,  about  110 
miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Scilly,  (supposed  by  the  spontaneous  ignition  of  combustible 
matter  placed  near  the  engine-room).  Out  of  161  persons  on  board  (crew  and 
passengers,  women  and  children),  102  persons  must  have  perished  by  fire  or 
drowning.  21  persons  were  saved  by  the  life-boat  of  the  ship;  25  more  were 
carried  into  Brest  harbour  by  a  Dutch  Tessel  passing  by ;  and  13  others  were  picked 
up  in  the  bay  of  Biscay,  also  by  a  Dutch  galliot.  Eliot  Warburton,  a  distinguished 
writer  in  general  literature,  was  among  those  lost. 

AMAZONIA.  Discovered  by  Francisco  Orellana,  in  1580.  Coming  from  PerOf 
Orellana  sailed  down  the  river  Amazon  to  the  Atlantic,  and  observing  companies  of 
women  in  arms  on  its  banks,  he  oalled  the  country  Amazonia,  and  gave  the  name  of 
Amazon  to  the  river,  which  had  previously  been  called  Maranon. 

A3IAZ0N&  Their  origin  is  fabulous.  They  are  said  to  have  been  the  descendants  of 
Scythians  inhabiting  Cappadocia,  where  their  husbands,  having  made  incursions, 
were  all  slain,  being  surprised  in  ambuscades  by  their  enemies  Their  widows 
resolved  to  form  a  female  state,  and  having  firmly  established  themselves,  they 
decreed  that  matrimony  was  a  diameful  servitude. — Qwmtua  Cnrtivs.  They  were 
said  to  have  been  conquered  by  Theseus,  about  1231  B.C.  The  Amazons  were 
constantly  employed  in  wars ;  and  that  they  might  throw  the  javelin  with  more 
force,  their  right  breasts  were  burned  oH,  whence  their  name  from  the  Greek,  a,  no, 
and  tut(0t,  a  brwut.  About  330  B.O.  their  queen,  Thalestris,  visited  Alexander  the 
Great,  while  he  was  pursuing  his  conquests  in  Asia ;  three  hundred  females  were  in 
her  tnin. — Heredotut, 

AMBASSADORS.  Accredited  agents  and  representatives  from  one  court  to  another  are 
referred  to  early  ages,  and  to  almost  all  nations.  In  most  countries  they  have  great 
and  peculiar  privileges;  and  in  England,  among  others,  they  and  their  servants  are 
secured  against  arrest.  The  Portuguese  ambassador  was  imprisoned  for  debt  in 
1653 ;  and  the  Russian,  by  a  lace-merchant,  in  1709 ;  when  a  law,  the  statute  of 
8  Anne,  passed  for  their  protection.  Two  men  were  convicted  of  arresting  the 
servant  of  an  ambassador :  they  were  sentenced  to  be  conducted  to  the  hoaae  of  the 
ambassador,  vrith  a  label  on  their  breasts,  to  ask  his  pardon,  and  then  one  of  them  to 
be  imprisoned  three  months,  and  the  other  fined,  May  12, 1780. — PhiUipt, 

AMBASSADORS,  Ihterchanob  or.  England  usually  has  twenty-five  ambassadors  or 
envoys  extiaordinaty,  and  about  thirty-six  chief  consuls,  resident  at  foreign  courts, 
exclusive  of  inferior  agents :  the  ambassadors  and  other  agents  from  abroad  at  the 
court  of  London  exceed  those  numbers.  Among  the  more  memorable  instances  of 
interchange  may  be  recorded,  that  the  first  ambassador  from  the  United  States  of 
America  to  England  wss  John  Adams,  presented  to  the  king,  June  2, 1785 :  and  the 
first  from  Great  Britain  to  America  was  Mr.  Hammond,  in  1791. 

AMBER  A  carbonaceous  mineral,  principally  found  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe, 
of  great  repute  in  the  world  from  the  earliest  time ;  esteemed  as  a  medicine  before 
the  Christian  era:  Theophrastus  wrote  upon  it,  300  B.o.  Upwards  of  150  tons  of 
amber  have  bectn  found  in  one  year  on  the  sands  of  the  shore  near  Pillau. — Phillipt, 
Much  diversity  of  opinion  still  prevails  among  naturalists  and  chemists,  respecting 
the  origin  of  amber,  some  refemng"  it  to  the  vegetable,  others  to  the  mineral,  and 
some  to  the  animal  kingdom ;  its  natural  history  and  its  chemical  analysis  aifording 
something  in  fiivour  of  each  opinion.  It  is  considered  by  Berzelius  to  have  been  a 
resin  dissolved  in  volatile  oil.  It  often  contains  delicately  formed  insects.  Sir  D. 
Brewster  concludes  it  to  be  indurated  vegetable  juice.  When  rubbed  it  becomes 
electrical,  and  from  its  Greek  name  ffXcrrpov,  the  term  Electricity  is  derived. 

AMBOYNA.  One  of  the  Molucca  isles  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  about  1515 ;  taken 
by  them  in  1564,  and  from  them  by  the  Dutch  in  1607,  who  have  since  retained  it 
The  English  factors  at  this  settlement  were  cruelly  tortured  and  put  to  death  by  the 
Dutch  on  ao  accusation  of  a  conspiracy  to  expel  them  from  the  isUmd,  where  the 


AME 


28 


AME 


two  nations  resided  and  jointly  ehared  in  the  pepper  trade  of  Java,  Feb.  17, 1623. 
Amboyna  was  seized  by  the  English,  Feb.  16, 1796,  but  was  restored  by  the  tivaty  of 
Amiens,  in  1802.  It  was  again  seized  by  the  British,  Feb.  17»  1810;  and  was 
restored  at  the  peace  of  1814. 

AMEN.  The  word  is  as  old  as  the  Hebrew  language  itself  In  that  language  it  means 
true,  faithful,  certain.  Employed  in  devotions,  at  the  end  of  a  prayer,  it  implies,  m  be 
it ;  at  the  termination  of  a  creed,  to  ii  %%,  It  has  been  generally  used,  both  in  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  Churches,  at  the  conclusion  of  prayer. 

AMENDE  HoNO&ABLi^  originated  in  France  in  the  ninth  century.  It  was  first  an 
infamous  punishment  inflicted  on  traitors  and  sacrilegious  persons :  the  offender  was 
delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  hangman;  his  shirt  was  stripped  off,  a  rope  put  about 
his  neck,  and  a  taper  in  his  hand ;  he  was  then  led  into  court,  and  was  obliged  to  beg 
pardon  of  God,  the  king,  and  the  country.  Death  or  banishment  sometimes  followed. 
Amende  honorable  is  now  a  term  used  for  making  recantation  in  open  courts  or  in  the 
presence  of  the  injured  party. 

AMERCEMENT,  in  LAW.  A  fine  assessed  for  an  offence  done,  or  pecuniary  punishment 
at  the  mercy  of  the  court :  thus  differing  from  a  fine  directed  and  fixed  by  a  statute. 
By  Magna  Charta  a  freeman  cannot  be  amerced  for  a  small  &ult^  but  in  proportion  to 
the  offence  he  has  committed,  9  Henry  III.,  1224. 

AMERICA.  Discovered  by  Criatoforo  Colombo,  a  Genoese,  better  known  as  Christopher 
Colombua,  a.d.  1492,  on  the  11th  of  October,  on  which  day  he  came  in  sight  of  the 
island  of  St.  Salvador.  See  Bahama  Islands,  The  continent  of  America  was  dis- 
covered by  Columbus  in  1497,  and  the  eastern  coasts  by  Amerigo  Vespucci  (Americos 
Vespucius)  in  1498;  from  this  latter  the  whole  of  America  is  named.  See  United 
States. 


1405 


1497 
.  1500 
.  1608 
.  1608 
.  1511 
1519-21 

1581 


Spaniards  established  at  Hajti  or  His- 
IMUuola 

Newfoundland,  the  first  British  colony 
in  this  quarter  of  the  world,  dis- 
covered by  Cabut,  and  by  him  called 
Prima  Vista 

Gabral  discovers  River  Amazon         .    . 

Negroes  first  imported  to  Haytl 

Pi^on  enters  the  Bio  Plata       .        .    . 

Diego  Columbus  conquers  Cuba     . 

Cortes  conquers  Mexico     • 

Pizarro  conquera  Peru     .... 

Gartier,  a  Frenchman,  discovers  the  GuK 
of  St.  Lawrence 1534 

Keudoza  conquers  Buenos  Ayres,  Ac.  1535 

Cortes  discovers  California     .  .  1587 

De  Monts,  a  Frenchman,  settles  in 
Acadie,  now  Nova  Scotia  .    .  1604 

Vixvinio,  the  first  English  settlement  on 
the  main  land,  by  ford  de  la  Warr      .  1607 

Suebec  founded 1608 
ew  England,  the  second,  by  the  Ply- 
mouth company 

New  York  settled  by  the  Dutch        .    . 

A  laxige  body  of  dissenters,  who  fled 
from  churcn  tyranny  in  England,  built 
New  Plymouth 

Nova  Scotia  settled,  under  sir  William 
Alexander,  by  the  Scotch       .       .    . 

Delaware,  by  the  Swedes  and  Dutch 

Massachusetts,  by  sir  H.  Roewell      .    . 

Maryland,  by  lord  Baltimore  . 

Connecticut  granted  to  lord  Warwick  in 
1630 ;  but  no  English  settlement  was 
made  here  till  .       . 

Rhode  Island  settled  by  Roger  Williams 
and  his  brethren 

New  Jersey,  grant  to  lord  Berkeley  .    . 

New  York  settled,  first  by  the  Dutch, 
but  the  Enfrlish  diqxMsessed  them 
and  the  Swedes 1664 

Carolina,  by  the  English  ...  1669 

Pennsylvania  settled  by  William  Penn, 
the  celebrated  Quaker.  .  1682 

Georgia  settled  bv  general  Oglethorpe,  in  1782 

Kentucky,  by  colonel  Boon        .        .    .  1764 

Canada  attempted  to  be  settled  by  the 


1614 
1614 


16S0 

1622 
1627 
1627 
1682 


1685 

1635 
1644 


French  in  1534 ;  they  built  Quebec  in 
1608 ;  but  the  whole  country  wss  con- 
quered by  the  English ....  1759 

Louisiana  discoverMl  by  Ferdinand  de 
Soto,  in  1541 ;  settled  by  the  French 
in  1718 ;  but  eastward  of  the  Missis- 
sippi WAS  ceded  to  England  in        .    .  1763 

Florida  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot 
in  1497;  re-discovered  by  Poooo  de 
Leon  in  1512 ;  it  belonged  alternately 
to  France  and  Spain ;  ceded  by  the 
latter  to  the  English  in  .  176S 

The  memorable  American  Stamp  Act 
passed  .     March  22;  1765 

The  obnoxious  duty  on  tea,  paper, 
painted  glass,  Ac.  June,  1767 

The  populace  destroy  the  tea  flrom  shipa 
newly  arrived  from  England,  at  Bostoo, 
and  become  boldly  diMx>ntented,  Nov.  1773 

The  Boston  Port  Bill  by  which  that 
port  was  to  be  shut  up  until  satia&e- 
tion  should  be  made  to  the  East  India 
Company  for  the  tea  destroyed, 
passed   ....        March  25,  1774 

The  first  general  congress  met  at  Phila- 
delphia    ....         Sept  5,  1774 

The  revolution  commenced ;  first  action 
between  the  Americans  and  king's 
troops  (see  Lexington)  .        .  April  19,  1775 

The  colonies  sgree  on  articles  of  confede- 
ration snd  perpetual  union      May  20,  1775 

General  Geoige  Washington  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  American 
armies June  16,  1775 

Thirteen  colonies  declare  themselves 
independent     ....  July  4.  1776 

[For  the  several  actions  fought  during 
the  war,  see  them  severally.] 

The  independence  of  the  colonies  ia 
ocknowledffed  by  France,  and  Frank- 
lin and  otners  are  received  there  as 
ambassadors .  March  21,  1778 

American  independence  is  recognised 
by  Holland  .        .       April  19.  1782 

And  by  England,  in  provisional  articles 
of  peace,  signed  at  Paris      .   Nov.  80,  1782 

Definitive  treaty  signed  at  Paris,  Sept.  8,  ]  783 


AHE  29  AMP 


■ador  from  Great  Britain  to  the  United 

BUtasin 1791 

[For  the  later  oocurrencee  of  the  Union, 
United  States  ttf  America.] 


AM£K1CA,  emUinmed, 

And  ratified  by  oongreas .  Jan.  4,  1784 

John  Adame  was  received  as  ambaaaador 

from  America  by  George  III.    June  2,  1785 
And  Mr.  Hammond  was  fint  ambas- 

"  AMERICA,*'  an  American  yacht^  8chooner-btiilt»  171  tons  burthen,  on  Ang^.  22, 1851, 
at  Cowes  regatta,  in  a  match  round  the  lele  of  Wight,  for  a  cup  worth  100^.  open  to 
all  nations,  came  in  first  by  8  miles,  owing  to  her  superior  construction. 

AMERICA,  CENTRAL,  including  the  states  of  Guatemala,  Honduras,  Nicaragua,  Sal- 
vador and  Costa  Rica,  which  declared  their  independence  Sept  21,  1821 ;  and 
separated  from  the  Mexican  confederation  July  21,  1828.  The  states  made  a 
treaty  of  union  between  themselves  March  21, 1847.  There  has  been  among  them 
sinoe  much  anarchy  and  bloodshed,  agi^vated  greatly  by  the  irruption  of  American 
fiUibustera  under  Kenney  and  Walker  m  1854  and  1855.    See  Nieairagwi, 

AMERICA,  SOUTH.  The  Spaniards,  as  being  the  first  discoTerers  of  this  vast  portion 
of  the  Western  world,  had  the  largest  and  richest  share  of  it.  When  they  landed  in 
Peru,  AJ>.  1530,  they  found  it  governed  by  sovereigns  called  Incas,  who  were  revered 
by  their  subjects  as  divinities,  but  they  were  soon  subdued  by  their  invaders  under 
the  command  of  Francis  Pizarro.  The  cruelties  practised  by  the  new  adventurers, 
wherever  they  appeared,  will  be  a  reproach  to  Spain  for  ever.*  Spanish  America  has 
suocesafully  asserted  its  freedom  within  the  present  century :  it  fint  declared  its 
independence  in  1810 ;  and  the  provinces  assembled,  and  proclaimed  the  sovereignty 
of  the  people  in  July,  1814 ;  since  when,  although  the  wars  of  rival  and  contending 
chieb  have  been  afflicting  the  country,  it  has  released  itself  from  the  yoke  of  Spain 
for  ever.  Its  independence  was  recognised  by  England,  in  sending  consuls  to  the 
several  new  sUtes,  Oct.  30,  1823,  ef  jeg;  and  by  France,  Sept.  SO,  1830.  See  Brazil^ 
BweuM  Ayret,  Oolombia,  Lma,  Peru,  &c 

AMETHYSTS.  When  the  amethyst  was  fint  discovered,  or  firat  prized,  is  not  known ; 
it  was  the  ninth  in  place  upon  the  breastplate  of  the  Jewish  high  priests ;  and  the 
name  Inachar  was  engraved  upon  it  It  is  of  a  rich  violet  colour,  and,  according  to 
Plutarch,  takes  its  name  from  its  hue,  resembling  wine  mixed  with  water.  One  worth 
200  rix-doUan,  having  been  rendered  colourless,  equalled  a  diamond  in  lustre,  valued 
at  18,000  gold  crowns. — De  Boot,  Bisi.  Ckmrnarum.  Amethysts  were  discovered  at 
Kerry,  in  Ireland,  in  1775. — Bums. 

AMIENS,  PEA.CE  or.  Between  Great  Britain,  Holland,  France,  and  Spain.  The 
preliminary  articles  of  this  memorable  peace,  fifteen  in  number,  were  signed  in 
London  by  lord  Hawkesbury  and  M.  Otto,  on  the  part  of  England  and  France,  Oct  1, 
1801 ;  and  the  definitive  treaty  was  subscribed  at  Amiens,  on  March  27, 1802,  by  the 
marquess  Comwallis  for  England,  Joseph  Bonaparte  for  France,  Axara  for  Spain, 
and  Schimmelpenninek  for  Holland. 

AMMONITES  Descended  from  Ammon,  the  son  of  Lot :  they  invaded  the  land  of 
Canaan  and  made  the  Israelites  tributaries,  but  they  were  defeated  by  Jephthah, 
1188,  B.a  They  again  invaded  Canaan  in  the  reign  of  Saul,  with  an  intention  to  put 
out  the  right  eye  of  all  those  they  subdued ;  but  Saul  overthrew  them,  1093  B.a 
They  were  afterwards  many  times  vanquished :  and  Antiochus  the  Qreat  took 
Rabboath  their  capital,  and  destroyed  all  the  walls,  198  B.a — Jotqphut. 

AMNESTY.  Oblivion  and  pardon  as  applied  to  enemies  and  nations :  first  acted  on  in 
Greece  by  Thrasybulus,  the  Athenian  general  and  patriot,  who  commenced  the 
expulsion  of  the  thirty  tyrants  with  the  assistance  of  only  thirty  of  hia  friends: 
having  succeeded,  the  only  reward  he  would  accept  was  a  crown  made  with  two 
branches  of  olive,  409  b.o. — Humect  Euayt, 

AMPHICTYONIC  COUNCIL.  Established  at  Thermopyla  by  Amphictyon.  for  the 
management  of  all  affairs  relative  to  Greece.  The  celebrated  council,  which  was 
composed  of  the  wiseat  and  most  virtuous  men  of  various  cities  of  Greece,  consisted  of 
twelve  delegates,  1498  B.C.    Other  cities  in  process  of  time  sent  also  some  of  their 

*  Las  Cosas,  in  describing  the  harbaritv  of  the  Spaniards  while  pursuing  their  conquests,  records 
many  instances  of  it  that  fill  the  mind  wim  horror.  In  Jamaica,  he  says,  thev  hanged  ttie  unresisting 
n-atives  by  thirteen  at  a  time,  in  honour  of  the  thirteen  apostles  I  and  he  nas  beheld  them  throw  the 
Indian  iufiints  to  their  dogs  for  food  !  "  I  have  heard  them,"  says  Las  Casas,  **  borrow  the  limb  of  a 
human  being  to  feed  their  dogs^  and  have  aeon  them  the  next  day  return  a  quarter  of  another  victim 
to  the  lander  1" 


AMP  80  ANA 

oitiKens  to  the  council  of  the  Amphiotyons,  and  in  the  age  of  Antoninua  Piui^  they 
were  increased  to  the  number  of  thirty. — Suidoi, 

AMPHION.  British  frigate,  of  88  guns,  blown  up  while  riding  at  anchor  in  Plymoath 
Sound,  and  the  whole  of  her  crew  then  on  board,  consisting  of  more  than  two 
hundred  and  fifty  persons,  officers  and  men,  perished,  Sept.  22, 1796. — Butler, 

AMPHITHEATRES.  They  may  be  said  to  be  the  invention  of  Julius  Caesar  and 
Curio.  In  the  Roman  amphitheatres,  which  were  vast  round  and  oval  buildings,  the 
people  assembled  to  see  the  combats  of  gladiators,  of  wild  beasts,  and  other  exhi- 
bitions; they  were  generally  built  of  wood,  but  Statilius  Taurus  made  one  of  stone, 
under  Aug^istus  Caesar.  The  amphitheatre  of  Vespasian  was  built  a.d.  79 ;  and  is  said 
to  have  been  a  regular  fortress  in  1812.  See  OoUaeum,  The  amphitheatre  of  Verona 
was  next  in  size,  and  then  that  of  Nismes. 

AMPHITRITE,  tea  ship.    See  Wrecki. 

AMSTERDAM.  It  was  the  castle  of  Amstel  in  ▲.».  1100;  and  its  building  as  a  city, 
was  commenced  in  1203.  The  famous  exchange  was  built  in  1634 ;  and  the  stadt- 
house,  one  of  the  noblest  palaces  in  the  world,  in  1648;  the  latter  cost  three 
millions  of  guilders,  a  prodigious  sum  at  that  time.  It  is  built  upon  18,659  piles,  and 
the  magnificence  of  the  structure  la,  for  its  size,  both  in  external  and  internal 
grandeur,  perhaps  without  a  parallel  in  Europe.  Amsterdam  surrendered  to  the 
king  of  Prussia,  when  that  prince  invaded  Holland  in  favour  of  the  stadtholder,  in 
1787.  The  French  were  admitted  without  resistance,  Jon.  18,  1795.  The  ancient 
government  was  restored  in  November,  1813.    See  MoUancL 

AMULETS,  OB  CHARMa  All  nations  have  been  fond  of  amulets.  The  Egyptians  had 
a  great  variety ;  so  had  the  Jevrs,  Chaldeans,  and  Persiana  Among  the  Qreeks,  they 
were  much  used  in  exciting  or  conquering  the  passion  of  love.  They  were  adao  in 
estimation  among  the  Ronlana — Pliny;  Ovid,  Among  the  Christians  of  early  ages, 
amulets  were  made  of  the  wood  of  tiie  true  cross,  about  a.d.  828.  They  have  been 
sanctioned  by  religion  and  astrology,  and  even  in  modem  times  by  medical  and  other 
sciences — witness  the  anodyne  necklace^  &c.  The  pope  and  Roman  Catholic  clergy 
make  and  sell  amulets  and  charms  even  to  this  day. — Athe, 

AMTLEKK  A  colourless,  very  mobile  liquid,  procured  by  distilling  fouael  oil  (potato- 
spirit)  with  chloride  of  zino,  discovered  by  M.  Balard  of  Paris  in  1844.  The  vapour 
was  employed  instead  of  chloroform  first  by  Dr.  Snow  in  1856.  It  has  since  been 
tried  in  many  hospitals  here,  and  in  France.  The  odour  is  more  unpleasant  than 
chloroform,  and  more  vapour  must  be  used.    It  is,  however,  thought  less  dangeroua 

ANABAPTISTS.  The  sect  arose  about  a.d.  1525,  and  was  known  in  England  before 
1549.  John  of  Leyden,  Muncer,  Storck,  and  other  German  enthusiasts,  about  the 
time  of  the  reformation  spread  its  doctrinea  The  anabaptists  of  Munster  (who  are, 
of  course,  properly  distinguished  from  the  mild  sect  of  this  name  existing  in  England) 
taught  that  infant  baptism  was  a  contrivance  of  the  devil,  that  there  is  no  original 
sio,  that  men  have  a  free  will  in  spiritual  things,  and  other  doctrines  still  more  wild 
and  absurd.  Munster  they  called  Mount  Zion,  and  one  Mathias,  a  baker,  was  declared 
to  be  the  king  of  Zion.  Their  enthusiasm  led  them  to  the  maddest  practices,  and 
they,  at  length,  rose  in  arms  under  pretence  of  gospel  liberty.  Munster  was  taken 
about  fifteen  months  afterwards,  and  they  were  all  put  to  death. — ^The  AnabapUsta 
of  England  diflTer  from  other  Protestants  in  little  more  than  the  not  baptising 
children,  as  appears  by  a  confession  of  faith,  published  by  the  representatives  of 
above  one  hundred  of  their  congregations,  in  1689.  In  1851  they  had  180  chapels  in 
London,  and  2789  in  England  and  Walea    See  Wanktp, 

ANACREONTIC  VERSE.  Commonly  of  the  jovial  or  Bacchanalian  stram,  named  after 
Anacreon,  of  Teos,  the  Greek  lyric  poet,  about  510  B.o.  The  odes  of  Anaoreon  are 
much  prized ;  their  author  lived  in  a  constant  round  of  drunkenness  and  debaucheiy, 
and  was  choked  by  a  grapeetone  in  his  eighty-fifth  year. — StanUfft  Liva  of  the  PoeU. 

ANAGRAM.  A  transposition  of  the  letters  of  a  name  or  sentence :  as  from  Mary,  the 
name  of  the  Virgin,  ia  made  army.  On  the  question  put  by  Pilate  to  Our  Saviour, 
'*  QiUd  tit  Veritas  t"  we  have  this  admirable  anagram,  **£Mtvirqvi  adetU"  The  French 
are  said  to  have  introduced  the  art  as  now  pnotised,  about  the  year  1560,  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  IX. — Benault. 

ANATHEMAS.  The  word  had  four  significations  among  the  Jews;  the  anathema,  or 
curse,  was  the  devoting  some  person  or  thing  to  destruction.    We  have  a  remarkable 


ANA  81  ANE 

inatuoo  of  it  in  the  city  of  Jericho  (lee  Jothwok  tL  17).  Anathemas  were  used  by  the 
primitiye  chnrchea,  A.D.  887.  Saoh  eodenaetioal  denunciationa  oauaed  great  terror 
in  England  up  to  the  close  of  Eliaabeth'a  reign. — Rafin,  The  church  anathema  or 
eorse,  with  excommunication  and  other  eeveritieB  of  the  Romiah  religion,  are  still 
pmcUBed  in  Roman  Catholic  countries  to  this  day. — Athe, 

ANATOMY.  The  structure  of  the  human  body  was  made  part  of  the  philosophical 
iuTestlgations  of  Plato  and  Xenophon ;  and  it  became  a  branch  of  mediod  art  under 
ffippoCTates,  about  420  B.a.  But  Erasistratus  and  Herophilus  may  be  regarded  as 
being  the  fathers  of  anatomy :  they  were  the  first  to  dissect  the  human  form,  as 
anatomical  research  had  been  previously  confined  to  brutes :  it  is  mentioned  thai 
they  practised  upon  the  bodies  of  living  criminalSy  about  800  and  203  B.o.  In 
Englandf  the  schooli  were  supplied  with  subjects  unlawfully  exhumed  from  graves; 
and,  until  lately,  the  bodies  of  executed  criminals  were  ordered  for  dissection.  See 
luxt  artiek.  The  first  anatomical  plates  were  designed  by  Yesalius^  about  ajo.  1688. 
The  diacoTeries  of  Harvey  were  made  in  1616.  The  anatomy  of  plants  was  disco- 
▼ered  in  1680.— .Aretmi'f  JsTiitory  of  Phytic, 

ANATOMY  LAWa  Theflrat  law  regulathig  the  science  was  enacted  in  1540;  and 
laws  relating  to  it,  and  encouraging  achooli^  have  been  framed,  altered,  and  amended 
in  almost  every  reign  to  the  present  time.  A  new  statute  was  enacted,  regulating 
sehoola  of  anatomy,  2  &  3  WilL  IV.,  c.  75, 1832,  which  repealed  ao  much  of  the  9th 
of  GeOh  lY.,  as  still  empowered  the  judges  to  direct  the  body  of  a  murderer,  after 
execution,  to  be  dissected ;  **but  the  court  may  direct  that  sudi  criminal  be  buried 
within  the  precincts  of  the  jaiL" — 8kttut€t  ai  large, 

ANCHORITES.  Paul,  Anthony,  and  Hilarion,  were  the  first  anchorites.  Many  of  the 
early  anchorites  lived  in  cares  and  deserts,  and  practised  great  austerities.  Some 
were  analogous  to  the  fakeers,  who  impose  voluntary  punishments  upon  themselves 
as  atonement  for  their  ains,  and  as  being  acceptable  to  Qod ;  and  their  modea  of  torture 
were  often  extravagant  and  oriminaL    The  order  first  arose  in  the  fourth  century. 

ANCHORS  lOB  SHIPS.  Anchors  are  of  ancient  uae,  and  the  invention  belongs  to 
the  Tuscans. — Pliny.  The  aeoond  tooth,  or  fluke,  was  added  by  Anacharaia,  the 
Scythian. — Strabo,  Anchora  were  firat  forged  in  England  a.d.  578.  The  anchora  of  a 
first-rate  ihip  of  war  (of  which  such  a  ship  has  four)  will  weigh  90  cwt.  each,  and  each 
of  them  wiU  cost  i50L—PhiUipt, 

ANCIENT  HISTORY  akd  ANCIENT  MUSIC  Ancient  history  commenced  in  the 
obscurity  of  tradition,  about  1800  B.O.,  and  ia  considered  aa  ending  with  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Roman  empire  in  Italv,  a.d.  476.  Modem  hiatory  began  with  Mahomet 
or  Charlemagne,  and  haa  lasted  about  1200  or  1000  yeara,  commencing  in  almoat  as 
great  obscurity  as  ancient  history,  owing  to  the  ignorance  of  those  times,  a.d.  600 
and  800.  Ancient  Music  refers  to  such  muaical  compoaitiona  aa  appeared  from 
the  time  of  Palestrini  to  that  of  Bach;  that  is,  from  the  year  1529  to  1684.  See 
History  J  Music 

ANDR£,  MAJOR,  HIS  EXECUTION.  This  gallant  and  lamented  soldier  was  an 
adjutan^general  in  the  British  army,  and  was  taken  on  hia  return  from  a  aecret 
expedition  to  the  American  general  Arnold,  in  disguiae,  Sept.  23,  1780.  He  was 
sentenced  to  execution  by  a  court  of  general  Washington's  officers  at  Tappan,  New 
York,  and  suffered  death,  Oct.  2  following.  His  remains  were  removed  to  England 
in  a  sarcophsgus,  Au^  10, 1821,  sad  are  now  interred  in  Westminster  abbey. 

ANDREW,  ST.  Martyred  by  crucifixion.  Nor.  30,  a.d.  69,  at  Patrsa,  in  Achaia.  The 
festival  was  instituted  about  359.  Andrew  is  the  titular  aaint  of  Scotland,  owing  to 
Hungus,  the  Pictiah  prince,  having  dreamed  that  the  aaint  was  to  be  hia  friend  in  a 
pending  battle  with  the  Northumbriana ;  and  accordingly  a  St  Andrew'a  cross  ( x  ) 
appeared  in  the  air  during  the  fight,  and  Hungus  conquered.  The  collar  of  an  oider 
of  knighthood,  founded  on  this  legend,  is  formed  of  thistles  (not  to  be  touched),  and 
of  rue  (an  antidote  againat  poison) ;  the  motto  is  Nemo  me  impune  lacessii  {No  one 
assails  me  with  imjnmity).  It  was  instituted  by  Achaius  in  the  year  809,  and  was 
revived  by  king  James  V.  in  1540.    See  2%w<^. 

ANEMOMETER.  To  measure  the  strength  and  velocity  of  the  wind,  waa  invented  by 
Wolfitts,  in  1709.  The  extreme  velocity  was  found  by  Dr.  Lind  to  be  98  miles  per 
hour.    See  Winds. 

ANEROID.    See  Barometer. 


ANG  82  ANI 

ANGELIC  KNIGHTS  or  ST.  GEOHGE.  Instituted  in  Greece,  a.d.  456.  The  Angdid 
were  instituted  by  Angelus  Comnenus,  emperor  of  Constantinople,  1191.  The 
AngeliecB,  an  order  of  nuns,  was  founded  at  Milan  by  Louisa  Torelli,  a.d.  1534.  There 
existed  several  communities  in  Italy  under  these  or  somewhat  similar  names. — Aghe^ 

ANGELS,  IN  COMMERCE.  An  angel  was  an  ancient  gold  coin,  weighing  four  penny- 
weights, and  was  valued  at  6«.  Sd.  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  and  at  lOx.  in  the  reign 
of  Elisabeth,  1562.  The  angelot  was  an  ancient  gold  coin,  value  half  an  angel,  struck 
at  Paris  when  that  capital  was  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI., 
1481.— ITood 

ANGERSTEIN  GALLERY.  The  foundation  of  the  National  Gallery  in  London,  was  a 
small  collection  of  about  forty  pictures,  the  most  exquisite  of  the  art,  purchased  by 
the  British  government  for  the  public  service  for  60,000^y  of  the  executors  of 
Mr.  John  Julius  Angersteln,  in  Jan.  1822.  The  exhibition  of  these  pictures  was 
opened  to  the  public,  in  Pall  Mall,  in  May,  1824.    See  Natunud  OaUery, 

ANGLESEY.  OB  ISLAND  of  the  ANGLES  (cy,  in  Saxon,  signifying  island).  This 
celebrated  seat  of  the  Druids  was  subdued  by  the  Romans  (who  called  it  Mona), 
A.D.  78;  and  by  the  English  in  1282.  The  fortress  of  Beaumaris  was  built  bj 
Edwaid  I.  to  overawe  the  Welsh,  1295.  The  spot  in  Anglesey  where  Suetonius 
Paulinus  and  his  barbarous  legions  butchered  the  unoffending  Druids,  in  a.o.  61,  is 
still  shown  at  a  ferry  called  Porthammel,  across  the  Menai  Straits. — Phillips. 

ANGLING.  The  origin  of  the  art  (the  rod  and  line),  is  involved  in  obscimty ;  allusion 
is  made  to  it  by  the  (jhreeks  and  Romans,  and  in  the  most  ancient  books  of  the  Kble, 
as  AtMu,  It  came  into  general  repute  in  England  about  the  period  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. Wynkin  de  Worde's  TrecUyte  of  Fyuhinge^  the  first  book  printed  on  angling, 
appeared  in  1496.    Lsaak  Walton's  book  was  printed  in  1658. 

ANGLO-SAXONS,  or  ANGLES.  The  name  of  England  is  derived  from  a  village  near 
Sleswick,  called  Anglen,  whose  population  (called  Angli  by  Tacitus),  joined  the  first 
Saxon  freebooters.  Egbert  called  his  kingdom,  Anglesland.  East  Anglia  was  a 
kingdom  of  the  heptarchy,  founded  by  the  Angles,  one  of  whose  chiefs,  Uffa,  assumed 
the  title  of  king,  a.d.  575 ;  the  kingdom  ceased  in  792.    See  £rilcan. 

ANGRIA.  This  fiunous  pirate's  fort,  on  the  coast  of  Malabar,  was  invested  by  admiral 
Watson,  and  destroyed.  The  pirate,  his  wife,  and  family,  were  made  prisoners ;  and 
great  quantities  of  stores  which  were  found  in  the  fort,  and  several  ships  in  the 
harbour,  which  he  had  taken  from  the  East  India  Company,  were  seized,  1756. 

ANHALT;  HOUSE  of,  in  Germany.  A  very  ancient  and  distinguished  royal  house, 
the  best  genealogists  deduce  its  origin  from  Berenthobaldus,  who  made  war  upon  the 
Thuringians  in  the  sixth  century.  In  1586,  the  principality  was  divided  among  the 
five  sons  of  Joachim  Ernest,  and  hence  the  five  branches  of  this  family,  of  which 
Anhalt-Dessau  and  Anhalt-Bernbourg  are  the  principal. — BeaUon, 

ANHOLT,  ISLAND  of.  Owing  to  the  injury  done  by  the  Danish  cruisers  to  British 
commerce,  this  island  was  taken  possession  of  by  England,  in  the  French  war.  The 
Danes  made  an  attempt  to  regain  it  with  a  force  which  exceeded  4000  men,  but  were 
gallantly  repulsed.  The  British  force  opposed  to  them  did  not  amount  to  more 
than  150,  yet  triumphed  in  a  close  and  desperate  engagement,  March  14,  1811. 

ANIMALCULES.  Leeuwenhoek's  researches  in  1677  produced  the  most  astonishing 
revelations  of  nature.  In  the  milt  of  the  cod-fish  are  contained,  he  says,  more  living 
animalcules  than  there  are  people  on  the  whole  earth.  A  mite  was  anciently  thought 
the  limit  of  littleness ;  but  there  are  animals  27,000,000  of  times  smaller  than  a  mite. 
A  thousand  millions  of  animalculse,  discovered  in  common  water,  are  not  altogether 
laiger  than  a  grain  of  sand.  Yet  their  multitude  sometimes  gives  the  water,  in  the 
summer  months,  a  pale  red,  or  a  yellow  tinge.  Leeuwenhoek's  A  rcana  NaiurcB  was 
published  at  Leyden  in  1696.  The  works  of  Ehrenbeig  of  Berlin,  on  the  Infusorial 
AnimalculsB  (1888-57),  will  immortalise  his  name. 

ANIMAL  LIFE.  "The  days  of  our  years  are  three-score  years  and  ten ;  and  if  by 
reason  of  strength  they  be  four-score  years,  yet  is  their  strength  labour  and  sorrow ; 
for  it  is  soon  cut  off,  and  we  fly  away." — Psalm  xc.  ver.  10.  Without  referring  to 
ante  or  post-diluvians,  or  to  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures,  many  extraordinary 
instances  of  length  of  human  life  will  be  found  under  the  article  Longevity.  The 
following  is  the  duration  of  life  in  some  of  the  lower  animals,  taken  from  a  table 
published  by  sir  Richard  Phillips : — 


ANI  88  ANO 

ANIMAL  LIFE,  eorUwued. 


TXABS. 

TKARB. 

The  Hone 

.   8  to  82 

Hide 

.  18 

Swine 

Ox  . 

.    .  20 

8b«ep. 

.    .  10 

Ooat   . 

Gow 

.  23 

Ram 

.  15 

Cat. 

nMn  • 

.     .  S3 

Dog    . 

.      14  to  25  , 

Pigeon 

IS. 

TEAM. 

25 

Oooee    . 

.    28 

8 

Parrots 

30  to  100 

10 

RaTena  . 

.  100 

8 

Turtles 

50  to  800 

Aihe  mentions  many  other  animalB  whose  ages,  howerer,  are  too  well  known  to  be 
noticed  here ;  he  also  mentions  several,  the  duration  of  which  he  himself  deems 
extreme  and  nncertain. 

ANIMAL  MAQNETTISM.  This  deception  was  introduced  by  father  Hehl,  at  Vienna, 
about  1774  :  and  had  wonderful  success  in  France  about  1788.  It  had  its  dupes  in 
England  also,  in  1789 ;  but  it  exploded  a  few  years  afterwards.  It  was  a  pretended 
mode  of  curing  all  manner  of  diseases  by  means  of  tympaihetie  affection  between  the 
sick  person  and  the  operator.  The  effect  on  the  patient  was  supposed  to  depend  on 
certain  motions  of  the  fingers  and  features  of  the  operator,  he  placing  himself  imme- 
diately before  the  patient,  whose  eyes  were  to  be  fixed  on  his.  After  playing  in  this 
manner  on  the  imagination  and  enfeebled  mind  of  the  sick,  and  performing  a  number 
of  distortions  and  grimaces,  the  cure  was  said  to  be  completed.  See  Oalvanitmf 
Mamentmj  &a 

ANIMAI^  CRUELTY  to.  The  late  Mr.  Martin,  M.P.,  sealously  laboured  as  a  senator 
to  repress  this  odious  offence ;  and  a  society  in  London,  which  was  established  in 
1824,  effects  much  good  in  this  way.  See  OrutUy  to  AnimaU  Society,  Mr.  Martin's 
act  passed  8  Geo.  IV.  (1822).  See  7  &  8  Geo.  lY.  (1827) ;  5  &  6  Will.  lY.  o.  69  (1836) ; 
for  Ireland,  1  Yict  o.  66  (1887).  Dogs  were  forbidden  to  be  used  for  draught  by  2  &  8 
Vict,  a  47  (1839);  see  also,  12  &  13  Yict.  c  92  (1849),  and  17  k  18  Vict,  a  60  (1864). 

ANJOU  OR  BEAUGi,  BATTLE  or.  Fought  between  the  English  and  French  armies; 
the  latter  commanded  by  the  dauphin  of  France,  who  defeated  the  English,  on  whose 
side  the  duke  of  CHarenoe  and  1600  men  perished  on  the  field:  the  duke  was  slain 
by  sir  Allan  Swinton,  a  Scotch  knight,  who  commanded  a  company  of  men  at  arms; 
and  the  earls  of  Somerset,  Dorset^  and  Huntingdon,  were  taken  prisoners.  Beaug^  was 
the  first  battle  that  turned  the  tide  of  success  against  the  English,  April  8, 1421. 
The  uniTorsity  of  Anjou,  so  celebrated  for  learning,  was  founded  in  1849. 

ANNATES^  OR  FIRST  FRUITS.  Thev  were  first  exacted  by  Antonius,  bishop  of  Ephesus ; 
but  the  exaction  was  condemned  by  the  council  of  Ephesus,  a.d.  400.    (Element  Y. 
the  first  pope  who  imposed  annates  on  England,  1806.    See  Firtt  FnUU, 


ANNO  DOMINI,  a.d.  The  Christian  era  commenced  Jan.  1,  m  the  middle  of  the  4th 
year  of  the  194th  Olympiad,  the  753rd  year  of  the  building  of  Rome,  and  in  the  4714 
of  the  Julian  period.  This  era  was  inyented  by  a  monk,  Dionysius  Exiguus,  a.d.  632 
It  is  now  held  that  Christ  was  bom  4  years  prerions,  as  noteid  in  the  margin  of  our 
Bibles,  Luke,  ch.  ii.  It  was  introduced  into  Italy  in  the  6th  century,  but  not 
gener^y  employed  for  seyeral  centuries.  Charles  III.  of  Germany  was  the  first  who 
added  "  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  "  to  his  reign,  in  879. 

ANNUITIES,  OR  Pensions.  They  were  first  granted  in  1612,  when  202.  were  given  to 
a  lady  of  the  court  for  services  done ;  and  6L  IZs.  id,  for  the  maintenance  of  a  gentle- 
man,  1636.  The  sum  of  ISl.  6».  Sd.  was  deemed  competent  to  support  a  gentle- 
man in  the  study  of  the  law,  1664.  An  act  was  passed  empowering  the  govemment 
to  borrow  one  million  sterling  upon  an  annuity  of  fourteen  per  cMi,,  4  &  6  William 
and  Mary,  1691-3.  This  mode  of  borrowing  soon  afterwards  became  general  among 
civilised  governments.  An  annuity  of  12.  2j.  lid.  per  annvm,  accumulating  at  10  per 
cerU.,  compound  interest,  amounts  in  100  years  to  20,0002. 

ANNUNCnATION  of  thi  YIRGIN  MARY.  This  festival  commemorates  the  Yirgin's 
miraculous  conception,  denoting  the  tidings  brought  her  by  the  angel  Gabriel ;  its 
origin  is  referred  variously  by  ecclesiastical  writers  to  the  fourth  and  seventh  century. 
The  day,  the  26th  of  March,  is  also  called  Lady-day  (which  Me).  In  England,  beforB 
the  alteration  of  the  style,  Sept.  3,  1762,  our  year  began  on  the  26th  of  March,  a 
reckoning  which  we  still  preserve  in  certain  eccleaiaBtical  computationa  The  religious 
order  of  the  Annunciation  was  instituted  in  1232;  and  the  military  order,  in  Savoy, 
by  Amadeua,  count  of  Savoy,  in  memory  of  Amadeus  I.,  who  had  bravely  defended 
Rhodes  against  the  Turks,  1366. 

ANOINTING.    The  ceremony  observed  at  the  inauguration  of  kings,  bishops,  and  other 

D 


L      .               .10 

V.    .        . 

.      2,560 

IX.      . 

655,360 

II.                .    .      40 

VI.      . 

.    .    10,240 

X.  . 

.    .     8.621.440 

IIL   .        .        .    160 

VII. 

.    40,960 

XI.      . 

.  10,485,760 

IV.       .        .    .    640 

VIII.  . 

.    .  168,840 

XII. 

.     .  41.943,040 

AKO  84  ANT 

eminent  personages,  and  s  yerj  ancient  custom.  It  was  fint  used  at  coronationB  in 
England  on  Alfred  the  Great,  in  872;  and  in  Scotland,  on  Edgar,  in  1098.  The 
religious  rite  is  referred  to  a  very  early  date  in  the  Christian  church:  by  some 
authors,  to  550,  when  it  was  practised  with  consecrated  oil,  as  extreme  unction  (one 
of  the  sacraments  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church)  on  dying  persons,  and  penons  in 
extreme  danger  of  death,  and  is  done  so  to  the  present  day. 

ANONYMOUS  LETTEBS.  The  sending  of  letters  denouncing  persons,  or  demanding 
money,  or  using  threats,  made  felony  by  the  Black  Act,  9  Qeo.  I.,  1722,^SuUuteB  at 
large,  Sereral  persons  have  been  executed  in  England  for  sending  anonymous 
letters,  imputing  crimes  and  making  exposures  ;  and  the  present  laws  against  these 
praotices  are  still  very  seyere,  but  not  more  so  than  just 

ANTARCTIC.  Thesouth  pole  is  so  called,  because  it  is  opporite  to  the  north  orarctic  pole. 
A  continent  of  1700  miles  of  coast  from  east  to  west,  and  64  to  66  degrees  south,  was 
discovered  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean  by  French  and  American  navigators  on  the  same 
day,  Jan.  9, 1840 ;  a  coincidence  the  more  singular,  as  the  discoverers  were  at  a  distance 
from  each  other  of  720  miles.  Mr.  Biscoe,  a  merchant  captain,  fell  in  with  land, 
which  he  coasted  for  800  miles  in  lat.  67,  long.  50,  in  the  year  1830.    See  South  PoU. 

ANTEDILUVIANBu  Aocordmg  to  the  tables  of  Mr.  Whiston,  the  number  of  people 
in  the  ancient  world,  or  world  as  it  existed  previous  to  the  Flood,  reached  to  the 
enormous  amount  of  549,755  millions,  in  the  year  of  the  world  1482.  Burnet  has 
supposed  that  the  first  human  pair  might  have  left»  at  the  end  of  the  first  centuiy, 
ten  married  couples ;  and  from  these,  allowing  them  to  multiply  in  the  same  decuple 
proportion  as  the  first  pair  did,  would  rise,  in  1500  years,  a  greater  number  of  persons 
Uian  the  earth  was  capable  of  holding.  He  therefore  suggests  a  quadruple  multipli- 
cation only;  and  then  exhibits  the  foUowing  table  of  increase  during  the  first  sixteen 
centuries  thiat  preceded  the  Flood : — 

XIII.  .       167,148.160 

XIV.  .       671,088.640 

XV.  .    2,684,354.460 
XVL  .  10,737,418,840 

This  calculation,  although  the  most  moderate  made,  exceeds,  it  will  be  seen,  by  at 
least  ten  times,  the  present  number  of  mankind,  which,  at  the  highest  estimate, 
amounts  to  only  a  thousand  millions. 

ANTHEMS,  OR  HYMNa  Hikry,  bishop  of  Poitiers,  and  St  Ambrose  were  the  first 
who  composed  them,  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century. — LengUt,  They  were 
introduc^  into  the  Church  service  in  886. — Baker.  Ignatius  is  said  to  have  intro- 
duced them  into  the  Greek,  and  St.  Ambrose  into  the  Western  Church.  They  were 
introduced  into  the  Reformed  Churches  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign,  about  1565. 

ANTHROPOPHAQL  Eaters  of  human  flesh  have  existed  in  all  ages  of  the  world.  The 
Cyclops  and  Lestrygones  are  represented  as  man-eaters,  by  Homer;  and  the  Esse* 
donian  Scythians  were  so,  according  to  Herodotus.  Diogenes  ssaerted  that  we  might 
as  well  eat  the  flesh  of  men,  as  that  of  other  animals ;  and  the  practice  still  exists  in 
Africa,  the  South  Sea  Islands,  kc  In  order  to  make  trial  whether  there  was  any 
repugnance  in  nature  to  the  feeding  of  an  animal  on  its  own  species,  Leonardua 
Floroventius  fed  a  hog  with  hog's  flesh,  and  a  dog  with  that  of  a  dog,  when  he  found 
the  bristles  of  the  hog  to  fall  ofi^,  and  the  dog  to  become  full  of  ulcers.  The  annals 
of  Milan  furnish  an  extraordinary  instance  of  anthropophagy:  a  Milanese  woman, 
named  Elizabeth,  from  a  depraved  appetite,  had  an  invincible  inclination  to  human 
flesh ;  she  enticed  children  to  her  house,  and  killed  and  salted  them ;  and  on  a 
discovery  being  made,  she  was  broken  on  the  wheel  and  burnt.  In  1519.  Various 
more  recent  instances  of  this  kind  have  occurred.    See  Canntbalitm. 

ANTICHRIST.  The  name  given  by  wa^  of  eminence  by  St  John  (1  Ep.  ii.  18)  to 
him  whom  St.  Paul  calls  the  Man  of  Sin  (2  Thess.  iL  8), who,  at  the  latter  end  of  the 
world,  is  to  appear  very  remarkably  in  opposition  to  ChriBtianity.  His  reign,  it  is 
supposed,  will  continue  three  years  and  a  half,  during  which  time  there  will  be  a 
persecution.  This  is  the  opinion  of  the  Roman  Catholics ;  but  the  Protestants,  as  they 
differ  from  them,  so  they  differ  among  themselves.  Grotius  and  Dr.  Hammond  sup- 
pose the  time  to  be  past,  and  the  characters  to  be  furnished  in  the  persons  of  Caligula, 
Simon  Magus,  and  the  Gnostics.  An  opinion  once  prevailed,  that  the  pope  was  the 
true  antichrist,  and,  at  the  council  held  at  Gap,  in  1603,  they  inserted  in  their  confes- 
sion of  fiuth  an  article  whereby  the  pope  was  declared  to  be  antichrist — Brown;  Pardon. 


ANT  85  ANT 

ANTIOUA.  A  West  India  Island,  disoovered  by  Columbus  in  1498;  settied  by  th« 
Sngltth  in  1682. 

ANTIMOHT.  This  mineral  wss  very  early  known,  and  applied  by  the  aneients  to 
Tarious  purposes.  It  was  used  as  paint  to  blacken  both  men's  and  women's  eyes,  as 
appears  from  2  Kingi  ix.  80,  and  Jtrtmiah  iv.  30,  and  in  eastern  countries  is  thus  lued 
to  this  day.  When  mixed  with  lead,  it  makes  types  for  printing;  and  in  physio  its 
uses  are  so  yarions  that,  according  to  its  preparation,  alone,  or  in  company  with  one 
or  two  associates,  it  ii  sufficient  to  answer  all  a  physician  desires  in  an  apothecary's 
shop. — Bofflc*  We  are  indebted  to  Basil  Valentine  for  the  earliest  acoount  of  Ysriooi 
proeesBSB,  about  1410. — PriaHeif. 

ANTINOMIAN  (from  lurrl,  againat,  and  i^/<of ,  low).  The  name  first  applied  by  Luther  to 
John  AgTicola,  in  1588.  The  Antinomians,  it  is  said,  trust  in  the  gospel,  and  not  in 
their  deeds;  and  hold  that  crimes  are  not  crimes  when  committed  by  them;  that 
their  own  good  works  are  of  no  effect;  that  no  man  should  be  troubled  in  oonsoisona 
for  sin ;  that  Qod  does  not  loTe  any  man  for  his  holiness ;  and  similar  doctrines. 

ANTIOCH.  Built  by  Seleucus,  after  the  battle  of  Ipeus,  301  B.O.  In  one  day,  100,000 
of  its  people  were  slain  by  the  Jews,  145  B.a  In  this  city,  once  the  capital  of  Syria, 
the  disciples  of  the  Redeemer  were  first  called  Christians.  The  Era  of  Antioch  is 
much  used  b^  the  early  Christian  writers  attached  to  the  churches  of  Antioch  and 
Alexandria :  it  placed  the  creation  5492  years  B,a 

ANTIPODES.  Plato  is  said  to  be  the  first  who  thought  it  possible  that  antipodes 
existedy  about  868  B.a  Boniface,  archbiBhop  of  Mentz,  legate  of  pope  Zachary,  is  said 
to  have  denounced  a  bishop  as  a  heretic  for  maintaining  this  doctrine,  ▲•D.  741.  The 
antipodes  of  England  lie  to  the  south-east  of  Kew  Zealand;  and  near  the  spot  is  a 
smsll  island,  called  Antipodes  Island. — Brooka. 

ANTIQUARIES,  aud  ANTIQUE.  The  term  osUt^iw  is  applied  to  the  productions  of 
tile  arts  from  the  age  of  Alexander  to  the  time  of  the  irruption  of  the  Ooths  into 
Italy,  in  ▲•d.  400.  A  college  of  antiquaries  is  said  to  have  existed  in  Ireland  700 
years  B.C. ;  but  this  has  very  little  pretensions  to  credit  A  society  wss  founded  by 
archbishop  Parker,  Camden,  Stow,  and  others,  in  1572. — Spdman,  Application  was 
made  in  1589  to  Elizabeth  for  a  charter,  but  her  death  ensued,  and  her  successor. 
James  L,  was  hr  frt>m  fayouring  the  design.  In  1717  the  Society  of  AiUiqvairiet  was 
reyiyed,  and  in  1751  it  receiyed  its  charter  of  incorporation  from  Qeorge  II.  It 
began  to  publish  its  discoyeries,  kc,  under  the  title  of  Ar^aologia,  in  1770.  The 
Mniitk  Ar^cBoiogieal  Astoeiaium  was  founded  in  December  1848,  and  in  1845  the 
Ard^tBoloffieal  InttiUUe  of  QrttU  Britain,  was  formed  by  a  seceding  part  of  the  Asso- 
ciation :  yaluable  journals  are  published  by  both  societies. — The  Society  of  Antiqwrim 
of  JSdinlnargh  was  founded  in  1780.  Since  1845  many  county  Archaeological  sodetiea 
hare  been  formed  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

ANTI-TRINITARIANS.  Theodotns  of  Byzsntium  is  supposed  to  haye  been  the  fint 
who  adyocated  the  simple  humanity  of  Jesus,  at  the  close  of  the  seoond  century. 
This  doctrine  spread  widely  after  the  Reformation,  when  it  was  adopted  by  Lnlius 
and  Faustus  Socinus. — Bajfle,    See  Ariafu,  Sociniani,  and  Unitariang, 

ANTOION,  BATTLE  or.  Between  the  central  army  of  the  French  and  the  allies,  in 
which  4500  Austrians  and  Prussians  were  killed,  3500  taken  prisoners,  and  60O 
emigrants  shut  up  in  Longwy ;  900  French  were. killed  in  the  action ;  thirty  pieces  of 
battering-cannon  and  howitzen,  with  all  the  baggage  of  the  combined  army,  were 
captured,  August  13, 1792. 

ANTWERP.  First  mentioned  in  history,  in  a.d.  517.  Its  fine  exchange  built  in  1581. 
Taken  after  a  long  and  memorable  siege  by  the  prince  of  Parma,  in  1585.  It  was 
then  the  chief  mart  of  Flemish  commerce,  but  the  dvU  war  caused  by  the  tyranny  of 
Philip  IL  droye  the  trade  to  Amsterdam.  The  remarkable  crucifix  of  bronze,  thirty- 
three  feet  high,  in  the  principal  street,  was  formed  from  the  demolished  statue  of 
the  cruel  dvdke  of  AWa,  which  he  had  himself  set  up  in  the  citadel.  The  Barrier 
treaty  was  concluded  here  in  1715. — ^Antwerp  was  the  seat  of  the  ciyil  war  between 
the  Belgians  and  the  house  of  Orange,  1830-81.  The  Belgian  troops  haying  entered 
Antwerp,  were  opposed  by  the  Dutch  garrisoni  which,  after  a  dreadful  conflict,  being 
driyen  into  the  citadel,  cannonaded  the  town  with  red-hot  balls  and  shells,  doing 
immense  mischief  Oct.  27, 1880.  Qeneral  Chasse  surrendered  the  dtadel  to  the 
French,  alter  a  destructiye  bombardment,  Nov.  24, 1832.    See  Belgium. 

d2 


APO  86  APP 

APOCALYPSE.  The  Revelation  of  St  John,  written  in  the  iale  of  PatmoB,  about  a.d. 
95. — IrenoBUi,  Some  ascribe  the  authorship  to  Gerinthus,  the  heretio,  and  othen  to 
John,  the  presbyter,  of  Ephesus.  In  the  first  centuries  many  churches  disowned  it, 
and  in  the  fourth  century  it  was  excluded  from  the  sacred  canon  by  the  council  of 
Laodioea,  but  was  again  receiyed  by  other  councils,  and  confirmed  by  that  of  Trent, 
held  in  1545,  et  geq.  Although  the  book  has  been  rejected  by  Luther,  Miohaelis,  and 
others,  and  its  authority  questioned  in  all  ages  from  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr  (who 
wrote  his  first  Apolofi;y  for  the  Christians  in  A.D.  139),  yet  its  canonical  authority  is 
.  still  almost  universally  acknowledged. 

APOCRYPHA  In  the  prefiftce  to  the  Apocrypha  it  is  said,  « These  books  are  neyiher 
found  in  the  Hebrue  nor  in  the  Chalde." — Bible,  1589.  The  history  of  the  Apocrypha 
ends  185  &o.  The  books  were  not  in  the  Jewish  canon,  but  were  received  as  oanou" 
leal  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  at  the  council  of  Trent,  in  1545. 

APOLLINARIANS.  The  followers  of  Apolllnarius,  bishop  of  Laodicea,  who  taught 
that  the  divinity  of  Christ  was  instead  of  a  soul  to  him;  that  his  flesh  was 
pre-ezistent  to  his  appearance  upon  earth,  and  that  it  was  sent  down  from  heaven, 
and  conveyed  through  the  Virgin,  as  through  a  channel ;  that  there  were  two  sons, 
one  bom  of  God,  the  other  of  the  Virgin,  kc    ApoUinariua  was  deposed  in  a.d.  878. 

APOLLO,  TEBIPLES  of.  Apollo,  the  god  of  all  the  fine  arts,  of  medicine,  music, 
poetry,  and  eloquence,  had  temples  and  statues  erected  to  him  in  almost  every 
country,  particularly  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Italy.  His  most  splendid  temple  was  at 
Delphi,  built  1263  B.C.  See  Delphi.  His  temple  at  Daphne,  built  484  B.O.,  during  a^ 
period  in  which  pestilence  raged,  was  burnt  in  a.d.  862,  and  the  ChristianB  accused 
of  the  crime. — LengleL 

APOSTLES'  CREED.  This  summary  of  the  Christian  faith,  attributed  to  the  apoeUes 
by  Ruffinus,  a.d.  890,  is  generally  believed  to  have  been  composed  a  great  while  after 
their  time.  IrensDus,  bishop  of  Lyons  a.d.  177,  repeats  a  similar  crc^.  Its  compo- 
sition doubtless  was  gradual  Its  repetition  in  public  worship  was  ordained  in  the 
Ooeek  Church  at  Antioch,  and  in  the  Roman  Church  in  the  eleventh  century, 
whence  it  passed  to  the  Church  of  England. 

APOSTOLICI.  The  first  sect  of  Apostolioi  arose  in  the  third  century;  the  second  sect 
was  founded  by  Sagarelli,  who  was  burned  alive  at  Parma,  A.D.  800.  They  wandered 
about,  clothed  in  white,  with  long  beards,  dishevelled  hair,  and  bare  heads,  accom- 
panied by  women  whom  they  caUed  their  spiritual  sisters,  preaching  against  the 
growing  corruption  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  predicting  its  downfiedl. 

APOTHECARY,  the  KING*S.  The  first  mention  of  one  attending  the  king^s  person 
in  England,  was  on  Edward  III.,  1844 ;  when  he  settled  a  pension  of  three  pence 
per  diem  for  life  on  Coursus  de  Gangeland,  for  taking  care  of  him  during  his  illness  in 
Scotland. — Rymm*»  Foedera.  Apothecaries  were  exempted  from,  serving  on  juries  or 
other  civil  offices,  10  Anne,  1712.  The  Apothecaries*  Company  was  incorporated  in 
London,  1617.  The  Botaniad  Garden  at  Chelsea  was  left  by  Sir  Hans  Sloane  to  the 
Company  of  Apothecaries,  Jan.  1758,  on  condition  of  their  introducing  every  year 
fifty  new  plants,  until  their  number  should  amount  to  2000.  The  Dttblin  guild  was 
incorporated,  1745. 

APOTHEOSIS.  A  ceremony  of  the  ancient  nations  of  the  world,  by  which  they  raised 
their  kings  and  heroes  to  the  rank  of  deities.  This  honour  of  deifying  the  deceased 
emperor  was  begun  at  Rome  by  Augustus,  in  favour  of  Julius  Cesar,  b.o.  18. — TiUemmiL 

APPEAL  OF  MURDER.  By  the  late  law  of  England,  a  man  in  an  appeal  of  murder 
might  fight  with  the  appellant,  thereby  to  make  proof  of  his  guilt  or  innocence.  In 
1817,  a  young  maid,  Mary  Ashford,  was  believed  to  have  been  violated  and  murdered 
by  Abraham  Thornton,  who,  in  an  appeal,  claimed  his  right  by  his  wager  of  battle^ 
which  the  court  allowed ;  but  the  appellant  (the  brother  of  the  maid)  refused  the 
challenge,  and  the  accused  escaped,  April  16,  1818.  This  law  was  immediately 
afterwards  struck  firom  off  the  statute-book,  by  59  Geo.  III.,  1819. 

APPEALS.  In  the  time  of  Alfred,  appeals  lay  from  courts  of  justice  to  the  king  in 
council ;  but  being  soon  overwhelmed  with  appeals  from  all  parts  of  England,  he 
framed  the  body  of  laws  which  long  served  as  the  basis  of  English  jurisprudence. — 
jffttfne.  For  ages  previously  to  1588,  appeals  to  the  pope  were  frequent  upon  eocleei- 
astical,  judicial,  and  even  private  matters,  but  they  were  therecdW  forbidden. 
Appeals  from  English  tribunals  to  the  pope  were  first  introduced,  19  Stephen,  1154, 


APP  87  AQU 

bat  aboliflhed  by  act  24  Henry  YIII. —  Vimet'i  8UUuie$,  Appeab  in  oases  of  murder, 
treason,  felony,  &&,  were  abolished,  June,  1819.  Se^  preotding  article.  Courts  of 
appeal  at  the  Exchequer  Chamber,  in  error  from  the  judgments  of  the  King's  Bench, 
Common  Pleas,  and  Exchequer,  were  regulated  by  statutes  11  Geo.  lY.  and  1  WilL  IV., 
1830  and  1831.    See  Judicial  OommiUe^  qf  the  Privy  CfmitcU. 

APPLES.  Sereral  kinds  of  apple  are  indigenoos  in  England ;  but  those  in  general  use 
haye  been  brought  at  Tarions  times  from  the  Continent  Richard  Harris,  fruiterer 
to  Henry  YIII..,  is  said  to  have  planted  a  great  number  of  the  orchards  in  Kent,  and 
Lord  Scudamore,  ambassador  to  France  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  many  of  those  in 
HerefordahirsL    Bay  reckons  78  Tarieties  of  apples  in  his  day  (1688). 

APPRAISEBS.  The  rating  and  valuation  of  goods  for  another  was  an  early  business  In 
Englsnd :  and  so  early  as  11  Edward  I.,  1282,  it  was  a  law,  that  if  they  valued  the 
go^  of  parties  too  high,  the  appraiser  should  take  them  at  tha  price  appraised. 

APPBEKTICES.  Those  of  London  obliged  to  wear  blue  cloaks  in  summer,  and  blue 
gowns  in  winter,  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  1558.  Ten  pounds  was  then  a  great 
apprentice  fee.  From  twenty  to  one  hundred  pounds  were  given  in  the  reign  of 
James  L — SUne^s  Survey,    The  apprentice  tax  enacted,  48  Qeo.  IIL,  1802. 

APPROPRIATIONS,  nr  thb  CHURCH.  Were  mtroduced  in  the  time  of  William  L; 
the  parochial  deigy  being  then  commonly  Saxons,  and  the  bidiops  and  temporal 
clergy  Normans.  These  made  no  scruple  to  impoverish  the  inferior  deigy  to  enrich 
monasteries,  which  were  generally  possessed  by  the  Conqueror^s  friends.  Where  the 
churches  and  tithes  were  so  appropriated,  the  vicar  had  only  such  a  competency  as 
the  bishop  or  superior  thought  fit  to  allow.  This  prevailed  so  far,  that  pope 
Alexander  lY.  complained  of  it,  as  the  bane  of  religion,  the  destruction  of  the  Church, 
and  as  a  poison  that  had  iafected  the  whole  nation. — Pardon. 

APRICOTS.  PrumuB  armeniaea.  They  were  first  planted  in  England  in  A.a  1540. 
They  originally  came  from  Epirus ;  the  gardener  of  Henry  YIII.  introduced  them 
into  this  country,  and  some  uy  they  excel  here  their  pristine  flavour. 

APRIL.  The  fourth  month  of  the  year  according  to  the  vulgar  computation,  but  the 
second  according  to  the  ancient  Romans:  Numa  Pompiliua  introduced  Jatntarius 
and  FAruariuB,  718  B.a — Peaeham, 

APRIL-FOOL.  The  origin  of  the  jokes  played  under  this  nsme  a  conjectured  to  rest 
with  the  French,  who  term  the  object  of  their  mockery  «n  poiseon  <fAvril,  a  name 
they  slso  give  to  mackerel,  a  silly  fish  easily  caught  in  great  quantity  at  this  season. 
The  French  antiquaries  have  vainly  endeavoured  to  trace  this  custom  to  its  source. 
It  is  said  that  we  have  borrowed  the  practice  from  our  neighbours,  chsnging  the 
appellation  from  JUh  to  fool;  but,  in  England,  it  is  of  no  very  great  antiquity,  as 
none  of  our  old  plavs,  nor  any  writer  so  old  as  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  nava 
any  aUusion  to  it.    In  Scotland  it  is  termed  hunting  the  gowk  (cuckoo). — BuUer. 

AQU  ARIL  A  sect  in  the  primitive  church,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Tatian  in  the 
second  century,  who  forebore  the  use  of  wine  even  in  the  sacrament^  and  used 
nothing  but  water.  During  perBecution,  when  the  Christians  met  secretly  and  in  the 
nii^t,  for  fear  of  discovery  they  sometimes  used  water  instead  of  wine,  when  they 
received  the  sacrament,  for  which  certain  of  them  were  censured  by  Cyprian. 

AQUARIUM,  OR  AQUAYIYARIUM.  A  vessel  containing  water  (marine  or  fresh)  hi 
which  animals  and  plants  may  co-exist,  mutually  supporting  each  other;  snails 
being  introduced  as  eeaivengen.  In  1849  Mr.  N.  B.  Ward  succeeded  in  growing 
■ea  weeds  in  artificial  sea-water.  In  1860,  Mr.  R.  Warington  demonstrated  the 
conditions  necessary  for  the  growth  of  animals  and  plants  in  jars  of  water;  and  in 
1858  the  glass  tanks  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  Regent's  Park,  were  set  up  under  the 
akilful  direction  of  Mr.  D.  Mitchell.  In  1854,  Mr.  Qosse  published  '<  The  Aquarium.'* 
Mr.  W.  Alford  Lloyd  of  Portland  Road,  by  his  enterprise  in  collecting  specimens,  has 
done  much  to  increase  the  value  and  interest  of  aquariums. 

AQUEDUCTS.  Appius  Claudius  advised  and  constructed  the  first  aqueduct,  which  was 
therefore  called  tiie  Appian-way,  about  453  b.o.  Aqueducts  of  every  kind  were  among 
the  wonders  of  Rome. — Livy.  There  are  now  some  remarkable  aqueducts  in  Europe : 
that  at  Lisbon  ii  of  great  extent  and  beauty ;  that  at  Segovia  has  129  arches;  and 
that  at  Yersailles  is  three  miles  long,  and  of  inmiense  height,  with  242  arches  in  three 
stories.  The  stupendous  aqueduct  on  the  EUesmere  canal,  in  England,  is  1007  foot 
in  length,  and  126  feet  high ;  it  was  opened  Dec.  26, 1805. 


AQU 


38 


ARC 


AQUILEIA»  BATTLES  of.  Constantino  II.,  ilain  in  a  batUe  with  Constani,  fought  at 
Aquileia  towards  the  close  of  Msrch,  ^.D.  340.  Maximus  defeated  and  slain  by 
Theodosios  near  Aquileia,  July  28,  a.d.  388.  Theodosius  defeated  Eugenius  and 
Arbogastes,  the  Qaul,  near  Aquileia,  and  remained  sole  emperor,  Sept.  6,  a-D.  894. 
Eugenius  was  put  to  death,  and  Arbogastes  died  by  his  own  hand,  mortified  by  his 
overthrow. — Atpifk  JRom.  Bitt, 

AQUITAINE.  Formerly  belonged  (together  with  Normandy)  to  the  kings  of  England, 
as  desoendsnts  of  WiUiam  the  Conqueror.  It  was  erected  into  a  principality  in  1362, 
and  wss  annexed  to  France  in  1370.  The  title  of  duke  of  Aquitaine  was  taken  by  the 
crown  of  England  on  the  conquest  of  this  duchy  by  Heniy  V.  in  1418 ;  but  was  lost 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  YL 

ARABIA.  This  country  is  sud  never  to  hare  been  conquered.  The  Arabians  made  no 
figure  in  history  till  a.d.  622,  when,  under  the  new  name  of  Saracens,  they  followed 
l^omet  (a  native  of  Arabia)  as  their  general  and  prophet,  and  made  considerable 
conquests. — PriuUey. 

ARABICI.  A  sect  which  sprung  up  in  Arabia,  whose  distinguishing  tenet  was,  that  the 
soul  died  with  the  body,  and  also  rose  again  with  it^  a.d.  207.  There  have  been  some 
revivals  of  this  sect,  but  they  were  confined  to  the  middle  ages,  and  have  not  been 
known  in  civilised  Europe. — BottvktL 

ARBEL A,  BATTLE  or.  The  third  and  decisive  battle  between  Alexander  the  Qreat  and 
Darius  Codomanus,  which  decided  the  fate  of  Persia,  331  B.O.,  on  a  plain  between  the 
towns  of  Arbela  and  Qaugamela^  The  army  of  Darius  consisted  of  1,000,000  of  foot 
and  40,000  horse;  the  Ma^onian  army  amounted  to  only  40,000  foot  and  7000  horse. 
— Anion,  The  gold  and  silver  found  in  the  cities  of  Susa,  PersepoUs,  and  Babylon, 
which  fell  to  Alexander  from  this  victory,  amounted  to  thirty  millions  sterling ;  and 
the  jewels  and  other  precious  sp<»l,  belonging  to  Darius,  suffic^  to  load  20,000  molea 
and  5000  camels.— P/ti<atic&. 

ARBITRATION.  Submissions  to  arbitration  may  be  a  rule  of  any  of  the  courts  of 
record,  and  are  equivalent  in  force  to  the  decision  of  a  jury,  9  &  13  Will.  III. 
Submissions  to  arbitration  may  be  made  rules  of  any  court  of  law  or  equity,  and 
arbitrators  may  compel  the  attendance  oiP  witnesses,  8  and  4  WilL  lY.  cap.  41^  1833w 
See  OuadOaUey, 

ARBUTUS.  The  Ir&nliM  Andrachne^  oriental  strawberry-tree,  was  brought  to  England 
firom  the  Levant,  about  1724.  Although  this  tree  was  not  much  known  in  London 
until  1770,  yet  the  artnituB  is  found  in  great  plenty  and  perfection  in  the  islands 
which  beautify  the  lakes  of  Killamey  in  Ireland,  where  it  was  probably  introduced 
by  the  monks  who  inhabited  that  part  of  the  countiy  at  a  very  early  period. 

ARCADES,  OR  WALKS  ARCHED  OYER.  Some  fine  public  maits  of  this  kind  have 
recently  been  built  in  these  countries.  The  prindpiJ,  in  London,  are  the  Burlington 
arcade,  opened  in  March,  1819;  and  the  LowUier  arcade,  Strand,  opened  at  the  period 
of  the  Strand  improvements.  See  SCrtnid.  The  Royal  arcade,  Dublin,  opened  June* 
18*20,  was  burnt  to  the  ground,  April  25, 1887.  Exeter  Change,  London,  an  old  and 
very  celebrated  mart  of  this  kind,  was  rebuilt  by  the  marquess  of  Exeter,  and  opened 
in  1845.    See  Exd/er  Change. 

ARCADIA.  The  people  of  this  country  were  very  andent,  and  reckoned  themselves  of 
longer  standing  than  the  moon;  they  were  more  rude  in  their  manners  than  any  of 
the  Greeks,  from  whom  they  were  shut  up  in  a  valley  surrounded  with  mountains. 
Pelasgus  taught  them  to  feed  on  acorns,  as  being  more  nutritious  than  herbi^  their 
former  food;  and  for  this  diacoveiy  they  honoured  him  as  a  god,  1521  B.O. 


FelmApu  begins  his  reign  .  B.a  1521 

I^eaon  inatitotM  the  Lnpercalia,   in 

honour  of  Jupiter 1614 

Reign  of  Nyctimus *    * 

Of  Anna,  from  whom  the  kingdom  re» 

oeivea  the  name  of  Arcadia  .    .  *    * 

He  teaches  his  subjects  asrriculture  and 

the  art  of  spinning  wool ;  and  after  his 

death  is  made  a  conateUation  with  hia 

mother.— -PausaniM  .  *    * 

The  ItyoaMn  games  inatituted,  in  honour 

of  Pan 

Reign  of  Alaua,  oelebrated  for  hia  akill  In 

building  templea.~P<HUiiiUa«        .    . 


1320 


•    • 


Agapenor,  grandson  of  Lyeurgus,  up- 
peara  at  the  head  of  the  Areadlana  at 
the  siege  of  Troj  ....  B.a  119 

Reign  of  £pitua 1174 

OrcMtea,  king  of  Mvoexue,  arrivea  at  Trao- 
aene^  to  m  purifiod  of  the  mtmler  of 
his  mother  and  her  panunour  .  1160 

The  Laoedwmonians  inrado  Arcadia,  and 
are  beaten  bv  the  women  of  the  ooun- 
try,  In  the  aoaenoe  of  their  huabanda .  1102 

Ariatocratea  I.  is  put  to  death  for  o£for- 
Ing  violence  to  the  priesteaa  of  Diana .    71 

Aristocrates  II.  stoned  to  death,  and 
Axvadia  made  a  repubUo      ...    681 


ARC 89 ARC 

Arcftdla  had  twenty-five  kingi,  whoee  history  U  altogether  fabuloua.  The  Arcadians 
were  fond  of  military  gloxy,  although  shepherdt ;  and  frequently  hired  themaelveB  to 
fight  the  battles  of  other  states. — MuttaMui,  A  colony  of  Ar(»dians  was  conducted 
by  (Enotrus  into  Italy,  1710  B.C.,  and  the  country  in  which  it  settled  was  afterwards 
called  MoffHa  OrcBcia,    A  colony  under  Evander  emigrated  in  1244  B.a — Jdem. 

ARCHANGEL.  A  monastery  founded  here  to  St.  Michael  in  1584  gave  the  dty  ito 
name.  The  passage  to  Archangel  was  discoyered  by  the  English  in  1553,  snd  it  was 
the  only  seaport  of  Russia  till  the  formation  of  the  docks  at  Cronstadt,  and 
foundation  of  St  Petersburg,  in  1703.  The  dreadful  fire  here,  by  which  the 
cathedral  and  upwards  of  3000  houses  were  destroyed,  occurred  in  June,  1708. 

ARCHBISHOP.    This  dignity  wss  known  in  the  East  about  ▲.D.  820.    Athanasius  oon- 
ferred  it  on  his  successor.    In  these  realms  the  dignity  is  nearly  oocTal  with  the 
establishment  of  Christianity.    Before  the  Saxons  oame  into  England  there  were  three  ' 
sees,  London,  York,  snd  Caerleon-npon-Usk ;  but  soon  after  the  arrival  of  St.  Austi^ 
he  settled  the  metropolitan  see  at  Canterbury,  A.D.  596.    York  continued  arehi 
eiMsoopal ;  but  London  and  Caerleon  lost  the  di^ty.  Caerleon  was  found,  previously, 
to  be  too  near  the  dominions  of  the  Saxons;  and  in  the  time  of  king  Arthur,  the 
archbishopric  was  transferred  to  St  David's,  of  which  St  Sampson  was  the  26th  and 
last  Welsh  archbishop.    See  8L  Davids t.    The  bishoprics  in  Scotland  were  under  the 
joriadietion  of  the  Archbishop  of  York  untU  the  erection  of  the  archiepisoopal  sees  of 
St  Andrew's  and  Glasgow,  in  1470  and  1491 ;  these  last  were  discontinued  at  the 
Revolution.    See  QUugow  and  St,  Awirevfu 

ARCHBISHOPS  of  IRELAND.  The  rank  of  archbishop  was  of  early  institution  in 
Ireland.  See  Pcna,  Four  archbishoprics  were  constituted  in  a.d.  1151,  namely, 
Armagh,  Gashel,  Dublin,  and  Tuam ;  until  then  the  ardibishop  of  Canterbury  had 
jurisdiction  over  the  Irish  as  well  as  English  bishops,  in  like  manner  as  the  archbishop 
of  York  had  jurisdiction  over  those  of  Scotland.  See  preceding  airiidt.  Of  the  four 
archbishoprics  of  Ireland  two  were  reduced  to  bishoprics,  namely,  Cashel  and  Tuam, 
conformably  with  the  statute  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  1833,  by  which  also  the  number  of  sees  in 
Irelsnd  was  to  be  reduced  (ss  the  incumbents  of  ten  of  them  respeetively  died)  from 
twenty-two  to  twelve,  the  present  number.    See  BiAopt^  Caehelf  Tuam;  PaUhm,  &c. 

ARCH-CHAMBERLAIN.  An  officer  of  the  German  empire,  and  the  same  with  our  great 
chamberlain  of  England.  The  Elector  of  Brandenburg  was  appointed  the  herecUtaiy 
arch-chamberlain  of  the  empire  by  the  golden  bull  of  Charles  lY.  in  1356,  and  in  that 
quality  he  bore  the  sceptre  before  the  emperor. 

ARCH-CHANCELLOR&  They  wei«  appointed  under  the  two  first  races  of  the  kings 
of  France ;  and  when  theh:  territories  were  divided,  the  archbishops  of  Menti^  Cologne, 
and  Treves,  became  aroh-chancellors  of  Germany,  Italy,  and  Aries. 

ARCHDEACONS.  There  are  sixty  church  officers  of  this  rank  in  England,  and  thirty-four 
in  Ireland.  The  name  was  given  to  the  first  or  eldest  deacon,  who  attended  on  the 
bishop,  without  any  power :  but  since  the  council  of  Nice,  his  function  is  become  a 
dignity,  and  set  above  that  of  priest,  though  anciently  it  was  quite  otherwise.  The 
^pointment  in  these  countries  is  referred  to  a.d.  1075.  The  archdeacon's  court  is  the 
lowest  in  ecdesisstical  polity:  an  appeal  lies  from  it  to  the  oonsistorial  court,  stat.  24 
Henxy  YIU.,  1532. 

ARCHERY.  It  originated,  according  to  the  fanciful  opinion  of  the  poet  Claudian,  from 
the  porcupine  beiog  observed  to  cast  ito  quills  whenever  it  wss  offended.  Plato 
ascribes  the  invention  to  Apollo,  by  whom  it  was  communicated  to  the  Cretans.  The 
eastern  nations  were  expert  in  archery  in  the  earliest  ages,  and  the  precision  of  the 
ancient  archer  is  scarcely  exceeded  by  our  skill  in  modem  arms.  Aster  of  Amphipolis^ 
upon  bdng  slighted  by  Philip,  King  of  Macedonia,  aimed  an  arrow  at  him.  The  arrow, 
on  which  was  written  "Aimed  at  Philip's  right  eye,**  struck  it  snd  put  it  out;  and 
Philip  threw  back  the  arrow  with  these  words :  *<  If  Philip  take  the  town,  Aster  shall 
be  hanged."    The  oonqueror  kept  his  word. 

ARCBERY,  nr  ENGLAND.  It  wss  introduced  previously  to  a.d.  440,  and  Harold 
and  his  two  brothers  were  killed  by  srrows  shot  from  the  cross-bows  of  the  Normsn 
soldiers  at  the  battle  of  Hastings  in  1066 ;  that  which  killed  the  king  pierced  him  in 
the  brain.  Richard  L  revived  archery  in  England  in  1100,  and  was  himself  killed  by 
an  arrow  in  1199.  The  victories  of  Cr^,  Poitiers,  and  Agincourt,  were  won 
chiefly  by  archers.  The  usual  range  of  the  long-bow  was  from  300  to  400  yards. 
Robin  Hood  and  Little  John,  it  is  said,  shot  twice  that  distance.    Foiur  thousand 


ARC 40 ARD 

archers  surroanded  the  houses  of  Parliament,  ready  to  ahoot  the  king  and  the  memben, 
21  Richard  IL,  1397. — Stowe.  The  dtizena  of  London  were  formed  into  oompanioB  of 
archers  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III. :  they  were  formed  into  a  corporate  body  by  the 
style  of  "The  Fraternity  of  St.  George,"  29  Henry  VIII.,  1588. 

ARCHES.  The  triumphal  arches  of  the  Romans  formed  a  leading  feature  in  their 
architecture.  Those  of  Trajan  (erected  a.d.  Hi)  and  Constantino  were  magnifioeDt 
The  arches  in  our  parks  in  London  were  erected  about  1828.  The  Marble  arch 
which  formerly  stood  before  Buckingham  Palace,  (whence  it  was  removed  to  Cum* 
berland-gate,  Hyde  Park,  in  1851)  was  modelled  from  the  arch  of  Constantine.  See 
Hyde  Park, 

ARCHES  or  STONE.  In  bridge  architecture  they  wen  not  in  use  in  England  until  the 
dose  of  the  eleventh  century.  The  Chinese  bridges,  which  are  very  anoient^  are  of 
great  magnitude,  and  are  built  with  stone  arches  similar  to  those  that  have  been 
considered  as  a  Roman  inyention.  Bow  bridge  was  built  in  1087.  One  of  the  Urgeit 
stone  arches  hitherto  built  in  England,  is  that  of  the  new  bridge  of  Chester,  whose 
span  is  200  feet;  it  was  commenced  in  1829.  The  central  arch  of  London  bridge 
is  152  feet;  and  the  three  cast-iron  arches  of  Southwark  bridge,  which  rest  on 
massive  stone  piers  and  abutments,  are,  the  two  side  ones  210  feot  each,  and  the 
centre  240  feet ;  thus  the  centre  arch  is  the  largest  in  the  world,  as  it  exceeds  the 
admired  bridge  of  Sunderland  by  four  feet  in  the  span,  and  the  long-fiimed  Rialto  at 
Venice,  by  167  feet. 

ARCHES,  COURT  of.  Chiefly  a  court  of  appeal  from  the  inferior  jurisdictions  withia 
the  province  of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury ;  it  is  the  most  ancient  consistory  courts 
and  derives  its  name  from  the  churxsh  of  St.  Mary-le-Bow,  London  {de  Arcubut)  where 
it  was  held ;  and  whose  top  is  raised  of  stone  pillars  built  archwise. — OoutdL  Appeals 
from  this  court  lie  to  the  judidal  committee  of  the  privy  council,  by  statute  11  Qeo. 
IV.  and  1  Will.  IV.,  1880. 

ARCHITECTURE.  It  was  cultivated  by  the  Tyrians,  about  1100  b.c.  Their  king, 
Hiram,  supplied  Solomon  with  cedar,  gold,  silver,  and  other  materials  for  the  Temple 
in  the  building  of  which  he  assisted,  1015  B.C.  The  art  passed  to  Greece,  and  from 
Greece  to  Rome.  The  style  called  Gk)thic  came  into  vogue  in  the  ninth  centurj. 
The  Saracens  of  Spain,  being  engaged  during  peace  to  build  mosques,  introduced 
grotesque  carvings,  elliptic  arches  and  buttresses,  &c.  The  circular  aroh  distinguishes 
the  Norman-Gothic  from  tiie  Saraoenic,  and  came  in  with  Henry  I.  The  true  Grecian 
style  did  not  fully  revive  till  about  the  reign  of  James  I.,  1603.  The  five  great  orders 
of  architecture  are,  the  Greek — the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian ;  the  Roman — ^the 
Tuscan  and  Composite.    See  the  Ordert  reipectivdyf  and  Oothic 

ARCHONS.  When  royalty  was  abolished  at  Athens,  the  executive  government  was 
vested  in  elective  magistrates  called  arohons,  whose  office  continued  for  life.  Medon, 
eldest  son  of  Codrus,  was  the  first  who  obtained  the  dignity  of  archon,  1070  B.O. 

ARCOLA,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  French  under  general  Bonaparte,  and  the 
Austrians  under  field-marshal  Alvinzi,  fought  November,  1796.  The  result  of  this 
bloody  conflict,  which  was  fought  for  eight  successive  days,  was  the  loss  on  the  part  of 
the  Austrians  of  12,000  men  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  four  flags,  and  eighteen 
guns.  The  French  became  masters  of  Italy.  In  one  of  the  contests  Bonaparte 
was  in  most  imminent  danger,  and  only  rescued  by  the  impetuosity  of  his  troops. 

ARCOT,  East  Indies.  This  city  was  established  m  1716 ;  it  was  taken  by  colonel 
Clive  in  1751 ;  and  retaken,  but  again  surrendered  to  the  British  under  colonel 
Coote  in  1760.  Besieged  by  Hyder  All,  when  the  British,  under  colonel  Baillie, 
suffered  a  severe  defeat,  Sept.  10  and  Oct  81, 1780.  Arcot  has  been  subject  to  Great 
Britain  since  1801.    See  India. 

ARCTIC  EXPEDITIONa    See  North-  Wut  Pauage,  and  ProMifCt  EzpediHon. 

ARDAGH.  An  andent  prelacy  in  Ireland,  founded  by  St.  Patrick,  who  made  his  nephew 
the  first  bishop,  previously  to  a.d.  454.  This  prelacy  was  formerly  held  wiUi  Kilmore; 
but  since  1742  it  has  been  held  in  commendam  with  Tuam  {which  iee), 

ARDFERT  and  AGHADOE.  Bishoprics  in  Ireland  long  united;  the  former  was  called 
the  bishopric  of  Kerry;  Ert  presided  in  the  fifth  century.  William  Fuller,  appointed 
in  1663,  became  bishop  of  Limerick^in  1667,  since  when  Ardfert  and  Aghadoe  have 
been  united  to  that  prelacy.  Near  the  cathedra],  an  anchorite  tower,  120  feet  high, 
the  loftiest  and  finest  in  the  kingdom,  suddenly  fell,  1770. 


ARE 


41 


ARI 


ARE0PAOIT.£.  A  famooB  eooncil,  nid  to  have  heard  oaiues  in  the  dark,  became  the 
jadgee  were  blind  to  all  but  facta,  institated  at  Athens,  about  1507  b.o. — ArwuuL 
Marbla,  The  name  is  derired  from  the  Qnek  Apws  wayot,  the  ffiil  of  Man,  becauie 
Mars  was  the  fint  who  was  tried  there  for  the  murder  of  Halirrhotius,  who  had 
violated  his  daughter,  Aloippe.  Whatever  causes  were  pleaded  before  them  were  to 
be  divested  of  lul  oratoxy  and  fine  speaking,  lest  eloquence  should  charm  their  ears, 
and  corrupt  their  judgment    Hence  arose  the  most  just  and  impartial  dedsionaL 

ABGENTARIA,  BATTLE  of.  One  of  the  most  renowned  of  its  times,  fongfat  in  AIsms^ 
between  the  Allemanni  and  the  Romans,  the  former  being  defeated  by  the  latter,  with 
the  loss  of  more  than  85,000  out  of  40,000  men,  ▲.D.  378.— i>i(/fieiiMy. 

ARGENTINE  (or  LA  PLATA)  CONFEDERATION.  Originally  14,  now  18,  pro- 
▼incee, — Buenos  Ayres  having  seceded  in  1858.  This  country  wss  diicovered  by  tiie 
Spaniards  in  1517 ;  settled  by  them  in  1553,  and  formed  part  of  the  great  vice-royalty 
of  Peru  till  1778,  when  it  became  that  of  Rio  de  la  Plata.  It  joined  the  insurrection 
in  1811  and  became  independent  in  1816.  It  was  at  war  with  Brazil  from  1826  to 
1828,  for  the  possession  of  Uruguay,  which  became  independent  as  Monte-Video. 
It  was  at  war  with  France  from  1888-40.    See  Bitenoi  Ayret, 

ARQONAUTIC  EXPEDITION.  Undertaken  by  Jason  to  avenge  the  death  of  Phryxns 
and  recover  his  treasures  seised  by  the  king  of  Colchis.  The  ship  in  which  Phiyxna 
had  sailed  to  Colchis  having  been  adorned  with  the  figure  of  a  ram,  it  induced  the 
poets  to  pretend  that  the  journey  of  Jason  wss  for  the  recovery  of  the  golden  fleeoe. 
This  is  the  first  naval  expedition  on  record.  Many  kings  and  heroes  accompanied 
Jason,  whose  ship  was  called  Argo,  from  its  builder,  1268  B.C. — Dufrunoy, 

AROOS.  This  kingdom  was  founded  by  Inachus,  1856  B.C.,  or  1080  vears  before  the  first 
Olympiad. — Buur,  The  nine  kings  from  the  founder  were  callea  Ina^idcB,  of  whom 
the  fourth  was  Argus,  and  he  gave  his  name  to  the  coimtry.  When  the  Heraolidn 
took  poBsession  of  Peloponnesus,  B.O.  1102,  Temenus  seized  Argus  and  its  depen- 
dendee.  Argos  was  afterwards  a  republic,  and  distinguished  itself  in  all  the  wars  of 
Greece. — £uripidei. 


baod,  while  her  forty-nine  listen  n- 

cxificed  thein.    (See  Jflafubtamx)    B.a 
I^rnoeuB,  eon  of  Bflorptiu,  whose  life  had 

been  preserved  1^  his  wife,  dethrones 

Danaus     

Beign  of  Abas,  son  of  I^noeus,  and 

tSthtr  of  ProBtos  and  Acruius 
Reign  of  Prootus,  twin«brother  of  Acrl- 

sius  ....... 

Bellerophon  oomes  to  Aigos ;  the  passion 

for  him  of  Sihenobcea  . 

Rebellion  of  Aorisius 1S44 

The  brothers  divide  the  kingdom  .       .  1S40 
Perseus  leaves  Argosy  and  founds  Uj- 

cm»(wkichmt) 1813 


U25 


14S5 
1884 
1861 
1361 


Inachus  founds  the  kingdom .  .  &a  1856 
Pbwoneus  reigns  sixty  years  .  .  .  1807 
Apis  reigns  thirty -five  vears  .  .1747 

The  dty  of  Aigoe  built  by  Argus,  son  of 

Niobe 1711 

Criasus,   son  of  Aigus,  suooeeds   his 

fether,  and  reigns  fifty-four  years  .  1041 
Phforbes  reifins  thirty-five  years  .  .  15S7 
BeIgn  of  Triopas ;  Polycaon  seises  part 

of  the  kingdom,  and  calls  it  after  his 

vrife,  Jfeeeenia 1552 

Beign  of  Crotopus 1506 

Sthenelus  rsigns 1485 

Gelanor  is  deposed  by  Danaus  .  .  .  1474 
Veast  of  the  Flambeaux,  in  honour  <^ 

Hypermnestra,  who  saved  her  hua- 

Argoa,  in  modem  history,  was  taken  from  the  Venetians,  A.D.  1686.  It  was  lost  to 
the  Turks  in  1716,  since  which  time  it  continued  in  their  handa  until  1826.  Aigos 
became  united  in  the  sovereignty  of  Qreece  under  Otho,  the  present  and  first  king, 
Jan.  25, 1833.    See  Cheece, 

ARQTLU  BISHOPRIC  of.  Founded  A.D.  1200,  Evaldus  being  the  first  bishop ;  the 
diocese  was  previously  part  of  the  see  of  Dunkeld;  but  was  disjoined  bv  Pope 
Innocent  III.;  and  it  ended,  with  the  abolition  of  episcopacy  in  Scotlano,  1688. 
Aigyll  is  now  one  of  the  post-revolution  bishoprics  of  Scotland.    See  Biihopriet. 

ARIANS.  The  followers  of  Arius^  a  numerous  sect,  who  deny  the  deity  of  Christ ;  they 
arose  abont  a-D.  815.  Arius  died  in  836.  l^e  Arians  were  condemned  br  the 
council  of  Nice,  in  825 ;  but  their  doctrine  became  for  a  time  the  reigning  religion  in 
the  East.  It  was  Savoured  by  Constantino,  319.  Carried  into  Afxict  under  the 
Vandals  in  the  fifth  century,  and  into  Asia  under  the  Goths.  Servetus  (see  8enfetu$) 
published  his  treatise  against  the  Trinity,  1531,  and  was  burnt  1553. 

ARITHHBTIC.  Of  uncertain  origin.  It  was  brought  from  Egypt  into  Qneee  by 
Thalesi,  about  600  B.O.  The  oldest  treatise  upon  arithmetic  is  by  Euclid  (7th,  8thy 
and  9th  books  of  his  BlernmU),  about  800  B.a  The  sexigesimal  aritiimetic  of  Ptolemy 
was  used  a.d.  130.    Diophantos,  of  Alezandria,  was  the  author  of  thirteen  books  of 


ARK  42  ARM 

arithmetical  questions  (of  which  six  are  now  extant)  about  156.  Notation  by  nine 
digits  and  Eero,  known  at  least  as  early  as  the  sixth  century  in  Hindostan — ^intro- 
duced from  thence  into  Arabia,  about  900 — ^into  Spain,  1050 — into  England,  1253. 
The  date  in  Caxton's  Mirrour  of  the  World,  Arabic  characters,  is  1480.  Arithmetic 
of  Decimals  invented,  1482.  First  work  printed  in  England  on  arithmetic  {de  Arte 
SupptUandi)  was  by  Tonitall,  bishop  of  Durham,  1522.  The  theory  of  decimal 
fractions  was  perfected  by  lord  Napier  in  his  Rhabdologia,  in  1617. 

ARK.  Mount  Ararat  is  venerated  by  the  Armenians,  from  a  belief  of  its  being  the  place 
on  which  Noah's  ark  rested,  after  the  universal  Deluge,  2347  B.a  But  Apamea,  in 
Phrygia,  claims  to  be  the  spot ;  and  medals  have  been  struck  there  witii  a  chest  on 
the  waters,  and  the  letters  NOE,  and  two  doves :  this  place  is  SOO  miles  west  of 
Ararat  The  ark  was  300  cubits  in  length,  fifty  in  breadth,  and  thirty  high ;  but  most 
interpreters  suppose  this  cubit  to  be  about  a  foot  and  a  haJ^  and  not  the  geometrical 
one  of  six.  There  were,  we  are  told,  three  floors—the  first  for  beasts,  the  second  for 
provieions,  and  the  third  for  birds  and  Noah's  family.  It  was  not  niade  like  a  ship, 
but  came  near  the  figure  of  a  square,  growing  gradually  narrower  to  the  top.  There 
was  a  door  in  the  first  floor,  and  a  great  window  in  the  third. 

ARKLOW,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  insui^nt  Irish,  amotmting  to  31,000,  and  a 
small  regular  force  of  British,  which  signally  defeated  them,  June  10,  1798.  The 
town  was  nearly  destroyed  by  the  insurgents  in  May  previous. — Native  gold  was 
discovered  in  Arklow  in  Sept.  1795.— P/it^.  Treau,,  vol  86. 

ARMADA,  THB  INYINCIBLK  The  fiunoua  Spanish  armament,  so  called,  consisted  of 
150  ships,  2650  great  guns,  20,000  soldiers,  8000  sailors,  and  2000  volunteen,  under 
the  duke  of  M^ina  Sidonia.  It  arrived  in  the  Channel,  July  19,  1588,  and  was 
defeated  the  next  day  by  Drake  and  Howard.  Ten  fire-ships  having  been  sent  into 
the  enemies'  fleet,  they  cut  their  cables,  put  to  sea  and  endeavoured  to  return  to 
their  rendezvous  between  Calais  and  Oravelines :  the  English  fell  upon  them,  took 
many  ships,  and  admiral  Howard  maintained  a  runoing  fight  firom  the  21st  July  to 
the  27tb,  obliging  the  shattered  fleet  to  bear  away  for  Scotland  and  Ireland,  where  a 
storm  dispenwd  them,  and  the  remainder  of  the  armament  returned  by  the  North 
Sea  to  Spain.  The  Spaniards  lost  fifteen  capital  ships  in  the  engagement,  and  5000 
men :  seventeen  ships  were  lost  or  taken  on  the  coast  of  Ireland,  and  upwards  of 
5000  men  were  drowned,  killed,  or  taken  prisoners.  The  English  lost  but  one  ship.— - 
JZoptn,  CarU,  Hwme, 

ARMAGH,  BATTLE  of.  Fought  against  Edward  Bruce,  who  was  defeated,  taken,  and 
beheaded  at  Dundalk;  and  with  him  6200  Soots  lost  their  lives,  aj).  1318.— 
^acAanan.  The  city  of  Armagh  is  most  ancient  See  ntxt  ariieU,  It  was  destroyed 
by  the  Danes  on  Easterly,  a.d.  852. — Bwrn, 

ARMAGH,  SEE  of.  The  first  ecclesisstical  dignity  in  Ireknd ;  was  founded  by  St  Patrick, 
its  first  bishop,  in  444.  One  Daire,  a  man  of  great  reputation  among  his  own  people, 
and  of  considerable  wealth,  granted  the  site  whereon  the  church  was  erected,  near 
the  river  Callan.  The  first  name  of  this  place  was  Dnam  SaiUg ;  but  from  its 
situation  on  a  rising  ground,  was  afterwards  called  Arhmoieh  or  Ardmach;  that  is, 
^Uui  campui,  a  hignfidd.  Six  saints  of  the  Roman  calendar  have  been  bishops  of 
this  see.  In  the  king's  books,  by  an  extent  taken  15  James  I.,  it  is  valued  at  400/. 
sterling  a  year ;  and,  until  lately,  was  estimated  at  15,0002.  per  annum.  The  see  waa 
re-constituted  (see  PcUlium)  in  1151. — Beatton, 

ARMED  NEUTRALITT.  The  confederacy,  so  called,  of  the  northern  powers  against 
England,  was  commenced  by  Uie  empress  of  Russia  in  1780 ;  but  its  objects  were 
defeated  in  1781.  The  pretension  was  renewed,  and  a  treaty  ratified  in  order  to 
cause  their  flags  to  be  respected  by  the  belligerent  powers,  Dec  16,  1800.  The 
principle  Uiat  neutral  flags  protect  neutral  bottoms  being  contrary  to  the  maritime 
system  of  England,  the  Britiah  cabinet  remonstrated,  and  Nelson  and  Parker 
destroyed  the  fleet  of  Denmark  before  Copenhagen,  April  2, 1801.  That  power,  in 
consequence,  was  obliged  to  secede  from  the  alliance,  and  acknowledge  the  claim  of 
England  to  the  empire  of  the  sea.    The  Armed  Neutrality  was  soon  after  dissolved. 

ARMENIA.  Here  Noah  is  said  to  have  resided  when  he  left  the  ark,  2347  B.C.  After 
having  been  subject  successively  to  the  three  great  monarchies,  Armenia  fell  to  the 
kings  of  Syria.  The  Armenians  were  the  original  worshippers  of  fire;  they  also  paid 
great  veneration  to  Venus  Anaitii,  to  whose  priests  even  the  highest  classes  of  the 
people  prostituted  their  daughters,  prior  to  marriage.— If  ar(m'«  M6moire$  tmr  fArm4nie» 


ARH 


48 


ARM 


ABMSHIA,  amUmmed, 

CHy  of  ArtezartA  boilt  .  ac 

Aatioehna  SpipluuiM  invades  Axmeni*  . 
TignoM  the  Great  reigoM .... 
He  is  called  to  the  throoe  of  Sjrriai  aasumee 
the  fiMtidioue  title  of  "  King  of  Kinge," 
and  is  eezred  bv  tributary  princes  .  . 
Tigranes  defeated  by  Locullus . 
Again  defeated,  and  lays  his  crown  at  the 

fieet  of  Pompey 

Hia  son,  Artavasdeik  reigns 
Ci«sBUs  taken  prisoner,  and  beheaded 
Artavaades  aansts  Pompey  sgatnst  Julius 


186 

lfi6 

93 


83 
69 

66 
64 
68 

48 
Artavasdes  saslsts  the  Parthlsns  against 

Marc  Antony 86 

Antony  subdues,  and  sends  him  loaded 

with  silrer  chains  to  Egypt,  to  grace 

his  triumph S4 

The  Armenian  seldien  crown  his  son, 

Artaxias 83 

Artazias  deposed 80 


He  is  restored  to  hiM  throne,  and  dies  — 
Blair b.c. 

Rolgn  of  Venonee  .  a-d. 

He  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  eon,  Orodes 

Oermanicus  CBear,  grandeon  of  Augus- 
tus, dethrones  him       .... 

Zsnon  reigns 

Tigranes  f V.  reigns 

He  is  cited  to  Rome,  and  deposed     .    . 

Tiridates  dethroned,  and  Roman  power 
paramount  in  Armenia 

Armenia  reduced  to  a  Pereian  prorinoe 
underSapor 

Subdued  by  the  Baraoens 

Irruption  of  the  Turks  .       .    . 

Agsm  made  a  Persian  prorince^  under 
Uilan  Oeseanes 

Bubdued  by  Belim  II 

Overrun  by  the  Russians 

Surrender  of  Eneroum  July. 

(See  S^ria  and  AuMthTttrkUk  War.) 


1 
16 


18 
18 
86 

87 

63 

865 
687 
766 

1472 
1622 
18-i8 
1829 


The  ■oreMigm  of  AimenU  seem  to  have  been  absolute  in  their  antboribr  orer  their 
subjects.  The  most  known  of  them  is  Tigranes  the  Great^  the  second  of  that  name. 
The  Armenianfl  were  numerous  and  brave,  but  ruda  Of  their  peculiar  customs  very 
few  Testiges  remain ;  though  they  had  a  practice  of  transmittmg  to  their  posterity 
the  deeds  of  their  ancestors  in  songs ;  but  these  are  all  lost 

ARMENIAN  BRA.  Commenced  on  the  9th  of  July,  a.d.  562 ;  the  Ecclesiastical  year  on 
the  11th  August.  To  reduce  this  Isst  to  our  time,  add  661  years  snd  221  days ;  and 
in  leap  years  snbtnct  one  day  from  Karoh  1  to  August  10.  The  Armenians  use  the 
old  Julian  style  and  months  in  their  oonrespondence  with  Europeans. 

ARHILLARY  SPHERE.  Commonly  made  of  brass,  and  disposed  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  greater  and  lesser  circles  of  the  sphere  are  seen  in  their  natural  position  and 
motion,  the  whole  being  comprised  in  a  frame.  It  is  said  to  haye  been  mvented  by 
Eratosthenes,  about  266  B.a 

ARHINIANS.  So  called  from  James  Arminius,  a  Protestant  dinne,  of  Holland.  The 
Arminians  chiefly  contend  for  the  doctrine  of  universal  redemption,  and  generally 
espouse  the  principles  of  the  Church  of  England ;  especially  sssertlDg  the  subordination 
of  the  Christian  Church  to  the  OTil  powers.  They  also  contend  for  the  ^feacy  of 
good  works,  as  well  ss  their  nooeuUy,  in  securing  man's  salvation.  James  I.  and 
Charles  I.  favoured  the  doctrines  of  the  Arminians ;  and  the  principles  of  the  sect 
prevail  generally  in  Holland  and  elsewhere,  though  condemned  at  the  synod  of 
Dort  (see  Ihrt)  in  1018.  Arminius,  who  was  a  divinity  professor  at  Leyden,  died  in 
1609.— 3nHu2L 

ABMORIAL  BEARINOa  Became  hereditary  in  families  at  the  dose  of  the  twelfth 
century.  They  took  their  rise  from  the  knights  painting  their  banners  with  different 
figoves,  and  were  introduced  by  the  Crusaders,  in  order  at  first  to  <^istinguiBh  noblemen 
in  battle^  a.d.  1100.  The  lines  to  denote  colours  in  arms,  by  their  direction  or 
intersection,  were  invented  by  Columbiere  in  1689.  Armorial  bearings  were  taxed  in 
1798— and  again  in  1808. 

ARMOUR.  The  warlike  Europeans  at  first  despised  any  other  defence  than  the  shield. 
Skins  and  padded  hides  were  first  used ;  and  brass  and  iron  armour,  in  plates  or 
scales,  followed.  The  first  body  armour  of  the  Britons  was  skins  of  wild  beasts, 
exchanged,  after  the  Roman  conquest,  for  the  well-tanned  leathern  cuirass. — Taeittu, 
This  latter  continued  till  the  Anglo-Saxon  era.  Hengist  is  said  to  have  had  scale 
armour,  a.d.  449.  The  Norman  armour  formed  breeches  and  jacket,  1066.  The 
hauberk  had  its  hood  of  Uie  same  piece,  1100.  John  wore  a  surtout  over  a  hauberk 
of  rings  set  edgeways,  1199.  The  heavy  cavalry  were  covered  with  a  coat  of  mail, 
Henty  III.,  1216.  Some  horsemen  had  visors,  and  scull  caps,  same  reign.  Armour 
became  exceedingly  splendid  about  1860.  The  armour  of  plate  commenced  1407. 
Black  armour,  used  not  only  for  battle,  but  for  mourning,  Henry  V.,  1418.  The 
armour  of  Henxy  YII.  consisted  of  a  cmrass  of  steel,  in  the  form  of  a  pair  of  atays, 
about  1 600.  Annour  ceased  to  reach  below  the  knees,  Charles  I.,  1626.  In  the  reign 
of  Charles  II.,  officers  wore  no  other  armour  than  a  large  gorget,  which  is  commemorated 
in  the  diminutive  ornament  known  at  the  present  day. — MeyrUk, 


ARM  44  ARM 

ARMS.  The  club  was  the  first  offezuiTe  weapon ;  then  followed  the  maoe,  bettle*«zi^ 
pike,  apear,  javelin,  sword,  and .  dagger.  Among  ancient  weapons  were  bows  and 
arrows.  Pliny  ascribes  the  invention  of  the  sling  to  the  Phoeniciana.  See  tk$  variovs 
weapom  through  the  volume, 

ARMS,  IN  HERALDRY.  See  A  rmorial  Bearin^t  and  Heraldry.  Those  of  England,  at  fint 
dmple,  varied  with  the  conquests  which  she  made,  and  included  the  insignia  of  Wales^ 
Ireland,  Scotland,  France,  and  Hanover,  as  these  countries  successively  fell  to  her 
sovereignty.  The  arms  of  England  and  France  were  claimed  and  quartered  by 
Edward  III.,  a.d.  1330.  They  were  diacontinued  by  the  English  kings  on  the  union 
with  Ireland,  and  a  new  imperial  standard  was  hoisted,  Jan.  1. 1801.  The  escutcheon 
of  Hanover  was  discontinued  on  the  separation  of  the  crowns  of  England  and  Hanover 
by  the  death  of  WiUiam  IT.  in  1837. 

ARMS'  BILL,  IRELAND.  A  celebrated  bill,  whose  object  was  the  repression  of  crime 
and  insurrection,  was  passed  Oct  15,  1831.  It  was  a  revival  of  the  expired  statutes 
of  Geoige  III.  The  guns  registered  tmder  this  act  throughout  the  kingdom  at  the 
close  of  the  first  year  scarcely  amotmted  to  8000,  and  the  number  was  equally  small 
of  all  other  kinds  of  arms.  The  new  Amu^  bill  passed  August  22, 1843 ;  but  though 
it  haa  been  since  renewed,  it  has  not  been  latterly  very  rigidly  enforced. 

ARMY.  Ninus  and  Semiramis  had  armies  amounting  to  nearly  two  millions  of  fighting 
men,  2017  B.a  The  first  guards  and  regular  troops  as  a  standing  army  were  formed 
by  Saul,  1093  B.C. — Evaebiut,  One  of  Uie  first  standing  armies  of  which  we  have  any 
account,  is  that  of  Philip  of  Maoedon.  The  first  standing  army,  existing  as  such,  in 
modem  times,  was  maintained  in  France  by  Charles  YII.  in  1445.  Standing  armies 
were  introduced  by  Charles  L  in  1688;  they  were  declared  illegal  in  England, 
81  Charles  II.,  1679;  but  one  was  gradually  formed  in  his  reign.  In  1685  it  con- 
sisted of  about  7000  foot  and  1700  cavalry.  The  chief  European  nations  have  bad 
in  their  service  the  following  armies:  Spain,  150,000  men;  Qreat  Britain,  810,000; 
Prussia,  350,000;  Turkey,  450,000;  Austria,  500,000;  Russia,  560,000;  and  Fr«nc^ 
680,000. 

ARMY,  BRITISH.  The  effective  rank-and-file  of  the  army  actually  serving  in  the  pay 
of  Great  Britain  on  the  24th  Dec.  1800,  amounted  to  168,082 ;  and  the  estimates  of 
the  whole  army  in  that  year  were  17,973,000(.  The  militia,  volunteer,  and  other 
auxiliary  forces  were  of  immense  amount  at  some  periods  of  the  war  ending  in  1815. 
The  strength  of  the  volunteer  oorps  was  greatest  between  the  years  1798  and  1804, 
in  which  latter  year  this  species  of  force  amounted  to  410,000  men,  of  whom  70,000 
were  Irish;  and  the  militia  had  increased  to  130,000  men,  previously  to  the  regular 
regiments  bein^  recruited  from  its  ranks  in  1809.  The  following  are  statements  of 
the  effective  military  strength  of  the  United  Kingdom  at  the  periods  mentioned,  and 
of  the  sums  voted  for  military  expenditure : 

1780,  Time  of  war :  troops  of  the  line    .       .  amount  110,000  men ;  sum  Toted  £7,847,000 

1800,  War ditto   168.000  men  ditto  17,978,000 

1810,  War :  army.  Including  foreign  troops   .  ditto  800,000  men  ditto  Se. 748,000 

1816,  Last  year  of  the  war ditto  800,000  men  ditto  89,160.000 

1820,  Time  of  peace;  war  incumbranoes       .  ditto     88.100  men  ditto  18,263,000 

1830,  Peace ditto     80,300  men  ditto  6,091,000 

1840,  Peace ditto     03.471  men  ditto  6,890,267 

1860,  Peace ditto     99,118  men  ditto  6,763,488 

1868;  Peace;  (but  Kaffir  war).               .  ditto   101.937  men  ditto  7,018,164 

1864,  War  with  ntuaia ditto  112.977  men  ditto  7.167.486 

1866.  War  with  RuMia ditto  178,646  men*  ditto  13,721,168 

1866,  War  with  BuB8ia(el!betiTe  men  164,806)  ditto  206,836  men  ditto  14,646,060 

(Sept  6, 1866,  reduced  to  126,000  men,  exdustTe  of  the  Indian  army.) 
▲RMT,  NAVT,  AKD  OTHER  0BABGE8  Or  THE  WAB  WITH  B08BIA. 

Original  BdimaU  1864-6  Actual  Charge  1864-6  SttimaUfor  1865-6 

Army  .    6,287.486       ....      7,167,486       ....    13,721.168 

Navy  .        ,    .    7,487,948 10,417,309 10,716,338 

Ordnance         .    3,846,878       ....      6,966,662       ....      7,808,042 
Transports  (hxoreaae  in  Navy)    ....      8.68^474 6,18l,46ft 

Total      £17,621,812       .       .       .       .£27,163,981       .       .       .       .  £37,427,003 

*  Besides  tUs  national  army.  14.950  foreign  troops  wore  Toted  for  the  service  of  the  year  1865-6  * 
and  the  Snffllah  milltJa  waa  caUed  out,  and  inereaeed  to  the  number  of  120,000  men,  thos  forming 
a  total  of  313,696,  ezcluslTe  of  20,000  Turkish  acgcUiaries  taken  into  British  pay. 


ABM 


45 


ARS 


ARMT,  BRITISH, 

BRITISH  ARMT;  HON-OOnflBSIOHXD  OTFICIBS  AND  PBIVATEP,  IN   1840. 


SDglUh.       .       . 
Irish      . 

LMiOwi^s. 

Han«0ur4& 

FootOwfdt. 

Cavalrr. 

Utntrj. 

724 

67 
19 

867 
89 
10 

4,814 

472 

64 

0,174 

781 

^669 

85,785 
12,046 
86,531 

Total    .        .    . 

810 

899 

4,850 

9,524 

84,862 

This  ii  the  last  parliama&tary  retarn,  of  its  kind,  of  the  relative  number  of  rank-uid- 
file  oontribated  by  the  three  oountries  respectiTely,  to  the  British  standing  army. 
The  proportions,  no  doubt,  more  or  leaa,  continue^  and  may  be  inferred  from  it  at  the 
present  time.  On  Sept.  5,  1866,  the  army  was  ordered  to  be  reduced  from  about 
150,000  (excIustTe  of  the  Indian  army)  to  135,000.  The  Army  Service  Acts  sre  18 
k  18  Vict  c.  87  (June  21, 1847),  and  18  Viet  c.  4  (Feb.  27, 1855).  The  Mutiny  Act 
is  pawed  annually ;  alterations  were  made  in  this  Act  and  in  the  Articles  of  War  in 
1855. — See  Militia  and  Volunteers.  Br  a  memorandum  dated,  "Horse  OuardSy 
25th  April,  1855."  it  was  determined  that  officers  in  the  aervioe  of  the  East  India 
Company  should  have  the  same  rank  and  precedence  as  those  in  the  regular  army. 
— ^The  office  of  Master-(}enend  of  the  Ordnance  was  abolished,  and  the  civil  adminis- 
tration of  the  Army  and  Ordnance  vested  in  the  hands  of  Lord  Panmure,  the 
Minister  of  War,  on  May  25, 1855.— An  examination  of  staff-officer^  previous  to  their 
appointment,  was  ordei«d  April  9, 1857. 

ARMY  OF  OCCUPATION.  The  army  distinguished  by  this  name  was  that  of  the 
allied  powers  of  Austris,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  which  occupied  the  northern  frontier 
towns  of  France  by  the  treaty  which  eitablished  the  boundaries  of  France,  and  stipu- 
lated for  the  occupation  of  certain  fortresses  by  foreign  troops  for  thne  yean, — 
signed  Nov.  20, 1815. 

ABOMATICSL  Acron,  of  Agrigentum,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  caused  great 
fires  to  be  made,  and  aromatics  to  be  thrown  into  them,  to  purify  the  air,  by  which 
means  he  put  a  stop  to  the  plsgue  at  Athens,  478  B.a — Nou/v,  Did, 

ARRAIGNMENT  consists  in  reading  the  indictment  by  the  officer  of  the  court,  and  the 
calling  upon  the  prisoner  to  say  whether  he  is  guilty  or  not  guilty.  Formorly, 
persons  who  refused  to  plead  in  cases  of  felony  were  pressed  to  death  by  large  iron 
weights  being  placed  upon  the  breast  A  person  standing  mute  ia^  by  the  existing 
Uw,  convicted,  12  Geo.  IIL  1771«    See  article  Mute. 

ARRAS,  TREATY  or,  between  France  and  Baigondy,  often  quoted,  was  concluded, 
1485.  Another  treaty  was  concluded  by  Maximilian  of  Austria  with  Louis  XI.  of 
France,  whereby  the  oountries  of  BurgundT  and  Artois  were  given  to  the  Dauphin  as 
a  marriage  portion ;  this  latter  was  entered  into  in  1482.— >LM6M  Velly, 

ARREST  VOR  DEBT.  The  persons  of  peers^  members  of  parliament,  &o.,  protected. 
See  remarkable  case  of  Perrwri  Arrat,  Clergyman  performmg  divine  service  privileged 
from  arrest^  50  Edw.  III.,  1875.  Seamen  privileged  from  debts  under  20L,  by  act 
SO  Geou  IL,  1756.  Barristers  are  privileged  from  arrest  while  going  to,  attending 
upon,  and  returning  from*  courts  on  the  business  of  their  clientSb  Bv  statute  29 
Cnarles  IL  no  arrest  can  be  made,  nor  process  served,  upon  a  Sunday.  This  law  was 
extended  by  \^^Iliam  III.  Vexatious  arrests  prevented  by  act,  May  1738.  Pro- 
hibited for  less  than  lOL  on  process,  1779:  and  for  less  than  20/.,  July  1827. 
Arrests  for  less  than  20^  were  prohibited  on  mesne  process  in  Ireland,  in  June  1829. 
Statute  abolishing  arrest  for  debt  on  mesne  process,  except  in  cases  wherein  there  is 
ground  to  show  that  the  defendant  designs  to  leave  the  country,  2  Yict,  Aug.  1838. 
By  7  &  8  Vict.  o.  96  (1844),  the  power  of  imprisonment  even  upon  final  process,  that 
is  judgment  debts,  is  abolished  if  the  sum  does  not  exceed  20^  exclusive  of  costs : 
and  by  9  ft  10  Viot^  c.  95,  (1846),  the  judge  has  no  power  to  punish  except  in  case 
of  fraud  or  contempt  of  court. 

ARSENIC.  A  mineral  substance^  caustic  and  corrosive  to  so  great  a  degree,  as  to  be  a 
desdly  poison.  There  are  divers  kinds,  yellow  or  native,  red  and  crystalline.  Native 
arsenic  is  of  an  orange  or  yellow  colour,  and  it  is  called  orpiment :  it  is  commonly 
found  in  copper  mines;  and  the  heinous  crimes  committed  by  means  of  this  mineral 


ARS  46  AS 

obliged  the  legialRtiire  to  enact  regulations  for  its  lale,  14  YicL,  cap.  18,  June  5, 1851. 
The  Nile  of  all  colourless  preparations  of  arsenic  are  regulated  by  this  act. 

ARSON.    This  felony  has  always  been  deemed  capital,  and  been  punished  with  death ; 
•  it  continued  to  be  so  punished,  on  a  consolidation  of  the  laws  by  statute  7  &  8 
Qeo.  IV.,  1827.    If  any  house  be  fired,  and  persons  be  therein,  or  if  any  Teeael  be 
fired,  with  a  view  to  murder  or  plunder,  it  shall  be  death,  statute  1  Yict,  July  1837. 

ARTICLES  OF  RELIGION.  Six  were  published  by  Henry  VIIL,  1 589 ;  and  forty-two 
were  published  without  the  consent  of  parliament,  in  1552.  These  fortj-two  were 
reduced  to  thirty-nine  in  Jan.  1563 ;  and  they  received  the  royal  authority  and  the 
authority  of  parliament  in  1571 :  one  hundred  and  four  were  drawn  up  for  Ireland 
by  archbishop  Usher  in  1614,  and  were  established  in  1634.  On  the  union  of  the 
ohurehei^  the  Irish  adopted  the  English  articlea. 

ARTIFICERS  avd  MANUFACTtJRERSw  They  were  prohibited  from  leaying  England, 
and  those  abroad  were  outlawed,  if  they  did  not  return  within  lix  months  after  the 
notice  given  them ;  a  fine  of  lOOt,  and  impriionment  for  three  months,  were  made 
the  penalties  for  seducing  them  from  these  realms, — 9  Qeo.  IL,  1736. 

ARTILLERY.  The  first  piece  was  a  small  one,  contrived  by  Schwartz,  a  Qerman 
cordelier,  soon  after  the  invention  of  gunpowder,  in  1330.  Artillery  was  used,  it  is 
said,  by  the  Moors  at  Algesiras,  in  Spain,  in  the  uege  of  1341 ;  it  was  used,  according 
to  our  historians,  at  the  battle  of  Crecy,  in  1846,  when  Edward  III.  had  four  pieces 
of  cannon,  which  gained  him  the  battle.  We  had  artillery  at  the  siege  of  Gaiaia, 
1847.  The  Venetians  first  employed  artillery  against  the  Genoese  at  sea,  1377.— 
Fo^tatre.  Cast  in  England,  together  with  mortars  for  bomb-shells,  by  Flemish 
artists,  in  Sussex,  1543. — Rymert  FcBdera,  Made  of  brass,  1635 ;  improvements  by 
Browne,  1728.    See  Iran, 

ARTILLERY  COMPANY  of  LONDON.  Instituted  for  weekly  miHtaiy  exercises  in 
the  ArUllery-Ground,  Finsbury,  in  1610.  The  ground  was  at  first  (in  1498)  a  specious 
field  for  the  use  of  the  London  archers.  The  Artillery  Company  consisted  of  about 
800  men,  and  served  as  a  nursery  of  officers  for  the  City  Militia. — Noorthtmd^a  BuL 
ofZondatL 

ARTS.  See  LUeratwre.  In  the  eighth  century,  the  whole  circle  of  sciences  was  com- 
posed of  these  seven  liberal  arts,  namely--grammar,  rhetoric,  logic,  arithmetic,  musio^ 
geometiy,  and  astronomy. — Hatris.  The  Royal  Society  of  England  {whick  tte) 
obtained  its  charter  April  2,  1663.  The  Society  of  Arts,  to  promote  the  polite  arts^ 
commerce,  manufactures,  and  mechanics,  was  instituted  in  1754 ;  it  originated  in  the 
patriotic  seal  of  Mr.  Shipley,  and  of  its  first  president,  lord  Folkestone.  The  first 
public  exhibition  by  the  artists  of  the  British  metropolis  took  place  in  1760,  at  the 
rooms  of  tliis  society,  and  was  repeated  there  for  several  years,  till,  in  process  of  time, 
the  Royal  Academy  was  founded.  See  Bopal  Academy,  The  Society  of  British 
Artists  was  instituted  May  21, 1823 ;  and  their  first  exhibition  was  opened  April  19 
1824.    See  BriiiMh  Mutetm  ;  Brituh  InttUfUwn  ;  Naiumal  QoUery. 

ARUNDEL  CASTLR  Built  by  the  Saxons  about  800.  The  duke  of  Norfolk  enjoys  the 
earldom  of  Arundel,  as  a  feudal  honour,  by  inheritance  and  possession  of  the  castle, 
without  any  other  creation.  Philip  Howard,  son  of  the  attamted  duke  of  Norfolk, 
was  made  earl  of  Arundel,  by  summons,  as  possessor  of  this  castle,  1580.  It  was 
thoroughly  repaired  by  the  late  duke  at  a  vast  expense. 

ARUNDELIAN  MARBLEa  Containing  the  chronology  of  ancient  histoxy  from  1582 
to  355  B.a,  and  said  to  have  beeo  sculptured  264  b.c.  They  consist  of  37  statues, 
128  busts,  and  250  inscriptions,  and  were  found  in  the  isle  of  Pares,  in  the  reign  of 
James  I.,  about  1610.  They  were  purchased  by  lord  Arundel  and  given  to  the 
university  of  Oxford,  1627.  The  characters  are  Greek,  of  which  there  are  two 
translations :  by  iSs^dew,  1628 ;  by  ^ricUaux,  1676.  See  KidcTg  TracU  ;  and  PormmU 
Treatise,  1789. 

ARUSPICES.  Romsn  priests  or  soothsayers,  who  foretold  events  from  observing 
entrails  of  animals;  of  Etruscan  origin;  introduced  to  Rome  by  Romulus;  and 
abolished  by  Constantino,  A.D.  837,  at  which  time  they  were  seventy  in  number. 

AS.  A  Roman  weight  and  coin :  when  considered  as  a  weight,  it  was  a  pound ;  when 
A  coin,  it  had  d^erent  weights,  but  always  the  same  value.  In  the  reign  of  Servius, 
the  01  weighed  a  pound  of  brass ;  in  the  first  Punic  war,  it  weired  two  ouncw. 


ASB  47  ASS 

2Si  B.C. ;  in  the  Bocond  Punic  wmr,  on«  oonoe,  218  B.c. ;  and  afterwuda,  half  an 
oonee ;  its  yalae  was  about  three  farthings  sterling. 

ASBESTOS.  A  native  fossil  stone,  which  may  be  split  into  threads  and  filaments,  and 
which  is  endued  with  the  property  of  remaining  unconsumed  in  the  fire.— CXaiii6. 
Cloth  was  made  of  it  by  the  Egyptians. — Herodotut.  Napkins  made  of  it  in  the  time 
of  Pliny,  AJ).  74  ;  paper  made  of  it  by  the  ancients ;  the  spinning  of  asbestos  known 
at  Venice,  about  a.d.  1500. — BapHMia  Porta, 

ASCALON,  BATTLE  of,  in  which  Richard  I.  of  England,  commanding  the  Christian 
forces,  reduced  to  80,000,  defeated  the  sultan  Saladin's  army  of  300,000  Saracens  and 
other  infidels,  on  Sept  16, 1191.  It  is  aaid  that  no  less  than  80,000  of  the  enemy 
were  left  dead  on  the  field  of  battle.    Richard  marched  to  Jerusalem,  A.0. 1192. 

ASCENSION  DAT.  This  day,  also  called  Holy  Thursday,  is  that  on  which  the  Chureb 
celebrates  the  ascension  of  Our  Sayiour,  the  fortieth  day  after  his  resurrection  from 
the  deady  May  14,  A.D.  88 ;  first  commemorated,  a.d.  68.  Some  Christian  writers 
idfirm  that  Cbiiist  left  the  print  of  his  feet  on  that  part  of  Mount  OliYet  whsce  he 
last  stood ;  and  St.  Jerome  says  that  it  was  Tisible  in  his  time. 

ASHANTEES.  A  warlike  tribe  of  Negroes  of  West  Africa.  In  1807  they  conquered 
Fantee,  in  which  the  British  settlement  Cape  Coast  Castle  is  situated.  On  the  death 
of  the  king  who  had  been  friendly  to  the  English,  hostilities  began,  and  on  Jan.  21, 
1824,  the  Aahantees  defeated  about  1000  British  under  Sir  Charles  McCarthy  at 
Aocra,  and  brought  away  his  skull  with  others  as  trophies.  They  were  thoroughly 
subdued  in  1826. 

ASH-WEDNESDAT.  The  primitive  Christians  did  not  commence  their  Lent  until  the 
Sunday,  now  called  the  first  in  Lent.  Pope  Felix  III.,  in  a.d.  487,  first  added  the 
four  days  preceding  the  old  Lent  Sunday,  to  complete  Uie  number  of  fasting  days  to 
forty ;  Gregory  the  Qreat  introduced  the  sprinkling  of  ashes  on  the  first  of  the  four 
additional  days,  and  hence  the  name  of  Die$  Cinerum,  or  Ash-Wednesday :  at  the 
Reformation  this  practice  was  abolished,  "  as  being  a  mere  shadow,  or  Tain  show." 

ASHMOLEAN  LIBRART.  His  manuscripts,  library,  coins,  and  other  rarities,  were 
presented  by  Elias  Ashmole,  the  celebrated  herald  and  antiquary,  to  the  Uniyerrity 
of  Oxford  about  1683.    Mr.  Ashmole  died  at  Lambeth  in  1692. 

ASIA.  So  called  by  the  Greeks,  from  the  nymph  Ads,  the  daughter  of  Oceanus  and 
Tethys,  the  wife  of  Japhet.  Asia  was  the  first  quarter  of  the  world  peopled ;  here 
the  law  of  God  was  first  promulgated ;  here  many  of  the  greatest  monarchies  of  the 
earth  had  their  rise;  and  from  hence  most  of  the  arts  and  sciences  hsYS  been 
derived. — Pardon, 

ASPERNE,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  Austrian  army  under  the  archduke  Charles,  and 
the  French,  fought  on  the  2lBt  May,  1809,  and  two  following  days.  In  this  most 
sanguinary  fight  the  loss  of  the  former  army  exceeded  20,000  men,  and  the  loss  of 
the  French  was  more  than.  30,000  :  it  ended  in  the  defeat  of  Bonaparte,  who  com- 
manded in  person,  and  was  the  sererest  check  that  he  had  yet  receiyed.  The  bridge 
of  the  Danube  was  destroyed,  and  his  retreat  endangered ;  but  the  success  of  the 
Austrians  had  no  benefidid  effect  on  the  subsequent  prosecution  of  the  war. 

ASSAM  AND  ASSAM  TEA.  Assam  came  under  British  dominion  in  1825 ;  and  the 
right  to  the  principality  was  renounced  by  the  king  of  Ava  in  1826.  The  tea-plant 
was  discoyered  here  by  Mr.  Bruce  in  1828.  A  superintendant  of  the  tea-forests  was 
appointed  in  1836,  the  cultiyation  of  the  plant  having  been  recommended  by  lord 
William  Bentinck.  The  Assam  Tea  committee  was  formed  same  year;  and  the 
Assam  Tea  Company  established  in  1839.  The  tea  was  much  in  use  in  England  in 
1841.    Chinese  labour  has  been  introduced. 

ASSASSINATION  PLOT.  A  conspiracy  so  called,  formed  by  the  earl  of  Aylesbury 
and  others  to  assassinatel  king  William  III.,  near  Richmond,  Surrey,  as  he  came  from 
hunting.  The  object  of  the  conspiracy  was  to  have  been  consummated,  Feb.  14, 
1695-6,  but  for  its  timely  discoveiy  by  Prendergast. — BUt,  England, 

ASSASSINS,  OR  ASSASSINIANS.  A  tribe  in  Syria,  a  famous  heretical  sect  among  the 
Mahometans,  settled  in  Persia  in  a.d.  1090.  In  Syria  they  possessed  a  large  tract  of 
land  among  the  mountains  of  Lebanon.  They  murdered  the  marquis  of  Montferrat 
in  1192 :  they  assassinated  Lewis  of  Bavaria  in  1213 ;  and  the  khan  of  Tartary  was 
murdered  in  1254.  They  were  conquered  by  the  Tartars  in  12.^)7 ;  and  were  extir- 
pated in  1272.    The  chief  or  king  of  the  corps  assumed  the  title  of  "  Ancient  of  the 


ASS  48  ASS 

MounUxin,**  and  ** Old  Man  of  the  MowUain"  They  trained  up  young  people  to 
assaasinate  each  persons  as  their  chief  had  devoted  to  destruction.* — BenawL  From 
this  fraternity  the  word  oMcuitn  has  been  adopted  into  the  European  langaages,  to 
denote  a  murderer. — Aapin,    See  Old  Man  of  the  MowUain. 

ASSAY  OF  GOLD  and  SILVER.  Originated  with  the  bishop  of  Salisbury,  a  royal 
treasurer  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.— 2>u  Cange.  But  certainly  some  species  of  assay 
was  practised  as  early  as  the  Roman  conquest  Assay  was  established  in  England, 
1354 ;  regukted,  IS  Will  III.,  1700,  and  4  Anne,  1705.  Assay  masters  appointed  at 
Sheffield  and  Birmingham,  177S.  The  alloy  of  gold  is  silver  and  copper,  that  of 
silver  is  copper.  Standard  gold  is  2  carats  of  alloy  to  22  of  fine  gold.  Standard 
silver  is  18  dwts.  of  copper  to  11  ozs.  2  dwts.  of  fine  silver.    See  QoULmWu?  Company. 

ASSATE,  BATTLE  or.  The  British  army,  under  general  Arthur  Wellesley  (afterwards 
duke  of  Wellington)  entered  the  Kahratta  states  on  the  south;  took  the  fort  of 
AhmednugRor,  Aug.  12 ;  and  defeated  Scindiah  and  the  rajah  of  Berar  at  Assaye, 
Sept.  23, 1803.  This  was  the  gallant  chieftain's  first  great  battle,  in  which  he  opposed 
a  force  full  ten  times  greater  than  his  own.  The  enemy  retired  in  great  disorder, 
leaving  behind  the  whole  of  their  artillery,  ammunition,  and  stores. 

ASSESSED  TAXEa  The  date  of  their  introduction  has  been  as  variously  stated  as  the 
taxes  coming  under  this  head  have  been  defined — all  things  having  been  assessed,  from 
lands  and  houses  to  dogs  and  hair-powder.  By  some,  the  date  is  referred  to  the  reign 
of  Ethelbert^  in  991 ;  by  others,  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  1522 ;  and  by  more,  to 
the  reign  of  William  IIL,  1689,  when  a  land-tax  was  imposed.  See  Land  Tax,  The 
assessed  taxes  yielded,  in  1815  (the  last  year  of  the  war),  exclusively  of  the  land-tax, 
6,524,7662.,  their  highest  amount.  These  impo8t«  have  varied  in  their  nature  and 
amount,  according  to  the  exigencies  of  the  state,  and  the  contingencies  of  war  and 
peaoe.  They  were  considerably  advanced  in  1797 ;  and  again  in  1801,  tt  teq.  Con- 
siderably reduced  in  1816,  and  in  subsequent  years;  and  altogether  abolished  in 
Ireland.  The  last  act  for  the  repeal  of  certain  assessed  taxes,  was  passed  16  &  1 7  Vict, 
cap.  90,  Aug.  20,  1853,  which  was  explained  and  amended  by  17  k  18  Vict.  cap.  1, 
Feb.  17, 1854. — 17  &  18  Vict.  cap.  85,  was  passed  for  the  better  securing  and  accounting 
for  the  Assessed  and  Income  Taxes,  Aug.  10, 1854.    See  Income  Tcue, 

ASSIENTO.  A  contract  between  the  king  of  Spun  and  other  powers,  for  furnishing  the 
Spanish  dominions  in  America  with  negro  sUves. — Burke.  It  began  in  1689  and  was 
vested  in  the  South  Sea  Company  in  1 713.  By  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  it  was  transferred 
to  the  English,  who  were  to  furnish  4800  negroes  annually  to  Spanish  America.  This 
contract  was  given  up  to  Spain  at  the  peace  in  1748.    See  Ovi/nea, 

ASSIGNATS.  Paper  currency,  to  support  the  credit  of  the  republic  during  the  revolution, 
ordered  by  the  National  AiBsembly  of  France,  April  1790.  At  one  period  the  enormous 
amount  of  eight  milliards,  or  nearly  850  millions  of  pounds  sterling,  of  this  paper  were 
in  circulation  in  France  and  its  dependencies. — AUaon* 

ASSIZE  or  BREAD.  The  first  sUtute  for  it  was  m  the  third  year  of  John,  1202,  when 
the  regulations  thereof  were  ordered  to  be  observed  upon  pain  of  the  pillory.  The 
chief  justiciary,  and  a  baker  commissioned  by  the  king,  had  the  inspection  of  the 
assise. — Matthew  Paris,  The  assize  was  abolished  in  England,  and  the  sale  of  bread 
regulated  as  at  present,  in  August^  1 81 5.  The  sale  in  Ireland  was  regulated  by  statute, 
2  Will.  IV.,  May  1832;  Bread  act,  7  Will.  IV.,  1886;  Bread  act,  Ireland,  placing  ita 
sale  on  the  same  footing  as  in  England,  1  Vict,  1838.    See  Bread, 

ASSIZE  COUBTS  (from  ateideo,  I  nt).  They  are  of  very  ancient  institution  in  England, 
and  in  ancient  law  books  are  defined  to  be  an  assembly  of  knights  and  oUier  subeUntial 
men,  with  the  justice,  to  meet  at  a  certain  time  and  place ;  regulated  by  Magna  Charta, 
A.D.  1215.  The  present  justices  of  assize  and  Niti  Prim  are  derived  from  the  statute 
of  Weetmmster,  13  Edw.  I.,  1284.— Coite;  Blacketone,  "  The  king  doth  will  that  no 
lord,  or  other  of  the  country,  shall  sit  upon  the  bench  with  the  justices  to  take  assise 
in  their  sessions  in  the  counties  of  England,  upon  great  forfeiture  to  the  king,"  20 
Bich.  II.,  1396. — Statutet^  Brough  Act,  Assizes  are  general  or  special;  they  are 
general  when  the  judges  go  their  circuits,  and  special  when  a  comnussion  is  issued  to 
take  cognisance  of  one  or  more  causes.    See  Bloody  Aseize, 

*  The  "Old  Man  qf  tJu  Mountain** unt  hia  emiaanrieB  to  mwiuwinate  Louis  IX.  of  France,  called 
81  Louis ;  but  being  afterwards  affected  by  the  fame  of  this  king's  yirtuea,  and  he  being  at  the  time 
in  his  minority,  he  gave  the  prince  notice  to  take  caro  of  himselt  The  fact  is  mentioned  by  all  our 
historian^  ye(  latterly,  some  doubt  is  thrown  upon  it^HcnauU. 


ASS 


49 


AST 


ASSUMPTION,  FEAST  or  thb.  This  feiiiTal  ia  obflenred  by  the  Church  of  Rome  in 
honour  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  who,  as  the  Roman  Catholica  Delieve,  was  taken  up  to 
heaven  in  her  corporeal  form,  body  and  spirit,  on  August  15,  a.o.  45.  She  is  supposed 
to  have  been  then  in  her  75th  year.    The  festival  was  instituted  a.d.  SlSnStiUing^UeL 

ASSURANCE.  See  Innaranee.  The  practice  is  of  great  antiquity.  Suetonius  ascribes 
the  contrivance  to  Claudius  Cseaar,  a.d.  48.  It  is  certain  that  sssurance  of  ships  was 
practised  in  the  year  45.  The  first  regulations  concerning  it  are  in  the  Lex  OUron,  by 
whidi  it  appears  to  have  been  known  in  Europe  very  generally  in  1194.  The  custom 
of  Lombard-street  was  made  a  precedent  for  all  policies  at  ibitwerp,  and  in  the  Low 
Countries;  but  the  first  statute  to  prevent  ixmuds  from  private  assurers  was  made 
43  El]x^)eth,  1601. — MoHmaux^i  Lex  MercaUma, 

ASSYRIAN  EMPIRE.  This  is  the  earliest  recorded  empire— that  of  Bacchus  wanting 
recordsL  It  commenced  under  Ninus,  who  was  the  Jupiter  of  tiie  Asqrrians,  and  the 
Hercules  of  the  Chaldeans,  2069  B.a*  It  arose  out  of  the  union  of  two  powerful 
kingdoms,  Babylon  and  Assyria,  or  Nineveh,  the  latter  founded  by  Ashur,  and  ending 
with  Sardanapalus,  820  B.O.  When  this  last-named  prince  was  conquered  by  Arbacea, 
he  shut  himself  up  in  his  palace,  with  his  concubines  and  eunuchs,  and  causing  it  to 
be  set  on  fire,  they  all  perished  in  the  flames.  On  the  ruins  of  the  empire  were  formed 
the  Assyrians  of  Babylon,  Nineveh,  and  the  Median  kingdom.— Z€nf;/el. 


The  tower  of  Babel  built— ^9bi«vi«  z.  0 ; 
zi.  1 — Blair B.a 

The  kiogdom  of  Babylon  beg^ins  under 
BeluA,  Buppoeed  to  be  the  Nimrod  of 
holy  writ— Xai^ 

Antronomical  obeerrations  begun  by  the 
Chaldeans 

Belus  reigns  55  yeare. — Uther  .    . 

NinuA,  eon  of  Belue,  reignu  in  Aesyri^ 
and  names  his  capital  after  himself 
Nineveh. — Idem. 

Babylon  taken  by  Ninus,  who  having 
subdued  the  Armenians.  Peraians, 
Bactriana,  and  all  Asia  Minor,  esta- 
blishes what  ii  properly  the  Assyrian 
monarchy,  of  wnich  Ninoveh  was  the 
■eat  of  empire. — Mair  .       .        ,       . 

Ninyas,  an  infirnt  succeedi  Ninus     .    . 

Seminunis,  mother  of  Ninyas,  enlarges 
and  embellishes  Babylon,  and  makes 
it  the  seat  of  her  dominion.— Xai^<c<  . 


2347 


2845 

22S4 
2124 


206O 


2069 
2017 


2017 


Semlramis  invades  Libya,  Ethiopia,  and 

India.— XaipM       ....  B.a  1976 
The  Arabs  seize  Nineveh     .       .        .    .  1937 
Bemiiumis  is  put  to  death  by  her  son, 
for  so  long  usurping  his  throne,  which 

hereoovera 1970 

Ninyas  put  to  death,  and  Arius  reigns  .  1969 

Reign  of  Aralius 1907 

Belochus,  the  last  king  of  the  race  of 

Ninus.— .8Za<r 1444 

He  makes   his   daughter  Atosaa,  sur- 
named  Bemiramis  II.,  his  associate  on 

the  throne 14S3 

Atoesa  procures  the  death  of  her  fitther, 

and  marries  Belatores  ....  1421 
Belatores,  or  Bellapares  reigns  .        .    .  1421 
•  •  •  •  « 

The  prophet  Jonah  appean  in  Nineveh, 

and  foretells  its  destruetlon. — Mair    •    840 
Nineveh  taken  by  Axbaoee     .       .       .820 


ASSYRIA,  PROPER.  After  the  destruction  of  the  fint  Assyrian  monarchy,  Phnl,  the  last 
king^s  son,  was  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  Ninevites,  777  B.a,  and  the  kingdom  oon- 
tinned  until  621  B.O.,  when  Sarae,  or  Sardanapalus  IL,  being  besieged  by  the  Modes 
and  Babylonians,  put  his  wife  and  children  to  death,  and  burnt  himself  in  his  palace, 
a  &te  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  Sardanapalus  L  See  preoedmg  artieU,  NinoTeh 
was  then  razed  to  the  g^und,  and  the  conquerors  divided  Assyria. — Blair,  In  modem 
history,  it  was  finally  conquered  by  the  Turks  in  1637  a.d. — PrietUey. 


Phnl  r^sed  to  the  throne,  about  the 
year— {JWatr] B.C.  777 

He  invades  Israel,  but  departs  witiiout 
drawing  a  sword. — Mair;  iXinffixr, 

19, 20 no 

Tiglath-Pileser  invades  Syria,  takes  Da- 
mascus, and  makes  great  conquests     .  740 

Shalmsneser^  takes  Bamaria,  transports 
the  people,  whom  he  replaoos  by  a 
oolooy  of  Cutheans  and  othexs,  and  thus 
finisbes  the  kingdom  of  Israel.— .8Za»r .  721 

Be  retires  from  before  Tyre,  after  a 
siege  of  five  years. — IKotr      .  .713 

Sennacherib  invades  J  udea,  and  his  geno- 


ral,  Rabshakeh,  hesioges  Jerusalem, 
when  the  angel  of  the  Lord  in  one 
night  deetrovs  180,000  of  his  army.— 
Isaiah,  xxxvlL  .  B.a  710 

[Commentators  suppose  that  this  mes- 
senger of  death  was  the  (ktal  blast 
known  in  eastern    countries    by  the 
nameof&ii»t«I.] 
Esar-haddon  invades  Judea,  and  takes 

Babylon.— iiZair 680 

He  invades  Judea. — Blair.       .       .       .  677 

Holofemes  is  slain  by  Judith       .        .    .  677 

Baoeduchinus  reigns. — Uther     .        .        .  667 

I  Nineveh  taken  and  nsed  to  the  ground  .  621 


On  the  destruction  of  Nineyeh,  the  Assyrian  monarchy  was  dirided  between  the 
Modes  and  Babylonians. — BUUr.  For  the  late  discoveries  of  Layard  and  others  in 
Assyria,  see  Nineveh, 

ASTROLOOY.    Judicial  astrology  was  iuTented  by  the  Chaldawuiy  and  hence  was  trans- 

*  Dr.  Blair  calculates  this  king's  reign  from  the  establishment  of  the  monarchy,  2069 :  but  the  Abbtf 
Lenglet  reckons  It  from  his  accessiiai  to  the  throne  of  Assyzia  ten  years  before ;  the  ktter  mode  Is 
here  adopted. 

K 


AST 


60 


ASY 


mitted  to  the  EgyptianB,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  It  was  muoh  in  yogue  in  France  in 
the  time  of  Catherine  de  Medids,  1588. — HenavU,  The  early  history  of  astrology 
in  England  is  yery  little  known :  Bede  was  addicted  to  it,  700 ;  and  so  was  Roger 
Bacon,  1260.  Cecnl,  Lord  Burleigh,  calculated  the  nativity  of  Eliaabeth ;  and  she,  and 
all  the  European  princes,  were  the  humble  servants  of  Dee,  the  astrologer  and  ooigoror; 
but  the  period  of  the  Stuarts  was  the  acme  of  astrology  amongst  us.  Sir  Walter  Soott 
has  made  ample  use  of  Sir  William  Lilly,  the  noted  astrologer,  in  his  tales  of  this 
period;  and  it  is  certain  that  Lilly  was  consulted  by  Charles  I.  respecting  his  projected 
escape  from  Carisbrook  castle  in  1647. — Perguton. 

ASTRONOMT.  The  earliest  accounts  we  haye  of  this  science  are  ttiose  of  Babylon, 
about  2234  B.a. — Blair,  The  study  of  sstronomy  was  much  advanced  in  Chaldna 
under  Nabonassar ;  it  was  known  to  the  Chinese  about  1100  &o. ;  some  say  many 
centuries  befora  Lunar  eclipses  were  observed  at  Babylon  with  exceeding  accuracy^ 
720  B.a  Spherical  form  of  the  eartii,  and  the  true  cause  of  lunar  eclipses,  taught  by 
TkaleM,  640  B.O.  Further  discoveries  by  Pythagorat,  who  taught  the  doctnne  of 
celestial  motions,  and  believed  in  the  plnrdity  of  habitable  worlds,  500  &a  HipparchuM 
began  his  observations  at  Rhodes,  167  B.a — ^began  his  new  cycle  of  the  moon  in  143, 
and  made  great  advances  in  the  science,  140  &o.  The  precession  of  the  equinoxes 
confirmed,  and  the  places  and  distances  of  the  planets  disoovered,  by  Ptolemy,  a  Ji,  130. 
After  the  lapse  of  nearly  seven  centuries,  during  which  time  astronomy  was  neglected, 
it  was  resumed  by  the  Arabs,  about  800 :  and  was  brought  into  Europe  by  the  Hoon  of 
Barbaiy  and  Spain,  but  not  sooner  than  1201,  when  they  also  introduced  geography. 


Tha  Alphonaiiie  tablet  (which  aee)  were 

oompofled a.d. 

Clocks  first  used  in  sstronomy,  about    . 
True  doctrine  of  the  motions  of  the  pla- 
netary bodies  reTired  by  Copernicus  . 
The  science  greatly  sdvanoed  by  Tycho 

Brahe,  about 

True  laws  of  the  planetary  motions,  by 

Kepler 1819 

Telescopes  and  other  instruments  used 

in  sstronomy,  about     .... 
The  discoveries  of  Ckilileo  were  made 

about        

The  transit  of  Venus  over  the  Sun's  disk 

first  discovered  by  Horrox  .  Nov.  24, 
Csssini  draws  his  meridian  line,  after 

Itente.    Bee  Bolofpvi 
The  aberration  of  the  light  of  the  fixed 

stars  discovered  by  Horrebow     . 

Discoveries  of  Picart 

Map  of  the  Moon  conBtructed  byHevelins 
Motion  of  the  sun  round  its  own  axis 

proved  k>y  Halley  .... 


1384 
1500 

1530 

1582 


1627 

1681 

16S9 

1655 

1659 
1669 
1670 


1676 


Discoveries  of  Huygens  .      a.d.  1686 

Newton's  Primcipta  published,  and  the 
system  as  now  taught  inoontrovertibly 
established 1687 

Catalogue  of  the  stars  made  by  Flam- 
stead      1688 

Satellites  of  Batum,  fta,  disoovered  by 
Cassini 1701 

Aberration  of  the  stars  clearly  explained 
by  Dr.  Bradley 1737 

Celestial  inequauties  found  by  La  Orocge  1780 
Uranus  and    Satellites  discovered  by 
Bonchel,   March  18.     See  thoryimm 

Sidut 1781 

M^eaniqM  OOeiU,  published  by  La  Place  1796 
Ceres  discovered  hj  Piassi  Jan.  1,  1801 

Pallas,  by  Dr.  Olbers  .       .     Mansh  28^  1802 
Juno,  by  Harding    .  .    Sept  1,  1804 

Vesta,  by  Olbers  .     March  29,  1807 

Astronomical  Society  of  London  founded  1820 

[For  the  several  planets  recently  dis- 
oovered, see  article  PUuuU.} 


The  distance  of  the  fixed  Stan  is  supposed  to  be  400,000  times  greater  from  us  thsn 
we  are  from  the  sun,  that  is  to  say,  88  millions  of  millions  of  miles ;  so  that  a 
cannon-ball  would  take  near  nine  millions  of  yean  to  reach  one  of  them,  supposing 
there  were  nothing  to  hinder  it  from  pursuing  its  course  thither.  As  li^t  takes 
about  eight  minutes  and  a  quarter  to  reach  us  from  the  sun,  it  would  be  about  six 
years  in  coming  from  one  of  those  stars ;  but  the  calculations  of  later  astronomers 
proTO  some  stars  to  be  so  distant,  that  their  light  must  take  centuries  before  it  can 
reach  us,  and  that  every  particle  of  light  which  enters  our  eyes  left  the  star  it  comes 
from  three  or  four  hundrod  years  ago. — OtijecU  0/  Se  mec, 

ASYLUMS,  OR  PRIYILEGBD  PLACES.  At  first  they  were  places  of  refiige  for  those 
who^  by  accident  or  necessity,  had  done  things  that  rendered  them  obnoxious  to  the 
law.  God  commanded  the  Jews  to  build  certain  cities  for  this  purpose.  The  pos- 
terity of  Hercules  is  said  to  have  built  one  at  Athens,  to  protect  themselves  against 
such  as  their  father  had  irritated.  Cadmus  built  one  at  Thebes,  and  Romulus  one 
at  Mount  Palatine.  A  while  after  the  coming  of  Christianity  into  England,  super- 
stitious veneration  lan  so  high,  that  churches,  monasteries,  church-yards,  snd  bishops' 
houses  became  asylums  to  all  that  fled  to  them,  let  the  crime  be  what  it  would ;  of 
which  very  ill  uae  was  made,  both  by  the  clergy  and  laitv.  In  London  persons  were 
secure  from  arrest  in  particular  localities :  these  were  the  ICinories,  Salisbury-court, 
Whitefriaxs,  Fulwood's-rents,  Mitre-coorty  Baldwin's-gardens,  the  Savoy,  Clink. 
Deadman's-place,  Montsgue-close,  and  the  Mint    This  security  was  abolished  x.a 


ATH  61  ATH 

169f;  bat  the  last  was  not  wholly  sappresaed  until  the  reign  of  Qmargp  L    See 
iVrnZf^ei  Piaeet  and  Sanetuariet, 

ATHA17 ASIAN  CREED  akd  CONTROVERSY.  The  great  controTeny  ngardiog  the 
diTinity  of  Chriat  aroae  and  extended  between  A.D.  333  and  351.  Athanaaiua,  who 
was  a  native  of  Alexandria,  eneountered  great  peraeoution  at  the  handa  of  tibe  Ariana 
for  his  religious  doctrinea,  and  was  exiled  for  them  again  and  again.  The  creed 
wbioh  goes  by  his  name  la  supposed  by  most  authorities  to  have  been  written  about 
the  year  340;  but  it  ia  affirmed  by  other  writers  to  be  the  compilation  of  an  African 
bishop  in  the  fifth  eentuiy. — Du  Pin. 

ATHEISIL  This  doctrine  hss  had  its  votaries  and  martyrs.  Spinosa  wss  its  defender 
in  the  17th  century.  Lueilio  Vanini  publicly  taugbt  atheism  in  F^ranoe,  and  waa 
condenmed  to  be  bunit  at  Toulouse  in  1619.  Mathias  Knutsen,  of  Holstein,  openly 
professed  atheism,  and  had  upwards  of  a  thousand  disciplea  in  Germsny  about  1674 ; 
he  travelled  to  make  proselytes,  and  his  followexs  were  called  0(m$demciarie$,  because 
they  held  that  there  is  no  other  deity  than  consdenoe.  Many  eminent  men  of 
vmrious  countries  have  been  profesaon  of  atheism,  snd  even  in  England  we  have  had 
writers  tinctured  with  it. — RUkcardum,  Atikt,  **  Though  a  smaU  draught  of  philo- 
sophy may  lead  a  man  into  atheism,  a  deep  draught  will  certainly  bring  him  back 
again  to  the  belief  of  a  God.*' — Lord  Baeom,  **Si  Dieu  n'exietatt  pcu,  it  faudrait 
ftmretUer" — "If  a  Qod  did  not  exist,  it  would  be  necessary  to  invent  one." — VoUaire, 

ATHEKjSLA.  These  were  great  festivals  celebrated  at  Athens  in  honour  of  Minerva. 
One  of  them  was  called  JPanathensa,  and  the  other  Chalcea;  they  were  first  inati- 
tated  by  Erectheus  or  Orpheus,  1397  B.O. ;  and  Theaeus  afterwards  renewed  them 
snd  caused  them  to  be  observed  by  all  Uie  people  of  Athens,  the  first  every  fifth 
year,  1234  B.a— P/ntarcA. 

ATHEKiEXTM.  A  plsoe  at  Athena^  sacred  to  Minerva,  where  the  'poets  and  philoso- 
phen  declaimed  and  recited  their  compositions.  The  most  celebrated  Athensea  were 
aft  Athens,  Rome,  and  Lyona :  that  of  Rome  was  of  great  bcauhr  in  its  building,  snd 
was  erected  by  the  emperor  Adrisn,  a.d.  125,— TUkmont'8  Life  of  Adrian.  The 
Athenseum  Club  of  London  was  formed  in  1824,  for  the  association  of  persons  of 
seientifio  and  literary  attainmenta,  artists,  and  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  patrons  of 
learning,  &c. ;  the  club-house  was  erected  in  1829,  on  the  site  of  the  late  Carlton- 
palace ;  it  is  of  Grecian  architecture,  and  the  frieze  is  an  exact  copy  of  the  Pana- 
thenteic  procession  which  formed  the  firiese  of  the  Parthenon. — The  Liverpool 
Athenseum  was  opened  Jsn.  1,  1799. — ^At  Manchester,  Bristol,  and  other  places, 
buildings  under  this  name,  and  for  a  like  purpose,  have  been  founded. 

ATHENS.  The  once  celebrated  capital  of  ancient  Attica,  whose  magnificent  ruins  yet 
sttest  its  former  grandeur — the  seat  of  science  and  theatre  of  valour.  The  first 
sovereign  of  whom  we  have  any  knowledge  is  Ogyges,  who  reigned  in  Boeotia,  and 
waa  master  of  Attica,  then  called  Ionia.  In  his  reign  a  deluge  took  place  (by  some 
supposed  to  be  no  other  than  the  universal  deluge,  or  Noah's  flood)  that  Isid  waste 
the  country,  in  which  state  it  remained  two  hundred  years,  until  the  arrival  of  the 
Egyptian  Cecrops  and  a  colony,  by  whom  the  land  was  re-peopled,  and  twelve  cities 
founded,  1556  B.C.  The  fint  state  of  Athens  was  under  seventeen  kings,  comprising 
a  period  of  487  years,  but  the  history  of  its  first  twelve  monarohs  is  mostly  fiibiilous ; 
in  its  second  state  it  was  governed  by  thirteen  perpetual  archons,  a  period  of  316 
years;  in  ita  third  state  by  seven  decennial  archons,  whose,  rule  extended  over  70 
years ;  and,  lastly,  in  its  fourth  state  by  annual  archons,  who  ruled  for  760  years. 
Under  this  democracy  Athens  became  unrivalled,  and  her  people  signalised  them- 
selves by  their  valour,  munificence,  and  culture  of  the  fine  arts;  snd  perhaps  not 
one  other  single  dtv  in  the  world  can  boast,  in  such  a  short  space  of  time,  of  so 
great  a  number  of  illustrious  citizens.  The  ancients,  to  distinguish  Athens  in  a  more 
peculiar  manner,  called  it  Ailn,  the  city,  by  eminence,  and  one  of  the  eyes  of  Greece. — 
Plutarch, 


Arrival  of  CecropA  ....  B.a  1556 
The  Areo{jagUB  MtabUshed  .    .  1507 

DeuoaUon  arrives  In  Attica  .  150S 

The  PanatheDsean  Games  .  .    .  1405 

Briehthoniiu  teaches  husbandry  .  .  14M 
Ceres  arrives  in  A  tUca  .    .1883 

Beusinian  mTstenes  introduced  by  £u- 

molpus 1356 

Erechthcus  killed  In  batUe  with  the 

Eleuriniaas 1347 


JBgefOB  invades  Attica,  aacends  the  throne, 
and  zeigns  48  years  .       .  b.c.  1283 

He  throws  himself  into  the  sea,  and  is 
drowned ;  hence  the  nune  of  the 
J^pean  Sea.— J<u«p5iiw      ....  1235 

Theseus,  his  son,  succeeds  and  reigns  80 
yean 1235 

He  collects  his  subjects  into  one  city, 
and  names  it  Athens  .    .  1234 

Seizure  of  Helen  by  Theseus  .  .  I2ai 

k2 


ATH 


52 


ATH 


ATHENS,  omtifMed, 

Reign  of  MoesUieug    .  aa  1205 

Reign  of  Demophoon  ....  1182 
Court  of  EpheteBestabliBhad  .    .  1179 

The  Prianepee  instituted        .  .  1178 

Ozjrnthee  reigns  12  years   .  .    .  1149 

Ho  is  suoceeded  by  Aphidas   .  .  1137 

Aphidas  assassinated 1136 

Melanthufl  conquers  Xuthus  in  single 

combat,  and  in  chosen  king .  .  1128 

Reign  of  Ckxlrus,  his  son,  the  last  king 

of  Athens 1001 

In  a  battle  with  the  Heraclidn,  Godnu 
rushes  into  the  thickest  of  the  fight^ 
resolved  to  perish ;  the  oracle  having 
declared  that  the  victory  should  be 
with  the  side  whose  leader  was  killed  1070 

Royalty  aboliahed 1070 

Athens  governed  by  archona  .  .  1069 

Alcmeon,  last  perpetual  archon         .    .    754 
Hippomenas  deposed  for  his  cruelty ; 
among  other  acts  he  exposes  his  own 
daughter  to  be  devoured  by  hones,  on 
account  of  an  illicit  amour  .        .        .713 
Srixias,    seventh    and    last    decennial 

archon,  dies 681 

Draco,  the  twelfth  annual  archon,  pub- 
lishes his  laws      623 

Solon  supersedes  them  by  his  code    .    .    578 
Pisistratas,  the  tyrant,  seizes  the  su- 
preme power        660 

First  tragedy  acted  at  Athens,  on  a 
waggon,  bv  Thespis  .    .    535 

Pisistratus  cues 527 

HipparchuB  assassinated  ....  513 
The  law  of  ostracism  ....  510 
The  Laoed»montan  war  .    .    505 

The  isle  of  Lemnos  taken  by  the  Athe- 

niau  general  Miltiades  ....    504 
Memorable  battle  of  Marathon,  in  At- 
tica.   Bee  IfarotAoa  .    .    490 
Aristides,  sumamed  the  Juat,  banished 

by  ostracism 487 

Athens  taken  by  the  PersianSk  during 

their  invasion  of  Qreeoe  .  .    .    480 

Burnt  to  the  ground  by  Mardonlus  .  479 
Bebuilt  and  fortified  the  next  year  .  .  478 
Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades,  overruns  all 

Thrace,  even  to  Maoedon  .    460 

Cimon  banished  through  the  intrigues 

ofPerldee 468 

The  Athenians  defeat  the  Persians  in  a 

naval  battle  in  Eg3rpt  .  .       .462 

Athens  begins  to  tyrannise  over  the  rest 

ofOreeoe 459 

The  first  Sacred  War,  vhieh  mc      .       .448 
Tolmidas  conducts  an  expedition  into 
BoBoUa,  and  is  defeated  and  killed 
near  Chieronea.    See  CA«rrofua       .    .    447 
The  thirty  years'  truce   between  the 

Athenians  and  Laoedasmonians  .       .    446 
Herodotus  reads  his  history  in  the  ooun- 

ei\  at  Athens 445 

Pericles  subdues  Samos ;  the  battering- 
ram  is  first  used  here  ....    441 
Comedies  prohibited  at  Athens  .       .    .    4i0 
The  Peloponnesian  war  begins,  and  lasts 

27  years 431 

A  dreadftil  pestllenoe,  which  had  ravaged 
Ethiopia,  Libya,  Egypt,  and  Persia,  | 


extends  to  Athens^  and  continues  for 

five  years b-C 

Death  of  Pericles,  who  had  governed 

Athens  forty  years       .... 

Second  great  pestilence ;  owing  to  the 

depopulation,  each  man  is  permitted 

to  have  two  wives    ..... 

The  Deoelian  vrar  begins. 

The  battle  of  Qyzicum :  wMeh  jm 

The  inhabitants  of  Miletus  pat  to  the 

sword,  and  Lyda  entered    . 
Aldbiades  aceased  of  aspiring  to  sove- 
reign power      .  • 
Athenian  fleet  of  180  ships  defeated  by 

Lysander,  in  the  Hellespont 
Lynnder  besieges  Athens  by  land  and 
sea ;  its  walis  are  destroyed,  and  it 

capitulates 

The  Pelnponnesian  war  terminates 
Rule  of  the  thir^  tyrants  .        ... 
Socrates  put  to  death       .        .        .       • 
The  Corinthian  war  begins         .       •    • 
The  sea-fight  at  Naxus ;  the  liicednmo- 

nians  defeated 

Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  gains  his  first 
victory  at   Methon,  ovor   the  Athe- 
nians.   See  Maeedon 
Second  Sacrad  war  commenced 
It  terminates.    BeeSscrei  War.       .    • 
Battle  of  Chsaronea;  the  Athenians  and 
Thebans  defeated  by  Philip  and  his 
son,  Alexander.    See  Ckeeronea  . 
Athens  submits  to  Alexander  the  Oreat» 

who  enters  Greece 

Demosthenes,  Hyperidos,  and  Demadas 

put  to  death 33 

Demetrius  restores  libertjr  to  Greece, 
and  re-establishes  the  democracy  at 

Athens. — Uther 

Demetrius  takes  Athens .  .  .  • 
The  revolt  from  Demetrius  .  .  • 
A    league    formed    between    Athens, 


490 
49 


426 
414 
40g 

40S 

407 

4as 


404 
404 

403 
400 
SU 

877 


3«0 
357 

348 


SS3 

3S5 


SOT 
296 
3S7 


Sparta,  and  Bsypt  .  .  .  • 
Athens  taken  By  Antigonua,  king  of 

Maoedon,  and  held  twelve  years    .    • 
Restored  to  liberty  by  Aratos 
The  Athenians  join  the  Achaoan  league . 
The  original  manuscripts  of  JSscfaylus, 

Euripides,  and  Sophocles,  pledged  to 

Ptolemy  Euergetes,  king  of  Egypt,  for 

fifteen  talents 

The  Athenians  Join  the  jEtolians  and 

their  allies  against  Maoedon,  and  send 

for  assistance  to  Rome 
A  Roman  fleet  arrives  in  the  ports  of 

Athens. — Blair  .  .  .  .  • 
Subjugation  of  Greece  .  .  .  - 
The  Athenians  implore  assiBtanoesgainst 

the  Romans  finom  Mithridates,  lung  of 

Pontus 

His  general,  Arehelaus,  makes  himaeir 

master  of  Athens 

Athens  besieged  by  Sylla,  the  Roman 

general:  it  surrenders  the  following 

year,  being  reduced  by  &mine    . 
The  Athenians  desert  Pompey,  to  folloir 

the  interests  of  Caear 
They  are  subjected  to  Rome    . 


277 

368 
2S6 
2S6 


833 


215 

811 
145 


S8 
8S 


87 

47 
81 


The  YenetiaDB  got  poBseeaion  of  Athens  in  a.d.  1204,  and  the  Torks  in  ^^^'"T 
PriettUy.  It  became  the  capital  of  Livadia,  a  province  of  European  Turkey;  aod 
is  now  that  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Qreece,  and  the  seat  of  its  legislature,  estsbllBbed 
under  king  Otho  L,  Jan.  25,  1833.    See  Oreeoe. 

ATHTiONE.    Once  a  phuse  of  ^reat  strength  and  beauty;  the  castle  was  founded  by 


king  John.    The  town  was  destroyed  by  fire  during  the  fury  of  the  war  in 
The  English  army  under  general  Ginckel  stormed  Athlone,  which  was  then  a  i 
«f  prodigious  strength,  crossing  the  Shannon  in  the  £ftoe  of  the  Irish  armyf  y^ 


ATM 


58 


ATT 


looDg  more  tluui  fiftj  men.    This  bold  and  suooeaifiil  enterpme  procured  for 
Oinckel  the  title  of  earl  of  Athlone,  1691.— Bwm*i  Aimali. 

ATMOSPHERK  Potidonios  fint  calculated  the  hcogfat  of  the  atmoiphere,  itating  it  to 
be  800  >tadi%  nearly  agreeing  with  our  modem  idea,  about  79  B.o.  Its  weight  was 
determined  by  Qaliieo  and  Torrioelli,  about  1630;  its  density  and  elasticity  by  Boyle; 
and  its  relation  to  light  and  sound  by  Hooke,  Newton,  and  Derham.  Its  composition 
was  ascertained  by  Hales,  Black,  IViestley,  Scheele,  Lavoisier,  and  Cavendiah ;  and 
its  laws  of  refraction  were  inyestigated  by  Dr.  Bradley,  1787.    See  Otone, 

ATHOSPH£RIC  RAILWAY.  Experiments  were  made  on  a  line  of  rail,  laid  down 
between  Shepherd's-buah  and  the  Great  Western  railroad  across  Wormwood  Scrubs, 
London,  by  which  to  test  the  efficacy  of  atmospheric  tubes,  the  woiking  of  the  air- 
pump,  ana  speed  of  carriages  upon  this  new  principle  of  railroads  in  June,  1840. 
In  Ireland  the  first  atmospheric  railway  was  commenced  between  Dalkey  and  Kil- 
liney,  in  the  vicinity  of  Dublin,  in  Sept.  1848 :  it  was  also  the  last  in  use,  being  dii- 
continued  in  1856.  It  was  proposed  to  be  used  in  the  streets  of  London  by  Mr.  T. 
W.  Bammell  in  1857. 


ATTAINDER,  ACTS  of,  have  been  passed  in  numerous  reigns ;  two  witneises  in 
of  hi£^  treason  are  necenary  where  corruption  of  blo^  is  incurred,  uolesi  the 
party  accused  shall  confess,  or  stand  mute,  7  and  8  Will.  IIL,  1694-5.— BladetUme, 
The  attainder  of  lord  Russell,  who  was  breaded  in  LincolnVinn-Fields,  July  21, 
1683,  wss  reversed  under  William,  in  1689.  The  rolls  and  records  of  the  sets  of 
attainder  passed  in  the  reign  of  king  James  II.  were  cancelled  and  publicly  burnt, 
Oct  2, 1 695.  Several  acts  were  reversed  in  subsequent  reigns.  Amongst  the  Isst  acts 
BO  reversed,  not  the  least  interestinff  was  the  attaint  of  the  children  of  lord  Edward 
Fitzgerald  (who  was  implicated  in  ue  rebellion  in  Ireland  of  1798),  July  1, 1819. 

ATTILA.  Sumamedthe"SR>iifp«  of  Ood,"  and  thus  distinguished  for  his  conquests 
and  his  crimes,  ravaged  all  Europe,  a.d.  447.  He  invaded  the  Roman  empire  with  an 
army  of  500,000  Huns,  and  laid  waste  all  the  provinces.  He  died  of  sn  uncommon 
efiiudon  of  blood  on  the  night  of  his  nuptials  with  a  beautiful  viigin  named  Ildico, 
having  retired  late  to  bed,  oppressed  wiUi  wine,  about  ▲.!).  458. — OoldtmitK 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL.  A  great  officer  of  the  crown,  appointed  by  lettera  patent. 
It  is  among  bis  duties  to  exhibit  informationa  and  prosecute  for  the  king  in  matten 
criminal;  and  to  file  biUs  in  Exchequer,  for  any  claima  concerning  £e  crown  in 
inheritance  or  profit;  and  othen  may  bring  billa  against  the  kinffs  attorney.  The 
first  attorney-general  was  William  de  Giulham,  7  Edward  L,  1278. — BetU9(m, 


ATTORKET-QEirXRALS  BIITOE  THE  BBflrTORATIOV. 


Jelfeiy  Palmer a.d.  1060 

BirHeneage  Finch,  a^^cnianZt  lord  Flnoh  1670 
Bbr  Prandfl  North,  knt,  a/arward$  lord 

Guildford 1673 

Sir  William  Jones 1674 

Sir  Crearel  Levini,  knt. ....  1679 
Sir  Robert  Bayer,  knt.  ....  1680 
Sir  Thomas  Fowls,  knt.  ....  1687 

Henry  Pollexfen,  esq 1688 

Sir  Oeonre  Treby,  knt    ....  1689 

Edwaid  ward,  esq 1698 

fir  Thomas  Trevor,  knt,  afterward*  lord 

Trevor 1696 

Sir  John  Somers,  knt^qfltrwardi  lord 

BometB 1697 

Edward  Northey,  esq.     ....  1701 

Sir  Simon  Haroourt^  lent 1707 

Sir  James  Montagn,  knt  .  1708 

Sir  Simon  Harcourt,  again ;  itftenoards 

lordHarcoort 1710 

Sir  Edward  Northey,  knt,  again  .  .  1710 
Nicholas  Lechmere^  esq.,  afterwardi  lord 

Lechmere 1717 

Vtr  Robert  Raymond,  knt,  aflsnmrda 

k>rd  Raymond 1720 

Sir  Philip  Yorke,  knt,  cfflerwardt  earl 

ofHardwlcke 1728 

Sir  John  Willes,  knt       .  .       .1733 

Sir  Dudlev  Ryder,  knt 1786 

Hou.  WUUam  Murray,  oJterwtrtU  earl  of 

Mansfield 1754 

Sir  Robert  Heniey,  knt,  c^/tenoard$  earl 

GfNorfchington 1766 


1767 
176S 

1768 


176ft 
1766 


Sir  Charles  Pratt,  knt,  c^fttrwari*  lord 

Oamden a.d. 

Hon.  Charles  Torke 

Sir   Fletcher  Norton,  knt,  t^fUrwartU 

lord  Orantley 

Hon.  Charles  Torke,  again  ;  afterward* 

lord  Mordeii,  and  lordChanoellor.  Bee 

Ckanedlon 

William  de  Qnj,  a/tentardt  lord  Wal- 

singham 

Edwud  Thiirlow,  esq.,  a/terwarde  lord 

Thurlow 1771 

Alexander   Wodderbume,   esq.,   qfter- 

ward*  lord  Loughborough  .       .       .  1718 

James  Wallaoo,  esq 1780 

Lloyd  Konyon,  esq 1788 

James  WaUaoe,  esq 1788 

John  Lee,  esq 1788 

lioyd  Kenyon,  esq.,  again;  e^Urward* 

lordKenyon 1788 

Sir  Richaid  Pepper  Arden,  <nfUrward* 

lordAlvanlev 

Sir  Archibald  Maodonald    .... 
Sir  John  Scott  afterward*  lard  Elden    . 
Sir  J.  Mitford,  qfterward*  lord  Redes- 
dale       

Sir  Edward  Law,  qfterward*  lord  EUen- 

borough  ....  Feb.  14, 
Hon  Spencer  Perceval  (nwrdered  &y  Bel- 

Itngfinm,  May  11,  1812)  .  April  15, 
Sir  Arthur  Pigott  .  .  .  Feb.  12, 
Sir  Vicary  Qibbs,  <nflerward*  chief  justice 

of  the  commoa  ploss  April  7,  1807 


1784 
1788 
1798 

1799 

1801 

1802 
1806 


AUS 


56 


AUS 


within  two  centuries.  Some  accidental  diacoveries  were  made  by  the  Spaaiards  as  early 
aa  1526 ;  but  the  first  accurate  knowledge  of  these  south  lands  waa  made  by  the  DuU^ 
in  1605,  they  having,  in  that  year,  explored  a  part  of  the  coasta  of  New  Guinea. 
Torres,  a  Spaniard,  passed  through  ^e  straits  which  now  bear  his  name,  between  that 
island  and  continental  Australia,  and  gave  the  first  correct  report  of  the  latter  maaa  of 
land,  1606.  The  Dutch  appear  to  have  been  the  chief  discoverers  during  the  next 
forty  years;  and  between  1642  and  1644,  Tasman  completed  the  discovery  of  a  great 
part  of  the  Australian  coast,  together  with  the  island  of  Van  Diemen  s  Land,  now 
pretty  generally  called  Tasmania.  It  was  late  before  the  English  entered  on  the 
career  of  discovery :  Dampier,  between  1684  and  1690,  explored  a  part  of  the  weat 
and  north-west  coasts.  Between  1763  and  1766,  Wallis  and  Carteret  followed  in  the 
track  of  Dampier,  and  added  to  his  discoveries ;  and  in  1770  Cook  first  made  known 
the  east  coast  of  Australia.  Fumeaux  pursued  the  circuit  in  1773;  and  Bligh  in 
1789,  Edwards  in  1791,  Bligh  (a  second  time)  in  1792,  Portlock  same  year,  Bampton 
and  Alt  in  1793,  and  towards  the  close  of  the  18th  century,  Bass  and  FUndera 
explored  various  portions  of  the  coasts  and  the  isUnda.  Grant  in  1800,  and  Flinden^ 
again,  in  the  five  suoceediag  years,  completed  the  survey. — M'CfuUoclu 

AUSTRALIA,  the  smalleat  continent,  or  largest  island,  in  the  world ;  about  six  times 
smaller  than  America,  and  ten  times  lai^ger  than  Borneo  or  Papua ;  its  area  being 
estimated  at  about  three  million  square  zmles.  Its  colonisation  by  convicts  was  first 
proposed  after  the  separation  of  the  American  colonies  from  this  country.  It  is  now 
divided  into  four  provinces — New  South  WaUt,  SotUh  Australia,  Victoria  (or  Port 
Phillip),  and  Wettem  Atuiralia  (or  Swan  River),  all  situated  on  the  sea  coast. 


Captain  Coolc,  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  Ac. 

land  at  Botany  Bay     .       .  April  28,  1770 
QoTomor  Phillip  foundB  the  fliture  citv 
of  Sydney  near  Port  Jackson,  with 
1030  persona     .       .        .        Jan.  26,  1788 
Great  diatreaa,  in  oonaequence  of  the  loss 

of  the  ship  "  Quardian,"  Captain  Riou  17fiO 
First  church  erected  Aug.  1703 

GoTomment  gazette  first  printed  .  .  1795 
Bass's  Straits  discovered  by  Bass  and 

Flinders 1708-9 

First  brick  chorch  built  ....  1802 
Flinders  surreys  the    coast  of  South 

Australia 1802 

Insurrection  of  Irish  convicts  quelled    .  1804 
Governor  Bligh  deposed  by  an  Insurrec- 
tion for  his  tsrranny     .... 
Superseded  bv  Governor  Maoquarie  .    . 
ExpediUons  Into  the  interior  by  Went- 
worth,  Lawson,  Blozland.  and  Ozley, 
Ac         .        .       .        1813, 1817.  and 
Population  29, 788  (three-fourths  convicts)  1 821 
LegislativB  council  established  .  1820 

Sturt's  expedition  into  South  Australia  1834 
Sir  T.  Mitchell's  expedition  .    .  1835 

First  R.  C.  Bishop  (Folding;  arrives  Sept  1 835 
Port  PhiUip  colonised  .  .  Nov.  1835 
First  Church  of   England    Bishop    of 

Australia  (Broughton)  arrives,  June  1836 
Colony  of  South  Austealia  founded,  Dec.  1836 
Melbourne  founded  .  .  .  Nov.  1837 
Suspension  of  transportation  .  .  1839 

Great  exertions  of  Mrs.  Chinholm :  esta- 
blishment of  "  Home  for  Female  Emi- 
grants" 1841-6 


1808 
1809 


1823 


Census— 87,200  males ;  43,500  females  .  1841 
Very  numerous  insolvencies  .  .  1841-3 
Incorporationof  city  of  Sydney  .  .  .1843 
Census  (including  Port  Phillip)  114,700 

males ;  74,800  females  ....  1846 
Great  agitation  against  transportation 

revived  by  Earl  Grey       .        .        .    .  1849 
Port  Phillip  erected  into  a  separate  pro- 
vince as  Victoria  1850 

Gold  discovered  by  Mr.  Haigraves^  and 

others 1851 

Census— males,  106,000 ;  females,  81,000 

(exclusive  of  Victoria,  80,000)  .1861 

Mints  established        .  .  March,  18SS 

Transportation  ceased     ....  1863 


(able  and 


GOVBavOBS. 

Captain  Arthur  Phillip    . 

Captain  Hunter  . 

Captotai  Philip  G.  King  . 

Captain  William  Bligh 

Colonel  liachlan    Maoquarie 
successful  administration) 

General  Sir  Thomas  Brisbane 

Sir  Richard  Bourke 

Sir  George  Gipps 

Sir  Charles  Fitzroy,  governor  _ 
all  the  Australian  colonies,  with  a  cer- 
tain Jurisdiction  over  the  lieutenant- 
governors  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  Vic- 
toria, and  South  and  Western  Australia  1846 

Sir   William  T.    Denison,    now  (1857) 

governor-general is54 

See  IfewSoiUh  WaUt,  South  Auttrxdia, 
Fiet&ria,  and  Wett  Auatratia. 


general  of 


1788 
17»5 
1800 
1806 

1809 
1821 
1831 
1838 


Act  for  the  government  of  Western  Australia,  10  Qeorge  IV.  cap.  22,  May  14,  1829. 
South  Australia  erected  into  a  British  province,  i  and  5  William  IV.  cap.  95,  Aug.  15, 
1884.  Act  to  continue  the  first  mentioned  act,  5  and  6  William  IV.  cap.  14,  Jtdy  8, 
1835.  Act  with  similar  puipose,  6  and  7  William  IV.  cap.  ^8,  Aug.  18,  1836.  Act 
for  regulating  the  sale  of  waste  lands  in  the  Australian  colonies,  5  and  6  Victoria,  cap. 
86,  June  22,  1842.  And  act  for  the  better  government  of  the  Australian  colonies,  18 
and  14  Victoria,  cap.  59,  Aug.  5,  1850. 

AUSTRALIA,  GK)LD  REGIONS  of.  The  first  discovery  of  gold  in  Australia  was  made 
by  Mr.  Edward  Haignves,  who,  having  a  farm  near  Batliurst^  went  to  California  in 
search  of  gold,  and  waa  struck  with  the  similarity  between  the  rocks  and  strata  of 
California  and  those  of  his  own  district  of  Conobolas,  some  thirty  miles  west  of 
^thurst     On  his  return  home,  he  accordingly  examined  the  soil,  and  after  one 


AUS 


57 


AUS 


or  two  months'  digging,  found  a  quantity  of  gold,  Fob.  12, 1851.  He  at  onoe  applied 
to  the  colonial  government  for  a  reward,  which  he  readily  obtained,  with  an  appoint- 
ment aa  oommieaioner  of  crown  landa.  The  excitement  soon  becoming  intenae 
throughout  tiie  colony  of  New  South  Wales,  rapidly  spread  to  that  of  Victoria  and 
other  places;  and  in  the  first  week  of  July,  1851,  an  aboriginal  inhabitant^  formerly 
attached  to  the  Wellington  mission,  and  then  in  the  serrice  of  Dr.  Kerr,  of  Wallawa, 
discoTered,  while  tendmg  his  sheep,  a  mass  of  gold  among  a  heap  of  quartz.  Three 
blocks  of  quarts  from  two  to  three  hundred  weight,  contained  112  lb.  of  pure  gold, 
valued  at  4000/.  These  blocks  were  found  on  the  Murroo  Creek,  fifty  miles  to  the 
north  of  Bathurst  The  gold  fever  now  became  general,  and  the  gold  since  found  in 
numerous  other  places,  and  often  in  large  blocks,  has  been  of  enormous  amount,  vast 
quantities  (many  tons*  weight  at  a  time)  being  shipped  to  England,  the  continent  of 
Europe,  and  to  America.  The  ''Victoria  nugget,"  a  magnificent  mass  of  viigin  gold, 
weig^iing  340  ounces,  was  brought  to  BSngland  from  the  Bendigo  diggings :  and  a 
piece  of  pure  gold  of  106  lb.  weight  was  also  found.  From  the  gold  fields  of  Mount 
Alexander  and  BaUarat^  in  the  district  of  Victoria,  up  to  October  1852,  there  were 
found  2,532,422  ounces,  or  105  tons,  10  cwt.  of  gold;  and  the  gold  exported  up  to 
the  same  date  represented  8,868,477^  sterling.  In  Nov.  1850  the  "James  Baines** 
and  **  Lightning  "  brought  gold  from  Melbourne  valued  at  l,200,000iL 

AUSTRIA.  Anciently  the  Belgic  Qaul  of  the  Romans.  It  was  taken  firom  Hungary  and 
annexed  to  Germany,  when  it  received  its  present  name,  about  a.d.  1040.  This  was 
after  Charlemagne  had  re-established  the  Western  Empire,  Austria  being  a  part  of 
what  was  called  Eastern  France,  its  name  in  the  German  language  (EtUrreich,  imply- 
ing* Eatiem  Kingdom.  The  sovereigns  of  the  house  of  Austria  ^see  Hap^ywrg)  have 
been  emperors  of  Germany  for  more  than  five  hundred  years :  m  1804  they  relin- 
quii^ed  the  title,  and  became  hereditary  emperors  of  Austria  only.  For  the  succes- 
sion of  the  emperors,  see  Qtrmany, 


Bodolph,  count  of  Hapsburg,  aeizea  Aa»- 
tiia  from  Bohemia,  and  makes  him- 
self arch-duke  .  A.D.  1878 
Bevolt  of  Bwitzerland  from  the  house  of 

Austria,  in  the  reign  of  Albert  I.        .  1307 
Albert  XL,  duke  of  Austria,  succeeds  to 
threecrowna, — the  imperial,  and  thoee 
of  Hungary  and  Bohemia;  hisfomily 
(of  which  Uxe  male  line  was  extinct  in 
1740)  BtUI  posseas  the  empire  .        .    .  1438 
Burgimdy  accrues  to  Austria  by  the 
marriage  of  Mavlmnian  with  the  heir- 
ess of  tnat  province      ....  1477 
Also  Spaio,  by  the  marriage  of  Philip  I. 
of  Austria,  with  the  heiress  of  Arragon 

and  Castile 14M 

Charles  V.,  reigning  over  Germany, 
Austria,  Bohemia,  Hungary,  Spain, 
the  Netherlands,  and  their  dependen- 
dea.  abdicates  and  retires  from  the 
world,  leaving  his  German  dominions 
to  his  brother  Ferdinand,  and  Spain 
and  the  Netherlands  to  his  s<m  Philip 

II.— See  ^/win 1(>57 

The  Protestant  princes  of  Germany, 
being  opiKMed  by  the  house  of  Austria, 
callln  the  aid  of  Qustavus  Adolphus 
of  Sweden,  and  this  leads  to  the  treaty 

ofWestphoIia 1648 

Leopold  I.  reigns.— See  Qtrmany    .        .  1658 
Death  of  Charles  VI.,  the  last  sovereign 
in  the  male  line,  of  the  house  of  Haps- 

burg 1740 

Accession  of  Francis,  Duke  of  Lorraine, 
who  marries  the  celebrated  queen  of 
Hungary,  Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of 
the  deceased  emperor.  Charles  VI.     .  1745 

Beiimof  Joseph  II. 1765 

Rel^otu  toleration  granted  .       .       .  1776 
Tbe  emperor  controls  the  pope  .        .    .  1782 

Reign  of  Leopold  II 1790 

Reign  of  Francis  II 1792 


Austria  becomes  a  distinct  empire,  and 
Francis  II.  of  Germany  takes  the  tiUe 
of  I.  of  Austria      .  .     Aug.  9,  1804 

The  emperor    issues    his    declaration 

against  France         .        .       .  Aug.  5,  1805 
Napoleon,  after  many  victories,  enters 

Vienna Nov.  14,  1805 

Vienna  evacuated  by  the  French,  Jan.  12,  1806 
The  formal  renouncement  of  the  empire 

Aug.  6,  1806 
The  French  sgain  take  Vienna .  May  13,  1800 
But  restore  it  at  the  peace  .  Oct.  21,  1809 
Napoleon  marries  tbe  arch-duchess 
Maria  Louisa,  the  daughter  of  the 
emperor  ....  Aoril  1,  1810 
Congress  at  Vienna  .  .  .  Oct.  2,  1814 
Treaty  of  Vienna  .  .  .  Feb.  25,  1816 
Death  of  Frands  I.,  and  accession  of 

Ferdinand     ....  March  8,  1835 
New  treaty  of  commerce  with  England 

signed July  3.  1838 

Ferdinand  is  crowned.with  great  splen- 
dour at  Milan  .    Sept.  6,  1838 
He  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  nephew, 
Francis-Joeoph,  the  present  ennperor, 

Dec.  2,  1848 
Constitution  of  MsKh  4,  1849,  abolished. 

Doc.  31,  1851 
Attempted  assassination  of  the  emperor 

by  Ubenyi     ....   Feb.  18,  1853 
Commercial  Treaty  with  Prussia,  Feb.  19,  1853 
Marriage  of  the  emperor  to  Elizabeth, 
daus'hter  of    Maximilian,    Duke   in 

Bavaria April  24,  1854 

Austrians  enter  Princijpalitles     .    Sept.  1854 
Treaty  of  Alliance  with  England  and 
France  relative  to  Eastern  question, 

Dec.  2.  1854 
Great  reduction  of  the  army  .  June  24,  1855 
Important  concordat  with  Rome,  Aug.  18,  1855 
(See  idso  Qtrmany f  Vienna^  6m.) 


The  affairs  of  Austria  being  so  interwoven  with  those  of  the  empire  of  Qermany,  it 
has  been  deemed  better  to  continue  the  annals  of  Austria,  under  the  general  head  of 
QsBMAHT,  where  they  will  be  found.    The  emperor  of  Germany  surrendered  the 


AUT 


68 


AZO 


dignity  of  the  empire  on  Aug.  11, 1804;  and  again  renounced  the  title  by  a  formal 
and  public  declaration,  in  which  he  aaaumed  the  rank  of  emperor  of  Austria  only, 
Aug.  6, 1806 :  and  the  German  princes^  seceding  from  the  Germanic  empire  placed 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  Napoleon  I.  of  France. 


EXPEBORS  OF  AtTSTRTA. 

[From  iht  fftar  1804,  vhen  the  Smpercr  of 
Oemianjf  became  Bmperor  of  AmMHo,  oid}i.\ 
1804.  Francis  I.  (late  Fraocia  II.  of  Germany), 
omperor   of  Austria,  only,  Aug.    11, 
1804  ;  died  March  2, 1835. 


1835.  Ferdinand,  his  son,  March  S ;  resigned 
in  favour  of  his  nephew,  Dec  2, 
1848. 

1848.  Francis- Joseph,  Dec.  2,  1848,  the  pre- 
sent (1857)  emperor  of  Austria. 


Before  the  establishment  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  in  1806,  Francis  ceased 
to  be  emperor  of  Germany,  as  mentioned  above,  and  became  hereditary  emperor  of 
Austria,  under  the  title  of  Francis  I.  Upon  the  formation  of  the  Germanic 
Confederation  in  1815,  the  emperor  of  Austria  was  again  declared  hereditary  head  of 
that  body.    See  Qermany, 

AUTHORS.    For  the  laws  securing  copyright,  see  Copynght  and  Literary  property, 

AUTO  DA  FE.  See  Inquisiiicn.  The  punishment,  often  by  burning  alive,  of  a  heretic. 
This  is  called  an  act  of  faith,  and  is  coeval  with  the  Inquisition ;  and  since  its  first 
practice  in  a»d.  1203,  more  than  100,000  victims  have  been  sacrificed  by  the  senteoce 
of  the  inquisitions  of  Roman  Catholic  countries  on  the  burning  pile.  One  of  the  last 
executions  of  this  kind  was  at  Goa,  where  twenty  sufferers  perished  in  the  flames, 
1717.    These  horrible  sacrifices  have  ceased  in  Spain. — Aake, 

AUTOMATON  FIGURES,  or  ANDROIDES.  They  are  made  to  perform  human  actions, 
and  are  of  early  invention.  Archytaa'  flying  dove  was  formed  about  400  B.c.  Friar 
Bacon  made  a  brazen  head  that  was  said  to  speak,  a.d.  1264.  Albertus  Magnus  spent 
thirty  years  in  making  another.  A  coach  and  two  horses,  with  a  footman,  a  page, 
a  lady  inside,  were  made  by  Camus,  for  Louis  XIV.  when  a  child  ,*  the  horses  and 
figures  moved  naturally,  variously,  and  perfectly,  1649.  Vaucanson  made  an  artificial 
duck,  which  performed  every  function  of  a  real  one,  even  an  imperfect  digestion,  eating, 
drinking,  and  quacking.  Vaucanson  also  made  a  flute-player,  1788.  The  writing 
automaton,  exhibited  in  1769,  was  a  pentagraph  worked  by  a  confederate  out  of  sight. 
The  automaton  chess-player  was  exhibited  the  same  year,  and  "the  invisible  girl,"  1800. 

"  A  YB  MARIA  t "  The  salutation  of  the  angel  Gabriel  to  the  Viigin.— Z^iibe  i.  26, 27, 28. 
A  formula  of  devotion  in  the  Roman  Church,  ordered  by  pope  John  XXII.  in  the 
fourteenth  century. — BtUler.  This  prayer  to  the  Virgin  is  repeated  in  Roman  Catholic 
countries  daily  at  the  ringing  of  the  matin  and  the  vesper  bell. — AAe.  It  can  be 
traced  no  higher  than  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  Vincentius  Femrius 
used  it  before  his  discounes. — Bingham, 

AVIGNON.  Ceded  by  Philip  III.  of  France  to  the  pope  in  1273.  The  papal  seat  was 
removed  for  seventy  yean  to  Avignon,  in  1808.  It  was  seized  several  times  by  the 
French,  by  whom  it  was  taken  from  the  pope  in  1769,  but  was  restored  on  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Jesuits,  1 773.  Declared  to  belong  to  France  by  Uie  National  Assembly, 
1791.  Horrible  massacres  in  October  of  that  year.  Continued  to  France  by  the 
Congress  of  sovereigns,  in  1815. 

AXE,  WEDGE,  WIMBLE,  &c.  These  instruments,  with  the  lever,  and  various  othen 
of  a  coarse  construction,  and  still  in  common  use,  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
DsedaluB,  an  artificer  of  Athens,  to  whom  also  is  ascribed  the  invention  of  masts  and 
sails  for  ships,  1240  &c.    Many  of  these  are  represented  in  the  Egyptian  monuments. 

ATDE,  OR  AIDE.  The  tax  paid  by  the  vassal  to  the  chief  lord  upon  urgent  occasionsL 
In  France  and  England  an  aide  was  due  for  knighting  the  king's  eldest  son,  and  was 
demanded  by  Philip  the  Fair,  in.  1813.  This  aide  being  due  upon  the  birth  of  a 
prince,  it  was  ordained  by  the  statute  of  Westminster,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  tiiat, 
for  the  ease  of  the  subject,  it  should  not  be  levied  until  he  was  fifteen  years  of  age^ 
In  England,  Normandy,  and  elsewhere,  an  aide  was  exacted  for  the  marriage  of  the 
king's  eldest  daughter ;  but  by  the  above  statute  it  could  not  be  demanded,  in  this 
country,  until  her  seventh  year.  In  feudal  tenures,  there  was  an  aide  for  ransoming 
the  chief  lord;  so  when  our  Richard  I.  was  kept  a  prisoner  by  the  emperor  of 
(Germany,  an  cude  was  enforced  of  20«.  upon  every  knight's  fee,  to  redeem  him. 

A20FF,  SEA  of,  the  Palus  Mseotis  of  the  ancients,  communicates  by  the  strait  of  Yeni- 
kal^  (the  Bosphorus  Cimmerius)  with  the  Black  Sea,  and  is  entirely  surrounded  by 
Russian  territory ;  Taganrog  and  Eertch  being  the  principal  places.    An  ^pedition 


AZO 


59 


BAB 


oompo00d  of  BritiBh,  French,  and  Turkish  troops,  oommanded  by  Sir  G.  Brown,  landed 
at  Kertch,  May  34, 1855^  when  the  Bnseians  retired,  after  blowing  up  the  fortifications. 
On  the  25th  the  allies  marched  upon  Tenikal^,  which  also  offend  no  resistance.  On 
the  same  eTcning  the  allied  fleet  entered  the  Sea  of  Asoff,  and  in  a  few  days  completed 
their  occupation  of  it,  after  capturing  a  large  number  of  merchant  yessels,  Ac.  An 
immense  amount  of  stores  were  destroyed  by  the  Bussians,  to  prevent  them  falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  allies. 

AZORES,  OB  WESTEBN  ISLEa  Supposed  to  be  the  site  of  the  ancient  Atlantii.  They 
were  discovered  by  John  Vanderberg,  a.d.  1439;  and  were  settled  by  the  Portuguese, 
in  144S.  Martin  Behem  found  one  of  them  covered  with  beech-trees,  and  he  called  it 
therefore  Fayal;  another  abounding  in  sweet  flowers,  and  he  therefore  called  it 
FlortM ;  and  all  full  of  hawks,  and  he  therefore  named  them  the  Asores.  A  violent 
ooncnsBion  of  the  earth  took  place  here  for  twelve  days,  in  1591.  A  devastating 
earthquake,  in  1757.  Here  are  fountains  of  boiling  water.  A  volcano  at  St.  George's 
destroyed  the  town  of  Unulina,  May,  1808 ;  and  in  1811,  a  volcano  appeared  near 
St.  Michael's,  in  the  sea,  where  the  water  was  eighty  fitthoms  deep.  An  island  called 
Sabhna  gradually  disappeared,  Dec  1812. 


B. 

BAALBEC,  Heliopous,  both  which  mean  "  City  of  the  Sun."  An  ancient  city  of  Syria, 
of  which  magnificent  ruins  remain,  described  by  Wood  (in  1757),  and  others.  Its 
origin  (referred  to  Solomon)  is  lost  in  antiquity.  Antoninus  Pius  is  stated  to  have 
buUt  a  magnificent  temple  of  Jupiter  here.  The  city  was  sacked  by  the  Moslems, 
A.D.  748,  and  by  Timour  Bey,  1400. 

BABEL,  THE  TOWER  of.  Built  by  Noah's  posterity,  2247  b.c.  The  temple  of  Belus, 
originally  this  celebrated  tower,  was  the  most  magnificent  in  the  world ;  it  had  lofty 
spires,  and  was  enriched  with  many  statues  of  gold,  one  of  them  forty  feet  high.  In 
the  upper  part  of  this  temple  was  the  tomb  of  the  founder,  Belus  (the  Nimrod  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures),  who  was  deified  after  death. — Blair. 

BABINQTON*S  COKSPIRACT.  Formed  in  the  cause  of  Maiy  against  Elizabeth,  for 
which  the  chief  conspirator,  with  thirteen  others,  suffered  death.  Babington  was  a 
gentleman  of  Derbyshire,  and  he  associated  with  persons  of  his  own  persuasion  (Uie 
Roman  Catholic),  with  a  design  to  assassinate  the  queen,  and  deliver  Mary.  He  seems 
to  have  been  principally  induced  to  this  rash  conspiracy  by  a  romantic  hope  that 
Mary,  in  gratitude,  would  accept  of  him  as  a  husband,  1586. 

BABYLON,  EMPIRE  OP.  Founded  by  Belus,  supposed  to  be  the  Nimrod  of  Holy  Writ, 
the  son  of  Chus,  and  grandson  of  Ham,  2245  B.c. — LengUt.  Ninus  of  Assyria  seized 
on  Babylon,  and  established  what  was  properly  the  Assyrian  empire,  by  uniting  the 
two  sovereignties,  2059  B.o.  According  to  Eusebius  this  empire  existed  1240  yekrs; 
according  to  Justin,  1300  yean ;  according  to  Herodotus  500  or  600  years.  Of  these 
opinions  Blair  has  adopted  the  first,  which  calculates  from  the  foundation  of  the 
empire  by  Ninus,  B.a  2059,  to  the  dose  of  the  reign  of  Sardanapalus,  who  was 
dethroned  by  his  generals,  and  his  kingdom  divided  into  the  Assyrian,  J^bylonian, 
and  Median  kingdoms,  820  B.C.    See  Asiyria. 


The  tower  of  Babel  built  .  B.C.  2247 

Tbe  Uogdom  of  Babylon  beTias  .  .  2215 
Aahnr  builds  a  eity,  afterwards  called 

Nineveh 2245 

The  aatronomical  obserraiions  are  b^fun 
at  Babylon  by  the  Chaldeans. — Blair/ 

LengUt 2234 

BeluSk  Ung  of  Avyria,  extends  his  em- 
pire OT^r  the  neighbouring  states, 
defeats  the  Bal^kmians^  and  makes 
them  tiibutarr.— £7«A«r  .  2124 

Xinus,  son  of  Belus,  reigns  in  Assyria, 
and  names  his  capttaT  after  himself, 

WineveK^LengiH 2060 

Babylon  taken  by  Ninus.  .  2059 

The  Assyrian  Empire  ends  .     .    820 

Belesis  governs  in  Babylon  .    766 

Babylon  taken  by  Esar-haddon  .  .  .  680 
Nabopolasser  assumes  the  title  of  king  .  625 
(Tbis  Is  the  Nebuchodonosor  of  Tobit.  J 


Nebuchadnozsar  makes  his  first  expedi 
tion  into  Syria ....        b.c. 

He  invades  Judea.— lltotr 

He  returns  to  Babylon  with  the  spoils 
of  Jerusalem. — Blair;  Lmglet         ,    . 

Daniel  interprets  the  king's  dream  of 
the  golden-headed  image. — Daniel  ii.  . 

NebuchadnoEsar  goes  a  third  time  against 
Jerusalem,  takes  it,  and  destroys  tbe 
temple.  —  Biair  ;    (7«A«r  .        .   589  to 

The  golden  image  set  up,  and  Shadrach, 
Moshach,  and  Abed-nego  thrown  into 
the  furnace  for  refusing  to  worship  it. 
—DanidiiL 570 

Daniel  interprets  the  king's  second 
dream,  and  Nebuchadnezzar  ia  driven 
firom  among  men. — Banitliy..        .    .    560 

Nebuchadnezzar  recovers  his  reason  and 
his  throne 562 

He  dies  about  a  year  after  .  .    .    561 


606 
605 

604 

602 


587 


BAB 


60 


BAD 


BABYLON,  EMPIRE  of,  continued, 

Babylon  taken  by  the  Medea  and  Per- 
■iane,  under  Cyrus  .        .  B.C.    5S8 

Daniel  thrown  into  iha  liona*  den.— 
Danid  vL 537 


[The  histoiy  of  Susannah,  as  recorded 
in  the  Apocrypha,  may  also  be  placed 
about  thiB  time.] 


The  city  of  Babylon  was,  anciently,  the  most  magnificent  in  the  world ;  and  in  later 
times  iSunouB  for  the  empire  established  under  the  SeleuddiB.  Its  greatness  was  so 
reduced  in  succeeding  ages,  that  Pliny  says,  in  his  time  it  was  but  a  desolate 
wilderness. — The  laborious  researches  of  Mr.  Layard,  CoL  Rawlinson,  M.  Botta,  and 
others,  and  the  interesting  relics  excavated  and  brought  to  this  country  within  the 
last  seven  years,  have  caused  very  much  attention  to  be  given  to  the  histoiy  of 
Babylon.  Many  of  the  inscriptions  in  the  cuneiform  or  wedge-like  character  have 
been  translated,  priucipally  by  CoL  Bawlinson,  and  published  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Boyal  Asiatic  Society.  In  the  spring  of  1855  the  Colonel  returned  once  more  to 
England,  bringing  with  him  many  valuable  relics,  drawings,  &&,  which  are  now  in  the 
British  Museum.  He  gave  discourses  on  the  subject  at  the  Royal  Institution,  May  30, 
1851,  and  June  15, 1855.— The  Hanging  Gardens  are  described  as  having  been  of  a 
square  form,  and  in  terraces  one  above  another  until  they  rose  as  high  as  the  walls  of 
the  city,  the  ascent  being  Irom  terrace  to  terrace  by  steps.  The  whole  pile  was 
sustained  by  vast  arches  raised  on  other  arches;  and  on  the  top  were  flat  stones 
closely  cemented  together  with  plaster  of  bitumen,  and  that  covered  with  sheets  of 
lead,  upon  which  lay  the  mould  of  the  garden,  where  there  were  laige  trees,  shrubs, 
and  flowers,  with  various  sorts  of  vegetables.  There  were  five  of  these  gardens,  each 
containing  about  four  English  acres,  and  disposed  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre. — 
Straho;  Diodofut. 

BACCHANALIA.  Qames  celebrated  in  honour  of  Bacchus.  They  arose  in  Egypt^  and 
were  brought  into  Greece  by  Melampos,  and  were  there  called  Dionysia,  about  1415 
B.C. — Diodorut.  They  were  celebrated  in  Rome  under  the  name  of  Beuxhanalia, 
The  priests  of  the  drunken  revelries  and  feasts  of  Bacchus  were  called  Baochanalsy 
and  were  crowned  with  ivy  and  sprigs  of  vine,  and  carried  in  their  hands  staffii 
wreathed  with  the  same  emblems. 

BACHELORS.  The  Roman  censors  frequently  imposed  fines  on  unmarried  men;  and 
men  of  full  age  were  obliged  to  marry.  The  Spartan  women  at  certain  games  laid 
hold  of  old  bachelors,  dragged  them  round  their  altars,  and  inflicted  on  them  various 
marks  of  infiuny  and  disgrace. — Vom%u.  After  twenty-five  years  of  age,  a  tax  was 
laid  upon  bachelors  in  England,  122.  lOi.  for  a  duke,  and  for  a  common  person,  one 
flliilling,  7  Will.  III.,  1695.  Bachelors  were  subjected  to  a  double  tax  on  their  male 
and  female  servants,  in  1785. 

BACKGABIMOK.  Palamedes  of  Greece  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  this  game  (decidedly 
one  of  the  oldest  known  to  our  times),  about  1224  b.o.  It  is  stated  by  some  to  have 
been  invented  in  Wales  in  the  period  preceding  the  Conquest — Henry, 

BADAJOS,  SIEGE  of.  This  important  barrier  fortress  had  surrendered  to  the  French, 
March  11, 1811,  and  was  invested  by  the  British  under  lord  Wellington  on  March  16, 
1812,  and  stormed  and  taken  on  April  6  following.  This  victory  obliged  the  French, 
to  commence  a  precipitate  retreat  from  Portugal 

BABEN,  HOUSE  of.  The  house  of  Baden  descended  from  Herman,  son  of  Berthold  L, 
duke  of  Zahringen,  who  died  a.d.  1074.  From  Christopher,  who  united  the  branches 
of  Hochberg  and  Baden,  and  died  in  1527>  proceed  the  branches  of  Baden-Baden 
and  Baden-Dourlach. 


Louia  William,  roai^grave  of  Baden-Baden,  a 
great  general,  bom  16£»6,  died  1707. 

Charles  William,  margrave  of  Baden-Dourlach, 
bom  1679.  died  1746,  suoceeded  by  his  son, 

Charles  Frederic,  maigrave,  afterwards  grand 
duke  of  Baden-Dourlach,  boru  1728,  who 
joined  to  his  dominions  Baden-Baden  in 
1771,  which  were  also  increased  by  the 
favour  of  Napoleon :  he  died  in  1811,  suc- 
ceeded by  his  gnuidsoo. 


Charles  Louis  Frederic,  who  died  without 

isftue  in  1818 :  succeeded  by  his  uncle, 
Louis  William,  who  also  died  without  issue 

in  1830  :  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
LeopoUl,  who  died  in  1862 :  succeeded  by  his 

second  son  (the  first  being  imbecile), 
Frederic,  as  regent  to  Sept  6,  1866,  when 

he  was  declared   grand    duke,  and    still 

remains  so  (1867)l 


BADEN,  TREATY  of.  Between  France  and  the  emperor,  when  Landau  was  coded  to 
the  former,  Sept.  7,  1714.  Haden,  formerly  a  maiigraviato,  was  erected  into  a 
grand  duchy,  as  a  member  of  the  Rhenish  Confederation,  August  18, 1806.    Its  terri* 


BAF  61  BAL 

torial  aoqaiaitions  by  its  illlancm  with  France  were  giunuiteed  by  the  oongieM  at 
Vienna,  in  1815. 

BAFFIN'S-BAY.  DiscoYered  by  William  Baffin,  an  Englishman,  in  1616.  The  nature 
and  extent  of  this  discoyery  were  much  doubted  until  the  expeditions  of  Rom  and 
Parry  proved  that  Baffin  was  substantially  accurate  in  his  statement  Parry  entered 
Lancaster  Sound,  and  discovered  the  islands  known  by  his  name.  These  Yoyagen 
returned  home  in  1818.    See  article  North- Wui  Postage, 

BAGDAD.  Built  by  Almansor,  and  made  the  seat  of  the  Saracen  empire,  a.d.  762.^ 
Taken  by  the  Tartan^  and  a  period  put  to  the  Saracen  rule,  1258.  It  has  since  been 
often  taken  by  the  Persians,  and  from  them  again  by  the  Turks. — Blair, 

BAGPIPEb  This  instrument  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  peculiar  to  Ireland  and  Scot- 
land ;  but  it  must  have  been  known  to  the  Greeks,  as,  on  a  piece  of  Grecian  sculpture 
of  the  highest  antiquity,  now  in  Rome,  is  represented  a  bagpiper  dreised  like  a 
modem  highlander.    Nero  is  said  to  have  played  upon  a  bagpipe,  a.d.  51. 

BAHAMA  ISLES.  These  were  the  first  points  of  discovery  by  Columbus.  San  Salvador 
was  seen  by  this  great  navigator  on  the  night  of  the  11th  of  October,  1492. — The 
Bahamas  were  not  known  to  the  English  till  1667,  when  Captain  Seyle  was  driven 
among  them  on  his  voyage  to  Carolina.  Seized  for  the  crown  of  England,  1718,  when 
the  pirates  who  inhabited  them  surrendered  to  Captain  Rogers. 

BAIL.  By  ancient  common  law,  before  and  since  the  Conquest^  all  felonies  were 
bailable,  till  murder  was  excepted  by  statute ;  and  by  the  3  Edward  L  the  power  of 
bailing  in  treason,  and  in  divera  instances  of  felony,  was  taken  away,  1274.  Bail  was 
further  regulated,  28  Henry  YL,  2  Philip  and  Mary,  and  in  later  reigna  Bail  is 
now  accepted  in  all  cases,  those  of  felony  excepted ;  and  in  cases  wherein  a  magistrate 
refuses  bail,  it  may  be  granted  by  a  judge. 

BAILIFFS^  OS  SHERIFFS.  Said  to  be  of  Saxon  origin.  London  had  its  thirt^rtve 
prior  to  the  Conquest,  and  this  officer  was  generally  appointed  for  counties  in 
England  in  1079.  Sheri£b  were  appointed  in  Dublin  under  the  name  of  bailifis,  in 
13& ;  and  the  name  was  changed  to  sheriff,  1548.  There  are  still  some  places 
where  the  chief  magistrate  is  called  bailiff,  as  the  high  bailiff  of  Westminster.  The 
term  BwutrBailiffiM  a  corruption  of  bonnd-bailifi^  every  bailiff  being  obliged  to  enter 
into  bonds  of  security  for  his  good  behaviour. — Bladtione^ 

BAIZE.  This  species  of  coarse  woollen  manufacture  was  brought  into  England  by  some 
Fleming  or  Dutch  emigrants  who  settled  at  Colchester,  m  Essex,  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  IL,  about  the  year  1660.  It  has  flourished  in  this  quarter  ever  sinca  These 
emigrants  had  peculiar  privileges  granted  them  by  act  of  parliament,  12  Charles  II. 
The  trade  is  under  the  control  of  a  corporation  called  the  govemon  of  the  Dutch 
Baize-hall,  who  examine  the  cloth  previous  to  sale. — Andenon, 

BALAKLAYA,  a  small  town  in  the  Crimea,  with  a  fine  harbour,  10  miles  S.  K  from 
Sebastopol.  After  the  battle  of  the  Alma,  the  Allies  advanced  upon  this  place, 
Sept.  26, 1854.  On  Oct.  25,  following,  about  12,000  Russians,  commanded  by  Gen. 
Liprmndi,  attacked  and  took  some  redoubts  in  the  vicinity,  which  had  been  entrusted 
to  idx>ut  250  Turks.  They  next  assaulted  the  English,  by  whom  they  were  compelled 
to  retire,  mainly  through  the  charge  of  the  heavy  cavalry,  led  by  Brigadier  Scarlett, 
under  the  orden  of  Lord  Lucan.  After  this,  from  an  unfortunate  misconception  of 
Lord  Raglan's  order,  Lord  Lucan  ordered  Lord  Cardigan  with  the  light  cavalry,  to 
charge  the  Russian  army,  which  had  re-formed  on  its  own  ground  with  its  artillery  in 
front.  This  order  was  most  gallantly  obeyed.  Great  havoc  was  made  on  the  enemy, 
but  of  607  British  horsemen,  only  198  returned.  The  British  had  altogether  9 
officera  killed,  21  wounded,  and  620  men  put  hora  de  combat.    The  Russians  had  550- 

men  killed,  and  6  officen  (among  whom  was  one  general),  and  190  men  wounded. 

A  sortie  from  the  garrison  of  Sebastopol  on  the  night  of  March  22,  1855,  led  to  a 
desperate  engagement  here,  in  which  the  Russians  were  vigorously  repulsed,  with  the 
loss  of  2000  men  killed  and  wounded,  the  Allies  losing  about  600 — The  Electric  Tele- 
graph between  London  and  Balaklava  was  completed  in  April,  1855,  and  com- 
munications were  then  received  by  the  British  Government — A  Railway  between 
Balaklava  and  the  trenches  was  completed,  June,  1855. 

BALANCE  or  POWER :  to  assure  the  independency  and  integrity  of  states,  and  control 
ambition ;  the  principle  is  said  to  be  a  discovery  of  the  Italian  politicians  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  on  the  invasion  of  Charles  YIII.  of  France. — RoberUon,  By  the 
treaty  of  Mnnster,  the  principle  was  first  recognised  by  treaty,  Oct  24, 1648. 


6AL  62  BAL 

BALEARIC  ISLANDS,  in  the  Meditemnean.  Called  by  the  Oraeka  Balearides,  and  by 
the  Bomana  Balearea,  from  the  dexterity  of  the  inhabitants  at  slinging :  Uiey  inclade 
Majorca  and  Minorca,  with  the  small  isle  of  Cabrera.  These  islands  have  been 
severally  taken  and  retaken  at  various  times.    See  Minorca. 

BALKAN,  PASSAGE  or  thb.  This  adventurous  experiment  was  deemed  impractioable 
by  a  hostile  army,  until  effected  by  the  Russian  army  under  Diebitsch,  whose  march 
through  the  Balkan  mountains  is  a  memorable  achievement  of  the  late  great  Russian 
and  Turkish  war :  the  passage  was  completed  July  26, 1829.  An  armistice  was  the 
consequence ;  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Adrianople,  Sept.  14  following. 

BALLADS.  They  may  be  traced  in  British  history  to  the  Anglo-Saxons. — Turmer. 
Adhelme,  who  died  ▲.d.  709,  is  mentioned  as  the  first  who  introduoed  ballads  into 
England.  "The  harp  was  sent  roimd,  and  those  might  sing  who  couM." — Bede. 
Alfred  sung  ballads. — MtUmetJmry,  Canute  composed  one. — Turner,  Minstrels  were 
protected  by  a  charter  of  Edward  IV. ;  but  by  a  statute  of  Elizabeth  they  were  made 
punishable  among  rogues,  vagabonds,  and  sturdy  beggars. — Vintr, 

BALLADS,  National.  "Give  me  the  writing  of  the  ballads,  and  you  make  the 
laws." — FUii^ur  of  Saltown.  The  sea  ballads  of  Dibdin  inspired  many  a  brave 
defender  of  his  country  in  the  late  war ;  he  died  Jan.  20, 1833. 

BALLETS.  They  arose  in  the  meretricious  taste  of  the  Italian  courts.  One  performed  at 
the  interview  between  our  Heniy  YIII.  and  Francis  L  of  France,  in  the  field  of  the 
Cloth  of  Gold,  1620.— ChUociardini,  In  the  next  century  they  reached  the  summit 
of  their  glory,  in  the  splendid  pomps  at  the  courts  of  Tuscany  and  Lonaine ;  and 
their  most  zeidouB  patron,  Louis  XIV.,  bore  a  part  in  one,  1664. 

BALLOON.  Galien  of  Avignon  wrote  on  aerostation,  in  1755.  Dr.  Black  gave  the  hint 
as  to  hydrogen  in  1767.  A  balloon  was  constructed  in  France  by  MM.  Montgolfier, 
in  1783,  when  Rosier  and  the  marquis  d'Arlandee  ascended  at  Paris.  PilAtre  Desroaier 
and  M.  Romain  perished  in  an  attempted  voyage  from  Boulogne  to  England,  the 
balloon  having  taken  fire,  June  14,  1785.  At  the  battle  of  Fleurus,  the  French  made 
use  of  a  balloon  to  reconnoitre  the  enemy's  army,  and  convey  t^e  observations  by 
telegraph,  June  17, 1794.  Gamerin  ascended  in  a  balloon  to  the  height  of  4000  feet, 
and  descended  by  a  parachute,  Sept.  21, 1802.  Gay-Lussac  asoended  at  Paris  to  the 
height  of  23,000  feet.  Sept  6,  1804.  Madame  Blanchard  ascended  from  TivoU  at 
night,  and  the  balloon,  bein^  surrounded  by  fireworks,  took  fiie,  and  she  was  preci- 
pitated to  the  ground  and  killed,  July  6, 1819.  An  Italian  aeronaut  asoended  from 
Copenhagen,  in  Denmark,  Sept.  14, 1851 ;  his  corpse  was  subsequently  found  on  the 
sea-shore  in  a  contiguous  island,  dashed  to  pieces. 

BALLOONS  Iff  ENGLAND,  kc  The  first  attempt  to  navigate  the  atmospheie  in 
England  in  a  balloon  was  by  Signor  Lunardi,  who  ascended  from  Moorfields,  Sept. 
15, 1784.  Blanchard  and  Jefiries  passed  from  Dover  to  Calais,  in  1785.  Mr.  Arnold 
went  up  from  St  George's-fields,  and  fell  into  the  Thames;  and  major  Money 
ascended  from  Norwich,  and  fell  into  the  North  Sea,  but  was  saved  by  a  revenue 
cutter.  The  first  ascent  from  Ireland  was  from  Ranelagh  gardens,  Dublin,  in  1785. 
Sadler,  who  made  many  previous  expeditions  in  England,  fell  into  the  sea  near 
Holyhead,  but  was  taken  up  Oct  9,  1812.  Sadler,  jun.,  was  killed,  fidling  hota  a 
balloon,  in  1825.  Mr.  Cocking  ascended  firom  Vauxhall;  the  parachute,  in  its 
descent  from  the  balloon,  collapsed,  and  he  was  thrown  out  and  killed,  July  24, 
1837.  Green  and  others  made  many  ascents  in  the  vicinity  of  London,  in  1852. — 
The  great  Nassau  balloon,  of  immense  dimensions,  and  which  had  for  some  time 
previously  been  exhibited  to  the  inhabitants  of  London  in  repeated  ascents  fix>m 
Vauxhall  gardens,  started  from  that  place  on  an  experimental  voyage,  having  three 
individuals  in  the  car,  and  after  having  been  eighteen  hours  in  the  air,  descended  at 
Weilburg,  in  the  duchy  of  Nassau,  Nov.  7, 1836. 

BALLOONS.  EQUESTRIAN  ASCENTS.  Mr.  Green  affirms  that  he  asoended  from 
London,  on  a  horse  attached  to  a  balloon,  in  May,  1828 ;  though  few  persons  seem  to 
be  aware  that  the  experiment  was  mada  He  performed  a  feat  of  this  kind,  however, 
from  Yauxhall-gardens,  in  July  1850;  his  "steed "being  a  very  diminutive  pony. 
To  M.  Poitevin,  of  Paris,  appears  to  belong  the  "honour  "  of  tUa  species  of  aerosta- 
tion :  he  ascended  on  a  horse,  in  the  vicinity  of  that  capital,  about  the  time  just 
mentioned.  Lieut  Gale,  an  Englishman,  made  an  ascent  from  the  Hippodrome  of 
Vincennes,  near  Bordeaux,  Sept  8, 1660.  On  descending,  and  detaching  the  animal 
from  the  balloon,  the  people  who  held  its  ropes,  from  some  misconception,  pivma- 


BAL  68  BAN 

tattij  lei  them  go,  and  the  unfoittinate  aeronaut  was  rapidly  borne  in  the  air  before 
he  naa  quite  re^y  to  resume  his  Toyage.  He  was  disooYered  next  morning  dashed 
to  pieces  in  a  field  a  mile  from  where  l^e  balloon  was  found.  The  ascent  of  Madame 
Poitevin  from  Cremome  gardens,  near  London,  as  ''  Europa  on  a  bull "  (a  feat  she 
had  often  performed  in  France),  and  several  ascents  on  horses,  brought  the  parties 
eoncemed  before  the  police  ootuts  on  a  chai|^e  of  cruelty  to  animals,  and  put  an 
end  to  experiments  th^  outraged  public  feeling,  Aug.  1852. 

BALLIKAHINCH,  BATTLE  or.  A  sanguinaty  engagement  on  the  estate  of  the  earl 
of  Moira,  afterwards  marquess  of  Hastiogs,  between  a  large  body  of  the  insurgent 
Irish  and  the  British  troops,  June  13, 1798.  In  this  battle  a  laige  part  of  the  town 
was  deatroyed,  and  the  royal  army  suffered  very  severely. 

BALLOT.  Secret  voting  was  practised  by  the  ancient  Greeks.  A  tract  entitled  "  The 
Benefit  of  the  Ballot,"  Baid  to  have  been  written  by  Andrew  Marvell,  was  published 
in  the  "State  Tracts,"  1698.  The  ballot  box  was  used  in  a  political  olub  which  met 
in  1659  at  Miles's  coffee-house,  Westminster.  It  was  proposed  to  be  used  in  the 
election  of  members  of  parliament  in  a  pamphlet  published  in  1705.  The  ballot  has 
been  an  open  question  in  Whig  Qovemments  since  1885.  It  became  part  of  the 
electorial  law  of  Victoria,  Auatr^ia,  in  1856. — Secret  voting  existed  in  the  chamber  of 
deputies  in  France  from  1840  to  1845;  and  was  employed  also  after  the  coup 
d'  ^tat  in  1851. — ^It  is  adopted  in  many  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

BALMORAL  CASTLE,  in  Aberdeenshire ;  visited  by  her  Majesty  in  1848, 1849, 1850; 
and  purchased  by  her  in  1851.  In  1854  the  new  building,  in  the  Scotch  baronial 
style,  was  conunencedy  from  designs  by  Mr.  W.  Smith  of  Aberdeen.  The  large  tower 
will  be  100  feet  high. 

BALTIC  EXPEDITION  Aouirn  DENMARK.  This  wss  also  called  the  Copenhagen 
expedition,  the  Danish  expedition,  ko.  There  were  two :  in  the  first  expedition 
under  lord  Nelson  and  admiral  Parker,  Copenhagen  was  bombarded,  and  twenty^eight 
sail  of  the  Danish  fleet  were  taken  or  destroyed,  April  2,  1801.  See  Armed 
NetUraiity.  In  the  second  expedition  under  admiral  Qambier  and  lord  Cathcart^ 
eighteen  sail  of  the  line,  fiffceen  frigates,  and  thirty-one  brigs  and  gun-boata  surren- 
dered to  the  British,  July  26,  1807. 

BALTIC  EXPEDITION  AOAiNsr  RUSSIA  The  British  fleet  sailed  firom  Spithead  in 
presence  of  the  Queen,  who  led  it  out  to  sea  in  her  yacht^  the  Fairy,  March  11, 1854. 
It  conristed  of  a  crowd  of  steam-ships  of  the  line,  of  which,  five  were  each  of  120 
guns  and  upwards,  the  whole  under  the  command  of  vice-admiral  air  Charles 
Kspier,  whose  flag  floated  on  board  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  of  181  guns.  The 
fleet  arrived  in  Wingo  Sound,  March  15,  and  in  the  Baltic,  March  20,  following. 
10,000  Frendi  troops  embarked  at  Calais  for  the  Baltic  in  English  ships  of  war,  in 
presence  of  the  emperor,  July  15.  The  capture  of  Bomarsund,  one  of  the  Alsnd 
Islands,  and  surrender  of  the  garrison,  took  place  Aug.  16.  See  Bomamtnd.  The 
English  and  French  fleets,  the  latter  having  joined  June  14,  commenced  their  return 
homeward  to  winter,  Oct  15, 1854. — The  beoond  expedition  (of  which  the  advanced 
or  flying  squadron  sailed  March  20),  left  the  Downs,  AprU  9,  1855.  In  July  it 
oonnsted  of  85  English  ships  (2098  guns),  commanded  by  admiral  R  S.  Dundas  and 
16  French  ships  (408  guns),  tmder  Admiral  Pemand.  On  July  21,  three  vessels 
silenced  the  Russian  batteries  at  Hogland  island.  The  fleet  proceeded  towards 
Cronstadt.  Many  infernal  machines  *  were  discovered.  Sveaboi^  was  attacked  Aug. 
9.    See  Sveaborg,    Shortly  after  the  fleet  returned  to  England. 

BALTIMORE,  a  maritime  city  in  Maryland,  United  States,  founded  in  1729.  On  Sept 
12,  1814,  the  British  army  under  Qen.  Ross,  advanced  against  this  place,  who  wss 
killed  in  a  skimush.  The  command  was  assumed  by  CoL  Brooke^  who  attacked  and 
routed  the  American  army,  which  lost  600  killed  and  wounded  and  300  prisoners. 
The  projected  attack  on  the  town  was,  however,  abandoned. — AUson, 

BAND  OP  GENTLEMEN  PENSIONERS.  A  court  retinue  instituted  by  Henry  VIIL, 
1509.  The  Earl  of  Essex  was  appointed  their  first  captain. — Salmon.  This  retinue 
now  bears  the  more  suitable  name  of  the  "Hon.  Corps  of  Qentlemen-at-arms,"  by 
an  order  of  his  mi^esty  William  IV.,  dated  March  17,  1834.— Cbpt.  Cwrling, 

*  These  were  eones  offfBlTaniwd  iron,  16  inches  in  diameter,  and  M  inches  long.  Each  contained 
9  or  10  Iba  ^  powder,  with  sppamtus  for  firing  by  sulpbnric  acid.  Little  damage  was  done  by  them. 
They  were  said  to  be  the  invention  of  JaoobL 


BAN 


64 


BAN 


BANQALORE,  SIEGE  of.  Commenced  by  the  British  under  lord  ComwalliB,  ICaroh  6, 
and  the  town  taken  by  storm,  March  21,  1791.  Bangalore  was  restored  to  Tippoo 
in  1792,  when  he  destroyed  the  strong  fort»  deemed  the  bulwark  of  Mysore. 

BANGOR.  Here  was  one  of  the  earliest  monastic  institutions  in  Britain,  and  its  monks 
were  mercilessly  murdered  by  the  Danes;  its  bishopric  is  of  great  antiquity,  but  its 
founder  is  unknown ;  the  church  is  dedicated  to  St.  Danieli  who  was  a  bishop,  ctmiio 
516.  Owen  Glendower  greatly  defaced  the  cathedral;  but  a  more  cruel  ravager  than 
he,  the  bishop  Bulkely,  alienated  many  of  the  lands,  and  even  sold  the  belU  of  the 
church,  1553.  The  see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  131^  16«.  id.  An  order 
in  council  directing  that  the  sees  of  Bangor  and  St.  Asaph  be  united  on  the  next 
vacancy  in  either,  was  issued,  Oct.  1838;  but  this  order  was  rescinded  by  the  met 
10  Vict,  1846.    SeeSt.Ataph. 

BANGORIAN  CONTROVERSY,  was  occasioned  by  Dr.  Hoadly,  bishop  of  Bangor, 
preaching  a  sermon  before  G^ige  I.,  March  31, 1717,  from  the  text,  *'Jliy  hingdtnn  is 
not  of  thtM  world,"  in  which  he  descanted  on  the  spiritual  nature  of  the  kingdom  of 
Christ.    He  thereby  drew  upon  himself  the  indignation  of  almost  all  the  deigy. 

BANK.  The  first  established  was  in  Italy,  a.d.  808,  by  the  Lombard  Jews  of  whom 
some  settled  in  Lombard-street,  London,  where  many  bankers  still  reside  The  name 
bank  is  derived  from  banco,  a  bench,  which  was  erected  in  the  market-place  for  the 
exchange  of  money.  The  Mint  in  the  Tower  of  London  was  anciently  the  deposi- 
tory for  merchants'  cash,  until  Charles  I.  laid  his  hands  upon  the  money  and 
destroyed  the  credit  of  the  Mint  in  1640.  The  traders  were  thus  driven  to  some 
other  place  of  security  for  their  gold,  which,  when  kept  at  home,  their  apprentices 
frequentiy  absconded  with  to  the  army.  In  1645,  therefore,  they  consented  to  lodge 
it  with  the  goldsmiths  in  Lombard-street,  who  were  provided  with  strong  chests  for 
their  own  valuable  wares ;  and  this  became  the  origin  of  banking  in  England. 


Bank  of  Venice  formed    .  .  a.d.  1157 

Bank  of  Geneva 1345 

Bank  of  Barcelona 1401 

Bank  of  Genoa 1407 

Bank  of  Amsterdam        ....  1607 

Bank  of  Hambui^ 1619 

Bank  of  Rotterdam 1635 

Bank  of  Stockholm 1688 

Bank  of  England 1694 


Bank  of  Scotland 

Bank  of  Ck)penhagen 

Bank  of  Berlin     . 

Caiflee  d'Escompt^  France 

Bank  of  Ireland  . 

Bank  of  St  PeterBburg  . 

In  the  East  Indies 

And  one  in  America 

Branch  Banks  In  these  realms 


A.n.  1695 

.  1736 
.    .  1765 

.  177« 
.    .  1783 

.  17W 
.    .  1787 

.  1791 
.    .  1828 


BANE  OF  ENGLAND.  (See  preceding  article,)  Originally  projected  by  a  merchant 
named  Patterson.  It  was  incorporated  by  William  III.  in  1694,  in  consideration  of 
1,200,0002^,  the  then  amount  of  its  capital,  being  lent  to  government.  The  capital 
has  gone  on  increasing  from  one  period  to  another  up  to  the  present  time,  as  the 
discretion  of  parliament  allowed ;  and  the  same  authority  has  aJso  at  eight  different 
intervals  prolonged  the  privileges  of  the  bank,  and  renewed  its  charter.*  When  first 
established,  the  notes  of  the  bank  were  at  20  per  cent,  discount ;  and  so  late  as 
1745,  they  were  under  par.  Bank  bills  were  paid  in  silver,  1745.  The  first  bank 
post-bills  were  issued  1754;  small  notes  were  issued  1759;  cash  payments  were  dis- 
continued February  25,  1797,  when  notes  of  one  and  two  pounds  were  put  into  circu- 
lation. Silver  tokens  appeared  in  January,  1798;  and  afterwards  Spanish  doUan, 
with  the  head  of  George  III.  stamped  on  the  neck  of  Charles  IV.,  were  made  cnr^ 
rent  Cash  payments  were  resumed  partially,  September  22, 1 81 7,  and  the  restriction 
had  altogether  ceased  in  1821.  For  a  number  of  years,  the  financial  measures  of  the 
crown  have  been  largely  aided  by  loans  from  this  great  reservoir  of  wealth.  The 
average  amount  of  the  Bank  of  England  notes  in  circulation  is  as  follows : — 

In  1718  (earliest  account)  .  £1,829,930 

1778 7,030,680 

1790 10,217,000 

1800 I5,4d0,000 

1810 23.904,000 

1815 26.803,620 

1820 27,174,000 


In  1830 £20.620l00O 

1835 18,215,220 

1840 17.231.000 

1845,  Jan.  1       .        .        .        .  19,262,327 

1850,  Jan.  1 19.776,814 

1855,  Jan.  1       .        .        .        .  19.616^627 

1856 20,058,000 


Doe.  27, 1856. — ^Average  assets— Securities. 

Bullion 


.        .        •*29,484,000)   ««j5g^^^ 
.    .    10,105,000/-*^'*^'""" 
Lfabilities 36,329,000 

£3,260,000 

*  By  8  ft  4  Will.  4(1833X  the  charter  was  continued  till  one  year's  notice  after  Auff.  1, 1856;  bnt  pow«r 
was  reserved  to  determine  the  charter  in  1844.  In  that  vear  an  act  was  passed,  7  s  8  Vict  c  Si,  eflbct- 
ing  important  changes  in  the  management  of  the  bank,  out  not  affooUng  the  duration  of  the  charter. 


BAN 


65 


BAN 


At  some  periods  the  note  eiroulAtion  has  largelj  exceeded  these  amounts.  The 
amount  of  gold  and  silver  coin  and  bullion  in  the  bank  fluotuatet  oonsiderabl j,  and 
was  of  late  years  as  low  as  twelve,  and  as  high  as  seven  teen  millions,  until  1852, 
when  the  increase  of  gold,  consequent  chieflj  on  the  discovery  of  the  gold  fields  of 
Australia^  almost  suddenly  became  immense,  and  the  gold  bullion  in  the  bank 
amounted,  on  July  10,  in  that  year,  to  21,845,3902.  On  Jan.  1, 1853,  the  amount  was 
20,527,6622.  The  returns  of  the  bank  are  now  (pursuant  to  the  act  7  and  8  Vict., 
cap.  82)  made  weekly.  To  secure  the  credit  of  the  bank  it  was  enacted,  "  that  no 
other  banking  company  should  consist  of  more  than  six  persons,"  6  Anne,  1707. 
There  are  branch  banks  of  the  Bank  of  England  in  the  chief  towns  of  the  kingdom  : 
aa  Birmingham,  Bristol,  Exeter,  Qlouoeeter,  Hull,  Leeds,  Liverpool,  Manchester, 
Newcastle,  Norwich,  Swansea,  ftc.,  all  formed  since  1828.  A  branch  bank  was  opened 
in  Burlington-gardens,  Oct  1, 1856.    See  FiMdi, 

BANK  OF  IRELAND.  Established  by  act  of  parliament  and  opened  at  Mary's-abbey, 
Dublin,  June  25, 1783.  The  business  was  removed  to  the  late  houses  of  parliament, 
in  Collage-green,  in  May,  1808.  Branch  banks  of  this  establishment  have  been 
formed  in  most  of  the  provincial  towns  in  Lreland,  all  since  1828. 

BANK  ov  SCOTLAND.  The  old  bank  was  set  up  in  1 695,  the  year  after  the  eeUblishment 
of  the  Bank  of  England,  and  was  the  second  institution  of  the  kind  in  these  kingdoms. 
The  Royal  bank  was  instituted  in  1727;  the  Commercial  bank  in  1810;  NatiooiJ  bank, 
1825.    The  first  stone  of  the  present  Bank  of  Scotland  was  laid  June  8,  1801. 

BANK  or  SAVINGS.    See  Savingi  Bank$. 

BANKS,  JOINT  STOCK.  A  vast  number  of  banks  under  this  denomination  have  been 
established  in  England  since  the  act  of  the  7  Geo.  IV.,  1826 ;  they  have  been  instituted 
in  almoet  erery  large  town  in  the  kingdom.  In  1840,  the  amount  of  paper  currency 
issued  by  joint-stock  banks  amounted  to  4,138,618/.;  the  amount  in  circulation  by 
private  btfuiks,  same  year,  was  6,973,6132. — the  total  amount  exceeding  eleven  milliona. 
In  Ireland  many  similar  bankis  have  been  instituted,  the  first  being  the  Hibernian 
bank,  established  by  a  special  act  in  1825.  The  note-circulation  of  joint-stock  banks, 
on  Oct.  1, 1855,  was,  in  England,  3,990,8002.;  in  Scotland,  4,280.0002.;  and  iu  Ireland, 
6,785,0002.;  total,  with  English  private  banks,  about  19,000,0002.;  and  with  the 
Bank  of  England,  above  39,000,0002.    See  Briiitk  Bank 

BANKRUPTS  iv  ENGLAND.  The  first  law  enacted  regarding  them  was  85  Henry 
VIIL  1543 ;  again,  3  Eliz.  1560;  1  James  I.,  1602 ;  again,  1706 ;  and  more  recently. 
It  was  determined  by  the  King's  Bench  that  a  bankrupt  may  be  arrested,  except  in 
going  to,  or  coming  from  any  examination  before  the  commissioners,  May  13, 1780. 
The  lord  chancellor  (Thurlow)  refused  a  bankrupt  his  certificate,  because  he  had  lost 
five  pounds  at  one  time  in  gaming,  July  17,  1788.  In  1812  it  was  enacted  that 
members  of  the  House  of  Commons  becoming  bankrupt,  and  not  paying  their  debts 
in  full,  should  vacate  their  seats.    See  nuA  article, 

HUMBER  OF  BANKRUPTS  IN  GBRAT  BRITAIN  AT  DIFFKBBNT  PKRIOSS. 


1700  . 

.    88 

1800 

.  1S39 

1880 

.  14«r 

1725      . 

.     .  41fl 

18)0    . 

.     .  2000 

1840    . 

.    .  1808 

1760  . 

.  432 

1820 

.  1858 

1845  Enfflaiid 

.  1028 

ins    . 

.     .  520 

1825    . 

.     .  2683 

1850  Ditto . 

.     .  1208 

According  to  a  return  to  parliament  msde  at  the  close  of  February,  1826,  there  had 
become  bankrupt  m  the  four  months  preeediiig,  59  banking-houses,  comprising  144 
partners ;  and  20  other  bankiug  establishments  had  been  declared  insolvent.  Every 
succeeding  week  continued  to  add  from  seventy  to  a  hundred  merchants,  traders, 
and  manufacturers  to  the  bankrupt  list.  This  was,  however,  the  period  of  bubble 
speculation,  and  of  unprecedented  commercial  embarrassment  and  ruin. 

BANKRUFTCT  COURT.  Act  empowering  his  majesty  to  erect  and  establish  a  court 
of  judicature  to  be  called  the  Court  of  Bankruptcy,  and  to  appoint  a  judge  thereto, 
2  Will  IV.,  cap.  56,  passed  Oct.  20, 1831.  Bankruptcy  act,  Ireland,  consolidatiDg  all 
the  statutes  relating  to  bankruptcy,  and  founding  a  complete  system  of  administering 
bankrupts*  estates,  6  Will.  IV.,  cap.  14,  passed  May  20,  1836.  An  important  act  in 
relation  to  the  Bankrupt  court  for  England  and  Wales,  was  passed  (12  &  13  Vict., 
cap.  106)  Aug.  1, 1849 ;  it  repeals  several  previous  acts;  defines  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  court;  prescribes  the  duties  of  the  official  assignee,  accountant,  and  master;  mskes 
various  provisions;  regulates  fees ;  and  enumerates  the  traders  and  others  that  shall 

F 


BAN  66  BAR 

be  deemed  bankrupts  and  liable  to  become  so.    The  laws  relating  to  Bankmpts  were 
further  amended  by  17  &  18  Vict  c.  119,  passed  August  11,  1854. — StatuUt  a<  Xorgie. 

BANNER.  Almost  every  nation  had  its  banner  to  distinguish  it  in  battle,  and  undw 
which  it  fought,  inspired  with  superstitious  confidence  of  success.  The  standard  of 
Constantino  bore  the  inscription  In  hoc  ii^no  vincet — "In  this  sign  thou  shalt  conquer," 
imder  the  figure  of  the  cross. — See  Oott.  The  banner  was  early  in  use  in  England ; 
the  famous  magical  banner  of  the  Danes  was  taken  by  Alfred,  a.d.  879. — SpelwuMM, 
St.  Martin's  cap,  and  afterwards  the  celebrated  auriflamma,  or  oriflanmie,  were  the 
standards  of  France,  about  1100.    See  Atuifiamma,  Standardt,  &c. 

BANNERET.  Some  trace  the  origin  of  bannerets  to  France^  others  to  Britanny,  and 
more  to  England.  These  last  attribute  the  institution  of  this  order  to  Coiian« 
lieutenant  of  Maximus,  who  commanded  the  Roman  legions  in  England,  aj).  883. 
Banneret  is  an  almost  obsolete  title  of  nobility,  conferred  by  the  king  himself,  under 
the  royal  standard.  The  knights  led  their  Tasaals  to  battle  under  their  own  banner, 
but  knight-bachelors  were  commanded  by  a  superior.  The  dignity  lies  between 
baron  and  knight — BeaUofK  Created  in  England,  1360 ;  renewed  by  Henry  VII., 
1485.  It  was  disused  from  the  reign  of  Charles  L,  but  was  revived  by  Gtooige  III.  in 
the  person  of  Sir  Williiun  Erskine  in  1764. 

BANNOCKBURN,  BATTLE  of.  Between  king  Robert  Bruce,  of  Scotland,  and  Edward  IL 
of  England ;  the  army  of  Bruce  oonsiBted  of  80,000  Scots,  and  that  of  Edward  of 
100,000  English,  of  whom  52,000  were  archers.  The  English  crossed  a  rivulet  to  the 
attack,  and  Bruce  having  dug  pits,  which  he  had  covered,  they  fell  into  them,  and 
were  thrown  into  confusion.  The  rout  was  complete,  the  king  narrowly  escaping, 
and  50,000  English  were  killed  or  taken  prisoners,  June  25, 1314. 

BANNS.  In  the  feudal  law,  banns  were  a  solemn  proclamstion  of  anything,  and  hence 
arose  the  custom  of  asking  banns,  or  giving  notice  before  marriage.  Matrimouial 
banns  are  ssid  to  have  been  introduced  into  the  Qallican  Chureh,  about  A.D.  1210 ; 
and  sre  proclaimed  in  the  Chtiroh  of  England  to  this  day. 

BANT  All.  The  celebrated  rich  British  factory  here  was  first  established  by  captain 
Lancaster  in  1603.  The  English  and  Danes  were  driven  from  their  fiu^ries  by  the 
Dutch  in  1683.  Bantam  surrendered  to  the  British  in  1811,  but  was  restored  to  the 
Dutch  at  the  peace  in  1814.  It  was  not,  in  fiust^  worth  retaining ;  the  harbour  is  now 
choked  up  and  inaccessible  to  vessels  of  burden. 

B ANTRT  BAY.  A  French  fleet,  with  succours  of  arms,  ammunition,  and  money,  to  the 
adherents  of  James  II.,  attacked  in  this  bay  by  admiral  Herbert,  May  1689.  A  Frandi 
squadron  of  seven  sail  of  the  line  and  two  fHgates,  armed  en  fivtU,  and  seventeen 
transports,  anchored  here  for  a  few  days,  Dec.  1796.  Mutiny  of  the  Bantiy  Bay 
squadron  under  admiral  Mitchell  was  in  Dec.  1801,  and  Jan.  1802.  Twenty-two  of  the 
mutineers  were  tried  on  board  the  QUxdiQUir,  at  Portsmouth,  when  seventeen  were 
condemned  to  death,  of  whom  eleven  were  executed ;  the  others  were  sentenced  to 
receive  each  200  lashes :  the  executions  took  place  on  board  the  Mqjtt^ic^  Oetitamr, 
Formidable^  Timimire,  and  L'AcktUe,  Jan.  8  to  18, 1802. 

BAPTISM  The  sacrament  of  admission  instituted  by  Christ,  and  practised  by  all  sects 
professing  Christianity,  except  Quakers.  St.  John  the  forerunner  of  Our  Saviour,  is 
eminently  called  the  Baptitt,  as  being  the  first  that  publicly  baptised  with  a  spiritual 
intention.  Christ  came  from  Qalilee  to  Jordan,  and  was  baptised  by  John,  A..n.  30. 
Originally  the  people  were  baptised  in  rivers;  but  in  the  reign  of  Constantino,  a.d. 
319,  in  great  cities  they  built  chapels,  or  places  specially  to  baptise  in,  which  in  the 
eastern  countries  was  done  by  dipping  the  person  all  over.  In  the  western  and  colder 
parts,  they  use  sprinkling;  at  first  every  chureh  had  not  a  baptistry  belonging  to  it ; 
our  fonts  answer  the  same  end. — Pardon, 

BAPTISTS,  OR  ANABAPTISTa  A  sect  distinguished  from  other  Christianfl  by  their 
opinions  respecting  (1)  the  proper  tubjects,  and  (2)  the  proper  mode  of  baptism :  the 
former,  they  affirm  to  be  those  who  are  able  to  make  a  profession  of  faith ;  the  latter, 
total  immersion.  There  are  seven  sections  of  Baptists.  They  have  suffered  much 
persecution.  The  first  Baptist  church  formed  in  London  was  in  1608.  Rhode  Island, 
America,  was  setUed  by  Baptists  in  1635.    See  AnabatpitU, 

BARB ADOES.  The  first  English  setUement  in  the  Weet  Indies.  This  mother  plantation 
gave  rise  to  the  sugar  trade  in  England  about  1605 ;  and  was,  with  other  Carribee 
islands,  setUed  by  charter  granted  to  James,  earl  of  Marlborough,  2  Charlea  I.,  1627. 


BAR  67  BAR 

BarbBdoes  has  suffered  Mverely  from  elemental  Tisitationa ;  in  a  dreadful  hurrioane 
in  1780,  more  than  4000  of  the  inhabitants  lost  their  liyea.  A  laige  plantation  with 
all  its  buildings  was  destroyed,  by  the  land  removing  from  its  original  site  to  another, 

and  coveriog  everything  in  its  peregrination,  Oct.  1784.    An  inundation.  Not.  1795 ; 

and  two  great  6res,  May  and  Dec.  1796.    Awfiil  devastation,  with  the  loss  of  thoueands 

ofHveSfandof  immense  property,  by  a  hurricane,  Aug.  10,  1831.     Nearly  17,000 

persons  died  of  cholera  here  in  1854. 

BARBER.  This  trade  was  practised  at  Rome  in  the  third  centuiy  b.g.  In  England, 
from  the  earliest  time.  "  No  person  using  any  shaving  or  barbery  in  London  shall 
occupy  any  suigery,  letting  of  blood,  or  other  matter,  except  only  dnwing  of  teetii," 
32  Henry  VIIL,  1540.  Barbers  formerly  exhibited  a  head,  or  pdU^  at  their  doors ; 
and  the  barber*a  pole  afterwards  used  by  them  was  a  burlesque  imitation  of  the  former 
sign.    The  pole  is  now  confined  to  humbler  barbers'  shops. 

BARBER-SURGEONS.  Anciently  the  business  of  a  surgeon  was  united  to  that  of  barber, 
and  he  was  <lanominated  a  barber-surgeon.  A  company  was  formed  under  this  name 
in  1308,  and  the  London  company  was  incorporated,  1  Edw.  IV.,  1461.  lliis  union 
of  professions  was  dissolved  by  a  statute  of  Henry  VIII. 

BARCLAY,  CAPTAIN.  His  wager,  to  walk  1000  miles  m  1000  successive  hours,  each 
mile  within  each  hour,  and  upon  which  hundreds  of  thousands  of  pounds  depended, 
was  accomplished  July  10,  1809.  This  feat  occupied,  without  intermission,  every 
hour  (less  eight)  of  forty  two  days  and  nights. — A  wager  was  won  by  a  young  lady, 
at  Newmarket,  who  had  undertcdcen  to  ride  1000  miles  in  1000  hours,  which  she  per- 
formed in  litile  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  time,  May  8,  1758. — See  Wdkmg. 

BARDS.  The  profession  of  bard  appeared  with  great  lustre  in  Gaul,  Britain,  and  Ireland. 
Demodocus  is  mentioned  as  a  bard  by  Homer;  and  we  find  bards,  according  to  Strabo, 
among  the  Romans  before  the  age  of  Augustus.  The  Druids  among  the  English  were 
philosophers  and  priests,  and  iJ^e  bards  were  their  poets.  They  were  the  recorders 
of  heroic  actions  in  Ireland  and  Scotland,  almost  down  to  our  own  times.  Oasian 
fionrished  in  the  third  century,  Merlin  in  the  fifth.  The  former  speaks  of  a  prince 
who  kept  a  hundred  bards.  Irish  ballads  are  the  chief  foundations  of  the  ancient 
history  of  Ireland.    See  BaUadi. 

BAREBONES'  PARLIAMENT.  Cromwell  having  the  power  of  the  three  kingdoms  in 
his  hands,  and  not  yet  thinking  it  a  proper  time  to  usurp  the  whole  authority  of  the 
state,  summoned  about  120  persons,  such  as  he  thought  he  could  manage,  who,  with 
six  firom  Scotland,  and  five  from  Ireland,  met,  and  assumed  the  name  of  parliament. 
One  of  them,  a  leather-seller,  who,  according  to  these  fanatical  times,  was  called 
**  Praise-Ood  Barebones,**  as  being  a  great  haranguer  and  frequent  in  prayer,  gave  to 
the  assembly  the  derisive  name  of  the  "  Barebones'  Parliament.**  But  soon  finding 
the  weight  of  government  too  great  for  their  shoulders,  they  resigned  their  power, 
upon  which  Cromwell  became  invested  with  the  supreme  management  of  public 
a&ira,  1658. — Charia  Home. 

BARFLEUR.  At  this  port  William  the  Conqueror  equipped  the  fleet  by  which  he 
conquered  England,  1066.  Near  it,  prince  William,  son  of  Henry  I.,  in  his  passage 
from  Normandy,  was  shipwrecked,  1120.*  Barfleur  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the 
English  in  the  same  campaign  in  which  they  fought  and  won  the  battle  of  Crecy,  a.d. 
1846.  Destruction  of  the  French  navy  near  the  cape  by  admiral  Russell,  after  the 
victory  of  La  Hogue,  in  1692. 

BARING  ISLAND,  discovered  by  captain  Penny  in  1850-61,  and  po  named  by  him  after 
sir  Francis  Baring,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  in  1849. 

BARK.    ^e%  JeamU  Barh, 

BARNET,  BATTLE  of,  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  when  Edward  IV. 
gained  a  decisive  and  memorable  victory  over  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  Easter-day, 
April  14, 1471.  The  earl  of  Warwick,  his  brother  the  marquis  of  Montacute,  and  ten 
thousand  of  his  army  were  slain.  At  the  moment  Warwick  fell  he  was  leading  a 
chosen  body  of  troops  into  the  thickest  of  the  slaughter,  and  his  body  was  covered 

*  In  this  shipwreck  pefrisbed  his  legitimate  son,  William,  Dake  of  Normandy ;  the  prince's  newly- 
married  bride,  Matilda,  daughter  of  Fulke,  earl  of  Anjou  ;  the  king's  natural  eon,  Richard ;  hia  nieo& 
Lucia ;  the  earl  of  Chester,  and  the  flower  of  the  nobility,  with  one  hundred  and  forty  offioera  and 
Boldien,  and  fifty  sailors,  mopt  of  whom  were  intoxicated,  which  was  the  occasion  of  their  running 
tipon  the  rocks  near  Barflenr.  This  lamentable  catastrophe  had  such  an  effect  upon  Ilenry,  that  be 
WAS  never  seen  aflorwar  ds  to  smile. — Htnauii  ;  Hwtu. 

f2 


BAR  68  BAR 

with  wounds. — Ooldtmitk.    A  column  commomorative  of  this  battle  has  been  erected 
at  the  meeting  of  the  St.  Alban's  and  Hatfield  roada. — Brooks, 

BAROMETERS.  Torricelli,  a  Florentine,  haying  discoyered  that  no  principle  of  suction 
existed,  and  that  water  did  not  rise  in  a  pump,  owing  to  nature's  abhorrence  of  a 
vacuum,  imitated  the  action  of  a  pump  with  mercury,  and  made  the  first  barometer, 
in  1643,  and  Descartes  explained  the  phenomena.  Wheel  barometers  were  contriTod 
in  1668;  pendant  barometers  in  1695;  marine  in  1700. — The  Aneroid  barometer,  from 
a,  no,  and  pripos,  watery ,  no  liquid  being  employed  in  its  construction;  the  atmospheric 
pressure  being  exerted  on  a  metallic  spring.  Its  invention  is  variously  attributed  to 
Cont^,  in  1798,  and  Vidi,  about  1844.    It  excited  much  attention  in  1848-9. 

BAROKS.  The  dignity  of  baron  is  extremely  ancient:  its  original  name  in  England  wis 
Vavaaow,  which,  by  the  Saxons,  was  changed  into  Thane,  and  by  the  Normans  into 
Baron,  Manj  of  this  rank  are  named  in  the  history  of  England,  and  undoubtedly 
had  assisted  m,  or  had  been  summoned  to  parliament;  but  such  is  the  deficiency 
of  public  records,  that  the  first  precept  to  be  found  is  of  no  higher  date  than  the 
49  Henry  III.,  1265.  The  first  who  was  raised  to  this  dignity  by  patent  was  John 
de  Beauchamp,  created  baron  of  Kidderminster,  by  Richud  XL,  1887.  Barons  first 
summoued  to  parliament,  1205.  Took  arms  against  king  John,  and  compelled  him 
to  sign  the  great  charter  of  our  liberties,  and  the  charter  of  our  forests,  at  Runny- 
mede,  near  Windsor,  June  1215.  Charles  II.  granted  a  coronet  to  barons  on  his 
restoration  :  they  attended  parliament  in  complete  armour  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 

BARONETS.  The  first  among  the  gentry,  and  the  only  knighthood  that  is  hereditary, 
instituted  by  James  I.,  1611.  The  baronets  of  Ireland  were  created  in  1619.  The 
rebellion  in  Ulster  seems  to  have  given  rise  to  this  order,  it  having  been  required  of 
a  baronet,  on  his  creation,  to  pay  into  the  exchequer  as  much  as  would  maintain 
"  thirty  soldiers  three  years  at  eightpeoce  a  day,  in  the  province  of  Ulster  in  Ireland.** 
It  was  farther  required  that  a  baronet  should  be  a  gentleman  born,  and  have  a  clear 
estate  of  10002.  per  annum.  The  first  baronet  was  sir  Nicholas  Bacon  (whose  suc- 
cessor is  therefore  styled  Primus  Baronettorum  Angliee)^  May  22,  1611.  The  first 
Irish  baronet  was  sir  Francis  BlnndelL — Baronets  of  Nova  Scotia  were  created,  1625. 
Sir  Robert  Gordon  was  the  first  baronet.  All  baronets  created  since  the  Irish  union 
in  1801,  are  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

BARRACKS.  This  word  is  not  to  be  found  in  our  early  lexicographers ;  it  comes  to  us 
from  the  French,  and  in  the  J)icL  de  VAcad,  is  thus  defined:  ** Baroque — HuiU  qui 
font  les  soldats  en  campaqne  pour  se  meltre  d  couverL" — Barracks  were  not  numerous 
in  these  countries  until  about  1789.  A  superintendent-general  board  was  appointed 
in  1793,  since  when  commodious  barracks  have  been  built  in  the  various  garrison 
towns  and  central  points  of  the  empire.    See  Aldershott. 

BARRIER  TREATY.  By  this  celebrated  treaty,  the  Low  Countries  were  ceded  to  the 
emperor  Charles  VI.  It  was  signed  by  the  British,  Imperial,  and  Dutch  ministers,  on 
the  part  of  their  respective  sovereigns,  Nov.  15, 1715. 

BARRISTERS.  They  are  said  to  have  been  first  appointed  by  Edward  I.,  about  1291 ; 
but  there  is  earlier  mention  of  professional  advocates  in  England.  There  are  various 
ranks  of  barristers,  as  King's  or  Queen*s  Counsel,  Serjeants,  &c,  which  see.  Students 
for  the  bar  must  keep  a  certain  number  of  terms  at  the  Inns  of  Court,  previously 
to  being  called ;  and  by  new  regulations  in  1853  they  must  pass  a  public  examination. 
Irish  students  also  must  keep  eight  terms  in  England. 

BARROSA,  OR  BAROSSA,  BATTLE  of,  between  the  British  army,  commanded  by 
major-general  Graham,  afterwards  lord  Lynedoch,  and  the  French  under  manhal 
Victor.  After  a  long  conflict,  the  British  achieved  one  of  the  most  glorious  triumphs 
of  the  Peninsular  war.  Although  they  fought  to  great  disadvantage,  they  compelled 
the  enemy  to  retreat,  leaving  nearly  three  thousand  dead,  six  pieces  of  cannon,  and 
an  eagle,  the  first  that  tlie  British  had  taken;  the  loss  of  the  British  was  1169  men 
killed  and  wounded,  March  5,  1811. 

BARROWS.  The  circular  mounds  found  in  Britain  and  other  countries  to  record  a  burial 
on  the  spot.  They  were  the  most  ancient  sepulchres;  but  lest  the  relics  of  the  dead 
should  be  violated  by  enemies,  the  custom  of  burning  the  dead  was  commenced  by 
Sylla,  and  it  was  not  in  disuse  until  the  time  of  Macrobiua.  Sir  Richard  Hoare 
caused  several  barrows  near  Stonehenge  to  be  opened ;  in  them  were  found  a  number 
of  curious  remains  of  Celtic  ornaments,  such  as  beads,  buckles,  and  brooches,  in 
amber,  wood,  and  gold, — Nov.  1808. 


BAR  69  BAS 

BABROW'S  STRAITS.  Disoovered  by  Parry,  who  penetrated  as  far  aa  Melville  island, 
in  lat  74"*  26'  N.,  and  long.  118"  47'  W.  The  strait  was  entered  on  August  2,  1819. 
The  lowest  state  of  the  thermometer  was  55*  below  zero  of  Fahrenheit.  These  straits 
were  so  named  by  him,  in  honour  of  sir  John  Barrow,  bart 

BARROW,  JOHK,  ISLAND.  Discovered  by  captain  Penny  in  1850-51,  and  so  named  by 
him  in  honour  of  John  Barrow,  esq.,  keeper  of  the  records  of  the  admiralty,  and  son 
of  the  late  sir  John  Barrow,  bart 

BARTHOLOMEW,  ST.  Martyred,  August  24,  a.d.  71.  The  festival  was  instituted  in 
11  SO.  Monastery  of  St.  Bartholomew  (Austin  Friars)  founded  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
I.  by  Rahere,  1102.  On  its  dissolution  the  hospital  of  this  name  in  London  was 
enlarged,  1539,  and  was  incorporated  in  the  last  year  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII., 
1546-7.  It  was  rebuilt  by  subscription  in  1729. — The  charter  for  the  fair  was  granted 
by  Henry  II. ;  and  was  held  on  the  ground  which  was  the  former  scene  of  tournaments 
and  martyrdoms.  The  spot  where  the  latter  took  place  is  situated  in  the  centre  of 
the  pens,  where  the  gas-lamp  now  stands  (1857).  Here  Wat  Tyler  was  killed  by 
the  lord  mayor  Walworth  in  1381,  in  consequence  of  which  the  dagger  was  added  to 
the  city  arms.    The  &ir  was  discontinued  in  1850.    See  Smitl^eid, 

BARTHOLOMEW,  MASSACRE  or  ST.  This  dreadful  massacre  in  France,  commenced 
at  Paris  on  the  night  of  the  festival  of  St.  Bartholomew,  August  24, 1572.  According 
to  Sully,  70,000  Huguenots,  or  French  ProtestanUi,  were  murdered  throughout  the 
kingdom,  by  secret  orders  from  Charles  IX.,  at  the  instigation  of  the  queen  dowager, 
Catherine  de*  Medici  his  mother.  The  massacre  was  attended  with  circumstances  of 
demoniacal  cruelty,  even  as  regarded  the  female  and  the  infant.  The  number  of  the 
victims  is  differently  stated  by  various  authors.  La  Popelion^re  calculates  the  whole 
at  20,000 ;  Adriani,  De  Serres,  and  De  Thou,  say  30,000 ;  Davila  states  them  at 
40,000 ;  Sully  (whose  account  is  the  received  one)  at  70,000 ;  and  Perdfixe  makes  the 
number  100,000.  Above  500  persons  of  rank,  and  10,000  of  inferior  condition, 
perished  in  Paris  alone,  besides  those  slaughtered  in  the  provinces. — Davila, 

BARTHOLOMITES.  A  religious  order  founded,  a.d.  1307,  at  Genoa,  where  is  preserved 
in  the  Bartholomite  church,  the  image  which  it  is  said  Christ  sent  to  king  Abgarua. 
The  order  was  suppressed  by  pope  Innocent  X.,  1650. 

BASILIANS.  The  order  of  St  BasU,  of  which,  in  the  sainfs  time,  there  were  ninety 
thousand  monks;  it  was  reformed  by  pope  Gregory,  in  1569. — A  sect  founded  by 
Basil,  a  physician  of  Bulgaria,  on  the  most  extravagant  notions :  they  rejected  the 
books  of  Moses,  and  also  the  eucharist  and  baptism,  and  had  everything,  even  their 
wives,  in  common,  1110.    Basil  was  burnt  alive  in  1118. 

BASQUE  ROADS.  Heroic  achievement  in  these  roads  by  the  British.  Four  French 
shipe  of  the  line,  while  |^ing  at  anchor,  were  attacked  by  lord  Gambler  and  lord 
Cochrane  (the  latter  commanding  the  fire-ships),  and  all,  with  a  great  number  of 
merchant  and  other  vessels,  were  destroyed,  April  12,  1809.  But  a  serious  difference 
between  these  ofBoers  on  this  occaeion  led  to  a  court-martial  on  charges  preferred  by 
loni  Cochrane,  against  lord  Gambier,  who  was  honourably  acquitted. 

BASS'S  STRAITS.  Mr.  Bass,  surgeon  of  the  Rdianee,  penetrated  in  1797  as  ikr  aa 
Western  Port,  in  an  open  boat  from  Port  Jackson,  and  afSrmed  that  a  strait  existed 
between  New  South  Wales  and  Van  Diemen's  Land.  Lieutenant  Flinders  circum- 
navigated Van  Diemen*s  Land,  and  named  the  strait  after  Mr.  Bass,  1799. 

BASSET,  OR  BASSETTE,  or  Pour  et  Conire,  A  game  at  cards,  invented  by  a  noble 
Venetian,  for  which  he  was  banished ;  introduced  into  France,  1674. 

BASTARD  CHILDREN.  An  attempt  was  made  in  England  in  1272,  to  make  bastard 
children  legitimate  by  the  subsequent  marriage  of  the  parents,  but  it  failed,  and  led 
to  the  memorable  answer  of  the  barons  assembled  in  the  parliament  of  Merton, 
Notwnua  Uffes  Afigiia  mtUari — We  will  not  the  laws  of  England  to  be  changed. 
Women  concealing  their  children's  birth,  deemed  guilty  of  mnrder,  21  James  I. 
1624. —  VtMr'i  StaitUet,  In  Scotland,  bastard  children  had  not  the  power  of  dis- 
posing of  their  moveable  esUtes  by  will,  until  the  6  Will.  IV.  1836.  A  new  act, 
facilitating  the  claims  of  mothers,  and  making  several  provisions  for  proceeding  in 
bastardy  cases,  was  passed  8  Vict  cap.  10,  in  1845. 

BASTILE  OF  PARIS.  A  royal  castle,  bmlt  by  Charles  V.  king  of  France,  in  1369 
et  mq,,  for  the  defence  of  Pkria  sgainst  the  English,  completed  in  1883.    It  wsa 


BAS  70  BAT 

afterwards  used  as  a  state  prison,  like  the  Tower  of  London,  and  became  the  soene  of 
the  most  deplorable  sufferiDg  and  frightful  crimes.  It  was  of  such  strength  that 
Henry  IV.  and  his  Teteran  army  assailed  it  in  vain  in  the  siege  of  Paris,  during  the 
intestine  war  that  desolated  FVance  between  the  years  1587  and  1594 ;  yet  it  wu 
pulled  down  by  the  infuriated  populace,  July  14, 1789,  and  thus  was  commenced  the 
BVench  revolution.  The  governor  and  other  officers  were  seized,  and  conducted  to 
the  Place  de  Qr^ve,  and  having  had  their  hands  cut  off,  they  were  then  beheaded. 
The  furious  citizens  having  fixed  their  heads  on  pikes  carried  them  in  triumph 
through  the  streets. — "  The  man  with  the  iron  mask,*  the  most  mysterious  prisoner 
ever  known,  died  here,  Nov.  19, 1703.    See  Iron  Mask, 

BATAVIA.  The  capital  of  Java,  and  of  all  the  Dutch  settlements  in  the  East  Indies, 
fortified  by  that  people,  1618.  Twelve  thousand  Chinese  were  massacred  here  in  one 
day,  1740.  TaJcen  by  the  English,  January,  1782.  Again,  by  the  British,  under 
general  sir  Samuel  Auchmuty,  to  whom  the  garrison  surrendered,  Aug.  8, 1811. 

BATH.  This  city  was  very  early  a  fitvourite  station  of  the  Bomans,  and  was  remark* 
able  even  in  their  time  for  its  springs.  Coel,  a  British  king,  is  said  to  have  given  this 
city  a  charter,  and  the  Saxon  king  £dg|ar  was  crowned  here,  a.d.  973.  Bath  was 
plundered  and  burnt  in  the  reign  of  WilUam  Rufus,  and  again  in  1137.  The  Abbey 
church  was  commenced  in  1495,  and  was  finished  in  1582 :  the  Assembly-rooms  were 
built  in  1791 ;  the  Pump-room,  in  1797 ;  the  Theatre,  Beaufort^uare,  was  opened 
in  1805.    The  Bath  Philosophical  Society  was  formed  in  1817. 

BATH,  EARL  of;  HIS  ADMINISTRATION.  Mr.  Pelham  and  his  friends  having 
tendered  their  resignation  to  the  king  (George  IL),  the  formation  of  a  new  ministry 
was  undertaken  by  William  Pulteney,  earl  of  Bath  ;  but  it  expired  within  two  days 
while  yet  incomplete,  and  received  the  name  of  the  "  Short-Uved  **  administration. 
The  members  of  it  actually  appointed,  were :  the  earl  of  Bath,  first  lord  of  the 
treasury ;  lord  Carlisle,  lord  privy-seal ;  lord  Winchilsea,  first  lord  of  Uie  admiralty; 
and  lord  Granville,  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state,  with  the  seals  of  the  other  in  his 
pocket, ''  to  be  given  to  whom  he  might  choose."  Feb.  10,  1746.  Mr.  Pelham  and 
his  colleagues  returned  to  power,  Feb.  12« — Oox^t  Life  of  Pelham* 

BATH  AND  WELLS,  BISHOPRIC  of.  An  ancient  see,  whose  cathedral  church  was 
built  by  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  in  704;  it  was  erected  into  a  buhopric, 
5  Edward  the  Elder,  906.  John  de  Villula,  the  sixteenth  bishop,  having  purchased 
the  city  of  Bath  for  500  marks  of  Henry  I.,  transferred  his  seat  to  Bath  from  Wc^ 
in  1088 ;  and  from  this,  disputes  arose  between  the  monks  of  Bath  and  the  canons  of 
Wells  about  the  election  of  a  bishop ;  but  they  were  compromised  in  1136,  when  it 
¥ras  decreed,  that  from  henceforward  the  bishop  should  m  styled  from  both  places, 
and  that  the  precedency  should  be  given  to  Bath.  This  see  is  valued  in  liie  king's 
books  at  581^  It.  3<i.  per  annum. 

BATH,  ORDER  of  thb.  The  origin  of  this  order  is  ascribed  to  the  ancient  Franks,  with 
whom  it  is  probable  the  Saxons  who  invaded  England  had  the  same  common  descent, 
and  who,  with  other  customs,  upon  their  settling  here,  introduced  the  same  method 
of  knighthood,  l^ese  ancient  Franks,  when  they  conferred  knighthood,  bathed 
before  they  performed  their  vigils,  and  from  this  ablution  came  the  title  of  knights 
of  the  BaUL  Henry  IV.  instituted  a  degree  of  knighthood  of  tiie  Bal^  and  on  his 
coronation  in  the  Tower  he  conferred  the  order  upon  forty-six  esquires,  who  had 
vratched  the  night  before,  and  had  bathed.  After  the  coronation  of  Charles  IL  the 
order  was  neglected  until  1725,  when  it  was  revived  by  George  L,  who  fixed  the 
number  of  kn^hts  at  37.  In  1815,  the  prince  regent  enlai^ged  the  order,  forming  the 
present  dasses  of  knights  grand  crosses  (72),  and  knights  commanders  (160),  wiu  an 
unlimited  number  of  companions.  By  an  order  published  May  25,  1847,  all  the 
existing  statutes  of  this  order  were  annulled ;  and  by  the  new  statutes,  the  order, 
hitherto  exclusively  military,  was  opened  to  civilians.  In  1851,  Dr.  Lyon  Playfiur, 
and  other  promoters  of  the  great  Exhibition,  receiTed  this  honour. 

CoMSTiTUTiON :— l«f  Ctou.  Kiii^htfl  grand  croen,  60  military  and  25  oiviL 

2nd  Cltui.  Knights  oommandoni,  100  military  and  fiO  dvil. 
8ni  ClasM,  Companioiia,  526  military  and  200  dvil. 

BATHS  were  long  used  in  Greece,  and  introduced  by  Maecenas  into  Rome.  The  thennx 
of  the  Romans  and  gynmasia  of  the  Greeks  were  sumptuous.  The  marble  LaooSon 
was  found  in  the  baths  of  Titus,  and  the  Famese  Hercules  in  those  of  Canuadla. 

BATHS  IN  ENGLAND.  The  baths  of  Somersetshire  are  said  to  have  been  in  use  eight 
centuries  before  Christ    In  London,  St.  Agnes  Le  Clere,  in  Old-street-road,  is  a  spring 


BAT  71  BAT 

of  great  uitiquity,  and  was  wall  known  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIIL  St  ChadVwell« 
Gia/a-inn-rood,  deriTed  ilB  name  from  St  Chad,  the  fifth  bishop  of  Lichfield,  in 
A.n.  667.  Old  Bath-honae,  Coldbath-aquare,  was  in  use  in  1697.  A  bath  opened  in 
Bagnio-^x>art»  London,  ia  aaid  to  have  been  the  first  bath  established  in  England  for 
hot  bathing. — LagK, 

BATHS  kstn  WASH-HOUSES,  PUBLia  An  set  to  encourage  the  esUblishment  of 
public  baths  and  wash-houses,  "for  the  health,  comfort,  and  wel£u«  of  the  iohabitanta 
of  populous  towns  and  districts,**  was  passed  (9  &  10  Vict  cap.  74)  Aug.  26,  1846. 
In  the  same  session  (cap.  87)  a  similar  act  was  passed  for  Ireland.  Several  of  these 
institutions  were  forthwith  opened  in  London,  and  have  been  most  successful  in 
realising  their  contemplated  objects.  In  the  quarter  ending  Sept  1854,  as  many  aa 
637,345  bathers  availed  themselves  of  the  baths  in  the  different  districts  of  London, 
and  in  this  period  there  were  85,260  waahen.  Batha  and  wash-houses  have  been 
established  uso  at  Birmingham,  Liverpool,  Newcastle,  Sunderland,  Coventry,  Maid- 
stone, Windermere^  Bilston,  and  other  p]aoe& 

BATON,  OB  TRUNCHEON.  Borne  by  generals  in  the  French  army,  and  afterwards  by 
the  marshals  of  other  nations:  Henry  III.  of  France,  before  he  ascended  the  throne, 
was  made  generalissimo  of  the  army  of  his  brother,  Charles  IX.,  and  received  the 
6«f<o»  aa  the  mark  of  his  high  command,  1569^ — Serumlt. 

B ATTEL-ABBET.  Founded  by  WUliam  the  Conqueror,  on  the  pUun  where  the  battle  of 
Hastings  was  fought,  Oct  14, 1066  It  was  built  in  atonement  for  the  many  thousands 
who  were  slain  in  that  memorable  battle.  This  monastery  was  dedicated  to  St  Martin, 
and  was  given  to  Benedictine  monks,  who  were  toprav  for  the  souls  of  the  slain.  The 
original  name  of  the  plain  was  Heathfield.    See  HaaUngi, 

BATTEL-ROLL.  After  the  battle  of  Hastings^  which  decided  the  fato  of  England,  and 
subjected  it  to  the  Nonnan  yoke^  a  list  was  taken  of  William'a  chiefr  amounting  to 
629,  and  called  the  Battel-roll ;  and  among  these  chiefs  the  landa  and  distinctions  of 
the  followers  of  the  defeated  Harold  were  distributed,  1066. 

BATTEL,  WAQER  of.  A  trial  by  combat,  formerly  allowed  by  our  kws,  where  the 
defendant  in  an  appeal  of  munler  might  fight  with  the  appellant,  and  make  proof 
thereby  of  his  guilt  or  innocence.    See  ^jspeo/. 

BATTERIES.  They  were  introduced  immediately  after  the  use  of  cannon  by  the  English 
along  the  coasts.  The  fiimous  floating  batteries  with  which  Gibraltar  ¥raa  attacked  in 
the  memorable  siege  of  that  fortress  were  the  scheme  of  D'Arcon,  a  French  engineer. 
There  were  ten  of  them,  and  they  resisted  the  heaviest  shells  and  32-pound  ahot^  but 
ultimately  yielded  to  red-hot  ahot,  Sept  13, 1782.    See  Oibraiiar. 

BATTERINaRAM.  Tutvdo  Arietana,  with  other  militaiy  implements,  some  of  which 
are  still  in  use,  invented  by  Artemones,  about  441  &a  These  ponderous  engines  by 
their  own  weight  exceeded  the  utmost  effects  of  our  battering-cannon. — Demiffuliert, 
Sir  Christopher  Wren  employed  a  battering-ram  in  demolishing  the  old  walls  of  St. 
Paul's  church,  previously  to  rebuilding  the  new  edifice  in  1675. 

BATTERSEA  PARK.  This  park  (now  in  formation)  was  originated  by  the  act  9  ft  10 
Vict  c.  88,  August  1846,  which  empowered  her  majesty's  oommiasionexB  of  woods  to 
form  a  royal  park  in  the  well-known  waste,  called  Battersea-fields,  on  the  Surrey  side 
of  London.  Acts  to  enlarge  the  powers  of  the  commissioners  were  passed  in  1848, 
1851,  snd  1853.  The  commissioners  are  also  empowered  "  to  construct  an  embank- 
ment and  roadway  on  the  north  shore  of  the  Thames  from  Battersea-bridge  to  Yanzhall- 
bridge,  snd  to  build  a  suspension-bridge  over  the  Thames,  near  Chelsea'hospital,  with 
suitable  approaches  thereto." 

BATTLE-AXE.  A  weapon  of  the  Celta.  The  Irish  went  constantly  armed  with  an 
axa — Bwna,  At  the  battle  of  Bannockbum  king  Robert  Bruce  clove  an  English 
champion  down  to  the  chine  at  one  blow  with  a  battle-axe,  1314. — Hvane.  The 
battle-axe  guards,  or  beaufetiers,  who  are  vulgarly  called  beaf-eaters,  and  whose  arms 
are  a  sword  and  lance,  were  first  raised  by  Henry  YII.  in  1485.  They  were  originally 
attendants  upon  the  king's  buffet.     See  Yeoman  of  ike  Ouard, 

BATTLEFIELD,  BATTLE  of,  near  Shrewsbury.  Between  king  Henry  IV.  and  Percy 
sumamed  Hotspur ;  the  victory  was  gained  by  Henry,  whose  usurpation  of  the  throne 
had  laid  the  fotmdation  of  the  factions  of  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  and  the 
dvil  wars  that  ensued,  July  21, 1403.    See  Mmes&iiry. 


BAT 


72 


BAT 


3ATTLE3.  PalamedeB  of  Argos  was  the  first  who  noged  an  army  in  a  regular  Una  of 
battle,  and  placed  aentinelii  round  a  camp,  and  excited  the  aoldiei'a  Yigilanoe  by 
Kiving  him  a  iratch-word. — Lenglet,  The  following  are  the  most  memorable  battlei, 
in  chronological  order. 


"The  Trajan  war  commenced  . 
*Tmy  talcen  And  destroyed 
•Spartans  and  Axgives     . 

Itbome  taken     . 

Assyrians  and  Jews 
•HoratU  and  CuriatU  . 

Corcyra  {Sea^Jlght,  Jlrtt  on  record) 

Baoes  (Meda  and  Agifriam) 
•HaTys  iScUpte  of  tKe  Sun) 

Bybaris,  in  Magna  GnecLa  . 
^Marathon        .... 
*Thennopyls9  (Leonidai) 
*SaUmis   ..... 
*Mycale  (Sea-Jlifht) 
*P]atiea  (Mardoniui  tlain) 
*Eiirymedon 

Mycale  (Cinum) 
*8acn;dWar 
*Chnronea  (Tolmidat) 

ToTone  (CUon)     . 
•Cyzicum 

Hannibal  and  Syraeusans . 

iEgoepotamos .... 
*Retreat  of  the  Greeks 

Cnidos  (Ly$ander  HUid)  . 

Allia  (^muiia)  . 

Rome  burned  by  the  Oauls   . 

Volsel  defeated  by  CamUlua 

Volsci  defeat  the  Romans 

HmxuBiSeaJIffht) 
*Leuctra 

Camlllus  defeats  the  Oauls 
•Hantinea  (Bpamiiumdiu  slain) 

HeUione  (Philip) 
'Sacrod  War  (the  Stcond)  . 

Timoleon  and  CarthagiDlans 
•Chaeronea  (Philip)  . 

Thebes  destroyed  by  Alexander 
*Granicus  .... 

*l8sus  (110.000  PeriianM  dain) 
•Arbehk  (FaUqfPertia)   . 
*Cranon  in  Thessaly    . 

Perdiceas  and  Ariarathes 

Fabius  defeats  the  Tuscans 
*Ii«us  {AntiffonuM  slain)  . 

Beraa  (Pprrhus)  . 

Pyrrhus  and  Romans 

Romans  and  Pyrrhus 
*Punle  Wan  bMin  . 

ZantippusanaRegulua    . 

Asdnitel  and  Metellus  . 

LUTbfBum  (Elder  Hannibal) 

Sellasia  in  Laoonia 

Caphyn,  in  Arcadia  . 
'Hannibal  takes  Baguntum    . 
*Punlc  War  (ths  Second)  begins 
•Baphia(Antioehu9d^€aUd)    . 

Trebia  (  Fictory  of  Bannibal) 
'Thrasymenus  (do.) 
*CannB(do.)    .... 

If  aroellus  and  Hannibal    . 
*Mantinea  (Machanidat  slain) 

Nero  and  Asdrubal    . 
*ZuDSL(Scipio  and  Bannibal)  . 

Abydos  (Simt  qf) 

Cjmocephajus 

Perseus  and  the  Romans  . 

Prusias  and  Attalus  . 
«Punic  war  (the  ThinQ     . 
*Carthage  taken  br  rubUus  Scipio 

Metellus  defeats  Jugurtha    . 

Aqu»Bexti»     . 


BirOBS  OHKIST 

.  1198 
.  1184 

.  786 

.  724 

.  710 

.  669 

.  664 

.  625 

.  685 

.  608 

.  490 

.  480 

.  480 

.  479 

.  479 

.  470 

.  450 

.  448 

.  447 

.  422 

.  408 
406 

.  405 

.  401 

.  894 

.  890 

.  887 

.  881 

.  879 

.  877 

.  871 

.  867 

.  868 

.  860 

.  866 

.  840 

.  888 

.  886 

.  884 

.  888 

.  881 

.  822 

.  822 

.  810 

.  801 

.  294 

.  279 

.  276 

.  206 

.  266 

.  261 

.  260 

.  222 

.  220 

.  219 

.  218 

.  217 

.  218 

.  217 

.  216 

.  209 

.  208 

.  208 

.  202 

.  200 

.  197 

.  191 

.  166 

.  149 

.  146 

.  109 

.  102 


*Cimbrl  and  Romans   .   .   .   «  101 

Nioomedes  and  Mithridatoa      .  .  90 

Athens  besieged  by  Sylla   ...  87 

•Chammea  (S^Ua) 86 

Marlus  defeated  by  Bylki       .       .       .  8S 

Jericho       .        .        .        .        .        .    .  6T 

•Pharsalia        ......  48 

•ZolaCCteaar/  Veni,  vidi,  viet)    .       .    .  47 

Munda,  in  Spain 45 

•PhAippl  (Roman  RepabUe  ends),        .    .  41 

Octaviiis  and  Pompey  the  Younger  86 

*Actium  (the  empire  of  Aonu  is  coi^rmed 

to  Augustus  Casar) 31 


▲nro 


In 


"Shropshire  (Caraetaeus  taken) 

BoadUoea  and  Romans 
'Jerusalem       .... 

Silures  defeated  in  Britain 

Antoninus  and  the  Moors 

Issus  (Niger  dain) 

Claudius  and  Goths  (800,000  dain) 

Constantius  and  Alectus  . 
'Constantino  and  Mazontius  ( 

signo  vinets*') 
•Adrianople  (Condantine)    . 
'Aquileia  (Constantine  11.  slain) 
'Argentaria,  in  Alsace 
•Aquileia  (Maximus  dain) 
*Aq\nlela(Sugenius  slain)   . 

Mountains  of  Fesuls 
'Rome  taken  by  Alario 

Alemannl  and  Goths 
'Ravenna    .... 

Franks  defeated  by  AMius    . 

Genseric  takes  Carthage   . 
'Stamford  (Britons  and  Saxons) 

Chalons  sur-Mame 

^bro  (Suevi  and  Goths)   . 

Crayford,  Kent  . 

Ipswich  (Briions  and  Saxons) 

Saxons  and  Britons  . 

Pevensey  Moor 

Saxons  and  Britons  . 

Bath 

Banbury     .... 

Bedfoitf 

Hatfield  (Pmda  and  Bdvin) 

Oswestry  (Penda  and  (hwald) 

Leeds ..... 

Landisfiim      .... 


DAKISH  INTAHOira,   CTC 

Helston  (Jktnes  and  Egbert) 

Romney  (Eihtlw)^and  Danes) 

Stoke-Courcy  (Danes) 

Canterbury  (Danes) 
*Thanet  (Danes  none  settle  here) 

HorUm  (Danes) 

Assendon  (Danes) 

Wilton  (DaiM*) 

Famham  (Danes) 

Buiy  (Edward  and  Bthdwald) 

Maldon(Atn<»)  . 

Stamford,  Lincolnshire . 

Widendane. 

Brombridge    .... 
'Semincas,  Spain 


DOMin 

.  61 

.  61 

.  70 

.  TO 

.  146 

.  194 

.  seo 

286 


hoe 


SIS 

828 
840 
878 
888 
804 
406 
410 
417 
426 
488 
489 
449 
451 
456 
457 
466 
477 
486 
506 
5S0 
549 
571 
688 
641 
666 
740 


834 
840 
845 
852 
854 
871 
871 
872 
894 
905 
918 
928 
988 
938 
088 


[The  Saxons  and  Danes  fought  with 
different  success  from  988  to  1016.J 

Aahdon  (Canute  and  Edmund)  .  1016 


[The  battles  which  are  thus  (')  marked  will  be  found  described  in  their  alphabetical  ordtf 
Umnigh  the  Tolume,  for  more  paiticular  reference.] 


BAT 
BATTLES,  amimutd. 

'CloaUrf.  Inknd    . 

Bumfotd  (BanU)  .  '    .  ' 
•Hutiiig*(OiiiH>ii«)    . 

Udahiyit  Wald 

AlDwtck     .... 
•Cnadiaaafniiwaa 
"TtDcbabzmj,  Vomiuiilr 

Booao.  Id  NonnUHl;     . 

BraniiflTillfl.  KomiudT 

Cvdl«w  (rflA  rsid  »«<>■)] 

■NmtluUartoD,     rr     battla 

BUudud  .... 


EnaJtah  dtftut  oIT  Ah^Imt 

£<Kr}      .... 
Alnwick  (  Wm.  Ou  U«> 
•Amalau  (Rietinl  /.) 
•Oiaon  (iMni «  BOB  droU) 

m(FrmA  amd  Otrmaiu) 


LlcwclljD  ud  ths  Engllab 
'DuDbu  (Kinf  o/BcMt  takrn 

Cmrtrsr.  Id  Pluden 
-    -n,  ScoOiuid 

ughbfldgfl  . 

lo.  ScoOud  (BtfninI 


AubcTDOH,  Ftuco 


rfaopolu  ( n>r|3  axl  CkriKiai 
:)iKiinli»,  aeoiluid 

JolmedoB  HUl  '        '     . 
•ShmnbDiT  iBattbJUU) 

HotunoBUi 
•Hiria* 

'Aslnoourt       .       . 
'Nlcspalli  («»»1} 
'AqjDa,  or  B«igu6    . 
■"-----uiL  Bor^imdy   - 

'Stof  (/wK  Iff  Art  and  iln  B' 


Au».  M,  i: 


Feb.  s*,  1! 


Nirch  h)  li 


JuljM,  1< 


i'i(r«f4(iiHliaMaiMr) 


■Bmonh 


Btoke(^iiilo<  $•■»(<  lain). 


.  Ju»  W.  1. 


>B1iickhMith((Viiu*nWjdVi<U«l)  . 


■K Jrwk'k  . 

■Cftliiti  (Uiw)  .  ' 


Coutni(X.  q/Xanmoftd^ 
Arquv  (Avkfiuif  vietorwiu)  . 
BlukwaUr.  Inluid 


lUl  (libt     . 


Bkllintobbo'  . 

HopUiiB<>tb    ,  .     .  II 

Hoero;  ( A«iut  oiuf  %>«ian(()  .  I( 

DnTtoU'ln-HnIia       .  Jan.  Ih  II 

" •-—  "--  JUrgbB,  11 


BunbuD  Moor 


Luudown  (JtsjolMi  taEm)  .     Jul;  1.  11 
Baund^mj-down    .  July  18.  II 

•Kewbun(^drdAlUudtilbd)S«pt.»).  II 
■Btnttw  OMrt  roUrr)  Mif  It,  II 

■AMmton  tloor II 

Dokmington,  Llncolii  >    .  1( 

Uikw3,  Cornnll  .    Ju.  It,  II 

Alnafoni    ....     Kiinb  IB,  II 

Frtsdburg,  SnabU II 

Oldcaatls,  CbaMar II 

'CrDpnd;  Bridga.  Oxibnl      .    June  S.  II 


.!«,{«■ 


tdb<Mi) 


luiuU,  II 
Julf  1.  1< 

DoabLi^tca,  Olouuater        .       .       .11 

B«Dburt,  Inlud II 

Kioflaton,  SuTTBj  .  •  -  tl 

*DiuiEbi-bllL  .        Jiilj  ID,  II 

a  round  dMcribad  In  UwlralphabModoi^ 


BAT 


76 


BAT 


BATTLES,  continued, 

*AIkmaer.    See  Berffen 

Mondovi 

Philipsburg 
«Noyi  (teeond  battle) 

SaYona,  in  Italy 

Btokach  . 

Vontebello 

Bronni,  in  Italy 
*Harengo     . 
♦Ulm 
*Hohenlinden 

Mincio 


*  Alexandria  (AbAtrombie) 

Scindiah  and  the  Britiah 
*AMaye(if>tteiIey)       . 

Ferruckabad,  India 
^Bhwrtpore  (Holkar)    . 
*XJ\m  ($urrmdared)  . 

Moelk 
*Au8tor]ltz 

*Buenoft-AyTe8  (PopAam) 
•ilaida,  in  Sicily      . 
*Ca8tel  Nuovo 
*AuerBtadt   ^   . 
*Jena    .        (       .        . 

"BaileiBemadotte)  . 
*Pultuak 

•Bylaii      .... 
*Friedland  . 
*Buenoe-Ayroa  (  WMtdoek) 

Bombardment  of  Copenhagen,  Sept  :2-7, 
*Baylen  (Spantarcb)  .  July  20, 

[Moat  of  the  preceding  battles  were  df  a 
sanguinary  and  de(SBiTe  character.  J 


.  Oct  6, 

Nov.  «. 

Dec.  8, 

Jan.  8,. 

April  8, 

Mayl, 

Jime9, 

.  June  10, 

June  14, 

June  21, 

Nov.  3, 

Dec.  36, 

March  21, 

Aug.  11, 

Sept  23, 

Nov.  17, 

April  2, 

Oct  1», 

Nov.  10, 

Dec.  2, 

June  21, 

July  4, 

Sept  20, 

Oct  14, 

Oct  14, 

Oct  17, 

Dec.  26, 

Feb.  8, 

June  14, 

July  6, 


A.D, 

1709 
1799 
1799 
1800 
1800 
1800 
1800 
1800 
1800 
1800 
1800 
1800 
1801 
1803 
1803 
1804 
1805 
1806 
1805 
1806 
1806 
1806 
1806 
1806 
1806 
1806 
1806 
1807 
1807 
1807 
1807 
1808 


PEVIirSUULB  OAMPAKIHB 

*yimcin(WeUinfft<m) 

Tudela 
*Corufla  (Moore) 

Braga  (PorittffV£te) 

lAndshut  (Auitriane) 
*Echmuhl    . 

Oporto    . 
*A8pem   )    . 
*Efi»ling  j 

Raab  . 
*Wiigram  .... 
*Talavera  de  la  Revna 
*Ocana  (Spaniards)  . 
*Giudad  Bodrigo  {invttted) 
'"BuKico    . 
*Palma 
^Barroaa 


«Badajoe  (tdben  hy  the  French)  March  11,  1811 

-      -    1811 


*FuenteB  d'Onore 

*Albuera 

*Ciudad  Bodrigo  {$tomud) 

*Tairagona  . 

*BadiiJofl  (taken  by  the  aUia) 

•Villa  Franea 

•Salamanca 

•Mobilow     . 

Ostrovno 

Polotsk 
•Smolenako 
•Moakwa     I 
•Borodino  j     . 
•Queenatown  (American*) 
•Moecow  (burnt) 
♦Polotak 

•Moecow  (rtteJcen) 
•Witepek 
•Kraenoi  .... 


BKOIK. 

.  Aug.  21, 
Nov.  28. 

.    Jan.  16, 

March  19, 

,  April  21, 
April  22, 

.  May  11. 
May  22, 

.  May  22, 
June  14, 

.  July  5, 
July  27,  28, 

.  Nov.  19, 
June  11, 
Sept  27, 
March  2, 


1808 
1808 
1809 
1809 
1809 
1809 
1809 
1809 
1809 
1809 
1800 
1809 
1809 
1810 
1810 
1811 


March  5,  1811 


1811 
1812 
1812 
1812 
1812 


May  6, 

May  16, 

Jan.  19, 

Jan.  24, 

April  6, 

AprUlO, 

July  22,  1812 

July  28,  1812 

July  25,  1812 

July  SO,  1812 

Aug.  27, 

Sept  7. 

Sept.  7, 

Oct  18, 

Sept  14, 

Oct  20, 

Oct  22. 

Nov.  14, 

Nov.  16. 


1812 
1812 
1812 
1812 
1812 
1812 
1812 
1812 
1812 


[Ney'a  corpe,  of  which  10,000  men  laid 
down  their  arms,  defeated  by  the 
BuflBiaos,  Nov.  17,  1812.] 


Borifisou .... 
•Beresina     .... 
•WUna      .... 
•Kowno        .... 
•French  Town,  Canada  . 

Miami  (Amtricam)    . 
•Kalitcb  (SaxoM)     . 

Bejar,  Spain 

Caatella  .... 
•Lutzen        .... 
•Bautzen  .... 
•Wurtzchen. 

Fort  George,  Niagara 
•Burlington  Heights  . 
•Vittoria  .... 

Valley  of  Bastan 
•Pyrenees. 

San  Marcial  (Spaniards)    . 
•Dresden  .  .       Aug. 

St  Sebastian  stormed 
•Toplitz        .... 
•Dennewitz 

Elster  (Blucher)  . 
•Mockem .... 
•Leipzio       .  .     Oct 

•Hauau  (Wrede) 
•St.  Jean  de  Luz . 


A.D. 

.  Nov.  17.  1812 
Nov.  27,  1812 
Dec.  11.  1812 
Dec.  14,  1812 
Jan.  22;  I8U 
Jan.  28,  1813 

.  Feb.  13,  181$ 
Feb.  20.  1813 

.  April  IS,  1813 
.  May  2.  1813 

.  May  20,  1813 
May  21,  1813 

.  May  27,  ISIS 
June  6,  1813 

.  June  21,  18U 
July  24,  1613 

.  July  28,  1813 
.  Aug.  4.  1818 

26  and  27,  1813 
Aug.  SI,  1813 
Aug.  80,  1813 

.  Sept  6.  1813 
.       Oct  1813 

.    Oct  14.  1813 

16  and  18,  IblS 

,  Oct  29,  1813 
Dec.  10,  1813 


[Passage  of  the  Neve;  several  ecgage- 
ments  between  the  Allies  and  French, 
Dec.  10  to  IS,  1818.] 


•St  Dizier,  France 
*LaRothite« 
•Brienne  . 
•Champ  Aubert 

Janviuiers 
•Fontainebleau 
•Montereau 
•Orthez 

•Bergen -op-Zoom 
•Laon  . 

Rheims  . 
•Tarbes 

•Fbre  Champenoise 
•Heights  of  Fontenoy . 


.    Jan.  27,  18U 

.  Feb.  1,  1814 
.  Feb.  2,  1814 
Feb.  10  aud  12^  1814 
.    Feb.  14,  1814 

Feb.  17,  1814 
.    Feb.  26,  1814 

Feb.  27,  1814 
.  March  8,  1814 

March  9,  1814 
March  IS,  1814 
March  20,  1814 
March  25.  1814 
March  SO,  1614 


[Battle  of  the  Ban-iers — Marmont  eva- 
cuates Paris,  aud  the  allied  armies 
enter  that  capital,  March  81.] 


•Toulouse. 

a  If  ERICA  V  WAB. 

Christler's  Point.  Canada . 
Black-rook,  America 

July 


April  10,  1814 


•Chipawa 
•Brif  Fort 
Bladensbuig 
•Bellair     . 
•Baltimore  . 
•New  Orleaus 

•Ligny . 
•Quatre  Bras 
•Waterioo     . 


•Algiers  (JEErmo«/A)  . 
Larissa  (Qreeke)  , 
Thermopyla)  (Greeks) 
Cadiz  (Trocadero) 
Prome  (Burmese) 
MaUoun  (Burmese) 
Anatolia  (Greeks)     . 
Brohilow  (Russians) 
Akhalzic. 
Czoroi . 

•Varna  (ntrrmdert)  . 

•Morea  ((kuUe  surrenders) 


Nov.  11.  1813 
Deo.  S,  1813 
5  and  25,  1814 
Aug.  15,  1814 
Aug.  24,  1814 
Aug.  SO,  1814 
Sept.  12;  1814 
Jan.  8^  1815 

June  16.  1815 
June  16,  1815 
Juno  18,  1815 

Aug.  87,  1816 

.  July  8,  1823 

July  18,  1822 

Aug.  31,  1822 

Dec.  2.  1825 

Jan.  20,  1828 

May  S3.  1823 

June  10.  1828 

Aug.  24,  182S 

Sept  26,  1838 

Oct  11,  1828 

Oct  80,  1828 


[The  liattles  which  are  thus  (•)  marked  will  be  found  described  in  their  alphabetical  order 
through  the  volume,  for  more  particular  reference.] 


BAT 


77 


BAY 


BATTLES,  eaiUinuecL 

*LepiDto  (Oredkt) 

Knlertflcha,  near  SchamU 

Sllrstria  (ncrrviMi^ri) 
*  Balkan  {Pauage  of  tkt) 
'Adrianopla  {mUrtd) 
'Algiers  (Frerteh) . 
*Piaia(2kty»o/Jid^) 
*BrusaeU  (D^tth). 
•Antwerp . 

Orochow.    8m  Wanav 

Wa,wz(Pcla)  . 
*Seidlez  (PoU»)     . 
•Ze]ieho(Po2ef). 
*Oiitrolenka  (PoU$) 
*Wilna  (Poto)  . 
^Warsaw  (taivn)  . 

Vallonga  (Dm,  Pedro) 
•Kooiah 

LeixiA  (Portugal)     . 
♦St.  Sebastian      . 
^SL  Sebastian  . 
*Bilboa  (BrUiA  Legum) 


May  9. 

Juno  11, 

.  Juoe  18. 

July  26, 

.   Aug.  20, 

.  July  i, 

July  27.  28.  29. 

Sept  21. 

.    Oct.  27, 

Feb.  20, 

Maroh  81. 

April  10, 

.  April  10, 

Nay  26. 

.  Jane  12, 

Sept  8, 

.   July  23, 

Dec.  21, 

.   Feb.  14, 

.  May  5, 

Oct  1, 

Dtc.  84. 


Hemanl May  15, 

•Irun  (BriHA  Legion)  ,  May  17, 

Yalentla July  15, 

'Herera  (Don  Gurlo*)    .  Aug.  24, 

*Constantina  (Alffiers)  .    Oct  13, 

*8t  Eustace  (OModa).  Dec.  14, 

Penneoerrada  (5/muh)  .  June  22, 

Altura  (S^in)    .        .  June  25, 

*Presoott(CaiMM2a)  .  .    Oct  17, 

•OhUnee  (Aufia) .  July  23, 

•FallofMorella  .    May  31. 

'Capture  of  Sidon.    See  Syria  Sept  27, 

•F^llofBeyrout  .    Oct.  10, 

A%han  War.    See  India  .  .  Not.  2, 

'Storming  of  Acre    .  .     Nov.  8, 

Kotriah  {Seinde) ....  Dec.  1, 

Chuen-pe.    See  China   .  .     Jan.  7, 

Canton  (BoffuefnU  taken) .  Feb.  26. 

Amoy  (City  taken)  .  .  Aug.  27, 

Cbin-hae(eaJbm).        .  Oct  10. 

*Gabul  (mamxert)     .  Not.  2, 

Tu-yaou  (taken) .        .  Dec.  28, 

*Cabul  pass  (fncu$aere)  .     Jan.  8, 

Candahar  (A/f^nt)  .  March  10, 

Ning-)io.    See  China  March  10. 

JellaUbad  (/iidui)  April  A, 

Chin-keang.    See  China  .   July  21, 

*0hi2nee  (Ifidia) .        .       .  Sept  6, 

*Meeanee(^tiueno/iSeiiu{e)  •    Feb.  17. 


1829 
18-19 
1829 
1829 
1829 
1830 
1830 
1830 
1830 
1831 
1831 
1831 
1831 
1831 
1831 
18)1 
1832 
1833 
1834 
1836 
1836 
1836 
1837 
1837 
1837 
1837 
1837 
1837 
1888 
1838 
1838 
1839 
1840 
1840 
1840 
1840 
1840 
1840 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1842 
1842 
1842 
1842 
184S 
1812 
1843 


MahanviPO<»'    Bee/atfia 
*Moodkee  r/adia)     . 
*Poroseahab  (India)    . 

Phulloor  (Sir  H  Smith's  army 
ontkeSuUHbwthiSikht)    . 
•Alifral  (/ndio)    . 
*8obraon  (/iMtia) 

Montery  (Mexico) 

Bueno  Vista  (Mexico) 

St  Ubee  (Porf ii^aO    . 

Mexico  (&oe(). 

Sonderbund 

Valaneee  (J7icivariaiw)   . 
*Mooltaa  (India) . 
•Chilliauwaliah  (AuIm)    . 
*Qoojermt  (Indie^ . 

Vigevano  (Radettki) 

NoTaro  (&irdiawifu)  . 

Kronstadt  (ffiengariane) 

Acs  (Auitr.  and  Ihmg.) 

Waitsen  (ditto) 

Schttasbarg  (Bern) 

Temeswar  (Haynau) 

Dstadt(Aiiiefa»<iirottf)  , 


A.D. 

1843 
1845 
1845 


Dee.  99. 

Deo.  18, 

Dea  21. 

attacked 

Jan.  21, 

Jan.  28, 

Feb.  10, 

Sept  24, 

Feb.  22. 

.  May  9.  1847 

Aug.  19,  1847 

Not.  13, 

Sepc  29. 

.  Not.  7, 

Jan.  13, 

Feb.  21, 
March  21, 
March  28, 

June  21. 

.  July  2, 
,   July  14. 

July  31. 

Aw-  >. 


184« 
1846 
1816 
1846 
1847 


1847 
1848 
1848 
1849 
1849 
1849 
1849 
1849 
1849 
1849 
1849 
1849 


July  25,  1S50 


musBCHroBKns  wab. 

'Oltenita  (Tttrke  and  Ruuians)   Nor.  4.  1853 

*Citate  (Turka  and  Ruuiant)         Jan.  6.  1854 

Qinrgefo  (Turk$  and  AMteiant)    July  8,  1854 

Bayi^d  (Ruuiant  and  Turkt)    July  30.  1854 

Kuruk* Derek  (Aunt,  ani  Turke)  Aug.  5,  18M 

•Alma  (AUie$  and  Ruetians)       Sept  20,  1854 

•BalaklATa  (AUie$  and  Ru$eians)  Oct  25,  1864 

'Inkermann  (AUiee  and  Rvuians)  Nor.  5.  1854 

*EnpnUniA(rurk8andRumani)  Feb.  17.  1855 

Before   Malakhoff  tower,    SebaatopoU 

(AUiei  and  Rua$ian$) .  May  22,  23,  1865 
Capture  of  the  Mamelon,  Ac  June  7,  1855 
Unsucoeasful    attempt    on   Malakboff 

tower  and  Redan  (do.) .       June  18,  1855 

*Tchmukjn(AUiei  and  Ruitiam)  Aug.  16,  1856 

*  Malakboff  taken  by  the  French.  Sept  8.  1855 

*f  Dgour  (RuMtiam  and  THrk$)  .     Not.  6.  1855 

Baidar  (Ru$$iani  and  French)      Dec  8.  1856 

•Bushire  (PertUmt  and  Bi^Uik)  Dec.  10.  1856 
Kooahab  (ditto)  .  .  .  .  Feb  8,  1857 
Mohammerah  (ditto)  March  26.  1857 

"Before  Delhi  (BmUOl  and  Indian  nbeU) 

VLkv  30.  81.  and  June  8.  1857 
See  Naval  BatOa. 


[The  battles  which  are  thus  (*)  marked  will  be  fotmd  described  in  their  alphabetical  order 
throaffh  the  vdlume,  for  more  particular  reference  ] 

BAUTZEN.  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  allied  army  under  the  sovereigns  of  Russia  and 
Prussia,  and  the  French  commanded  by  Napoleon ;  the  allies  were  signally  defeated, 
and  this  battle,  followed  by  that  of  Wurtzchen,  compelled  them  to  pass  the  Oder, 
and  led  to  an  armlstioe,  which,  however,  did  not  produce  peace.    May  20, 1818. 

BAVARIA,  HOUSE  of.  The  dukedom  founded  in  the  eleyenth  century  :  this  house 
has  the  same  origin  as  that  of  Saxony,  and  is  a  branch  of  the  Quelphian  fiunily ; 
Henry  Quelph  was  made  duke  of  Bavaria  by  Conrad  XL,  emperor  of  Germany,  who 
mgned  in  1024.  Otho,  count  Wittelsbach,  was  made  duke  in  1179;  and  Maximilian  I. 
elector  in  1624.  Bavaria  was  erected  into  a  kingdom  by  Bonaparte  in  December,  1805. 
and  obtained  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg  the  incorporation  of  the  whole  of  the  Italian 
and  German  Tyrol,  the  bishopric  of  Anspach,  and  lordships  in  Germany.  This 
kingdom  joined  the  coalition  against  France  in  Oct.  1813. 


M7KBI  OF  BAVABTA. 

1156.  Henry  the  Lion.  DiroosaeiBed  by  the 
emperor  Frederick  Barbaroaaa. 

1170.  Otho,  eari  of  Wittelsbach.  created  duke 
by  the  tame  emperor. 

1281.  Louis  of  Wittelsbach. 

1SS3.  Otho  !(..  the  Illustrious  ;  his  son  Louis 
was  raised  to  the  electoral  dignity 


1253. 
1293. 
1294. 

•  « 

1875. 

1413. 

•  • 


Louis  the  Severe. 

Louis  III. 

Louis  I V.    Elected  emperor  of  Oermany 

in  1314. 
Stephen  I. 
Stephen  II. 
John. 
Albert. 


BAV  78  BEA 


BAVARIA,  HOUSE  of,  wniinued, 

1508.  William. 

1550.  William  II. 

•  •  Albert  II. 

♦  •  WillUm  III. 

1507.  Maximilian  the  Great ;  the  fint  elector 

of  Bavaria. 
1661.  Ferdhiaad. 
1679.  MazimiliaB  Emanuel 
1726.  Charles  Albert ;   elected  emperor  of 

Germany  in  1742. 
1745.  Maximilian-Joseph  I.,  as  elector. 


1777.  Charles  Theodore. 

1799.  Maximilian-Joseph  II.,  as  elector. 

KIHOB  or  BAT  ASIA. 

1805.  Maximilian-Joseoh   I.,   the   preceding 

elector,  createa  king. 
1825.  Louis-Charles.  ISth  October:  abdicated. 
1848.  Maximilian-Joseph  II. :  soocoeded  his 

&ther,  Louis-Charles,  on  his  abdics- 

tion,  March  20.*    The  present  (1867) 

king. 


BATEUX  TAPESTRY.  This  important  hiBtorical  document  was  wrought  by  Matadt. 
the  queen  of  William  I.,  and  repreeenta  the  facta  of  the  Conqueat,  from  the  ngni- 
ture  of  the  will  of  the  Confeasor  down  to  the  crowning  of  William,  1066.— Ji^t. 
Thia  curiouB  monument  of  antiquity,  embroidered  by  Matilda,  ia  19  inchaa  wide. 
S14  feet  long,  and  ia  divided  into  compartmenta  showing  the  train  of  eTentA. 
oommenoing  with  the  viaitof  Harold  to  the  Norman  court,  and  ending  with  hiadeatb 
at  Haatings ;  it  is  now  preserved  in  the  town-house  of  Rouen. — Agnea  Stiricklamd, 

BATLEN,  BATTLE  of.  The  French,  consisting  of  14,000  men,  commanded  by 
generals  Dupont  and  Wedel,  were  defeated  by  the  Spaniarda  under  Pena,  Compigny. 
and  other  generala,  whose  force  amounted  to  25,000.  The  French  had  nearly  3000 
killed  and  wounded,  and  the  division  of  Dupont^  which  consisted  of  about  8000  men, 
was  made  prisoners  of  war,  July  19, 1808. 

BAYONETS.  The  short  sword  or  dagger  fixed  at  the  end  of  a  musket.  This  wespon 
waa  invented  at  Bayonne,  in  France  (whence  the  name),  about  1670.  Accordiogto 
the  abb^  Lenglet^  it  was  first  used  in  battle  by  the  French,  in  1693,  "  with  grett 
success  againatan  enemy  unprepared  for  the  encounter  with  so  formidable  a  novelty." 
Adopted  by  the  Britiah,  Sept  24, 1693.— ^«pm. 

BA YONNE.  Chariea  lY.  of  Spain  abdicated  here  in  favour  of  **  his  friend  and  ally  **  the 
emperor  Napoleon ;  and  Ferdinand,  prince  of  Asturias,  and  Don  CSarloe  and  Don 
Antonio  renounced  their  rights  to  the  Spanish  throne.  May  1, 1808.  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Bayonne  waa  much  desperate  fighting  between  the  French  and  the 
British  armies,  Dec.  10, 11,  and  13, 1818.t  Bayonne  was  mvested  by  the  British,  Ju* 
14,  1814,  during  which  the  French  made  a  sally,  and  attacked  the  English  with 
success,  but  were  at  length  driven  back.  The  loss  of  the  British  waa  considerabls, 
and  lieut-gen.  sir  John  Hope  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner. 

BAYREUTH.  The  margrave  was  a  branch  of  the  Brandenbuiig  fiunily.  The  maigiavste 
of  Bayreuth,  with  that  of  Anspach,  was  abdicated  by  the  reigning  prince  in  favour  of 
the  king  of  Prussia,  1791.  The  archives  of  the  principality  had  been  previously  (in 
1783)  brought  from  Plaasenbuiig  to  the  city  of  Bayreuth,  Uie  capital  of  Uie  domain, 
now  incorporated  with  Bavaria. 

BAZAAR,  OR  COYERED  MARKET.  The  word  ia  of  Arabic  origin.  Thebasurof 
Ispahan  is  magnificent,  yet  it  is  excelled  by  that  of  .Tauris,  which  has  several  timei 
held  30,000  men  in  order  of  battle.  Places  of  this  name  have  been  opened  recently 
in  these  countries.  In  London,  the  Soho-equare  bazaar  was  opened  by  Mr.  Trotter  in 
1815.  The  Queen's  bazaar,  Oxford-street,  a  very  extensive  one,  was  (with  the 
Diorama)  burnt  down,  and  the  loss  estimated  at  50,000t,  May  27,  1829 :  a  new  one 
has  since  been  erected.  The  SL  James's  baisaar  was  built  by  Mr.  Crockford  in  1832. 
There  are  also  the  Pantheon,  the  Western  Exchange,  &c. 

BEACHY  HEAD,  ENGAGEMENT  off.  Memorable  defeat  of  the  British  and  Datch 
combined  fleet^  near  this  promontory  on  the  S.E.  coast  of  Sussex,  between  Hastings 
and  Seaforth,  by  a  superior  French  force ;  the  British,  whose  ships  were  commaDdol 

•  The  abdication  of  Cbaiies-Ix>uls  was  mainly  caused  by  his  unfortunate  attaebment  to  an 
intriguing  woman,  known  throughout  Eurore  under  the  assumed  name  of  Lola  Montos^  who^  in  tb« 
end,  was  expelled  the  kingdom  for  her  interference  in  state  affliirs,  and  has  since  led  a  wandering  lUe. 

t  Soult  isRUod  out  of  Bayonne  and  attacked  the  ^/t  of  the  British  army  under  sir  John  Hope,  and 
twice  succeeded  in  driving  the  fifth  division  of  the  allies,  but  was  twice  repulsed,  Dec.  10.  Next 
morning.  8oult  sgaln  directed  several  columns,  also  against  the  British  Itfl,  which  withittood  the 
attacic,  and  at  the  close  of  the  day  each  army  maintained  its  po»ition,  Doc  11  In  the  night.  Soult 
moved  with  his  main  force  to  attack  the  British  right:  Oen.  Hill  commanded  ubQve  ia,0(0meOt 
and  Soult  a  force  of  80,000.  Two  attacks  were  at  first  successful ;  but  the  French  were  ultimately 
defeated,  and  Soult  drew  back  his  troops  towards  his  intrenched  csmp  at  Bayonne,  Dec  ia»  1811— 
Sir  Wm,  P.  P.  Napier. 


BEA  79  BEA 

bj  (he  earl  of  Torrington,  •u£fered  very  severely  in  the  tinequal  oonteet,  June  80, 1890. 
The  Dutch  loet  two  edmiralii  and  500  men ;  the  EUigliah  two  ahips  and  400  men. 
Sereral  of  the  Dutch  ahips  were  sunk  to  prevent  them  from  fiilling  bito  the  hands  of 
the  enemy.  The  admu^ls  on  both  sides  were  blamed ;  on  ours  for  not  fitting ;  on 
the  fVench  side,  for  not  pursuing  the  yictory. 

BEADSw  The  Druids  appear  to  have  used  beads.  They  were  early  used  by  dervises 
and  other  holy  men  in  the  East.  They  were  in  general  use  in  Roman  Catholic 
devotions,  a.ix  1213.  The  bead-roll  was  a  list  of  deceased  persons,  for  the  repose  of 
whose  souls  a  certain  number  of  prayers  were  recited,  which  the  devout  counted  by 
a  string  of  beads. — BuUer. 

BEAQUE,  BATTLE  of,  in  Ahjou.  Between  the  English  and  French,  the  former  com- 
manded by  the  duke  of  Clarence,  the  latter  by  the  dauphin  of  France,  who  was  aided 
by  a  body  of  7000  Scotch  under  the  earl  of  Buohan.  The  English  were  defeated  with 
the  loss  of  1500  men  killed ;  and  the  duke  himself  was  slain  by  a  Scotch  knight :  the 
earls  of  Somerset,  Dorset,  and  Huntingdon  were  taken  prisoners,  April  8, 1421. — ffume. 

BEAM  AND  SCALES.  The  apparatus  for  weighing  goods  was  so  called,  "  as  it  weighs 
so  much  at  the  king's  beam."  A  public  beam  was  set  up  in  London,  and  all  com- 
modities  ordered  to  be  weighed  by  the  city  officer,  called  the  weigh -master,  who  was 
to  do  justice  between  buyer  and  seller,  statute  8  Bdw.  IL  1809.— ^S^owe.  Beams  and 
scales,  with  weights  and  measures,  were  ordered  to  be  examined  by  the  justices  at 
quarter  sessions,  85  Qeo.  IIL  1794.  They  have  been  frequently  the  subject  of  penal 
acts  to  assure  justice  in  public  dealings.— See  WeigkU  amd  Mtaavra. 

BEANS,  BLACK  ahd  WHITR  Used  by  the  ancients  in  gathering  the  votes  of  the 
people^  and  for  the  election  of  magistrates.  A  white  bean  signified  absolution,  and  a 
bladL  one  condemnation.  The  precept  of  Pythagoras  to  abstain  from  beans. 
iMJbt^ime  a  fabta^  has  been  variously  interpreted.  "Beans  do  not  favour  mental 
tranquillity." — Cieero, 

BEANS,  QARDEN.  The  finer  kinds  of  beans  were  brought  to  these  countries  at  the 
period  of  the  introduction  of  most  other  vegetables,  in  Henry  YIIL's  reign. 

BEARDS.  Various  have  been  the  customs  of  most  nations  respecting  them.  The 
Tartars,  out  of  a  religious  principle  waged  a  long  and  bloody  war  with  the  Persians, 
declaring  them  infidels,  because  they  would  not  cut  their  beards  after  the  rites  of 
Tartary.  The  Greeks  wore  their  beards  till  the  time  of  Alexander,  who  ordered  the 
Macedonians  to  be  shaved,  lest  the  beard  should  give  a  handle  to  their  enemies, 
380  B.O.  Beards  were  worn  by  the  Romans,  297  B.a  They  have  been  worn  for 
csentories  by  the  Jews.  In  England,  they  were  not  fashionable  after  the  Conquest, 
A.D.  1066,  until  the  thirteenth  century,  and  were  discontinued  at  the  Restoration. 
The  Russians,  even  of  rank,  did  not  cut  their  beards  until  within  these  few  years ; 
and  Peter  the  Great,  notwithstanding  his  enjoining  them  to  shave,  was  obUged  to 
keep  officers  on  foot  to  cut  off  the  beard  by  foroe.  Beards  are  now  much  more  worn 
in  England  than  formerly. 

BEARDS  ON  WOMEN.  A  bearded  woman  was  taken  by  the  Prussians  at  the  battle 
of  Pultowa,  and  presented  to  the  Czar,  Peter  L  1724 :  her  beard  measured  1}  yard. 
A  woman  is  said  to  have  been  seen  at  Paris  with  a  bushy  beard,  and  her  whole  body 
covered  with  hair. — Diet  <U  Trivoux,  The  great  Margaret,  governess  of  the  Nether- 
lands, had  a  very  long  stiff  beard.  In  Bavaria,  in  the  time  of  Wolfius,  a  virgin  had  a 
long  black  beard.  Mile.  Bois  de  Chdne,  bom  at  Geneva  (it  was  said)  in  1834,  was 
exhibited  in  London  in  1852-3,  when,  consequently  eighteen  years  of  age,  she  had  a 
profuse  head  of  hair,  a  strong  black  beard,  large  whiskers,  and  thick  hair  on  her  arms 
and  down  from  her  neck  on  her  back,  and  masculine  features. 

BEAULIEU,  ABBEY  of,  founded  by  king  John,  in  the  New  Forest,  Hampshire,  in 
1204.  It  had  the  privilege  of  sanctuary,  was  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and 
was  devoted  to  monks  of  the  reformed  Benedictine  order.  This  abbey  afforded  an 
asylum  to  Margaret  of  Anjou,  Queen  of  Henry  VI.,  after  the  defeat  and  death  of  the 
earl  of  Warwick  at  the  battle  of  Bamet,  April  14,  1471.  Here,  too,  Perkin  Warbeck 
sought  and  obtained  refuge  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YIL 

BEAUYAIS,  HEROINES  of.  On  the  town  of  Beauvaia  being  besieged  by  Charles  the 
Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  at  the  head  of  80,000  men,  the  women  under  the  conduct 
of  Jeanne  de  la  Hachette,  or  Laine,  particularly  distinguished  themselves,  and  the 
duke  was  obliged  to  raise  the  siege,  July  10, 1472.    In  memory  of  their  noble  exploits 


BEC  80  BEH 

during  the  siege,  the  femalea  of  BeauvaU  walk  first  in  the  procession  on  the  anni- 
Tersary  of  their  deliverance. — HenauU, 

BECKETS  MURDER.  Thomas,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  murdered  at  the  altar, 
Dec.  29|  1171.  Four  barons  hearing  Henry  11.  say  in  a  moment  of  exasperation, 
"  What  an  unhappy  prince  am  I,  who  have  not  about  me  one  man  of  spirit  enough  to 
rid  me  of  this  insolent  prelate/'  resoWed  upon  Becket's  assassination  ;  and  rushing 
with  drawn  swords  into  the  cathedral  of  Canterbury,  where  he  was  at  Tespers,  they 
announced  their  design,  when  he  cried  out,  "  I  charge  you,  in  the  name  of  this 
Almighty,  not  to  hurt  any  other  person  here,  for  none  of  them  have  been  ooncemed 
in  the  late  transactions."  The  confederates  then  stroTe  to  drag  him  from  the  church ; 
but  not  being  able  to  do  so,  on  account  of  his  resolute  deportment,  they  killed  him 
on  the  spot  with  repeated  wounds,  all  which  he  endured  without  a  groan.  The  bones 
of  Becket  were  endirined  in  gold  and  set  with  jewels,  in  1220 ;  they  were  taken  up 
and  burned  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YIII.  1539.— <S^oife. 

BED.  The  practice  was  in  the  first  ages  for  mankind  to  sleep  upon  the  skins  of 
beasts. —  WhiUaker,  This  was  the  custom  of  the  early  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  of 
the  Britons  before  the  Roman  invasion.  They  were  afterwards  changed  for  loose 
rushes  and  heather.  Straw  followed,  and  was  used  in  the  royal  chambers  of  England 
so  late  as  the  clpse  of  the  15th  century.  The  Romans  were  the  first  who  used  feaUiera. 

BEER.  See  Ale,  A  bevenge  of  this  sort  is  made  mention  of  by  Xenophon,  in  his 
famous  retreat,  401  B.o.  Beer  was  drunk  generally  in  England  in  the  18th  centary. 
By  a  law  of  James  I.,  when  there  was  a  kind  of  duty  paid  on  "  ale  called  here,"  one 
quart  of  the  best  thereof  was  to  be  sold  for  a  penny.  Subjected  to  excise  in  1660. 
There  have  been  various  statutes  passed  from  time  to  time  regulating  the  eala  of 
beer.  In  England  the  number  of  retailers  under  the  late  acts  of  1  WilL  IV.  and 
4  Will.  IV.  1884,  amounts  to  about  60,000.  By  11  ft  12  Vict  o.  49  (Aug.  1848)  and 
17  ft  18  Vict  0.  79  (1854),  the  sale  of  beer  and  other  liquors  on  Sundays 
restricted  to  certain  hours.  The  time  was  enlaiged  by  18  &  19  Vict  c.  79. 1855. 
VictuaUen, 

BEES.  Mount  Hybia,  on  account  of  its  odoriferous  flowers,  thyme,  and  abundance  of 
honey,  has  been  poetically  called  the  "  empire  of  bees."  Hymettus,  in  Attica,  is  also 
famous  for  its  bees  and  honey.  The  economy  of  bees  was  admired  in  the  earUaat 
ages ;  and  Eumelus,  of  Corinth,  wrote  a  poem  on  bees,  741  b.o.  There  are  292  species 
of  the  bee  or  apis  genus,  and  111  in  England.  Strange  to  say,  bees  were  not  originally 
natives  of  New  England :  they  were  introduced  into  Boston  by  the  English,  in  1670, 
and  have  since  spread  over  the  whole  continent ;  the  first  planters  never  saw  any. 

BEET-ROOT  is  of  recent  cultivation  in  England.  Beta  vulfforis,  red  beet,  is  used  for  the 
table  as  a  salad.  Maigraff  first  produced  sugar  from  the  toMU  beet-root,  in  1747. 
M.  Achard  produced  excellent  sugar  from  it  in  1799 ;  and  the  chemists  of  France  at 
the  instance  of  Bonaparte,  largely  extracted  sugar  from  the  beet-root  in  1800. 
60,000  tons  of  sugar,  about  half  the  consumption,  are  now  manufactured  in  France 
from  beet  It  is  also  largely  manufactured  in  other  countries.  A  refinery  of  sugar 
from  beet*root  was  lately  erected  at  the  Thames-bank,  C!helsea. 

BEGUINES,  a  congregation  of  nuns,  first  established  at  Liege,  and  afterwards  at  Nivelle^ 
in  1207,  some  say  1226.  The  "  Qrand  Beguinage  *'  of  Bruges  was  the  most  extenatve 
of  modem  times.— Some  of  these  nuns  once  fell  into  the  extravagant  error  that  they 
could,  in  this  life,  arrive  at  the  highest  moral  perfection,  even  to  impeccability.  The 
council  of  Vienne  condemned  this  error,  and  abolished  a  branch  of  the  order  in  1811. 

BEHEADING.  The  DteoUaiio  of  the  Romans.  Introduced  into  England  from  Nor- 
mandy (as  a  less  ignominious  mode  of  putting  higli  criminals  to  death)  by  William 
the  Conqueror,  1074,  when  Waltheof,  earl  of  Huntingdon,  Northampton,  and  North- 
umberland, was  first  so  executed. — Salmon* e  Chron,  Our  English  history  is  filled 
with  instances  of  this  mode  of  execution,  particularly  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIIL 
and  Mary,  when  even  women  of  the  noblest  blood,  greatest  virtues,  and  most  innocent 
lives,  thus  suffrred  death.* 

*  AxnoDg  other  instances  (besides  queens  of  England)  may  be  mentioned  the  lady  Jane  Groy, 
beheaded  Feb.  IS,  15S4  ;  and  the  venerable  countess  of  Salisbury, — the  latter  remarkable  for  her 
i-esistance  of  the  oxocutioner.  When  he  directed  her  to  lav  her  head  on  the  block,  she  relVised  to  do 
it ;  telliiiff  him  that  she  knew  of  no  guilt,  and  would  not  suomit  to  die  like  a  criminal.  He  pursued 
her  round  and  round  the  scaffold,  aiming  at  her  hoary  head,  and  at  length  to«tk  it  ufi;  after  mangling 
the  neck  and  shoulders  of  the  Illustrious  victim  in  a  horrifying  manner.  She  was  daughter  of  Oeofge^ 
duke  of  Clarence,  and  last  of  the  royal  line  of  PlantageneU    Hay  87, 1641. — Huim, 


BEU 


81 


BEL 


B£HISTUN»  in  Perbia.  At  this  placo  \b  a  rock  oontaining  important  inacriptions  in 
thrva  langnsgM,  in  cuneiform  (ur  wedjge-ahaped)  characters,  which  were  deciphered 
and  tianalated  by  Sir  H.  Bawlinaon,  in  1844-6,  and  published  in  the  Ttanaactiona  of 
the  Boyal  Aaiatic  Society. 

BEHBINO'S  STRAIT.  Explored  by  captain  Vitus  Behriog,  a  Damiah  navigator  in  the 
seirice  of  Russia,  whose  name  it  bears.  Behriug  thus  established  that  the  oontinenta 
of  Asia  and  America  are  not  united,  but  are  distant  from  each  other  about  thirty-nine 
miles,  1728.  The  current  from  the  west,  between  the  shores  is  very  inconsiderable^ 
the  depth  not  being  more  than  from  tweWe  to  thirty  fiithoms. 

BEILFAST.  First  mentioned  about  A.D.  1315.  Its  oastle,  supposed  to  have  been  built 
by  John  de  Courcy,  was  then  destroyed  by  the  Scots,  under  Edmard  Bruce.  Belfast 
was  granted  by  James  I.  to  Sir  Arthur  Chichester,  then  lord  deputy,  1612.  It  m  as  erected 
into  a  corporation,  1613.  The  loug  bridge,  2000  feet  in  length,  and  of  21  arches,  was 
commenced  in  1682.  William  IIL  resided  here  several  days,  June,  1690.  Here  aas 
printed  the  first  edition  of  the  Bible  published  in  Ireland,  1704.  The  caikUe  was  burnt 
April,  1708.  The  bank  built,  1787.  The  mechanics'  institute,  established,  1825.  Of 
three  colleges  establiahed  in  Ireland  under  the  act  8  &  9  Vict.  o.  66,  passed  in  1845, 
one  was  inaugurated  in  Belfast,  October,  1849.  See  CiUleyu  in  Ireland,  The  mer- 
chants of  Bel&st  are  the  only  commercial  men  in  Ireland  who  harve  uniformly  used 
their  own  vtssels  as  the  carriers  of  their  own  trade.  —  Hardy* $  Tuur, 

BELGIUM,  late  the  southern  portion  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  sLd  anciently 
the  territory  of  the  Belgs,  who  were  conquered  by  Julius  Caesar,  47  ^.o.  Under  the 
dominion  of  France  so  late  ss  A.D.  1369 ;  formed  into  a  kingdom  in  1831. 


Became  an  acquiaition  of  the  house  of 

Austria 1477 

Chat  lea  V.  annexed  the  Nelherkuida  to 

the  crown  of  Spain 1556 

Seven  proviucea,  uudtr  William,  prince 

of    Orange,    revolt,    owing    to    the 

tynumyofPhilipIL;  freed  .1579 

The  ten  remaining  provmceaare  given 

to  the  archduke 1&08 

Theae  a^pin  fall  to  Spain  .  1648 

Seven  again  ceded  to  Germany  .  .  .  1714 
And  three  to  Fmnoo  ....  1748 
Auatriana  expelled  ;  but  their  rule  after- 

ward»  restored 178tf 

The  French  entertd  Belgium  .  Not.  1,  17if2 
Ut^ited  to  France.  Sept.  30,  1705 

Placed   under   the  aoverelgnty  uf  tLe 

house  of  Orange 1814 

The    great    revolution    oommencca  at 

Bruaaela    ....        Aug.  25,  1830 
The  Proviaioual   Oovemment  declatea 

Belgium  independent   .  Oct.  4,  1830 

The  Belgian  troupa  take  Antwerp ;  the 

l>ulch  are  driven  to  the  citadel,  from 

whence   thev  «ninfinnH«   the  town, 

Oct.  27,  1830 
Belgian  independence  acknowlodsed  by 

the  allied  powers,  announced  by  Van 

de  Weytr       ....    Dec.  26,  1830 
Duke  de  Nemonn  elected  king ;  but  hia 

fiUher,  the  French  king;  refuaea  hia 

oonaent Feb.  3,  1831 

M.  Surlet  de  Chokiur  is  elected  regent 

of  Bdgium    ....    Feb.  24,  1831 


Leopold,   prince  of  Coburg,  is  elected 

It^ing July  12,  iKSl 

He  entera  Bruasela  .  .    July  19,  1831 

The  king  of  the  Nethailanda   rcctm- 

mencea  the  war  Aug.  3.  1831 

[France   aenda   50,000  troops  to  aHsist 

Belgium,  and  an  armiatice  enauea.} 
A  confereiice  of  the  mluiatera  of  the  &  ve 

great  poweia  ia  held  in  Loudon,  which 

termiuatea  in  the  acceptance  of  the  24 

artlclea  of  twcification  .        .   >  ov.  15,  1831 
Leopold  morrioa  Louise,  cAdest  daughter 

of  Louia-Philippc,  king  uf  the  French,* 

Aug.  9,  1832 
The  French  army  ooramenoea  its  return 

to  Finance       ....    Dec,  27,  1832 
Riot  at  Brussels  (see  Brusid$);  much 

misohief  ensues  April  6,  1834 

Treaty  between  Holland  and  Belgium 

signed  in  London  .  .  April  19,  1839 

Death  of  the  queen  Oct  10,  1850 

The  king  and  duke  of  Brabant   visit 

England         .....  Oct.  1852 
Increase  of  the  army  to  100,000  men 

▼oted         ....         May  10,  1853 
Marriatre  of  duke  of  Brabant  (heir  to 

the  throne)  to  Mario  Henriette,  arch- 

ducheas  of  Austria  .   Aug.  22,  1853 

Miniaterial  criaia .        .    Aug.  and  Sept ,  1854 
Great  opposition  to  religirtus  uLaritiea 

bill ;  legislative  seaaion  cloaed     June,  1857 


The  treaty  ahoTe*mentioned  arose  out  of  the  conference  held  in  London  on  the  Belgian 
queation ;  by  the  decision  of  which,  the  treaty  of  N07.  15, 1831,  was  maintained,  and 
the  pecuniary  compensation  of  feisty  millions  of  francs,  offered  by  Belgium  for  the 
teiTitories  adjudged  to  Holland,  was  declared  inadmiasible.  The  population  of  Belgium 
was  4,407,241  on  Jan.  1, 1851,  according  to  the  Belgian  census  returns  of  1852. 


[Belgium  having  separated  from  the  king- 
dom of  the  NetLenanda,  the  auvoreignty  was 
offintxl  to  Louis  Charles,  due  de  Nemours, 
aecond  son  of  Lonis  Philippe,  king  of  the 
French,  but  declined.    It  waa  next  offered  to 


KING  OF  THE  BELGIANS. 

Leopold,  prince  of  Coburg,  hy  whom  it 
acoepteo.] 

1831.  Leopold,  fint  king  of  the  Belgians ;  in- 
aiigiirattd  July  20, 1831,  at  Brussels,  the  capital 
of  his  kiiigdom.    The  pbsbest  (1857>  king. 


*  Leopold  married,  in  May,  1816,  the  princess  Charlotte  of  Wales,  daughter  of  the  i  rince  re^ut, 
afld  waioa  GoLigo  IV.  of  £i*glaud ;  sho  died,  Nov.  6,  1817. 

Q 


BEL  82  BEL 

BELGRADE,  BA.TTLE  of,  between  the  Grerman  and  Turkish  armies,  in  which  the 
latter  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  40,000  men,  fought  1466.  Belgrade  was  taken  by 
Solyman,  1522,  and  retaken  by  the  Imperialista  in  1688,  from  whom  it  again  reverted 
to  the  Turks  in  1690.  Taken  by  prince  Eugene  in  1717  {tee  next  article),  and  kept 
till  1739,  when  it  was  ceded  to  the  Turks,  after  its  fine  fortifications  had  been 
demolished.  It  was  again  taken  in  1789,  and  restored  at  the  peace  of  Relchenbach, 
in  1790.    The  Servian  insurgents  had  possession  of  it  in  1806. 

BELGRADE,  SIEGE  of,  was  undertaken  in  Blay,  1717,  under  prince  Eugene.  On 
Aug.  5  of  that  year,  the  Turkish  army,  200,000  strong,  approached  to  relieve  it,  and 
a  sanguinary  battle  was  fought,  in  which  the  Turks  lost  20,000  men ;  after  this  battle 
Belgrade  surrendered.    It  has  been  frequently  besieged.    See  Siegee, 

BELL,  BOOK,  and  CANDLE.  An  ecclesiastical  ceremony  of  the  Romish  Church,  used 
in  Exoommimication,  which  tee,  and  aUo  JiUerdiet,  The  bell  is  rung,  the  book  doeed, 
and  candle  extinguished ;  the  effect  being  to  exclude  the  excommunicated  from  the 
society  of  the  faithful,  depriving  them  of  the  benefits  of  divine  service  and  the  sacn- 
ment& — Pardon.  Swearing  by  bell,  book,  and  candle,  is  said  to  have  originated 
in  the  manner  of  the  pope's  blessing  the  world  yearly  from  the  balcony  of  St.  Patei^a 
at  Rome. 

BELL-ROCK  LIGHT-HOtJSB,  esteemed  one  of  the  finest  structures  of  the  kind  m 
Great  BritaLu.  It  is  nearly  in  front  of  the  Frith  of  Tay,  and  is  115  feet  high ;  it  is 
built  upon  a  rock  that  measures  427  feet  in  length  and  200  in  breadth,  and  is  about 
12  feet  under  water.  Upon  this  rock,  tradition  says,  the  abbots  of  the  ancient  monas- 
tery of  Aberbrothock  succeeded  in  fixing  a  bell  in  such  a  manner  that  it  was  rung  by 
the  impulse  of  the  sea,  thus  warning  mariners  of  their  impending  danger.  Tradition 
also  tells  us  that  this  apparatus  was  carried  away  by  a  Dutchman,  who  was  afterwards 
lost  upon  the  rock,  with  his  ship  and  crew.  The  present  lighthouse  was  commenced 
in  1806 ;  it  is  provided  with  two  bells,  for  hazy  weather. 

BELLAIR,  BATTLE  of,  in  America.  The  town  was  attacked  by  the  British  forces 
under  command  of  sir  Peter  Parker ;  but  after  an  obstinate  engagement,  in  which 
the  result  was  a  long  time  doubtful,  they  were  repulsed  with  considerable  loea,  and 
their  gallant  commander  was  killed,  Aug.  SO,  1814. 

BELLEISLE.  Erected  into  a  duchy  in  favour  of  marshal  Belleisle,  in  1742,  in  reward 
of  his  brilliant  military  and  diplomatic  services,  by  Louis  XV.  Belleisle  was  taken 
by  the  British  forces  under  commodore  Keppel  and  general  Hodgson,  after  a  des- 
perate resistance,  June  7, 1761,  but  was  restored  to  France  in  1768. 

BELLES-LETTRES,  or  Poutb  LBARNiNa.  We  owe  the  revival  of  the  bellea-lettr«B  in 
Europe,  after  the  darkness  of  previous  ages,  to  Brunette,  Latini,  and  other  learned 
men  in  different  countries,  about  a-D.  1272. — Univ,  Hitt.  Learning  greatly  promoted 
by  the  Medici  family  in  Italy,  about  1550. — Ptmiana.  Literature  bc^an  to  flourish  in 
France,  Germany,  and  England,  about  this  time.  The  belles-lettres  commenced  with 
us  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  flourished  in  that  of  Anne.    See  Aoademiei, 

BELLMEN.  First  appointed  in  London,  to  proclaim  the  hour  of  the  night  before  pnblie 
clocks  became  general.  They  were  numerous  about  a.d.  1556.  The  bellman  was  to 
ring  his  bell  at  night,  and  cry  **  Take  care  of  your  fire  and  candle,  be  charitable  to 
the  poor,  and  pray  for  the  dead." — Noorthouck's  History  of  London, 

BELLOWS.  Anacharsis,  the  Scythian,  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  them,  about 
569  B.O.  To  him  is  also  ascribed  tiie  invention  of  tinder,  the  potter^s  wheel,  anchors 
for  ships,  &c  Bellows  were  not  used  in  the  furnaces  of  the  Romans.  The  production 
of  the  g^eat  leviathan  bellows  of  our  foundries  (suggested  by  the  diminutive  domestic 
bellows)  must  have  been  early,  but  we  cannot  trace  the  time. — See  Blowing  Maekimet, 

BELLS,  were'used  among  tb e  Jews,  Greeks,  Roman  Catholics,  and  heathens.  The  reaponaes 
of  the  Dodonsean  oracle  were  in  part  conveyed  by  bella — Straho.  The  monument  of 
Porsenna  was  decorated  by  pinnacles,  each  surmounted  by  bells. — Pliny.  Introduced 
by  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Nola  in  Campagna,  about  a.d.  400.  First  known  in  France  in 
550.  The  army  of  Olothaire  II.,  king  of  France,  was  frightened  from  the  siege  of  Sena 
by  the  ringing  of  the  bells  of  St.  Stephen's  Church.  The  second  Excerption  of  oor 
king  Egbert  commands  every  priest,  at  the  proper  hours,  to  sound  the  bells  of  hia 
church.  Bells  were  used  in  churches  by  order  of  pope  John  IX.,  about  900,  o« 
a  defence,  by  ringing  them,  against  thunder  and  lightning.  First  cast  in  England  by 
Turketel,  cliancellor  of  England,  under  Edmund  I.    His  successor  improved  the  iaToii> 


BEL 


83 


BEN 


tioD,  sod  cMiaed  the  first  tuneable  set  to  be  put  ap  at  Croyland  abbey,  960. — Siowe. 
The  foUowing  list  is  that  given  btr  Mr.  E.  Beckett  Deniaon  in  his  diaooone  at  the  Bojal 
Institution,  March  6,  1867,  on  the  Westminater  bell :— 


Toiii.Cwt. 
McMoow,  1796;*  broken,  17S7         .    250     t 

Another,  1817 110     t 

Three  otliera 16  to  81 


NoTf^prod  .                               .    .      81 
Obnuts 17 


Vienna,  1711 
Westminster,  1856  t 
Brfiirt,  1407 
1080 


.     .  17 

15 

.    .  IS 

12 

13 

MontraO,  1847 13 

GoIonM,1448 11 

Bredaw,  1507 11 

GorUts 10 

York,  1845 10 

Brogea,  1080 10 


0 
18 
14 
18* 
15 
10 
T 
15 

8 

0 
17 
16 

6 


St  Peter's,  Rome 
Oxfbrd,  1680 
Lucerne,  1630  . 
Halsbentadt,  1467 
Antwerp  . 
Brussels 
Dantzic,  1453   . 
Lincoln.  1834 
Bt  Paul's,  1716 1 
Ghent  . 
Boulogne,  new 
Exeter,  1675 
Old  Lincoln.  1610 
Fourth  quarter-bell,  Westminster, 
1857  . 


Ton*.  Cwt. 
8      0 


7 

7 

7 
7 
7 
6 
6 
6 
4 
4 
4 
4 


12 

11 

10 

8 

1| 

1 

8 

4 
18 
18 

lor 

8 


BELLS,  BAPTISM  or.  They  were  early  anointed  and  baptised  in  churohea.— Z>m 
Prtmoy,  The  bells  of  the  priory  of  Little  Donmow,  in  Eaeex,  wenp  baptised  hj  the 
names  of  St.  Michael,  St  John,  Viigin  Mary,  Holy  Trinity,  &o.,  in  1501. — Weever, 
The  great  bell  of  Kotre  Dame,  in  Paris,  was  baptised  by  the  name  of  Duke  of 
Angooldme,  1816.  On  the  continent,  in  Roman  Gatholio  states,  they  baptise  bells 
as  we  do  ships,  but  with  reUgiouB  solemnity. — Atkt, 

RKIJiS,  RINGING  of,  in  changes  of  regular  peals»  is  almost  peculiar  to  the 
English,  who  boast  of  hsTing  brought  the  practice  to  an  art  There  were  formerly 
BodetieB  of  ringers  in  London. — Holdat,  A  sixth  bell  was  added  to  the  peal  of  five, 
in  the  church  of  St  Michael,  1430^ — 8towe^$  Survey.  Nell  Gwynne  left  the  ringers  of 
the  beUs  of  St  Martin's-in-the-fields  money  for  a  weekly  entertainment*  1687,  and 
Tory  many  others  have  done  the  same* 

BENARES,  a  holy  dty  of  the  Hindoos,  abounding  in  temples.  It  was  ceded  by  the 
nabob  of  Oude,  Asoph  ud  Dowlah,  to  the  EngUsh,  in  1776.  An  insurrection  took 
place  here,  which  had  nearly  proTed  fatal  to  the  British  iatereets  in  Hindostan,  1781. 
The  rajah,  Cheyt  Sing,  was  deposed  in  consequence  of  it,  in  1788.  Mr.  Cherry,  capt. 
Conway,  and  others,  were  asBBssinated  at  Benares  by  vizier  Aly,  Jan.  1 4, 1799.  See  IwUa. 

BENCOOLEN.  The  English  East  India  Company  made  a  settlement  here,  which  pre- 
served to  them  the  pepper  trade  after  the  Dutch  had  dispossessed  them  of  Bantam, 
1682. — Andermm.  York  Fort  was  erected  by  the  East  India  Company,  1690.  In 
1698,  a  dreadful  mortality  raged  here,  occasioned  by  the  town  being  built  on  a 
pestilent  monws :  among  those  who  perished  were  the  governor  and  council. 
Marlborough  Fort  was  built,  1714.  The  French,  under  count  D'Estaign,  destroyed  the 
TgngliRh  settlement,  1760.  Bencoolen  was  reduced  to  a  residency  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Bengal,  in  1801.    See  India, 

BENDER  is  memorable  as  the  asylum  of  Charles  XIL  of  Sweden,  after  his  defeat  at 
Fiiltowa  by  the  czar  Peter  the  Great,  July  8, 1709.  The  celebrated  peace  of  Bender 
vms  concluded  in  1711.  Bender  vras  taken  by  storm,  by  the  Russians,  in  1770 ;  and 
was  again  taken  in  1789.  It  vras  restored  at  the  peace  of  Jaasy,  but  retained  at  the 
peace  of  1812. 

BENEDICTINES.  An  order  of  monks  founded  by  Benedict,  who  was  the  first  that 
introduced  the  monastic  life  into  the  western  part  of  Europe,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
sixth  century.  No  religious  order  has  been  so  renuukable  for  extent,  wealth,  and 
men  of  note  and  learning;  as  the  Benedictine.  It  spread  over  a  large  portion  of 
£urope,  but  was  superseded  in  the  vast  influence  it  possessed  hy  other  religious  com- 
munities about  A.D.  1100.    The  Benedictines  appeared  early  in  England ;  and  William 

*  The  metal  has  been  valued,  at  the  lowest  estimate^  at  £66,666.  Gold  and  silver  are  aaid  to  have 
been  thrown  In  as  TotiTe  offerings. 

t  The  largest  bell  in  England  (named  Big  Ben,  after  sir  Benjamin  Hall,  the  present  chief  com- 
mianitniffr  of  worksX  cast  at  Houghton-le-8pnn|^  Durham,  by  Measrs.  Warner,  under  the  superintend- 
enoe  of  Mr.  B.  Beckett  Denison  and  the  rev.  w.  Taylor,  at  an  expense  of  £8843  14«.  Od.  The  com- 
position is  32  parts  copper  and  7  tin.  The  diameter  is  9  ft.  6^  in. ;  the  height  7  it  10^  in.  The  clapper 
weteha  12  cwL—StP.  W.  Taylor,  .         . ,  , 

XTht  ^MBpsr  of  St  Paul's  beU  weighs  180  lb&  ;  the  diameter  of  the  bell  is  10  fioet  and  its  thickness 
10  in^ea.  The  hour  of  the  day  strilns  upon  this  bell,  the  quarters  upon  two  smaller  ones  beneath. 
Bee^ocfts.  ^ 


BEN  84  BEN 

I.  built  them  an  abbey  on  the  plain  where  the  battle  of  Habtlogs  was  fought^  1066. 
See  Battd  Ahhey.  William  de  Warrenne,  earl  of  Warren,  built  them  a  convent  at 
Lewes,  in  Sussex,  in  1077.  At  Hammersmith  is  a  nunnery,  whose  inmates  are  deno- 
minated Benedictine  dame?. — Leigh.  Of  this  order  it  is  reckoned  that  there  hare 
been  40  popes,  200  cardinals,  50  patriarchs,  116  archbishops,  4600  bishops,  4  emperon, 
12  empresses,  46  kings,  41  queens,  and  3600  saints.  Their  founder  was  canonised. 
— Banmitu.  Many  valuable  works  have  been  produced  by  the  Benedictines,  e.  g.  Tilrt 
de  Verifier  la  Dates  (first  published  in  1750),  and  many  ancient  authors  edited. 

BENEFICES.  Clerical  benefices  originated  in  the  twelfth  century ;  till  then  the  priests 
were  supported  by  alms  and  oblations  at  mass.  All  that  should  become  vacant  in 
the  s^ace  of  six  months  were  given  by  pope  Clement  VII.  to  his  nephew,  in  1584. — 
Notitvi  MonoMtica.  The  number  of  benefices  in  England  and  Wales,  according  to  the 
latest  parliamentary  returns,  is  11,728,  and  the  number  of  glebe-houses  5527;  these 
are  exclusive  of  bishoprics,  deaneries,  canonries,  prebendaries,  priest-vicars,  lay-vicars, 
secondaries,  and  similar  church  preferments.  The  number  of  paiishes  is  11,077,  and 
of  churches  and  chapels  about  14,100.  The  number  of  parishes  in  Ireland  is  1456,  to 
which  there  are  not  more  than  about  900  glebe-houses  attached,  the  rest  having  no 
glebe-houses.    See  Churck  of  England, 

BENEFIT  OF  CLERQY,  a  privilege  first  enjoyed  only  by  clergymen,  but  afterwards 
extended  to  lettered  laymen,  relating  to  divers  crimes,  and  particularly  manslaughter. 
The  ordinary  gave  the  prisoner  at  the  bar  a  Latin  book,  in  a  black  Gothic  character, 
from  which  to  read  a  verse  or  two ;  and  if  the  ordinary  said,  "  LryU  «<  eUrieut^**  the 
offender  was  only  burnt  in  the  hand,  otherwise  he  suffered  death,  8  Edw.  I.  1274. 
This  privilege  was  abolished  with  respect  to  murderers  and  other  great  criminals,  as 
also  Uie  claim  of  sanctuary,  by  Henry  VIII.  1513. — Sknoe.  Benefit  of  dei^gy  was 
wholly  repealed  by  stotute  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  June,  1827.    See  Clergy,  BeneJU  of. 

BENEFIT  SOCIETIES.  These  institutions  originated  among  the  humble  and  indus- 
trious classes  in  England.  An  act  was  passed  for  the  regulation  of  them  in  1795, 
since  when  various  statutes  for  their  protection  and  encouragement  have  served  to 
make  them  more  numerous  and  important  Building  societies  and  Friendly  societies 
have  also  been  promoted  by  the  protection  afforded  to  them  by  the  legislature.  The 
Benefit  and  other  societies  having  accumulated  large  amounts  of  money,  a  plan 
was  adopted  to  identify  their  funds  with  the  public  debt  of  the  countiy.  See 
Savings  BatUcs, 

BENEVENTO.  Near  here  was  erected  the  triumphal  arch  of  Trajan,  a.d.  114.  Benevento 
was  formed  into  a  duchy  by  the  Lombards,  A.D.  571.  The  castle  was  built^  1323;  the 
town  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquaJce,  1688,  when  the  archbishop,  afterwards 
pope  Benedict  XIII.,  was  dug  out  of  the  ruins  alive,  and  contributed  to  its  subsequent 
rebuilding  again,  1708.  It  was  seized  by  the  king  of  Naples,  but  restored  to  the  pope 
on  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  1773.  Talleyrand  de  Perigord,  Bonaparte's  arch- 
chancellor,  had  the  title  of  prince  of  Benevento  conferred  upon  him. 

BENGAL.  Of  the  existence  of  Bengal  as  a  separate  kingdom,  there  is  no  record.  It 
was  ruled  by  governors  delegated  by  the  sovereigns  of  Delhi  in  1340,  when  it  became 
independent,  and  remained  so  until  1560.  It  afterwards  fell  to  the  Mogul  empir«. 
Bengal  is  now  the  chief  presidency  of  our  possessions  in  India,  and  Calcutta,  its 
capital,  is  the  seat  of  our  government.    See  India, 

the  dreodftil  affidr  of  the  Black-hole 


The   English   were   first  permitted  to 

trade  to  Bencal    ....  a.d.  1584 
First  regular  dispatch  reoelTed  by  the 

Company  at  home 1642 

Oppression  of  the  natiTes— the  Com- 
pany's fai  tories  withdrawn  .  1666 
Faustories  of  the  French  and  Danes  .  .1604 
Bengal  made  a  distinct  agency  .  1680 
First  factory  at  Calcutta  ....  1690 
Th«  settlements  first  placed  in  a  state  of 

defence 1694 

Calcuttabottght,  and  fortified    .       .    .  1700 
Its  garrison  consisted  of  only  129  sol- 
diers, of  whom  but  66  were  Europeans  1700 
Calcutta  taken  by  Sun^ah  Dowla;  and 


(see  Black-hole) .  .ad.  175« 

Retaken  by  colonel  CUre  .  1757 

New  fort  at  Calcutta  commenced      .    .  17i^8 
IiDperial  grant  vesting  the  revenues  of 
Bengal  in  the  Company,  by  which  the 
virtual  sovereignty  of  the  country  was 
obtained        ....    Aug  12,  1765 
India-Bill ;  Bengal  made  the  chief  pre- 
sidency    ....        June  16,  177S 
Supreme  court  established    .     Jtme  16.  1773 
Mr.  Pitt's  celebrated  India-Bill,  Aug.  19,  1784 
Courts  of  Judicature  erected  for  civil, 

causes Feb.  11,  179S 

Bishop  of  Calcutta  appointed    July  SI,  I81S 
See  7n«fia. 


The  appointments  of  governors-general,  chief  judges,  and  bishops,  of  the  first  for  India, 
of  the  second  and  third  for  Bengal,  liadraSi  aud  Bombay,  will  be  found  sevenJly 
under  the  article  India^ 


BER  85  BER 

BERBICE.  in  Ouiana,  mirrendered  to  the  British  by  the  Dutch,  April  23,  1796,  and 
again  Sept  22,  1803.  It  waa  finally  ceded  to  England  in  1814  (since  when  it  has 
much  improTed),  and  was  placed  in  the  aame  relation  as  to  trade  with  the  British 
West  India  Islands  in  1816,  and  is  now  a  British  colony.    See  Colimict. 

BERESINA,  BATTLE  of.  Total  defeat  of  the  French  main  army  by  the  Banians  on 
the  banks  of  the  Beresina,  followed  by  their  disastrous  passage  of  it  when  escaping 
out  of  Russia,  Not.  28,  1812.  The  French  lost  upwards  of  20,000  men  in  this 
battle,  and  in  their  retreat  (which  was  attended  by  the  greatest  calunity  and 
suffering). 

BE3iaEN,  BATTLE  of,  between  the  French  and  allies,  the  latter  defeated,  April  14, 
1759.  The  sllies  were  sgain  defeated  by  the  French  with  great  loss.  Sept  19, 1799.  In 
another  battle,  fought  Oct  2,  same  year,  the  allies  lost  4000  men ;  and,  on  the  6th, 
they  were  again  defeated  before  Alkmaer,  losing  5000  men.  On  the  20th,  the  duke 
of  York  entmd  into  a  convention,  by  which  he  exchanged  his  army  for  6000  French 
and  Dutch  prisoners  in  England. 

BEROEN-OP-ZOOH.  This  place,  whose  works  were  deemed  impregnable,  was  taken  by 
the  French,  Sept.  16, 1747,  and  again  in  1794.  An  attempt  made  by  the  British,  under 
general  sir  T.  Graham  (afterward^  Lord  Lynedoch),  to  carry  the  fortress  by  storm,  was 
defeated ;  after  forcing  an  entrance,  their  retreat  was  cut  off,  and  a  dreadful  slaughter 
ensued;  nearly  all  were  cut  to  pieces  or  made  prisoners,  March  8, 1814. 

BERKELEY  CASTLE  was  begun  by  Henry  I.  in  1108,  and  finished  in  the  next  reign. 
Here  Edward  II.  wss  traitorously  and  cruelly  murdered  by  the  contrivance  of  his 
queen  Isabella  (a  princess  of  France),  and  her  favourite  and  paramour,  Mortimer, 
earl  of  March.  This  wicked  woman  first  deserted,  next  invaded,  then  dethroned, 
and  lastly  caused  her  unhappy  king  and  husband  to  be  inhumanly  deprived  of  life 
by  the  most  frightful  means  in  Berkeley  Castle,  Sept  21,  1327.  Mortimer  was 
banged  on  a  gibbet  at  the  Elms,  near  London,  Nov.  29,  1380 ;  and  Edward  III. 
confined  his  guilty  mother  in  her  own  house  at  Custle  Rising,  near  Lynn  in  Norfolk, 
till  her  death. 

BERLIN.  Founded  bv  the  margrave  Albert,  sumamed  the  Bear,  in  1168.  Its  five 
districts  were  united  under  one  magistracy,  in  1714;  and  it  was  subsequently  made 
the  capital  of  Prussia.  It  was  taken  by  an  army  of  Russians,  Austrians,  snd 
Saxons,  in  1760,  but  they  were  obliged  to  retire  in  a  few  days.  On  Oct  27, 1806, 
thirteen  days  after  the  battle  of  Jena,  the  French  entered  Berlin ;  and  from  its  palace 
Napoleon  issued  his  famous  Berlin  decree.  See  next  artieU,  Berlin  was  declared  in 
a  state  of  siege,  Nov.  1848.  The  continuation  of  this  state  of  siege  was  declared  to 
be  illegal  by  the  lower  chamber  without  its  concurrence,  April  25,  1849 

BERLIN  DECREE,  a  memorable  interdict  agunst  the  commerce  of  England.  It 
declared  the  British  islands  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  all  Englishmen  found  in 
countries  occupied  by  French  troops  were  to  be  treated  as  prisoners  of  war;  the 
whole  world,  in  fact,  was  to  cesse  m>m  any  communication  with  Great  Britain.  It 
was  issued  by  Napoleon  from  the  court  of  the  Prussian  king,  shortly  after  the  battle 
of  Jena,  Nov.  21,  1806.    See  Jtncu 

BERLIN,  CONVENTION  of,  entered  into  with  Prussia  by  Napoleon,  Nov.  5,  1808. 
By  this  treaty,  he  remitted  to  Prussia  the  sum  due  on  the  war-debt,  and  withdrew 
many  of  his  troops  to  reinforce  bis  armies  in  Spain. 

BERMUDAS,  ob  SOMEBS'  ISLES,  were  discovered  by  Jo8o  Bermudss,  a  Spaniard,  in 
1527;  but  were  not  inhabited  until  1609,  when  Sir  George  Somers  was  cast  away 
upon  them.  They  were  settled  by  n  statute  of  9  James  I.  1612.  Among  the  exiles 
from  England  during  the  civil  war,  was  Waller  the  poet,  who  wrote,  while  resident 
here,  a  poetical  description  of  tlie  islands.  There  was  an  awful  hurricane  here,  Oct,  81, 
1 780,  and  another,  by  which  a  third  of  the  houses  was  destroyed,  and  all  the  shipping 
driven  ashore,  July  20,  1813. 

BERNAL  COLLECTION  of  articles  of  taste  and  vertu,  collected  by  Ralph  Bemal,  Esq., 
many  years  chairman  of  committees  of  ways  and  means  in  the  House  of  Commons.  He 
died  Aug.  25, 1855,  The  sale  in  March,  1856,  lasted  81  days;  and  enormous  prices 
were  given.    The  total  sum  realised  was  62,6802.  6«.  8(f. 

BERNARD,  MOUNT  ST.  Yelan,  its  highest  peak,  is  11,066  feet  high,  covered  with  per- 
petual snow.  Hannibal,  it  is  said,  conducted  the  Carthaginian  army  by  this  pass  mto 
Italy  (B.C  218) ;  and  it  was  by  the  same  route  that  Bonaparte  led  his  troops  to  the 


BER  86  BIB 

plains  of  Lombanly,  before  the  battle  of  Marengo,  fought  June  14, 1800.  The  order  of 
Bemardine  monks  was  founded  by  Robert,  abbot  of  Moleme,  in  the  12th  oentozy. 
On  the  summit  of  Great  St.  Bemanl  is  a  large  community  of  monks^  who  entertain  in 
their  oonvent  all  trayellers  gratis  for  three  days. — Brooke, 

BERWICK.  This  town  was  the  theatre  of  many  bloody  contests  between  the  English 
and  Scots;  and  while  England  and  Scotland  remained  two  kingdoms,  was  always 
claimed  by  the  Soots  as  belonging  to  them,  because  it  stood  on  their  side  of  the  river. 
Berwick  was  burned  in  1173,  and  again  in  1216.  It  was  taken  from  the  Soots,  and 
annexed  to  England,  in  1338;  and  alter  having  been  taken  and  retaken  many  times, 
was  finally  ceded  to  England  in  1502.  The  town  surrendered  to  Cromwell  in  1648, 
and  afterwards  to  genexul  Monk.  Since  the  union  of  the  Crowns  (James  I.  1603),  the 
fortifications,  which  were  formerly  very  strong,  have  been  much  neglected. 

BETHLEHEM.  The  birth-plaoe  of  Christ.  The  Bethlehemite  monks,  who  had  an  order 
in  Engluid  in  1257,  are  named  from  this  once  distinguished  city.  It  now  contains  a 
chur<£,  erected  by  the  fiunoua  St^  Helena,  in  the  form  of  a  cross ;  also  a  chapel,  called 
the  Chapel  of  the  Nativity,  where  they  pretend  to  show  the  manger  in  whioh  Christ 
was  laid ;  another,  called  the  Chapel  of  Joseph ;  and  a  third,  of  the  Holy  Innocenta. 
Bethlehem  is  mudi  visited  by  pilgrims. — Ashe. 

BETHLEHEM  HOSPITAL.  So  called  from  having  been  originally  the  hospital  of 
St  Mary  of  Bethlehem.  A  royal  foundation  for  the  reoeption  of  lunatics  incorporated 
by  Henry  YIIL  in  1546.  The  old  Bethlehem  Hospital,  whioh  was  erected  in  1675. 
on  the  east  side  of  Moorfields,  was  pulled  down  in  1814.  It  was  built  in  imitatton  of 
the  Tuileriee  at  Paris ;  which  gave  so  much  offence  to  Louis  XIV.  that  he  ordered  a 
plan  of  Stf  James's  palace  to  be  taken  for  offices  of  a  very  inferior  natura  The 
present  hospital,  in  St.  George's  Fields,  was  begun  April,  1812,  and  opened  in  1815. 
In  1856  extensive  improvements  were  completed  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Sydney 
Smirke,  costing  between  nine  and  ten  thousand  pounds. 

BETTING-HOUSES.  These  establishments  affording  much  temptation  to  gaming^  and 
consequent  dishonesty,  in  the  lower  classes,  were  suppressed  by  an  act  pasMd  Aug.  10, 
1853  (1 6  &  17  Vict  c.  119),  a  penalty  of  100/.  being  enforced  on  the  owners  or  oooupiera. 

BETROUT.  This  dty,  which  was  colonised  from  Sidon,  was  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake, A.D.  566.  It  was  rebuilt,  and  was  alternately  possessed  by  the  Christians  and 
SanMsens ;  and  after  a  frequent  change  of  masteis,  fell  into  the  power  of  Amurath  IV., 
since  when  it  remained  with  the  Ottoman  empire  up  to  the  revolt  of  Ibrahim  Pacha, 
in  1832.  The  total  defeat  of  the  Egyptian  army  by  the  allied  British,  Torkishy  and 
Austrian  forces,  and  evacuation  of  Beyrout  (the  Egyptians  losing  7000  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  prisoners,  and  twenty  pieces  of  cannon),  took  place  (ki,  10,  1840. 

BHURTPORE,  India,  was  besieged  by  the  British,  Jan.  3, 1805,  and  attacked  five  ttmee, 
up  to  Ifarch  21,  without  success.  The  fortress  was  taken  by  general  Lake,  after  a 
desperate  engagement  with  Holkar,  April  2,  1805.  The  defeat  of  Holkar  led  to 
a  treaty,  by  which  the  rajah  of  Bhurtpore  agreed  to  pay  twenty  lacs  of  rupeea^  and 
ceded  the  territories  that  had  been  granted  to  him  by  a  former  treaty,  delivering  up 
his  son  ss  hostage,  April  10, 1805.  Bhurtpore  was  taken  by  storm,  by  lord  Com- 
bermere,  Jan.  18, 1826.    See  India, 

BIARCHT.  When  Aristodemus,  king  of  Sparta,  died,  he  left  two  sons,  twins,  Rurj- 
sthenes  and  Prodee ;  and  the  people  not  knowing  to  whom  precedence  should  be 
given,  placed  them  both  upon  the  throne,  and  thus  established Uie  first  biarohy,  llOS^ 
B.O.    The  descendants  of  each  reigned  alternately  for  800  years. — fferocUOm, 

BIBLE.  The  first  translation  from  the  Hebrew  into  the  Gbeek  was  made  by  seventy-two 
interpreters,  by  order  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphius :  it  is  thence  called  the  Septuagint 
version,  and  was  completed  in  seventy-two  days,  at  Alexandria,  277  B.O. — Joaepktu,  It 
was  commenced  284  B.o,—LengleL  In  283. — Blair.  The  Jewish  sanhedrim  consisted 
of  seventy  or  seventy-two-members ;  and  hence,  probably,  the  seventy  or  seventy-two 
translators  of  Josephus. — HewUU,  The  seventy-two  were  shut  up  in  thirty-six  cells, 
and  each  pair  translated  the  whole ;  and  on  comparison,  it  was  found  that  the  thirty- 
six  copies  did  not  vary  by  a  word  or  a  letter.— /m^  ifortyr.    See  PUyglaL 

BIBLE,  ANCIENT  COPIES  or  thb.  The  oldest  version  of  the  Old  aud  New  Testa- 
ment belonging  to  the  Christians,  is  that  in  the  Vstican,  which  was  written  in  the 
fourth  or  fifth  century,  and  published  in  1587.  The  next  in  age  is  the  Alexandrian 
MS.  in  the  British  Museum,  presented  by  the  Greek  patriarch  to  Charles  L,  and  aid 


BIB 


87 


BIB 


to  lutve  been  copied  neuiy  about  the  tame  tima  The  most  ancient  copy  of  the 
Jeirish  Seriptnree  existed  at  Toledo,  about  a.d.  1000 ;  and  the  copy  of  Ben  Aaher,  of 
Jerusalem,  was  made  about  1100. 

BIBLE,  DIVISION  of  the.  The  Old  Testament  was  divided  into  twenty-two  books  by 
the  Jews,  the  number  of  letters  in  the  alphabet  The  Christians  divided  it  into  thirty> 
nine  books.  The  Hebrew  division  into  chapters  was  made  by  the  rabbi  Nathan, 
about  1445.  Our  Bible  was  divided  into  chapters,  and  a  part  into  verses,  by  arch- 
bishop Langton,  who  died  in  1228;  and  this  division  was  perfected  by  Robert 
Stephens,  about  1534.    The  following  are  laborious  and  interesting  computations : — 

In  tJu  Old  Ttatamtnt. 


In  tkt  Nfw. 

TotdL 

89 

•      27 

66 

029 

260 

1,189 

28,214 

7,969 

81.178 

692,493 

181.263 

773,746 

2,728,100 

838.880 

8,566^480 

Ctaapten 
Venes 
Words   • 
Letten 

The  middle  chapter  and  the  least  in  the  BiNt,  is  the  117th  pMlm ;  the  middle  verae 
is  the  8th  of  the  118th  Psalm ;  the  middle  line  is  the  second  book  of  Chronicles,  4th 
chapter  and  15th  verse.  Old  Tatatnent :  The  middle  book  is  Proverbs ;  the  middle 
<^pter  is  the  2dth  of  Job ;  the  middle  verse  is  the  2nd  book  of  Chronicles,  20th 
chapter  snd  13th  verse ;  the  least  verse  is  the  let  book  of  Chronicles,  1st  chapter 
and  1st  verse.  New  TtiiameHt:  The  middle  book  is  the  2nd  Thesaalonians ;  the 
middle  chapters  are  the  13th  and  14th  of  the  Bomans ;  the  middle  verse  is  the  17th 
of  the  I7th  chapter  of  the  Acts;  the  least  verse  is  the  85th  of  the  11th  chapter  of  the 
Goepel  of  St.  John.  The  word  and  occurs  in  the  Old  Testament  35,535  times ;  the 
same  word  occurs  in  the  New  Testament  10,684  times ;  and  the  word  Jehovah,  in  the 
Old  Testament  occurs  6855  times.  The  21st  verse  of  the  7th  chapter  of  Ezra  has  in 
it  all  the  letters  of  the  aJphabet ;  and  the  19th  chapter  of  the  2nd  book  of  Kings 
and  the  37th  chapter  of  Isaiah,  are  alike. 

BIBLE,  EDITIONS  of  the.  The  vulgate  edition  in  Latin  was  made  by  St.  Jerome, 
A.IX  405 ;  and  is  thai  acknowledged  by  the  Koman  Catholic  church  to  be  authentic ; 
it  was  first  printed  in  1462. — Blair,  The  first  perfect  edition  in  English  was 
printed,  as  appears  from  the  colophon,  by  Tindal  (who  had  printed  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  1526)  and  Coverdale,  Oct.  4,  1535.  A  revision  of  this  edition  was  made, 
1588-9.  This  last  was  ordered  to  be  read  in  churches,  1549.  The  Bishops]  Bible 
was  printed  in  1558.  Bishop  Alley  prepared  the  Pentateuch;  bishops  Davis  and 
Sandys,  the  Historical  Books ;  bishop  Bentham,  the  Psalms,  &c. ;  bishop  Home,  the 
major  Prophets;  bishop  Grindal,  the  minor  Prophets;  bishops  Parkhurst  and  Barlow, 
thm  Apocrypha;  bishop  Cox,  the  Gospels,  and  Acts;  and  archbishop  Parker,  the 
remainder.  In  1604,  at  the  conference  at  Hampton-court  (see  Conference),  a  new 
translation  was  resolved  upon,  which  was  executed  1607-11,  and  is  that  now  generally 
used  in  Great  Britam.  The  Bible  was  first  printed  in  Ireland,  at  Belfast,  in  1704. 
It  was  permitted  by  the  pope  to  be  translated  into  the  language  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  sUtes,  1759.    The  Bible  was  printed  in 

Bpaniah  . 

Germoa 

Kigliah    . 

Pfmch 

Swedtah  . 

DMiish 

Dutch 

Editions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  separately,  appeared  in  several  instances  at 
earlier  dates,  particularly  in  European  languages.  Till  1360  the  Psalter  appears  to  be 
the  only  part  of  the  Bible  translated  entirelv  in  English.  Between  that  time  and 
1385,  jfohn  Wickliffe  and  his  followers  translated  the  whole  Bible  from  the  Latin 
Vtdgate  (which  was  published  in  1850  at  Oxford,  edited  by  Forshall  and  Madden). 
See  Polyglot. 

BIBLE  SOCIETIES.  Among  the  principal  and  oldest  societies  which  have  made  the 
dissemination  of  the  Scriptures  a  collateral  or  an  exclusive  object,  are  the  following : 
— The  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  was  formed  1698;  Society  for 
Propagating  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  1701 ;  Society,  in  Scotland,  for  Promoting 
Cbrifitian  Knowledge,  1709 ;  Society  for  Promoting  Religions  Knowledge  among  the 
Poor,  1760 ;  Naval  and  MUitary  Bible  Society,  1780;  Sunday  School  Society,  1785 ; 


.•A.x>.  1478 

Ruaaian 

A.D.  1681 

Manks    . 

.  >.D.  1771 

.     .  1622 

Himgatian 
PollBh 

.  1569 

Italian 

.    .  1776 

.  1534 

.     .  1596 

Bengalee 

.  1801 

.     .  1586 

Modem  Greek 

.  1638 

Tartar 

.     .  1813 

.  1641 

TurkSah 

.     .  1606 

Persian   . 

.  1815 

.     .  1550 

Irish 

.  1685 

AMcan 

.     .  1810 

.  1660 

Portuguese 

.     .  1748 

Chinese  . 

.  1820 

BIB  88  BIL 

French  Bible  Society,  1792 ;  Brituh  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  1804 ;  *  Hibernian 
Bible  Society,  1806 ;  City  of  London  Auxiliary  Bible  Society,  1812.  A  ball  from  the 
pope  against  Bible  Societies  appeared  in  1817. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY,  the  Science  of  Books.  The  following  works  on  this  subject  are 
highly  esteemed :  Peignot,  Manuel,  1823 ;  Home,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Bibliography,  1814  ;  ClatncaJ,  the  work?  of  Fabrioius,  Clarke,  and  Dibdin;  Bng^Ukf 
Watts,  Bibliotheca  Britannica,  1824 ;  Lowndes,  Manual,  1834 ;  French  t  Querard, 
1828  et  seq.  As  a  general  work  of  reference,  Brunet,  Manuel  du  Libraire,  1842, 
is  exceedingly  valuable. 

BIDASSOA,  PASSAGE  of  the.  The  allied  army  effected  the  passage  of  this  river, 
Oct.  7y  1818,  under  lord.  Wellington;  who,  having  thus  completed  his  glorioas  career 
in  Spain  and  Portugal,  pursued  his  conquered  enemy  into  France,  where  were  foujht 
the  crowning  battles  of  the  campaigxL    Set  the  bcUtlia  teveraUy. 

BIDDENDEN  MAIDS.  A  distribution  of  bread  and  cheese  to  the  poor  takes  place  at 
Biddenden,  Kent,  on  Easter  Sundays,  the  expense  being  defrayed  finom  the  rental  of 
twenty  acres  of  land,  the  reputed  bequest  of  the  Biddeoden  maids,  two  sisters  named 
Chulkhurst,  who,  tradition  states,  were  bom  joined  together  by  the  hips  and  shouldere, 
in  A.D.  1100 ;  and  having  lived  in  that  state  to  the  age  of  thirty-four,  died  within  six 
hours  of  each  other.  Cakes  bearing  a  oorrenponding  impression  of  the  figures  of  two 
females,  are  given  on  Easter-day  to  all  who  ask  for  them.  Halsted  deems  this  tale 
fkbulous,  and  states  that  the  print  on  the  cakes  is  of  modem  origin,  and  that  the 
land  wan  given  by  two  maiden  ladies,  named  Preston.    See  Siamete  Twint. 

BIGAMY.  The  Romans  branded  the  guilty  parties  with  an  infamous  mark ;  with  us, 
the  punishment  of  this' offence,  formerly,  was  death.  The  first  act  respecting  it  was 
passed  5  Edw.  L  1276. —  Vinous  Statutes.  Declared  to  be  felony,  without  benefit 
of  clergy.  1  James  L  1603,  Subjected  to  the  same  punishments  as  grand  or  petit 
larceny,  85  Geo.  III.  1794.— The  bigamist  is  now  punished,  according  to  the  degree 
or  circumstances  of  the  offonco,  by  imprisonment  or  transportation. 

BILBO  A,  BATTLE  of.  This  plac?,  which  had  been  invested  by  the  Carlista  under 
Villarcal,and  was  in  considerable  danger,  was  delivered,  by  the  defeat  of  the  besi^rs 
by  Espartero,  assisted  by  British  naval  co-operation.  Espartero  entered  Bilboa  in 
triumph  next  day — ChristmaS'day,  Dec.  25.  1886. 

BILL  OF  EXCEPTIONS.  The  right  of  tendering  to  a  judge  upon  a  trial  between 
parties  a  bill  of  exceptions  to  his  chaige,  his  definiti  >n  of  the  law,  or  to  remedy 
other  errors  of  the  court,  was  provided  by  the  2nd  statute  of  Westminster,  13 
Edw.  I.  1284.    Such  bills  are  tendered  to  this  day. 

BILL  OF  BIGHTS.  One  of  the  great  foundations  of  the  British  constitution,  wan 
obtained  from  Charles  I.  by  parliament,  1628.  This  bill  recognised  all  the  legsl 
privileges  of  the  subject ;  and  notwithstanding  the  employment  of  all  manner  of  «rt8 
and  expedients  to  avoid  it,  Charles  was  constrained  to  pass  it  into  a  law.  The  Bill 
of  Rights,  declaratory  of  the  rights  of  British  subjects,  passed  1  William  and  Mary, 
Feb.  1689.  This  is  the  only  vrittm  law  respecting  the  liberties  of  the  people,  except 
Mcufna  Charta. —  Viner*»  Siatvtea, 

BILLS  OF  EXCHANGE  were  invented  by  the  Jews*,  as  a  means  of  removing  their 
property  from  nations  where  they  were  persecuted,  A.D.  1160. — Anderwn.  Blue  were 
used  in  England,  1307. — The  only  legal  mode  of  sending  money  from  England, 
4  Richard  IL  1381.  ReguUted,  1698 -first  stamped,  1782— 4uty  advanced,  1797— 
again,  June,  1 801 ;  and  since.  It  was  made  capital  to  counterfeit  bills  of  exchange  in 
1734.  In  1825,  the  year  of  disastrous  speculations  in  bubbles,  it  was  computed  that 
there  were  400  millions  of  pounds  sterling  represented  by  hilU  of  exchange  and 
promissory  notes.  The  present  amount  is  not  supposed  to  exceed  50  millions.  The 
many  statutes  regarding  hills  of  exchange  were  consolidated  by  act  9  Geo.  IV.,  1823. 
An  act  regulating  bills  of  exchange  passed  8  Vict.  July,  1839.  Great  alterations  were 
made  in  the  law  on  this  subject  by  17  &  18  Vict.  c.  83  (1854),  ft  18  &  19  Vict  c  67 
(1856). 

BILIJS  OF  MORTALITY  for  London.  These  bills  were  first  compiled  about  ad. 
1536, 28  Hen.  VIII.,  but  in  a  more  formal  and  recognised  manner  in  1593,  after  the  great 
plague  of  that  year.    No  complete  series  of  them  has  been  preserved.    They  are  now 

*  At  the  end  of  1850  this  society  hod  immod  24,247,6<J7  copies  of  the  Bible.    In  1S57  th^  pablished 
a  eaialofnie  of  their  library,  which  onntains  a  large  number  of  remarknble  editions  of  the  Bible. 


BIL                                 89                                 BIR 

saperseded  by  the  weakly  retoms  of  the  regi«trargeneral«    The 
the  nambera  at  decennia.1  aiitaQC38  : — 

following  show 

In  the  yoar  1780,  Cliristenings    .        .  16,634  ' 
1790,  Chriateoiaga       .     .  l.H,980 
1800,  Christeninsrs    .        .19,176 
1810,  Christoninga        .     .  1{).930 
1820,  ChriateniDg«    .        .26.158 
1830,  Chriatenings       .     .27.028 
1840,  Ghriateniuga    .        .  30.387 
1850,  ChriateiUnga       .    .  80,973 

In  the  year  1780.  Burials 
1790,  Buriala 
ISOO,  Buriala     . 
1810,  Buriala 
1820,  Buriala     . 
1830,  Buriala 
184  \  Buriala     . 
1850,  Buriala 

.  20,507 
.     .  18.038 

.  23.068 
.     .  19.892 

.  19.348 
.    .  23.524 

.  2«,774 
.     .  86^947 

nr  XXOLAITD  AKD  WALKS. 

1840     .        .  Biith^  602,303    Deaths,  356,634 
1815        .    .  Btrtha,  543,521    Deaths,  849,866 
1849     .        .  Birth%  678,l.'i9    Doatha,  440,853 

1853  .    .  Births,  612.311 

1854  .        .  Birtha,  634,506 
1856        .     .  Births,  657,704 

Deaths,  421.775 
Deaths,  438,289 
Deaths,  891,360 

TX  LOinX>1f  AND  SUBirmBS. 

1854  .  Births,  81,684    Deaths,  73.697 

1855  .        .    .  Birtha.  84.944    Deaths,  61.506 

1856  .  Births,  86,833    Deatha,  57,786 

BILLIARDS.  InveDied  by  the  French,  by  whom,  and  by  the  Germans,  Dutch,  and 
Italuuia,  they  were  brought  into  general  Toguo  throughout  Europe. — iVouv.  Diet,  The 
French  ascribe  their  invention  to  Henrique  Devigne,  an  aitiit,  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  IX.,  about  1571.    Slate  billiard  tables  were  introduced  in  England  in  1827. 

BILLTNOSQATE,  the  celebrated  market-place  for  fish,  in  London,  ia  said  to  have 
derived  ita  name  from  Belinus  Blagnus,  a  British  prinoe,  the  &ther  of  king  Lud, 
400  B.O.,  but  Stowe  thinks,  from  a  former  owner. — Mortimer,  It  was  the  old  port  of 
London,  and  the  customs  were  paid  here  under  Ethelred  II.  979.— Stowe.  BUIingsgate 
waa  made  a  free  market,  1669. — Chamberlain.  Fish  by  Zand-carriage,  as  well  as  sea- 
borne, now  daily  arrives  here.  In  1849,  the  market  was  very  greatly  extended  and 
improved,  and  is  now  well  cleaned,  lighted,  and  ventilated. 

BINARY  ARITHMETIC.  That  which  counts  bv  twos,  for  expeditiously  ascertaining 
the  property  of  numbers,  and  constructing  tables,  was  invented  by  boron  Leibnitz  of 
Leipsic,  the  celebrated  statesman,  philosopher,  and  poet,  a.d.  1694. — Mortri. 

BINOMIAL  ROOT,  in  Algebra.  Compoaed  of  only  two  parts  connected  with  the  signs 
plua  or  vtimu;  the  term  was  first  used  by  Recorda,  about  ▲.D.  1550,  when  he 
published  his  Algebra.  The  binomial  theorem,  the  celebrated  theorem  of  Newton, 
waa  first  mentioned  in  1688. — Button. 

BIRCH  TREE.  The  black  (Betula  nigra),  brought  from  North  America,  1736.  The 
birch  tree  known  as  the  Betula  pumila,  introduced  into  Eew-gardens,  England,  by 
Mr.  James  Qordon,  from  North  America,  1762.  The  tree  known  as  the  Birch  is  now 
largely  cultivated  in  all  the  countries  of  Europe. — Hardy'e  Annak, 

BIRDS.  Divided  by  Lionsus  into  six  orders  (1733);  by  Blumenbach  into  eight  (1805); 
and  by  Cuvier  into  six  (1817). 

BIRKENHEAD.  The  troop  ship  Birkenhead,  iron  paddle-wheeled,  and  of  556  horse- 
power, sailed  from  Queenatown,  January  7,  1852,  for  the  Cape,  having  on  board 
detachments  of  the  12th  Lancers,  2Qd,  6th,  12th,  43rd,  45th,  and  60th  Rifles,  73rd, 
74th,  and  91st  regiments.  It  struck  upon  a  pointed  pinnacle  rock  off  Simon's  bay, 
8«iuth  Africsy  and  of  638  persons  only  184  were  saved  by  the  boats;  454  of  the  crew 
and  soldiers  perished  by  drowning,  some  of  them,  perhaps,  swallowed  by  sharks  that 
were  seen  swimming  around,  February  26,  following.  The  rock  broke  through  into 
the  engine-room,  and  literally  rent  the  ship  in  two,  the  parts  sinking  on  its  opposite 
aides,  while  those  clinging  to  the  wreck  calmly  resigned  themselves  to  inevitable 
death. 

BIRMAN  EMPIRE,  OB  AYA    See  Burmae  Empire  and  India. 

BIRMINGHAM.  This  town  existed  in  the  reign  of  Alfred,  a.d.  872 ;  but  its  importanco 
as  a  manu&cturing  town  commenced  in  the  reign  of  William  III. 


Besi^^  and  taken  by  prince  Rupert    .  1643 
Boho   works  e^tablisited   by   Matthew 

Boalton 1764 

Birmingham  canal  was  originated     .    .  1768 
Memorable  riots  oommonoed  here,  on 
s«>iue    persons   commemorating    the 
Fraoch  revolution        .        .    July  14,  1791 
'fheatre  destroyed  by  fire   .        Aug.  17,  1792 


Mors  commotions    .  Nov.  1800 

Theatre  again  burnt 1817 

And  again  ....  Jan.  7,  1820 
Birmingham  Political  Union  formed  .  1831 
Dissolved  itself .  .    May  10,  1834 

Town-hall  built 1833 

Birmingliam    and    Liveri)Oo1     railway 
opened  as  the  Grand  Junction,  July  4,  1837 


BIB  90  BIS 


BIBMINGHAM,  amtinwd. 

London  and  Birmingham  railway  opened 
iU  entire  length  .       Sept  17,  1838 

Great  political  riot»  firing  of  houses,  and 
other  outrages  committed  by  the 
Chartisto       ....   Julvl5.  1839 

Birmingham  police  act  paaied,  3  Vict. 

Aug.  96,  1839 

Com  Exchange  opened    .        .    Ocl^  27,  1847 


Queen's  CoHege  organised  .  Jan.  18S3 

Public  park  opened  (gnrand  giren  by 

Mr.  AdderleV)               .  Aug.  9^  1R56 

New  music  h^  opened      .  Sept.  S.  1856 
Another  park  opened  b^  the  duke  &[ 

Cambridge  (ground    givea  by   lord 

Calthorpe)     ....  June  1,  1857 


BIRTHS.  The  birthB  of  cbildren  were  taxed  in  England,  viz.,  birth  of  a  duke,  802.— of 
a  common  person,  2t. — 7  Will.  III.  1695.  Taxed  again,  1788.  The  inatanoes  of  four 
children  at  a  birth  are  numeroua ;  but  the  meet  extraordinary  delirery  recorded  in 
modem  times  is  that  of  a  woman  of  Konigsberg,  who  had  five  children  at  a  birth, 
Sept.  8, 1783. — PhdUipa.  The  wife  of  a  man  named  Nelson,  a  journeyman  tailor,  of 
OjdTord-market,  London,  had  five  children  at  a  birth,  in  October,  1800. — ^nao^i  o/ 
London,    See  BilU  of  Mortality  and  Segiiten, 

BISHOPS.  The  name  was  given  by  the  Athenians  to  those  who  had  the  inspection  of 
the  city.  The  Jews  and  Romans  had  also  a  like  offioer;  but  now  it  means  only  thai 
person  who  has  the  government  of  church  affairs  in  a  certain  district.  In  England, 
the  dignity  is  coeval  with  Cbristianitv.  St  Peter,  styled  the  first  bishop  of  Rome^ 
was  martyred  a.d.  65.  The  bishops  of  Rome  assumed  the  title  of  pope  in  138.  The 
rank  was  andentlv  assumed  by  all  bishops ;  but  it  was  afterwards  ordained  thai  the 
title  of  pope  should  belong  only  to  the  occupant  of  St  Peter^s  chair. — Warner. 

BISHOPS  OF  ENGLAND.  See  ihe  Sea  severally.  The  first  was  appointed  in  a.d.  180.  See 
York,  London,  Made  barons,  1072.  The  CongS  dEUre  of  the  king  to  choose  a  bishop 
originated  in  an  arrangement  of  king  John  with  the  clergy.  Bishops  were  elected  by 
the  king's  Conffi  dEUrt,  26  Hen.  YIII.  1585.  Seven  were  deprived  for  being 
married,  1554.  Several  suffered  martyrdom  under  Queen  Maiy,  1555-6.  See  Oramsmer, 
Bishops  were  excluded  from  voting  in  the  house  of  peers  on  temporal  conoema,  16 
Charles  L  1640.  Several  were  committed  for  protesting  against  the  legality  of  all 
acts  of  parliament  passed  while  they  remained  deprived  of  their  votes,  1641 ;  regained 
their  seats,  Nov.  1661.  Seven  were  sent  to  the  Tower  for  not  reading  the  king^s 
declaration  for  liberty  of  conscience  (intended  to  bring  the  Roman  GsAholics  into 
ecclesiastical  and  civil  power),  and  tried  and  acquitted,  June  29-30, 1688.  The  arch^ 
bishop  of  Canterbury  (Dr.  Sancroft)  and  five  bishops  (Bath  and  Wellfl^  Ely,  Qloncesier, 
Norwich,  and  Peterborough)  were  suspended  for  refusing  to  take  the  oaths  to  \nUiam 
and  Mary,  1689,  and  deprived  1690.— TTanwr'f  BeeUi.  Hiti,  The  sees  of  Bristol  and 
Gloucester  were  tmited,  and  that  of  Ripon  created,  1836.  An  order  in  council,  Oct. 
1838,  directed  the  sees  of  Bangor  and  St.  Asaph  to  be  united  on  the  next  vacancy  in 
either,  and  Manchester,  a  new  see,  to  be  created  thereupon :  this  order,  as  reganled 
the  union  of  the  sees,  was  rescinded  1846.    See  ManckaUr,* 

BISHOPS  OF  IRELAND.  See  the  8ee$  mveraUy,  Bishops  are  said  to  have  been  consecrated 
in  this  country  as  earlv  as  the  second  centuiy.  The  bishopric  of  Ossory,  first  planted 
at  Saiger,  was  founded  a.d.  403,  thirty  years  before  the  arrival  of  St  Patricia  The 
bishopric  of  Trim  has  been  named  as  the  first  by  some  writers,  idthough  not  erected 
before  the  year  432.  Prelacies  were  constituted,  and  divisions  of  the  biahoprioa  in 
Ireland  made,  by  cardinal  Paparo,  legate  from  pope  Eugene  IIL  a.d.  1151.  Several 
prelates  were  deprived  by  Queen  Marv,  1554.  One  (Atherton)  suffered  death 
ignominioualy,  1640.  Two  were  deprived  for  not  taking  the  oaths  to  William  and 
Maiy,  1691.  One  was  deprived  (Ctogher)  in  1822.  The  Church  Temporalities  Act 
for  reducing  the  number  of  bishops  in  Ireland,  3  ft  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37,  passed  Aug.  14, 
1833.  By  this  statute,  of  the  four  arohbishoprics  of  Armagh,  Dublin,  Tnam,  and 
Cash  el,  the  last  two  were  abolished  on  the  decease  of  the  then  archprelates,  which 
has  since  occurred;  and  it  was  enacted  that  eight  of  the  then  eighteen  bishopnos 
should,  as  they  became  void,  be  henceforth  united  to  other  sees,  viz. : 

Bishonriet  vhen  and  a»  vcid  to  be  imUed  to  other  ArMitkopriet  and  hiMkopria  to  irkicA  f  ft  ear 

aradnthopHa  or  bi^iopjies :  becoming  void  are  to  be  united  : 

I,  Dromoro  .       .  to  be  united  to  .       .  Down  imd  Connor. 

S.  Raphoe to  be  united  to  .    .  Deny. 

8.  Clogher        .  .  to  be  united  to  .        .  Armagh. 

4.  Eluhin to  be  united  to  .    .  Kilmore. 

6   KilUU  and  Achonry  .       .  to  be  united  to  .       .  Tu&m,  now  a  binhoprie  only. 

*  Retirement  of  Biakope.    In  1866  the  bishops  of  London  and  Durham  retired  on  Annuities.    The  new 
bishops  hold  their  sees  subject  to  (Uture  provision.    In  1857  the  bishop  of  Norwich  rc&ignod. 


BIS  91  BIT 

BISHOPS  or  IRBLiLND,  coniimued. 

4.  doofert  mnd  KUmmodiuigfa .  to  be  nnitad  to  .    .  KillAlo«  and  Kllfoaorm. 

r.  KUdbra to  be  united  to  .        .  Dublin  and  Olandelagh. 

8.  Ooeory to  be  united  to  .     .  Feme  and  Leighlin. 

9.  Waterford  and  lismore       .  to  be  united  to  .        .  CaHhel  and  Emly,  now  a  biahopiic  only. 
10.  Ckfl'k  and  Bon  .    .  to  be  united  to  .    .  Cloyne. 

All  these  sees  haTe  now  merged  into  the  bishoprics  reepectiTely  mentioned,  so  that 
the  Irish  Church  establishment^  oonformably  with  the  sbove  act»  at  present  consists 
of  two  archbishops  and  ten  bishops. 

BISHOPS  OF  SCOTLAND.  They  were  constituted  m  the  fourth  oentnij.  The  see  of 
St.  Andrew's  wss  founded  by  Heigustus,  king  of  the  Picts,  who,  acoordiug  to  a  legend- 
ary tale  of  this  prelacy,  enooursged  the  mission  of  Begulus,  a  Greek  monk  of  Patra, 
about  ▲.!>.  870.  The  bishops  were  deprived  of  their  sees,  and  episcopa^  abolished 
in  Scotland,  at  the  period  of  the  revolution,  16S^9.— Warner's  Eoda,  HuL  There 
are  now,  however,  seven  bishops  belonging  to  the  Scotch  Episcopsl  Church:  they 
are  called  post-revolution  bishops. 

POST-aSVOLVTIOir  BfSBOn  OF  aoOTLAITD. 


Aberdeen,  re-inatituted  ....  1721 
AniyU  and  the  lalee,  ditto .  .    .  1847 

Brecliin  .  ditto  .  17S1 

Edinboivh   .  ditto.  .    .  1720 


Olaegow  and  Galloway,  re-iBstituted  .  1731 
Moray  and  Roes  .  .  ditto  .  .  .  1727 
St.  Andrew's  (late  Fife)  ditto  .  1783 


Bishop  Rose  connected  the  established  episcopal  church  of  Scotland  with  that  form 
of  it  which  is  now  merely  tolerated,  he  having  been  bishop  of  Edinburgh  from  1687 
till  1720,  when,  on  his  death.  Dr.  FuUarton  became  the  first  post-revolution  bishop  of 
that  see.  Fife  (now  St  Andrew's,  so  called  in  \%ii)  now  unites  tiie  bishopric  of 
Donkeld  (re-instituted  in  1727)  and  that  of  Dunblane  (re-institated  in  1731).  Rom 
(of  uncertain  date)  wss  united  to  Moray  (re-instituted  in  1727)  in  1888.  Argyll  and 
the  Isles  never  existed  independently  until  1847,  having  been  conjoined  to  Moray  snd 
Boas,  or  to  Boss  alone,  previously  to  that  year.  GhJloway  has  but  recently  been 
added  to  the  see  of  Glasgow. 

BISHOPS,  PREOBDENCir  or,  was  settled  by  statute  81  Hen.  YIIL  to  be  next  to 
visoounta,  they  being  barons  of  the  realm,  1640 ;  and  they  have  the  title  of  Lord  and 
Bighl  Rev,  Father  in  Ood.  The  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  Tork,  taking  place  of 
all  dukes,  have  the  title  of  Oraee,  The  bishops  of  London,  Durham,  and  Winchester 
have  precedence  of  all  bishops;  the  others  rank  according  to  seniority  of  conse- 
cration. A  late  contest  in  Ireland  between  the  bishops  of  Meath  and  Kildare  for 
precedency  was  decided  in  favour  of  the  former,  who  now  ranks  after  the  archbishop 
of  Dublin.    The  oUiers  rank  according  to  consecration. 

BISHOPRICS^  COLONIAL.  The  first  was  the  Right  Bev.  Doctor  Samuel  Seabury,  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Connecticut  by  four  nonjuring  prelates,  at  Aberdeen,  in  Scotland, 
November  14,  1784.  The  bishops  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  were  consecrated 
in  London,  by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Feb.  4,  1787^  and  the  bishop  of 
Virginia  in  1790.  The  first  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of  the  United  States  was  Dr.  Carroll 
of  Maryland,  in  1789.  Bishops  of  Quebec,  Jamaica,  Gibraltar,  ftc,  were  afterwsrds 
appointed.  Colonial  bishoprics  have  since  been  established  in  all  our  important  settie- 
ments.  That  of  Calcutta,  by  act  63  Qeo.  III.  c.  156,  passed  July  21, 1813  ;  of  Madrfts, 
3  &  4  Will.  lY.  c.  85,  passed  Aug,  28, 1833 ;  and  of  Bombay,  same  time.  There  are  now 
thirty-one  bishops  for  the  colonies,  all  appointed  since  1836,  those  above  excepted. 


Adelaide. 

Antigua. 

Barbadoea, 

Bombay. 

Odeatta. 

Gape  Town. 

ChxietchuTch. 

CoAombo. 


Frederioton. 

Melbourne. 

Gibraltar. 

Montreal. 

Oraham's-town. 

Natal. 

Ouiana. 

Newcastle. 

Jamaica. 

Newfoundland. 

Labuan. 

New  Zealand. 

Madraa. 

Nova  Scotia. 

KauriUuB. 

Perth. 

Rupert's  Land. 

Quebec 

Bierm  Leono. 

Sydney. 

Tasmania. 

Toronto. 

Victoria. 


By  15  &  16  Vict,  c  62,  and  16  ft  17  Vict  c.  49,  the  colonial  bishops  may  perform  all 
episcopal  functions  in  the  United  Kingdom,  but  have  no  jurisdiction. 

BISSEXTILE.    See  Calendar  and  Leap  Tear. 

BITBTN I  A.  This  oountxr,  previously  called  Beftrtoa,  was  first  invaded  by  the  Thradaaa 
under  Bithynua,  son  of  Jupiter,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Bithynia.  It  wss  subject 
successively  to  the  Assyrians^  Lydians,  Persians,  and  Macedonians.    Most  of  the  cities 


BLA 


02 


BLA 


were  built  by  Qrecian  colonists.  The  first  king  of  whom  we  haye  any  knowledge  ic 
Dydalsas,  who,  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon  (b.o.  383)  made  liimself  iode* 
pendent.  Of  the  customs  of  the  Bithynions  we  know  little  more  than  their  similarity 
to  the  Persians. 


DjdalxuB    ai)pe.ir8    on    the    throno    of 

Blthynia .       •  .  .  b  c   888 

Botyrast  liis  son,  succeeds    .        .        .    .  878 
Baa»  or  Bias,  son  of  Botyrsa  .  884 

Zvpoetes,  son  of  Bias 818 

He  defeats  the  Syrian  seneral  Patrocles  .  279 
ZypoiStes  dies,  leaving  four  sons,  of  whom 
tiie  eldest,  Nicomedos,  succ  -eda       .    . 
Bis  queen,  Ditizele,  torn  to  pieces  by  dogs 

that  guarded  her  palace 
Zeilas,  son  of  Nicomedes,  reigns  .       .    . 
Intending  to  massacre  the  chiefs  of  the 
Oauls  at  a  feast,  Zoilas  is  detected  in  his 
design,  and  is  himself  put  to  death 
Hia  son,  Pnisias,  sucoeeos  . 
Frusias   defeats   the   Gauls,  and   takes 
several  of  their  cities      .... 
Pnudas  forms  an  alliance  with  the  king 


878 

251 
243 


280 


228 


of  Maoedon,  and  marri'  s  Apamea,  the 
daughter  of  Philip     .        .  BC.  208 

Pnisias  II.,  hia  son 186 

Defeats  the  army  of  Attalua,  king  of  Per- 
gamus,  and  takes  that  city  •    .  155 

NicomedesII 149 

Aaaassinated  hy  his  brother  .    .    92 

NioomedesIII.fSumamedPhilopater     .** 

Deposed  at  the  head  of  60,000  men,  by 

Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  who  enters 

the  kingdom  with  an  army  of  250,000 

infiintiy,  40, 000  cavalry,  and  ISOchariota 

armed  with  scythes 86 

The  fleet  of  Bithyuia  surrender  to  that  of 
Pontus •  • 


Nioomedes,  dying,  hequeaths  his  kingdom 
to  the  Roman  republio      .       .       .    . 


75 


In  modem  historv,  Bitbynia  makes  no  figure,  except  that  from  its  ruins  rose  the 
Othman  Turks,  who,  in  ad  1327,  took  Prusa,  its  capital,  and  made  it  the  scat  of 
their  empire  before  tbey  possessed  Constantinople. 

BLACK  BOOK.  A  book  kept  in  the  exchequer,  which  received  the  orders  of  that  court. 
A  book  kept  in  the  English  monasteries,  wherein  details  of  the  scandalous  enormities 
practised  io  religious  houses  were  entered  for  the  inspection  of  viators,  under  Heniy 
VlII.  1535,  in  order  to  blacken  them  and  hasten  their  dissolution ;  hence  the  vulgar 
phrase,  "  I'll  set  you  down  in  the  black  book." 

BLACKBURN,  nr  Lancashire,  bo  called  in  Doomsday-book.  The  manu&ctore  of  a 
cloth  called  Blackburn  cheque,  carried  on  in  1650,  was  superseded  by  BUckbum 
greys.  In  1767,  James  Hoigreaves,  of  this  town,  invented  the  spinning-jenny,  for 
which  he  was  eventually  expelled  from  the  county;  and  it  was  not  till  1810  or  1812 
that  the  townspeople  availed  th<«m8elves  of  his  discoveries,  and  engaged  laz^pely  in  the 
cotton  manufacture,  now  their  staple  trad& 

BLACK-HOLE  at  CALCUTTA.  Here  146  British  gentlemen,  merchants,  and  othefs, 
in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company,  were  seized  by  order  of  the  nabob,  Surajah 
Dowlah,  and  thrust  into  a  dungeon  called  the  "  Black -hole,"  in  the  fori,  by  bis 
poldiem.  These  latter  saw  that  tiie  place  was  too  small  for  such  a  number,  but  they 
were  afraid  to  awaken  the  nabob,  then  asleep,  for  further  orders.  One  hundred  and 
twenty-three  of  the  sufferers  died  before  morning,  having  been  suffocated  by  the  heat^ 
crushing,  and  stench  of  a  dungeon  only  eighteen  feet  square,  June  20, 1756.  Calcutta 
was  retaken  next  year,  and  the  nabob  was  deposed  and  put  to  deaUi  by  his  suoceasor. 
—HolwdJCt  India  Tra/ki. 

BLACK  MONDAT.  Easter  Monday,  1 851,  "when  the  haiUtones  are  said  to  have  killed 
both  men  and  horses  in  the  army  of  our  king  Edward  IIL  in  France."— ^ai^.  This 
was  a  memorable  Easter  Monday,  which  in  the  34th  of  Edward  III.  "  happened 
to  be  full  dork  of  mist  and  hail,  and  so  cold,  that  many  men  died  on  their  horses' 
becks  with  the  cold,**  1351. — B<ABe.  In  Ireland,  it  was  Uie  day  on  which  a  number  of 
the  English  were  slaughtered  at  a  village  near  Dublin,  in  1209. 

BLACK  ROD.  The  usher  belonging  to  the  order  of  the  Garter  is  so  called  from  the 
hiacle  rod  he  carries  in  his  hand. — Covel,  It  haa  a  gold  lion  at  the  top,  and  is  carried 
by  the  king's  chief  gentleman  usher,  instead  of  the  mace,  at  the  feast  of  St.  Qeorge  at 
Windsor,  instituted  ad.  1-^49-50.  He  also  keeps  the  door  when  a  chapter  of  the 
order  is  sitting,  and  during  the  sessions  of  parliament  attends  the  house  of  lords. 

BLACK  FRIARS.  Friars  of  the  order  of  St  Dominic,  instituted  in  1215  by  Dominic  de 
Guzman,  a  priest  of  Spain.  They  bad  monasteries  throughout  Europe,  and  their 
power,  influence,  and  authority  became  almost  universal.  Among  their  convents  in 
England  were  those  at  Oxford,  and  in  London  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames ;  the  site 
and  vicinity  of  the  latter  are  called  Blackfriars  to  this  day. 

BLACKFRIABS-BRIDGE,  London.  The  first  stone  of  this  bridge  was  laid  Oct  81, 
1760,  and  it  was  completed  by  Mylne,  in  1770,  though  for  some  time  previously 
made  passable.    It  was  the  first  work  of  the  kind  executed  in  England,  in  which 


BLA  98  BLE 

arches  approaohing  to  the  form  of  an  ellipaia  were  aubatituted  for  aemicirclea.  It  u 
aboat  a  thoaaand  feet  in  length  and  fort; -five  wide.  It  waa  partially  repcured  io 
1831 :  bat  the  thorough  repair  of  its  archea  and  piers  (which  had  aafTered  from  the 
combined  exciting  action  of  wind  and  water,  and  the  viciaaitadea  of  temperature)  waa 
commeooed  in  1887 ;  the  carriage-way  waa  closed  for  the  purpoae  of  levelling  the 
centre^  and  reducing  the  aaoent,  July  22, 1840 ;  and  the  bridge  was  again  opened  with 
improved  approaches,  October  I  following  The  carriage-way  sunk  conaiderably  in  1850, 
and  several  archea  have  ainee  required  propping  up,  owing  to  their  dangerous  state. 

6LACKHEATH.  On  thia  plain  the  celebrated  Walter  the  Tyler  assembled  his  100,000 
men :  his  rebellion  arose  out  of  the  brutal  rudeness  of  a  tax-collector  to  liis  daughter. 
The  indignant  plebeian,  having  killed  the  collector  in  his  rage,  raised  this  multitude  of 
followers  to  oppose  a  g^evous  impost  called  the  poll-tax,  June  12, 1881.  Subse<{uently 
in  an  interview  with  the  king  (Richard  II.),  in  Smithfield,  Tyler  having  frequently 
raised  his  sword  in  a  menaciog  manner,  William  of  Walwoitb,  then  lord  mayor  of 
London,  struck  him  down  with  the  mace,  and  one  of  the  king's  knighta  despatched 
him.  His  awed  followers,  on  being  promised  a  charter  by  lUchard,  submitted,  and 
dispened ;  but  the  grant  of  it  was  afterwards  revoked  by  parliament.  Here,  also, 
Jack  Cade  and  his  20,000  Kentish  men  encamped,  1451.  See  Cad^,  Battle  of  Black- 
heath,  in  which  the  Cornish  rebels  were  defeated  and  FUnnoc's  in«urrection  quelled, 
June  22, 1497.  The  cavern,  on  the  ascent  to  Blackheath,  the  retreat  of  Cade,  and  the 
haunt  of  banditti  in  the  time  of  Cromwell,  was  re-discovered  in  1780. 

BLACK  SEA,  thb  Euxinb  (Pontus  Euxinus  of  the  Ancients),  a  large  internal  sea  lying 
between  the  8.  W.  provinces  of  Russia  and  Asia  Minor,  coimected  with  the  sea  of 
Azoff  by  tlie  straits  of  Tenekal^,  and  with  the  aea  of  Marmora  by  the  channel  of 
Constantinople.  This  sea  was  much  frequented  by  the  Greeks  and  Italians,  till  it  was 
closed  to  all  nationa  by  the  Turks  from  the  15th  to  the  18th  centuries :  but  after  the 
fall  of  Constantinople  in  1453,  all  but  Turkish  vessels  were  excluded  till  the  Russians 
obtained  admission  hj  the  treaty  of  Kainardji,  in  1774.  In  1779  it  was  partially 
opened  to  British  and  other  traders,  since  whidi  time  the  Russians  have  gradually 
obtained  the  preponderance.  It  was  entered  by  the  British  and  French  fleets,  Jan.  3, 
1854,  at  the  requisition  of  the  Porte,  after  the  destruction  of  the  Turkish  fleet  at 
Sinope  by  the  RuBsians,  Koy.  80,  1853.  A  dreadful  storm  in  this  sea  raged  from 
Nov.  13  to  16, 1854,  and  caused  great  loss  of  life  and  shipping,  and  Yiduable  storea 
for  the  allied  armiea — See  Rtkuo-Turkith  ffor.  The  Black  Sea  is  now  open  to  the 
commeroo  of  all  nations. 

BL.iCKWALL>,  LONDON.  In  this  neighbourhood  are  erected  the  finest  commercial 
docks  and  warehouses  in  tie  world.  The  West  India  docks  were  commenced  Feb,  3, 
1800,  and  opened  Aug.  27,  1802.  The  East  India  docks  were  commenced  under  an 
act  passed  July  27, 1803,  and  opened  Aug.  4, 1806.  The  Black  wall  railway  was  opened 
to  the  public  July  4, 1840 ;  the  eastern  terminus  being  at  Black  wall  wharf,  and  the 
western  in  Fenchurchstreet. 

BLANKETS  are  said  to  have  been  first  made  at  Bristol  by  T.  Blanket^  about  1705. 

BLASPHEMY.  This  crime  is  condemned  both  by  the  civil  and  canon  law  of  England. 
Justinian  adjudsed  it  the  punishment  of  death.  In  Sootland  the  tongue  was  ampu- 
tated. Yiaited  by  fine  and  imprisonment^  9  &  10  Will.  IIL  1696-7.— <Sfalu/ef  a<  large. 
In  England  this  offence  has  been  subjected,  on  some  late  occasions,  to  the  visitation 
of  the  laws.  DauM  Isaac  EaUm  was  tried  and  convicted  in  London  of  blasphemy, 
13th  March,  1812.  A  proteataut  clergyman,  named  Robert  Taylor^  was  tried  in  London 
twice  for  the  same  crime,  and  aa  often  convicted.  Tay^  was  last  brought  to  the  bar, 
and  sentenced  to  two  years'  imprisonment,  aud  largely  fined,  for  (among  other  things) 
reviling  the  Redeemer  in  his  discourses^  Jiily»  1831.  Even  as  late  as  Dec.  1840,  two 
prosecutions  against  publishers  of  blasphemous  writings  subjected  the  offenders  to  the 
sentence  of  the  court  of  Queen's  Bench. 

BLAZONRY.  The  bearing  coat»-of-arms  was  introduced,  and  became  hereditary  in 
families  in  France  and  England,  about  a.d.  1192,  owing  to  the  knighta  painting  their 
banners  with  different  figures,  thereby  to  distinguish  them  in  the  crusades. — Duydale. 

BLEACHINQ.  This  art  was  known  early  in  Egypt,  Syria,  aud  India,  and  in  ancient 
QauL — Pliny.  In  the  last  century,  an  improved  chemical  Hystem  was  adopted 
by  the  Dutch,  who  introduced  it  into  England  and  Scotland  in  1768.  There 
are  now  immenso  bleach-fields  in  both  countries,  particularly  in  Lancashire  and 
in  the  counties  of  Fife,  Forfar,  and  Renfrew,  and  in  the  vole  of  tho  Leven,  in 


BLE  94  BLO 

Dambarton.  The  chemioal  prooeas  of  BerthoUet  was  introduced  in  1795.  The 
bleechiDg-powder  now  eztendTely  need  is  chloride  of  lime,  invented  by  Mr.  Tennant> 
of  Glasgow,  by  whose  firm  it  is  still  extensively  manu&ctnred.  In  1822,  Dr.  Ure 
published  an  elaborate  series  of  experiments  on  this  substance. 

BLENHEIM,  BATTLE  of,  fought  Aug.  2, 1704,  between  the  English  and  oonfedentes, 
commanded  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  and  the  French  and  BaTarians,  under 
marshal  Tallard  and  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  whom  Marlborough  signally  defeated, 
with  the  loss  of  27,000  in  killed,  and  13,000  prisoners,  Tallard  being  among  the  latter : 
the  electorate  of  Bavaria  became  the  prize  of  the  eonqnerors.  The  nation  testified  its 
gratitude  to  the  duke  by  the  gifts  of  the  honour  of  Woodstock  and  hundred  of 
Wotton,  and  erected  for  him  one  of  the  finest  seats  in  the  kingdom,  known  as  the 
domain  and  house  of  Blenheim. — Bume, 

BLINB.  By  the  census  of  1861,  there  were  in  Qrsat  Britain,  21,487  blind  persons, 
11,273  males;  10,214  females:  about  one  blind  in  975.  The  first  public  school  for 
the  blind  was  established  by  Valentine  Haliy,  at  Paris,  in  1784.  The  first  in  England 
was  at  Liverpool  in  1791 ;  in  Scotland,  at  Edinburgh,  in  1792 ;  and  the  first  in  London 
in  1799.  Printing  in  raised  or  embossed  characters  for  the  use  of  the  blind  was  begun 
at  F^ris  by  Haiiy  m  1786.  The  whole  Bible  was  printed  at  Glasgow  in  raised  Roman 
ohaiacters  about  1848.  A  sixpenny  magazine  for  the  blind,  edited  by  the  rsr.  W. 
Taylor,  F.R.S » so  eminent  for  his  exertions  on  behalf  of  these  sufferers,  wss  published  in 
1855-6,  but  is  now  discontinued.  There  is  hardly  any  department  of  human  know- 
ledge in  whidi  blind  persons  have  not  obtained  distinction. 

BLINDING,  by  consuming  the  eyeballs  with  lime  or  scalding  vinegar,  was  a  punishment 
inflicted  anciently  on  adulterers,  peijurers,  and  thieves.  In  the  middle  ages  they 
changed  the  penalty  of  total  blindness  to  a  diminution  of  sight.  Blinding  the  oon- 
quered  was  a  practice  in  barbarous  states ;  and  a  whole  army  was  deprived  of  their 
eyes  by  Bosilius,  in  the  eleventh  century.  See  Bnlgariam.  Several  of  the  Eastern 
emperors  had  their  eyes  torn  from  their  heads.    See  article  EatUrh  Empire. 

BLISTERS.  They  were  first  made,  it  is  said,  of  cantharidesi— /WiiKi.  Blisters  ara  said 
to  have  been  first  introduced  into  medical  practice  by  Aretwus,  a  physician  of 
Cappadociat  about  50  B.o. — Le  Ckr^s  Hitt,  of  Phytic. 

BLOOD,  CIRCULATION  07  the.  The  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the  lungs  was 
first  made  public  by  Michael  Servetus,  a  Spanish  physician,  in  1558.  CBBsalpinus 
published  an  account  of  the  general  circulation,  of  which  he  had  some  connised 
ideas ;  improved  afterwards  by  experiments,  1569.  Paul  of  Venice,  commonly  called 
Father  Paolo,  whose  real  name  was  Peter  Sarpi,  certfunly  discovered  the  valves 
which  served  for  the  circulation ;  but  the  honour  of  the  positive  discovery  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  belongs  to  our  immortal  countryman,  Harvey,  by  whom  it 
was  fully  confirmed,  between  1619  &  1628.— i^ieuMrs  HiU.  of  Phytic 

BLOOD-DRINKING  was  anciently  tried  to  give  vigour  to  the  system.  Louis  XL,  hi  his 
last  illness,  drank  the  warm  blood  of  infants,  in  the  vain  hope  of  restoring  his 
decayed  strength,  1488. — HenauU.  Eating  blood  was  prohibited  to  Noah,  Qen,  ix. ; 
and  to  the  Jews,  Lev.  xvii  The  prohibition  was  repeated  by  the  apostles  at  an 
asiembly  at  Jerusalem,  AcU  xy. 

BLOOD,  TRANSFUSION  of.  In  the  fifteenth  century  an  opinion  prevailed  that  the 
declining  strength  and  vigour  of  old  people  might  be  repaired  by  transfusing  the 
blood  of  young  persons,  drawn  from  their  veins  into  those  of  the  infirm  and  aged. 
It  was  countenanced  in  France  by  the  physicians  about  1668,  and  prevailed  for  many 
years,  till  the  most  fatal  effects  having  ensued,  it  was  suppressed  by  an  edict  It  was 
attempted  again  in  France  in  17979  and  practised  more  recently  there,  in  a  few  canes, 
with  success ;  and  in  England  (but  the  instances  are  rare)  sinoe  1823. — Med.  Jomsn. 
**  One  English  physician,  named  Louver,  or  Lower,  practised  in  this  way ;  he  died  in 
1691."— -PWtkf*  Hiti,  t/ Phytic. 

BLOOD'S  CONSPIRACY.  Blood,  a  discarded  officer  of  Oliver  Cromwell*s  household, 
and  his  confederates,  seized  the  duke  of  Ormond  in  his  coach,  and  had  got  him  to 
lybum,  intending  to  hang  him,  when  he  was  rescued  by  his  friends.  Blood,  after> 
wards,  in  the  disguise  of  a  clergyman,  stole  the  regal  crown  from  the  Jewel-office  in 
the  Tower :  yet  notwithstanding  these  and  other  offences,  he  wss  not  only  pardoned, 
but  had  a  pension  of  5002.  per  annum  settled  on  him  by  Charles  II.,  1678. 

BLOODY  ASSIZE&    Those  held  by  Jeffireys  in  the  West  of  England,  in  Aug.  1^85, 


BLO  95  B(EO 

after  the  defest  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  at  the  battle  of  Sedgmore.  Upwards  of 
300  persons  were  executed  after  short  trials ;  very  many  were  whipped,  impriaonedj 
and  fined;  and  nearly  1000  were  sent  as  sUves  to  the  American  Plantations. 

BLOOMER  COSTUME.    See  a  noU  to  article  Dreas. 

fiLOOKSBURT  QANO,  a  cant  term  applied  to  an  influential  political  party  in  the  reign 
of  6e(N;ge  IIL,  in  consequence  of  the  then  duke  of  Bedford  being  at  its  head.  The 
marquess  of  Stafford,  the  last  sorriTor,  died  Oct.  26, 1803. 

BLOWING  MACHINES.  The  first  cylinders  of  magnitude,  used  in  blowing  machines, 
erected  by  Mr.  Smeaton  at  the  Carron  iron-works,  1760.  One  equal  to  the  supply  of 
air  for  forty  foige  fires  lately  erected  at  the  king's  dock-yard,  Woolwich.  B|y  means  of 
the  BloW'FIPS  the  alkalies  are  melted,  and  even  vol^ised,  in  a  few  minutes ;  rock 
oystal  and  quartz  are  oonyerted  into  glass ;  opal  and  flint  into  enamel ;  blue  sapphire, 
talc,  emerald,  and  lapis  lasuli,  are  converted  into  glass ;  gold  and  diamond  are  vola- 
tilised; platina  and  brass  wire  bum  with  a  green  flame;  copper  melts  without 
burning;  but  iron  bums  with  brilliant  light — PhiUip§, 

BLUE-COAT  SCHOOLS.  There  are  numerous  schools  in  the  empire  under  this  deno- 
mination, so  called  in  reference  to  the  costume  of  the  ohildreo.  The  Blue- coat 
school  in  Newgate-street,  London,  is  regarded  as  the  first  charitable  foundation  of  the 
kind  in  the  world ;  it  was  instituted  by  Edward  VI.  in  1562.    See  Ohrui's  ffotpiiaL 

BLUE-STOCKING.  This  term  is  applied  to  literary  ladies,  and  was  originally  conferred 
on  a  society  of  literary  penons  of  both  sexes.  One  of  the  most  active  promoters  of 
the  society  was  Benjamin  Stillingfleet^  the  distinguished  naturalist,  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  who  always  wore  blue  worsted  stockings,  and  hence  the  name :  the  society  existed 
in  1760  et  seq. — Anecd,  of  Bowyer,  The  beautiful  and  fascinating  Mrs.  Jemingham  is 
ssid  to  have  worn  blue  stockings  at  the  efmveraasBUmu  of  lady  Montague ;  and  this 
peculiarity  also  fiwtened  the  name  upon  accomplished  women. 

BOARD  or  HEALTH.    See  J7ea/<A. 

BOARD  or  CONTROL.  Mr.  Pitt's  celebrated  bill,  establishing  this  board  for  the 
purpose  of  ending  and  controlling  the  executive  government  of  India,  and  of  super- 
intending the  territorial  concerns  of  the  company,  was  passed  24  Geo.  III.  May  18, 
1784.  Act  amended  and  the  board  remodelled,  83  Oea  III.  c  52,  1793.  The 
president  of  the  board  is  a  chief  minister  of  the  crown,  and  necessarily  one  of  the 
membera  of  the  Oabinet    See  Bad  India  Bill,  India  Bill,  and  India. 

BOARD  or  TRADE  and  PLANTATIONS.  Cromwell  seems  to  have  given  the  first 
notions  of  a  board  of  trade :  in  1655  he  appointed  his  son  Richard,  with  many  lords 
of  hb  council,  judges,  and  g^tlemen,  and  about  twenty  merchants  of  London,  York, 
Newcastle,  Yarmouth,  DoYer,  &a,  to  meet  and  consider  by  what  means  the  trade 
and  navigation  of  the  republic  might  be  best  promoted. — Tkonuia's  NoU»  of  the  Bolls, 
Charles  II.»  on  his  restoration,  established  a  council  of  trade  for  keeping  a  control 
over  the  whole  commerce  of  the  nation,  1660 ;  he  afterwards  institutea  a  board  of 
tnule  and  plantations,  which  was  remodelled  by  William  IIL  This  board  of  super- 
inspection  was  abolished  in  1782 ;  and  a  new  council  for  the  af&ini  of  trade  on  its 
present  plan  was  appointed  Sept  2, 1786. 

BOATS.  Their  invention  was  so  early,  and  their  use  so  general,  that  the  art  cannot  be 
tnoed  to  any  age  or  country.  Flat-bottomed  boats  were  made  in  England  in  the  reign 
of  the  Conqueror :  the  flat-bottomed  boat  was  again  brought  into  use  by  Barker,  a  Dutch- 
man, about  1690.  The  life-boat  was  fint  suggested  at  South  Shields ;  and  one  was  built 
by  Mr.  Qreathead,  the  inventor,  and  was  first  put  to  sea,  Jan.  80, 1790.    See  Life  Boat, 

BOCCACCIO'S  DiCAMBRONK,  a  oollection  of  a  hundred  stories  or  novels,  not  of  moral 
tendency,  feigned  to  haye  been  related  in  ten  days ;  severely  satirising  the  monks  and 
clergy.  A  copy  of  the  first  edition  (that  of  Yaldarfer,  in  1471)  was  knocked  down  at  the 
duke  of  Roxburgh's  sale  to  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  for  22602.,  June  17, 1812.  This 
identical  copy  was  afterwards  sold,  by  public  auction,  for  875  guineas^  June  5, 1819. 

BCEOTIA,  a  political  division  of  Greece,  north  of  Attica.  Thebes,  the  capital,  was  equally 
celebrated  for  its  antiquity,  its  grandeur,  and  the  exploits  and  misfortunes  of  its  kings 
and  heroes.  The  country  was  kaown  successively  as  Aonia,  Messapia,  Hyantis, 
Ogygia,  Cadmeis,  and  Boaotia.  From  the  general  character  of  the  inhabitants,  the 
term  Bceotian  was  used  by  the  Athenians  as  a  synonyme  for  dulness ;  but  unjustly, 
since  Pindar,  Hesiod,  Plutarch,  Demooritua,  Epaminondas,  and  the  accomplished  and 
beautiful  Corinna,  were  natives  of  BoDotia. 


B(EO 


96 


BOI 


BCEOTIA^  eontintied. 

Arrival  of  CftdrntUy  the  founder  of  Cad- 

mea B.a  149S 

Reign  of  Polydore 1459 

LabdacuB  ascends  the  throne  .  .  1430 

Amphion  and  Zethus  besiege  Thebee, 

and  dethrone  Lalua 1388 

CEdipus,  not  kuowiog  his  fiither  LaIus, 
kills  him  in  an  affray,  oonfinniog  the 
oracle  as  to  his  death  by  the  hands  of 

bis  aon 1276 

(Edipus  encounters  the  Sphinx,  and  re- 
solves her  enigmas 1266 

War  of  the  Seven  Captains  .       .1225 

Thebes  besieged  and  taken  .    .  1216 

Thersander  reigns  in  Thebes  .  .  1215 

ThoTbebans  abolish  royalty,  and  ages 


of  obscurity  follow 


B.a  1128 


the 


Battle    of   Ch«eronea»    in    which 
Thebaus  defeat  the  Athenians 

Haliartus,  son  of  Thersander,  builds  the 
dty  so  called 

Epaminondss  defeats  the  Laoedemoniana 
at  Leuctra^  restores  his  country  to  in- 
dependence, and  puts  it  in  a  condition 
to  dictate  to  the  rijst  of  Greece    . 

Philip,  king  of  Haoedon,  defeats  the 
Thebaus  and  Athenians  near  Clue- 
ronea        

Alexander  destrDys  Thebes,  but  spores 
the  house  of  Pindar      .... 


447 


371 


838 
835 


BOGS,  commonly  the  remains  of  fallen  forestfly  covered  with  peat  and  loose  soil.  Movixig 
bogs  are  slips  of  land  carried  to  lower  levels  by  accumulated  water.  Of  recent  acts, 
one  relating  to  Ireland  for  their  drainage,  passed  March,  1830.  The  bog-land  of  Ire- 
land has  been  estimated  at  3,000,000  acres;  that  of  Scotland  at  upwards  of  2,000,000; 
and  that  of  England  at  near  1,000,000  of  acres,  In  Jan.  1849,  Mr.  Rees  Reeoe  iook 
out  a  patent  for  certain  valuable  products  from  Irish  peat.  Candles  are  now  sold  in 
London,  produced  from  peat  (1857)»  and  various  other  articles. 

BOHEMIA.  Boicmwn, — Tacitus.  This  country  derives  its  name  from  the  Boii,  a  Celtic 
tribe.  It  was  originally  governed  by  dukes :  till  the  title  of  king  was  obtained  from 
the  emperor  Henry  lY.  The  kings  at  first  held  their  territory  of  the  empire,  but 
they  at  length  threw  o£f  the  yoke :  and  the  crown  was  elective  till  it  came  into  the 
house  of  Austria,  in  which  it  is  now  hereditary. 


550 
795 
894 


1041 
1061 


The  Slavonians,  seizing  Bohemia,  sro 

ruled  by  dukes     ....  a.d. 
City  of  Prague  founded       .  .    . 

I utroduetiun  of  Christianity   . 
Bohemia  conquered   by   the   emperor 

Henry  III.,  who  spreJEuiB  devastation 

through  the  countiy  .        .    . 

The  regal  title  is  conferred  on  Uratislas, 

the  tirst  king 

The  regal  title  is  farther  confirmed  to 

Ottoacit)  1 1199 

Reign  of  Ottoacre  II.,  who  carries  his 

arms  into  Prussia 1258 

Ottoacre  refusing  to  do  homage  to  the 

emperor  Rodolphus,  is  by  tiim  van- 

guished,   and  tieprived   of  Austria, 
tyria,  and  Camioia        .        ... 
In  the  reign  of  Winceolaa  III.  mines  of 
silver  are  first  diacoveied,  and  agricul- 
tMxe   is  encouraged    and    improved 

Winoeslaa  IV.,  beeoming  odious  for  his 

vices,  is  atisassinated  .    . 

John,  oount  of  Luxembuiig,  is  chosen  to 

succeed  

SiloHia  is  made  a  province  of  Bohemia  . 
Kbig  John  slain  at  the  battle  of  Crecy, 

fought  with  the  English 
John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  two 

of  the  first  ReformeiB,  are  btunt  for 


1282 


1284 

1305 

1310 
1318 

1840 


heresy,  which  occasious  an  insiurroo- 
tion ;  when  Sigiamund,  who  betrayed 
them,  is  depoMd.  and  the  Im^ierialists 
are  driven  frdtu  the  kim^dom  1415  and  1416 

aska,  leader  of  the  Hussites,  dies  of  the 
plague 

Albert,  duke  of  Austria,  marries  the 
daughter  of  the  late  emperor  and  king, 
and  receives  the  crowns  of  Bohemia 
and  Hungary 

The  succession  infringed  by  Ladidaii, 
son  of  the  king  of  Poland,  and  Oeoige 
Podiebrad,  a  Protestant  chief   1400  to 

Ladislas  VI.,  king  of  Poland,  elected 
king  of  Bohemia,  on  the  death  of 
Podiebrad 

The  emperor  Ferdinand  I.  mames  Anne, 
sister  of  Louis  the  late  Icing,  and 
obtains  the  crown        .... 

The  elector  palatine  Fredorio  is  driven 
from  Bohemia  .        .  ... 

The  crown  secured  to  the  Austrian 
fiunily  by  the  treaty  of        .        .        . 

Silesia  and  Glatz  ceded  to  Prusaia     .    . 

Prague  taken  by  the  Pkiusians 

The  memorable  siege  of  Prague         .    . 

Revolt  of  the  peasantry  .... 

Edict  of  Toleration  promulgated        .    . 

The  French  occupy  Prague     . 
See  Otrmany. 


14S4 


1437 


1458 


1471 


1527 

1618 

1648 
1742 
1744 
1757 
1775 
1781 
1S06 


This  kingdom  has  suffered  much  from  contending  arndos  and  civil  wars ;  its  capital, 
Prague,  is  famous  in  modem  history  for  sieges  and  battles.    See  Prague, 

BOI  LINO  OF  LIQUIDS.  Liquids  first  aecertamed  by  Dr.  Hooke  not  to  be  incrvasc-d 
in  heat  after  they  have  once  beg^n  to  buil ;  and  that  a  fire,  if  made  fieitser,  can  only 
make  them  boil  more  rapidly,  but  without  adding  a  degree  to  their  heat,  a.d.  ICSil 
The  following  have  been  ascertuntd  to  be  the  boiling  points  of  certain  liquids : — 


Ether 

.    98  degrees,  i 

Ammonia 

.  140 

Alcohol 

.  176 

Water   . 

.  212 

Muiiate  of  Lime  230  degrees. 
Nitric  Acid  .    .  248 
Sulphuric  Acid.  500 
Phosphorus .    .  554 


Oil  of  Turpentine  560  degrees. 
Sulphur.        .    .  570 
Linseed  oil .        .  600 
Mei-cury.        .     .  660 


These  are  the  results  of  various  experiments  made  from  time  to  time  liy  eminent 
chemists  of  our  own  country,  and  of  Geiinaiiy  and  France. 


BOI  97  BON 

BOILING  TO  DEATH.  A  capital  paDiahment  in  England,  by  atatute  28  Uen.  VIIL 
1532.  Thia  act  waa  occasioned  by  seventeen  penona  having  been  poiaoned  by  RouaOp 
the  bishop  of  Rochester'a  cook,  when  the  offence  of  poisoning  waa  made  treason,  and 
it  was  enacted  to  be  puniahed  by  boiling  the  criminal  to  death  !  Margaret  Davie,  i 
young  woman,  snffered  in  the  same  manner  for  a  similar  erime,  in  1541. 

BOIS-LE-DUC,  BATTLE  of,  between  the  British  and  the  French  republican  army.  In 
which  the  British  were  defeated,  forced  to  abandon  their  position,  and  to  retreat  to 
Schyndel,  Sept  14, 1794.  This  place  wtM  captured  by  the  Frendi,  Oct  6,  following; 
it  surrendered  to  the  Prussian  army,  under  Bulow,  in  1814. 

BOLIVIA,  a  republic  in  South  America,  formerly  part  of  Peru;  waa  declared  inde- 
pendent Aug.  6,  and  took  the  name  of  Bolivia,  in  honour  of  General  Bolivia,  Aug.  11, 
1825.  The  insurrection  of  the  ill-used  Indians,  under  Tupac  Amaru  Andrea,  took 
place  in  1780-2.  Slavery  waa  abolished  in  1836.  General  Sucre  governed  ably  from 
1826  to  1828;  Santa  Cruz  ruled  from  1828  to  1884 ;  after  which  many  diaordera 
occurred.  In  1858  free  trade  was  proclaimed.  General  Cordova  is  the  present 
president  (1857) ;  elected  in  1855. 

BOLOGNA,  distinguished  for  its  many  rare  and  magnificent  specimens  of  architecture. 
Ita  ancient  and  celebrated  university  waa  founded  by  Theodosius,  A.D.  488.  Pope 
Julius  II.,  after  besieging  and  taking  Bologna,  made  hla  triumphal  entry  into  it  with 
a  pomp  and  magnificence  by  no  means  fitting  (aa  Erasmus  observes)  for  the  vice- 
gerent of  the  meek  Redeemer,  Not.  10, 1506.  Here,  in  the  church  of  St.  Patroniua^ 
which  is  remarkable  for  its  pavement,  Caasini  drew  his  meridian  line,  at  the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  It  was  taken  by  the  French,  1796 ;  by  the  Austrians,  1799 ; 
again  by  the  French,  after  the  battle  of  Marengo,  in  1800 ;  and  restored  to  the  pope 
in  1815.    A  revolt  in  1881  was  suppressed  by  Austrian  interference. 

BOMARSUND,  a  strong  fortress  on  one  of  the  Aland  isles.  Sir  Charles  Napier,  eom- 
mandei^in-chief  of  the  Baltic  expedition,  gave  orders  for  the  disembarkation  of  the 
armament  on  Bomarsund,  which  was  completed  on  Aug.  12, 1854,  and  the  bombard" 
ment  of  the  western  tower  waa  commenced  by  the  French,  who  had  furnished  the 
military  contingent  of  this  expedition,  imder  General  Baraguay  d'Hilliers.  On  the 
16th  the  fortress  surrendered,  and  the  Russian  authority  over  the  Aland  ialea  ceased. 
The  governor-general  Bodisoo,  and  the  garrison,  about  2000  men,  surrendered 
prisoners  of  war  to  England  and  France.  The  fortificationa  were  destroyed.  The 
English  portion  of  the  prisoners  was  sent  for  confinement  to  Lewes. 

BOMBAY,  the  most  westerly  and  smallest  of  our  three  Indian  presidencies,  was  given 
(with  Tangier,  in  Africa,  and  800,0002.  in  money)  to  Charles  IL  as  the  marriage  por- 
tion of  the  infanta,  Catherine  of  Portugal,  1661.  Granted  to  the  East  India  Company 
**  in  free  and  common  socage,  as  of  the  manor  of  East  Greenwich,  at  an  annual  rent  of 
lot"  1 668.  Confirmed  by  William  III.  1689.  Bombay  was  at  first  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment over  all  the  company'a  eatabliahmenta  in  India.    See  India, 

BOMBSu    nvented  at  Venlo,  in  1495,  but  according  to  some  authorities  near  a  century 

after.    They  came  into  general  use  in  1684,  having  been  previously  used  only  in  the 

I>utch  and  Spanish  armies.    Bomb- vessels  were  invented  in  France,  in  1681. — 

Voltaire.    The  Shrapnel  shell  is  a  bomb  filled  with  balls,  and  a  lighted  fuse  to  make 

it  explode  before  it  reaches  the  enemy ;  a  thirteen-inch  bomb-shell  weighs  198  lbs. 

BONAPARTE'S  EMPIRE  op  FRANCE.  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  the  moat  extraordinsry 
man  of  modem  times,  ruled  over  France,  and  subdued  most  of  the  nationa  of  the 
Continent,  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century.  See  his  various  achievementa 
under  their  respective  heads  throughout  the  volume  : 


Kapoleon  Bonaparte  bom  at  AJaodo,  in 

Corsica Aug.  15,  1769 

He  first  distbiffuisbed  himself  lii  the 

oommaDd  of  tne  artillery  at  Tmilcn  .  1793 
Marries  Joaephine,  and  appointed  to 

oomniand  the  army  of  Italy  March  9,  1796 
Victories  in  Italy  ....  1796-7 
He  embarks  for  Egypt  .  .  May  10.  1798 
la  repolsed  before  Acre  •  May  27,  1799 
He  returns  from  'Egrpt  .  .  Aug.  23,  1799 
Depoeea  the  Frendh  directory,  and  be- 

oomes  first  oonsul    .  Nov.  9,  1799 

BmdM  overtuiee  of  peace  to  the  king  of 

England  Jan.  1,  1800  |  A  son,  the  fruit  of  this  marriage,  Dom, 

H 


His  life  attempted  by  an  "infernal  ma- 
chine"     ....         Dec.  S4,  1800 
Elected  president  of  the  Italian,  late 

Cisalpine  republic  .    Jan.  25.  1803 

Elected  consul  for  10  years.  .  May  8,  1802 
Made  first  consul  for  life .  .  Aug.  2,  1802 
Accepts  the  title  of  emperor  ttom  the 

senate  in  name  of  the  people  May  18,  1804 
Crowned  emperor  by  the  pope  Dec  2,  1804 
Crowned  king  of  Italy  May  26,  1806 

Divorced  finom  the  empress  Josephine, 

she  having  no  heir  .    Dec.  16,  1809 

Marries  Muia  Louisa  of  Austria.  April  7,  1810 


BON 


98 


BOO 


BONAPARTE'S  EMPIRE  of  FRANCE,  coniinued. 


(styled  kin^  of  Rome,  and  afterwards 
Napoleon  II.)  see  Fmnee      March  20,  1811 
Hia  overtures  of  peaoe  to  Bn^and  are 

rejected    ....       April  14.  1812 
Unfortunate  Russian  campaign  1812-13 

He  renounoes  the  thrones  of  rranoe  and 
Italy,  and  accepts  the  Isle  of  Elba  for 
Ids  retreat  April  6, 

Embarks  at  Fr^Jus  .  .  April  28, 

Arrives  at  Elba    .  M av  8, 

Quits  Elba,  and  lands  at  Cannes  March  1, 
Enters  Lyons  March  10,  1815 

Arrives  at  Fontainebleaa         March  20,  1815 
Joined  by  all  the  army  March  22, 

The  allies  sign  a  treaty  for  his  subjuga- 
tion ....  March  26, 
He  abdlshes  the  slave-trade  March  29, 
Leaves  Paris  for  the  army  .  June  12, 
Is  defeated  at  Waterloo  . 
Returns  to  Paris . 
▲ud  abdicates  in  favour  of 

son         .... 
Intending  to  embark  for 
arrives  at  Rochefort. 


June  18, 

June  20. 

his  infitnt 

.  June  22, 

America,  he 

.  Julys, 


1814 
1814 
1814 
1815 


1815 

1816 
1815 
1815 
1815 
1815 

1816 


He  surrenders  to  Capt  Maitland.  of  the 
MUropkon    ....    July  11!^ 


1816 
1816 


Transferred  at  Tortwjr  to  the  Northmmher- 
land,  and  admiral  sir  George  Goekbora 
sails  with  him  for  Bt  Helena  Aug.  8, 

Arrives  at  St.  Helena(whereitisdecveed 
by  the  allied  sovereigns  he  shall  remain 
for  life)* Oct  15, 

The  family  of  Bonaparte  ezduded  for 
ever  ttojn  France  by  the  law  of  am- 
nesty  Jsn.  1^ 

Death  of  Bonaparte .  May  ft, 

His  will  registered  in  England  (see  artiole 
WUU) Ang. 

His  son,  ez-]dng  of  Rome,  dies  July  fi, 

The  French  chambers  decree,  with  the 
consent  of  England  that  the  ashes  of 
Napoleon  be  removed  from  St.  HelenSi 
and  brought  to  France    .        May  12.  1840 

Th^  are  exhumed  .  .    Oct  16,  1840 

The  BelU  PoiOe,  French  frigate,  anivsi 
at  Cherboutg  with  the  remains  of 
Napoleon,  in  the  care  of  the  Prince 
deJoinville  .       .        Nov.  SO,  1840 

They  are  interred  with  great  sdemnity 
inthoHMeldeelnvalldes   .   Dee.  15^  1849 


1815 


1816 


1814 

isn 

1884 
1BS2 


BONDAGE,  OR  VILLANAOE.  Bondage  waa  enforced  under  Tniliam  I.  soon  after  the 
oonquest  A  villain  in  ancient  times  meant  a  peasant  ensUved  by  his  lord.  A  releifle 
from  this  species  of  servitude  was  ordered  on  the  manors  of  Elizabeth,  in  1574,  and 
led  to  its  final  overthrow  in  England.    See  ViUanage, 

BONE-SETTTNO.  This  branch  of  the  art  of  surgery  cannot  be  said  to  have  been 
practised  scientifically  until  1620,  before  which  time  it  was  rather  imperfectly  under 
stood. — BeiL  The  celebrity  obtained  by  a  practitioner  at  Paris,  about  1600,  led  to  tha 
general  study  of  bone-setting  as  a  science. — Premd^t  Sut.  of  Phytic 

BONES.  The  art  of  softening  bones  was  discovered  about  ▲.d.  1688,  and  they  ▼«« 
used  in  the  manu&cture  of  cutlery,  and  for  various  other  purposes  immediately 
afterwards.  The  declared  value  of  the  bones  of  cattle  and  of  other  animals,  and  of 
fish  (exclusive  of  whale-fins)  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  from  Buflis, 
Prussia,  Holland,  Denmark,  kc,  amounts  annually  to  nearly  200,0002. 

BONHOHM  ESb  These  were  hermits  of  simple  and  gentle  lives,  who  made  their  app^f* 
ance  in  France  about  the  year  1257  ;  and  they  came  to  England  in  1288.  The  prior 
of  the  order  was  called  Le  hon  homme,  by  Louis  YI.,  and  hence  they  derived  their 
name. — Jhi  Prunoy. 


BOOKS,  ANCIENT.  Books  were  originally  boards,  or  the  inner  bark  of  trees:  sod 
bark  is  still  used  by  some  nations,  as  are  also  skins,  for  which  latter  parbhrnent  wat 
substituted.  Papyrus,  an  £^ptian  plant,  was  adopted  in  that  country.  Books 
whose  leaves  were  vellum  were  invented  by  Attalus,  king  of  Pergamus,  about  19^ 
B.O.,  at  which  time  books  were  in  volumes  or  rolls.  The  MSS.  in  Heroulaneum  cooiiit 
of  papyrus,  rolled  and  charred,  and  matted  together  by  the  fire,  and  are  about  sine 
inches  long,  and  one,  two,  or  three  inches  in  diameter,  each  being  a  separate  treattsa 
The  Pentateuch  of  Moses  and  the  history  of  Job  are  the  most  ancient  in  the  world ; 
and,  in  pro&ne  literature,  the  poems  of  Homer  and  Hesiod. 

BOOKS,  PRICES  OF.  Jerome  states  that  he  had  ruined  himself  by  buying  a  copy  of 
the  works  of  Origen.  A  lai^ge  estate  was  given  for  one  on  cosmography,  by  Alfred, 
about  A.D.  872.  The  Romtm  de  la  Po§e  was  sold  for  about  SOL ;  and  a  Homily  w»i 
exchanged  for  200  sheep  and  five  quarters  of  wheat ;  and  they  usually  fetched  doablo 
or  treble  their  weight  in  gold.  They  sold  at  prices  varying  from  10£  to  AOL  each,  in 
1400.  In  our  own  times,  the  value  of  some  volumes  is  very  great.  A  copy  of 
Madclin*B  Bible,  ornamented  by  Mr.  Tomkius,  has  been  declared  worth  500  gnineaay- 
Butler,  A  yet  more  superb  copy  waa  insured  in  aLondon  office  for  3000^— See  Boocaeei^ 

BOOKS  PRINTED.  The  first  printed  books  were  hymns  and  psalters,  and  bei]« 
printed  only  on  one  side,  the  leaves  were  pasted  back  to  back.    Thc^  first  printed 


*  Longwood,  the  reddenoe  of  Napoleon  in  Bt  Helena,  was  bought  from  the  British  goverument 
for  180,000  ftanca  in  1867. 


BOO  99  BOR 

book  WB8  the  Book  rf  PmdmM,  by  Fuist  and  Schceffer,  his  ■on-in]mw,  Aug.  14, 
1457.  Several  works  were  printed  many  years  before ;  but  as  the  InTentors  kept  the 
Mcret  to  themMlTeSy  they  sold  their  ftnt  printed  works  as  manuscripts.  This  gave 
rise  to  an  adventure  that  brought  calamity  on  Faust ;  he  began  in  1450  an  edition  of 
the  Bible,  which  was  finished  in  1460.  The  second  printed  was  deero  de  CffieUs, 
1406.— .filoir.  The  first  book  printed  in  England  was  The  Oame  and  PUiy  of  tkt 
Ckeue,  by  Caxton.  1474.  The  first  in  Dublin  was  the  LUurgy,  in  1550.  The  first 
dassicsl  work  printed  in  Russia  was  Com.  Nepotis  Vita,  in  1762.  LueiaiCB  I>ialogue$ 
was  the  first  Greek  book  printed  in  America  (at  Philadelphia),  1789.  Books  of 
astronomy  and  geometry  were  ordered  to  be  destroyed  in  England  as  being  infected 
with  magio,  6  Edw.  VL  IbS^.—Stow^B  ChromeUi.    See  Biblioffraphy. 

BOOK-BINDING.  The  book  of  Bt  Cuthbert^  the  earliest  ornamented  book,  is  supposed 
to  h&ve  been  bound  about  a.d.  650.  A  Latin  Psalter  in  oak  boards  was  bound  in  the 
ninth  oentuiy.  A  MS.  copy  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  the  book  on  which  our  kings 
from  Henry  1.  to  Edward  YI.  took  their  coronation  oath,  was  bound  in  oaken  boards, 
nearly  an  inch  thick,  ▲.ix  1100.  Velvet  was  the  covering  in  the  fourteenth  contury ; 
and  silk  soon  after.  Vellum  was  introduced  early  in  the  fifteenth  century ;  it  was 
stamped  and  ornamented  about  1510.  Leather  came  into  iise  about  the  same  time. 
Cloth  binding  superseded  the  eommon  boards  generally  about  1881.  Caoutchouo  or 
India-rubber  backs  to  account-books  and  large  volumea  were  introduced  in  184  L 

BOOK-KEEPING.  The  system  bv  double^try,  called  originally  Italian  bookkeeping, 
iras  taken  from  the  course  of  Algebra  which  was  published  by  Burgo,  at  Venice,  then 
a  great  commercial  state,  in  the  fifteenth  century.  It  was  made  known  in  England  by 
James  Peele,  who  publi^ed  his  Boot-keeping  in  1569. — Andenon, 

BOOKSELLERS'  ASSOCIATION.  A  number  of  eminent  publishers  of  London  had 
formed  themselves  into  an  association  for  the  regulation  of  the  trade,  and  for  some 
years  restricted  the  retail  booksellers  from  selling  copies  of  works  under  the  full 
publishing  priee.  A  dispute  hence  arose  as  to  the  right,  maintained  by  the  latter,  to 
dispose  of  books  (when  they  had  once  become  theirs  by  purchase)  at  such  less  profit 
as  they  might  deem  sufficiently  remunerative.  This  dispute  was,  in  the  end,  referred 
to  lord  chief  justice  Campbell,  before  whom  the  parties  argued  their  respective  cases, 
at  Stratheden  House,  April  14,  1852.  His  lordiiiip  gave  judgment,  in  effect  against 
the  asaociationy  which  lad  to  its  immediate  dissolution.  May  19  following. 

BOOTHIA  FELIX,  discovered  and  named  by  sir  John  Ross,  in  honour  of  sir  Felix 
Booth,  who  had  presented  him  with  20,0002.  to  enable  him  to  fit  out  his  Polar 
expedition.    Sir  Felix  Booth  died  at  Brighton  in  Feb.  1850. 

BOOTS  are  said  to  have  been  the  invention  of  the  Carians,  and  were  made  of  iron, 
braes,  or  leather ;  of  the  last  material,  some  time  after  their  invention,  boots  were 
known  to  the  Ctreeks,  for  Homer  mentions  them,  about  907  B.a  They  are  frequently 
mentioned  by  the  Roman  historians. 

BORAX  was  known  to  the  ancients.  It  is  used  in  soldering,  brazing,  and  casting  gold  and 
other  metals,  and  was  called  chryioooUa.  It  is  also  used  in  medicine,  and  in  composing 
f^teuM^  or  a  wash  or  paint  for  the  ladies-^Ponion.  Borax  is  naturally  produced  in  the 
mountains  of  Thibet;  and  was  brought  to  Europe  from  India  about  1718.  It  has 
lately  been  found  in  Saxony. 

BORNEO.  An  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  largest  in  the  world  except  Australia, 
was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1526.  The  Dutch  traded  here  in  1604, 
established  factories  in  1776,  and  still  remain  on  the  island.  A  laige  part  was 
inhabited  or  infested  by  pirates,  upon  whom  the  British  made  a  successful  afplk  in 
1813.  They  were  a^ain  chastised  by  captain  Keppel,  in  March,  1843.  By  a  treaty 
vrith  the  sultan,  the  island  of  Labooan,  or  Labuan,  on  the  north-west  coast  of  Borneo, 
and  its  dependencies  were  incorporated  with  the  British  Empire,  and  formally  taken 
poeseasion  of  in  presence  of  the  Bomean  chiefs,  Dee.  2, 1846.  His  excellency  James 
Brooke,  rajah  of  Sarawak,  by  whose  exertions  this  island  was  annexed  to  the  British 
crown,  and  who  had  been  appointed  governor  of  Labuan  and  consul-general  of  Borneo, 
subsequently  visited  England,  and  received  many  honours,  among  which  was  the 
freedom  of  the  corporation  of  London,  Oct.  21, 1847.  Labuan  was  made  a  bishopric 
in  1855;  the  biahop  was  oonaeerated  at  Calcutta,  Oct.  18, 1855  <the  first  English  bishop 
consecrated  out  of  England).  In  the  night  of  the  17th  and  18th  Feb.  1857,  the 
Chinese  in  Satawak  rose  in  insurrection  and  massacred  a  number  of  Europeans.  The 
governor  air  J.  Brooke  escaped  by  swimming  across  a  oreek ;  he  speedily  returned,  and 

h2 


BOB  100  BOS 

with  a  force  of  Malays,  &c.  severely  chastised  the  insargents,  of  whom  2000  were 
killed. 

BORNOU.  An  extensive  kingdom  in  central  Africa,  explored  by  Denham  and  Clap- 
perton,  who  were  sent  out  by  the  British  government  in  1822.  The  population  is 
estimated  by  Denham  at  five,  by  Barth  at  nine  millions. 

BORODINO  OB  MOSKWA,  BATTLE  op,  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  in  the  records  of 
the  world,  was  fought  Sept.  7, 1812,  between  the  French  and  Russians;  commanded 
on  the  one  side  by  Napoleon,  and  on  the  other  by  Kutusoff^  240,000  men  being 
engaged.  Each  psu*ty  claimed  the  victory,  because  the  loss  of  the  other  was  so 
immense ;  but  it  was  rather  in  favour  of  Napoleon,  for  the  Russians  subsequently 
retreated,  leaving  Moscow  to  its  fate.  The  road  being  thus  left  open,  the  French 
entered  Moscow,  Sept  14,  with  little  opposition.    See  Moscow, 

BOROUGH,  anciently  a  company  of  ten  families  living  together.  The  term  has  been 
applied  to  such  towns  as  send  members  to  parliament^  since  the  election  of  bmngeases 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  1265.  Burgesses  were  first  admitted  into  the  Scottish 
parliament  by  Robert  Bruce,  1326;  and  into  the  Irish,  1365. 

BOROUQH-ENGLISH,  was  an  ancient  tenure  by  which  the  younger  son  inherita,  and 
is  mentioned  as  occurring  a.d.  834.  It  existed  in  Scotland,  but  was  abolished  by 
Malcolm  III.  in  1062. 

BOROUGH-BRIDGE,  BATTLE  of,  between  the  earls  of  Hertford  and  Lancaster  and 
Edward  II.  The  latter,  at  the  head  of  80,000  men,  pressed  Lancaster  so  closely,  that 
he  had  not  time  to  collect  his  troops  together  in  sufficient  force,  and  being  defeated 
and  made  prisoner,  was  led,  mounted  on  a  lean  horse,  to  an  eminence  near  Pontefract^ 
or  Pomfret^  with  great  indignity,  and  beheaded  by  a  Londoner,  1322. — OMsmitk, 

BOSCOBEL,  a  village  in  Shropshire.  Here  Charles  IL  concealed  himself  in  the  renowned 
oak,  after  the  battle  of  Worcester  (See  Worcester),  in  which  CromweU  defeated  the 
Scots  army,  that  had  marched  into  England  to  reinstate  Charlee  on  the  throne.  Sept 
3rd,  1651.— OoldtmitK, 

BOSPHORUS  (properly  BOSPORUS),  now  called  Oircastia,  near  the  Boephoms  Cim- 
merius,  now  the  straits  of  Kertch,  or  YenikaU.  The  history  of  the  kingdom  is 
involved  in  obscurity,  though  it  continued  for  530  years.  It  was  named  Oimmerian. 
from  the  Oimmeriy  who  dwelt  on  its  borders.  The  descendants  of  Archeanactes  of 
Mitylene  settled  in  this  country,  but  they  were  dispossessed  by  Spartacos^  in 
438  B.a    See  Azof, 

The  Archeanactidn  rule  here  .  B.a  502-480 
They  are  Buoceeded  by  SpartacuB  I.  460-438 
Seleucus 431 


BatyroB  L 407 

Leucon 393 

SpartacusII 353 

Paryaadee 348 

Eumelua,  aiming  to  dethrone  nia  brother 
SatyriiB  II.,  is  defeated;  but  Satyrus  Ib 

wounded  and  dies 310 

PrytaniB,  hia  next  brother,  aBoends  the 
Uirono,  but  is  soon  after  murdered  in 
hiB  pdace  by  £ume1u8  .        .  SlO-0 

EameluB,  to  secure  htB  usurpation,  puts 
to  death  all  his  relations   .        ...  SOD 

Eumelns  is  killed 804 

The  Scythians  inrade  Bosphorus         .    .  885 
[During  their  rule  of  204  years,  even  the 
names  of  the  kings  who  were  tributary 
to  the  coaquerors  are  unrecorded  and 
unknown.] 


Mithrldates  conquers  Bosphonu  .  B.a.  M 
An  awful  earthquake  lays  numenma  cities 

and  towns  in  ruins 65 

Battle  of  Zela,  gained  by  Julius  CEasar 

orerPhamaoeB 47 

Ceesar  makes  M ithridates  of  Pergamus 

kinff  of  Bosphorus 47 

Asander  usurfM  the  crown        .  .46 

Polemon  conquers  Bosphonu^  and,  fi^ 

▼oured  by  Agrippa,  reigns  .    .    14 

♦  •  •  «  • 

Polomon  killed  by  barbarians  of  the  Palus 

M»otis A.ow    S3 

Polomon  II.  reigns 3S 

Mithridates  II.  reignn       .  .40 

Mithridates  conducted  a  prisoner  to 
Rome,  by  order  of  Claudius,  and  his 
kingdom  made  a  proidnoe  of  the  em- 
pire. 


BOSPHORUS,  THRACIAN  (now  channel  of  Constantinople).  Darius  Hystaspes  threw 
a  bridge  of  boats  over  this  strait  when  about  to  invade  Greece,  493  b.g.  See  Oon- 
stantinopk. 

BOSTON,  Aksbica.  Here  originated  that  resistance  to  the  British  authorities  which  led 
to  American  independence.  The  act  of  parliament  laying  duties  on  tea,  paper,  colours, 
&c.,  was  passed  June,  1767,  and  so  excited  the  indignation  of  the  citizens  of  Boston, 
that  they  destroyed  several  hundreds  of  chests  of  tea,  Nov.  1773.  Boston  was  pn>> 
scribed  in  consequence,  and  the  port  shut  by  the  English  parliament,  until  restitution 
should  be  made  to  the  East  India  Company  for  the  tea  lost^  Karch  25,  1774.    The 


BOS  101  BOU 

town  VIS  benoged  by  the  British  next  year,  and  400  houses  were  destroyed.  A  battle 
between  the  royalists  and  independent  troops,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeated,  took 
pisee  in  June,  1775.  The  city  was  evacuated  by  the  king's  troops,  April,  1776.  The 
inJiabitants  have  been  lately  very  zealous  against  sUvery.  An  industrial  exhibition 
was  opened  here  in  Oct  1856,  and  lasted  two  weeks. 

BOSWORTH  FIELD,  BATTLE  of,  the  thirteenth  and  last  between  the  houses  of  York 
and  Lsncsster,  in  which  Richard  IIL  was  defeated  by  the  earl  of  Richmond,  afterwards 
Henry  TIL  the  former  being  slain,  Aug.  22, 1485.  The  orown  of  Richard  was  found 
in  a  hawthorn  bush,  on  the  plain  where  the  battle  was  fought,  and  Henry  was  crowned 
on  the  spot  with  that  very  crown.  In  the  dvil  contests  between  the  "  Roses,**  many 
of  the  most  ancient  families  in  the  kingdom  were  entirely  extinguished,  and  no  less 
than  100,000  human  beings  lost  their  Uves. 

BOTAliT.  Aristotle  is  considered  the  founder  of  the  philosophy  of  botany  (about  B.C. 
347).  The  BiMtoria  PUmtarum  of  Theophrastus,  written  about  320  ac.  Authors  on 
botany  are  numerous  from  the  earlier  ages  of  the  world,  to  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
centuiy,  when  the  science  became  better  imderstood.  The  study  was  advanced  by 
Fochaius,  Bock,  Bauhin,  Cseaalpinus,  and  others,  between  1535  and  1600. — Mdchior 
AdaaKL  The  system  and  arrangement  of  LinnssuSy  the  first  botanist  of  modem  times, 
was  made  known  about  1750 ;  and  Jussieu's  system,  founded  on  Toumefort's,  and 
called  '*  the  Natural  System,"  in  1758.  At  the  time  of  Linnsnis'  death,  a.d.  1778,  the 
species  of  plants  actually  described  amounted  in  number  to  11,800.  The  number  of 
species  of  all  denominations  now  recorded  cannot  fiill  short  of  100,000. 

BOTANY  BAT,  originally  fixed  on  for  a  colony  of  convicts  from  Oreat  Britain.  The 
first  governor,  capt  Arthur  Phillip,  who  sailed  from  England  in  May,  1787,  arrived  at 
the  settlement  in  Jan.  1788.  The  bay  had  been  discovered  by  captain  Cook  in  1770, 
sad  the  place  took  its  name  from  the  great  variety  of  plants  which  aboimded  on  Uie 
shore.  The  colony  was  fixed  at  Port  Jackson,  about  thirteen  miles  to  the  north  of 
the  bay.    See  Ntw  &mih  Wale»  and  Trampcirtati<m, 

BOTTLE-CONJUROR.  The  famous  imposition  of  this  charlatan  occurred  at  the  old 
Hajmarket  theatre,  Jan.  16,  1748 ;  he  had  announced  that  he  would  jump  into  a 
quart  bottle,  and  so  imposed  upon  the  credulous  multitude,  that  the  theatre  was 
beai^ed  by  10,000  peraons,  anxious  to  gain  admittance  and  witness  the  feat.  The 
object  of  filling  the  house  was  accomplished;  but  the  duped  crowd  (who  really 
expected  to  see  Uie  man  enter  the  quart  bottle),  in  the  storm  of  their  indignation, 
nearly  pulled  the  whole  edifice  down. 

BOTTLES  in  ancient  time  were  made  of  leather.  Bottles  of  glass  were  first  made  in 
England  about  1558.  See  Qlau,  The  art  of  making  glass  bottles  and  drinking  glasses 
was  known  to  the  Romans  at  least  before  79  a.d.,  for  these  articles  and  other  vessels 
have  been  fomnd  in  the  ruins  of  Pompeii  A  bottle  which  contained  two  hogsheads 
was  blown,  we  are  told,  at  Leith,  in  Scotland,  in  January  1747-8. 

BOULOGNE,  a  French  seaport  in  Picardy,  was  taken  by  the  British  on  Sept  14, 1544, 
but  restored  to  France  upon  the  peace,  1550.  Lord  Nelson  attacked  Boulogne,  dis- 
abling ten  vessels  and  sinking  five,  Aug.  3, 1 801.  In  another  attempt  he  was  repulsed 
with  great  loss,  and  captain  Parker  of  the  Meduaa  and  two-thirds  of  his  crew  were 
killed,  Aug.  18,  following.  In  1804,  Bonaparte  assembled  160,000  men  and  10,000 
horses,  and  a  flotilla  of  1800  vessels  and  17|000  sailors  to  invade  England.  The  coasts 
of  Kant  and  Sussex  were  covered  with  martello  towers  and  lines  of  defence ;  and 
nearly  half  the  adult  population  of  Britain  was  formed  into  volunteer  corps.  It  is 
supposed  that  this  French  armament  served  merely  for  a  demonstration,  and  that 
Bonaparte  never  seriously  intended  the  invasion.  Sir  Sidney  Smith  unsucccsafully 
attempted  to  bum  the  flotilla  with  fire  machines  called  catamarans,  Aug.  81, 1805. 
Cottgreve-rockets  were  used  in  another  attack,  and  they  set  the  town  on  fire,  Oct.  8, 
1806.  The.  army  was  removed  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  with  Austria  in  1805. 
Prince  Louis  Napoleon  (afterwards  president  of  the  French  republic,  and  now  emperor) 
made  a  descent  here  with  about  fifty  followers,  Aug.  6,  1840,  without  success.  On 
July  10, 1854,  he  reviewed  the  French  troops  destined  for  the  Baltic,  and  on  Sept.  2^ 
following,  he  entertained  prince  Albert  and  the  king  of  the  Belgians.    See  France. 

BOUNTIES  were  first  granted  on  the  exportation  of  British  commodities — a  new  prin- 
ciple introduced  into  commerce  by  the  British  parliament  The  first  bounties  grante«& 
on  com  were  in  1688.  They  were  first  legally  granted  in  England,  for  raiaiog  naval 
stores  in  America,  1703,  and  have  been  granted  on  sail-cloth,  Unen,  and  other  goods. 


BOU  102  BOX 

BOUNTY.  MUTINY  on  boftrd  the  Boitmig,  an  armed  ship  returning  from  Oiaheite, 
with  bread-fruity  April  28, 1789.  The  mutineers  put  their  captain,  Bligh,  and  nine- 
teen men  into  an  open  boat,  near  Annamooka,  one  of  the  Friendly  lalanda,  April  28, 
1789 ;  they  reached  the  island  of  Timor,  south  of  the  Moluocas,  in  June,  after  a 
perilous  yoyage  of  nearly  4000  miles,  in  which  their  preservation  was  next  to  mira- 
culous.  The  mutineers  were  tried,  Sept.  15,  1792,  when  six  were  condemned,  of 
whom  three  were  executed.    See  Piteaim*i  TUand. 

BOURBON,  HOUSE  of.  Anthony  de  Bourbon  was  the  chief  of  the  branch  of  Bourbon, 
so  called  from  a  fief  of  that  name  which  fell  to  them  by  marriage  with  the  heireM  of 
the  estate.  Henry  IV.  of  France  and  Navarre,  justly  styled  the  Great,  was  aon  of 
Anthony,  and  came  to  the  throne  in  1689.  The  crown  of  Spain  was  settled  on  a 
younger  branch  of  this  family,  and  guaranteed  by  the  peaoe  of  Utrecht,  1718b — Rapin. 
The  Bourbon  Family  Compact  took  place,  1761.  The  Bourbons  were  expelled  Franoe. 
1791,  and  were  restored,  1814.  The  family  was  again  expelled  on  the  return  of 
Bonaparte  from  Elba,  and  again  restored  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  1815.  Hie 
elder  branch  was  expelled  once  more,  in  the  person  of  Charles  X.  and  his  fiunily,  in 
1830,  a  consequence  of  the  revolution  of  the  memorable  days  of  July  in  that  year. 
The  Orleans  branch  ascended  the  throne,  in  the  person  of  the  late  Louis-Philippe, 
as  "  king  of  the  French,"  Aug.  9,  following,  who  was  deposed  Feb.  24, 1848,  when  his 
family  also  was  expelled  France.    See  France, 

BOURBON  ISLE  of.  Discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1545.  The  French  first  settled 
here  in  1672,  and  built  seversl  towns.  The  island  surrendered  to  the  British,  Sept.  21, 
1809,  and  was  restored  to  France  in  1815. — AUton.  It  is  near  the  Isle  of  France,  and 
the  two  are  styled  the  Mauritius  There  occurred  an  &wful  hurricane  here  in  Feb., 
1829,  by  which  immense  mischief  was  done  to  the  shipping,  and  in  the  island.  See 
Mauritiut. 

BOURDEAUX  (ob  BORDEAUX)  was  united  to  the  dominions  of  Henry  11.  of  England, 
by  his  marriage  with  Eleanor  of  Aquitaina  Edward  the  Black  Prince  brou^t  his 
royal  captive,  John,  king  of  Franoe,  to  this  city  after  the  battle  of  Poitie|8,  in  1S56, 
and  here  held  his  court  during  eleven  years :  his  son,  our  Richard  II.,  was  bom  at 
Bourdeaux,  1862.  The  fine  equestrian  statue  of  Louis  XV.  was  ereeted  in  1743. 
Bourdeaux  was  entered  by  the  victorious  British  army  after  the  battle  of  Orthes, 
fought  Feb.  25, 1814. 

BOURIQNONISTS,  a  sect  founded  by  Madame  AntoineiU  Bourigwm,  a  fanatic,  who,  in 
1658,  took  the  habit  of  St  Augustin,  and  travelled  into  France,  Holland,  EngUnd, 
and  Scotland.  In  the  last  she  made  a  strong  party  and  some  thousands  of  aectarists, 
about  1670.  She  maintained  that  Christianity  does  not  consist  in  ^th  or  practice, 
but  in  an  inward  feeling  and  supernatural  impulse.  This  visionary  published  a  book 
entitled  the  Light  of  the  World,  in  which,  and  in  several  other  work^,  she  maintained 
and  taught  her  pernicious  notions.  A  disciple  of  hers,  named  Court,  left  her  a  good 
estate.    She  died  in  1680. 

BOVINES,  BATTLE  of,  in  which  Philip  Augustus  of  Franoe  obtained  a  complete 
victory  (though  not  without  great  danger  of  his  life)  over  the  emperor  Otho  and  his 
allies,  consisting  of  more  than  150,000  men.  The  earls  of  Flanders  and  Boulogne 
were  taken  prisoners.  The  chevalier  Qudrin  had  the  command  of  the  king^s  army, 
not  in  order  to  fight,  but  to  animate  the  barons  and  other  knights  in  honour  of  Ood, 
the  king,  and  kingdom,  and  in  defence  of  their  sovereign  lord.  Matthew  de  Mont- 
morenci,  who  was  constable  of  France  four  years  after,  had  a  considerable  share  in 
this  victory.    Fought  a  J).  1214. — HinavU, 

BOWLS,  OR  BOWLINQ,  an  English  game,  played  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century. 
Charles  I.  played  at  it,  and  it  form^  a  daily  share  in  the  diversions  of  Charlee  IL  at 
Tunbridge. — Qrammont, 

BOWS  AND  ARROWS,  see  Archery,  The  invention  of  them  is  ascribed  to  Apollo.  They 
were  known  in  England  previous  to  a.d.  450.  The  use  of  them  was  again  introduced 
into  England  by  the  Conqueror,  1066 ;  and  greatly  enooursged  by  Ridiard  1. 1190. — 
Baker^s  Chronicle.  The  usual  range  of  the  long-bow  was  from  800  to  400  jrarda ;  the 
length  of  the  bow  was  six  feet,  and  the  arrow  three.  Cross-bows  were  fixed  to  a  stock 
of  iron  or  wood,  and  were  discharged  by  a  trigger. 

BOXING,  OB  PRIZE-FIOHTINQ,  the  pugUatm  of  the  Romans,  and  a  ikvourite  sport 
with  the  Britlih,  who  possess  an  extraordinary  strength  in  the  arm,  an  advantage 
which  gives  the  British  soldier  great  superiority  in  battles  decided  by  the  bayonet. 


BOX  lOS  BRA 

A  omiUuy  ago,  boxing  fonned  a  regular  exhibition,  and  a  theatre  was  erected  for  it 
in  Tottenham-court — Broughton'e  amphitheatre,  behind  Oxford*road,  built  1742. 
Schools  were  opened  in  England  to  teach  boxing  as  a  science  in  1790.  Mendoa 
opened  the  Lyceum  in  the  Strand  in  1 791.  Boxing  was  much  patronised  from  about 
1820  to  18S0,  but  is  not  at  all  now  (1857). 

BOXTEL,  BATTLE  of,  between  the  British  and  allied  army,  ooomiaaded  by  the  duke 
of  York,  and  the  army  of  the  French  republic.  The  latter  attacked  the  ^lies  and 
obtained  the  victory  after  an  obstinate  engagement,  taking  2000  prisooers  and  eight 
pieces  of  cannon,  and  the  duke  retreated  across  the  Meuse,  Sept  17,  1794. 

BOTDKLL*S  LOTTERY  was  a  lottery  of  a  gallery  of  paintings,  got  up  at  Tsst  expense 
by  the  eminent  alderman  Boydell,  of  London,  a  great  eneoursger  of  the  arts.  The 
collection  was  called  the  Shakspeare  Oallery,  and  ererf  ticket  was  sold  at  the  time 
the  alderman  died  (which  was  before  the  decision  of  the  wheel),  Dee.  12,  1804. 
Alderman  Boydell  was  lord  mayor  of  London  in  1791. 

BOYLB  LECTURES,  instituted  by  Robert  Boyle  (son  of  the  great  earl  of  Cork)  a 
philosopher,  distinguished  by  his  genius,  virtues,  and  beneyolence.  He  instituted 
eight  lectures  in  vindication  of  the  Christian  religion,  which  are  delivered  at  St.  Mary- 
le-bow  church,  on  the  first  Monday  in  each  month,  from  January  to  May,  and 
September  to  November— endowed  1691. 

BOYNE,  BATTLE  of,  between  king  William  HI.  and  his  &ther-in-law,  James  XL,  fought 
July  1, 1690.  The  latter  was  signally  defeated,  losing  1500  men ;  the  protestant  army 
lost  about  a  third  of  that  number.  Jsmes  immediately  fled  to  Dublin,  thence  to 
Waterford,  and  escaped  to  France.  Tlie  duke  of  Schomberg  was  killed  in  the  battle, 
having  been  shot  by  mistake,  as  he  was  crossing  the  river  Boyne,  by  the  soldiers  of 
his  own  regiment.  Near  Drogheda  is  a  splendid  obelisk,  150  feet  in  height,  erected 
in  1736  by  the  protestants  of  Uie  empire^  in  commemoration  of  this  victory. 

BOYNE,  MAN  of  WAR,  of  98  guns.  This  magnificent  ship  was  destroyed  by  fire  at 
Port^outh,  when  great  mischief  was  occasioned  by  the  explosion  of  the  magazine, 
and  numbers  perished.  May  4, 1795.  Large  portions  of  the  Boyne  have  been  reeovwed 
firom  time  to  time,  and  explosions  with  the  view  of  clearing  the  harbour  of  the  wreck, 
were  suooassfully  oommenced  in  June,  1840. 

BRABANT  was  erected  into  a  duchy  a.j>.  620,  and  devolved  upon  Lambert  L,  count  of 
Louvain,  in  1005,  and  frxmi  him  descended  to  Philip  XL  of  Burgundy,  and  in  regular 
snooession  to  the  emperor  Charles  Y.  Xn  the  seventeenth  century  it  was  held  by 
Holland  and  Austria,  as  Dutch  Brabant  and  Walloon.  These  provinces  underwent 
many  changes  in  most  of  the  great  wars  of  Europe.  The  Austrian  division  was  taken 
by  the  French  1746 — again  in  1794  by  their  republio ;  and  it  now  forms  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Belgium,  under  Iieopold,  since  1831.    See  Belgium, 

BRACEIiETSu  They  were  early  worn  and  prised  smong  the  ancients :  those  that  were 
called  araUBa  were  usually  distributed  as  rewards  for  valour  among  the  lioman 
legions.  Those  of  pearls  and  gold  were  worn  by  the  Roman  ladies ;  and  braoelets 
are  still  female  ornaments. 


BRAOANZA,  HOUSE  OF,  owes  its  elevation  to  royalty  to  a  remarkable  and  bloodl 
revolution  in  Portugal,  A.D.  1640,  when  the  nation,  throwing  off  the  Spanish  yoke, 
which  had  become  intolerable,  advanced  John,  duke  of  Bragansa,  to  the  throne,  on 
which  and  on  that  of  Brasl,  this  fiunily  continues  to  reign. — See  PcHugal  and  BriuiL 

BRAHMINS,  a  sect  of  Indian  philosophers,  reputed  to  be  so  ancient  that  Pythagoras  is 
thought  to  have  learned  from  them  his  doctrine  of  the  Meiemp§ychotU ;  and  it  is 
affirmed  that  some  of  the  Oreek  philosophers  went  to  India  on  purpose  to  converse 
with  them.  The  modem  Brahmins  derive  their  name  from  Brahme,  one  of  three 
beings  whom  God,  according  to  their  theology,  created,  and  with  whose  assistance  he 
formed  the  world.  They  never  eat  flesh,  and  abstain  frx)m  the  use  of  wine  and  all 
carnal  enjoyments. — Straho,  The  modem  Indian  priests  are  still  considered  as  the 
dc^ositariee  of  the  whole  learning  of  India. — HoUodU 

BRANDENBURG,  FAMILY  of,  is  of  ^at  antiquity,  and  some  historians  say  it  was 
founded  by  the  Slavonians,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Banber,  which  signifies  Guard  of 
the  ForetL  'Benrf  L  sumamed  l^e  Fowler,  fortified  Brandenburg,  a.d.  928,  to  serve 
as  a  rampart  agamst  the  Huns.  He  bestowed  the  government  on  Sifroi,  count  of 
Ringelhsiffl,  wi&  the  title  of  Margrave,  which  signifies  protector  of  the  marches  or 


BRA  104  BRE 

frontiers,  in  927.    The  emperor  Sigisxnund  gave  perpetual  investiture  to  Frederick 
IV.  of  NurembuTg,  who  was  made  elector  in  1417.    See  Pnusia. 

BRANDENBURQ-HOUSE,  Haiocersmith,  oelebrated  as  the  residence  of  queen  Caroline, 
the  unfortimate  consort  of  George  lY.,  who  took  possession  of  it  Aug.  3, 1820,  and 
here  received  the  various  addresses  and  deputations  of  the  British  people,  conse- 
quent upon  her  trial  in  the  house  of  lords,  under  a  bill  of  pains  and  penalties,  that 
year.  She  expired  at  Brandenburg-house,  Aug.  7, 1821,  which  was  pulled  down  in 
1828.    See  Queen  Caroline. 

BRANDTWINE,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  British  royalist  forces  and  the  revolted 
Americans,  in  which  the  latter  (after  a  fight,  sometimes  of  doubtful  result,  and  which 
continued  the  entire  day)  were  defeated  with  great  loss,  and  Philadelphia  fell  into  the 
possession  of  the  victors,  Sept  11, 1777. 

BRASS  was  known  among  all  the  early  nations. — Uther.  The  British  firom  the  remotest 
period  were  acquainted  with  its  use. —  Wkittaker.  When  Lucius  Mummius  burnt 
Corinth  to  the  ground,  146  B.O.,  the  riches  he  found  were  immense,  and  during  the 
conflagration,  it  is  said,  all  the  metals  in  the  city  melted,  and  running  together, 
formed  the  valuable  composition  described  as  Corinthian  Bran,  This,  however,  may 
well  be  doubted,  for  the  Corinthian  artists  had  long  before  obtained  great  credit  for 
their  method  of  combining  gold  and  silver  with  copper;  and  the  Syriac  translation  of 
the  Bible  says,  that  Hiram  made  the  vessels  for  Solomon's  temple  of  Corinthian  brass. 
Articles  made  of  this  brilliant  composition  were  highly  valued. — Du  Prewnoy, 

BRAURONIA.  Festivals  in  Attica,  at  Brauron,  where  Diana  had  a  temple.  The  most 
remarkable  that  attended  these  festivals  were  young  virgins  in  yellow  gowns,  dedicated 
to  Diana.  They  were  about  ten  years  of  age,  and  not  under  five,  and  thez^Bfore  their 
consecration  was  called  *' dekaAewein"  from  Scica,  decern ;  600  b.o. 

BRAT,  THB  VICAR  of.  Bray,  in  Berks,  is  fitmous  in  national  song  for  its  vicar,  the 
rev.  Symon  Symonds,  who  was  twice  a  papist  and  twice  a  protestant  in  four  suc- 
cessive reigns — those  of  Henry  YIII.,  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth.  Upon  being 
called  a  turn-coat,  he  said  he  kept  to  his  principle,  that  of  "  living  and  dying  the  vicar 
of  Bray : "  between  the  years  1538  and  1^5%.—PvXU^b  Church  Hietory, 

BRAZEN  BULL.  Perillus,  a  brass-founder  at  Athens,  knowing  the  cruel  disposition  of 
Phalaris  of  Agrigentum,  contrived  a  new  species  of  punishment  for  him  to  inflict 
upon  his  oppressed  subjects.  He  cast  a  brazen  bull,  larger  than  life,  with  an  opening 
in  the  side  to  admit  the  victims.  Upon  their  being  shut  up  in  this  engine  of  torture, 
a  fire  was  kindled  underneath  to  roast  them  to  death ;  and  the  throat  was  so  con- 
trived that  their  dying  groans  resembled  the  roaring  of  a  bull.  He  brought  it  to  the 
tyrant,  and  expected  a  huqge  reward.  Phalaris  adnured  the  invention  and  workman- 
ship, but  said  it  was  reasonable  the  artist  should  make  the  first  experiment  upon  his 
own  work,  and  ordered  his  execution.  Ovid  mentions  that  the  Agrigentes,  maddened 
by  the  tyrant's  cruelties,  revolted,  seized  him,  cut  his  tongue  out,  and  then  roasted 
him  in  the  brazen  bull,  by  which  he  had  put  to  death  so  great  a  number  of  their 
fellow-citizens,  561  B.O. —  Vita  Phalaridis. 

BRAZIL  was  discovered  by  Alvarez  de  Cabral,  a  Portuguese,  who  was  driven  upon 
its  coasts  by  a  tempest  in  1500.  He  called  it  the  land  of  the  Holy  Cross ;  but  it 
was  subsequently  called  Brazil  on  account  of  its  red  wood,  and  was  carefully  explored 
by  Amerigo  Vespucci,  about  1504.  The  gold  mines  were  first  opened  in  1684 ;  and 
the  diamond  mines  were  discovered  1730  (see  Diamondt).  The  French  having  seiaed 
on  Portugal  in  1807,  the  royal  &mily  and  nobles  embarked  for  Brazil.  A  revolution 
took  place  here  in  1821.  Brazil  was  erected  into  an  empire,  when  Dom  Pedro 
assumed  the  title  of  emperor,  Nov.  18, 1825.  He  abdicated  the  throne  of  Portugal 
May  2,  1826 ;  and  that  of  Brazil,  in  favour  of  his  infant  son,  now  (1857)  emperor, 
April  7, 1831,  and  returned  to  Portugal,  where  a  civil  war  ensued. — See  PortugaL 

KMnSBORS  or  BRAZIL. 


1885.  Dom  Padro  (of  Portugal)  flnt  emperor. 
Nov.  18,  abdicated  the  throne  of 
Brazil  in  favour  of  hLs  infant  son, 
April  7,  18S1 :  died  Sept  24,  18S4. 


18S1.  Dom  Pedro  II.  succeeded  on  his  other's 
abdication.  Assumed  the  ffovem- 
ment  July  23, 1840 ;  crowned  July  18^ 
1841.    The  present  emperor  (1857). 


BREAD.  The  word  is  sometimes  used  for  all  the  necessaries  of  human  life,  especially 
in  the  Scriptures.  Ching-Noung,  the  successor  of  Fohi,  is  reputed  to  have  been  the 
first  who  taught  men  (the  Chinese)  the  art  of  husbandry,  and  the  method  of  making 
bread  from  wheat,  and  wine  from  rice,  1998  b.c. — Univ,  Hist,    Baking  of  bread  was 


BRE  105  BRE 

koown  in  the  patriarchal  ages;  see  JEmmIm,  zii.  16.  Baking  bread  became  a  profeaaioii 
at  Rome,  170  B.a  Daring  Uie  siege  of  Paris  by  Henry  lY.,  owing  to  the  fiunine 
wiueh  then  raged,  bread,  irhich  had  been  sold  whilst  any  remained  for  a  crown  a 
pound,  was  at  last  noyade  from  the  bones  of  the  chaniel-houae  of  the  Holy  InnocentB, 
A,D.  15d4. — IJ^nauU.  In  the  time  of  James  I.  the  usual  bread  of  the  poor  was 
made  of  barley;  and  now  in  Iceland,  cod-fish,  beaten  to  powder,  is  made  into  bread ; 
aod  the  poor  use  potato-bread  in  many  parts  of  Ireland.  Earth  has  been  eaten  as 
bread  in  some  parts  of  the  world  :  near  Moscow  is  a  portion  of  land  whose  clay  will 
ferment  when  mixed  with  flour.  The  Indians  of  Louisiana  eat  a  white  earth  with 
Kilt;  and  the  Indiana  of  the  Oronooko  eat  a  white  unctuous  earth. — Qrtig;  PhiUipi, 

BREAD,  HOUSEHOLD.  There  was  an  assise  of  bread  in  England  in  1202.  The 
London  Bakers^  Company  was  incorporated  in  1807.  Bread-street  in  London  was 
once  the  market  for  bread  in  that  city,  and  hence  its  name.  Until  the  year  1302,  the 
London  bakers  were  not  allowed  to  sell  any  in  their  shopa — Stowt.  Bread  was  made 
with  yeast  by  the  English  bakers  in  1634.    See  Auiu  of  Bread, 

BREAD-FRUIT  TREE.  It  is  mentioned  by  several  voysgeiv,— by  Dampier,  Anson, 
and  Wallis,  among  others.  A  vessel  under  the  command  of  captain  Bligh  was  fitted 
oat  to  convey  these  trees  to  various  parts  of  the  British  colonies  in  1791.  The 
number  taken  on  board  at  Otaheite  was  1151.  Of  these,  some  were  left  at  St. 
Helena,  352  at  Jamaica,  and  five  were  reserved  for  Kew  Oardens,  1793.  The  Bread- 
fruit tree  was  successfully  cultivated  in  French  Quians,  in  1 802.  In  the  West  Indies 
the  negroes  prefer  their  own  preparations  of  the  plantain  fruit  to  bread ;  and  hence 
the  brttd-fruit  tree,  transported  at  such  an  expense  from  the  South  Sea  IslandH,  has 
been  attended  with  little  success  in  the  colonies. 

BREAKWATER  at  PLYMOUTH.  The  first  stone  of  this  stupendous  work  was  lowered 
in  the  presence  of  a  multitude  of  spectators,  Aug.  12, 1 812.  It  was  designed  to  break 
the  swell  at  Plymouth,  and  stretches  5280  feet  across  the  Sound ;  it  is  360  feet  in 
breadth  at  the  bottom  and  more  than  thirty  at  the  top,  and  consumed  8,666,000  tons 
of  granite  blocks,  from  one  to  five  tons  each,  up  to  April,  1841 :  and  cost  a  million 
and  a-half  sterling.  The  architect  was  Rennie.  The  first  stone  of  the  lighthouse  on 
its  western  extremity  wss  laid  Feb.  1, 1841. 

BREAST-PLATBS.  The  invention  of  them  is  ascribed  to  Jason,  937  B.a  The  breast- 
plate formerly  covered  the  whole  body,  but  it  at  length  dwindled  in  the  lapse  of  sges 
to  the  diminutive  gorget  of  modem  times.  See  Armour,  Ancient  breast-plates  are 
mentioned  am  made  of  the  more  costly  metals,  as  gold  and  silver,  until  iron  and  steel 
were  found  of  greater  security  to  the  warrior. — Atkint. 

BRECHIN,  in  Scotland  The  siege  here  was  sustained  against  the  army  of  Edward  III. 
1333.  The  battle  of  Brechin  was  fought  between  the  forces  of  the  earls  of  Huntly 
and  Crawfurd ;  the  latter  defeated,  1452.  The  see  of  Brechin  was  founded  by  David  L 
in  1150.  One  of  ita  bishops,  Alexander  Campbell,  was  made  prelate  when  but  a  boy, 
1556.  The  bishopric  was  discontinued  soon  after  the  revolution  in  1688;  but  wss 
revived  aa  a  post-revolution  bishopric  in  1731.    See  Buhopi  of  Scotland, 

BREDA,  in  Holland,  was  taken  by  Prince  Maurice,  of  Nassau,  in  1590 ;  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1625 ;  snd  again  by  the  Dutch  in  1637.  Our  Charles  II.  resided  here  at  the  time 
of  the  restoration,  1660.  See  Reatoratiofi,  Breda  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1793, 
sod  retaken  by  the  Dutch  the  same  year.  The  French  garrison  was  shut  out  by  the 
burgesses  in  1813,  when  the  power  of  France  ceased  here. 

BREECH^  Among  the  Qreeks,  this  garment  indicated  slavery.  It  wss  worn  by  the 
Dacians,  Parthians,  and  other  northern  nations ;  and  in  Italy,  it  is  said,  was  worn 
in  the  time  of  Augustus  Cse«ar.  In  the  reign  of  Honorius,  about  A.D.  394,  the  braccarii, 
or  breeches-makers^  were  expelled  from  Rome;  but  soon  afterwards  the  use  of 
breeches  was  adopted  in  other  countries,  and  at  length  became  general. 

BREHONS  were  ancient  judges  in  Ireland,  and  are  said  to  have  administered  justice 
with  religious  impartiality,  but  in  later  times  with  a  tendency  to  love  of  country.  It 
was  enacted  by  the  statute  of  Kilkenny,  that  no  English  subject  should  submit  to  the 
Brehon  law,  40  Edw.  III.  1365.  This  law,  however,  was  not  finally  abolished  or 
disused  until  some  time  after. — Bitm*B  AnnaU, 

BREMEN,  said  to  have  been  founded  in  788,  and  long  an  archbishopric  and  one  of  the 
leading  towns  of  the  Hanseatic  league,  waa  allowed  a  seat  and  vote  in  the  college  of 
imperial  cities  in  1640.    In  1648  it  was  secukrised  and  erected  into  a  duchy  and  held 


BRI  108  BRI 

habited  chiefly  by  fishermen.  From  hen  Charlei  II.  embarked  for  France,  after  the 
dieaatroos  battle  of  Worcester,  in  1651.  The  prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  George  lY^ 
built  a  fanciful  yet  magnificent  marine  palace  at  Brighton,  formerly  known  aa  the 
Pavilion,  1784.  It  was  afterwards  greatly  enlarged,  and  the  entire  exterior  altered 
into  a  general  resemblance  of  the  Kremlin  at  Moscow,  and  was  distinguished  as  a 
royal  pidace :  lately  sold  to  the  corporation  of  Brighton.  The  Block-house  was 
swept  away,  March  26,  1786.  Part  of  the  cli£f  fell,  doing  great  damage,  Nov.  16^ 
1807.  The  chain  pier,  1134  feet  long  and  IS  wide,  was  completed  in  1823.  The 
length  of  the  esplanade  here  firom  the  Steyne  is  about  1250  feet 

BRISTOL  was  built  hj  Brennus,  a  prince  of  the  Britons,  380  B.C.,  and  is  mentioned  in 
▲.D.  430  as  a  fortified  dty.  It  was  called  Caer  Oder,  a  city  in  the  valley  of  Bath ; 
and  sometimes,  by  way  of  eminence,  Caer  Brito,  the  British  city,  and  by  the  Sazooa 
Brighstowe,  pleasant  place.  Gildas  and  Nennius  speak  of  Bristol  in  Uie  fifth  and 
seventh  centuries.  The  city  was  granted  a  charter,  and  became  a  distinct  county  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  III.  Taken  by  the  earl  of  Gloucester,  in  his  defence  of  hk 
sister  Maud,  the  empress,  against  king  Stephen,  a.d»  1138.*  St  Mary's  church  was 
built  1292.  A  new  charter  was  obtained  in  1581.  Bristol  was  attacked  with  great 
fury  by  the  forces  of  Cromwell,  1655.  An  act  was  passed  for  a  new  exchange  in  1723, 
but  it  was  not  erected  until  1741.  The  bridge  was  built  May,  1760.  The  memorable 
attempt  to  set  the  shipping  on  fire  was  made  Jan.  22, 1777. 

BRISTOL  RIOTa    Riot  at  Bristol  on  account  of  a  toll,  when  the  troops  fii«d  on  the 

Sopulace,  and  many  were  wounded,  Oct.  25,  1793.  Riot  on  the  entrance  of  sir 
harles  Wetherell,  the  recorder,  into  the  city,  attended  by  a  large  police  and  special 
force,  to  open  the  sessions.  He  being  politiodly  obnoxious  to  the  lower  order  of  the 
citizens,  a  riot  ensued,  which  was  of  several  davs'  continuance,  and  which  did  not 
terminate  until  the  mansion-house,  the  bishops  palace,  several  merchants'  storeap 
some  of  the  prisons  (the  inmates  liberated),  and  nearly  100  houses  had  been  bamed 
and  many  lives  lost,  Oct  29,  1831.  Trial  of  the  rioters,  Jan.  2,  1832 ;  four  were 
executed  and  twenty-two  transported.  Suicide  of  col.  Brereton  during  his  trial  by 
court-martial,  Jan.  9,  same  year. 

BRISTOL,  SEE  of,  one  of  the  six  bishoprics  erected  by  Henry  VIIL  out  of  the  spoila 
of  the  monasteries  and  religious  houses  which  that  monarch  had  dissolved.  The 
cathedral  was  the  church  of  the  abbey  of  St  Austin,  founded  here  by  Robert  f^ta- 
Harding,  son  to  a  king  of  Denmark,  and  a  citizen  of  Bristol,  A.D.  1148.  It  is  valued 
in  the  lunges  books  at  838/.  Ss.  id.  Paul  Bushe,  provincial  of  the  Bons-hommes  was 
the  first  bishop,  in  1542 — deprived  for  being  married,  1554.  The  see  of  Bristol  was 
united  by  an  order  in  council  with  that  of  Gloucester,  in  1836,  and  they  now  form 
one  see  under  the  name  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol. 

BRITAIN.  The  earliest  records  of  the  history  of  this  island  are  the  manuscripts  and 
poetry  of  the  Cambrians.  The  Celts  were  the  ancestors  of  the  Britons  and  modem 
Welsh,  and  were  the  first  inhabitants  of  Britain.  Britain,  including  England,  Soot- 
land,  and  Wales,  was  anciently  called  Albion,  the  name  of  Britain  being  applied  to  all 
the  islands  collectively — Albion  to  only  one. — Pliny,  The  Romans  first  invaded 
Britain  under  Julius  CsBsar,  55  B.O.,  but  they  made  no  conquests.  The  emperor 
Claudius,  and  his  generals  Plautius,  Vespasian,  and  Titus,  subdued  several  provinces 
after  thirty  pitched  battles  with  the  natives,  a.d.  43  and  44.  The  conquest  wad 
completed  by  Agricola,  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  A.D.  85. 


Pint  invsBion  of  Britain  by  the  Romana, 

under  Julius  Cfesar                        .  B.a  65 

Cymbeliue,  king  of  Britain  .                .    .  4 

Expedition  of  Cuiudius  into  Britain,  ad.  40 

London  founded  by  the  Romans .        .    .  49 


HediesatTork    .  .       a.d.  ill 

Corausius,  a  tyrant,  usiirps  the  throne  of 

Britain SM 

He  is  killed  by  Alectus,  who  continues 

the  usurpation 29S 


Caractacua  carried  in  chains  to  Rome  61  |  Constantius  recoyem  Britain  by  the  defeat 


The  Romans  defeated  by  Boadicea;  70,000 

slain,  and  London  burnt   .  .    .    61 

A  Tast  army  of  Britons  is  defeated  by 

Suetonius,  and  80,000  slain  ...  61 
Reign  of  Bt  Lucius,  the  first  Christian 

king  of  Britain,  and  in  the  world  .  .  179 
Severus  keeps  his  court  at  York,  then 

coJled  Eboracttm 207 


of  Alectiis S96 

Constantius,  emperor  of  Rome,  dies  at 

York S06 

The  Roman  forces  are  finally  withdrawn 

firom  Britain  ....  4120  to  426 
The  Saxons  and  Angles  are  called  in  to 

aid  the  natives  agaiiuit  their  northern 

neighbours^  the  Picts  and  Scots       .    .  449 


*  Prom  the  period  of  Henry  II.  in  the  twelfth  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  oentmy,  Bristol 
ranked  next  to  London,  as  the  most  populous,  commercial,  and  flourishing  place  in  tho  kingdom ;  but 
since  the  latter  time  it  has  declined,  and  been  exceeded  in  these  respects  by  Liverpool,  Manchester. 
Leoda,  Birmingham,  and  Glasgow. 


BRI 


109 


BRI 


BRITAIN,  ewUmtud. 

BftTing  expelled  theee,  the  Anglo-Saxons 
attack  the  natiTes  themaeWee^  driTlng 
them  into  Wales  ▲  d.  455 

Many  of  the  natiTes  settle  in  Annorics» 
since  called  Britanny  .    .  467 

The  Saxon  Heptarchy;  Britain  divided 
into  ssTeii  kingdoms      ....  457 


Reign  oftha  renowned  Arthur  .  a.d.  506 
Amval  of  St.  Aogustin  (or  AnstiuX  and 

establiahment  of  Christianity  .  600 

Cadwallader,  last  king  of  the  Britons, 

began  his  reign 87S 

The  Saxon  Heptarchy  ends  .  828 

See  Jnyiofuf. 


KIKG8  OB  QOTERNORS  Of  BRITAIN. 


raox  Jtruus  osbaa  to  tbb  baxovs. 
[Where  dates  are  not  mentioned,  it  has  been 
found  impossible  to  reconcile  the  conflicting 
authorities  for  them ;  and  in  the  same  waj 
in  the  orthography  of  names^  a  like  dim- 
cultyoocnrs. 


BKfOl 

*  Gassibelan. 

*  Theomantiua. 
4.  Cymbelina. 

*  Ouideriua. 


)BS  GHKE8T. 


45. 

73. 
185. 
17». 


20T. 


»4. 

293. 

296. 
S06. 


ATTEB  CHBIST. 

Arrirsgus. 
Marins. 
Coihial. 
St  Ludus. 
[The  fint  Christian  king  oi  Britain,  and 

in  the  world.    He  dies,  and  leaves  the 

Roman  emperors  his  heirs.] 
Severus,  emperor  of  Rome.     Died  at 

York  m  210. 
Bsssinnus 

Asclepiodoras,  duks  of  ComwaH. 
Coilus  II. 

Caransius,  ^lant  of  Britain. 
Alectus,  sent  from  Rome  by  the  ssnate. 
f  St.  Helena. 

(  Constantios,  emperor  of  Rome. 
Constantine,  son  of  the  two  former,  who 

added  Britain  to  the  Roman  empire, 

and  was  the  fint  Christian  emperor  of 

Rome^  inS06. 


887. 
840. 
350. 
853. 


801. 
868. 
364. 
375. 
881. 

388. 

805. 
446. 
464. 
471. 
481. 
500. 
506. 
542. 
546 

576. 

• 

580. 
586. 
613. 
615. 
678. 


Constantine ;  son  of  the  above. 

Constans ;  hia  brother. 

Magnentiua. 

Constantius  ;  Oratianus  Funariuit  and 
afterwarda  Martinus,  his  vicars  in 
Britain. 

Julian  the  Apostats. 

Jovian ;  found  dead  in  bed. 

Valentinian. 

Oratian. 

Maximus ;  asromee  the  purple  in  Bri- 
tain; is  slain. 

Valentinian ;  oolleague  of  Oratian  above 
naiTMMi. 

Honorius. 

Vortigem,  who  called  in  the  Saxons. 

Vortimer. 

Vortigem,  sgain. 

Aurelius  Ambrosius ;  a  Roman. 

Utbur  Pendragon. 

Arthur,  the  renowned  king. 

Constantine,  cousin  of  Arthur. 

Anrelius  Conan ;  a  cruel  prince. 

Vortipor ;  a  vicious  ruler. 

Cuneglas ;  also  a  tyrant. 

ICalgo  Coranus ;  another  tyrant. 

Careticua. 

Cadwan  VL  ;  prince  of  N.  Wales. 

Cadwallan. 

Gadwallader ;  after  whose  death  the 
Saxons  conquer  all  the  country  east  of 
the  Severn  and  divide  it.  The  British 
princes  lose  the  name  of  kings^  itnd  are 
called  princes  of  Wales. 


KINOB  or  THE  HBFTABCHT. 


Kswr. 


[QhtjeiamK  vUh  tke  $kirt  qf  Kent.] 

465.  Hengist 

488.  Mac,  Esca,  or  Eseos,  son  of  Hengist ;  in 
honour  of  whom  the  kings  of  Kent  were 
for  some  time  called  iEscings. 

512.  Octa,  son  of  iBM. 

642.  Hermenric,  or  Ermenrie,  son  of  Octa. 

660.  St  Ethelbert ;  ftnt  Christian  king. 
Eadbald,  son  of  Ethelbert 

640.  Ercenbert,  or  Eroombert  son  of  Eadbald. 

664.  Ecbert,  or  Egbert  son  of  Eroenbert 
673.  Lother,  or  Lothair,  brother  of  Ecbert 

665.  Bdric ;  shdn  in  687. 

[The  kkigdom  was  now  subject  for  a  time 
to  various  leaders.  ] 
694.  Wihtred,  or  Wihgtred. 

-2'  SffiSLn  1  sons  of  Wihtred.  suooeed- 
i^.f^"^'"']         iBg  each  other. 
794.  Bdbert,  or  Ethelbert  Pxyn ;  depossd. 
796.  Cuthred,  or  Outhred. 
806.  Baldred;  who  in  823  lost  his  life  and 
kingdom  to  Egbert,  king  of  Wessex 

BOnTH  8AX01V8. 

[StuMx  and  Atrrey.] 

490.  Ella,  a  vrurlike  prince,  succeeded  by 

514.  Cissa,  his  son,  whose  reign  was  long  and 

I>eaoeful,  exceeding  70  years. 

[The  South  Saxons  here  fell  into  an  almost 

total  dependence  on  the  kingdom  of 

and  we  scarcely  know  the 


names  of  the  princes  who  were  possesMd 
of  this  titular  sovereignty. — Jrunu.} 

648.  Edilwald,  Edilwach,  or  Adelwaeh. 

<}88.  Authun  and  Berthun,  brothen;  they 
reigned  lointly ;  both  were  vanquished 
by  Ina,  king  of  Wessex,  and  the  Idng- 
dom  was  finally  conquered  in  725. 

WB9T  8AX0K8. 

[Berkt,  Southampton,  WUU,  Somenel,  Donet, 
JDevon,  and  part  </  OormnHL] 

510. 
584. 
559. 


691. 
697. 
611. 
614. 
643. 
672. 


674. 

676. 
685. 


688. 


788. 


Oerdicus. 

Cynric,  or  Kenric,  son  of  Cerdic 

Ceawlin,  son  of  Cynric  ;  banished  by  his 

subjects,  and  died  in  698. 
Ceolrio,  nephew  to  Ceawlin. 
Ceolwulf 


)  Cynegils,  and  in 


Cwichelm,  his  son,  reign  Jointly. 

Genwal,  Cenwalh,  or  Cenwald. 

Sexbuiga,  his  queen,  sister  to  Peoda, 
king  of  Mercia  ;  of  great  qualities  : 
probably  deposed. 

liscwine;  in  conjunction  with  Centwine; 
on  the  death  of  Bscwine 

Centwine  rules  alone. 

Ceadwal,  or  Ciead walla :  this  prince  went 
in  lowly  state  to  Rome,  to  expiate  his 
deeds  of  blood,  and  died  there. 

Ina,  or  Inas,  a  brave  and  wise  ruler :  he 
slso  Journeyed  to  Rome,  where  he 
passed  bis  time  in  obscurity,  leaving 
behind  him  an  excellent  code  of  lawn 

Bthelheard,  or  Ethelard,  related  to  Ina. 


BRI 


110 


BRI 


BRITAIN,  amtinued. 


740. 
754. 


755. 


784. 


MO. 


Cuthred.  brother  to  EtbalhMrd. 

Bigebiyht,  or  Sigebert ;  *  baTing  mur- 
demd  a  nobleman,  bis  fled,  but  waa 
TQCOffnisod  and  alain. 

CynewuU;  or  KenwulC  or  OennIpe.t  a 
noble  Touth  of  the  line  of  Cardie :  mur- 
dered by  a  baniahed  suhject. 

Bertrie,  or  Boorhtrio :  I  polaoned  by 
drinking  of  a  cup  hia  queen  had  pre- 
pared for  another. 

Egbert,    afterwaida    tola   mooardh  of 

^Bng^and. 

BA8T  BAZOm. 

[Amx,  MiddUtex,  and  part  o/BerU.] 

627.  Brchenwin,  or  Erchwine. 

687.  Bledda ;  hia  son. 

607.  Bt  Sebert^  or  Sabert;  aon  of  tho  pre- 
ceding: first  Chrlatlaa  Unff. 

614.  Baxred  or  Sexted,  or  Semd.  Jointly 
with  Sigebert  and  Seward :  all  dain. 

6SS.  Bigebert  II.  snmamed  the  little ;  eon  of 
Seward. 

666.  Bigebert  III.  auTiMmed  the  good ;  bro- 
ther of  Sebert :  put  to  death. 

661.  Bwithelm,  aonofSexbald. 

663.  Sigher,  or  Bigeric,  jointly  with  Sebbi,  or 
Sbbba,  who  became  a  monk. 

60S.  Bigenard,  or  Bigehard.  and  BaenfHd. 

700.  0& ;  left  hia  oueen  and  kingdom,  and 
beoune  a  monk  at  Rome. 

700.  Buebrieht,  or  Belred. 

738.  Bwithred,  or  Bwithed  ;  a  long  reign. 

702.  Bigeric ;  died  in  a  pilgrimage  to  Roma. 

790.  Bigered. 

823.  The  kingdom  eeiaed  upon  by  Egbert 
king  of  Wessex. 

KORTHUXBRIA. 

[LancatUr,    Tort,  Cumbtrlandt    WettmoHandt 
Durham,  a$td  Sortkumberland.] 


***  Northumbria  was  at  tint  dirided  into 
two  aeparate  gOYemmenta,  Jleniteio  and 
Jkira:  the  former  etrotching  from  the  river 
Tweed  to  the  Tyna.  and  the  latter  from  the 
Tyne  to  the  Humber. 
647.  Ida ;  a  valiant  Saxon. 

Adda»  his  eldeet  son ;  king  of  Bemicia. 
Ella,  king  of  Deira ;  afterwards  sole  king 

of  Northumbria. 
Olappa,  Clappa,  or  Elapea ;  Bemida. 
Heodwulf;  Bemicia. 
Freed  wulf;  Bemicia. 
Theodric;  Bemida. 
Bthelric ;  Bemida. 
Ethelfirith,  sumamed  the  neroa. 
Edwin,  son  of  Ella,  king  of  Ddra  in  600. 
The  greatest  prinoe  dl  the  Heptarchy 
in  that  age.— A»ni<.     Slain  in  battle 
with  Penda,  king  of  Mereia. 
634.  The  kingdom  again  divided ;   Banfrid 


660. 


567. 
572. 
673. 
680. 
588. 
693. 
617. 


rules  In  Bemida,  and  Osrie  in  Bein: 

both  pat  to  deatk. 
635.  Oswald  sUin  in  battle. 
644.  Osweo^  or  Oswy*  a  reign  of  graat  renown. 
670.  Ecfrid,  or  Egftid,  king  of  NortbumbciA. 
685.  AlclHd,  or  Ealdferth. 
705.  Osred,  aon  of  Ealdibrth. 
716.  Genrad ;  sprung  trona  Ida. 
718.  Osric,  son  of  Alcftid. 
729.  Oeolwulf :  died  a  monk. 
738.  Badbert,  or  Egbert ;  retired  to  a  moois- 

tery. 

757.  Oswulll  or  Osnlf ;  slain  In  a  ledition. 
750.  EdUwald  or  Mdio ;  sUdn  by  Alted,  who 

wss  impatient  for  the  thnmeL 

766.  Aired,  Ailred,  or  Alured ;  depnsed. 

774.  Ethelred,  son  of  MoUo;  expelled. 

778.  Elwald,  or  Gdwold ;  deposed  and  iUd. 

780.  Osred,  son  of  Alrsd ;  fled. 

790.  Ethelred  restored ;  afterwards  lUn. 

795.  Erdulf,  or  Ardulf;  deposed. 

808.  AlfWold  II. ;  succeeded  by  Bidulf,  sad 
perhaps  others ;  but  the  kingdom  sft«r 
so  many  &tal  revolutloos  loft  ill 
attachment  to  its  government  sad 
princes,  and  waa  prewired  for  its  mb- 
jection  to  the  yoke  of  Egbert— Aom. 

KASr  AirOLVL 

[jrorfoat,  Suffotk,  Cambridge,  hUi^Btf.] 

575.  Uflb ;  a  noble  German. 

582.  TiUlos  or  Titnlus ;  son  of  Uflh. 

599.  Bedwald;  son  of  TltUus :  the  greitiit 

prinoe  of  the  East  Angles. 
624.  Brpwald  or  EorpwaUL 
629.  Bigebert ;  half-brother  to  Erpwald. 
632.  Egfnd,  or  Egric ;  cousin  to  Sigobert 
685.  Anna,  or  Annas ;  a  just  mier ;  killed. 
654.  Ethelric.  or  Ethelbere ;  slain  hi  bsttla 
656.  Ethelwald ;  his  brother. 
664.  Aldulf;  or  Aldwull 
713.  Belred,  or  Ethelred. 
746.  Alpbwuld. 
749.  Beom  and  Ethelred,  Jointly. 

758.  fieom  alone. 
761.  Ethelred. 

790.  Ethelbert,  or  Ethdbnrht ;  trcaeberooslr 
put  to  death  in  Herda  in  792,  when  Ofll^ 
icing  of  Mereia,  overran  the  oountzy, 
which  waa  finally  subdued  by  Sgbert 

MSRaa. 

[Oountia  of  Cnvueetter,  Htrrford.  Ckalfr,  Staf- 
ford, Woretrtfr,  Word,  flb/op,  Warnck. 
Derby,  leitater,  Bueh^  SorihampUm,  S«fU, 
Lmeotn,  Bedford,  RMtiamd,  ihuUiagdm  sad 
j»ar<  €f  HerU.] 

586.  Grids,  or  Cridda ;  a  noble  chieftain. 
508.  [Interregnum.] 
597.  wibba,  a  valiant  prinoe,  his  son. 
615.  Ceorl,  or  CSieorl ;  nephew  of  Wibba. 


*  The  &te  of  Bi^bryht,  and  of  the  two  monarchs  that  immediatelv  sneceoded  him.  strikiiiglv 
Ulustimtes  the  condition  of  sodety  in  Britain  at  thia  time : — Sigebryht  had  treacherously  con5pii«d 
against,  and  murdered  his  friend,  Dxike  Cumbran,  governor  of  Hampehhe.  who  had  given  him  la 
asylum  when  expdled  from  his  throne.  For  this  infimiouB  deed  he  was  forsaken  by  tM  world,  tad 
wandered  about  in  the  wilds  and  forests,  where  he  waa  at  length  discovered  bv  one  of  Cnmfanm^  n^ 
vanta,  who  took  vengeance  upon  him  for  the  murder  of  his  master,  by  cutting  him  to  pieces.— Ifciw- 

t  Cynewulf  had  an  intrigue  with  a  younff  lady,  who  lived  at  If  erton,  in  Surrey,  whither  barioi; 
aecretly  retired,  he  was  suddenly  environed  in  the  night-time,  by  Kynehard,  brothor  of  8ig«br;bt, 
whom  Cynewulf  had  banished,  and,  after  making  a  vigorous  resistance,  was  murdered,  with  aU  hi* 
atiendanta.  The  nobility  and  people  of  the  neighbourhood  risingr  next  day  in  arma^  revenged  Um 
slaughter  of  their  king  by  putting  every  one  ooncemed  in  it  to  the  sword. — thrnu. 

%  Beorfatric  had  married  Esdbniga,  natural  daughter  of  OflSik,  king  of  Merda,  a  woman  «qwl| 
infamous  for  cruelty  and  inoontineiice.  She  had  mixed  a  cup  of  poison  for  a  young  nobleman,  an 
object  of  her  jealousy ;  but  the  king  drank  of  the  fktal  cup  along  with  the  nobleman,  and  botb  toon 
expiivd.  The  crimes  of  Eadburga  obliged  her  in  the  end  to  floe  to  France,  whence  she  was  expelied, 
ana  ehe  afterwards  wandered  to  Italy,  where  she  died  in  poverty  and  want — Hwhu. 


BRI 


111 


BRI 


BBITiJK, 


636.  Penda*  a  fierce,  emel,  uid  rerangeftil 

warrior ;  killed  in  battle. 
65&  Peada,  eoa  of  Penda ;  murdered. 
656.  Wttlfhere,  brother  of  Peada ;  to  make 

way  for  whom  Peada  waa  slain :  he 

slew  hia  two  Kma  with  hia  own  hand. 
675.  Bibelred;  beeameamonk. 
704.  Oeoxed,  Oendred,  or  Kendrtd;  became 

a  monk  at  Roma. 
700.  Oeolred.  or  Celred,  or  Chelred,  eon  of 

Bthelrad. 
716.  Bthelbald ;  dain  in  a  mutiny  by  one  of 

his  own  chieftain^  his  saeoeesor,  after 

a  defiaat  in  battle. 

755.  Deomrad,  or  Bemred:  himself  slain. 

756.  Oflh ;  he  formed  the  great  dvke  on  the 

boiden  of  Wake  known  by  nia  name. 
704.  E^rfrid,  or  S^r^ierth,  son  of  Ofh :  he  had 


ruled  Jointly  with  his  Ihther  for  some 

years:  died  suddenly. 
704.  Cenulph,  or  Kenulph ;  slain. 
810.  Kenelm  or  CSenelm.  a  minor;  reigned 

fire    months :    killed    b^    his    dster 

Quendreda,  from  the  ambitious  hope  of 

assuming  the  goremment. — Hwme. 
Ceolwulf,  undo  to  Kenelm ;  driTen  frtMn 

the  throne. 
Beomulf.  or  Bumwulf ;  killed  by  his 

ownsuqfects. 
Ludeoan ;  a  valiant  mlar :  shun. 
Withlafe.  or  WIglat 
Berthuir,  or  Bertnll 
Burhred,  or  Burdred. 
[This  Isst  kingdom  mei^ed,  like  the  other 

kingdoms  of  the  Heptarchy,  into  that 

of  England.] 


810. 

821. 

828. 
825. 
888. 
852. 


The  Saxons,  although  they  were  diYided  into  aeven  different  kingdomfl,  Tet  were  for 
the  most  part  subject  to  one  king  alone,  who  was  entitled  Rex  OetuU  Anghrum,  or 
King  of  the  English  nation;  those  which  were  stronger  than  the  rest  giving  the  law 
to  them  in  their  several  turns,  till,  in  the  end,  they  all  became  incorporated  in  the 
empire  of  the  Weet  Saxons  under  Egbert.  The  following  were  kings  or  octarehs 
during  the  Heptarchy  :  * — 


XINOI^  OB  OCTABCHi^  OT 

Hengist^  fint  king  of  Kent. 

EDa,  king  of  the  South  Baxona. 

Oerdic,  kiog  of  the  West  Baxons. 

Keniic,  ditto. 

Ceaiwin.ditta 

503.  St  Ethelbert,  ditto,  and  of  Kent 
618.  Bedwald,  king  of  the  East  Angles. 

Edwine,  king  of  Northumbria. 

Oswald,  ditto:  slain. 

Otweo,  or  Oswy,  ditto. 

WulfhoB,  king  of  Merda. 

Ethelred,  ditto. 


457. 
400. 
519. 
^84. 
560. 


630. 
635. 
644. 
670. 
«75. 


TKB  SVOUSB  SAZOm. 

704. 
700. 
716. 
768. 
798. 
706. 
820. 


Genred,  king  of  Xeroia. 

Celred,  ditto ;  sUin  in  battie. 

Ethelbald,  ditto ;  slain. 

Oflh,  ditto. 

Egferth,  or  Egfrido,  ditto. 

Kenulph,  ditto. 

Eobert,  king  of  the  West  Bazons;  the 
first  and  atMolute  monarch  of  the  wlu>le 
Heptarchy,  who  Tanqulahed  all  or  must 
of  the  Saxon  kings,  and  added  thdr 
dominions  to  his  own. 


That  Britain  formerly  joined  the  continent  has  been  inferred  from  the  similar  cliflb 
of  the  opposite  coasts  of  the  English  Channel,  and  from  the  constant  encroachments 
of  the  sea  in  still  widening  the  channel.  For  instance,  a  large  part  of  the  cliiEi  of 
Dover  feU,  estimated  at  six  acres,  Not.  27>  1810. — PhiUipt'a  AfMoU, 

BRITANNIA  TUBULAR  BRIDGE.    See  TfUndar  Bridge. 

BRITISH  ASSOCIATION  for  the  Advancement  of  Science.  The  first  meeting  was  held 
at  York  in  1831.  One  of  its  main  objects  is  "to  promote  the  intercourM  of  those 
who  cultivate  sdance  with  each  other."  A  volume  containing  Reports  of  the 
proceedings  is  published  annually. 

BRITISH  BANK,  ROTAL.  Established  in  1849,  under  sir  R  Peel's  joint-stock  banking 
flet»  7  ft  8  Vict  c.  113  (1844);  an  attempt  to  introduce  the  Scotch  banking  system  of 
cash  credits  into  England.  On  Sept  8,  1866,  it  stopped  payment^  occasioning  much 
distress  and  inconvenience  to  a  large  number  of  small  tradesmen  and  others  in 
middling  drcumstanoes.  In  consequence  of  strong  evidence  of  the  existence  of  fraud 
in  the  management  of  the  bank,  elicited  during  the  examination  before  the  court  of 
bankruptcy;  the  government  determined  to  prosecute  the  manager,  Mr.  H.  Innee 
Cameron,  and  several  of  the  directors,  who  are  now  in  custody  (June,  1857).  In  April, 
1857,  dividends  bad  been  paid  to  tiie  amount  of  8i.  in  the  pound,  and  a  further 
dividend  of  2«.  is  expected.  The  attorney-general  brought  in  a  bill  to  prevent  the 
recurrence  of  such  transactions. 

BRITISH  INSTITUTION,  Pall  Mall.  Founded  in  1805,  and  opened  Jan.  18,  1806, 
on  a  plan  formed  by  sir  Thomas  Bernard,  for  the  encouragement  of  British  artists. 
The  gallery  that  was  purchased  for  this  institution  was  erected  by  alderman  Boydell, 
to  exhibit  the  paintings  that  had  been  executed  for  his  edition  of  Shakspeare. — leigk. 

*  The  term  "Octarchy"  Is  sometimes  apnlied,  by  writers,  to  the  Saxon  kingdoms,  inssmoch  as 
Northumbria,  the  seyenth  kingdom,  was  at  aifferent  periods  divided  into  two  kiisgdoms,  Bemioia  and 
Deira,  ruled  by  separate  kings.  Other  writers  apply  tne  term  to  the  successive  kings  wliose  antixirity 
waa  aeknowledgea  by  the  other  princes  of  the  Heptarchy ;  these  they  call  Octarekt, 


BRI  112  BRU 

BRITISH  MUSEUM.  The  origin  of  this  great  national  institution  was  the  gnat  by 
parliament  of  20,000^  to  the  daughters  of  sir  Hans  Sloane,  in  payment  for  his  fine 
library,  and  vast  collection  of  the  productions  of  nature  and  art,  which  bad  cost  him 
50,000/.  The  library  contained  60,000  volumes  and  valuable  MSS.,  and  69,852  articles 
of  verth  were  enumerated  in  the  catalogue  of  curiosities.  The  act  was  passed  April  5, 
1753 :  and  in  the  same  year  Montagu-house  was  obtained  by  government  as  a  plaee 
for  the  reception  of  these  treasures.  The  museum  has  since  been  gradually  increased 
to  an  immense  extent,  by  gifts,  bequests,  the  purchase  of  every  species  of  curiosity, 
MSS.,  sculpture,  and  work  of  art,  and  by  the  transference  to  its  rooms  of  the  Cottonian, 
Harleion,  and  other  libraries,  the  Elgin  marbles,  &c.  Qeorge  IV.  presented  to  the 
museum  in  1823  the  library  collected  at  Buckingham-house  by  George  III.,  consstuig 
of  65,250  volumes,  and  about  19,000  pamphlets.  In  1846  the  right  hon.  Thoe.  Orsnville 
bequeathed  to  the  museum  his  library,  consisting  of  20,240  volumes.  For  the  Assyrian 
sculptures  and  other  treasures  that  now  enrich  this  great  national  repository,  see  MnctdL 
Great  additions  to,  and  improvements  in,  the  buildings  have  lately  been  made  by  the 
munificence  of  parliament,  independently  of  a  lax^e  annual  grant  for  scientifiQ  pur- 
poses. A  gigantic  iron  railing,  enclosing  the  frontage,  was  completed  in  1852.  The 
present  magnificent  reading-room  was  opened  to  the  public  on  May  11, 1857.  It  was 
erected  by  Mr.  Sydney  Smirke,  according  to  a  plan  by  Mr.  Antonio  Panizsi,  the  present 
librarian  (1857),  at  a  cost  of  about  150,000/.  The  height  of  the  dome  is  106  feet, 
and  the  diameter  140  feet.  The  room  contains  about  80,000  volumes,  and  wiU  accom- 
modate 800  readers.  The  library  contains  above  562,000  volumes  exclusive  of  tncts, 
MSS.  &C.  The  alphabetical  catidogue  is  completed  from  A  to  F  (about  one-third  of 
the  entire  catalogue)  in  nearly  500  volumes. 

"  BROAD  BOTTOM "  ADMINISTRATION.  This  ministry  was  so  called  because  it 
comprised  nine  dukes  and  a  grand  coalition  of  all  parties. — Cox^i  Memoin  of  PeiAaau 
Rt.  hon.  Henry  Pelham,  first. lord  of  the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer; 
duke  of  Dorset,  president  of  the  council ;  earl  Gower,  lord  privy  seal ;  duke  of  New- 
castle, and  the  earl  of  Harrington,  secretaries  of  state;  duke  of  Montagu,  master- 
general  of  the  ordnance;  duke  of  Bedford,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty:  duke  of 
Grafton,  lord  chamberlain ;  duke  of  Richmond,  master  of  the  horse ;  duke  of  Argyll, 
keeper  of  the  great  seal  of  Scotland ;  marquess  of  Tweeddale,  secretary  of  state  for 
Scotland ;  and  lord  Hardwicke,  lord  chancellor ;  all  of  the  cabinet.  The  duke  of 
Devonshire  and  duke  of  Bolton  were  not  of  the  cabinet  Nov.  1744.  Dissolved  by 
the  death  of  Mr.  Pelham,  March  6, 1754. — Ooxe, 

BROCADE,  a  silken  stuff  variegated  with  gold  or  silver,  and  raised  and  enriched  with 
flowers  and  various  sorts  of  figures^  originally  made  by  the  Chinese. — Johnton,  The 
trade  in  this  article  was  carried  on  by  the  Venetians. — Anderton,  Its  manufitctttrs 
was  established  with  great  success  at  Lyons  in  1757. 

BROCOLI.  An  Italian  plant — Pardon,  The  white  and  purple,  both  of  which  aro 
varieties  of  the  oauliflower,  were  brought  to  England /rom  the  Isle  of  Cyprus,  in  the 
seventeenth  century. — AndenofK  About  1603. — Bums.  The  cultivation  of  this 
vegetable  was  greatly  improved  in  the  gardens  of  England,  and  came  into  great 
abundance,  about  1680. — Andenon. 

BROKERS,  both  of  money  and  merchandise,  were  known  early  in  England.  See  Apprai' 
§eira.  Their  dealings  were  regfulated  by  law,  and  it  was  enacted  that  they  should  be 
licensed  before  transacting  business,  8  &  9  Will.  IIL  1695-6.  Their  proceedings  in 
cases  of  distraint  and  fees  are  regulated  by  57  Geo.  III.  c  93,  and  7  &  8  Geo.  IT.  c 
17.  The  dealings  of  stock-brokers  were  regulated  by  act  6  Geo.  L  1719,  and  10  Qao. 
IL  1736,  and  by  subsequent  acts.    See  Pawnhrohert. 

BRONZE  was  known  to  the  ancients,  some  of  whose  statues,  vessels,  and  various  other 
articles,  made  of  bronze,  are  in  the  British  Museum.  The  equestrian  statue  of  Ixmia 
XIV.  1699,  in  the  Place  Venddme  at  Paris  (demolished  Aug.  10th,  1792),  was  the 
most  colossal  ever  made ;  it  contained  60,000  lb.  weight  of  bronse.  Bronze  is  two 
parts  brass  and  one  copper,  and  the  Greeks  added  one  fifteenth  of  lead  and  silver. 

BBOWNISTS,  a  sect  founded  by  a  schoolmaster  in  Southwark,  named  Robert  Brown, 
about  1615,  and  the  first  Independents.  It  condemned  all  ceremonies  and  eoclesiaa- 
tioal  distinctions,  and  affirmed  that  there  was  an  admixture  of  corruptions  in  all  other 
communions ;  but  the  founder  subsequently  recanted  his  doctines  for  a  benefice  in 
the  Church  of  England. 

BRUCE'S  TRAVELS  were  undertaken  to  discover  the  source  of  the  Nile.    Bmce^  the 


BRU 


118 


BUB 


"  Abjasinian  TraTeller,"  set  out  in  June,  1768,  and  proceeding  first  to  Cairo,  he  nayi- 
gated  the  Nile  to  Syene,  thenoe  crossed  the  desert  to  the  Red  Sea,  and,  arriviDg  at 
Jidda,  passed  some  months  in  Arabia  Felix,  and  after  various  detentions  rea<med 
Gondar,  the  capital  of  Abyssinia,  in  Feb.  1770.  On  Not.  14th,  1770,  he  obtained  the 
great  object  of  his  wishes — a  sight  of  the  sources  of  the  Nile.  Bruce  returned  to 
England  in  1773,  and  died  in  1794. 

BRUNSWICK,  HOUSE  or.  This  house  owes  ito  origin  to  Aso,  of  the  fkmil j  of  Este. 
Aeo  died  in  1055,  and  left,  bj  his  wife  Cunegonde  (the  heiress  of  Qnelpb  IIL  duke 
of  Bayaria),  a  son,  who  was  Qnelph  IV.,  the  great-grand&ther  of  Henry  the  Lion. 
This  last  married  Maud,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  England,  and  is  always  looked  upon 
as  being  the  founder  of  the  Brunswick  fiunily.  The  dominions  of  Henry  the  Lion 
were  the  most  eztensive  of  any  prince  of  his  time :  but  having  refused  to  assist  the 
emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa  in  a  war  against  Pope  Alexander  IIL,  he  drew  the 
emperot's  re«entment  on  him,  and  in  the  diet  of  Wurtzburg.  in  1179,  he  was  proscribed. 
The  duchy  of  Bavaria  was  given  to  Otho,  from  whom  is  descended  the  family  of 
Bavaria;  the  duchy  of  Saxony  to  Bernard  Ascanius,  founder  of  the  house  of  Aohalt; 
and  his  other  territories  to  different  persons.  On  this,  he  retired  to  England;  but  on 
Henty's  intercession,  Brunswick  and  Lunenburg  were  restored  to  him.  The  bouse  of 
Bmnawiek  has  dirided  into  several  branches.  The  present  duke  of  Brunswick- 
WoUenbuttel  is  sprung  from  the  eldest;  the  duke  of  Brunswick-Zell  was  from  the 
second ;  and  from  thu  last  sprang  the  royal  family  of  England.  See  Hanover, 
A  revolution  took  place  at  Brunswick,  when  the  ducal  palace  was  burnt,  and  the 
reigning  prince  (Charles-Frederick- WiUiam)  was  obliged  to  seek  an  asylum  in  England, 
Sept.  7, 1830. 

DUKES  OF  BRUNSWICK. 


1634.  Augostus ;  wbo  left  three  Bona,  Rodol- 
pbtts-Angastrui,  Anthony-Ulrick,  and 
rerdisand'Albert ;  the  two  first  auo- 


1666.  Bodolphu»-Auinu>tu8  ;  wbo  aModated 
his  next  hrotber,  Anthony-Ubick,  in 
tbe  ffovemmentk  from  1685 ;  died  170t. 

ITDl.  Antnony-Ulrick ;  brotber  of  the  preced- 
ing ;  now  rulcKl  alone :  became  a  Roman 
Catholic  in  1710  ;  died  in  1714. 

1714.  AaguBtuft-William,  hiaaon :  died  without 
bane,  1731 ;  succeeded  l^  hie  brotber. 

1731.  Ludowick-BodotphuB :  died  without 
male  iasue  in  173&. 

1786.  Ferdinald- Albreeht :  died  same  year; 
auooeeded  bv  hia  aon, 
Cbarlea ;   who  irmnaferred   the   ducal 
reaidence  to  Brunawick ;  succeeded  by 
hiaaon, 
Charlea-Wmiam-Ferdinand  :     married 


1735. 


1780. 


the  prineeas  Augusta  of  England : 
killed  on  tbe  battle-field  of  Jena,  Oct. 
14, 1806 ;  auooeeded  by  hia  fourth  aon, 
hia  eldest  aona  being  blind,  and  abdi- 
cating in  fiiTour  of 
1806.  Frednick- William,  whose  reign  may  be 
dated  troxa  tbe  battle  of  Leipeio  In 
Oct.  1813.  Fell  at  Waterloo  (battle  of 
Quatre-Braa)  commanding  the  avant- 

S%rde  under  the  duke  of  Wellington, 
une  16»  1815 ;  and  was  sucoeeded  by 
hia  eldeat  son, 

1816.  Cbarlea-Frederick-Willlam,  depoaed  by 
hia  younaer  brother  William  in  1830. 

1830.  William  (Auguatna-Louia);  bom  April 
26,  1806 ;  aucoeeded  Sept  7,  1880,  pro- 
visionally ;  and  on  tbe  demand  of  the 
Germanic  diet  definitively,  April  26, 
1831  ;  the  preaent  duke  (1867) ;  un- 
married. 


BRUNSWICK  CLUBS,  were  established  to  mainUun  the  principles  of  the  revolution, 
the  integrity  of  the  house  of  Hanover,  and  Protestant  ascendancy  in  church  and  state. 
The  first  was  formed  in  England  at  a  meeting  held  at  Maidstone,  io  Sept.  1828.  The 
fixat  general  meeting  for  the  formation  of  Brunswick  clubs  in  Ireland  was  held  at  the 
Roiimda  in  Dublin,  Not.  4,  same  year. 

BRUSSELS,  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Belgium,  was  founded  by  St.  Qery,  of  Cambray, 
in  the  seventh  century.  The  memorable  bombardment  of  this  city  by  marshal  Ville- 
roy,  when  14  churches  and  4000  houses  were  destroyed,  1695.  Taken  by  the  French, 
1746.  Again  by  Dumouriez,  1792.  The  revolution  of  1830  commenced  here,  Aug. 
25.— See  Belgium,  This  town  is  celebrated  for  its  fine  lace,  camlets,  and  tapestry. 
The  Hdtel  de  ViUe  has  a  turret  864  feet  in  height ;  and  on  its  top  is  a  copper  figure 
of  St.  Michael,  17  feet  high,  which  turns  with  the  wind.  The  costly  furniture  of  16 
principal  houses  was  demoliBhed  in  consequence  of  a  display  of  attachment  to  the 
nouae  of  Orange  in  a  riot  on  5th  April,  1834.  A  maritime  conference  to  endeavour 
to  obtain  uniform  meteorological  observations  was  held  here  in  1853 ;  and  an  inter- 
national philanthropic  congress  met  here  in  Sept  1856. 

BUBBLE  COMPANIES,  in  commerce,  a  name  given  to  projects  for  nusing  money  upon 
£dse  and  imaginary  grounds,  much  practised,  often  with  disastrous  consequences,  in 
France  and  Engknd,  in  1719  and  1721.  In  these  years  the  bubbles  in  England  alone, 
of  which  was  the  South  Sea  scheme,  involved  a  capital  to  the  amount  of  300,000,000^ 
— KtmUy,    Muaj  such  projects  were  formed  in  England  and  Ireland  in  1825;  and  in 


BUC  114  BUE 

1844  and  1845  nuuiy  of  the  nilwmj  schemes,  sfUrwsrds  absndoned,  nuy  be  cUBsed 
under  this  description  of  enterprise.    See  Oompamiet  snd  La^s  Bubbte, 

BUCCANEERS.  These  pinticsl  sdTentursn»  chiefly  French,  English*  snd  Dutch,  com- 
menoed  their  depredations  on  the  Spaniards  of  America  soon  after  the  latter  had 
taken  possession  of  that  continent  and  the  West  Indies.  The  principal  commanders  of 
the  first  expeditions  were  Montbar,  Lolonois,  Basco»  and  Morgan,  who  murdered 
thousands,  and  plundered  millions.  The  expedition  of  Van  Horn,  of  Ostend, 
undertaken  in  1608 ;  that  of  Qnunont,  in  1685 ;  and  that  of  Pointis  in  1697. 


BUCHANTTES.  Hundreds  of  deluded  fimatics,  followera  of  Hsigsret  Buchan,  wbo 
promised  to  conduct  them  to  the  new  Jerusalem,  prophesied  the  end  of  the  world, 
and  maintained  many  absurd  doctrines,  which  appeared  to  tske  their  rise  ia  a 
disordered  mind.  She  appeared  in  Scotland  in  1779,  and  died  in  1791|  when  ker 
followers  dispersed. 

BUCHAREST,  TREATT  OP.  Prelimtnaries  of  peace  were  ratified  at  this  place  between 
Russia  and  Turkey,  it  being  stipulated  that  Uie  Pruth  should  be  the  frontier  limit  of 
those  emphes;  signed  May  28, 1812.  The  subsequent  war  between  thoae  powen 
altered  many  of  the  prorisions  of  this  treaty. 

BUCKINGHAM  PALACE,  Londok.  The  original  edifice  called  Buekingham-hoose 
was  built  on  the  site  known  as  Mulberry-gaidens^  by  John  Sheffield,  duxe  of  Bock- 
ingham,  in  1703.  In  1761,  it  became  the  property  of  the  queen,  Charlotte,  who  mado 
it  her  town  residence ;  and  here  all  her  children,  with  the  exception  of  the  eldeat, 
were  bom.  Here  likewise  seyeral  royal  mairisges  took  place — the  duke  of  York  «nd 
princess  Frederica  of  Prussia,  in  1791 ;  duke  of  Gloucester  and  princess  Mary,  1816 ; 
prince  of  Hesse-Homburg  and  princess  Elisabeth,  1818  ;  and  the  duke  of  Cuibrid^ 
and  princess  of  Hesse,  in  the  same  year.  Buckingham-house  was  pulled  down  in 
1825,  and  the  new  palace  commenced  on  its  site ;  sad  after  an  expenditure  of  nearly 
a  million  sterling  it  was  completed,  and  was  taken  possession  of  by  queen  Victoria, 
July  13,  1837,  and  is  now  her  ordinary  London  residence :  further  improTcmenta 
were  made  in  1853.  The  marble  arch  was  taken  down  from  the  exterior  of  this 
palace,  and  re-erected  at  Cumberland-gate^  Hyde-park,  and  completed,  March  29, 1S51. 

BUCKLERS.  Those  used  in  single  combat  were  inyented  by  Proitus  and  Acrisiasy  of 
Aigos,  about  1870  B.O.  When  Lucius  Papirius  defeated  the  Samnitcs,  he  took  from 
them  their  bucklers,  which  were  of  gold  and  sUtst,  809  B.a  In  modem  warfisre  tba 
buckler  has  been  laid  aside,  but  the  light  cuirass  of  horse-soldiersy  called  cuirssBiers, 
is  something  akin  to  the  ancient  buckler.    See  article  Armour, 

BUCKLES.  The  wearing  of  buckles  commenced  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  but  people 
of  inferior  rank,  and  such  as  affected  plainness  in  their  garb,  wore  strings  in  their 
shoes  some  years  after  that  period:  these  last  were,  howeyer,  ridiculed  for  their 
singularity  in  using  them.  Buckles  continue  to  be  u#d  in  court  di^ss  and  by  persona 
of  rank  in  most  countries  of  Europe. 

BUDA,  on  the  Danube,  once  cslled  the  Key  of  Christendom,  in  conjunction  with  Peath, 
the  capital  of  Hungary.  It  was  taken  by  Solyman  II.  at  the  memorable  battle  of 
Mohatz,  when  the  Hungarian  king,  Louis,  was  killed,  and  200,000  of  his  aubjects 
carried  away  captives,  1526.  Buda  was  sacked  a  second  time,  when  the  inhabitants 
were  put  to  the  sword,  and  Hungaiy  was  annexed  to  the  Ottoman  empire,  1540.  Re- 
taken by  the  Imperialists,  and  the  Mahometans  deliTcred  up  to  the  fury  of  the 
soldiers,  1686.    See  Hungairy, 

BUENOS  AYRES.  This  vast  oountiy  was  explored  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1526,  and  Uie 
capital  founded  by  Don  Pedro  de  Mendoza  in  1535.  In  1585,  the  city  was  re-bmlt, 
and  re-colonised,  after  seTeral  abandonments.  A  British  fleet  and  army,  under  sir 
Home  Popham  and  general  Beresford,  took  the  city  with  slight  lesistanoa  in  1806, 
but  it  was  retaken  Aug.  12,  after  six  weeks'  possession.  Monte  Video  was  takeik  by 
storm  by  sir  Samuel  Auchmuty,  Feb.  3, 1807 ;  but  evacuated  July  7,  following.  See 
MonU  Video.  The  British  suffered  a  dreadful  repulse  hero,  in  an  expedition  of 
8000  men  under  general  Whitelock  (who  was  disgraced),  July  6, 1807.  On  ent«rii^ 
the  town  they  were  attacked  by  a  superior  force  of  musketry  and  grape  from  avery 
quarter,  and  perished  in  great  numbers,  without  occasioning  any  corresponding  losa 
to  the  enemy.  A  convention  followed,  by  which  the  British  were  allowed  to  i«» 
embark  in  their  ships.— The  peace  of  Buenos  Ayres  was  disturbed  in  the  beginning  of 
the  last  oentuiy  by  rival  chiefs,  who  defied  the  authority  of  Spain,  but  iSter  grvot 


BUP  115  BUL 

havoc  and  bloodahed  thej  wen  quieted.  The  independenee  of  the  province  mm 
declared,  Jaly  19, 1816;  and  it  was  Tecognieed  in  Febroaiy,  1822,  iis  forming  part  of 
the  Aigentine  confederation ;  but  for  some  past  yearv,  the  ooontry  haa  been  made  a 
prej  to  ciiril  war  by  varkma  leaders*  among  whom  were  Oribe,  Urquas,  and  Boaa& 
The  laat  waa  defeated  in  battle,  Feb.  8»  1852,  by  Urquica,  to  whom  Baenoa  Ayrva 
capitolated,  and  Ronfl^  fleeing  to  England,  arriTed  at  Plymouth,  April  25,  1852. 
General  Urqoiza  having  been  deposed  Sept  10,  1852;  invested  the  dty  Dea  28. 
He  defeated  hia  opponent's  squadron  April  18, 1853,  but  withdrew  his  forces  July 
18,  and  the  dvil  war  ended.  Dr.  D.  Plutor  Obligado  the  present  governor  (1857), 
was  elected  Oct  12,  1853.  In  1853,  Buenos  Ayres  seceded  from  the  Argentine 
confederation,  and  has  been  generally  recognised  as  an  independent  state. 


BUFFOON&  These  were  origniaDy  mountebanla  fai  the  Romsn  theatres.  The  siiows  of 
the  bulToons  were  disooursged  hjf^  Domitian,  snd  were  finally  abolished  by  Trmjan,  a.d» 
98.  Our  andent  kings  hadjoten,  who  are  described  ss  bemg,  at  first,  praetitioneri  of 
indecent  raillery  and  antic  postures ;  they  were  employed  under  the  Tudora.  Some 
writers  state  that  James  I.  converted  the  jesters  into  poet-laureates ;  but  poet-laureates 
exnted  long  before ;  Selden  traces  the  latter  to  1251. — fFaifoa. 

BUILDIKG.  The  first  sti-uctmea  were  of  wood  snd  clay,  then  of  rough  stone,  snd  in 
the  end  the  srt  advanced  to  polished  marble.  Building  with  stone  was  eariy  among 
the  Tynans ;  and  aa  ornaments  and  taste  arose^  every  nation  pursued  a  different 
sjatem.  Building  with  stone  may  be  referred  in  England  to  Benedict,  the  monk, 
about  A.a  670.  The  first  bridge  of  thia  material  in  England  waa  at&ni^  ia.11187.  lu 
Ireland,  a  castle  was  built  of  stone  at  Tuam  by  the  king  of  Connang^t,  in  1161 ; 
and  it  was  "  so  new  and  uneommon  as  to  be  called  tlie  Wfmderful  CaMeJ*  Building 
with  brick  was  introduced  by  the  Romans  into  their  provinces.  Alfred  encouraged 
it  in  England,  in  886.  It  was  generally  adopted  by  the  earl  of  Arundel,  about  1598, 
London  being  then  almost  built  of  wood.  The  inciease  of  building  in  London 
was  prohibit^  within  three  miles  of  the  city-gfttes  by  Elisabeth,  who  ordered  that 
one  fiunily  only  should  dwell  in  one  house,  1580.  The  buildings  from  High 
Holbom,  north  and  south,  and  Great  Queen-street,  were  erected  between  1607  aud 
1631. — Strype.    Enormous  increase  in  buildings  round  London  since  1820. 

BUILDING  ACTS.  The  early  snd  principal  statutes  reUting  to  building  were  pwsed, 
vis.  5.  23,  and  35  reign  of  Eliz.,  19  A  22  of  Chas.  II.,  and  6  &  7  of  Annei  The 
principal  statutes  since  wero  33  Geo.  II.  and  6  Gea  IIL  followed  by  enactments  in 
1770,  1772,  and  1783.  The  recent  acts  are  very  numerous;  and  building  is  now 
regulated  by  stringent  provisions  enforced  by  law.  The  Building  Act  for  the  Metro* 
polis  is  7  &  8  Vict  a  84  (1844). 

BULGARIANS.  They  defeated  Justinian  II.,  a.d.  687;  and  were  subdued  by  the  em* 
peror  Basilius,  in  1 01 9.  On  one  occasion,  this  emperor  having  taken  1 5,000  Bulgarians 
prisoners,  caused  their  eyeeto  be  put  out,  leaving  one  eye  only  to  every  hundredth 
man,  to  enable  him  to  conduct  his  countrymen  home.  Bulgsria  was  governed  by 
Roman  dukes  till  1186 ;  subdued  by  Bajazet,  1396.— 27»t>.  Bisi. 

BULL  OB  EDICrr  OF  THS  POPE.  This  is  an  apostolical  rescript,  of  ancient  use,  and 
generally  written  on  parchment  The  bull  is^  properly,  the  seal,  deriving  its  name 
from  bniia,  and  has  been  made  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  wax.  Ctai  one  side  are  the 
heada  of  Peter  and  Paul ;  and  on  the  other,  the  name  of  the  pope^  and  year  of  his 
pontificate.  Bulls  denouncing  queen  Elisabeth  and  her  abettors,  and  consigning  them 
to  hell-fire,  accompanied  the  Spanish  Armada,  1588. — The  celebmted  Golden  Bull  of 
the  emperor  Charles  IV.  was  so  called  because  of  its  golden  seal,  and  was  made  the 
fundamental  law  of  the  German  empiro,  at  the  diet  of  Nuremberg',  a.d.  1356. 

BULL-BAITING,  or  BULL-FIGHTING.  A  sport  in  Spain  and  PoHugal,  somewhat 
equivalent  in  those  countries  to  the  fights  of  the  gladiators  among  the  Romans.  It 
is  recorded  as  being  sn  amusement  at  Stamford  so  early  as  the  reign  of  John,  1209. 
Bidl-running  was  a  sport  at  Tutbury  in  1374.  In  the  Sporti  of  Emglamd,  we  read  of 
the  "  Easter  fierce  hunts^  when  foaming  boars  fought  for  their  heads,  and  lusty  bulls 
and  huge  bears  wero  baited  with  dogs ; "  and  nesr  the  Clink^  London,  was  the  Paiis, 
or  Bear  Garden,  so  celebrated  in  the  time  of  Elisabeth  for  the  exhibition  of  bear* 
VHi"e,  then  a  fashionable  amusement.  A  bill  to  abolish  bull-baiting  was  thrown 
out  in  the  commons^  chiefly  through  the  hifluence  of  the  late  Hr.  Windham,  who 
made  a  singular  speech  in  favour  of  the  custom,  Kay  24, 1802. — Butler.  It  has  since 
been  dedved  ille|^    See  CnUlty  to  AnimaU,    Bull-fights  were  Introduced  into 

l2 


BUL  116  BUR 

Spain  about  1260 :  abolUhed  there,  *'  except  for  pioui  and  patriotic  purpoaee,"  in  1784. 
There  was  a  bull-fight  at  Lisbon,  at  Gampo  de  Santa  Anna,  attended  by  10,000 
spectators,  on  Sunday,  June  14, 1840. 

BULLETS  of  stone  were  in  use  a.d.  1514.  L*on  ones  are  first  mentioned  in  the  Fcedera, 
1550.  Leaden  bullets  were  made  before  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  con- 
tinue to  be  in  use  in  all  nations  for  musketry.  The  cannon-ball  in  some  eastern 
countries  is  still  of  stone,  instead  of  iron. — A$he, 

BUNKER*S-HILL,  BATTLE  of,  June  17, 1775.  Fought  between  the  British  forces  and 
the  revolted  Americans,  who  made  a  formidable  stand  against  the  royal  troops,  bat 
were  ultimately  defeated  with  conmderable  loss — ^the  Americans  were  nearly  2000, 
and  the  British  near  8000  men.  It  was  one  of  the  earliest  actions  of  the  proyincials 
wiUi  the  mother  country;  and  liot withstanding  its  issue,  and  the  retreat  of  their 
forces,  the  American  people  refer  to  it  with  national  pride,  on  account  of  the  obstinate 
fight  they  made  against  the  superior  numbers  of  the  British.— iTMf.  Awurioam  War* 

BUONAPARTE.    See  BonaparU, 

BUBFORD  CLUR  The  appellation  given  (according  to  Mr.  Layer,  the  barrister,  a 
conspirator)  by  the  Pretender  and  his  agents,  to  a  club  of  Tory  lords  and  others,  of 
which  the  lord  Orrerr  was  chairman,  and  lord  Strafford,  sir  Henry  Goring,  lord  Cowper, 
Mr.  Hutoheson,  the  bishop  of  Rochester,  sir  Constantino  Phipps,  general  Webb,  lord 
Bingley,  lord  Craven,  Mr  Dawkinsi,  lord  Scarsdale,  lord  Bathurst»  Mr.  Shippen,  and 
lord  Oower,  were  members.  This  club  met  (according  to  the  same  tainted  eridenoe) 
at  one  another's  honsee,  to  form  designs  against  the  government  The  improbability 
of  this  stoiy  was  strengthened  by  the  solemn  declaration  of  lord  Cowper,  on  his  woid 
of  honour,  that  he  did  not  know  of  its  existence ;  and  a  like  aaseveration  was  mad«i  by 
lord  Strafford,  in  his  place  in  the  house  of  lords.  The  list  of  this  pretended  dab  of 
conspirators  was  published  in  the  Weekly  Journal,  printed  in  WhitefHan;  but  when 
Read,  the  printer  of  the  paper,  was  ordered  to  appear  at  the  bar  of  the  honaa,  he 
absconded  from  his  home.    March,  1722. — Salnum, 

BURQESS,  from  the  French  Bowgeois,  a  distinction  coeval  in  England  with  its  oorpora- 
tidns.  Burgesses  were  called  to  parliament  in  England,  a.d.  1266 ;  in  Sootiand,  in 
1826 ;  4nd  in  Ireland,  about  1865.  Burgesses  to  be  resident  in  the  places  they  repro- 
sented  in  parliament,  1  Hen.  Y.  1418.— F»ii«r^«  StattOei.    See  Borough. 

BUROHER  SECEDERS,  were  dissenters  from  the  Church  of  Scotland.  Their  separation 
from  the  associate  presbytery  arose  in  a  difference  of  sentiment  regarding  the  lawful- 
ness of  taking  the  burgees  oath,  1789.  The  number  of  this  class  of  separatists  was, 
however,  even  at  the  time,  comparatively  small. 

BURGLARY  until  the  reign  of  George  lY.  was  punished  with  death.  Fbrmsrlj,  to 
encourage  the  prosecution  of  offenders,  he  who  convicted  a  burglar  was  exempted 
firom  parish  offices,  10  ft  11  Will.  IIL  1699.  Statute  of  Rewards,  6  Aime,  1706,  and 
6  Geo.  I.  1720.  Receivers  of  stolen  plate  and  other  goods  to  be  transported,  10 
■  Geo.  III.  1770.  Persons  having  upon  them  picklock>keys,  ftc.,  to  be  deemed  rogues 
and  vagabonds,  18  Geo.  III.  1772-8.  The  laws  with  respect  to  burglary  were  amended 
by  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  RobArt)  Peel's  acts,  between  4  ft  10  Geo.  IV.  1828  and  1829. 

BURGOS,  SIEGE  or.  Lord  Wellington  entered  Burgos  after  the  batUe  of  Salamanca 
(fought  July  22, 1812)  on  Sept  19.  The  castle  was  besieged  bj  the  British  and  allied 
army,  but  the  siege  was  abandoned  Oct.  21,  same  year.  The  fortifications  ifer« 
blown  up  by  tiie  French,  June  12, 1818. 

BURGUNDY.  This  kingdom  begins  in  Alsace,  ad.  418.  Conrad  II.  of  Germany  beinic 
declared  heir  to  the  kingdom,  is  opposed  in  his  attempt  to  annex  It  to  the  empire 
when  it  is  dismembered,  and  on  its  ruins  are  formed  the  four  provinces  of  Barg^ndj, 
Provence,  Viennes,  sad  Savoy,  1084.  Burgundy  becomes  a  drele  of  the  Geiman 
empire,  1521.  It  falls  to  Philip  11.  of  Spain,  whose  tyranny  and  religious  persecations 
cause  a  revolt  in  the  Batavian  provinces,  1566.  After  various  changes,  Bai^adj 
was  aimezed  to  France,  and  formed  into  departments  of  that  kingdom. 

BURIAL,  AND  BURIAL-PLACEa  The  earliest  mode  of  restoring  the  body  to  earth. 
The  first  idea  of  it  is  said  to  have  been  formed  from  observing  a  live  bird  covering  a 
dead  one  with  leaves.  Barrows  were  the  most  ancient  graves.  See  ^.irrowt.  Plaoea 
of  burial  were  consecrated  under  pope  Calixtus  I.  in  210. — Btuebius,  The  Greeks  had 
their  burial-places  at  a  distance  from  Iheir  towns;  the  Romans  near  the  hlghwtja; 
henoe  the  necessity  for  inscriptions  on  tombs.    The  first  Christian  burial'phioe  waa 


BUB  117  BUR 

iDBtitiiied  in  59<f ;  bniud  in  dtles,  742 ;  in  oonaecntted  places,  760 ;  in  ehnreh-yarda* 
758.  Vaults  were  erected  in  ehancele  fint  at  Canterbury,  1075.  Woollen  shrouda 
were^iaed  in  England,  1666.  Linen  acarft  were  introduced  at  funerals  in  Ireland* 
1729 ;  and  woollen  ahronda  uaed»  1788.  Burials  were  taxed,  1695— again,  1783.  The 
acU  relating  to  metropolitan  burials  are  15  &  16  Vict.  c.  85  (1862) ;  16  k  17  Viet, 
e.  184  (1853) ;  17  &  18  Ylct  c.  87  (1854) ;  and  18  ft  19  Vict  oc  68,  79, 128  (1855). 
See  Cemderiei. 

BURIATA  Parochial  registers  of  them,  and  of  birtibs  and  marriages,  were  instituted  in 
England  by  Cromwell,  lord  Essex,  about  1536.— Arowe.  A  tax  was  exacted  on  buriala 
in  England — for  the  burial  of  a  duke  50k  and  for  that  of  a  common  person  4«.,  under 
WilL  IIL  161»»,  and  Gm.  nL  1783.— .Sto/fHet.    Soe  BUU  of  Mokaliiy. 

BURKINQ,  a  new  and  horrible  species  of  murder  committed  in  England,  thus  named 
from  the  first  known  criminal  by  whom  the  deed  was  perpetrated  being  called  Burke, 
His  victims  were  stimngled  or  made  lifeless  by  pressure  or  other  modes  of  sniFocation, 
and  the  bodies,  whidi  exhibited  no  marks  of  yiolenee,  were  afterwords  sold  to  the 
sui^geons  for  the  purpose  of  dissection.  Burke  was  executed  at  Edinbuiyh,  in  February, 
1829.  The  crime  was  also  perpetrated  by  a  gang  of  murderers  in  London.  The 
monster  named  BtMkop  was  apprehended  m  Kovember,  1831,  and  executed,  Dec.  5, 
with  WiUiaiM^  one  of  his  accomplices,  for  the  murder  of  a  poor  Italian  boy  named 
Carlo  Ferrari,  a  friendless  wanderer,  and  therefore  selected  as  being  less  likely  to  b« 
sought  after.    They  confessed  to  this  and  other  similar  murden. 

BURLINOTON  HEIGHTS,  BATTLE  of,  between  the  British  and  the  United  States 
American  forces,  an  obstinate  and  memorable  engagement,  contested  with  great 
Talonr  on  both  sides.  Neither  force  was  of  large  amount,  but  the  latter  was  more 
numerous.  The  Americans  were  routed,  and  the  British  carried  the  heights,  June  6. 
1813.— fTii^.  of  the  American  War. 

BURMESE  OB  BIRMAN  EMPIRE,  founded  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  h^ 
Alompra,  the  first  sovereign  of  the  present  dynasty.  Our  first  dispute  with  this 
formidable  power  occurred  in  1795,  but  it  was  amioi3>Iy  adjusted  by  general  Erskine. 
Hostilities  were  commenced  by  the  British  in  1824,  when  they  todk  Rangoon.  The 
fort  and  pagoda  of  Syriam  were  taken  in  1825.  After  a  short  armistice,  hostilities 
were  renewed,  Dec.  1,  fame  year,  and  pursued  until  the  suocessiye  victories  of  the 
British  led  to  the  cession  of  Arracan,  and  to  the  signature  of  peace,  Feb.  24, 1826. 
For  the  events  of  this  war,  and  of  the  Burmese  war  commenced  in  1852,  see  India, 
The  province  of  Pegu  was  annexed  to  our  India  empire,  Dec.  20, 1852.  The  war  was 
declared  at  an  end,  June  20, 1858» 

BURKING  ALIVE  was  inflicted  among  the  Romans,  Jews,  and  other  nations,  on  the 
betrayers  of  ooundls,  incendiaries,  and  for  incest  in  the  ascending  and  descending 
degrees.  The  Jews  had  two  ways  of  burning  alive :  one  with  wood  and  faggots  to 
bum  the  body ;  the  other  by  pouring  scalding  lead  down  the  throat  of  the  criminal, 
combitaH/o  animte,  to  bum  the  souL    Bee  SuUeee. 

BURNING  ALIVE  us  ENGLAND.  Even  in  England  burning  alive  was  a  punishment 
upon  the  statute-book.  The  Britons  punished  heinous  crimes  by  burning  alive  in 
wicker  baskets.  See  Stonthenfft.  This  punishment  was  countenanced  by  bulls  of  the 
pope ;  and  witchea  suffered  in  this  manner.  See  Wit^et,  Many  persons  have  been 
burned  alive  on  account  of  religious  principles.  The  first  sufferer  was  sir  William 
Sawtre,  parish  priest  of  St  Osith,  London,  8  Hen.  IV.  Feb.  9, 1401.  In  the  reign  of 
JAary  numbers  were  burned,  among  others,  Ridley,  bishop  of  London;  Latimer, 
bishop  of  Rochester;  and  Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Canterbury;  who  were  burned 
at  Oxford  in  1555  and  1556.* 

BURNING  THS  DEAD.  The  antiquity  of  this  custom  rises  as  high  as  the  Theban  war ; 
it  was  practised  among  the  Greeks  snd  Romans^  and  the  poet  Homer  abounda  with 
descriptions  of  such  funeral  obsequies.  The  practice  was  very  general  about  1225  B.C. 
and  was  revived  by  Sylla,  lest  the  relics  of  the  dead  in  graves  should  be  violated ;  and 
to  this  day  the  burning  of  the  dead  is  practised  in  many  parts  of  the  East  and  West 
Indies*    See  Barrovs, 

*  It  is  compnted,  that  during  the  three  years  of  Mary's  reign,  there  wore  277  peraons  brought  to 
tbe  stake ;  besides  those  who  were  punished  by  itnprisonmetit,  fines,  and  confiscations. .'  Among  those 
who  suffered  by  fire  were  6  bishops,  21  clergymen,  8  lay  gentlemen,  84  trsdesmen,  100  husbandmen, 
servants,  and  labourers,  bb  women,  and  4  children.  The  principal  agents  of  the  queen  were  the 
bisbope  Gardiner  and  Bonner.  The  latter  is  said  to  have  derived  a  savage  pleasure  irom  witnessing 
the  torture  of  the  suiferers. 


B«biianee»^ued. 

Weiffht,       Tivu. 

Pure  gold 

.  20groiD«   4aaconds. 

BiWer 

.  20     „        8       „ 

Copper . 
Platina    . 

.  83      „       26       „ 
.  10      „        8       „ 

Cast  Iron 

.  10      „        8       „ 

Bteel. 

.  10      ,,      12       „ 

BUR  118  BUT 

BURNIKG^LASS  and  CQNCAYK  MIKRORS.  Their  power  was  not  unknown  to 
ArohimedeSy  but  Him  powers  of  these  instruments  are  rendered  wonderful  l^  the 
modem  improyements  of  SettsUa :  of  Tschimhausen,  1680;  of  Buffon,  17^7;  ind  of 
Fkuker  «Qd  others,  more  reoentlj.  The  following  are  experiments  of  the  fusion  of 
substances  made  with  Mr.  Parker's  lens,  or  burning  mirror : 

SuManeafuati.  Wiiffht.  Tiwie, 

Atopax.  .       .    8 grains  46  Moooda. 

An  emerald  .    .    S     „  25       ,, 

A  crystal  pebble  .       .    7     „  0      ,. 

Flint        .       .        .    .  10      „  80       „ 

Cornelian      .  .       .  10     „  75      „ 

Pumice  atone  .       .    .  10     „  S4      ,, 

.  Green  wood  takes  fire  instantaneously ;  water  boils  immediately ;  bones  are  caloined ; 
and  things,  not  capable  of  melting,  at  once  become  red-hot  like  iron. 

BURWELL  FIRE.  A  number  of  persons  assembled  to  see  a  puppet-show  at  Burwell, 
near  Newmarket^  in  the  evening  of  September  8, 1727.  The  entertainment  was  in  a 
bsTDi  and  a  oandle  having  been  placed  too  near  a  heap  of  straw,  a  fire  was  occasioned, 
whidi  was  Que  of  the  most  fatal  on  reoord.  Seyenty-siz  individuals  perished  in  the 
fire,  and  others  died  of  their  wounds.  Among  the  sufferers  were  several  jonng  ladies 
of  fortune  and  many  children. 

BURT  ST.  EDMUND*S,  took  its  name  from  St.  Edmund,  who  was  murdered  by  the 
Danes  in  870,  and  buried  here,  and  to  whom  its  magnificent  abbey  was  founded.  It 
shares  with  Runnymede  the  honour  of  producing  Magna  Charta  in  1215.  At  this 
town  the  barons  met,  and  entered  into  a  league  against  king  John ;  and  Henry  VI. 
summoned  a  parliament  in  1446,  when  Humphrey,  duke  of  Qlouoester,  was  imprisoned, 
and  died  here,  it  is  supposed  by  poison.  It  was  almost  consumed  by  fire  in  1608; 
and  an  awful  and  desolating  plague  raged  in  1636. 

BURYINQ  ALIVE.  A  mode  of  death  adopted  in  BcBotia,  where  Creon  ordered  Antigone, 
the  sister  of  Polynices,  to  be  buried  alive,  1226,  B.o.  The  Roman  vestals  were  sub- 
jeoted  to  this  horrible  kind  of  execution  for  any  levity  in  dress  or  conduct  that  oould 
excite  a  suspicion  of  their  virtue.  The  vestal  Minutia  was  buried  alive  on  a  charge  of 
inoontinenoe,  387  B.a  The  vestal  Sextilia  was  buried  alive  274  b.0.  The  vestal 
Cornelia,  a.d.  92.  hord  Bacon  gives  instances  of  the  resurrection  of  persons  who  had 
been  buried  alive ;  the  fiimous  Duns  Scotus  is  of  the  number.  The  assassins  of  Capo 
d'lstrio,  president  of  Greece,  were  (two  of  them)  sentenced  to  be  immured  in  brick 
walls  built  around  them  up  to  their  chins,  and  to  be  supplied  with  food  in  this  species 
of  torture  imtil  they  died,  Oct  1831.    See  Greece^ 

BUSACO,  OB  BUZACO,  BATTLE  of,  between  the  British  under  lord  Wellington  and 
the  French  army,  commanded  by  MasseniL  Tho  latter  were  repulsed  with  great 
slaughter,  losing  one  general  and  1000  men  killed,  two  generals  and  about  SOOO  men 
wounded,  and  several  hundred  prisoners ;  the  loss  of  the  allies  did  not  exceed  1800 
in  the  whole.  The  British  subsequently  retreated  to  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras, 
which  were  too  strong  for  Massena  to  attempt  to  force,  and  the  two  ormios  remained 
in  sight  of  each  other  to  the  end  of  the  year  :  fought  Sept.  27, 1810. 

BUSHEL.  This  measure  was  ordered  to  contain  eight  gallons  of  wheat,  12  Henry  VIII. 
1520;  the  legal  Winchester  bushel  was  regulated  9  WilL  III.  1697;  the  imperial 
com  bushel  of  2218*192  cubic  inches  is  to  the  Winchester  of  2150*42,  as  82  to  31. 
Regulated  by  act  5  Gko.  IV.  June,  1824,  which  act  came  into  operation  Jan.  1, 1829. 

BUSHIRE  (on  the  Persian  Oulf),  attacked  by  sea  by  Sir  H.  Leeke  and  by  land  by 
Genei^  Stalker,*  was  taken  Dec.  10,  1856.  The  place  proved  stronger  than  was 
expected,  and  was  bravely  defended.  Brigadier  Stopford  and  CoL  Malet  were  killed 
in  a  pre^ous  attack  on  the  fort  at  Reshire,  Deo.  9.  The  loss  of  the  British  was  4 
officers  killed,  and  one  wotmded;  five  men  killed,  and  35  wounded. 

BUSTS.  This  mode  of  preserving  the  remembrance  of  the  human  features  is  the  same 
with  the  herma  of  the  Greeks.  Lysistratus,  the  statuary,  was  the  inventor  of  moulds 
from  which  he  cast  wax  figures,  328  B.C. — PUny,  Busts  from  the  face  in  plaster  of 
Paris  were  first  taken  by  Andrea  Verrochi,  about  a.d.  1466. —  Vaiaru 

BUTCHERS.  Among  the  Romans  there  were  three  classes :  the  Suarii  provided  hogs^ 
the  Boarii  oxen,  and  the  Lanii,  whose  office  was  to  kill.    The  butchers*  trade  is  very 

*  Who^  in  a  fit  of  insanity  produced  by  physical  and  mental  doi>renion,  committed  soidde,  March 
14,1857. 


BUT  119  CAB 

ancient  in  England ;  ao  ia  their  company  in  London,  although  it  ma  not  incorporated 
until  the  second  year  of  James  1. 1604. — AnmaU  qf  London^ 

BUTE  ADMINISTRATION.  John,  earl  of  Bute,  first  lord  of  the  treasury ;  sir  Francis 
Daahwood,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer;  lord  GnmTille,  president  of  the  council; 
duke  of  Bedford,  privy  seal ;  earl  of  HaJifaz,  admiralty ;  earl  of  Egremont  and  rt 
hon.  Geoige  QrenTille,  secretaries  of  state ;  lord  Ligonier,  ordnance ;  rt.  hon.  Henry 
Fox,  afterwards  lord  Holland,  paymaster  of  the  forces ;  vscount  Barrington,  treasurer 
of  the  navy;  lord  Sandys,  fint  lord  of  trade;  duke  of  Marlborough,  earl  Talbot,  lord 
Huntingdon,  lord  North,  &c.    May,  1762, 

BUTTER.  It  wss  late  before  the  Greeks  had  any  notion  of  butter,  and  by  the  early 
Romans  it  was  used  cmly  as  a  medicine — never  as  food.  The  Christians  of  Egypt 
burnt  butter  in  their  lamps  instead  of  oil,  in  the  third  century.  Butter  forming  an 
important  article  of  commerce  as  well  as  food  in  these  countries,  Tsrious  statutes 
haye  pacaed  respectiug  its  paduige,  weight,  and  sale ;  the  principal  of  which  are  the 
S6th  ft  88th  Geo.  III.  and  10  Geo.  lY.  1829.  In  1675,  there  fell  in  IreUmd,  during 
the  winter  time,  a  thick  yellow  dew,  which  had  all  the  medicinal  properties  of  butter. 
• — In  Ahicti,  vegetable  butter  is  made  from  the  fruit  of  the  shea  tree,  and  is  of  richer 
taste,  at  Kebba,  than  any  butter  made  from  cow's  milk. — Mumgo  Park. 

BUTTONSb  Of  early  mann&cture  in  England :  those  coyered  with  cloth  were  prohi- 
bited by  a  statute,  thereby  to  encourage  the  manufacture  of  metal  buttons,  8  Geo.  I. 
1721.  The  manufacturo  owes  nothiog  to  encouragement  from  any  quarter  of  late 
years,  although  it  has,  notwithstanding,  much  improved. — PkiUip$. 

BTNG,  HoK.  Admiral  JOHN.  Shot  on  board  the  Monarch  ship  of  war  at  Spithead, 
March  14, 1757.  This  brave  officer,  so  distinguished  by  his  services,  and  who  had 
given  so  many  signal  proofs  of  his  courage  as  a  commander,  was  charged  with  neglect 
of  duty  in  an  engagement  with  the  enemy  off  Minorca  on  Uie  20th  of  May  preceding. 
As  his  conduct  could  not  merit  the  accusation  of  cowardice,  and  as  he  was  too  Briliik 
far  that  of  disaffection  to  be  hazarded  againat  him,  he  was  condemned  for  an  error  of 
judffmeni,  and  suffered  death.  The  following  bold  inscription  was  cut  upon  his  tomb, 
at  South-hill,  Bedfordshire : — 

TO  TBS  PCBPSTVAL  DIfiORACS  OF  PVBUO  JUSTICI^ 

THB    HONOURABLB    JOHN    BTMO    FELL    A    MARTTB    TO 

POLITXOAL  PKB8BCUT10N,  XABCH  14,   1767: 

WHSH  BHAVBBT  AMD  LOTALTT  WBRB  IMBUFIICICXT  8CCUBIT1E8 

roB  THB  Lira  abd  hokour  or 

A  BAVAL  OmCBB. 

BYRON'S  VOYAGE.  Commodore  Byron  left  England  on  his  voyage  round  the  globe, 
June  21, 1764,  and  returned  May  9, 1766.  In  his  voyage  he  discovered  the  populous 
island  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  which  bears  his  name,  Aug.  16, 1765.  Though  brave  and 
intrepid,  such  was  his  general  ill-fortune  at  sea,  that  he  was  called  by  the  sailors  of 
the  fleet  "Foul-weather  JackJ^—BcUchambors. 

BYZANTIUM,  now  Constantinople,  founded  by  a  colony  of  Athenians,  715  B.C. — 
Suadfiui,  It  was  taken  by  the  Romans  a.d.  73,  and  was  laid  in  ruins  by  Severus 
in  196.  Byzantium  was  rebuilt  by  Constantino  in  838 ;  and  after  him  it  received  the 
name  of  Constantinople.    See  Conttaniinople, 

C. 

CABAL.  A  Hebrew  word,  used  in  vsrious  senses.  The  rabbins  were  cabalists,  and  the 
Christians  so  called  those  who  pretended  to  magic.  In  English  histoi'y,  the  Cabal  was 
a  council  which  consisted  of  five  lords  in  administration,  supposed  to  be  pensionen 
of  France,  and  distinguished  by  the  appellation  of  the  Cabal,  from  the  initials  of  their 
names :  sir  Thomss  Clifford  (C),  the  lord  Ashley  (A),  the  duke  of  Buckingham  (B), 
lord  Arlington  (A),  and  the  duke  of  Lauderdale  (L);  22  Charles  IL  1670.~-irume. 

CABBAGES.  Three  varietiea  were  brought  to  these  realms  from  Holland,  a.d.  1510. 
To  sir  Arthur  Ashley  of  Dorset,  the  first  planting  them  in  England  is  ascribed.  This 
vegetable  was  previously  imported  from  the  Continent  It  was  introduced  into 
Scotland  by  the  soldiers  of  Cromweirs  army.    See  Qaixlening. 

CABINET  COUNCIL.*    There  were  councils  in  England  so  early  as  the  reign  of  Ina, 

*  The  term  eahina  council  originated  thus :  The  affidrs  of  state  in  the  reign  of  Charles  T.  were 
principally  managed  by  tlio  archbishop  of  Canterbuxy,  the  earl  of  Strafford,  and  the  lord  Cottington  ; 


CAB  120  CAD 

king  of  the  West  Saxozu,  a.u.  690 ;  Ofia,  king  of  the  Mercians,  ad.  758 ;  and  in  other 
reigns  of  the  Heptarchy.  State  councils  are  referred  to  Alfred  the  Great. — ^Mbnam, 
Cabinet  councils,  properly  so  called,  are,  however,  of  comparatively  modem  date. 
The  cabinet  councUs  in  which  secret  deliberations  were  held  by  the  king  and  a  few  of 
his  chosen  friends,  and  the  great  officers  of  state,  to  be  afterwards  laid  before  the 
second  council,  now  styled  the  privy  council,  originated  in  the  .reign  of  Charles  I. 
— SalmotK,  The  great  household  officers  were  formerly  always  of  the  cabinet.  "Bat 
in  Walpole*s  time  there  was  an  interior  council,  of  Walpole,  the  chancellor,  and 
secretaries  of  state,  who,  in  the  first  instance,  consulted  together  on  the  more  ooa- 
fidentiol  points." — Croker*»  Memoin  of  Lord  Heroey,  The  modem  cabinet  coonoil 
haa  usually  consisted  of  the  following  twelve  members : — 


Lord  chancellor. 
Fint  lord  of  the  treesury. 
Lord  president  of  the  coundl. 
Chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
Lord  privy  seal. 


Home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries  of  state. 
First  lord  of  the  admiralty. 
President  of  the  board  of  control. 
President  of  the  board  of  trade. 
Chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster. 


In  1850,  the  number  was  fifteen,  and  included  the  secretary-at-war,  the  postmaster- 
general,  and  the  chief  secretary  for  Ireland.  The  present  number  (1857),  including 
the  marquess  of  Lansdowne,  without  office,  is  fifteen.  See  PcUmerelon.  The  cabinet 
ministers  of  the  various  reigns  will  be  found  under  the  head  A  dminietratioM  of  EnglatuL 

CABLES.  Their  use  was  known  in  the  earliest  times :  a  machine  for  making  the  largest, 
by  which  human  labour  was  reduced  nine-tenths,  was  invented  in  1792.  Thid  machino 
was  set  in  motion  by  sixteen  horses,  when  making  cables  for  ships  of  large  size.  Chain 
cables  were  introduced  into  the  British  navy  in  1812. 

CABRIOLET.  One-horsed  cabriolets  (tnUgo  Cabs)  were  introduced  into  the  streets  of 
London,  as  public  conveyances,  in  1823,  when  the  number  plying  was  twelve.  In  1831 
they  had  increased  to  166,  and  then  the  licences  were  thrown  open.  The  number  at 
present  running  in  the  metropolis  exceeds  five  thousand.  Previous  to  throwing  opan 
the  trade,  the  number  of  hackney  carriages  was  limited  to  1200,  when,  it  is  worth 
noting,  there  were  few  omnibuses  {ivhich  see).  The  hackney  coaches  are  now  almost 
extinct.  On  June  28,  1858,  an  act  (which  has  been  called  Mr.  Fitsroy's  act)  was 
passed  for  "  the  better  regulation  of  Metropolitan  stage  and  hackney  carriages,  and 
for  prohibiting  the  use  of  advertising  vehicles,"  by  which  the  cab  fares  were  re- 
duced to  6d.  a  mUe.  The  act  came  into  operation  July  11,  and  on  the  27th  a  general 
strike  of  the  London  cabmen  took  place.  Much  inconvenience  was  felt,  and  every 
kiud  of  vehicle  was  employed  to  supply  the  deficiency.  The  cabs  reappeared  on  the 
stands  on  the  30th :  some  alterations  (previously  agreed  on)  were  made  in  the  act. 

CADDEE,  OR  LEAGUE  of  GOD'S  HOUSE,  the  celebrated  league  of  independence  in 
Switzerland,  formed  by  the  Orisons  to  resist  domestic  tyranny,  a.d.  1400  to  1419.  A 
second  league  of  the  Griaons  was  called  the  Grise  or  Gray  League,  1424.  A  third  league, 
called  the  League  of  Ten  Jurisdictions,  was  formed  ih  1436. — Mitt,  of  Swit2€rland, 

CADE'S  INSURRECTION.  Jack  Cade,  an  Irishman,  a  fugitive  from  his  country  on 
account  of  his  crimes,  assumed  the  name  of  Mortimer,  and  headed  20,000  Kentish 
men,  who  armed  **  to  punish  evil  ministers,  and  procure  a  redress  of  grievancea.** 
Cade  entered  London  in  triumph,  and  for  some  time  bore  down  all  opposition,  and 
beheaded  the  lord-treasurer,  lord  Saye,  and  several  other  persons  of  consequence. 
The  insurgents  at  length  losing  ground,  a  general  pardon  was  proclaimed ;  and  Cade 
finding  himself  deserted  by  his  followers,  fled :  but  a  reward  being  offered  for  hia 
apprehension,  he  was  discovered,  and  refusing  to  surrender,  was  slain  by  Alexander 
Iden,  sheriff  of  Kent,  1451. 

CADIZ,  anciently  Gadiz;  called  by  the  Romans,  Gades.  Built  by  the  Carthaginians 
530  B.G. — Priettley.  One  hundred  vessels  of  the  armament  preparing  as  the  Spanish 
Armada,  against  England,  were  destroyed  in  the  port  by  sir  Francis  Drake,  1587. 
Cadiz  wss  taken  by  the  English,  under  the  earl  of  Essex,  and  plundered,  SepL  15, 
1696.  It  was  attempted  by  sir  George  Rooke  in  1702,  but  he  failed.  Bombarded  bj 
the  British  in  1797,  and  blockaded  by  their  fleet,  under  lord  St  Vincent,  for  two 
years,  ending  in  1799.     Again  bombarded  by  the  British,  Oct.  1800.    A  French 

to  these  were  added,  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  for  ornament ;  the  bishop  of  London,  for  his  pUoe, 
being  lord  tresaurer ;  the  two  secretaries,  Yane  and  Windebank,  for  service  and  intalligenoe ;  only  the 
marquis  of  Hamilton,  by  his  skill  and  interest,  meddled  just  so  for,  and  no  Aarther,  than  he  had  a 
mind.  These  persona  made  up  the  committee  of  state,  reproachfully  called  the^n^o,  and  afterwai^ 
snvloualy,  the  cabind  councU-^liOU)  CLiJUWDoN. 


CiES  121  CAL 

squadron  of  five  ships  of  the  line  and  a  frigate,  surrendered  to  the  Spaniards  and 
British  in  Cadiz  harbour,  June  14,  1808.  Beaeged  by  the  French,  but  the  siege  was 
raised  after  the  battle  of  Salamanca,  July  1812.  Manaere  of  a  ihouitand  inhabitants 
by  the  aoldiery,  Ifiarch  1 0,  1820.    Cadiz  wm  decUred  »  free  port  in  1829. 

C.£SARIAN  OPERATION.  The  Caesarian  section,  it  is  said,  first  gave  the  name  of 
CsBsar  to  the  Roman  fiunily :  it  is  performed  by  cutting  the  child  out  of  the  womb, 
when  it  cannot  be  otherwise  delivered.  Of  twenty-two  cases  operated  on  in  these 
islands,  twenty-one  of  the  mothers  died,  and  ten  of  their  children  were  bom  dead. 
Of  twelve  extracted  alive,  four  survived  only  a  few  days.  The  case  of  Alice  0*Neily 
an  Irishwoman,  who  survived  the  section,  which  was  performed  by  a  female,  is 
authenticated  by  Dr.  Qabriel  King^  of  Armagh,  and  surgeon  Duncan  Stewart,  of 
Dungannon.  In  January,  1847,  the  operation  was  performed  in  Bartholomew's 
hospital,  London,  on  a  young  woman  of  diminutive  stature,  under  the  influence  of 
ether ;  but  she  died  the  next  day. — Honae  Biiwrnt.  On  the  Continent  the  operation 
has  been  more  frequent  and  more  successful. — If.  Bantddacqm, 

CJESARS,  ERA  of  the;  or  SPANISH  ERA,  is  reckoned  from  the  Ist  of  Jan.  88  B.a 
being  the  year  following  the  conquest  of  Spain  by  Augustus.  It  was  much  used  in 
Africa,  Spain/and  the  south  of  France;  but  by  a  synod  held  in  1180  its  use  was 
abolished  in  all  the  churches  dependent  on  &ut»lona.  Pedro  lY.  of  Armgon 
abolished  the  use  of  it  in  his  dominions  in  1350.  John  of  Castile  did  the  same  in 
1383.  It  was  used  in  Portugal  till  1455.  Tbe  months  and  days  of  this  era  are 
identical  with  the  Julian  calendar ;  and  to  turn  the  time  into  that  of  our  era,  subtract 
thirty-eight  fh>m  the  year  ;  but  if  before  the  Christian  era,  subtract  thirty-nine. 

CAFFRARIA,  and  CAFFIR  WAR    See  Kaffrariet, 

CAI-FONG,  iir  China.  This  city  being  besieged  by  100,000  rebels,  the  commander  of 
the  forces  who  was  sent  to  its  relief,  in  order  to  drown  the  enemy,  broke  down  its 
embankments :  his  stiatagem  succeeded,  and  every  man  of  the  besiegers  perished ; 
but  the  city  was  at  the  same  time  overflowed  by  the  waters,  and  800,000  of  the 
atizens  were  drowned  in  the  overwhelming  flood,  a.d.  1642. 

CAIRO,  or  GRAND  CAIRO,  the  modem  capital  of  Egypt,  remarkable  for  the  minarets 
of  its  mosques,  and  the  splendid  sepulchres  of  its  caliphs,  in  what  is  called  the  city  of 
the  dead.  It  was  built  by  the  Saracens,  in  a.d.  969.  Burnt  to  prevent  its  occupation 
by  tbe  Crusaders,  in  1220.  Taken  by  the  Turks  from  the  Egyptian  sultans,  and  their 
empire  subdued,  1517.  Ruined  by  an  earthquake  and  a  great  Are,  June,  1754,  when 
40,000  persons  perished.  Set  on  fire  by  a  lady  of  the  B^ler-beg,  Dec.  1755.  Tidien 
by  the  Ft-enoh  under  Napoleon  Bonapute,  July  23, 1798.  Taken  by  the  British  and 
Turks,  when  6000  French  capitukted,  June  27, 1801. 

CALAIS,  taken  by  Edward  III.  after  a  year's  siege,  Aug.  4, 1347,  and  held  by  England 
210  Tears.  It  was  retaken  in  the  reign  of  Mary,  Jan.  7, 1558,  and  its  loss  so  deeply 
touched  the  queen's  heart,  as  to  cause  some  to  say  it  occasioned  her  death,  which 
occurred  soon  afterwards,  Nov.  17,  same  year.  "  When  I  am  dead,"  said  the  queen, 
•«  Calais  will  be  found  written  on  my  heart"  It  was  bombiurded  by  the  English, 
1694.    Here  Louis  XVIII.  landed  after  his  long  exile  from  France,  April  24, 1814. 

CALCULATINO  MACHINES.  With  the  utmost  care,  errors  in  computation  and  in 
printing  will  always  occur  in  logarithms  and  tables  of  figures.  To  avoid  them, 
machines  to  calculate  and  print  have  been  devised.  Pascal,  when  19  years  of  age^ 
invented  one,  about  1650.  The  construction  of  Mr.  C.  Babbage*s  nu&chine  was  com- 
menced at  the  expense  of  government  in  1821,  and  continual  till  1833,  when  the 
work  was  suspended  after  an  expenditure  of  above  £15,000.  The  portion  completed 
is  in  the  library  of  King^s  College,  London. — In  1857,  Messrs.  G.  and  E.  Scheuts,  two 
Swedish  engineers,  published  in  London  specimen  tables,  calculated  and  printed  by 
machinery,  constructed  between  1837  and  1843  after  a  study  of  tbe  account  of  Mr. 
Babbage's  machine.  Messrs.  Sclieuts  brought  their  machinery  to  England  in  1854, 
which  has  been  bought  for  £1000  by  Mr.  T.  F.  Rathbone,  an  American  merchant,  to 
be  presented  to  Dudley  observatory  in  his  own  town,  Albany. 

CALCUTTA.  The  first  settlement  of  the  English  here  was  made  in  1689.  It  was 
purchased  as  a  Zemindary,  and  Fort  William  built  in  1698.  Calcutta  was  attacked 
by  a  large  army  of  70,000  horse  and  foot,  and  400  elephants,  in  June,  1756.  On  the 
'  capture  of  the  fort,  146  of  the  British  were  crammed  into  the  Black-hole  prison,  a 
dungeon  about  eighteen  feet  square,  from  whence  twenty-ihree  only  came  forth  the 
next  morning  alive.    See  BlcKh-kole.    Calcutta  was  retaken  the  following  year,  and 


GAL  124  CAL 

They  asserted  the  use  of  the  cup  aa  essential  to  the  Eacharist.  Among  the  Lutlu 
they  are  those  following  the  sentiments  of  CaliztuSy  who  died  in  1656.  Calixtus  wrote 
a  treatise  against  the  celibacy  of  the  priesthood. 

CALITUO  ERA,  or  ERA  of  CHINA,  dates  from  8101  B.C.  and  begins  with  the  entraaee 
of  the  sun  into  the  Hindoo  sign  Aswin,  which  is  now  on  the  11th  April,  K^  In  the 
year  1600,  Xhe  year  began  on  the  7th  of  Apri],  N.S.,  from  which  it  has  now  advanoed 
four  days,  and,  from  the  precession  of  the  equinozei^  is  still  advanciDg  at  the  rate  oi 
a  day  in  sixty  years.  The  number  produced  by  subtracting  8102  from  any  giTen 
year  of  the  Caliyug  era,  will  be  the  Christian  year  in  which  the  given  year  be^ms. 

CALLAO,  IN  Pebu.    Here,  after  an  earthquake,  the  sea  retired  from  the  shore,  and 

returned  in  mountainous  waves,  which  destroyed  the  city,  a.d.   1687.    The  seme 

phenomenon  took  place  Oct  28,  1746,  when  all  the  inhabitants  perished,  with  the 

•   exception  of  one  man,  who  was  standing  on  an  eminence,  and  to  whose  suoooor  a 

wave  providentially  threw  a  boat. 

CALLIGRAPHY,  beautiful  writing,  in  a  small  compass.  Invented  by  Callicrates,  who 
is  said  to  have  written  an  elegant  distich  on  a  sesamum  seed,  472  B.a  The  modem 
specimens  of  this  art  are,  many  of  them,  astonishing  and  beautifuL  In  the  sixteenth 
century,  Peter  Bales  wrote  the  Lord's  Prayer,  creed,  and  decalogue,  two  short  I^tin 
prayers,  his  own  name,  motto,  day  of  the  month,  year  of  our  Lord,  and  of  the  reign 
of  queen  Elizabeth,  to  whom  he  presented  it  at  Hampton-court,  all  within  the  ctrde 
of  a  silver  penny,  enchased  in  a  ring  and  border  of  gold,  and  covered  with  crystal,  so 
accurately  done  as  to  be  plainly  legible,  to  the  great  admiration  of  her  majeaty,  the 
whole  of  the  privy  council,  and  several  ambassadors  then  at  court,  1574^ — JioUnMktdL 

CALltAR»  TREATY  or.  The  celebrated  treaty,  whereby  Denmark,  Sweden,  and 
Norway  were  united  under  one  sovereign ;  Margaret  of  Waldemar,  **  the  Semiramis  of 
North,"  being  the  first,  1897.  The  deputies  of  the  three  kingdoms  assembled  at 
Calmar  for  the  election  of  a  king ;  and  Margaret,  having  defeated  Albert  of  Sweden 
(whose  tyranny  had  caused  a  revolt  of  his  subjects),  in  1398,  she  was  made  choioe  of 
to  rule  over  Denmark,  as  well  aa  Sweden  and  Norway,  of  which  she  was  then  queen. 
This  treaty  is  commonly  called  the  Union  of  Calmar. — ffenaulL 

CALOMEL  (beautiful  black),  a  compound  of  mercury,  sulphuric  acid,  and  chloride  of 
sodium,  first  mentioned  by  Crollius  early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  but  most  haTe 
been  previously  known.  The  first  directions  given  for  its  preparation  were  those 
announced  by  Beguin,  in  1608.  It  is  said  that  corrosive  sublimate  was  known  tome 
centuries  before. 

CALORIC  SHIP  ERICSSON.  In  this  vessel  it  was  attempted  to  supersede  steam,  aa  a 
motive  power,  by  caloric  or  heated  air.  The  ship  Ericsson  was  oonstmcted  in 
America  on  this  new  principle  of  motion,  and  sailed  down  the  bay  of  New  York, 
Jan.  4th,  1853 ;  and,  it  was  thought,  proved  that  caloric  was  adapted  to  locomotion, 
and  destined,  perhaps,  to  work  a  complete  revolution  ui  navigation.  The  vessel  waa 
designed  by  captain  Ericsson,  whose  name  she  bore,  and  on  this  trial  trip  sailed 
fourteen  miles  an  hour,  at  a  cost  of  fuel  full  eighty  per  cent,  less  than  is  consumed 
by  ordinary  steam-ships.  The  caloric  engines  are  generally  considered  unsucoeasful ; 
but  captain  Ericsson  is  still  continuing  his  researches.  He  patented  a  modified 
engine  in  1856. 

CALVARY,  MOUNT,  the  place  where  the  Redeemer  suffered  death,  a.d.  83.  CalTaiy 
(which,  cannot  now  be  traced,  for  the  g^und  is  an  entire  plain;  was  a  small  eminenoe 
or  hill  adjacent  to  Jerusalem,  appropriated  to  the  execution  of  malefactors.  See 
Luke  xjiii.  33.  Adrian,  at  the  time  of  his  persecution  of  the  Chiistianp,  erected  a 
temple  of  Jupiter  on  Mount  Calvary,  and  a  temple  of  Adonis  on  the  manger  ai 
Bethlehem,  ▲.d.  142.  Within  the  city  of  Jerusalem  is  the  church  of  the  Holy- 
Sepulchre,  whither  pilgrims  flock  from  tul  Christian  countries.    See  Boly  Piaoa. 


CALVES'-HEAD   CLUB.     Some  noblemen  and  gentlemen  who  composed  it  _ 

ridicidously  exposed  raw  heads  in  bloody  cloths  at  the  windows  of  the  tavern  where 
it  was  held,  the  mob  would  have  pulled  down  the  house  If  the  guards  had  not  d]»> 
persed  them,  Jan.  16,  1734.     The  club  was  in  consequence  suppressed. — SaXmfm^ 

CALYI,  SIEQE  of.  The  British  forces  besieged  the  strong  fortress  of  Calvi  on  the 
12th  June,  1794,  and  after  a  close  investment  of  it  for  fifty-nine  days,  it  surrendered 
on  August  10,  following:  the  garrison  marched  out  with  the  honours  of  war,  and 
were  conveyed  to  Toulon.    Calvi  surrendered  to  the  French,  in  1796% 


CAL 


125 


CAM 


CALVINISTS*  named  after  their  foimder,  John  Calvin,  one  of  the  great  Protestant 
Reformers,  who  was  bom  at  Noyon.  in  Picardy,  in  1509 :  but  adopting  the  prineiploe 
of  the  Reformer!!,  ha  fled  to  AngouJdme,  where  he  compoeed  his  iMtiiiUio  UhrittianiB 
Bdiyumity  in  1533,  pablished  in  1536,  two  years  afterwards.'  He  subsequently  retired 
to  Basle,  and  next  settled  in  Geneva.  Although  he  differed  from  Luther  in  esseotisl 
points,  still  his  followers  did  not  consider  themselves  as  different  on  this  account  from 
the  adherents  of  Luther.  A  formal  separation  first  took  place  after  the  conference  of 
Poiasy,  in  1561,  where  they  expressly  rejected  the  tenth  article  of  the  confession  of 
Angsbuig,  besides  some  others,  and  took  the  name  of  Calvinists. 

CAMBRAY.  The  town  whence  the  esteemed  manufacture  called  cambric  takes  its 
name.  The  city  wss  taken  by  the  Spaniards  by  a  memorable  surprise  in  1595. 
Cambray  was  taken  and  retaken  several  times.  In  the  war  of  the  French  revolution 
it  was  invested  by  the  Austrians,  Aug.  8, 1793,  when  the  republioah  general,  Declay, 
replied  to  the  Imperial  summons  to  surrender,  that  '*  he  l^new  not  how  to  do  thaH, 
bnt  his  soldiers  knew  how  to  fight."  In  1794,  the  French  were  defeated  at  Csssar^s 
Camp,  in  the  neighbourhood,  by  the  allied  army  under  the  duke  of  York,  April  23. 
It  was  seized  by  the  British,  under  general  sir  Charles  ColviUe,  June  24, 1815.  The 
citadel  surrendered  the  next  day,  and  wsjb  occupied  by  Louis  XVIII.  and  his  court. 
This  was  one  of  the  fortresses  stipulated  to  be  occupied  by  the  allied  army  for 
five  yean. 

CAMBRAY,  LEAGUB  of.  This  was  the  celebrated  league  against  the  republic  of 
Venice,  comprising  the  pope,  the  emperor,  and  the  kiugs  of  France  and  Spain ;  and 
whereby  Venice  was  forced  to  cede  to  Spain  her  possessions  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  entered  into  Dec.  10, 1508.  A  treaty  was  concluded  here  in  1529,  between 
Francis  I.  of  France  and  Charles  V.  of  Qermany ;  also  a  treaty  between  the  emperor 
Charles  VL  and  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  in  1724-5. 

CAMBRICS.  A  &bric  of  fine  linen  used  for  ruffles. — Skaktpeare.  Cambrics  were  first 
worn  in  England,  and  accounted  a  great  luxury  in  dress,  22  Eliz.  1580.— Stoioe.  The 
importation  of  catpbrics  was  restricted  in  1745;  and  was  totally  prohibited  by  statute 
of  32  Geo.  IL,  1758.  Readmitted  in  1786,  but  afterwards  again  prohibited.  The 
importation  of  cambrics  is  now  allowed. 

CAMBRIDGE.  Once  called  OranUi,  and  of  most  ancient  standing,  being  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  earliest  accotmta  of  the  old  British  historians.  Roger  de  Mont- 
gomery destroyed  it  with  fire  and  sword  to  be  revenged  of  king  William  Rufus. 
The  university  it  said  to  have  been  commenced  by  Sigebert,  king  of  the  East  Angles, 
aboiat  A.D.  631 ;  but  it  lay  neglected  during  the  r^ish  invasions,  from  which  it 
suffered  much.  It  was  somewhat  restored  by  Eld  ward  the  Elder,  in  915 ;  and  learning 
began  to  revive  about  1110,  when  Henry  I.  bestowed  many  privileges  upon  the  town; 
as  did -Henry.  III.  In  Wat  Tyler's  and  Jack  Straw's  rebellion,  in  the  reign  of 
Hiobard  II.,  the  rebels  entered  the  town,  seised  the  university  records,  and  burnt 
them  in  the  market>plaoe^  1381.  Cambridge  now  contains  thirteeen  colleges  and  four 
halls,  of  which  first,  Peter-house  is  the  most  ancient,  and  King^s  College  tlie  noblest 
foundation  in  Europe ;  and  the  chapel  is  esteemed  to  be  one  of  the  £iest  pieces  of 
Oothio  architecture  in  the  world. 


ooixaoBs. 

Feter-lionM  College,  hj  Hugo  de  Bal- 
sfaam,  bish<q>  of  Bly,  founded     .  a.d.  12S7 

Pembroke    College,    foanded    by    the 
ooontees  of  Pembroke  .       .    .  1347 

Oonville  and  Catos,  by  Edmund  QonTille  1348 
Ma^LTgeA  by  Dr.  John  Cftlua  in   .        .  1^58 

Corpos  Chrisu,  or  Benet    ....  1853 

TLJj^n  College,  by  Henry  VI.        .        .  1441 

Christ  College,  founded      .       .        .    .  1442 

I  Endowed  by  Mai-garet,  countess  of  Rich- 
mond, mother  of  Henry  VI  I.J  .1605 

Queen's  College,  by  Maigaret  of  Ai^joo, 
oomort  of  Henry  VI 1448 

Jcaos  CoQege,  by  John  Aloock,  bishop 
ofEly I*W 

St.  John's  College,  endowedby  Maigaret, 

ofBlchmond     •       .        .    •  1511 


owning  College,  by  sir  George  Downing, 

by  wm,  in  1717;  its  charter    .       .    .  1800 

HALLS. 

dare  Hall,  first  by  Dr.  Richard  Baden, 
in  1326;  destroyod  by  fire,  and  ze- 
eetabliahed  by  Elisabeth  de  Burg  .    .  13S8 

Trinity  Hall,  b^  WiUiam  Bateman, 
bishop  of  Norwich 1350 

Catherine  Hall,  founded  ....  1478 

ICdmbridge  Vniveriity  OaUndar.} 

In  1637,  the  university  refused  the  degree  of  M.A.  to  father  Francis,  a  Beniddictine 
monk,  recommended  by  thd  king ;  and  the  presidency  of  Magdalene  College  was  also 
refused  to  Farmer,  a  Roman  Catholic,  notwithstanding  the  mandate  of  James. 


Magdalene  College,  by  StafTord,  duke  of 

Buckingham                    .       .      a-d.  1510 
Trinity  CoUege,  by  Henry  VIII.     .        .  1540 
Emmanuel  College,  by  air  Walter  Mild- 
may  1584 


Bidney-BuBsex  College,  founded  by  F. 

Sidney,  countess  of  Sumoz  . 
Downi: 


1508 


CAM  126  CAN 

Commissionen  were  appointed  for  the  goTemment  and  extension  of  this  uniTersity 
and  Eton  OoUege,  by  19  &  20  Vict,  a  88  (1856). 

CAMDEN,  BATTLES  or.  The  first  battle  between  general  Gates  and  lord  Cornwallis, 
the  former  commanding  the  reTolted  Americans,  who  were  defeated,  was  foagbt 
Aug.  16, 1780.  The  second  battle  between  general  Greene  and  lord  Rawdon,  when 
the  Americans  were  again  defeated,  April  25,  1781.  Camden  was  evacuated,  and 
burnt  bj  the  British,  May  18, 1781. 

CAMERA  LUCIDA.  Invented  by  Dr.  Hooke,  about  1674,— IToMTf  JrA.  Ox,  Also  an 
instrument  invented  by  Dr.  Wollaston,  in  1807.  The  camera  obscnra,  or  dark  chamber, 
was  invented,  it  is  believed,  by  the  celebrated  Roger  Bacon,  in  1297;  it  was  improved 
by  Baptists  Porta,  the  writer  on  natural  magic,  about  1500. — Mortri,  Sir  L  If  ewton 
remodelled  it.  "Bj  the  invention  of  M.  Daguerre,  in  1889,  the  pictures  of  the  camora 
are  rendered  permanent^    See  Phototprapka, 

CAMERONIANS.  A  sect  in  Scotland  (so  called  from  Archibald  Cameron),  which 
separated  from  the  I^byterians,  and  continued  to  hold  their  religious  meetings  in 
the  fields^  and  afterwards  took  arms  againat  Charles  II.  on  account  of  his  breaking 
the  solemn  league  and  oovenaut.  At  the  Revolution  of  1688  they  were  formed  into 
a  regiment  by  William  IIL,  and  permitted  to  retain  many  of  their  religioua  peca- 
liarities.    The  26th  and  79th  regiments  are  still  called  Cameronian. 

CAMLET.  This  stuff  was  originally  made  of  silk  and  camel's  hair,  but  now  it  is  manu- 
faotuxed  of  wool,  hair,  and  mlk.  Camlet  is  mentioned  by  writers  of  the  middle  agce, 
as  a  stuff  prepared  from  camera  hair  alone.  The  true  oriental  camlet  first  came  to 
these  countries  from  Portuguese  India,  in  1660. — Andenon, 

CAMP.    All  the  early  warlike  nations  hod  camps.     The  disposition  of  the  Hebrew^ 

*  encampment  was,  we  sre  told,  at  first  laid  out  by  God  himself.    The  Romans  and 

Gauls  bad  intrenched  camps  in  open  plains ;  and  vestiges  of  such  Roman  eocamp- 

menis  are  existing  to  this  day  in  numerous  places  in  England  and  Scotland.    A  camp 

was  formed  at  Hyde  Park  in  1745.    See  Chohham  and  AtdtnikoU. 

CAMPE ACHY-BAY.  IHscovered  about  A-D.  1 520 ;  it  was  taken  hy  the  English  in  1 659 ; 
by  the  buccaneers,  in  1678 ;  and  by  the  freebooters  of  St.  Domingo,  in  1685.  Tlieso 
last  burnt  the  town  and  blew  up  the  citadel.  The  English  iQgwood-cutters  made 
their  settlement  here  in  1662. 

CAMPERDOWN,  BATTLE  of,  off  Camperdown,  south  of  the  Texel,  where  a  signal 
victory  was  obtained  by  the  British  fleets  under  admiral  Duncan,  over  the  Dutch 
fleet,  commanded  by  admiral  De  Winter ;  the  latter  losing  fifteen  ahips,  either  taken 
or  destroyed.  This  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  naval  achievements  of  the  war« 
Oct  11, 1797.  This  victorj^  obtuned  the  brave  British  admiral  a  peerage.  He  dird 
suddenly  on  his  way  to  Edinbui^h,  Aug.  4,  1804. 

CAMPO  FORMIO,  TREATY  of.  Concluded  between  France  and  Austria,  the  latter 
power  yielding  the  Low  Countries  snd  the  Ionian  Islands  to  France,  and  Milan, 
Mantua,  and  Modena  to  the  Cisalpine  republic.  This  memorable  snd  humiliating 
treaty  resulted  firom  the  ill  success  of  Austria  on  the  Rhine.  By  a  secret  article* 
however,  the  emperor  took  posaossion  cf  the  Venetian  dominions  in  compensation  for 
the  Netherlands,  Oct.  17, 1797. 

CANADA.  This  country  was  discovered  by  John  and  Sebaatian  Cabot,  a.d.  1499,  and 
was  settled  by  the  French  in  1608,  but  it  had  been  previously  visited  by  them. 
Canada  was  taken  by  the  English  in  1628,  but  wss  restored  in  1631.  It  was  again 
conquered  by  the  English  in  1759  (see  Quf(fc},  and  was  confirmed  to  them  \>j  the 
peace  of  1763.  This  country  was  divided  into  two  provinces,  Upper  and  Lower 
Canada,  in  1791 ;  and  it  was  during  the  debates  on  this  bill  in  the  British  parliament* 
that  the  quarrel  between  Mr.  Burke  and  Mr.  Fox  arose.  Mr.  Fox  seemed  anxiooa  lor 
a  reconciliation,  but  Mr.  Burke  rejected  it  with  disdain.  Canada  was  made  a  bidhopsic 
in  1798.  In  the  war  of  181 2,  the  Americans  invaded  Canada  at  different  points,  witti 
30,000  men,  but  they  were  forced  to  retire  after  several  sanguinary  batties,  discomfited 
in  their  attempts  to  reduce  the  country. — The  Pafiitbau  Rebellion  commenced  at 
Montreal,  Dea  6, 1837.  The  Canadian  rebels  came  to  an  engagement  at  St.  Eaatace^ 
Dec.  14,  following.  See  St,  £u»tace.  The  insui^ents  surroimded  Toronto,  and  were 
repulsed  by  the  governor,  sir  Francis  Head,  Jan.  5,  1838.  Appointment  of  lord 
Durham  as  (rovemor-general,  Jan.  16, 1838.  Lount  and  Mathews  nsnged  ts  traitor^ 
April  12, 1838.    Lord  Durham  announced  his  reeolution  to  resign  ma  r^vemment. 


CAN 


127 


CAN 


OoL  9, 1838,  and  immediately  returned  to  Earope.  The  spirit  of  rebelUoa  again  mani« 
fetted  itaelf  in  Beauhamaia,  Not.  3, 1888.  ^le  insorgents  eonoentrated  at  NapieiriUe 
under  oommand  of  Nelson  and  oUiers,  Not.  6 ;  some  akirmithes  took  place,  and  they 
were  routed  with  the  loss  of  many  killed  and  seyeral  huadred  priaoaeri.  Sir  John 
Colbome  announced  the  suppreaaion  of  the  rebellion  in  his  despatches,  dated  Nov. 
17, 1838.  An  act  to  make  temporary  proTiaion  for  the  government  of  Lower  Canada 
passed  Feb.  1838,  and  was  amended  by  act  2  ft  8  Vict  Aug.  1839.  The  act  16  ft 
17  Viet.  e.  21,  autfaotisfaig  the  Canadian  legialature  to  make  provision  concerning  the 
clei^  reserves,  was  passed  May  9, 1853.  The  grand  trunk  railroad  of  OBoadi^  850 
miles  long,  trom  Quebec  to  Toronto,  was  opened  Nov.  12, 1866. 

CANALS.  The  most  stupendous  in  the  world  is  a  eanal  in  China,  which  pa«es  over 
2000  miles,  and  to  41  citiee,  oommenced  in  the  tenth  century.  The  canal  ot  Ian* 
gnedoo,  which  joins  the  Mediterranean  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  was  commenced  in 
1666w  That  of  Orleans  from  the  Loire  to  the  Seine,  commenced  in  1676.  That 
between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Baltic,  oommenced  1709.  That  from  Stockholm  to 
Gottenbefg,  commenced  1 751.  That  between  the  Baltic  and  North  Sea  at  Kiel,  opened 
1785.  That  of  Bourbon,  between  the  Seine  and  Oise,  commenced  1790.  The  great 
American  Erie  Canal,  830  miles  in  length,  was  commenced  in  1817.  See  Qamgei 
Canal,  the  most  stupendous  modem  one.  The  first  canal  made  in  England  was  by 
Henry  I.  when  the  river  Trent  was  joined  to  the  Withom,  a.d.  1194.  The  most 
remarkable  canals  in  Great  Britain  are : — 


New  Rlrer  oanal,  oommeneed       .  a.2>.  1608 

Broofcht  to  London  .        ...  16U 

Thame*  made  uaTiji|;abIe  to  Oxfoid  .  1024 
Kennet  mada  navigable  to  Roading  .  .  1715 
Ldigan  naTigation,  oommenced  .  1755 

Caermaithenshiro  canal  .  «  .  .  1756 
I>roitwich  to  the  Berem  .  .  1756 

Duke  of  Bfldgewater's  navigation  (first 

gnat  caaaXX  commenced  .  .  .  1758 
Northampton  navigation  ,        .  1761 

Dublin  to  the  Shanncm  (the  Grandi  eom- 

meoeed  (opened  to  Salllna,  1782)  .  ,  1765 
Stafford  and  Woreester,  commenced  .  17(^5 
Forth  to  Clyde,  oommenoed  .    .  1768 

BUrmingbam  to  Bilaton  ....  1768 
Oxlbrd  to  Coventrv,  commenced  .  .  1769 
Iiea  made  navigable  from  Hertford  to 

Ware,  1739 ;  to  London  ....  1770 

lioeda  to  Livcvpool 1770 

Monkland  (ScotlandX  commenced  .  .1770 
EUeamero  and  Chester  ....  1772 
Baeingsioke  canal,  oommenoed .  .  .  1772 
Liverpool  to  Wigan  ....  1774 

Btroud  to  the  Severn 1775 

Staffordshire  canal,  oommenoed  .1776 
Stourbridge  canal,  completed  .  .  «  1776 
Bunoom  to  Manchester  .  .  .1776 
Trent  and  Meney,  opened  .  .  .  .  1777 
Chesterfield  to  the  Trent  .  1777 
BeUut  to  Lough  Neagh  ....  1783 
Thames  to  Leschdalo  ....  1783 
Sallins  to  Monafttereven  ...  1786 
Dublin  to  the  Shannon  (Royal)  .  .  1788 
Severn  to  the  Thames,  completed  .  .  1789 
Forth  and  Clyde,  oompletea  .  .  .  1790 
Bradford,  completed 1790 


Grand  Junction  canal     .       . 
Birmingham  and  Coventry 
Monastereven  to  Athy    . 
Worcester  and  Birmingham 
Manchester,  Boulton.  and  Bury 
Lancaster,  act  passea  .       . 
Warwick  and  Birmingham     . 
Bamalev,  cut      ... 
Rochdale,  act  passed  . 

Huddetsfield,  act  passed 


A.D. 


1790 
1790 
1791 
1791 
1791 
1792 
179S 
1794 
1794 
1794 


Derby,  completed 1794 

Hereford  and  Gloucester  .  .  .  .  1796 
Paddington  canal,' oommenoed  .  .  1798 
Rennet  and  Avon,  opened  ....  1799 
Peak-forest  canal,  oompletod .  .  1800 

Thames  to  Fenny  Stratford        .        .    .  1800 

Buckingham  canal 1801 

Gnmd  Surrey,  act  passed   ....  1801 

Breoknock  canal 180S 

Caledonian  oanal  (the  Great)  commenced  1803 
Ellesmere  aqueduct  .  •  ,  .  .  1805 
Ashbv-de-la-Zouch,  opened    •  .  1805 

Aberdeen,  completed 1807 

Glasgow  and  Ardrossan,  opened  .  .1811 
Leeds  and  Liverpool,  opened  .    .  1816 

Wey  and  Avon 1816 

Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Union  .  .  1818 
Sheffield,  completed        ....  1819 

The  Regent's  canal 1820 

Caledonian  canal,  completed       Oct.  SO,  1822 
Birmingluun  and  Liverpool,  bsgun   .    .  1826 
Glouoesterond  Berkeley  ship-canal,  com- 
pleted     1827 

Norwich    and    Lowestoft    navigation, 
opened 1831 


In  England,  there  are  2800  miles  of  cana]fl»  and  2500  miles  of  riven,  taking  the  length 
of  thoae  only  that  are  navigable^totol,  5300  miles.  In  Ireland,  there  are  300  miles 
of  canals ;  150  of  navigable  riTen»  and  60  miles  of  the  Shannon,  navigable  below 
Limerick :  in  all,  510  miles. — Williams,  Their  progress  has  been  hugely  checked  by 
the  formation  of  railways. 

CANARY  ISLANDS.  These  islands  were  known  to  the  ancients  as  the  FortunaU  ItUi, 
The  first  meridian  was  referred  to  the  Canary  Isles  by  Uipparchus,  about  140  b.c. 
They  were  re-discovered  by  a  Korman  named  Bethencourt,  a.d.  1 402 ;  and  were 
seized  by  the  Spaniards,  who  planted  vines,  which  flourish  here,  about  1420.  The 
canary-bird,  so  much  esteemed  in  oU  parts  of  Europe,  is  a  native  of  these  isles;  it 
was  brought  into  England  in  1500. 

CAKDIA,  the  andent  Crete^  whose  centre  is  Mount  Ida«  It  was  seized  by  the  Saracens 
juD.  823,  when  they  clumged  its  same.    Taken  by  the  Qreelu,  in  961 ;  sold  to  the 


CAN  128  CAN 

Venetians,  1194,  and  held  by  tbem  until  the  Turks  obtained  it,  after  a  twenty-four 
years'  siege,  during  which  more  than  200,000  men  perished,  1669. 

CANDLE,  SALE  bt  INCH  of.  The  custom  of  selling  at  public  auctions  by  inch  of 
candle  is  said  to  have  been  borrowed  from  the  Church  of  Rome,  where  there  is  an 
excommunication  by  inch  of  candle,  and  the  sinner  is  allowed  to  come  to  repentance 
before  final  excommunication,  while  yet  the  candle  bums. 

CANDLES.  The  Roman  candles  were  composed  of  strings  surrounded  hj  wax,  or  dipped 
.  in  pitch.  Splinters  of  wood  fatted  were  used  for  light  among  the  lower  cissaes  in 
England,  about  a  d.  1300.  At  this  time  wax  candles  were  little  used,  and  esteemed 
a  luxury,  and  dipped  candles  usually  burnt.  The  Wax-chandlers'  company  was 
incorporated  1484.  Mould  candles  are  said  to  be  the  invention  of  the  sieur  Le  Bre^ 
of  Paris.  Spermaceti  candles  are  of  modem  manufacture.  The  Chinese  make  candles 
from  wax  obtained  from  the  berries  of  a  tree,  which  wax  is  fragrant,  and  yields  a 
bright  light.  See  Candleberry  Myrtle,  The  duty  upon  candles  in  England  amounted, 
previously  to  its  abolition,  to  about  500,000t  annually ;  it  was  repealed  by  atatate 
1  &  2  Will.  ly.  and  the  makers  were  placed  upon  the  same  footing  as  melten  of 
tallow,  1831.  All  the  great  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  candles  are  due  to  the 
researches  of  Chevreul  on  oils  and  fats,  dating  as  far  back  as  1 81 1 ;  and  published  in  1823. 
At  Price's  manufactory,  at  Lambeth,  the  principles  involved  in  many  patents  mre 
carried  into  execution ;  including  those  of  Gwynne  (1840),  Jones  and  Price  (1842),  end 
Wilson  in  1844.  Palm  and  cocoa-nut  oils  are  now  extensively  used.  At  the  Balmoot 
works  900  persons  are  employed,  and  in  the  winter  100  tons  {7000L  worth)  of  candles 
are  matiufabtured  weekly. 

CANDLESTICKS.  Anciently  candlesticks  with  seven  branches  were  regarded  as 
emblematical  of  the  priest's  office,  and  accordingly  they  were  engraven  on  tiieir  seals 
and  on  their  xmps  while  living,  and  on  their  tombs  when  dead.  Candlesticks  were 
known  and  used  in  Britain  in  the  days  of  king  Edgar,  ▲.D.  959,  for  historiana  of  his 
time  mention  "silver  candelabra  and  gilt  candelabra  well  and  honourably  made;"* 
but  even  in  1888  they  were  not  common.    They  are  fast  giving  place  to  lamps  and  gas. 

CANDLEBERRY  liYRTLE.  Plants  of  this  extraordinary  tree  came  to  this  country 
from  N.  America,  in  1699.  The  tree  is  found  in  perfection  at  Nankin,  in  China^ 
where  it  flourishes  with  beautiful  blossoms  and  fruit  The  latter,  when  ripe,  is  gathered 
and  thrown  into  boiling  water;  the  white  unctuous  substance  which  covers  the 
kernels  is  thereby  detached,  and  swims  at  the  top ;  it  is  skimmed  off  and  purified  by 
a  second  boiling,  when  it  becomes  transparent,  of  a  consistence  between  tallow 
and  wax,  and  is  converted  into  candles. 

CANDLEMAS-DAT.  A  feast  instituted  by  the  early  Christians,  who  oonaecrated  on 
this  day  all  thA  tapers  and  candles  used  in  churches  during  the  year.  It  is  kept  in 
the  reformed  church  in  memory  of  the  purification  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  who,  sub- 
mitting to  the  law  under  which  she  lived,  presented  the  infant  Jesus  in  the  Temple. 
Owing  to  the  abundance  of  light,  this  festival  was  called  Candlemas,  as  well  as  the 
Purification.  The  practice  of  lighting  the  churchea  was  discontinued  by  English 
Protestants,  by  an  order  of  council,  2  Edw,  VL  1548 ;  but  it  is  still  continued  in  the 
church  of  Rome. 

CANDT,  IN  Cetlon.  In  an  expedition  against  it,  a  whole  British  detachment^  which 
took  possession  Feb.  20, 1808,  capitulated  June  23  following,  anxious  to  evacuate  the 
plaod  Ota  account  of  its  Unhealthiness,  and  the  perfidy  of  ihe  Candians ;  but  on  the 
third  day  they  were  treacherously  massacred  at  Columbo,  or  imprisoned.  The  mar 
against  the  natives  was  renewed  in  October,  1814.  The  king  was  Tanquished  and 
made  prisoner  by  general  Brownrigg,  Feb.  19,  1815;  he  was  deposed,  and  the 
sovereignty  vested  in  Qreat  Britain,  March  2,  1815. 

CANNiE,  BATTLE  of.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  in  history,  and  most  fatal  to  the 
Romans.  Hannibal  commanded  on  one  side  50,000  Africans,  Oauls,  and  Spaniards ; 
and  Paulus  ^milius  and  Terentius  Yarro,  88.000  Romans,  of  whom  40,000  were  slain. 
— Livy.  The  victor,  Hanoibal,  sent  three  bushels  of  rings,  taken  from  the  Roman 
knights  on  the  field,  as  a  trophy  to  Carthage.  Neither  party  perceived  an  awful 
earthquake  which  occurred  during  the  battle.  The  place  is  now  denominated  the 
field  of  blood ;  fought  May  21,  216  B.a— i^oiiuef. 

CANNIBALISM.  It  has  prevailed  from  the  remotest  times.  The  Greeks  inform  us  that 
it  was  a  priinitive  and  universal  custom ;  and  many  of  the  South  American  tribes  and 


CAK  129  CAN 

natives  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  eat  human  flesh  at  the  present  day,  and  the  propen- 
sitj  for  it  prevails  more  or  less  in  all  savage  nations.  St  Jerome  says,  that  some 
Brituh  tribes  ate  human  flesh.  The  Scytbians  were  drinkers  of  human  blood. 
Columbus  found  cannibals  in  America.    See  Anthropophoffi, 

CANNIKQ  ADMINISTRATION.  The  Ulness  of  lord  Liverpool  in  April,  1827,  led  to 
this  administration.  Right  hon.  George  Canning,  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer;  lord  Harrowby,  president  of  the  council;  duke  of 
Portland,  lord  privy  seal ;  lord  Dudley,  visoount  Goderich,  and  Mr.  Sturges  Bourne, 
secretaries  of  state ;  Mr.  Wynn,  president  of  the  India  board ;  Mr.  Huskiason,  board 
of  trade ;  lord  P^merston,  secretary  at  war ;  lord  Bexley,  chaDcellor  of  the  duchy  of 
Lancaster;  duke  of  Clarence,  lord  high  admiral ;  lord  Lyndhurst,  lord  chancellor,  &o. 
The  marquess  of  Lansdowoe  had  a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  to  which  were  soon  added  the 
seaLs  of  the  home  department.  The  death  of  Mr.  Canning  caused  a  reconstruction  of 
this  cabineti  August  following. 

CANNON,  are  said  to  have  been  used  as  early  as  A-d.  1338.  According  to  some 
historians  they  were  used  at  Cressy  in  1346 ;  but  this  Voltaire  disputes.  They  an 
aaid  to  have  been  used  by  the  English  at  the  siege  of  Calais,  1847.  Cannon  were  first 
used  in  the  English  service  by  the  governor  of  Calais,  6  Rich.  IL  1383. — Rymer*9 
Faedera,  Louis  XIV.  upon  setting  out  on  his  disastrous  campaign  against  the  Dutch, 
inscribed  upon  his  cannon,  **  The  last  argument  of  kings."    See  ArtiUeiy. 

CANNON,  Rkxabkablx.  The  largest  known  piece  of  ordnance  is  of  brass,  oast  in  India 
in  1685.  At  Ehrenbreitstein  castle,  one  of  the  strongest  forts  in  Germany,  opposite 
CoblentK  on  the  Rhine,  is  a  prodigious  cannon,  eighteen  feet  and  a  half  long,  a  foot 
and  a  half  in  diameter  in  the  bore,  and  three  feet  four  inches  in  the  breach.  The 
ball  made  for  it  weighs  180  lbs.  and  its  charge  of  powder  94  lbs.  The  inscription  on 
it  shows  that  it  was  made  by  one  Simon,  in  1529.  In  Dover  castle  is  a  brass  gun  called 
Queen  Elisabeth's  pocket-pistol,  which  was  presented  to  her  by  the  states  of  Holland ; 
this  piece  is  24  feet  long,  and  is  beautifully  ornamented,  having  on  it  the  arms  of  the 
States^  and  a  motto  in  Dutch,  importing  thus, 

**  Cbaii^  me  well,  and  sponge  me  cloan^ 
111  throw  a  ball  to  CalaU  Ordou." 

Some  fine  specimens  are  to  be  seen  in  the  tower.  A  leathern  cannon  was  fired  three 
times  in  the  King's  Park,  Edinburgh,  Oct.  23,  1788.— PAO/tpf.  The  Turkish  piece, 
now  in  St.  James's  Park,  was  taken  by  the  French  at  Alexandria,  but  was  retaken, 
and  placed  there  in  March,  1803. — ^Messrs.  HorsfiBdl's  monster  wrought-iron  gun  was 
completed  in  May,  1856,  at  LiverpooL  Its  length  is  15  feet  10  inches,  and  its  weight 
21  tons,  17  ewt  1  qr.  14  lbs.  lU  cost  was  3500^.  With  a  charge  of  25  lbs.  it  struck 
a  target  2000  yards'  distance. 

CANON.  The  first  ecclesiastical  canon  was  promulgated  a.d.  380. — Usher.  Canonical 
hours  for  prayer  were  instituted  in  391.  The  dignity  of  canon  existed  not  previously 
to  the  rule  of  Charlemagne,  about  768. — Pcuquier.  Canon  law  was  first  introduced 
into  Europe  by  Gratian,  the  celebrated  canon  law  author,  in  1151 ;  and  was  introduced 
into  England,  19  Stephen,  1154.— iStove. 

CANONS,  APOSTOLICAL.  Ascribed  by  Bellarmin  and  Baronius  to  the  Apostles;  by 
others  to  St.  Clement :  but  they  are  certainly  a  forgery  of  much  later  date  (since  825). 
The  Greek  Church  allows  85,  tiie  Latin  only  50  of  them. 

CANONISATION,  of  pious  men  and  martvrs  as  saints,  was  instituted  in  the  Romish 
Church  by  pope  Leo  III.  in  800. — TauenCs  TahUt.  Saints  have  so  accumulated, 
that  every  day  in  the  calendar  is  now  a  saint's  day.  "  The  first  canonisation  made  by 
papal  authority  was  that  of  St^  Udalricus,  in  993.  Before  this  time,  that  is,  during 
the  nine  first  centuries,  it  was  settled  that  all  bishops  had  an  equal  power  in  regard 
to  the  canonisation  of  saints ;  but  the  authority  of  the  pope,  as  well  as  the  number 
of  canoninations,  having  much  increased,  people  had  recourse  to  the  see  of  Rome,  in 
order  to  give  a  greater  solemnity  to  the  afi&ir.  Hence  we  find  that  Alexander  III. 
isBued  a  decree,  declaring  that  the  canonisation  of  saints  was  one  of  those  higher 
causes  reserved  to  the  apostolic  see  alone.  Boniface  pretended  the  same  thing ;  and 
Urban  VIII.  strictly  forbade  any  reverence  or  worship  to  be  given  to  those  who  died 
even  in  the  reputation  of  sanctity,  before  they  had  been  beatified  or  canonised  by 
the  Church  of  Rome." — BenaulU 

K 


CAN  ISO  CAP 

CANTERBURY.  The  i>ttroMnittfn  of  the  Romans,  And  capital  of  Ethelberi,  king  of 
Kent,  who  reigned  a.d.  560.  Its  early  oathedral  was  erected  during  the  Heptarebj, 
and  was  sevend  times  bamt  and  rebuilt.  It  was  once  famous  for  the  shrine  of 
Becket  (see  Becket),  and  within  it  are  interred  Henry  lY.  and  Edward  the  Blsck 
Prince.  The  present  cathedral  is  a  reTival  of  that  begun  by  archbi^op  Lsnfinne. 
During  the  rebellion  against  Charles  I.  the  usurper  Cromwell  made  it  a  stable  for  bii 
dragoons.  St.  Martin's  Church  here  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  erection  for  CbrittiAn 
worship  in  Britain ;  but  this  is  doubted.  The  riot  at  Broughton,  near  Caaterboiy, 
produced  by  a  fiuiatio  called  Thorn,  who  assumed  the  name  of  air  William  Cooitsniji 
occurred  May  81, 1888.    Bee  ThomUei, 

CANTERBURY,  ARCHBISHOPRIC  of.  This  see  was  settled  by  Augostm,  wbo 
preached  the  gospel  in  England,  a.d.  596,  and  conrerted  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent 
The  king,  animated  with  zeal  for  his  new  religion,  bestowed  great  fisvours  upon 
Augustin,  who  fixed  his  residence  in  the  capital  of  Ethelbert's  dominions.  The  chnrch 
was  made  a  cathedral,  and  consecrated  to  Christ.  At  one  period  it  was  called 
St  Thomas,  from  Thomas  k  Becket,  murdered  at  its  altar,  December,  1171.  The 
archbishop  is  primate  and  metropolitan  of  all  England,  and  is  the  first  peer  in  the 
realm,  having  precedency  of  all  officers  of  state,  and  of  all  dukes  not  of  the  Uood 
royaL  Canterbury  had  formerly  jurisdiction  over  Ireland,  and  the  archbiehop  wu 
styled  a  patriarch.  This  see  has  yielded  to  the  church  of  Rome  18  saints  tnd  9 
cardinals ;  and  to  the  civil  state  of  England,  12  lord  chancellors  and  4  lord  treasonn. 
Augustin  was  the  first  biehop,  596.  The  see  was  made  superior  to  York,  107S.  Set 
York.    The  revenue  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  28162. 17s.  9d— Beodoa. 

CANTHARIDES,  a  venomous  kind  of  beetles,  which  when  dried  and  pulverised,  are 
used  principally  to  raise  blisters.  They  are  of  a  green  colour,  and  are  commonly 
found  in  Spain,  hence  they  are  called  also  Spanish  flies.  They  were  first  introdneed 
into  medical  practice  by  ijretsBus,  a  physician  of  Cappadocia^  about  50  B.o,^Frt»d. 

CANTON.  The  only  city  in  China  with  which  Europeans  had  been  allowed  to  trade,  till 
the  treaty  of  Aug.  29, 1842.  Merchants  first  arrived  here  for  thia  purpose  in  1517> 
Nearly  every  nation  has  a  factory  at  Canton,  but  that  of  England  surpasses  all  othen 
in  elegance  and  extent.  Various  particulars  relating  to  this  city  will  be  found 
imder  the  article  China.  In  1822,  a  fire  destroyed  15,000  houses  at  Canton;  and  an 
inundation  swept  away  10,000  hoases  and  1000  persons,  in  Oct.  1833.  Go  Od  8, 
1856,  the  British  lorcha  "  Arrow  "  in  the  Canton  River  was  boarded  by  the  Cbineae 
officers,  12  men  out  of  the  crew  of  14  carried  off,  and  the  national  ensign  taken  doira. 
After  strong  remonstrances  no  adequate  reparation  being  afforded,  hoetilities  veri 
resorted  to,  and  on  the  24th  all  the  forts  guarding  the  city  externally  wars  eaptnred 
with  slight  resistance.  The  city  was  partially  bombarded  on  the  29th.  Sir  J.  Bowrini:. 
governor  of  Hong-Kong,  applied  to  India  and  Ceylon  for  troops.  On  Mardi  S^  1B57, 
the  House  of  Commons  by  a  majority  of  16  censured  Sir  John  for  "the  violent 
measures  '*  he  had  pursued.  The  ministry  dissolved  the  parliament ;  but  obtained 
a  large  miy'ority  in  tiie  new  one.    See  China, 

CAOUTCHOUC,  OB  INDIA  RUBBER.  An  elastic  resinous  substance  that  exudei  hj 
incisions  from  several  trees  that  grow  in  Cayenne,  Quito,  and  the  Brazila,  called  iferns 
eaoutehaue  and  Siphonia  ekuHca,  and  vulgarly  called  syringe  trees.  It  was  first  brongbt 
to  Europe  from  South  America,  about  1738.  It  has  latterly  been  in  domestic  nee  for 
various  purposes,  and  preparations  of  it  have  been  introduced  into  our  mannfactnree; 
among  others,  bookbinding  and  clothing.  Vulcanised  rubber,  formed  by  comhining 
India  rubber  with  sulphur,  was  patented  in  America  by  Mr.  C.  Qoodyear  in  1889;  and 
is  said  to  have  been  invented  also  by  Mr.  T.  Hancock,  of  the  firm  of  Mackintosh  and 
Co.,  in  1843. 

CAP.  The  Romans  went  for  many  ages  without  regular  covering  for  the  head,  and  henoe 
the  heads  of  all  the  ancient  statues  appear  bare.  But  at  one  period  the  cap  wtf 
a  symbol  of  liberty,  and  when  the  Romans  gave  it  to  their  slaves,  it  entitled  them  to 
freedom.  The  cap  was  sometimes  used  as  a  mark  of  infamy,  and  in  Italy  the  Jen 
were  distinguished  by  a  yellow  cap,  and  in  France  those  who  had  been  bankrupts 
were  for  ever  after  obliged  to  wear  a  green  cap.  The  general  use  of  caps  and  hats  it 
referred  to  the  year  1449.  They  were  worn  at  the  entry  of  Charles  VII.  into  Booen, 
from  which  time  they  took  the  place  of  chaperons  or  hoods.  The  velvet  cap  «•« 
called  mortier;  the  wool  cap,  bonnet  The  clerical  or  university  square  cap  was 
invented  by  Patrouillet.    See  Capper, 


CAP  181  CAP 

CAPE  BRETON.  Diaoo^ered  by  the  English  in  1584.  It  wu  taken  by  the  French  in 
1632,  but  was  afterwards  restored ;  and  again  taken  in  1745,  and  re-taken  in  1748. 
It  was  finally  possessed  by  the  English,  when  the  garrison  and  marines,  consisting  of 
6600  men,  were  made  prisoners  of  war.  and  eleven  ships  of  the  French  navy  were 
captured  or  destroyed,  1758.     Ceded  to  Engbmd  at  the  peaoe  of  1763. 

CAPE-COAST  CASTLE,  m  S.W.  Africa.  Settled  by  the  Portuguese  in  1610;  but  it 
soon  fell  to  the  Dutch.  It  was  demolished  by  Admiral  Holmes  in  1661.  All  the 
British  settlements,  factories,  and  shipping  along  the  coast  were  destroyed  by  the 
Dutch  admiral,  De  Ruyter,  in  1665.  This  cape  was  confirmed  to  the  English  by  the 
treaty  of  Breda,  in  1667.    See  AsluuUea. 

CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE.  Originally  called  the  ''Cape  of  Tempests,"  and  also  named 
the  "Lion  of  the  Seay"  and  the  "Head  of  Africa."  The  name  was  changed  by 
John  IL  of  Portugal,  who  augured  favourably  of  future  discoveries  from  Diaz  having 
reached  the  extremity  of  Africa.  The  cape  was  doubled,  and  the  passage  to  India 
discovered  by  Yaseo  da  Qama,  l!(or.  20, 1497.  Planted  by  the  Dutch,  1651.  Taken 
by  the  English,  under  admiral  Elphinstone  and  general  Clarke,  Sept  1 6,  1 795,  and 
restored  at  the  peace  in  1802.  Again  taken  by  sir  David  Baird  and  sir  Home 
Popham,  Jan.  8, 1806;  and  finally  ceded  to  England  in  1814.  Emigrants  began  to 
arrive  here  from  Britain,  in  March,  1820.  The  neighbouring  Cafires  have  made 
several  irruptions  on  the  British  settlements  at  the  Cape ;  they  committed  dreadful 
lavages  at  Grahamstown,  Oct.  1834.  See  Kaffraria.  In  consequence  of  the  resist- 
anee  of  the  inhabitants  to  the  attempt  to  make  the  Cape  a  penal  colony,  commenced 
May  19^  1849,  the  project  was  abandoned.  The  constitution  granted  to  the  colony 
was  promulgated  on  July  1,  1853,  aud  has  been  received  with  much  rejoicing. 
— General  Pnetoriua,  the  chief  of  the  Trans-Yaal  Republic,  died  in  Aug.  1858.  The 
British  government  having  given  up  its  jurisdiction  over  the  Orange  river  territory, 
Mardi  29,  1854,  a  free  state  was  formed.  See  Orange  River.  In  Aug.  1856,  the 
Giffires  were  much  excited  by  a  prophet  named  Umhla-kaza.  By  the  exertions  of 
sir  George  Grey,  the  present  governor,  tranquillity  is  still  maintained  (1857). 

CAPE  DE  YERD  ISLANDS.  These  islands  (a  cluster  so  called  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
near  the  Cape  of  the  same  name)  were  known  to  the  ancients  under  the  name  of 
Gorgadea;  but  were  not  visited  by  the  modems  till  discovered  by  Antonio  de  Noli, 
a  Genoese  navigator  in  the  service  of  Portugal,  a.d.  1446.  The  Portuguese  have 
possessed  them  ever  since  their  discoveiy. 

CAPE  ST.  VINCENT,  BATTLES  of.  Admiral  Rooke,  with  twenty  ships  of  war,  and 
the  Turkey  fleet  under  his  convoy,  was  attacked  by  admiral  Tourville,  with  a  force 
vastly  superior  to  his  own,  off  Cape  St.  Vmoent,  when  twelve  English  and  Dutch 
men-of-war,  and  eighty  merchantmen,  were  captured  or  destroyed  by  the  French, 
June  16, 1693. — ^Battle  of  Cape  St  Vincent,  one  of  the  most  glorious  achievements  of 
the  British  navy.  Sir  John  Jervis  being  in  command  of  the  Mediterranean  fleet  of 
fifteen  sail,  gave  battle  to  the  Spanish  fleet  of  twenty-seven  ships  of  the  line  off  this 
Cape,  and  signally  defeated  the  enemy,  nearly  double  in  strength,  taking  four  ships 
and  destroying  several  others,  Feb.  14, 1797.  For  this  victory  sir  John  was  raised  to 
the  English  peerage,  by  the  title  of  earl  St.  Vincent 

CAPET,  HOUSE  of.  The  third  race  of  the  kings  of  France.  Hugo  Capet,  count  of 
Paris  and  Orleans,  the  first  of  this  race  (which  was  called  from  him  Capetians  and 
Capevigians),  seized  the  throne  on  the  death  of  Louis  V.  called  the  Indolent,  who 
reigned  but  one  year;  he  was  supposed  to  have  been  poisoned  by  his  queen,  who  did 
not  love  him.  His  uncle  should  by  right  have  succeeded.  Thus  ended  the  Carlo- 
vingian  race,  which  lasted  236  years.  Hugo  was  a  man  renowned  for  his  military 
valour  and  public  virtues ;  a.d.  987. — Henavlt,  The  first  line  of  the  house  of  Capet 
expired  with  Charles  IV.  the  Handsome,  in  1328,  when  the  branch  of  Valois  ascended 
the  throne  in  the  person  of  Philip  VL— /fifem. 

CAPITOL.  The  principal  fortress  of  ancient  Rome,  in  which  a  temple  was  built  to 
Jupiter,  thence  called  JvpUer  CapUoUnvt.  The  foundation  laid  by  Tarquinius  Priscus, 
616  B.O.  The  Roman  consuls  made  large  donations  to  this  temple,  and  the  emperor 
Augustus  bestowed  2000  pounds  weight  of  gold,  of  which  precious  metal  the  roof 
was  composed,  while  its  thresholds  were  of  brass,  and  its  interior  was  decorated  with 
shields  of  solid  rilrer.  Destroyed  by  lightning  188  B.O.;  by  fire,  A.D.  70.  The 
Ci^itoline  games  instituted  by  Domitian,  a.d.  86. 

CAPPADOCIA.    This  kingdom  was  founded  b;  Phamaces,  744  b.c.    The  sucoeasors  of 

K  2 


CAP 


182 


CAR 


Phamaces  are  almost  wholly  unknown,  until  about  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Qraat, 
after  whoM  death  Eumenes,  by  defeating  Ariarathes  XL  became  king  of  Oapptdocia. 
The  people  are  described  as  having  been  addicted  to  every  vice  that  man  a  captble 
of  committing.  They  worshipped  the  Sun^  under  the  emblem  of  Fire;  and  bad, 
besides,  temples  erected  to  most  of  the  deities  of  Greece,  as  JupUer,  AjniUa,  Dima, 
and  BeJlona.  Of  these  temples,  that  of  Gomana  was  the  most  superb  and  celebrated. 
It  was  dedicated  to  Diana  Taurica,  under  the  name  of  BtUona,  The  high-priesft,  who 
was  always  chosen  firom  the  royal  family,  had  upw-vda  of  6000  persoos  under  hit 
command,  and  possessed  so  absolute  a  power,  that  he  often  be<kme  an  object  of 
jealousy  to  the  sovereign. 


Phamaoes  is  declared  king  .  B.a 

[His  suecosBors  are  unknown  for  nearly 
three  centuries.] 


744 


Reirn  of  Arlanthes  1 862 

Peraiccas  takes  Cappadoda,  and  Ariara- 
thes is  crucified      322 

Defeat  of  the  Parthians        .       .        .    .  217 
Irruption  of  the  Trocmi     .        .  .164 

Mithridates,Bumamed  Philopator.asoends 

the  throne 162 

Orophemes  dethrones  Philopator  .161 

Attfuus  assists  Philopator,  and  Oropher- 

nos  is  dethroned 164 

Philopator  joins  the  Romans  against  Arls- 

tonlciu,  and  perishes  in  battle  .  153 

His  queen  Loodioe,  desirous  of  usurping 


the  throne,  poisons  five  of  her  ovn  chil> 
dren;  the  sixth  and  only  reaudniiur 
child  is  saved,  and  the  queen  put  to 
death sa  ISS 

This  young  prinoe  reigns  as  Aziarathei 
VII. 

Qordius  assassinates  Ariarathes  VIL 

Ariarathes  VIII.  assassinated  .    . 

Gappadocia  declared  a  free  country  by  the 
senate  of  Rome 

The  people  elect  a  new  king.  Ariobsr- 
Eanes  I 

His  son,  Ariobarxanes  II..  reigns    . 

He  is  dethroned  by  Marc  Antony       .    . 

Archelaus.  the  last  king  of  Cappadoda, 
dies,  ana  bequeaths  his  kingdom  to  the 
Boman  empire        ....  a.o. 


15S 

97 
96 

M 
65 
36 


ir 


CAPPER  OB  HATTER.  A  statute  was  passed  that  none  should  sell  any  hat  above  20d. 
nor  cap  above  2i.  hd,  5  Henry  VIL  1489.  Caps  were  first  worn  at  the  eotry  of 
Charles  VII.  into  Rouen,  1449.  A  law  was  enacted  that  every  person  above  seven 
years  of  age  should  wear  on  Sundays  and  holidays  a  cap  of  wool,  knit,  made,  thickeaed, 
and  dressed  in  England  by  some  of  the  trade  oi  cappers,  under  the  forfeiture  of  three 
farthings  for  every  day's  neglect,  1571.  From  this  law  the  following  persons  wert 
ezcepteid :  maids,  ladies,  and  gentlewomen,  and  every  lord,  knight,  and  gentlemia,  of 
twenty  marks  of  land,  and  their  heirs,  and  such  as  had  borne  office  of  worship,  ia  soy 
city,  town,  or  plaoe,  and  the  warden  of  the  London  companies.    See  Cap,  and  Batt. 

CAPRI,  the  CapresD  of  the  Romans,  and  memorable  as  the  residenoe  of  Tiberias,  tnd 
for  the  debaucheries  he  committed  in  this  once  delightful  retreat,  during  the  wTen 
last  years  of  his  life :  it  was  embellished  by  him  with  a  sumptuous  palace  and  most 
magnificent  works.  The  emperor  Augustus  had  also  made  Capri  hit  residaooa 
Capri  was  taken  by  sir  Sidney  Smith,  April  22, 1806. 

CAPUCHIN  FRIARS,  a  sort  of  Franciscans,  to  whom  this  name  was  given  from  their 
wearing  a  great  Capuchon,  or  cowl,  which  is  an  odd  kind  of  cap,  or  hood,  sewn  to 
their  habit,  and  hanging  down  upon  their  backs.  The  Capuchins  were  founded  by 
Matthew  Baschi,  about  a.d.  1525.  Although  the  rigours  of  this  order  have  abated, 
still  the  brethren  are  remarkable  for  their  extreme  poverty  and  privations. — Aakt, 

CAR  (The).  Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Erichthonius  of  Athens,  about  1486  B.C.  The 
covered  cars  {eumu  areuati)  were  in  use  among  the  Romans.  The  leetiea  (a  eoft* 
cushioned  car)  was  the  next  invented ;  and  this  gave  place  to  the  carpaUiunf  a  two- 
wheeled  oar,  with  an  arched  covering,  hung  vrith  costly  cloth.  Still  later  were  the 
earrucce,  in  which  officers  of  state  rode.  Triumphal  care  were  introduced  by  Tiuquia 
the  Elder,  and  were  stately  chariots  formed  like  a  throne,  in  whidi  the  victor  roda 

CARACCAS.  One  of  the  early  Spanish  diMOveries  by  Columbus,  a.d.  1498.  After 
many  unsuccessful  attempts  to  settle  it  by  the  missionaries,  it  was  at  last  reduced  by 
force  of  arms,  and  assigned  in  property  to  the  Welsers,  a  Qerman  mercantile  houie, 
by  Charles  V.,  but,  owing  to  the  tyranny  of  their  administration,  they  were  dispoi- 
seased  in  1550,  and  a  supreme  governor  appointed  by  the  crown.  The  proriooe 
declared  its  independence  of  Spain,  May  9, 1810.  In  1812  it  was  visited  by  a  violent 
convulsion  of  nature ;  thousands  of  human  beings  were  lost ;  rocks  and  moontauu 
split,  and  rolled  into  valleys;  the  rivers  were  blackened,  or  their  ooorses  changed; 
and  many  towns  swallowed  up  and  totally  destroyed. 

CARBONARI,  a  dangerous  and  powerful  society  in  Italy,  a  substitute  for  freemasonrj* 
which  committed  the  most  dreadful  outrages,  and  spread  terror  in  several  ststee. 
They  were  suppressed,  however^  by  the  Austrian  government  in  Sepl  1820,  pn- 


CAR  133  CAB 

Tionsly  to  which  year  their  numbers  and  power  had  grown  to  their  greatest  height; 
in  1819  they  had  become  meet  formidable. 

CABPONIC  ACID  OAS,  a  oomponnd  of  carbon  and  oxygen,  which  occurs  in  the  air,  and 
ia  a  product  of  combuation,  respiration,  and  fermentation.  The  Qrotto  del  Cane  yields 
200«000  lbs.  per  annum.  Ko  animal  can  breathe  this  gas.  The  briskness  of  beer,  &a, 
is  due  to  its  presence  in  a  oompresMd  state.    It  was  liquefied  by  Faraday  in  1828. 

CARDINALS.  Ecclesiastical  princes  in  the  Church  of  Rome.  They  are  properly  the 
council  of  the  pope,  and  constitute  the  conclave  or  sacred  college.  At  nnt  they 
were  only  the  principal  priests,  or  incumbents  of  the  parishes  in  Rome.  On  this 
footing  ibey  continued  till  the  elerenth  century.  They  did  not  acquire  the  exdusiTe 
power  of  electing  the  popes  till  a.d.  1160.  They  first  wore  the  red  hat  to  remind 
them  that  they  oug^t  to  liicd  their  blood,  if  required,  for  religion,  and  were  declared 
princes  of  the  church  by  Innocent  IV.  1243.  Pftul  II.  gave  Uie  scarlet  habit,  1464  : 
and  Urban  YIIL  the  title  of  Eminence  in  1630 ;  some  say,  in  1623. — Du  Camgu 

CABDSL  Their  invention  is  referred  to  the  Romans;  but  it  is  generally  supposed  that 
they  were  invented  in  France  in  1891,  to  amuse  Charles  VL  during  the  intervals  of  a 
melancholy  disorder,  ithich  in  the  end  brought  him  to  his  grave. — Mairay,  ffUt.  de 
Framee*  The  univexsal  adoption  of  an  amusement  which  was  invented  for  a  fool,  is 
no  very  favourable  specimen  of  wisdom. — Malkiik  Csrds  are  of  Spanish,  not  of 
French  origin. — /Aatnet  Barringtcn,  Piquet  and  all  the  early  games  are  French. 
Carda  first  taxed  in  England,  1756.  428,000  packs  were  stamped  in  1775,  and 
986,000  in  1800.  In  1825,  the  duty  bemg  then  2i.  6d.  per  pack,  less  than  150,000 
packs  were  stamped ;  but  in  1827  the  stamp  duty  was  reduced  to  It.,  and  810,854 
packs  paid  duty  in  1830.  Duty  was  paid  on  239,200  packs  in  the  year  ending  5th 
Jan.  1840 ;  and  on  near  300,000,  year  ending  5th  Jan.,  1850.— PaW.  lUports, 

CARICATURES^  Caricatures  originated,  it  is  said,  with  Bufalmaco,  an  Italian  painter; 
he  first  put  labels  to  the  moutl^  of  his  figures  with  sentences,  since  followed  by  bad 
masters,  but  more  particularly  in  caricature  engravings,  about  1830. — De  PUa, 

The  modem  caricatures  of  Qilray,  Rowlandson,  H  B  (John  Doyle  |^  >s  I-B),  B  Doyle 

and  J.  Leech  are  justly  celebrated.    The  well-known  "  Punch  "  was  first  published 
in  1841. 

CARISBROOK  CASTLR  Supposed  to  have  been  a  fortress,  even  under  the  Britons 
and  Bomans,  but  the  earliest  historic  notice  of  it  refers  to  tiie  year  a.]>.  580,  when  it 
was  taken  by  Cerdic,  founder  of  the  kingdom  of  the  West  Saxons.  Its  subsequent 
Korman  character  has  been  ascribed  to  William  Fita^Osbome,  earl  of  Hereford  in 
William  I.'s  time.  Much  interest  has  been  attached  to  this  castle  from  its  having 
been  the  place  of  imprisonment  of  Charles  I.  immediately  before  his  trial  and  death. 
That  part  of  the  castle  in  which  the  king  lay  is  much  decayed,  but  the  window  can 
be  shown  through  which  the  royal  captive  endeavoured  to  escape.  Here  died  his 
daughter  Eliiabeth,  aged  fifteen,  too  probably  of  a  broken  heart,  Sept.  8, 1650. 

CA  BLISLE.  The  frontier  town  and  key  of  England,  wherein  for  many  ages  a  strong 
garrison  was  kept.  Just  below  this  town  the  fomous  Picts'  wall  began,  which  crossed 
the  whole  iiland  to  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  and  here  alao  ended  the  Great  Bomaa 
highway.  The  great  church,  called  St.  Mary's,  is  a  venerable  old  pile ;  a  great  part  of 
it  waa  built  by  St  David,  king  of  Scotland,  who  held  this  country,  together  with 
Westmoreland  and  Northumberland,  in  vassalage  from  the  crown  of  England ;  it  hia 
also  another  church  called  St  Cuthbert'a.  The  castle,  founded  in  1092,  by  William 
II.,  was  made  the  prison  of  the  unfortunate  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  in  1568.  Taken  by 
iije  parliament  forces  in  1645,  and  by  the  pretender  in  1745. 

CARLISLE,  SEE  or.  Erected  by  Henry  I.  in  1183,  and  made  sufiragan  to  Tork.  The 
cathedral  had  been  founded  a  short  time  previously,  by  Walter,  deputy  in  these  parts 
for  William  BufuSb  The  church  was  almost  ruined  by  Cromwell  and  his  soldiers,  and 
has  nerer  recovered  its  former  great  beauty,  although  repaired  after  the  Bestoration. 
It  has  been  lately  renovated  at  a  cost  of  15,000/.  and  was  re-opened  in  1856.  This 
see  has  given  to  the  civil  state  one  lord  chancellor  and  two  lord  treasurers ;  it  is 
valued  in  the  king's  books  at  530/.  4«.  lid  per  annum. 

CABLOW.  The  celebrated  castle  here  was  erected  by  king  John.  It  surrendered  after 
a  desperate  siege  to  Bory  Oge  O'Moore,  in  1577  ;  again  to  the  parUamentaiy  forces, 
in  1650.  In  a  recent  attempt  to  new«medel  this  venerable  pile,  its  foundations  were 
so  sapped,  that  the  whole  &bric  gave  way,  and  it  now  constitutes  a  heap  of  indiscri* 


Ji. ^B,  H^i'U-l^JUJPU  —fcJK-L*-i  "^i-iUlfa^^^^k-fWS 


CAR  131  CAR 

minate  ruins.    Battle  here  between  the  royal  troops  and  the  insurgents,  the  latter 
routed,  May  27, 1798. 

CARLSBAD,  CONQRESS  of,  on  the  affairs  of  Europe.  The  popular  spirit  of  emanci- 
pation that  prevailed  in  many  of  the  states  of  Europe  againtt  despotic  gOTormnent  led 
to  this  congress,  in  which  Tarious  resolutions  were  come  to,  denouncing  the  press  and 
liberal  opinions,  and  in  which  the  great  continental  powers  decreed  measures  to 
repress  the  rage  for  limited  monarchies  and  firee  institutions,  Aug.  1, 1819. 

CARMELITES,  or  WHITE  FRIARS.  Named  from  Mount  Carmel,  and  one  of  the  four 
orders  of  mendicants,  disting^bhed  by  austere  rules,  appeared  in  1141.  The  order 
settled  in  France  in  1252. — nenault.  Their  rigour  was  moderated  about  1640.  They 
claim  their  descent  in  an  uninterrupted  succession  from  Elijah,  Elisha,  fta  See 
Motheim't  EccUa,  Bitt  Mount  Carmel  has  a  monastery,  and  the  valley  of  Sharon  lies 
to  the  south  of  the  mount,  which  is  2000  feet  high,  shaped  like  a  flatted  cone,  with 
steep  and  barren  sides :  it  is  often  referred  to  in  Jewish  histories. 

CARNATIC.  This  country  of  Southern  Hindostan,  and  which  extends  along  the  whole 
coast  of  Coromandel,  is  now  under  the  control  of  British  power.  Hyder  All  entered 
the  Camatic  with  80,000  troops,  and  was  defeated  by  the  firitLsh  under  sir  Byre  Coota, 
July  1,  and  Aug.  27, 1781 ;  and  decisively  overthrown,  June  2, 1782.  Tbe  Camatic 
was  overrun  by  Tippoo  in  1790.  The  British  have  assumed  entire  authority  over  the 
Camatic  since  1801.    See  India. 

CARNATION.  This  beautiful  flower,  in  several  of  its  varieties,  together  with  the  gilly- 
flower, the  Provence  rose,  and  a  few  others,  was  first  planted  in  England  by  the 
Flemings,  about  1567. — Stotoe,  The  carnation  was  so  called  from  the  original  species 
being  of  a  flesh-colour,  and  the  term  is  applied  by  painters  to  those  parts  of  the  human 
body  that  have  no  drapery.    See  article  Plowen, 

CARNEIAN  GAMES.  These  games  were  observed  in  most  of  the  Grecian  cities,  but 
more  particularly  at  Sparta,  where  they  were  instituted  about  675  B.C.  in  honour  of 
Apollo,  sumamed  Cameus.  The  festival  lasted  nine  days,  and  was  an  imitation  of  the 
manner  of  living  in  camps  among  the  ancients. 

CARNIVAL.  {Camivalef  Italian.)  A  well-known  festival  time  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  observed  in  Italy,  particularly  at  Venice ;  it  begins  at  Twelfth-day,  and  holds 
till  Sh rove-tide  or  beginning  of  Lent.  This  is  a  season  of  mirth,  feasting,  rejoieiDg, 
and  indulgence ;  and  numbers  visit  Italy  during  its  continuance.  The  carnival  grew 
into  its  later  festivities,  from  a  merely  religious  festival,  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

CAROLINA.  Discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1500.  A  body  of  English,  amounting  to 
about  850  persons,  landed  and  settled  here  in  1667;  and  Carolina  was  granted  to  lord 
Berkeley  and  others  a  few  years  afterwards.  See  America  and  UniUd  Statu.  Tbe 
Caroline  Islands  were  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  1686. 

CARP.  The  esteemed  fresh  water  or  pond  fish.  In  the  palate  of  the  carp  is  sometimes 
found  a  stone  of  a  triangular  form. — Pardon.  The  carp  was  first  brought  to  these 
countries  about  a.d.  1525. — Jiaak  Walton,  A  large  pond  in  the  village  of  Palmer, 
near  Lewes,  is  said  to  have  received  the  first  carp  imported  into  England  from 
Normandy  by  the  monks  of  a  monastery  in  the  vicinity,  subordinate  to  the  great 
ptioiy  of  Southover,  in  the  county  of  Sussex. — Lem9*9  JHU. 

CARPETS.  They  were  in  use,  at  least  in  some  kind,  as  early  as  the  days  of  Amos^  about 
800  B.C. — Amoa  ii.  8.  Carpets  were  spread  on  the  ground,  on  which  persons  sat  who 
dwelt  in  tents ;  but  when  first  used  in  houses,  even  in  the  East,  we  have  no  record. 
In  the  12th  century  carpets  were  articles  of  luxury ;  and  in  England,  it  is  mentioned 
as  an  instance  of  Socket's  splendid  style  of  living,  that  his  sumptuous  apartments  were 
every  day  in  winter  strewn  with  clean  straw  or  hay;  about  A.D.  1160.  The  manufactnre 
of  woollen  carpets  was  introduced  into  France  from  Persia,  in  the  reign  of  Heniy  IV., 
between  1589  and  1610.  Some  artisans  who  had  quitted  France  in  disgust  came  to 
England,  and  established  the  carpet  manufacture,  about  1750.  With  us,  as  with  meet 
nations,  Persian  and  Turkey  carpets  are  most  prized.  Our  Axminster,  Wilton,  and 
Kidderminster  manufacture  is  the  growth  of  the  last  hundred  years. 

ACRRIAGES.  The  invention  of  them  is  ascribed  t^  Erichthonius  of  Athens,  who  pro- 
duced the  first  chariot  about  1486  B.O.  Caniages  were  known  in  France  in  tba 
reign  of  Henry  II.  a.d.  1547 ;  but  they  were  of  very  rude  construction,  and  raire. 
Tbey  seem  to  have  been  known  in  England  in  1555 ;  but  not  the  art  of  msking  them. 
Close  carriages  of  good  workmanship  began  to  be  used  by  persons  of  the  uigheat 


CAR 


135 


CAR 


qiulitj  at  the  clote  of  the  nxteentk  century.  Henry  lY.  had  one,  hut  without 
■tTKpe  or  sprioga.  Their  oonstruction  wae  Tarious :  they  were  first  made  in  England 
in  the  reign  of  Elixabeth,  and  were  then  called  whirliootea.  The  duke  of  Bucking- 
ham, in  1619,  drove  aix  horaee;  and  the  duke  of  Northumberland,  in  rivalry,  drove 
eight.  They  were  fint  let  for  hire  in  Paris,  in  1650,  at  the  Hotel  Fiacre;  and  hence 
the  name,/a0re.    See  Car,  OabrioUtt,  ChariotM,  and  Coa^its. 

CABRICKFEROUa  The  celebrated  castle  of  this  town  is  supposed  to  have  been  built 
by  Hugh  de  I^cy,  in  1178.  The  town  surrendered  to  the  duke  of  Schomberg, 
Aug.  28, 1689.  William  IIL  landed  here,  June  14, 1690,  to  reduce  the  adherents  of 
James  IL  Memorable  expedition  of  the  French  admiral  Thurot,  when  the  castle 
surrendered  to  his  force  of  1000  men,  1760.    See  ThurotU  Iwvation  of  IrtUmd, 

CARROK  IRON-WORK&  They  are  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Carron,  in  Stirling- 
^ire,  and  form  the  largest  foundry  in  existence,  established  in  1760.  The  works 
employ  about  1600  men,  and  occupy  about  100  acres  of  land  in  reaervoin,  pools  for 
water,  and  dams  built  about  two  miles  above  the  works ;  the  streams  after  turning 
18  lai^  wheels,  fall  into  the  tide  navigation,  which  conveys  their  castings  into  the 
eea^  Here  are  made  the  pieces  of  ordnance  called  carronadea^  so  named  from  thia 
foundry — first  made  in  1776.    See  Cannon, 

CARROTSw  These,  among  other  edible  roots,  were  imported  from  Holland  and  Flanders. 
It  was  not  until  about  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  or  after  the  year  1540 
that  they  were  produced  in  England.  Originally,  or  when  first  brought  to  England, 
this  esculent  was  of  much  more  diminutive  else  than  now;  the  carrot  has  much 
improved  both  in  growth  and  flavour  imder  English  culture. — Mortimer, 

CARTESIAN  DOCTRINES.  Their  author  was  Ren^  Des  Cartes,  the  French  philo- 
sopher, who  promulgated  them  in  1647.  He  was  an  original  thinker :  his  metaphy- 
sioal  principle,  *'  I  think,  therefore  I  am,"  ia  refuted  by  Mr.  Locke ;  and  his  physical 
principle  that  "nothing  exists  but  substance,"  is  disproved  by  the  Newtonian 
philosophy.  His  celebrated  system  abounds  in  great  singularities  and  originalities; 
but  a  spirit  of  independent  thought  prevails  throughout  it,  and  has  contributed  to 
excite  the  same  spirit  in  others.  Des  Cartes  was  the  most  distinguished  philosopher 
of  his  time  and  country. — Dufrtanoy, 

CARTHAGE.  Founded  by  Dido,  or  EUasa,  sister  of  Pygmalion,  king  of  Tyre,  869  B.o. 
She  fled  from  that  tyrant,  who  had  killed  her  husbuid,  and  took  refuge  in  Africa. 
Carthage  became  so  powerful  as  to  dispute  the  empire  of  the  world  with  Rome, 
which  occasioned  the  Punic  wars,  and  the  total  demolition  of  that  city.  Taken  by 
Scipio,  and  burned  to  the  ground,  146  B.a  when  the  flames  raged  during  seventeen 
days,  and  many  of  the  inhabitanta  perished  in  them  rather  than  survive  the  sub- 
jection of  their  country.  The  Roman  senate  ordered  the  walls  to  be  razed,  that  no 
trace  might  remain  of  this  once  powerful  republic. — Btuebiua, 


IMdo  arriTos  in  Africa,  and  builds  Byna. 
— Blair B.C. 

Fimt  alliance  of  the  Carthaginians  with 
the  Romans 

The  CarthoginianB  in  Sicily  are  defeated 
by  Gelo ;  the  elder  Hamilcar  perishes. 
— Herodotus,  I.  viL 

They  send  300,000  men  into  Sicily       .    . 

The  siege  of  Syracuse        .        .       .        . 

The  Carthaginians  land  in  Italy  .        .    . 

Their  defeat  by  Timoleon  .... 

They  are  defeated  bv  Agatliocles,  and 
immolate  their  children  on  the  altar  of 
Sotum,  thereby  to  propitiate  the  gods 

The  first  Punic  war  becins  .... 

The  Carthaginians  defeated  by  the 
Romana  in  a  naval  engagement    . 

Xantippns  defeats  Hegulus  .       ... 

AMhrntal  defeated  bT  ICeteUus 

Rcgnlus  put  to  death  ..... 

Romans  defeated  before  LtlybaBum 

End  of  the  first  Punic  war  . 

War  between  the  Carthaginians  and  Afri- 
can mercenaries     ..... 

Hamilcar  Bareas  is  sent  into  Spain ;  he 
with  him  his  son,  the  Ikmous 


809 
609 


480 
407 
S96 
379 
840 


310 
264 

260 
265 
251 
250 
250 
241 

S41 


Hannibal,  at  the  sge  of  nine  years, 

having  first  made  him  swear  an  otemal 

enmity  to  the  Romans  .  .  B.a  287 

Hamilcar  U  killed  in  battle  by  the  Vet- 

tooea' 227 

Asdrubal  is  assassinated  .  .220 

Hannibal  subjecta  all  Spain,  as  &r  as  the 

Iberus 219 

The  second  Punic  war  begins  .  .  218 

First  great  victory  of  Hannibal  .  .  .  217 
Hannibal  croasea  tbe  Alps,  and  enters 

Italy  with  100.000  men  .  .  .  .217 
Great  battle  of  Cannse  (wAt'M  «m)  .  .  216 
New  Carthage  taken  by  Pub.  Scipio  .  210 
Asdrubal,  brother  of  Hannibal,  defeated 

and  slain  in  lUly  .    .  207 

The  Carthaginians  expelled  Spain  .  .  20C 
Scipio  arrives  in  Africa,  and  lays  siege  to 

Utica 204 

Hannibal  recalled  from  Italy  .  .208 

Great  battle  of  Zama  (vAicJk  #fp)  .  .  .  202 
An  ignominious  peace  ends  the  second 

Punic  war 201 

The  third  Punic  war  begin*  .    .  149 

Destruction  of  Carthsge,  which  is  burned 

to  the  ground 146 


Tbe  Carthaginians  bore  the  character  of  a  faithless  and  treacherous  people,  so  that 


CAR  136  CAS 

the  term Pvinic  faiih became  proverbiaL  They  nvere  BupersUtious  and  offered  human 
victims  to  appease  the  gods  in  times  of  public  calamity ;  theee  sacrifices  were  usually 
their  own  children ;  and  when  they  had  none  they  purchased  infants  for  the  purpose, 
and,  unmoved  by  their  cries  and  agonies,  obliged  the  mothers  to  present  them  to 
their  burning  idoL*  Their  usual  mode  of  executing  criminals  was  by  crucifixion^  to 
which  they  frequently  added  most  aggravated  circumstances  of  torture. 

CARTHAQENA,  or  New  Carthage,  tjx  Sfain.    Built  by  Asdmbal,  the  Carthaginian 

feneral,  227  b.o.  From  here  Hannibal  set  out  on  his  memorable  march  to  invade 
taly,  crossing  the  Alps,  217  b.c.  This  city  was  taken  by  a  British  force  under  tar 
John  Leake  in  1706,  but  it  was  retaken  soon  afterwards  by  the  duke  of  Brunswick. — 
Carthagena,  in  Columbia,  was  taken  by  sir  Francis  Drake  in  1584.  It  was  piUa(god 
by  the  French  of  1,200,0002.  in  1697 ;  and  was  bombarded  by  admiral  Yemon  in 
1740-1,  but  he  was  obliged,  though  he  took  the  forts,  to  raise  the  siege, 

CARTHUSIANS.  A  religious  order  founded  by  Bruno  of  Cologne,  who  retired  firom 
the  converse  of  the  world,  in  1084,  to  Charti'euse,  in  the  mountains  of  Daaphin^ 
Their  rules  were  formed  by  Basil  YII.  general  of  the  order,  and  were  peouliarly  dia- 
tingpiished  for  their  austerity.  The  monks  could  not  leave  their  cells,  or  apeak, 
without  express  leave ;  and  Uieir  clothing  was  two  hair-clotlui,  two  cowls,  two  pair 
of  hose,  and  a  cloak,  all  coarse.  The  general  takes  the  title  of  prior  of  the  Chartreuae, 
the  principal  monastery,  from  which  the  order  is  named. — A  uberti  ;  Mirai,  Originea 
Carthu.  A  Carthusian  monastery,  founded  by  sir  William  Manny,  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.,  was  built  on  the  site  of  the  present  Charter-house,  London.  See  ChaMrter- 
hoiue.  The  Carthusian  powder,  so  called  because  it  was  first  administered  by  a  firiar, 
father  Simon,  at  Chartreuse,  was  first  compounded  about  1715. 

CARTOONS  OF  RAPHAEL.  They  were  designed  (for  tapestries)  in  the  chambers  of  the 
Vatican  under  Julius  II.  and  Leo  X.  about  1510  to  1515.  The  seven  that  are  j>i^e- 
served  were  purchased  in  Flanders  by  Rubens  for  Charles  L  of  England,  for  Hampton 
court  palace,  in  1629.  The  works  represent — 1,  the  Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes ; 
2,  the  Chax^ge  to  Peter ;  8,  Peter  and  John  healing  the  Lame  at  the  gate  of  tlie 
Temple ;  4,  the  Death  of  Ananias ;  5,  Elymas  the  Sorcerer  struck  with  Blmdness ;  6, 
the  Sacrifice  to  Paul  and  Barnabas,  at  Lystra ;  7,  Paul  preaching  at  Athens.  The  tapes- 
tries executed  at  Arras  from  these  designs  are  at  Rome.  They  have  been  twice 
carried  away  by  invaders,  in  1526  and  1798.    They  were  restored  in  1815. 

CARYINQ.    See  Sadptura. 

CASH-PATMENTS.  The  Bank,  by  an  order  of  council,  stopped  its  payments  in  csMh, 
Feb.  27, 1797 ;  and  the  Bank-restriction  bill  passed  immediately  afterwards.  Fre- 
viously  to  this  measure,  many  private  banks  had  been  ruined  by  the  demand  npon 
them  for  gold,  the  country  being  considerably  drained  of  the  precious  metals,  which 
found  their  way  to  France  and  other  states  with  whom  we  were  at  war.  Notes  of 
one  and  two  pounds  were  issued  March  7,  1797.  Partial  return  to  cash-peymcnta, 
Sept.  22,  1817,  when  notes,  which  had  been  issued  previously  to  January  1  in  that 
year,  were  paid  in  gold.    The  restriction  was  taken  off  soon  afterwards. 

CASH  EL,  SEE  of.  Cormac  Cuillinan,  king  and  bishop  of  Cashel,  is  reputed  to  be 
either  the  founder  or  the  restorer  of  the  cathedral ;  and  until  his  time  a.d.  901,  there 
are  but  few  traces  of  the  bishops  of  this  see.  In  1152,  bishop  Donat  O'Laneigaa  w«i 
invested  with  the  palL  See  PaUium,  Cashel  was  valued  in  the  king's  books,  by  an 
extent  returned  29  Henry  YIIl.,  at  662.  18«.  id.  Irish  money.  By  the  Church 
Temporalities  act,  3  &  4  Will.  lY.  1883,  this  see  has  cessed  to  be  uxhiepiscopsl ; 
and  the  see  of  Waterford  and  Litmore  has  been  united  to  it* 

CASHMERE  SHAWLS.  The  district  from  whence  come  these  costly  shawls  is  described 
as  being  **  the  happy  valley,  and  a  paradise  in  perpetual  spring."  The  true  Cashmere 
shawls  can  be  manufactured  of  no  other  wool  than  that  of  Thibet.  They  were  first 
brought  to  England  in  1666 ;  but  they  are  well  imitated  by  the  spinning  at  Bradfotd, 


*  The  Carthaginians  had  two  jnindpal  deities,  whom  tbey  honoured  more  than  any  of  the 

The  firit  was  the  CeUttial  Qoddat,  in  other  worda,  the  Moon.  The  second  JHolochj  or  Satvnt,  to  whom 
their  iofanto  were  sacrificed.  Tbia  idol  waa  contrived  with  a  hollow  hody,  in  which  a  fire  waa  kindled, 
with  arms  and  handa  hent  in  a  position  for  receiving  the  devoted  victim.  Into  these  hand^  while  the 
idol  waanf  a  glowing  heat,  the  unhappy  child  waa  placed,  and,  in  the  etruggle  «)ccasiQned  by  the 
torture,  it  fell  forward,  through  a  hole  in  the  base  on  which  the  idol  eat,  into  the  fire  beneath.  Then 
aaerificea  were  not  always  confined  to  children  ;  the  Carthaginian  aeneralB,  when  the  ev«ni  of  a  batt^ 
■eemed  likely  to  be  against  them,  made  no  scruple  to  offer  their  soldiers  and  pxlaonen  to  tbi « 
destructive  superstition. 


I 
i 


CAS  137  CAT 

and  the  looms  of  Huddenfield.    Shawls  for  the  omrahB,  of  the  Thibetian  wool,  cost 
1£0  rupees  each,  about  the  year  1650. — .Bemier, 

CASTEL  NTJOTO.  This  town  has  seTeral  tunes  suffered  under  the  dreadful  yisitation 
of  €sxthquake&  In  the  great  earthquake  which  oonvulsed  all  Naples  and  Sicily,  in 
1783,  it  was  almost  obliterated.  It  is  recorded  that  an  inhabitant  bdng  on  a  hill  at 
no  great  distance,  looking  back,  saw  no  remains  of  the  town,  but  only  a  black  smoke : 
4000  penons  perished ;  and  in  Sicily  and  Naples,  more  than  40,000. 

CASTIGLIONE,  BATTLE  of.  One  of  the  most  brilliant  Tictories  of  the  fVench  amte, 
under  general  Bonaparte,  against  the  main  body  of  Austrians,  commanded  by  general 
Wurmaer :  the  battle  lasted  five  days  Bucoesnvely,  from  the  2nd  to  the  6th  July, 
1796.  Bonaparte  stated  the  enemy's  loss  in  this  obstinate  conflict  at  70  field-piecei^ 
all  hJB  caissons,  between  12,000  and  15,000  prisoners,  and  6000  killed  and  wounded. 

CASTILE.  The  meet  powerful  government  of  the  Ooths  was  established  here  about 
iLD.  800.  Ferdinand,  count  of  Castile,  assumed  the  title  of  king  in  1020.  Ferdinand 
of  Arragon  married  Isabella  of  Castile,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Christian  dominions 
in  Spain  were  united  in  one  monarchy,  1474.  By  degrees  the  kings  of  Castile  brought 
the  whole  peninsula  subject  to  their  control.    See  Arragon  and  Spain. 

CASTILLON,  BATTLE  or,  iv  Ouienvb.  Between  the  armies  of  Henry  VL  of  England, 
and  of  Charles  YIL,  who  was  sumamed  the  Victorious,  of  France.  The  English  were 
signally  defeated,  and  an  end  was  put  to  the  English  dominion  in  France,  Calais  alone 
remaining,  July  7, 1453.  "  The  earl  of  Shrewsbury  was  killed  in  the  battle ;  contrary 
to  his  own  opinion,  he  attaoked  the  French  in  their  entrenchments,  and  though  at 
first  suooenful,  yet  his  horse  having  been  killed  by  a  cannon-shot,  and  himself 
immediately  after  by  a  wound  in  the  throaty  his  forces  yielded." — HeiundU 

CASTLEBAB,  BATTLE  07.  Between  a  body  of  French  troops  which  had  landed  at 
Killala,  assisted  by  an  insurgent  Irish  force,  and  the  king  s  troops :  the  Utter,  after  a 
sharp  contest^  were  obliged  to  retreat,  Aug.  28, 1798,  the  period  of  the  rebellion. 

CASTLEPOLLABD.  Fatal  affi*ay  here  between  some  peasantry  attending  a  fair  and  a 
body  of  police,  when  thirteen  persons  lost  their  lives,  and  many,  more  than  twice  that 
number,  were  wounded.  May  28,  1881.  The  coroner's  jury  returned  a  verdict  of 
manslaughter  against  the  chief  constable,  Blake,  and  eighteen  of  his  men ;  but  the 
grand  jury  of  the  county  (Westmeath)  ignored  the  bills. 

CASTLES.  Anciently  British  castles  were  tall  houses,  strongly  fortified,  and  built  on 
the  tops  of  hills,  with  gates  and  walls.  The  castle  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  was  a  tower- 
keep,  either  round  or  square,  and  sscended  by  a  flight  of  steps  in  front.  There  were 
eleven  hundred  castles  built  in  England  by  the  nobles,  bypermission  of  king  Stephen, 
A.D.  1135  and  1154 :  most  of  these  were  demolished  by  Henry  II.,  who  deprived  the 
barons  of  such  possessions,  on  his  accession,  in  1154. 

CATACOMBS.  The  early  depositories  of  the  dead.  The  name  first  denoted  the  tombs 
of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul  at  Bome,  and  afterwards  the  burial-places  of  all  martyrs. 
They  were  numerous  in  Egypt;  and  Belzoni,  in  1815  and  1818,  explored  many 
catacombs  both  in  that  country  and  Thebes,  built  8000  years  ago :  among  others,  a 
cAe/Wf omrre  of  ancient  sculpture,  the  temple  of  Pbammetichus  Uie  Powerful,  whose 
aarcophagus,  formed  of  the  finest  oriental  alabaster,  exquisitely  sculptured,  he 
brou^t  to  England.  Many  other  nations  had  their  catacombs;  there  were  some 
of  great  extent  at  Rome.  The  Parisian  catacombs  were  projected  a.d.  1777.  The 
bodies  found  in  catacombs,  especially  those  of  Egypt,  which  are  better  preserved,  are 
called  mummies.    See  Embalming, 

CATAMARANS.  Fire-machines,  called  also  carcases,  for  destroy  ins  ships;  invented  and 
tried  on  the  Boulogne  flotilla  destined  by  Bonaparte  to  invade  England.  Nearly  1 60,000 
men  were  encamped  on  the  coast,  with  an  immense  number  of  small  craft  in  the  harbour 
to  convey  them  over.  Sir  Sydney  Smith  made  a  desperate  attempt  to  bum  the  flotilla 
by  means  of  these  machines,  but  failed,  Aug.  31, 1805.    See  Bwlognt. 

CATANIA,  OB  CATANEA.  At  the  foot  of  Mount  Etna.  Founded  by  a  colony  from 
Chalcis,  758  B.a  Ceres  had  a  temple  here,  in  which  none  but  women  were  permitted 
to  appear.  This  ancient  city  is  remarkable  for  the  dreadful  overthrows  to  which  it 
has  been  subjected  at  various  times  from  its  vicinity  to  Etna,  which  has  dischai^ed, 
in  some  of  its  eruptions,  a  stream  of  lava  four  miles  broad  and  fiifty  feet  deep,  advancing 
at  the  rate  of  seven  miles  in  a  day.  Catania  was  almost  totally  overthrown  by  an 
eruption  of  Etna  in  1669.    By  an  earthquake  which  happened  in  1698,  Catania  was 


CAT  188  CAT 

nearly  swallowed  up,  and  in  a  moment  more  than  18,000  of  iti  inhabitants  were 
buried  in  the  ruins  of  the  city.  An  earthquake  did  great  damage,  and  a  nomber  of 
persons  perished  here,  Feb.  22, 1817. 

GATAPHRTQIANS.    A  sect  of  heretics,  so  called  because  they  were  Phrygians,  who 

followed  the  errors  of  Montanus.    They  made  up  the  bread  of  the  eucharist  with  tlie 

blood  of  infants,  whom  they  pricked  to  death  with  needles,  and  then  looked  upon 

them  as  martyrs. — Pardon,    They  baptised  their  dead,  forbade  marriages^  and  mingled 

•  the  wine  in  the  Lord's  Supper  with  the  blood  of  young  children. — ffarrit, 

CATAPULTS  Ancient  military  engines,  of  formidable  construction,  for  throwing 
stones  of  immense  weight,  darts,  and  arrows ;  invented  by  Dionysius,  the  tyrant  of 
Syracuse,  899  B.O. — Jotephui,  They  were  capable  of  throwing  darts,  javduu^  and 
other  missiles  of  four  and  five  yards  length. — Pardtm^ 

CATEATJ,  PEACE  of,  concluded  between  Henry  II.  of  France,  and  Philip  IL  of  Spsin ; 
to  which  latter  country  France  ceded  Savoy,  Corsica,  and  nearly  200  forts  in  Italy 
and  the  Low  Countries,  1559. — Battle  of  Cateau,  in  which  the  allies  under  the  prinee 
of  Coburg,  defeated  the  French,  whose  loss  amoimted  to  5000  Idlled,  and  five  pieces 
of  cannon,  March  28, 1794. 

CATECHISM.  A  short  one  was  published  by  the  bishop  of  Winchester,  a.d.  1552.  The 
catechism  used  by  Protestants  originally  contained  no  more  than  a  repetition  of  the 
baptismal  vow,  the  creed,  and  Lord's  prayer ;  but  James  I.  ordered  the  bishops  to 
enlarge  it  by  adding  an  explication  of  the  sacraments,  1612.  It  was  increased 
subsequently  by  the  doctrinal  points  of  the  established  religion.  The  catechism  oi 
the  council  of  Trent  was  published  in  1566;  that  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at 
Westminster  in  1648. 

CATHERINE.  The  order  of  knighthood  instituted  in  Palestine,  juD.  1063.  The  onlcr 
of  nuns  called  Catherines  was  founded  in  1873.  An  order  of  ladies  of  the  highest 
rank,  in  Russia,  was  founded  by  Catherine,  empress  of  Peter  the  Qreat,  1714.  They 
were  understood  to  be  distingiushed,  as  the  name  (from  ic«i$apos,  puna)  implied,  for 
the  chastity  and  purity  of  their  lives  and  manners. 

CATHOLIC  MAJESTY.  The  title  of  Catholic  was  first  given  by  Pope  Gregoiy  IIL  to 
Alphonsus  L  of  Spain,  who  was  thereupon  sumamed  the  OcUhtdie;  jld.  739. — 
Licenciado.  The  title  of  Catholic  was  also  given  to  Ferdinand  V.  1474.  It  was 
bestowed  upon  Ferdinand  and  his  queen  by  Innocent  YIII.  on  account  of  their  seal 
for  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  and  their  establishment  of  the  inquisition  in  Spain. 
— i2a56«.    See  Spain. 

CATHOLICS  OF  THESE  EINQDOMa    See  article  Soman  Catholics, 

CATILINE'S  CONSPIRACT.  Sergius  L.  Catiline,  a  Roman  of  noble  family,  having 
squandered  away  his  fortune  by  debaucheries  and  extravagance,  and  having  been 
refused  the  consulship,  secretly  meditated  the  ruin  of  his  country,  and  conspired 
with  many  of  the  most  illustrious  of  the  Romans,  as  dissolute  as  himself,  to  extirpate 
the  senate,  plunder  the  treasury,  and  set  Rome  on  fire.  This  conspiracy  was  timely 
discovered  by  the  consul  Cicero,  whom  he  had  resolved  to  murder;  and  on  seeing  five 
of  his  accomplices  arrested,  he  retired  to  Qaul,  where  his  partisans  were  assembling 
an  army.  Cicero  punished  the  condemned  conspirators  at  home^  while  Petreios 
attacked  Catiline's  ill-disciplined  forces,  and  routed  them,  and  the  conspirator  was 
killed  in  the  engagement,  about  the  middle  of  December,  68  B.a  His  character  has 
been  branded  with  the  foulest  infamy  ;  and  to  the  violence  he  offered  to  a  vestal,  he 
added  the  murder  of  his  own  brother ;  and  it  is  said  that  he  and  his  associates  drank 
human  blood  to  render  their  oaths  more  firm  and  inviolable. — SaUusL 

CATO,  SUICIDE  OF.  Termed  as  the  "era  destructive  of  the  liberties  of  Rome.**  Csto, 
the  Roman  patriot  and  philosopher,  considered  freedom  as  that  which  alone  "sustains 
the  name  and  dignity  of  man : "  unable  to  survive  the  independence  of  his  oonntiy 
he  stabbed  himself  at  Utica,  Feb.  5,  45  B.O. — Mofntetqtdeu, 

CATO-STREET  CONSPIRACT.  The  mysterious  plot  of  a  gang  of  low  and  desperate 
politidans,  whose  object  was  the  assassination  of  the  ministers  of  the  crown,  with  a 
view  to  other  sanguinary  and  indiscriminate  outrages,  and  the  overthrow  of  the 
government :  the  conspirators  were  arrested  Feb.  23, 1820 ;  and  Thistlewood  and  his 
four  principal  associates,  Brunt,  Davidson,  Ings,  and  Tidd,  after  a  trial  eonunencad 
on  April  17th,  which  ended  in  their  conviction,  were  executed  aoooiding  to  the  then 
horrid  manner  of  traitors,  on  May  1  following. 


CAT  189  CAY 

CATTLE.  The  importfttion  of  horned  cattle  from  Ireland  and  Scotland,  into  England, 
wm  prohibited  by  a  law,  16  Charles  II.  1663;  but  the  export  of  cattle  from  Ireland 
became  and  continues  to  be  a  Taat  and  beneficial  branch  of  the  Irish  trade  witb  the 
sister  country.  From  the  inferior  port  of  Waterford  alone,  the  value  of  imported 
cattle  and  proTiaons  amounted  in  1841,  to  nearly  half  a  million  sterling.  By  the 
act  5th  and  6th  Vict,  c  47,  passed  July  9th,  1842,  the  importation  of  homed 
cattle  and  other  living  animals  was  admitted  into  England  from  foreign  countries  at 
a  moderate  duty  per  head.  The  English  markets  have,  in  consequence,  been  since 
largely  supplied  from  France,  Holland,  (Germany,  Spain,  and  even  remoter  countries. 
Various  amendments  have  been  made  by  subsequent  acts.  In  the  year  1846,  the  live 
imports  firom  Ireland  were,  black  cattle,  81,592 ;  sheep,  100,866 ;  swine,  881,744.  In 
1850,  were  imported  of  all  sorts  of  cattle,  217,247 ;  in  1854,  897,480,  from  all  countries. 
In  April,  1857,  great  disease  arose  among  cattle  abroad,  but  by  great  care  it  was 
almost  excluded  from  this  country. 

CAUCASUS.  A  mountain  of  immense  height,  a  continuation  of  the  ridge  of  Mount 
Taurus,  between  the  Euxine  and  Caspian  seas,  inhabited  anciently  by  various  savage 
nations,  who  lived  upon  the  wild  fruits  of  the  earth.  It  was  covered  with  snow  in 
some  parts,  and  in  others  was  variegated  with  fruitful  orchards  and  plantations ;  its 
people  were  at  one  time  supposed  to  gather  gold  on  the  shores  of  their  rivulets,  but 
they  afterwards  lived  without  making  use  of  money.  Prometheus  was  tied  on  the  top 
of  Cancasus  by  Jupiter  and  continually  devoured  by  vultures,  according  to  ancient 
authors,  1548  B.C.  The  passes  near  the  mountain  were  called  Cauctuia  PotUe,  and  it 
is  supposed  that  through  them  the  Sarmatians,  called  Huns,  made  their  way  when 
they  invaded  the  provinces  of  Bome  a.d.  447< — Siraho  ;  JSerodotut, 

CAUDINE  FORES,  in  Samnium,  S.  Italy.  The  Romans  hemmed  in  by  the  Samnitea, 
commanded  by  C.  Pontius,  (after  a  defeat,  according  to  Cicero)  surrendered  at 
discretion,  B.O.  321.    The  Roman  senate  broke  the  treaty. 

CAULIFLOWER.  Called  the  queen  of  vegetables,  was  first  planted  in  these  kingdoms 
about  the  year  1603 ;  it  came  to  England  from  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  but  wss  not  raised 
in  sufficient  perfection  and  abundance  so  ss  to  be  sold  at  market  until  the  reign  of 
C%aries  IL  about  1670.  Sixty  years  ago,  cauliflowers  were  a  usual  present  from 
England  to  Portugal ;  but  they  are  now  largely  produced  in  the  Portuguese  gardens. 
See  Qardening. 

CAUSTIC  IN  PAINTINQ.  The  branch  of  the  art  so  called  is  a  method  of  burning  the 
colours  into  wood  or  ivory.  Qausias,  a  painter  of  Sicyon,  was  the  inventor  of  this 
process.  He  made  a  beautiful  painting  of  his  mistress  Qlycere,  whom  he  represented 
as  sitting  on  the  ground,  and  making  garlands  with  flowers ;  and  from  this  circum- 
stance the  picture,  which  was  bought  sfterwards  by  LucuUus  for  two  talents,  received 
the  name  of  Stqianoplocon,  835  B.o. — Plmii  HiH.  Nat. 

CAVALIERS.  This  appellation  was  given  as  a  party  name  in  England  to  those  who 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  king  during  the  unhappy  war  which  brought  Charles  I.  to 
the  BcafTold.  They  were  so  called  in  opposition  to  the  Roundheads,  or  friends  of  the 
parliament,  between  1642  and  1649. — Hume. 

CAVALRY.  Of  the  ancient  nations  the  Romans  were  the  most  celebrated  for  their 
cavalry,  and  for  its  dicipline  and  efficiency.  Attached  to  each  of  the  Rpman  legions 
was  a  body  of  horse  300  strong,  in  ten  turmae ;  the  commander  was  always  a  veteran, 
chosen  for  his  experience  and  valour.  The  Persians  brought  the  greatest  force  of 
dvalry  into  the  field:  they  had  10,000  horse  at  Marathon,  490  &a;  and  10,000 
Persian  hone  were  slain  at  the  battle  of  Issus,  333  b.c. — Pluiarch, 

CAVALRY,  BRITISH.  Horse  soldiery  were  introduced  early  into  Britain.  They  were 
used  by  the  Romans  sgainst  the  natives,  and  were  of  large  amount  in  the  first  wars  in 
Walea. —  Welth  ffitt.  In  the  late  continental  war  they  reached  to  81,000  men.  Our 
present  cavalry  force  consists  of  regiments  of  various  denominations  ;  in  1840  it  was, 
rank  and  file,  viz.  household  troops,  1209 ;  dragoons,  hussars,  and  lancers,  9524 ;  total, 
10,733.    In  1856  the  total  was  21,651.    See  Hone  Chiards,  Aec 

CAYENKE.  First  settled  by  the  French  in  1 625,  but  they  left  it  in  1654.  It  was  after- 
wards sncoeenvely  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  French,  and  Dut-ch.  These  last  were 
expelled  by  the  French  in  1677.  Cayenne  was  taken  by  the  British,  Jan.  12, 1809. 
but  waa  restored  to  the  French  at  the  peace  in  1814.  In  this  settlement  is  produced 
the  oapiievm  hacealwn,  or  cayenne  pepper,  so  esteemed  in  Europe. 


CED 


140 


C£M 


CEDAR  TREK  The  Red  Cedar  {Juniperw  Virj^niana)  came  from  North  America 
before  1664.  The  Bermudsa  Cedar  was  brought  from  Bermudas  before  1688.  The 
Cedar  of  Lebanon  {Pinua  Cedru$)  from  the  Levant  before  1683.  In  1860  a  grove  of 
venerable  cedars,  about  40  feet  high,  remained  on  Lebanon.  The  Cedar  of  Oca 
(Cupreuut  Luaitanica)  was  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Portuguese  aboat  the  aame 
period.    There  are  other  species  of  thia  tree.    See  Cypress, 

CELERY.  ''A  winter  Ballet  herb." — Bailey,  A  species  of  parsley.— /o^iiiON.  Celery  is 
eaid  to  have  been  first  introduced  to  the  tables  of  the  English  by  the  FVen<^ 
marshal,  the  count  Tallard,  after  his  defeat  at  Blenheim  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough, 
and  during  his  captivity  in  England,  in  1704. 

CELESTIAL  GLOBE.  A  celestial  sphere  was  brought  to  Greece  from  Egypt,  868  B.<x 
A  planetarium  was  constructed  by  Archimedes  before  212  B.o.  The  celestial  globe 
was  divided  into  constellations  after  the  age  of  Perseua  The  great  celestial  globe  of 
Gottorp,  planned  after  a  design  of  Tycho  Brahe,  and  erected  at  the  expense  of  the 
duke  of  Holstein,  was  eleven  feet  in  diameter ;  and  that  at  Pembroke-college^  Gun- 
bridge,  erected  by  Dr.  Long,  is  eighteen  feet.    See  Olobes, 

CELIBACT.  The  monastic  life,  preached  by  St  Anthony  in  Egypt,  about  a.d.  805. 
The  early  converts  to  this  doctrine  lived  in  caves  and  desolate  places,  till  regular 
monasteries  were  founded.  The  doctrine  was  rejected  in  the  council  of  Nice,  a.d.  325. 
Celibacy  was  enjoined  to  bishops  only,  in  692.  The  Romish  cleigy  generally  were 
oompelled  to  a  vow  of  celibacy,  in  1073.  Its  observance  was  finally  established  by  the 
council  of  Placentia,  held  in  1095.  Among  the  illustrious  philosophers  of  antiquitj^ 
the  following  were  unfriendly  to  matrimony ; — Plato,  Pythagoras,  Epicurus,  Bion, 
Anszagoras,  Heraclitus,  DemocrituSf  and  Diogenes;  and  the  following  among  the 
modems : — Newton,  Locke,  Boyle,  Gibbon,  Hume,  Adam  Smith,  Harvey,  Leibnitx, 
Bayle,  Hobbes,  Hampden,  sir  Francis  Drake,  earl  of  Essex,  Pitt,  Micbael  Angelo,  the 
three  Caraccis,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  Haydn,  Handel,  Wolsey,  Pascal^  Fenelon,  Pope, 
Akenside,  Goldemith,  Gray,  Collins,  Thomson,  and  Jeremy  Bentham. 

CEMETERIES.  The  ancients  had  not  the  unwise  custom  of  crowding  all  their  dead 
in  the  midst  of  their  towns  and  cities,  within  the  narrow  precincts  of  a  place  reputed 
sacred,  much  less  of  amassing  them  in  the  bosom  of  their  fanes  and  temples.  The 
burying-places  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  at  a  distance  from  their  towns;  and 
the  Jews  had  their  sepulchres  in  gardens — John,  xix.  41 ;  and  in  fields,  and  among 
rocks  and  mountains — Mattkiw,  zxvii.  60.  The  present  practice  was  introduced  by 
the  Romish  clergy,  who  pretended  tbat  the  dead  enjoyed  peculiar  privileges  by  being 
interred  in  consecrated  ground.  The  burying-places  of  the  Turks  are  handsome  and 
agreeable,  which  is  owing  chiefly  to  the  many  fine  plants  that  grow  in  them,  and 
which  they  carefully  place  over  their  dead. — It  is  only  within  a  very  few  yesrs  that 
public  cemeteries  have  been  formed  in  Great  Britain,  although  the  danger  to  health 
through  the  crowded  state  of  our  many  churcli-yards  and  burial-places  in  the  midst  of 
dense  populations,  called  for  some  similar  institutions  to  that  of  the  celebrated  Perc 
la  Chaise  at  Pari&  Several  public  cemeteries  have  of  late  years  been  opened  in  London 
suburbs,  of  which  the  principal  are : 


The  Kenaal-green  or  genei'sl  ocn)ete||r, 
coDtainiDg  68  acres,  established  by  act 
2  ft  8  Win.  lY.  1832 ;  ooDBecraUd  by 
the  bishop  of  LnndoQ  .       .     Nov.  2.  1882 

The  South  Hetro^litan  and  Norwood 
cemetery,  containisg  40  acres,  insti- 
tuted by  act  6  A  7  WilL  IV.  1886 ; 
consecrated  by  the  bishop  of  "Vfin- 
cbestcr Dec.  6,  1887 

The  Highgate  and  Kentish-Town  ccme- 
teiy.  formed  by  act  7  &  8  Will.  IV. 
and  containing  22  acres,  was  opened 
and  conaecratM  by  the  Ushop  of  Lon* 
don If  ay  20,  1889 

The  Abney  Park  cemetery  and  Arbon- 


f«iN,  containing  80  acres,  is  on  the 
eastern  side  of  London,  at  8toke  Kew- 
ington,  and  was  formally  opened  by 
the  lord  mayor  .        May  20,  1840 

The  H^'estminster  cemetery,  at  EarlV 
court,  K  ensington  road,  called  also  the 
West  London,  consecrated  .  June  15,  1840 

The  Nimhead  cemetery,  containing 
about  60  acres,  consecrated  by  the 
bishop  of 'Winchester    .        .  July  29,  1840 

City  of  London  and  Tower  Hamlets 
cemeteiv,  contaiuinff  SO  acres,  conse- 
crated by   the    bisnop  of   L<»doii, 
estobliahed  4th  Vict.       ....  1641 
See  CtUaeombM, 


The  London  Necropolis  and  National  Mausoleum,  at  Woking,  Surrey,  contains  2000 
acres;  the  company  was  incorporated  in  July,  1862.  This  vast  cemetery  was  opened, 
Jan.  1855.  The  enclosed  area  of  each  of  these  cemeteries  is  planted  and  laid  out  in 
walks  after  the  manner  of  P^re  la  Chaise.*    The  extensive  City  of  London  cemetery 

*  Vhre  la  Chaise  takes  its  name  fh>m  a  Trench  Jesuit,  who  wss  a  fkvourite  of  Louis  ZIY.,  sad  his 
confessor.    He  died  in  1709  ;  snd  the  site  of  his  house  and  grounds  at  Paris  is  now  occupied  by  this 


1 


CEN  141  CEY 

at  nford  was  opeaed  Jaaa  24,  185d.    There  are  similar  oemeteries  in  Manoheater, 
LiTorpool,  aad  otber  large  towns ;  and  in  Ireland,  at  Cork,  Dublin,  ^tc. 

CEN'SOBS.  Roman  magistrates  whose  duty  was  to  survey  and  rate  and  correct  the 
manners  of  the  people ;  their  power  was  also  extended  over  private  fitmilies,  and  they 
restrained  extrav^ance.  The  two  firdt  censors  were  appointed  448  B.a  The  office 
was  abolished  by  the  emperors 

CENSUS.  In  the  Roman  polity,  a  general  estimate  of  every  man's  estate  and  personal 
efiftfcts,  delivered  to  the  government  upon  oath  every  five  years ;  established  by  Servina 
TullioSy  566  Kc^Legal  PoUiy  of  the  Roman  State.  In  England  the  census,  formerly 
not  periodical,  is  now  taken  at  decennial  periods,  of  which  the  last  were  the  years 
1811, 1821, 1831, 1841,  and  1851.    See  PopuUUion, 

CENTRAL  CRIMINAL  COURT.  A  new  court  established  for  the  trial  of  offences 
committed  in  the  metropolis  and  parts  adjoining ;  it  being  expedient  that  such  trials 
should  be  had  before  justices  and  judges  of  Oyer  and  Terminer.  Statute  4  WilL 
IV.  1834.  By  this  act  commissions  issued  to  two  of  the  judges  of  the  higher 
oourts,  for  the  periodical  delivery  of  the  gaol  of  Newgate,  and  the  trial  of  offences 
of  greater  degree,  committed  in  the  county  of  Middlesex  and  certain  parts  of  Essex, 
Kent,  and  Surrey ;  the  new  district  to  be  henceforth  considered  as  one  county. 

CENTURION.  The  captain,  head,  or  commander  of  a  subdivision  of  a  Roman  legion 
which  oonsisted  of  100  men,  and  was  called  a  eenturia.  He  was  distinguished  by  a 
branch  of  vine  which  he  carried  in  his  hand.  By  the  Ram&n  census,  each  hundred  of 
the  people  was  called  a  ceiUtkria,  556  &a 

CENTURY.  The  method  of  computing  by  centuries  was  first  generally  observed  in 
eocleaiastical  history,  and  commenced  from  the  time  of  our  Redeemer's  incarnation, 
▲J>.  1.  It  is  a  period  of  time  that  is  particularly  regarded  by  Church  historians,  to 
whom  we  are  indebted  for  it. — Pardon,  It  was  adopted  in  chronological  history  first 
in  France. — Dupin>,  Early  adopted  by  all  civilised  nations. — Dufreenoy,  The  Greeks 
computed  time  by  the  olympiads;  and  the  Romans,  by  indictions,  the  first  of  which 
began  Sept.  24,  a.d.  312. 

CERBERE,  Frbnoh  Brio  of  War.  The  capture  of  this  vessel  claims  record  as  one  of  the 
most  gallant  exploits  of  firitush  seamen  daring  the  French  war: — ^the  Cerb^re  moimted 
nine  Urge  guns,  had  a  crew  of  eighty-seven  men,  and  was  lying  at  Port  Louis.  The 
harbour  was  entered  in  a  ten-oared  cutter  manned  with  only  eighteen  men ;  and, 
directed  by  their  gallant  officer,  lieutenant  Paddon,  they  cut  out  and  made  good 
th«ir  prize,  July  29, 1800. 

CEREMONIES,  MASTER  or  tbb.  This  office  was  instituted  for  the  more  honourable 
reception  of  ambassadors  and  persons  of  quality  at  court,  1  James  I.  1603. — Baker'9 
CMron,  The  famous  master  of  the  ceremonies  at  Bi&th,  or  president  over  the  amuse* 
ments  of  that  city,  called  "  Beau  Nash,'*  and  the  "  King  of  Bath,"  extended  the  name 
beyond  the  purlieus  of  the  court,  and  led  to  its  general  adoption  in  ordinaxy  assem- 
blies :  he  died  in  his  88th  year,  l76l.^Aihe, 

CERES.  This  planet,  which  is  only  160  miles  in  diameter,  was  discovered  by  M.  Plaszi, 
astronomer  royal  at  Palermo,  on  the  Ist  of  January  1801.  He  named  it  Ceres,  after 
the  goddess,  who  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Sicily.  To  the 
naked  eye  the  planet  is  not  visible,  nor  will  glasses  of  very  high  magoifying  powes 
show  it  with  a  distinctly  defined  diameter. 

CESTCS^  Among  the  ancients  this  was  the  maid's  girdle,  which  the  bridegroom  untied 
when  he  led  her  as  his  bride  into  his  house.  It  had  the  power  of  charming  and 
conciliating  love. — Homer,  According  to  the  poets,  it  was  first  worn  by  Venus.  But 
the  Roman  prize-fighters  wore  a  leathern  cestus  garnished  with  lead,  in  their  combats 
with  each  other.    The  latter  was  more  properly  called  a  girdle. 

CETLON,    The  natives  daim  for  this  island  the  seat  of  paradise.    It  was  discovered  by 

bomotifiil  cemetery.  It  was  a  pncbioe  of  high  antiquity  to  plant  herbs  and  flowers  about  the  graves  of 
the  dead  Tue  Hromen  in  Egypt  go  weakly  to  pray  aad  weep  at  the  sepulchres,  and  it  is  then  usual  to 
toxow  a  sort  of  herb  (our  swdet  baiil)  upou  the  tomlM :  which  la  Asia  Minor,  and  Turkey  la  Europe^ 
«ra  also  adorned  either  with  the  leaves  of  the  palm-tree,  bou'^iis  of  myrtle,  or  cypresses  puuitod  at  the 
head  and  feet.  Between  some  of  the  tombe  is  placed  a  cheat  of  ornamental  stone,  filled  with  earth, 
Ui  which  are  planted  herbs  and  aromatic  flowers.  These  are  regularly  cultivated  by  females,  who 
aivemble  in  groups  for  that  duty.  At  Aleppo,  there  grow  many  myrtles,  which  they  diligently 
propagate,  because  they  are  beautiful  and  remain  long  green,  to  put  about  their  graves.— JnoiM/ 
ChoMdUr;  BuUer. 


CH^  142  CHA 

the  Portuguese,  a.d.  1505 ;  but  it  was  known  to  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Claudiui, 
▲.D.  41.  The  capital,  Columbo,  was  taken  by  the  Hollanders  in  1603,  ind  was 
recovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1621.  The  Dutch  again  took  it  in  1656.  A  laigs 
portion  of  the  country  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1782,  but  was  restored  the  next 
year.  The  Dutch  settlements  were  seized  by  the  British;  Trincomalee,  Aug.  26, 
1795,  and  Jaffuapatam,  in  Sept  same  year.  Ceylon  was  ceded  to  Qreat  Britain  by  the 
peace  of  Amiens  in  1802.  The  British  troops  were  treacherously  massacred,  or  im- 
prisoned by  the  Adigar  of  Candy,  at  Columbo,  June  26,  1808.  The  complete 
sovereignty  of  the  island  was  assumed  by  England  in  1815. 

CH.£RONEA,  BATTLES  of.  The  Athenians  are  defeated  by  the  BcBotians,  and  Tol- 
midas,  their  general  was  slain,  447  B.o.  Battle  of  Chnronea,  in  which  Qreeoe  lost  its 
liberty  to  Philip,  32,000  Macedoniaos  defeating  the  30,000  Thebans  and  Atheniant, 
Aug.  2,  338  B.O.  Battle  of  Cheronea  in  which  Archelaus,  lieutenant  of  Mithridatei, 
is  defeated  by  Sylla,  and  110,000  Cappadocians  were  slain,  86  B.O. 

CHAIN-BRIDQEa  The  largest  and  oldest  chain-bridge  in  the  world  is  said  to  be  that 
at  Eingtung,  in  China,  where  it  forms  a  perfect  road  from  the  top  of  one  moontain  to 
the  top  of  another.  The  honour  of  oonstructing  the  first  chain-bridge  on  a  grand 
scale  belongs  to  Mr.  Telford,  .who  commenoed  the  chain-snspension-bridge  over  the 
strait  between  Anglesey  and  the  coast  of  Wales,  July,  1818.    See  Menai  Bridge. 

CHAIN-CABLES,  PUMPS,  and  SHOT.  Iron  chain-cables  were  in  use  by  the  Veoeti^a 
people  intimately  connected  with  the  Belgss  of  Britain  in  the  time  of  Caesar,  55  bx. 
These  cables  came  into  modem  use,  and  generally  in  the  royal  navy  of  England,  in 
1812.  Chain-shot,  to  destroy  the  rigging  of  an  enemy's  ship,  was  invented  bj  the 
Dutch  admiral  De  Witt,  in  1666.  Chain-pumps  were  first  used  on  board  the  Flan, 
British  fngate,  in  1787. 

CHAINS^  HANQING  IK.  To  augment  the  ignominy  of  the  scaffold  in  the  casee  of 
great  malefactors  and  pirates.  This  punishment  long  disgraced  the  statute-book.  Bj 
the  25th  Oeo.  II.  1752,  it  was  enacted  that  the  judge  should  direct  the  bodies  of  piratee 
and  murderers  to  be  dissected  and  anatomised ;  and  he  might  also  direct  that  they  be 
hung  in  chains.  An  act  to  abolish  the  custom  of  hanging  the  bodies  of  criminals 
in  chains  was  passed  4  WHl.  IV.  1834. 

CHALDEAN  REGISTERa  Registers  of  celestial  observations  were  cooimenced  2234 
B.O.,  and  were  brought  down  to  the  taking  of  Babylon  by  Alexander,  881  B.C.,  being 
a  period  of  1903  years.  These  registers  were  sent  by  Callisthenes  to  Aristotle. 
Chaldean  Cbaractbbs  :  the  Bible  was  transcribed  from  the  original  Hebrew  into 
these  characters,  now  called  Hebrew,  by  Ezra  about  B.o.  445. 

CHAMBERLAIN.  Early  an  officer  at  court,  of  hig:h  rank,  in  France,  Germany,  and 
England.  Various  officers,  also,  in  these  oountries  were  called  chamberlains.  In 
England,  the  Lord  Great  Chamberlain  is,  in  rank,  the  sixth  great  officer  of  state,  and 
is  distinct  from  that  of  Lord  Chamberlain  of  the  Household.  See  next  arli^  There 
existed,  until  lately,  two  officers  called  chamberlains  of  the  exchequer:  this  office  wai 
discontinued  in  1834.  The  title  of  chamberlain  is  also  conferred  upon  civic  person- 
ages, as  in  London.  "  It  was  given  to  a  military  officer  and  sometimea  a  priest, 
according  to  the  office  of  which  he  was  governor  or  head." — PctrdUm, 

CHAMBERLAIN,  LORD,  of  the  HOUSEHOLD.  An  office  of  antiquity  and  rank. 
The  title  is  from  the  French  word  ChanibeUanf  and  in  Latin  it  is  called  Oameraiivt 
HittpUiL  He  has  the  oversight  of  the  king's  chaplains,  notwithstanding  he  ii  a 
layman ;  also  of  the  officers  of  the  standing  and  removing  wardrobes,  beds^  tenti, 
revels,  music,  bunting,  and  of  all  the  physicians,  apothecaries,  surgeons,  meseengen, 
tradesmen,  and  artisans,  retained  in  his  majesty's  service.  Sir  William  Stanley,  knt, 
afterwards  beheaded,  was  lord  chamberlain,  1  Henry  Vll.  1485.  A  vice*ohamberlain 
acts  in  the  absence  of  the  chief;  the  offices  are  co-existent. — BcaUon,  See  Xerrf 
Oreat  Chamberlain. 

CHAMP  DE  MARa  A  vast  open  square  in  front  of  the  Military  School  at  Paris,  with 
artificial  embankments  on  each  side,  extending  nearly  to  the  river  Seine.  Here  was 
held,  14th  July,  1790,  the  famous  "fSddration,"  or  solemnity  of  swearing  fidelity  to 
the  "patriot  king'*  and  new  constitution  :  great  rejoicings  followed,  public  balls  were 
given  by  the  municipality  in  the  Champt  Elytiet,  and  Paris  was  illuminated.  On 
July  17, 1791,  a  great  meeting  of  citizens  was  held  here,  directed  by  the  Jacobin 
dubs,  to  sign  petitions  on  the  "altar  of  the  country,"  praying  for  the  enforced 


CHA  143  CHA 

abdication  of  Louia  XVL  Another  oonatitution  Bwom  to  here,  under  the  eye  of 
Napoleon  I.  May  1, 1815,  a  ceremony  called  the  Champ  de  Mau  The  prince  preaident 
(now  the  emperor  Napoleon  III.)  bad  a  grand  review  in  the  Champ  de  Mara,  and 
diatributed  the  eagles  to  the  army,  May  10, 1852. 

CHAMPION  or  ENGLAND.  The  championship  was  insUtatad  at  the  coronation  of 
Richard  IL  in  1377.  At  the  coronation  of  English  kings  the  champion  rode  com- 
pletely armed  into  Westminster-hall,  and  challenged  any  one  that  would  deny  the 
title  of  the  sovereign  to  the  crown.  The  championship  was  hereditary  in  the  Dymocke 
family,  by  whoae  descendants  it  is  still  enjoyed. 

CHANCELLORS,  LORD  HIGH,  of  ENGLAND.  See  Lord  High  ChanceUanof  BHffUmd. 

CHANCELLORS,  LORD  HIGH,  of  IRELAND.   See  Lord  High  ChanceOort  of  Irdand. 

CHANCELLORS,  LORD,  of  SCOTLAND.    See  Lord  ChaneeUUn  of  Seothmd. 

CHANCELLOR  of  the  EXCHEQUER.  This  officer  is  mentioned  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  lU.  Ralf  de  Leycestre  surrendered  the  office  of  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
82  Henry  III.,  1248,  and  the  king  committed  the  exchequer  aeal  to  Edward  de 
Westminater.  The  aame  king  by  his  writ  commanded  Albric  de  Fiacamp  to  execute 
the  office,  and  he  gave  leave  to  Geoffrey  Giffard,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  to 
aubatitute  a  fit  person  to  act  for  him  aa  often  as  his  affairs  ahould  render  his  absence 
neeeaaary.  Henry  IIL  also,  by  hia  writ,  had  the  cuatody  of  the  exchequer  aeal 
delivered  to  Roger  de  la  Leye,  to  be  kept  by  him  durante  bene  placilo, — Thomcu*^ 
NoUm  of  ike  SolU,  The  equity  jurisdiction  of  the  exchequer,  which  had  long  existed, 
vraa  transferred  to  the  court  of  chancery  in  1841.    See  Excheqwer. 

CHANCERY,  COURT  of.  Instituted  as  early  as  a.d.  605.  Settled  upon  a  better 
footing  by  William  L  in  1067. — Stowe.  This  court  had  ita  origin  in  the  deaira  to 
render  juatice  complete,  and  to  moderate  the  rigour  of  other  courts  that  are  bound 
to  the  strict  letter  of  the  law.  It  gives  relief  to  or  againat  infanta,  notwithatanding 
their  minority;  and  to  or  againat  married  women,  notwithstanding  their  coverture ; 
and  all  frauds,  deceits,  breaches  of  trust  and  confidence,  for  which  there  ia  no  redreaa 
at  common  law,  are  relievable  here. — Bladcstone,  See  Lord  High  Chanceilon.  In 
1852,  two  very  important  acta  were  pasaed  to  amend  the  practice  in  the  court  of 
Chancery  and  relieve  the  suitors  in  that  court,  15  &  16  Vict  cc.  86,  87,  and  others  in 
1853  and  1855, 16  &  17  Vict.  c.  98,  and  18  &  19  Vict.  c.  134. 

CHANTRY.  A  chapel  endowed  with  revenue  for  priests  to  sing  mass  for  the  souls  o( 
the  donors.  First  mentioned  in  the  commeDoement  of  the  seventh  century,  when 
Gregory  the  Great  eatabliahed  schools  of  chanters,  about  602.    See  Ohaunting, 

CHAOS.  A  rude  and  shapeless  maas  of  matter,  and  confoaed  assemblage  of  inactive 
elements  which,  as  the  poets  suppoaed,  pre-existed  the  formation  of  the  world,  a  id 
from  which  the  univerae  waa  formed  by  the  power  of  a  superior  being.  Thia  was 
advanced  by  Hesiod,  from  whom  others  have  copied  it ;  it  is  probable  that  it  waa 
drawn  from  the  account  of  Mosea  (Gen  i  2),  .copied  into  the  annals  of  Sanchoniathon, 
whoae  age  is  fixed  antecedent  to  the  siege  of  Troy,  in  1193  b.o. 

CHAPEL.  There  are  free  chapels,  chapels  of  ease,  the  chapel  royal,  &c — Oowd,  The 
gentlemen  pensioners  (formerly  poor  knights  of  Windsor,  who  were  instituted  by  the 
direction  of  Henry  VIII.  in  hia  testament,  a.d.  1546-7),  were  called  knights  of  the 
chapel.  The  place  of  conference  among  printers  ia  by  them  called  a  chapel,  beoauae 
the  firat  work  printed  in  England  was  executed  in  a  rained  chapel  in  Westminster- 
abbey,  converted  to  the  purpose  by  Caxton. — Pardon. 

CHAPLAIN.  The  deigyman  who  performs  divine  service  in  a  cbapel,  or  that  is  retained 
by  a  prince  or  nobleman.  There  are  about  aeventy  chaplains  attached  to  the  chapel 
rovaL  The  personages  invested  with  the  privilege  of  retaining  chaplains  are  the 
following,  with  the  number  that  was  originaUy  allotted  to  each  rank  : — 


Arehbiihop 

.  8 

Earl 

.  6 

Duka    . 

.    .  fl 

Viscoont  . 

.    .  i 

Bishop 

.  6 

Baron    . 

.  3 

Marquess 

.    .  5 

Chanoellor 

.    .  3 

Kniffht  of  the  Garter  3 
Duchess  .    .  2 

Marchioness  .  2 

Couuteas     .       .    .  2 


Baroness  .  2 

Master  of  the  Rolls  2 
Almoner  .  .  2 
Chief  Justice    .    .  1 


these,  the  treasurer  and  comptroller  of  the  king'a  house,  the  king'a  aecretary, 
the  clerk  of  the  closet,  the  dean  of  the  chapel,  and  the  warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports, 
were  each  allowed  chaplains. — StattUet  Henry  VIII, 

CHAPLETS.    The  string  of  beads  used  by  the  Roman  Catholics  in  reciting  the  Lord's 


CHA  Ui  CHA 

prayer,  Ave  Maria,  and  other  oriaons,  ia  aaid  to  have  beea  introduced  into  their  ehoreh 
by  Peter  the  Hermit,  about  a.d.  1094.  Beada  were  in  use,  we  are  told,  by  the  Droidi 
as  well  as  dervises  and  other  religions  of  the  East  The  chaplet  oame  into  geaenl 
use  among  the  Roman  Catholics  about  1213. 

GS AFTER.  Anciently  the  bishop  and  clergy  lived  in  the  cathedral,  the  latter  to  anist 
the  former  in  performing  holy  offices  and  governing  the  church,  until  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIIL  The  chapter  is  now  an  assembly  of  the  clergy  of  a  coUeg^te  church  or 
cathedral — OoweL  The  chapter-house  of  Westminsterabbey  was  built  in  1250.  By 
consent  of  the  abbot,  the  commoners  of  England  held  their  parliaments  there,  1377, 
and  until  1547,  when  Edward  YL  granted  them  the  chapel  of  SL  Stephen. 

CHARINa  CROSS.  So  called  from  one  of  the  crosses  which  Edward  I.  erected  to  the 
memory  of  his  queen  Eleanor,  and  Gliaring,  the  name  of  the  village  in  which  it  waa 
built.  Some  contend  that  it  derived  its  name  from  being  the  resting-place  of  the 
ehire  reffne,  dear  queen.  It  was  yet  a  small  villsge  in  1358,  and  the  cross  remaiaed 
till  the  civil  wars  in  the  reign  of  Charles  L,  when  it  was  destroyed  on  the  pretence  of 
being  a  monument  of  popish  superstition. — Built  nearly  as  it  appeared  before  the  Ute 
improvements,  and  joined  by  streets  to  London,  about  1678.  The  new  buildings  it 
Charing-cross  were  commenced  in  1829.  The  first  stone  of  Charing-cross  hospiUl 
was  laid  by  the  Duke  of  Sussex,  Sept.  15,  1831.  Hungerford-bridge  (or  Chsriog* 
cross  bridge)  was  opened  May  1, 1845.    See  Hungerford  bridge. 

CHARIOTS.  The  invention  of  chariots  and  the  harnessing  horses  to  draw  them  is 
ascribed  to  Erichthonius  of  Athens,  1486  B.o.  Chariot  racing  was  one  of  the  exercisei 
of  Greece.  The  chariot  of  the  Ethiopian  officer,  mentioned  in  Actt,  viii.  27,  28.  81, 
was,  it  is  supposed,  somethiog  in  the  form  of  our  modem  chaise  with  four  wbeela 
Cfeaar  relates  that  CassibeUunus,  after  dismissing  all  his  other  fortses,  retained  do 
fewer  than  4000  war  chariots  about  his  person.  The  chariots  of  the  ancients  were 
like  our  phaetons,  and  drawn  by  one  horse.    See  Carriagee,  Coachee,  &c 

CHARITABLE  BEQUESTS.  Statute  constituting  a  board  for  the  recovery  of  ehsritable 
bequests,  and  to  enforce  the  due  fulfilment  by  executors  of  testamentary  writings  in 
this  particular,  enacted  4  Qeo.  III.,  1764.  The  present  board  was  constructed  bys 
new  BCtf  in  1800.  Act  constituting  a  board  of  commissioners  in  Ireland,  they  being 
chiefly  prelates  of  the  established  church,  1825.  The  Roman  Catholic  ChsriUble 
Bequests  act  passed  7  Vict  1844. 

CHARITIES  AND  CHARIT7  SCHOOLS.  It  has  been  justly  said,  that  notwithsUnding 
the  variety  of  sects  that  are  found  in  England,  and  diversity  of  religious  aentimenW 
the  consequence  of  free  discussion  with  respect  to  disputed  doctrines,  there  it  do 
country  on  earth  where  there  are  more  positive  acts  of  religion.  They  do  not  indeed 
consist  of  rich  shrines,  or  votive  tablets  consecrated  to  particuUr  saints,  but  of 
efficient  charity  applied  to  every  purpose  of  philanthropy.  There  are  tens  of  thou- 
sands of  charitable  foundations  in  this  great  country ;  and  the  charity  commission 
reported  to  parliament  that  the  endowed  charities  alone  of  Great  Britain  amounted 
to  1,500,0002.  annually,  in  1840.— Par2.  Jtep.  Charity  schools  were  instituted  io 
London  to  prevent  the  seduction  of  the  infant  poor  into  Roman  Catholic  semioariei, 
8  James  II.  1687. — Rapin.  An  act  for  the  better  administration  of  Charitable  Trusts 
(16  A  17  Vict  c.  137)  was  passed  Aug.  20, 1858. 

CHARITABLE  BRETHREN,  ordkb  of.  Founded  by  St  John  of  God,  and  approved 
by  pope  PiusY.  1572;  introduced  into  France,  1601 ;  settled  at  Baris,  1602.— ir<Mii<. 

GHARLEROI,  BATTLES  OF.  Great  battles  were  fought  near  this  town  in  severtl 
wars;  the  principal  were  in  1690  and  1794.  See  Flewrut.  Charleroi  was  besieged  by 
the  prince  of  Orange  in  1672,  and  was  again  invested  by  the  same  prince  with  60.000 
men,  in  1677;  but  he  was  soon  obliged  to  retire.  Near  here,  at  Ligny,  Napoleon 
attacked  the  Prussian  line,  making  it  fall  back  upon  Wavres,  just  previous  to  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  June  16, 1815. 

CHARLESTON,  Massachubetts.  Burnt  by  the  British  forces  under  GenenI  Gage, 
Jan.  17,  1775.  The  English  fleet  at  Charleston  was  repulsed  with  great  loss,  June 
28, 1776.  Charleston  taken  by  the  British,  May  7, 1779.  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
was  besieged  by  the  British  troops  at  the  latter  end  of  March,  1780,  and  surrendered 
May  13  following,  with  6000  prisoners ;  it  was  evacuated  April  14, 1783. 

CHARTER-HOUSE,  a  corruption  of  the  French  word  ChaHreuae,  the  name  of  a 
celebrated  monastery  of  Carthusian  monks,  which  formerly  stood  on  the  site,  but 


CHA  145  CHA 

which  was  Buppreaaed  by  Henry  VIII.  at  the  period  of  the  Refonnation.  H r.  Thoiiiai 
Sottoii,  a  man  of  immense  wealUi,  purchased  the  Tast  premises  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk, 
in  May,  1611 ;  and  founded  an  hospital  whidi  he  endowed  with  a  large  estate;  and 
hence  this  eztensiye  charity  bears  also  the  name  of  Sutton's  hospital 

CHARTER^PABTT,  A  covenant  between  merchants  and  masters  of  ships  relating  to  the 
ship  and  cargo,  containing  the  particulars  of  their  sgreement.  It  is  said  to  hare  been 
first  used  in  England  so  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry  IIL,  about  lUi^-Andenam, 

CHARTERS  of  RIGHTS.  The  first  granted  by  the  kings  of  England  to  their  subjects 
were  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  by  Henry  I.  A.D.  1100.  l^ie  famous  bulwark  of 
English  liberty,  known  as  Magna  (^arta,  or  the  great  charter,  was  granted  to  the 
barons  by  king  John,  June  15,  1215.  The  rights  and  privileges  granted  by  Uiis- 
charter  were  renewed  and  ratified  by  Henry  III.  in  1224  et  aeq.  Sir  Edward  Coke 
says  that  even  in  his  days  it  had  been  confirmed  above  thirty  times.  Charters  to  cor- 
porations were  of  frequent  grant  from  the  reign  of  William  1    See  Magna  Oharta» 

CHARTISTS.  Large  bodies  of  the  working  people,  calling  themselves  Chartists,  assembled 
in  various  parts  of  the  country,  armed  with  guns,  pikes,  and  other  weapons,  and 
carrying  torches  and  flags,  and  conducting  themselves  tumultuoualy,  so  that  a  pro* 
damation  was  issued  against  them,  Dec  12,  1838.  J^ttAck  on  Newport  by  Uie 
Gfaartista,  who  assembled  from  the  neighbouring  mines  and  collieries  to  the  number 
of  nearly  10,000.  headed  by  John  Frost,  an  ex-magistrate,  Nov.  4,  1889.  In  this 
affray,  the  mayor  of  Newport  and  several  persons  acting  with  him  against  the  rioters 
were  wounded ;  but  a  detachment  of  the  45th  regiment  having  made  a  sortie^  the 
Chartists  fled,  leaving  about  twenty  dead  and  many  wounded.  Frotit  and  others  were 
brought  to  trial  Dec.  81  following ;  the  trial  lasted  seven  days,  and  ended  in  their 
conviction  of  high  treason ;  but  their  sentence  of  death  was  afterwards  commuted  to 
transportation.  On  May  S,  1856,  an  amnesty  was  granted  to  them,  and  on  their  return 
an  assembly  of  persons  met  them  on  Primrose  Hill,  Sept.  15, 1856. — See  Birmingham, 


CHARTISTS,  TBEiB  DEMONSTRATION  on  April  10, 1848.  The  threatened  meeting 
on  Kenuington  common,  London,  which  was  to  have  mustered  200,000  men,  to  march 
thenoe  in  procession  to  Westminster,  and  present  a  petition  to  parliament,  numbered 
only  about  20,000.  The  metropolis  had  felt  great  alarm  on  this  occasion,  and  the 
bank  and  other  establishments  had  been  fortified  and  protected  by  militaxy  against 
aggression;  but  the  preventive  measures  adopted  by  the  government  proved  so 
completely  successful,  that  the  rioters,  alarmed  in  turn,  dispersed,  after  some  slight 
encounters  with  the  police  force ;  their  monster  petition,  in  detached  rolls,  bcung 
despatched  in  hackney  cabe  to  the  house  of  commons.  The  determination  of  the 
citizens  to  oppose  their  designs  operated  more  powerfully  on  the  Chartists  than  the 
display  of  power  by  the  executive;  not  lets  than  150,000  persons,  among  them 
nobles  and  others  of  the  highest  rank,  having  pressed  forward  to  be  sworn  as  special 
constables.  From  this  time,  the  proceedings  of  the  Chartists  oeaeed  to  alarm  the 
friends  of  order,  and  the  subsequent  trial  and  transportation  or  imprisonment  of 
their  ringleaders  have  checked  their  proceedings. 

CHARTS^  Anazimander  of  Miletus  was  the  inventor  of  geographical  and  celestial 
charts,  about  570  B.o.  Modem  sea-charts  were  brought  to  England  by  Bartholomew 
Columbus,  with  a  view  to  illustrate  his  brother's  theory  respecting  a  western  continent, 
1489.  These  charts  were  the  foundation  of  the  discovery  of  the  western  world. 
See  Mtrcator, 

CHARTBDIS.  A  dangerous  whirlpool  on  the  coast  of  Sicily,  oppoeite  the  formidable 
rock  called  Scylla,  on  the  coast  of  Italy.  It  was  very  dangerous  to  ssilors,  and  it 
^ved  fatal  to  part  of  the  fleet  of  Ulysses.  The  exact  situation  of  the  Cbarybdis 
IS  not  discovered  by  the  modems,  as  no  whirlpool  sufficiently  tremendous  is  now 
found  to  correspond  to  the  description  of  the  ancients.  The  words  incidii  in  Scgllam 
9ict  Mi2f  vitare  CharyMim,  became  a  proverb,  to  show  that  in  our  eagerness  to  avoid 
one  evil,  we  may  fall  into  a  greater. 

CHASTITY.  The  Roman  laws  justified  homicide  in  defence  of  one's  self  or  relatives; 
and  our  laws  justify  a  woman  for  killing  a  man  who  would  defile  her ;  and  a  husband 
or  a  father  may  take  the  life  of  him  who  attempts  to  violate  his  wife  or  daughter. 
In  1000  years  from  the  time  of  Numa,  710  B.a,  to  the  reign  of  Theodosius  the  Great, 
▲.o.  394,  but  eighteen  Roman  vestals  had  been  guilty  of  incontinence.  See  VcBtali, 
Many  remarkable  instances  of  chastity  are  recorded.  See  Aer$,  LuereUa^  &o.  Ebba, 
the  abbess  of  Coldingham,  near  Berwick,  cut  off  her  nose  and  lips,  and  persuaded 

L 


CHA  146  CHE 

the  youQger  nuns  to  follow  her  example,  to  render  themielrei  hideoni,  »t  tne 
inTaaion  of  Uie  Danes,  ▲.D.  886. — Stowe'a  Ohron, 

CHATHAM  DOCK.  Commenced  by  queen  EUsabeth.  One  of  the  principal  stations  of 
the  royal  navy.  Its  dock-yard,  containing  immense  magazines,  furnished  with  all 
sorts  of  naval  stores,  is  deemed  the  first  arsenal  in  the  world.  The  Chatham  C^ai 
for  the  relief  of  wounded  and  decayed  seamen  was  originally  established  here  by 
queen  Elisabeth,  in  1588,  sSbsr  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  armsda.  In  1667,  on  the 
10th  June,  the  Dutch  fleet,  under  admiral  De  Ruyter,  sailed  up  to  this  town  and 
burnt  several  men-of-war;  but  the  entrance  into  the  Med  way  is  now  defended  by 
Sheemeas  and  other  forts^  and  additional  fortifications  are  made  at  Chatham. 

CHATHAM  ADMINISTRATION.  The  illustrious  lord  Chatham's  (second)  adminis- 
tration *  was  composed  as  follows : — ^the  earl  of  Chatham,  first  minister  and  lord 
privy  seal;  duke  of  Grafton,  first  lord  of  the  treasury ;  lord  Camden,  lord  chanoellor; 
hon.  Charles  Townshmid,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer;  earl  of  Northington,  lord 

S resident ;  earl  of  Shelbume  and  general  Conwav,  secretaries  of  state ;  sir  Charles 
sunders  (succeeded  by  sir  Edward  Hawke),  admiralty ;  marquess  of  Granby,  ordnance ; 
lord  Hillsborough,  first  lord  of  trade;  lord  Barrington,  secretary-at-war ;  lord  North 
and  sir  Geoige  Cooke,  joint  paymasters;  viscount  Howe,  treasurer  of  the  navy; 
duke  of  Ancaster,  lord  de  Despenser,  kc,  Aug.  1766.  Terminated  Dea  1767.  See 
Duke  of  Devonahire^a  AdmifUstrcUion,  1756. 

CHATILLON,  CONGRESS  of.  Held  by  the  four  great  powers  allied  against  France,  and 
at  which  Caulainoourt  attended  on  the  part  of  Napoleon,  Feb.  5, 1814  ;  but  the  nego- 
tiation for  peace,  the  object  of  the  congress,  was  broken  off  on  March  19,  following. 

CHAX7M0NT,  TREATY  or.  Entered  into  between  Great  Britain,  Austria,  Rosua,  and 
Prussia,  and  signed  by  these  powers  respectively,  March  1, 1814.  This  treaty  was 
succeeded  by  the  celebrated  treaty  of  Paris,  Apnl  11  following,  by  which  Napoleon 
renounced  has  sovereignty  over  Fiance.    See  li-ecUiea  of  Parit. 

CHAUNTING.  Chaunting  the  psalms  was  adopted  by  Ambrose  from  the  pagan  cere- 
monies of  the  Romans,  about  ▲.D.  850. — Lenfflet.  Chaunting  in  churches  was  introduced 
into  the  Roman  Catholic  service  in  602,  by  Gregory  the  Great,  who  established  schools 
of  chaunters,  and  corrected  the  church  song. — Dufreanoy. 

CHEATS.  The  convicted  cheat  punishable  by  pillory  (since  abolished),  imprtsoament, 
and  fine,  1  Hawk,  L.C.  188.  A  rigorous  statute  was  enacted  against  clieats,  83  Heniy 
YIII.  1542.  Persons  cheating  at  play,  or  winning  at  any  time  more  than  lOl.  or  any 
valuable  thing,  were  deemed  infamous,  and  were  to  suffer  punishment  as  in  oaees  of 
perjury,  9  Anne,  1711. — Blachton^t  Oomm, 

CHEESE.  It  is  supposed  by  Camden  and  others  that  the  English  learned  the  process 
of  making  cheese  from  the  Romans  (who  brought  many  use&l  arts  with  them)  aboat 
the  Christian  era.  Cheese  is  made  bv  almost  all  nations.  Wilts,  GlouoesteTf  and 
Cheshire,  make  vast  quantities;  the  last  alone,  annually,  about  81,000  tons.  The 
Cheddar  of  Somerset,  and  Stilton  of  Huntingdon,  are  as  much  esteemed  with  ns  as 
the  cheese  of  Parma,  and  of  Gruy^re  in  Switserland.  In  1840  we  imported  from  abroad 
10,000  tons;  and  year  ending  Jan.  1850,  as  many  as  27,000  tons. 

CHELSEA  COLLEGE.  On  the  site  of  a  college  founded  by  James  L  for  theologioBl 
disputations,  but  converted  by  Charles  IL  to  its  present  better  purpose,  stands  this 
magnificent  asylum  for  wounded  and  superannuated  soldiers. — Founded  by  Charles  IL, 
carried  on  by  James  II.,  and  completed  by  William  III.  in  1690.  But  the  projector 
was  sir  Stephen  Fox,  grandfather  of  the  late  celebrated  patriot  The  arduteel  was 
sir  Christopher  Wren,  sad  the  cost  150,000^  The  physic  garden  of  sir  Hans  Sleane, 
at  Chelsea,  was  given  to  the  Ax>othecaries*  company  in  1721.  The  Chelsea  waters 
works  were  incorporated  1722.  The  first  stone  of  the  Militaiy  Asylum,  Chelsea  was 
laid  by  Frederick,  duke  of  York,  June  19, 1801.  The  body  of  the  duke  of  WeUiQgton 
lay  here  in  stat^  Nov.  10 — ^17,  1852.  The  bridge  now  constructing  to  ooonect 
Chelsea  with  Battersea  park  is  nearly  completed  (1857). 

CHELTENHAM.  Now  a  great  resort  of  our  nobility  and  fashionable  persons,  as  well  as 
convalescents,  and  containing  many  handsome  edifices  and  mansions.  Its  minersl 
spring,  so  celebrated  for  its  Mlubrity,  was  discovered  in  1718.    The  king^s-well  here 

*  Lord  Chatham,  In  his  Jim  sdmlnistrstion  (when  Mr.  PittX  seorttary  of  state  for  the  8outh«n 
dopartmeut,  1756 ;  and  privy  seal  in  the  above  oaministration,  his  itcond,  176S. 


CHE  147  CHE 

sunk  in  1778 ;  and  other  wella  were  sunk  by  Mr.  Thompeon  in  1806.    Uagneaiun 
nit  WM  found  in  the  witeri  in  1811.    The  theatre  was  erected  in  1804. 

CHEMICAL  SOCIETY  of  LONDON'.  A  chemical  society  was  formed  in  London  in 
1780,  but  its  meetings  were  not  long  continued.  The  present  society  wm  established 
in  1841.  It  consiats  of  the  most  eminent  chemists  of  the  day,  and  publishes  a 
quarterly  joumaL 

CHEMISTRY  awd  DISTILLING.  Introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Spanish  Moon, 
about  A.D.  1150;  they  had  learned  them  from  the  African  Moors,  and  these  from  the 
Egyptians.  In  Egypt  they  had,  in  yery  early  ages,  extracted  salts  from  their  bases, 
separated  oils,  and  prepared  vinegar  and  wine;  and  embalming  was  a  kind  of 
chemical  prooeas.  The  Chinese  also  claim  an  early  aoquaiutanoe  with  chemistry. 
The  first  chemical  students  in  Europe  were  the  Alchemists  (see  Ahkemy);  but 
ehemistry  could  not  be  said  to  exist  as  a  sdenoe  till  the  seyenteenth  century ;  during 
which  its  study  was  promoted  by  the  writings  of  Bacon  and  the  researches  of  Hooke, 
Mayow,  and  Boyle.  In  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Dr.  Stephen  Hales 
laid  the  foundation  of  PneumaHc  Ckemutry,  and  his  contemporary  Boerhaaye  combined 
the  study  of  chemistry  with  medicine.  These  were  succeeded  by  Black,  Bergmau, 
Stahl,  &C.  In  1772,  Priestley  published  his  researches  on  air,  and  then  commenced  a 
new  era  in  the  history  of  chemistry.  He  was  ably  seconded  by  Layoisier,  Cavendish, 
Seheele,  Chaptal,  &&  The  nineteenth  century  opened  with  the  brilliant  diacoveriee  of 
Davy,  continued  by  Dalton,  Faraday,  ThomsoD,  &c. — Organic  Chemistry  has  been  very 
greatly  advanced  by  the  labours  of  Berzelius,  Liebig,  Dumas,  Lnurent,  Hofmann,  &c., 
dnriog  the  last  thirty  years.    See  Pharmacy,  Electricity,  and  Oalvanitm. 

CHERBOURG.  Memorable  engagement  between  the  English  and  French  fleets:  the 
latter  were  defeated,  and  twenty-one  of  their  ships  of  war  were  burnt,  or  otherwise 
destroyed,  near  Cape  La  Hogue,  by  admirals  Rooke  and  Russell,  May  19,  1692.  The 
forts,  arsenal,  and  shipping  were  destroyed  by  the  British,  who  landed  here  in 
August^  1758.  The  woAui  were  lesumed  on  a  vtxuptmAimm  scale  by  Louis  XYL ;  but 
their  progress  was  interrupted  by  the  revolution.  The  Breakwater,  commenced  in 
1783.  resumed  by  Bonaparte  about  1803,  and  finally  completed  in  1813,  is  a  stu- 
pendous work,  forming  a  secure  harbour,  capable  of  affording  anchorage  for  nearly 
the  whole  navy  of  France,  and  protected  by  batteries  and  fortifications  of  enormous 
strength,  which  have  recently  been  increased  to  unparalleled  magnitude.  It  is  now 
considered  proof  against  any  armament  in  the  world. 

CHERRIES.  The  PruiMU  Cerasua,  so  called  from  Cerasus,  a  city  of  Pontus,  whenoe 
the  tree  waa  brought  by  Lucullus  to  Rome,  about  70  B.c.  The  cherry-tree  was  first 
planted  in  Britain,  it  is  said,  about  a.d.  100.  Fine  kinds  were  brought  from  Flanders, 
and  planted  in  Kent,  with  such  success,  that  an  orchard  of  thirty-two  acres  produced 
in  one  year  10002.  A.D.  1540.    See  Qardenvng, 

CHESAPEAKE,  BATTLE  of  the.  At  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  that  name,  between  the 
British  admiral  Greaves  and  the  French  admiral  de  Grasse,  in  the  interest  of  the 
revolted  states  of  America;  the  former  was  obliged  to  retire,  1781. — The  Chesapeake 
and  Delaware  were  blockaded  by  a  British  fleet  in  the  American  war  of  1812,  and  the 
bay  was  the  scene  of  great  hostilities  at  that  period,  of  various  result — The 
OUtapedke  American  frigate  struck  to  the  Shannon  British  frigate,  commanded  by 
captain  Broke,  after  a  severe  action  of  eleven  minutes,  June  2, 1813. 

CHESS,  GAME  of.  Invented,  according  to  some  authorities,  by  Palamedes,  680  B.o. ; 
and  according  to  others,  in  the  fifth  century  of  our  era.  The  learned  Hyde  and  sir 
William  Jones  concur  in  stating  (as  do  most  writers  on  the  subject),  that  the  origin 
of  chess  is  to  be  traced  to  India.  The  celebrated  automaton  chess-player  (a  figure  of 
wonderful  machinery)  was  exhibited  in  England  in  1769. 

CHESTER.  Founded  by  the  Romans,  and  one  of  the  last  places  in  England  that  was 
quitted  by  that  people.  It  was  the  station  of  the  twentieth  Roman  legion,  called  the 
Valeria  Victrix.  The  city  wall  was  first  built  by  Edelfleda,  ▲.D.  908 ;  and  William  I. 
rebuilt  the  Saxon  castle  in  1084.  Chester  was  incorporated  by  Henry  III.  and  made 
a  distinct  county.  It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an  accidental  fire  in  1471.  The  fatal 
gunpowdor  explosion  occurred  Nov.  5, 1772. 

CHESTER,  BISHOPRIC  of.  This  see  was  anciently  part  of  the  diocese  of  Lichfield, 
one  of  whose  bishops,  removing  the  seat  hither  in  1075,  occasioned  his  successors  to 
be  styled  bishops  of  Chester;  but  it  was  not  erected  into  a  distinct  bishopric  until 

l2 


CHE  148  CHI 

the  general  diasolation  of  monaateries.  Henry  YIII.  in  1541  raised  it  to  this  dignity, 
and  allotted  the  church  of  the  abbey  of  St  Werburgh  for  the  caUkedral.  Thia  see  is 
valued  in  the  king's  books  at  4202.  1«.  9d,  per  year. 

CHEVALIER  D'EON.  This  extraordinary  personage,  who  had  been  acting  in  a  diplo- 
matic capacity  in  sereral  countries,  and  who  was  for  some  time  a  minister  plempo- 
tentiary  from  France  in  London,  was  proved  upon  a  trial  had  in  the  King's  Bench,  in 
an  action  to  reooyer  wagers  as  to  his  sex,  to  be  a  woman,  July  1, 1777.  He  subse- 
quently wore  female  attire  for  many  years;  yet  at  his  death,  in  London,  in  1810,  it 
was  manifest,  by  the  dissection  of  his  body,  and  other  undoubted  evidence^  that  he 
was  of  the  male  sex. — Biog,  Diet, 

CHECHESTER.  Built  by  Cissa,  about  a.d.  540.  The  cathedral  was  erocted  in  1115,  and 
having  been  burnt  wiUi  the  city  in  1186,  was  rebuilt  by  bishop  Seffiric  in  1187.  The 
bishopric  of  Chichester  originated  in  this  way :  Wilfrids,  thiid  archbishop  of  York, 
having  been  obliged  to  flee  his  country  by  Bgfrid,  king  of  Northumberland,  came 
and  preached  the  gospel  in  this  country,  and  built  a  church  in  the  Isle  of  Sidsey, 
about  A.D.  673.  In  681  Selsey  became  a  bishopric,  and  so  continued  until  Stigand^ 
the  twenty-third  bishop,  had  it  removed  to  Chichester,  then  called  Cisaan-Caester, 
from  its  builder,  Cissa,  a.d.  1071.  This  see  has  yielded  to  the  church  two  saints, 
and  to  the  nation  three  lord  chancellors.  It  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at 
6772.  If.  8d  per  annum. 

CHICOKY.  The  wild  endive,  or  Oidutrum  Iniybut  of  Linnseus,  found  growing  wild  in 
calcareous  soils  in  Britain  and  most  countries  of  Europe.  It  was  formerly  raised  to 
some  extent  in  England  as  an  herbage  plant,  its  excellence  in  this  respect  having  been 
much  insisted  upon  by  Arthur  Young.  Chicory  had  been  for  many  years  so  largely 
mixed  with  coffee  in  England,  that  it  became  a  matter  of  serious  complaint  against 
dealers  in  the  latter  article;*  and  an  excise  order  was  at  lensth  issued,  dated 
August  8, 1852  (pursuant  to  a  treasury  minute  of  July  29  previou^,  interdicting  the 
mixture  of  chicory  with  coffee  by  vendors  after  the  expiry  of  three  months,  namely, 
the  8rd  of  November,  same  year.  The  admixture,  however,  has  since  been  per- 
mitted, provided  the  word  "cUoory"  be  ylahiiy  prisUed  on  each  parcel  sold. 

CHILDREN.  Most  of  the  ancient  nations  had  the  unnatural  custom  of  exposing  their 
infants,  the  Egyptians  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  and  the  Greeks  on  highways,  when 
they  could  not  support  or  educate  them ;  in  such  cases  they  were  taken  care  o^  and 
humanely  protected  by  the  state.  The  custom,  which  long  previously  existed,  of 
English  parents  selling  their  children  to  the  Irish  for  slaves,  was  prohibited  in  the 
reign  of  Canute,  about  1017. — Mat.  Porta,  At  Darien,  it  was  the  practice  when  a 
widow  died,  to  buiy  with  her  in  the  same  grave,  such  of  her  children  as  were  unable 
from  their  tender  years,  to  take  care  of  themselves.  In  some  parts  of  China,  in&nts 
are  offered  to  the  spirit  of  an  adjoining  river,  a  gourd  being  tied  to  their  necks  to 
prevent  their  immediately  drowning.  Qreat  efforts  made  by  the  British  government 
in  India  to  repress  infanticide. 

CHILI.  Discovered  by  Diego  de  Almagro,  one  of  the  conquerors  of  Peru,  A.D.  1585. 
Almagro  crossed  the  CoHilleras,  and  the  natives,  regarding  the  Spaniards  on  Hbni 
first  visit  as  allied  to  the  Divinity,  collected  for  them  gold  and  silver,  amounting  to 
290,000  ducats,  a  present  which  led  to  the  subsequent  cruelties  and  rapadty  of  the 
invaders.  Chili  was  subdued,  but  not  wholly,  in  1546.  The  Chilisiana  decUured 
their  independence  Sept  18,  1810,  and  fought  for  liberty  with  various  suecess 
until  1817,  when,  by  the  dedaive  victory  gained  by  San  Martin,  over  the  royal  fatom, 
Feb.  12  in  that  year,  the  province  was  declared  independent.  The  independence  of 
Chili  was  recognised  by  Great  Britain,  whose  first  envoy  extraordinary  to  this  country 
was  the  hon.  John  Walpole,  accredited  May  24,  1841.  The  present  president 
(1857),  Don  Manuel  Montt,  was  elected  Sept.  18, 1851. 

CHILLIANWALLAH,  BATTLE  of,  nr  India.  Great  and  sanguinary  battle  betweso 
the  Sikh  forces  in  considerable  strength,  and  the  British,  commanded  by  general  lord 
(afterwards  viscount)  €k>ugb,  fought  Jan.  18,  1849.  The  Sikhs  were  completely 
routed,  but  the  loss  of  the  British  was  very  severe :  26  officers  were  killed  snd  66 
wounded,  and  781  rank  and  file  killed,  and  1446  wounded.  The  Sikh  loss  vras  8000 
killed,  and  4000  wounded.    This  battle  was  followed  by  lord  Gough's  attack  on  the 


*  Latterly,  ohloory  has  besn  lax^oly  substituted  for  coffoe  here  as  well  as  on  the  oootinont, 
eionlnff  a  lofli  to  the  British  rerenue  of  100,0001.  yearly,  besides  its  mischievous  inJIueooe  in  aduHcanaUng 
aud  debasing  a  popular  beverage.    Chicory  should  be  subject  to  the  same  duty  as  ooflbe.— Jf  ^Aiaoek 


CHI 


149 


CHI 


Sikh  armj,  imder  Shere  Singh,  in  ita  position  at  Qoojerat^  on  the  right  hank  of  the 
Chenaub,  with  complete  sucoen;  the  whole  of  the  enemy's  camp  fell,  in  thii  laat 
desperate  engagement^  into  the  hands  of  the  Britiah,  Feb.  21,  1849.    See  ChcjenU. 

CHILTERN  HUNDREDS.     An  eaUte  of  the  crown  on  the  chain  of  chalk  hilU  that  pan 

.  from  east  to  west  through  the  middle  of  Buckinghamshire,  the  stewardship  whereof 

is  a  nominal  office,  conferred  on  members  of  parliament  when  they  wish  to  vacate 

their  seats,  as,  hj  accepting  an  office  under  the  crown,  a  member  beoomea  disqualified, 

unless  he  be  sgam  returned  by  his  constituents :  this  custom  is  ancient. 

CHIMKET  TAX.    See  ffearih. 

CHIMNEY&  Chafing^lishes  were  in  use  prerions  to  the  inyention  of  chimneys,  which 
were  fint  introduced  into  these  countries  in  ▲.d.  1200,  when  they  were  confined  to 
the  kitchen  and  lai^  hall.  The  family  sat  round  a  store,  the  funnel  of  which  psBsed 
through  the  ceiling,  in  1800.  Chimneys  were  general  in  domestic  architecture  in 
1810.  The  ancients  made  use  of  stoyes,  although  Octavio  Ferrari  affirms  that 
chimneys  were  in  use  among  them ;  but  this  is  disputed.  Act  to  regulate  the  trade 
of  chimney  sweeping,  28  Gtoo.  IIL  1789.  Statute  repealing  this  act,  and  regulating 
the  trade,  the  apprenticeship  of  children,  the  construction  of  flues,  preventing  calling 
'*Bweep"  in  the  streets,  &c.,  4  WUL  lY.  July,  1884.  By  the  act  5  Vict  Aug.  1840,  it 
ia  not  lawful  for  master  sweeps  to  take  apprentices  under  sixteen  years  of  age ;  and 
since  July  1, 1842,  no  individual  under  twenty-one  may  ascend  a  chimney. 

CHINA.  This  empire  is  very  ancient,  and  the  Chinese  sssert  that  it  existed  many  thou- 
sands of  years  before  Noah's  flood ;  but  it  is  allowed  by  some  authorities  to  have 
commenoBd  about  2500  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  By  others  it  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Fohi,  supposed  to  be  the  Noah  of  the  Bible,  2240  b.o.  We  are  told 
that  the  Chinese  knew  Uie  periods  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets,  and  were  acute 
astronomen,  in  the  reign  of  Yao,  which  is  set  down  2857  B.o.  But  dates  cannot  be 
relied  upon  until  towifds  the  close  of  the  seventh  centuir  B.O.,  when  the  history  of 
China  becomes  more  distinct.  In  the  battle  between  Phrsates  and  the  Scythians 
129  B.O.,  the  Chinese  aided  the  latter,  and  afterwards  ravaged  the  countries  on  the 
ooaata  of  the  Caspian,  which  is  their  first  appearance  in  history. — LmgleL 


The  Chinese  state  their  flrsteyele  to  have 
eommenood b.c.  2700 

The  firat  of  the  2S  Chinese  dynasties 
commeuoed SM7 


In  the  history  of  Chins,  the  fint  dstes 
which  are  fixed  to  his  narrative,  by 
Se-martaien,  begin       .... 

Confyicioa,  the  father  of  the  Chinese 
phitoaophera  bom    ..... 

StnpendooB  wall  of  China  completed 

Thedynaaty  of  Han 

literature  and  the  art  of  printing  encon- 

»««i(D 

Religion  of  TW>-tae  oommenced  .       .    . 

Beligion  of  the  followers  of  Fo,  com- 
menced aboat        ....  A.D. 

Bmbaaay  firom  Rome 106 

Ksnkin  beoomea  the  capital  .  .    420 

The  atheiatical  philosopher,  Fan-Shin, 
fUmriahes 

The  Neat<nian  Christiana  permitted  to 
pi  each  their  doctrinea .... 

They  are  proscribed  and  eztivpated  .    . 

The  seat  of  the  imperial  government  la 
tzanafored  to  Pekin    .... 

Wonderftal  Oanal,  called  the  Tu  Ho, 
completed  about 

Bnropeena  first  arrive  at  Canton   . 

Xscao  la  granted  aa  a  aetUement  to  the 
Portuguese 

Jesuit  miasionarlM  are  sent  by  the  pope 
from  Bome 1676 

The  oountvy  ia  conquered  by  the  eastern 
Tartars,  who  eatabliab  the  present 
reigning  house 1044 

▲n  oartbquake  throughout  China  buries 
tOO.000  penona  at  Pekin  alone  .        .  1663 

Jesuit  missionaries  endeavour  to  esta- 
blish ChriatSanity    10P3 


651 

661 
211 
206 

202 
16 

60 


449 

636 
846 

1260 

1400 
1617 

1636 


The  Jesuits  are  expelled  through  their 
own  mlaoonduet  ....  a.d.  1724 

Another  general  earthquake  deatroys 
100,000  persons  at  Pekin,  and  80, 000  in 
a  suburb 1781 

In  a  salute  by  one  of  our  India  ships  in 
China,  a  loauied  gun  was  InadTertently 
fired,  which  killed  a  native ;  the  go- 
vernment demanded  the  gunner  to  do 
gven  up;  he  was  soon  strangled. — 
r  Oeorge  Staunton  July  S; 

Earl  Macartney'a  embassy;  he  leaves 
England 1792 

He  arrives  at  Pekin ;  his  roception  by 
the  emperor ....  Sept.  14, 

He  is  ordered  to  depart  from  rekin, 

Oct.  7, 

And  arrivea  in  England     ,        Sept  6, 

The  aflhir  of  the  Company's  ship  Neptune, 
when  a  Chinese  waa  killed  . 

Edict  against  Chrlatianity  . 

Lord  Amberst'a  embaasy ;  he  leaves 
England        ....     Feb.  8,  1816 

[His  loidahip  fidled  in  the  obJecUof  his 
mission,  having  refused  to  make  the 
proetratlon  ot  the  kou-toUt  lest  he 
should  thereby  compromise  the  ma- 
jesty of  iCngland.] 

The  exclusive  rights  of  the  East  India 
Company  cease        .  Afnril  22,  1884 

First  free-trade  shipa^  with  tea,  set  sail 
for  England  ....  April  26,  1884 

Lord  Napier  arrives  at  Macao,  to  super- 
intend British  commerce        July  16,  1884 

Aflkir  between  the  natives  and  two 
British  ships  of  war ;  several  Chineae 
killed        ....        Sept  6,  1884 

Lord  Napier  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by 
Kr.  Davis      .  .   Oct.  11,  1884 


1786 


1793 

1798 
1794 

1807 
1812 


CHI 


150 


CHI 


CHINA,  eofUinued: 

Opium  trade  interdicted  by  the  Chinese 

Nov.  7, 1834 
Seizure  of  the  ArgjfU  and  her  crew  by 

the  natives       .  .        Jan.  81,  1835 

A  quantity  of  opium  burnt  at  Canton  by 

the  Chinese  ....    Feb.  23, 1835 
Capt  Elliot  becomes  chief  British  com- 

miasioner  ....         Dec.  14,  1836 
Admiral  sir  Frederick  Haitland  arrires 

at  Macao        ....    July  12,  1838 

[The  events  connected  with  this  empire^ 
relatively  to  Great  Britain,  now  in- 
crease in  importance.] 

Commissioner  Lin  issues  an  edict  for  the 
seizure  of  opium      .  March  18,  1839 

British  and  other  residents  forbidden  to 
leave  Canton  March  19,  1839 

The  factories  surrounded,  and  outrages 
committed       .  .      March  24,  1839 

Captain  Elliot  requires  of  British  subjects 
their  surrender  to  him  of  all  opium, 
promlring  them,  on  the  part  of  go  vem- 
ment.  the  ftiU  value  of  it       March  27,  1889 

Half  of  the  opium  is  given  up,  as  a  con- 
traband article,  to  the  Chinese  autho- 
rities   April  20,  1839 

The  remainder  of  the  opium  ^20,283 
chests)  is  surrendered  .        .    May  21,  1839 

Capt.  Elliot  and  the  British  merchants 
leave  Canton     .  .         May  24,  1839 

The  opium  destroyed  during  several  day^s 
by  the  Chinese      .        .  June  3,  1839 

Aflfair  between  the  British  and  American 
seamen  and  the  Chinese  :  a  native 
kiUed July  7,  1839 

Capt.  Elliot  leaves  Macao  for  Hong- 
Kong     Aug.  23,  18S9 

The  British  boat  BUuk  Joke  attacked  by 
the  natives,  and  the  crew,  consistiiig 
of  Lascan^  murdered  Aug.  24,  1839 

The  whole  of  the  British  merchants  re- 
tire fW>m  Macao    .        .        .   Aug.  26,  1839 

A£Gtdr  at  Kow-lung  between  British  boats 
and  Chinese  Junks   .        .         SepL  4,  1839 

Attack  by  88  armed  junks  on  the  British 
frigates  Volage  and  Hyacwih:  several 
Junks  blown  up     .        .        .     Nov.  8,  1880 

The  British  trade  with  China  ceases,  by 
an  edict  of  the  emperor,  and  the  last 
servant  of  the  company  leaves  the 
country  this  day      .       .        .  Dec.  6.  1839 

Edict  of  the  emperor  interdicting  all 
trade  and  intercourse  with  England 
for  ever Jan.  5,  1840 

The  HtUat  ship  attacked  by  a  number  of 
anned  Junks  .         May  22,  1840 

Fire-rafts  floated  in  order  to  destroy  the 
British  fleet  ....    June  9,  1840 

Blockade  of  Canton  by  a  British  fleet  of 
15  sail  and  several  war  steamers,  having 
4000  troops  on  board,  by  ordem  fW>m 
sir  Gordon  Bremer  .        .        June  28,  1840 

The  Blonde,  bearing  a  flag  of  truce,  is 
fired  on  at  Amoy  .  July  2,  1840 

Thig-hai,  in  the  island  of  Chnsan,  sur- 
-  renders  to  the  British  .  Julv  6.  1840 

An  extensive  blockade  is  established 
along  the  Chinese  coast        .    July  10,  1840 

Seizure  of  Mr.  Stanton,  who  is  carried 
ofl' to  Canton    .  Aug.  6,  1840 

Capt.  Elliot,  on  board  a  British  steam- 
ship, enters  the  Pei-ho  river,  near 
Fekin Aug.  11.  1840 

The  ship  Kite  lost  on  a  sand-bank,  and 
the  captain's  wife  and  part  of  the  crew 
are  captured  by  the  natives^  and  con- 
fined in  cages   .  Sept.  15,  1840 

Seizure  of  capt  Anstnither    .  Bent  16,  1840 

Liu  deprived  of  his  authority,  and  finally 


degraded ;  Eeshin  appointed  imperial 
commissioner   .  8e^  16,  1840 

Capt.  Elliot  declares  a  truce  with  the 
Chinese Nov.  6,  IMO 

British  plenipotentiaries  sail  trom  Chu- 
san,  and  arrive  off  Macao        Nov.  SO,  1840 

Admiral  Elliot's  resignation  is  an- 
nounced        ....   Nov.  29,  1840 

Mr.  Stanton  released  .  Dec.  12,  1840 

Negotiations  ceaae^  owing  to  breaches 
of  faith  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese 
emperor        ....     Jan.  6,  1841 

Chuen-pe  and  Tae-coo-tow,  and  173  ruam 
(some  sent  to  England),  captuf«a  by 
the  British        ....  Jan.  7.  1841 

Hou^-Kong  ceded  by  Eeshin  to  Great 
Britain,  and  6,000,000  dollars  agreed 
to  be  paid  within  ten  days  tu  the 
British  authorities  .    Jan.  20,  1841 

Formal  possession  of  Hong-Kong  taken 
by  the  British  .  Jan.  26.  1S41 

Imperial  edict  from  Pekin  rerjecting  the 
conditions  of  the  treaty  made  by 
Keshin Feb.  11,  1841 

Hostilities  are  in  consequence  resumed 
against  the  Chinese.  Feb.  83,  1841 

Chusan  evacuated    .  .    Feb.  24^  1841 

Rewards  proclaimed  at  Canton  for  the 
bodies  of  Englishmen,  dasd  or  alive ; 
60,000  dollars  to  be  given  for  ring- 
leaders and  chiefs    .        .        Feb.  85,  1841 

Bogue  forts  taken  by  sir  Gordon  Bremer ; 
admiral  Kwan  killed,  and  469  gima 
captured        ....    Feb.  26,  1841 

The  British  squadron  proceeds  up  the 
river  to  Canton  .       March  1.  1841 

Sir  Hugh  Gough  takes  the  command  of 
the  army       ....  March  2,  1841 

Hostilities  again  suspended      March  3,  1841 

And  again  resumed  .  .  March  6,  1841 

Keshin  degraded  by  the  emperor,  and 
arrested    ....     March  12.  1841 

Flotilla  of  boata  destroyed.  Canton 
threatened,  the  foreign  faoUNrias 
seized,  and  461  gims  taken  by  the 
British  forces  March  18^  1641 

New  commissiimerB  from  Pekin  arrive 
at  Canton.  .       April  14,  1841 

The  first  number  of  the  BotuhKonff 
Gazette  published  .        .        .      May  1,  1841 

Capt.  Elliot  again  prepares  to  attack 
Canton      ....        May  17,  1841 

Chinese  attack  the  British  ships  with 
fire-rafts        ....    Mi^Sl,  1841 

Operations  against  Canton.        May  24,  1841 

Heights  behind  Canton  taken,  and  94 
guns  captured       .  .    May  25,  1841 

The  city  ransomed  for  6,000.000  doUax^ 
of  which  5,000,000  are  paia  down,  and 
hostilities  cease        .  M^  81.  1841 

British  forces  vrithdrawn        .    June  1,  1841 

British  trade  reopened  July  16,  1841 

Arrival  at  Macao  of  sir  Henry  Pottinger, 
who^  as  plenipotentiuy,  proclaims  the 
objects  of  his  mission;  capt.  ElUot 
superseded    ....  Aug.  10.  1841 

Amoy  taken  and  S96  guns  found  ana 
destroyed  ....        Aug.  27.  1841 

The  Bogue  forts  destroyed      .  Sept.  14.  1841 

The  city  of  Ting-hae  token,  186  guns 
captured,  and  the  island  of  Chusan  ve- 
occupied  by  the  British  .        .  Oct  1.  1841 

Chin-hae  taken,  with  157  guns ;  many 
of  them  brass        .  .    OcL  10,  1841 

Ning-po  token     .        .  Oct.  IS,  1841 

Tu-yaou,  Tsze-kee,  and  Foong-hua  car- 
ried by  the  British  .    Dec  28,  1841 

Chinese  force  of  12,000  men  attack 
Ning-po  and  Chin-hae^  and  are  re- 
pulsed with  great  loss     .     March  10,  1848 


CHI 


151 


CHI 


CHIHA, 


8^000  GbiuMe  are  rooted  with  oonaider- 
abls  kM  nmr  Tkae-lue  March  16,  IMS 

Gha-poo  attacked,  and  Ita  defenoea  da- 
■trojad,  46  guxM  taken    .        May  18,  1U2 

The  Britlah  squadron  enter  the  great 
rtrer  Kiuig,  ....  Joae  IS,  IMS 

Capture  of  wooaimg,  and  of  SaO  guna 
and  atorea  June  10,  1842 

The  town  of  8hang-hae  taken    Jane  19,  1842 

"nie  British  fleet  adTance  fluther  up  the 
river Ju1t6,  1842 

The  whole  Britiah  arroament  anchor 
near  the"  Golden  lale"       .   JulyM.184S 

City  of  Ghin-Keang  taken ;  the  Tartar 
genesml  and  many  of  the  nrriaon 
commit  suicide  July  21,  1842 

The  advanced  British  shipa  reach  the 
city  of  Nankin  .     Aug.  4,  1842 

The  whole  fleet  arriyes^  and  the  disem- 
harkation  commences  .  Aug.  9,  1842 

Keyfaig  arrires  at  Nankin,  with  ftall 
powers  trota  the  emperor,  with  the 
aincers  object  of  treating  with  the 
Britiah  for  peace  .  .  Aug.  12,  1842 

Tirat  interriew  of  the  reapeetiTe  pleni- 
potentiaries on  board  H.M.S.  Com- 
waUu,  held  Aug.  90,  1842 

Sir  Henry  Pottinger,  sir  Hugh  Ocugh, 
and  sir  William  Parker  riait  the 
Chineee  authorities  on  shore  Aug.  24.  1842 

Tteatj  of  peace  signed  before  Nankin 
on  board  the  OomwtUUM  by  sir  Henry 
Pottinger  for  England,  and  Keying 
Elepoo  and  Neu-Kien  on  the  part  of 
the  Chinese  emperor  Aug.  29,  1842 

coNDiTioini  or  thb  tbkatt. 
Lasting  peace  and  friendship  between 

the  two  empires 
China  to  pay  21,000,000  of  dollars,  part 

fbrthwltn  and  the  remainder  within 

three  yeaia 
The  porta  at  Gu&ton,  Amoy,  Foo-ohoo- 

foo,  Ning-pOb  and  Bhaosr-hae  to  be 

thrown  open  to  the  Brttisn 
Oooaola  to  naide  at  theae  cities 
Tarifb  of  import  and  export  to  be  estab> 

liahed 
Hong  Kong  to  be  ceded  in  perpetuity  to 

her  Britannic  Majesty,  and  ner  heln 

and  Bucoeasoni 
Sul^jeeta  of  England,  whether  native  or 

Indian,  to  be  unconditionaUy  relessed 

inCSiina 
Act  of  flill  amnesty,  under  the  emperor's 

own  seal  and    sifln-mantial,    to  sll 

Chinese,  to  be  pubUshed 
Correapoodenoe   between  the  two  go- 

Tcmmenta  to  be  conducted  on  terms 

of  perfect  equality. 
The  Mitlsh  forces  t<^  withdraw  from 

Kankin,  the  Grand  Canal,  and  Chin- 

hae,  on  tibe  treaty  receivhig  the  em- 
peror's signature ;  but 
The  islands  of  Chusan  and  Ka«laog'an  to 

be  held  by  the  Britiah  until  the  money 

paymenta  have  been  oomplbted,  and 

other  prorislooa  ftdfllled. 

The  emperor  signifies  his  assent  to  the 
conditions     ....    Sept  8,  184S 

Gnmd  seal  of  England  afl&zed  to  the 
treaty       ....        Dec  81,  1842 

The  ratifications  signed  by  queen  Vic- 
toria and  the  emperor  reepectivelT,  are 
formally  exchanged     .        .    July  22,  1848 

The  commercial  treaty  between  the  two 
empires  is  annonnced  as  finally  ad- 
juated ;  and  Osnton  opened  by  sn  im- 
pexial  edict  to  the  British       July  27,  184S 


[The  other  ports,  according  to  the  stipU" 
lation%  to  be  opened  aa  soon  aa  edieta 
from  the  emperor  are  rsceiTed.] 

Thenoeen  eongratalatea  parilaoienton 
the  termination  of  the  waf,  and  ita 
auspicioua  consequences  Feb.  1,  1844 

A^>pointment  of  Mr.  Davia  ia  gaaetted 
m  England,  in  the  room  of  sir  Henrr 
Potti^per,  who  has  signified  his  wish 
to  resign  Feb.  16,  1844 

Bogue  furta  captured  by  Uie  British  to 
obtain  redress  for  insults     .    April  6,  1847 

Hong-Kong  and  the  nefghbouraood 
lisited  by  a  typhoon  of  unusual  vio- 
lence ;  immenae  damage  done  to  the 
shipping;  upwarda  of  1000  boat- 
dweuers  on  Uie  Canton  river  drowned 

Oct.  1848 

H.M.  steam-ship  Ifedtftt  ileeli  oj  s  18  pirate 
junks  in  the  (Chinese  seaa       March  4,  1860 

Rebellion  breaka  out  in  Quang-ai,spnad- 
ing  rapidly    ....         Aug.  1860 

Appearance  of  the  pretender  TIen-teh 

March,  1861 

Defeat  of  Sea,  the  imperial  coounia> 
sioner,  and  destruction  of  half  the 
army        ....       June  10,  1868 

Boccesaftil  pi-ogress  of  the  rebela  to- 
wards 8hanff-hae  and  Nankin;  the 
emperor  applies  to  the  Europeans  for 
help  without  success  March  and  April,  186S 

The  rebels  take 
Nankin ....  March  19,  SO,  1868 
Amoy       ....         May  19,  1868 
Bhang-hae     ....    Bept  7,  1868 

-And  besiego  Cknton  without  success, 

Aug.— Nov.  1864 

The  latest  veiy  scsnty  accounts  are  un- 
fovonrable  to  the  reoela,  the  imperial- 
ista  having  re-taken  Bhang-hae,  Amoy, 
and  many  importaot  plaMa        June^  1866 

Outrage  on  the  British  lorcha  Amm,  in 
Osnton  river  (aeeCtoaton)        .  Oct  8,  1660 

After  vain  negodatlona  with  oommia- 
aioner  Teh,  Canton  finis  attacked  and 
Uken Oct  24,  1856 

A  Chineee  fleet  deetroyed  and  Canton 
bombarded,  by  sir  M.  8«nnour 

Nov.  8, 4>  I860 

The  Americans  revenge  an  attack  on 
them  by  capturing  tmwe  forte 

Nov.  21—28,  1866 

Other  forts  taken  by  the  Britiah    .  Dec  1860 

The  Chinese  bum  European  IhetorieB, 

Dec.  14,  1860 

And  murder  crew  of  the  ThiUU  Dec.  SQ,  1860 

A-Ium,  a  Chinese  baker,  acquitted  of 
charge  of  poisoning  the  brsad  Feb.  2,  1867 

Troope  arrive  from  Madna  March.  1857 

Ttoops  sent  from  England,  and  lord 
Elgin  appointed  Envoy  .        .  March,  1867 

No  coange  on  either  side :  Teh  said  to 
be  strutened  for  moner:  the  impe- 
rialists seem  to  be  gaming  ground 
upon  the  rebels    .  May,  1867 

Total  destruction  of  the  Chinese  fleet» 
(127  Junks)    ....    June  8,  1867 

OHliraBS  SMPXItOBS. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  those  who  have 
reigned  for  the  last  two  centuries : — 

Chwang^lei 1027 

Shun-ehe 1044 

Kang-he 1009 

Tung-ching 1008 

Keen-lung        ......  1780 

Kea-ding 1790 

Taou-Kwanff    ......  18S1 

Bse-hing.  or  TihOio.    The  present0867) 

emperor  of  China     .  Feb.  26,  1860 


CHI  152  CHI 

The  embassy  of  lord  Macartney  threw^  some  light  on  the  political  dreumstani 
of  this  empire;  it  appeared  that  it  was.  in  his  time,  divided  into  15  proTinceSt 
containing  4402  walled  cities;  the  population  of  the  whole  country  was  given  at 
833,000,000 :  its  annual  revenues  were  66,000,000^ ;  and  the  army,  including  the 
Tartars,  wa^  1,000,000  of  infantry^  and  800,000  cavalry ;  the  religion  Pagan,  and  the 
government  absolute.  Learning,  and  the  arts  and  sciences  in  general,  were  encou- 
raged, and  ethics  were  studied  profoundly,  and  influenced  the  manners  of  the  people. 
Future  interoourse  with  China  will  correct  our  information  and  improve  our  know« 
ledge  in  relation  to  it,  and  acquaint  us  with  its  moral  economy  and  power,  details 
highly  essential  to  our  commerce. 

CHINA,  REBELLION  nr.  Taou-Kwang  the  last  emperor  of  China  (who  died  Feb.  1 850) 
during  the  latter  part  of  his  reign  became  somewhat  liberal  in  his  views,  and  favoured 
the  intix>duction  of  European  arts  among  his  people ;  but  his  son,  the  present  em- 
peror, a  rash  and  narrow-minded  prince,  quickly  departed  from  his  father's  wise 
policy  and  adopted  re-aotionary  measures,  particularly  against  English  influence.  An 
insurrection  broke  out  in  consequence,  Aug.  1850,  in  the  province  of  Qiung-si,  which 
quickly  became  of  alarming  importance.  The  insurgents  at  first  proposed  odIj  to 
expel  the  Tartars ;  but  in  March,  1851,  a  pretender  was  announced  among  them, 
first  by  the  name  of  Tien-teh  (Celestial  Virtue),  but  afterwards  assuming  other  names. 
He  is  stated  to  be  a  native  of  Quang-si,  of  obscure  origin,  but  to  have  obtained  eome 
literary  knowledge  at  Canton  about  1835,  and  also  to  have  become  acquainted  with 
the  principles  of  Christianity  from  a  Chinese  Christian,  nimed  Leanga&,  at  that  time 
and  also  from  the  missionary  Roberts  in  1844.  He  announced  himself  as  the  restorar 
of  the  worship  of  the  true  Qod,  Shang-ti,  but  has  derived  msny  of  his  dogmas  from 
the  Old  and  New  Testament  He  declares  himself  to  be  the  monarch  of  ^  beneath 
the  sky,  the  true  lord  of  China  (and  thus  of  all  the  world),  the  brother  of  Jesn% 
and  the  second  son  of  Ood,  and  demands  universal  submission.  He  does  not  manifest 
any  appearance  of  having  been  under  the  peculiar  influence  of  either  Romanists  or 
Protestants.    For  the  events  of  the  rebellion  see  preceding  artide. 

CHINA  PORCELAIN.  This  manufacture  is  first  mentioned  in  his  story  in  1581 ;  it  wta 
introduced  into  England  so  early  as  the  sixteenth  century.  Porcelain  was  made 
at  Dresden  in  1706 ;  fine  ware  in  England,  at  Chelsea,  in  1752 ;  at  Bow  in  1758 ;  in 
various  other  parts  of  England  about  1760 ;  and  by  the  ingenious  Josiah  Wedgwood, 
who  much  improved  the  British  manufacture,  in  Staffordshire^  1762  el  nq. 

CHINA  ROSE,  AND  CHINESE  APPLE.  The  rose,  a  delicate  and  beautiful  flower 
called  the  itoM  Indiea,  was  brought  to  these  countries  from  China,  and  after  varioos 
fidlures,  planted  in  England,  with  success,  in  1786.  The  Chinese  apple-tree,  or 
Pyrut  apedohUiaf  was  brought  to  England  about  1780.  Some  few  other  plants  were 
introduced  from  the  same  empire  in  suooessive  years  from  this  time.  See  Flowery 
Fruitt,  Oardening,  Ac. 

CHINESE  ERAS.  They  are  very  numerous,  fabulous,  and  mythological.  Like  the 
Chaldeans,  they  represent  the  world  as  having  existed  some  hundr^is  of  thousands 
of  years ;  and  their  annals  and  histories  record  events  said  to  have  occurred,  and 
name  philosophers  and  heroes  said  to  have  lived,  more  than  27.000  years  aga  By 
their  (niculation  of  time,  which  must  of  course  differ  essentially  from  ours,  they  date 
the  commencement  of  their  empire  41,000  years  B.o. — Abbi  Length 

CHIPPAWA,  BATTLES  of.  In  the  late  American  war,  the  British  under  geoend 
Riall  were  defeated  by  the  Americans  under  general  Browne,  July  5,  1814.  The 
Americans  were  defeated  by  the  British,  commanded  by  generals  Drummood 
and  Riall,  but  the  latter  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner,  JiUy  25  following. 

CHIVALRY.  Began  in  Europe,  about  a.d.  900.  From  the  twelfth  to  the  fifteenth 
century  it  had  a  considerable  influence  in  refining  the  manners  of  most  of  the  nations 
of  Europe.  The  knight  swore  to  accomplish  Uie  duties  of  his  profession,  aa  the 
champion  of  God  and  the  ladies.  He  devoted  himself  to  speak  the  truth,  to  ma-iw^n 
the  light,  to  protect  the  distressed,  to  practice  courtesy,  to  fulfil  obligatioDS,  and 
to  vindicate  in  every  perilous  adventure  his  honour  and  character.  Chivalry,  which 
owed  its  origin  to  the  feudal  system,  expired  with  it. — Roberittm  ;  Oibboik 

CHIVALRY,  COURT  or.  It  was  oommonlv  afier  the  lie-direct  had  been  given,  that 
combats  took  place  in  the  court  of  chivalry.  By  letters  patent  of  James  L  the  eari- 
marshal  of  England  had  "the  like  jurisdiction  in  the  courts  of  chivalry,  when  the 
office  of  lord  mgh  constable  was  vacant,  as  this  latter  and  the  marshal  did  jointly 


CHL  168  CHR 

CfxerctM,"  1623.  The  following  entries  are  found  in  the  pipe-roll  of  81  Hen.  L  1181, 
the  date  of  whieh  has  been  fixed  by  the  labours  of  the  record  commission: — 
"  Robert  Fitz-Seward  renders  account  of  fifteen  marks  of  silver  for  the  office  and  wfe 
of  Hugh  Chivill.  Paid  into  the  exchequer  four  pounds.  And  he  owes  six  pounds ;  " 
p.  63.  "  William  de  Hocton  renders  account  of  ten  marks  of  gold  ikcU  he  may  have 
the  wife  of  Geoffrey  de  Famcre  in  marriage^  with  her  land,  and  may  hare  her  son  in 
custody  until  he  is  of  age  to  become  a  knight ;  he  paid  into  the  exchequer  ten  marks 
of  gold,  and  is  discharged." — Pari.  JUporia, 

CHLOBOFOBM  nr  SUBQICAL  OPERATIONS.    See  article  Ether. 

CHOBHAM  COMMON,  in  Surrey,  about  twenty  miles  from  London.  A  camp  was 
formed  for  military  exercise  at  this  place,  and  occupied  on  June  14, 1863,  by  a  force 
between  8000  and  10,000  strong.  The  Uist  field-day  (when  there  was  a  mock  fight) 
took  place  Aug.  17.  Only  one  serious  case  of  misconduct  was  reported  during  all 
the  time  of  occupation. 

CHOCOLATE.  Introduced  into  Europe,  principally  firom  Mexico  and  the  Bnudls,  about 
A.D.  1520.  It  is  the  flour  or  paste  of  the  cocoa-nut,  and  makes  a  wholesome  berersge, 
much  used  in  Spain.  It  also  forms  a  delicate  confection.  Chocolate  was  sold  in  the 
London  coffee-houses  soon  after  their  establishment,  1660< — Tatler.    See  Ooeoa, 

CHOIR.  The  choir  was  separated  from  the  nave  of  the  church  m  the  time  of  Constan- 
tinei  The  choral  service  was  first  used  in  England  at  Canterbury,  ▲.D.  677.  This 
service  had  been  previously  in  use  at  Rome  about  602.  See  Chaunttng,  The  Chorague 
was  the  superintendent  of  the  ancient  chorus. —  Warhwian, 

CHOLERA  MORBUa  This  fatal  disease,  known  in  its  mora  malignant  form  as  the 
Indian  cholera,  after  having  made  great  ravages  in  many  countries  of  the  north,  east, 
and  south  of  Europe,  and  in  the  countries  of  Asia,  where  alone  it  had  carried  off 
more  than  900,000  persons  in  its  progress  within  two  years,  made  its  first  appearance 
in  England,  at  Sunderland,  Oct.  26,  1881.  Cholera  first  appeared  in  Edinburgh, 
Feb.  6, 1882.  First  obserfed  at  Rotherhithe  and  Limehouse,  London,  Feb.  18 ;  and 
in  Dublin,  March  3,  same  year.  The  mortality  was  very  great,  but  more  so  on  the 
Continent ;  the  deaths  by  cholera  in  Paris  were  18,000  between  March  and  August, 
1832.  Cholera  again  raged  in  Rome^  the  Two  Sicilies,  Oenoa,  Berlin,  Ac.,  in  July  and 
August,  1837.  In  1848  and  1849,  we  had  another  visitation  of  the  Cholera  in  this 
kis^om ;  the  number  of  deaths  in  London,  for  the  week  ending  Sept.  16, 1849,  was 
31^,  the  ordinary  average  being  1008;  and  the  number  of  deaths  by  diolera  from 
June  17  to  Oct.  2,  same  year,  was,  in  London  alone,  13,16L  From  this  time  the 
mortality  lessened  every  day,  and  the  distemper  finally  disappeared  Oct.  18, 1849. 
In  Sept,  1863,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  Hexham,  Tynemouth,  and  other  northern  towns 
suffenMi  much  firom  cholera,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1864  it  made  great  ravages  in 
Italy  and  SicOy :  and  above  10,000  are  said  to  have  died  at  Naples :  it  was  also  very 
fatal  to  the  allied  troops  at  Varna.  It  broke  out  at  London  in  August  and  September, 
and  was  very  severe  for  a  short  time  in  the  southern  sad  western  part& 

CH0RAGU8.  An  important  public  officer  among  the  Qreeks,  who  paid  and  regulated 
the  chorus  in  the  public  feasts,  worship,  Ac 

CHORUSES.  Singing  in  this  manner  was  invented  at  Athens.  Stesichorus,  whose  real 
name  was  Tysias,  received  this  appellative  from  his  having  been  the  first  who  taught 
the  ohorus  to  dance  to  the  lyre,  666  ^o.—QmntU.  Inst.  Orat.  Hypodicus,  of  Chalcides, 
carried  off  the  prize  for  the  best  voice,  608  B.a — Parian  MarUes. 

^^HxTRV.  Consecrated  oil  was  used  early  in  the  ceremonies  of  the  Roman  and  Greek 
chorches.  Musk,  saffron,  cinnamon,  roses,  and  frankincense  are  mentioned  as  used 
with  the  oil,  in  a-D.  1641.  But  it  was  ordained  that  chrism  should  consist  of  oil  and 
balsam  only;  the  one  representing  the  human  nature  of  Christ,  and  the  other  his 
divine  nature,  1696. 

CHRIST.  See  Jebub  Chbibt.  This  name,  so  universally  given  to  the  Redeemer  of  the 
world,  signifies,  in  Greek,  The  Anointed,  being  the  same  with  Memah  in  the  Hebrew, 
which  the  Jews  called  that  Saviour  and  Deliverer  whom  they  expected,  and  who  was 
promised  to  them  by  all  the  prophets.  This  appellation  is  commonly  put  to  our 
Jbsus  (signifying  Saniowr),  the  name  of  the  great  object  of  our  faith,  and  Divine 
author  of  our  reUgion.  St.  Clement,  the  earliest  father,  according  to  St.  Epiphanius, 
fixes  the  birth  of  Christ  on  the  18th  November,  in  the  28th  year  of  Au^tus,  t,  e. 
two  yean  before  the  Christian  era  as  adopted  in  the  sixth  century.    Cennthus  was 


CHR 


154 


CHR 


the  first  Christian  writer  against  the  diyinity  of  Christy  about  a.d.  67.  The  dlTinity 
of  Christ  was  adopted  at  the  council  of  Nice,  in  aJ).  825,  by  two  hundred  and 
ninety-nine  bishops  against  eighteen.    See  Ariatu. 

CHRIST'S  HOSPITAL.  A  noble  institution  which  is  indebted  for  its  esUbliahment  to 
the  piety  of  Edward  VI.  1552.  A  mathematical  ward  was  founded  by  Charles  II., 
and  the  city  of  London  and  community  of  England  have  contributed  to  render  it  a 

Saat,  extensive,  and  richly  endowed  charity.  Large  portions  of  the  edifice  hariog 
len  into  decay,  hare  been  lately  rebuilt ;  in  1822  a  new  infirmary  was  completed, 
and  in  1825  (April  28)  the  duke  of  York  laid  the  first  stone  of  the  magnificent  new 
hall. — On  Sept.  24,  1854,  the  present  master.  Dr.  Jacob,  in  a  sermon,  in  the  church 
of  the  hospital,  censured  the  system  of  education  and  the  general  administration  of 
the  establishment  The  agitation  consequent  upon  this  discourse  will  doubtless 
result  in  many  alterations,  Dr.  Jacob's  yiews  haying  received  the  approval  of  the 
majority  of  the  governors. 

CHRIST'S-THORN.  This  shrub  came  hither  from  the  south  of  Europe,  before  1596 
Supposed  to  be  the  plant  from  which  Our  Saviour^s  crown  of  thorns  was  composed. 

GBRISTIAN.  This  name  was  first  given  to  the  believers  and  followers  of  Christ's 
doctrines  at  Antioch,  in  Syria,  AcU,:kL  26,  in  the  year  88,  according  to  Butler;  in  the 
year  40,  according  to  TacUut ;  and  according  to  other  authorities,  in  the  year  60. 
The  first  Christians  were  divided  into  episcopoi  (overseers),  presbyteroi  (eldenX 
dlaoonoi  (ministers  or  deacons)  and  pistol  (believers) ;  afterwards  catechumens,  or 
learners,  and  energumens,  who  were  to  be  exorcised,  were  added. 

CHRISTIAN  ERA.  The  era  which  is  used  by  almost  all  Christian  nations ;  it  datei 
from  January  Ist,  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  year  of  the  194th  Olvmpiad,  in  the 
758rd  of  the  building  of  Rome,  and  4714th  of  the  Julian  period.  It  was  first  introdnced 
in  the  sixth  century,  but  was  not  very  generally  employed  for  some  centorieB  after. 
See  AwM  Domini, 


CHRISTIAN  KINO;  Most  Chbibtiak  Eikg;  Chruiiantuimut Bex,  This  title  wm given 
by  pope  Paul  II.  to  Louis  XL  of  France  in  1469  :  and  never  was  a  distinctiom  more 
unworthily  conferred.  His  tyranny  and  oppressions  obliged  his  subjecta  to  enter 
into  a  league  against  him ;  and  4000  persons  were  executed  publicly  or  privately  in 
his  merciless  reign. — Benaidt;  Fkwry, 

CHRISTIANITY.  Founded  by  the  Saviour  of  the  world.  The  persecutions  of  the 
Christians  commenced  a.d.  64.  See  PenecuHonM,  Christianity  vras  first  taught  in 
Britain  about  this  time ;  and  propagated  with  some  success  in  156. — Scde.  Laciosia 
said  to  have  been  the  first  Christian  king  of  Britain,  and  in  the  world :  he  reigned  in 
about  179,  There  was  a  large  Christian  population  prior  to  the  irruption  of  the 
Saxon  pagans,  whose  conversion  began  with  Augustin  the  monk  in  597.*  Introduced 
into  Ireland  in  the  second  centiuy,  but  with  more  success  alter  the  arrival  of 
St  Patrick  in  482.  Received  in  Scotland  in  the  reign  of  Donald  L  about  212;  what 
it  was  embraced  by  that  king,  his  queen,  and  some  of  his  nobility. 

Conatantine  the  Oreat  made  bia  ■olemn 

declaration  of  the  Chxiatian  religion 

A.n.  81S 
Christianity  was  eatabUahed  in  P^mnoe 

under  Glovia  the  Great  .  496 

In  Helvetia*  by  Irish  misaionariea     .    .  648 
In  Flanders  in  the  seventh  century. 

In  Denmark,  under  Harold    .  .  827 

In  Bobemia^  under  Bordyoi  .    .  894 

In  Russia,  by  BwUtoelaf        ...  040 

In  Poland,  under  Meidslaus  1.  .        .    .  098 

In  Hungary,  under  Oeisa  .  994 

In  Norway  and  Iceland,  under  Olof  I.  .  1000  I 

Christianity  was  propagated  in  various  parts  of  Africa,  as  Ouinea»  Angolsi,  and  Congo* 
in  the  fifteenth  century ;  and  in  America  and  India  it  made  some  progress  in  Uks 
sixteenth,  and  now  rapidly  gains  ground  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

*  It  is  said  that  Orrgory  the  Great,  shortly  before  his  elevation  to  the  papal  cibair,  ehanoed  tmt  day 
to  pass  through  the  slave-market  at  Borne,  and  peroefving  some  children  of  great  beauty  wte  wen 
set  up  for  sale,  he  inquired  about  their  country,  and  finding  they  were  English  Fagana.  hie  is  aaid  to 
have  cried  out,  in  the  Latin  language,  "  JVon  Avgli  md  Angtlt  fomtit  ti  ttttnt  CkrUtiionit*'  that  is,  "they 
would  not  be  Knglish,  but  angels,  if  they  were  ChrisUans."  From  that  time  he  wss  struck  with  sn 
ardent  desire  to  eonvcrt  that  unenlightened  nation,  and  ordered  a  mook  named  AustJn,  or  Augustin, 
and  otbara  of  the  same  firateniity,  to  undertake  the  misaion  to  Britain  in  the  year  fi06w-- tfoMtmilA. 


In  Sweden,  between  10th  and  11th  < 

In  Prussia,  by  the  Teutonie  knights, 
when  they  were  returning  firom  the 
holvwars      ....  a.d. 

In  Lithuania,  where  Paganism  was  abo- 
lished about     1SS6 

In'China,  where  it  made  some  piugiesa 
(but  was  afterwards  extirpated,  and 
thousands  of  Chinese  Christiana  were 
put  to  death) 1675 

In  Oreeoe,  where  it  was  ooee  mora  re- 
established        10tB 


CKR 


155 


CHU 


CHRISTKAS-DAT.  A  festiTBl  of  the  Church,  uniyenally  obMrred  in  oommemontion 
of  the  natiTity  of  Our  Saviour.  It  haa  been  denominated  Chiitt-maM,  from  the 
appeUative  Christ  having  been  added  to  the  name  of  Jetus  to  express  that  he  was  the 
Mewtiahj  or  7%$  Amoinied.  It  was  first  obserred  as  a  festival  ▲.D.  98.  Ordered  to  be 
held  aa  a  solemn  feaat^  and  divine  service  to  be  performed  on  the  25th  of  December, 
bj  pope  Telesphoma,  about  a.d.  137.*  In  the  esstem  church,  Christmas  and  the 
Epiphany  {wluch  aee)  were  deemed  but  one  and  the  same  feast ;  and  to  this  day  the 
Church  universally  keeps  a  continued  feast  within  those  limits.  The  holly  and 
mistletoe  used  at  Chnstmsa  are  remains  of  the  religious  obeerranoes  of  the  Druids. 

CHBISTKAS-ISLAND.  An  island  in  the  Pftdfic  Ocean,  bo  named  by  Ckptain  Cook, 
who  landed  here  on  Christmas-day,  1777.  He  had  passed  Christmaa-day  at  Christmas 
Sound,  1774.  On  the  shore  of  Christmas  Harbour,  visited  by  bim  in  1776,  one  of  his 
men  found  a  piece  of  parchment  with  this  mscription :  **  Ludovioo  X  V.  CfalHarum 
rege^  et  d.  BcyiuM  rtgi  a  uerttU  ad  ret  montimai,  amitf  1772  tt  177S."  On  the  other 
side  of  it  captain  Cook  wrote :  '*  Nate$  JU$oUuion  et  Diseovery  de  nge  Magnm  BrUmmia, 
DectmJbru,  1776,"  and  fixed  the  bottle  in  a  safe  and  proper  place. 

CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY.    See  iVtuttn^  tn  C^><(mrf. 

CHRONICLES^  The  earliest  chronicles  are  those  of  the  Jews,  Chinese,  Hindoos,  and 
perhaps  of  the  Irish.  After  the  invention  of  writing,  all  well  informed  nations  appear 
to  have  kept  chroniclers,  who  were  generally  priests  or  astrologers^  and  who  mingled 
popular  legends  with  their  recordSb — PhiUipt,  In  Scripture  there  are  two  *'  B^ks 
of  Chronicles." 

CHBOKOLOOT.  The  Chinese  pretend  to  the  most  ancient,  but  upon  no  certain 
authority.  The  most  authentic,  to  which  all  Europe  gives  credit,  is  the  Jewish ;  but 
they  have  created  abundance  of  difficulties  in  this  science,  and  rery  little  oertainty 
can  be  arrived  at  as  to  the  exact  time  of  many  memorable  events.  The  earliest 
epoch  is  the  creation  of  the  world,  4004  B.a.  Theophiius,  bishop  of  Antiocb, 
was  the  fifst  Christian  chronologist,  about  a-D.  169.  See  Uu  difftrmt  eroM  $knmf^ 
Cftevofume. 


CHXET  ZPOGEI8  OV  THB  /KWB. 

Creatknof  Adam    ....  &a  4004 

Deluge 2348 

DefttE  of  Abraham 1881 

I>rownixxg  of  Pharaoh                          .    .  1491 

Death  of  Joshua 1443 

Death  of  David 1016 


Division  of  the  kingdom  between  the  Tm 

Tribes  and  Two    ....  b.o.  975 

Disperaion  of  the  Ten  Tribes             .    .  721 

Captivity  of  the  Two       ....  006 

Retumof  the  Two  from  Babylon      .    .  b$6 

Death  of  Judas  Maccabeus                     .  161 

United  to  the  Roman  Ihnpin    .        .    .  68 


CHTJH  AB»  TREATY  of,  concluded  between  the  nabob  of  Oude,  and  goremor  Hastings, 
by  which  the  nabob  was  relieved  of  all  his  debts  to  the  East  India  Compsny,  on 
condition  of  his  seizing  the  property  of  the  Begums,  his  mother  and  grandmother, 
and  dellTering  it  up  to  the  English :  this  treaty  also  enabled  the  nabob  to  take 
possession  of  the  lands  of  f^acooUa  Khan,  a  Robilla  chief,  who  had  escaped  from  a 
recent  massacre,  and  had  settled  at  Rampoor,  under  guarantee  of  the  English.  On 
this  occasion  the  nabob  made  a  present  to  Mr.  Hastings  of  100,0002.,  Sept.  19, 1781. 
See  ffaHing*,  Warren,  Trial  of. 

CHURCH.  It  is  said  that  a  church  was  built  for  Christian  worship  in  the  first  century 
and  some  will  have  it  that  one  was  built  in  England,  ▲.D.  60.  See  Olattonbury,  In 
the  small  island  of  Whitehome,  in  Scotland,  are  the  remains  of  an  ancient  church, 
which  was  the  first  place  of  Christian  worship,  it  is  believed  in  that  coxmtry,  snd 
sapposed  to  hare  been  built  before  the  cathedral  at  Whitehome,  in  Wigtonahire, 
where  Ninian  was  bishop  in  the  fourth  centurv.  The  Christians  originally  preached 
in  woods  and  caves,  by  candle-light,  whence  the  practice  of  candle-light  in  churches. 
Most  of  the  early  churches  were  of  wood.  The  first  church  of  stone  was  bailt  in 
London,  in  608 ;  and  a  church  of  stone  was  built  at  Bsngor  in  Ireland,  by  St.  Malaohy, 
who  vras  prslate  in  1 134. — Cfordon't  Ireland.  Church  towers  were  originally  parochial 
Churchyards  were  permitted  in  cities  in  742. 


CHURCH   OF   ENGLAKD.     Commenced  with  the  Reformation,  and  was  formally 
established  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YIIL  1534.    The  church  consists  of  two  arch- 

*  Diocletian,  the  Roman  emperor,  keeping  his  court  at  Nioomedia.  being  informed  that  the 
ChrisUans  were  aaeemblcd  on  this  day  in  great  multitudes  to  celebrate  Ciuist's  naUyity,  ordered  the 
dootB  to  be  diut,  and  the  church  to  be  set  on  fire,  and  six  himdred  perished  in  the  burning  pile.  This 
the  commencement  of  tho  tenth  pereecution,  which  lasted  ten  years,  a.o.  308. 


CHU  166  CIN 

bishops  and  twenty  five  bishops,  exclusirely  of  that  of  Sodor  and  Man.  The  other 
dignitaries  are  chancellors,  deans  (of  cathedrals  and  colleg;iate  churches),  archdeaooDS, 
prebendaries,  canons,  minor  canons,  and  priest  Ticars ;  tibeee  and  the  incumbents  of 
rectories,  vicarages,  and  ehapelries,  make  the  number  of  preferments  of  the  Established 
Church,  according  to  the  last  official  returns,  12,327.  The  number  of  churches  for 
Protestant  worship  in  England  was  11,742  in  1818,  and  14.077  in  1851.  The  act  for 
building  and  enlarging  churches  was  passed  9  Qeo.  lY.  1828.  The  Church-buildiiig 
Amendment  act  piused  2  Vict.  August,  1888. — 200  new  churches  were  erected  in  the 
diocese  of  London  in  the  episcopate  of  bishop  C.  J.  Blomfield,  1828-1856. 

CHURCH  or  IRELAND.  Called,  in  conection  with  that  of  England,  the  United  Chureh 
of  England  and  Ireland.  Previously  to  the  Church  Temporalities  act  of  William  lY. 
in  1888,  there  were  four  archbishoprics  and  eighteen  bishoprics  in  Ireland,  of  whidi 
ten  have  since  ceased ;  that  act  providing  for  the  union  of  sees,  sad  for  the  abolition 
of  certain  sees,  accordingly  as  the  possessors  of  them  died.  There  are  1659  places 
of  Protestant  worship,  2109  Roman  Catholic  chapels,  452  Presbyterian,  and  414  other 
houses  of  prayer.    See  Buhap$  of  Ireland, 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.  Presbyteriauism  is  the  religion  of  Sootland.  Its  distin- 
guishing tenets  seem  to  have  been  first  embodied  in  the  formulaiy  of  fiuth  attributed 
to  John  Knox,  and  compiled  by  that  reformer  in  1560.  It  was  approved  by  the 
parliament,  and  ratified  in  1567;  was  finally  settled  by  sn  act  of  the  ScotUdi  senate 
in  1696,  and  was  afterwards  secured  by  the  treaty  of  union  with  England  in  1707. 
Previously  to  the  abolition  of  episcopacy  in  Scotland  in  1688,  there  existed  two  arch- 
bishoprics and  twelve  bishoprics,  which  were  then  dissolved ;  but  there  were  after- 
wards established  several  bishoprics,  called  Post-Revolution  bishoprics,  of  which 
there  are  now  seven,  severally  described  in  their  places.  The  Church  of  Sootland  is 
regulated  by  four  courts — the  Qeneral  Assembly,  the  Synod,  the  Presbytery,  and 
Kirk  Session.  See  Prubyteriana.  A  lai^  body  seceded  from  this  church  in  1843, 
and  took  the  name  of  the  Free  Church  of  Sootlaiid>  vkich  see. 

CHURCH  MUSIC.  Introduced  into  the  Christian  Church  by  Gregory  the  Greats  in 
A.D.  602.  Choir  service  was  first  introduced  in  England  at  Smterbury,  in  677. 
Church  organs  were  in  general  use  in  the  tenth  century.  Churoh  musie  wss  first 
performed  in  English  in  1559.    See  Chcir;  ChawUing. 

CHURCH-WARDENS  Offioers  of  the  parish  churoh,  appointed  by  the  first  canon  of 
the  synod  of  London  in  1127.  Overseers  in  every  parish  were  also  appointed  by  the 
same  body,  and  they  continue  now  nearly  as  then  constituted. — JokimnCa  Osiieas. 
There  are  oommonlv  two  church-wardens  to  every  parish,  who  direct  and  control 
its  affiurs,  summon  the  parishoners  to  meet,  &c. 

CHURCHING  OF  WOMEN.  It  origmated  m  the  Jewish  rite  of  purification,  A.n.  SI 4. 
Churching  is  the  act  of  returning  thanks  in  the  church  for  any  signal  deliverance,  and 
particularly  after  the  delivery  of  women. —  WkeatUjf.  It  was  a  Jewish  law  that  a 
woman  should  keep  within  her  hoiue  forty  days  after  her  lying  in,  if  she  had  a  son, 
and  eighty  if  ihe  had  a  daughter ;  at  the  expiration  whereof  she  was  to  go  to  the 
Temple,  and  offer  a  lamb  with  a  young  pigeon  or  turtle,  and  in  case  of  poverty,  two 
pigeons  or  turtles.    See  Purification, 

CIDER.  Zidtr^  Gkrman.  Anciently  this  beverage,  when  first  made  in  EUiglaad,  was 
called  wine,  about  A.D.  1284.  When  the  earl  of  Manchester  was  ambassador  in  FVmoee, 
he  IB  said  to  have  frequently  passed  off  cider  upon  the  nobility  of  that  oountiy  for  a 
delicious  wine.  It  was  made  subject  to  the  excise  regulation  of  sale  in  1763  H  say, 
A  powerful  spirit  is  drawn  from  cider  by  distillation. — Many  orchards  were  planted 
in  Herefordshire  by  lord  Scudamore,  ambassador  from  Charles  L  to  Finance.  John 
PhiUps  published  his  poem  "Cider"  in  1706. 

CIMBRL  The  war  of  the  Cimbri,  118  B.a  They  defeat  the  consul  Marcos  SHamis, 
109  B.O.  They  defeat  the  Romans  under  Manlius,  on  the  banks  of  the  Bhine^  wheire 
80,000  Romans  are  slain,  105  B.O.  The  Teutones  are  defeated  by  Marias  in  two 
batUes  at  AqusB  Sextise  (Aix),  in  Gaul,  200,000  are  killed,  and  70,000  made  prisoners, 
102  B.a  The  Cimbri  are  defeated  by  Marius  and  Catullus,  as  they  were  again 
endeavouring  to  enter  Italy;  120,000  are  killed,  and  60,000  taken  prisoners,  101  B.a 
Their  name  afterwards  sunk  in  that  of  the  Teutones  or  Saxonsi 

CINCINNATI  SOCIETT.  A  society  esUblished  in  America  soon  after  the  peace  of 
1788 ;  it  arose  among  the  army,  and  was  advancing  rapidly,  but  owing  to  the  jealoosy 


CIS  167  cm 

which  it  prodaoad  on  the  part  of  the  people,  who  had  just  accomplished  their  freedom, 
and  who  dreaded  the  influeQoe  of  an  army,  the  officers  gave  up  the  society. 

CINNAMON  TRADE.  The  cinnamon  tree  is  a  species  of  laurel,  and  a  natire  of  Ceylon. 
The  trade  was  commenced  by  the  Dutch  in  1506 :  but  cinnamon  had  been  known  in 
the  time  of  Augustus  Gsesar,  and  eren  long  before.  It  is  mentioned  among  the 
perfumes  of  the  saoctuary,  £xoduB,  zzx.  28;  but  it  is  imagined  that  the  cinnamon 
spoken  of  in  Scripture  was  of  a  kind  different  from  that  we  have  in  use.  Cinnamon 
was  found  in  the  American  forests,  by  Don  Ulloa,  in  1736.  The  true  tree  of  Ceylon 
cultivated  in  Jamaica  and  Dominica  by  transplantation  in  1788. 


CINQUE  PORTS.  They  were  originally  five— Dover,  Hastings,  H^the,  Romney,  and 
Sandwich;  Winchelsea  and  Rye  were  afterwards  added.  Their  jurisdiction  was 
vested  in  herons,  called  wardens,  for  the  better  security  of  the  SSnglish  coast,  these 
porta  being  the  nearest  points  to  France,  and  considered  the  keys  of  the  kingdom ; 
instituted  by  William  L  in  1078.--iZaptn.  They  are  governed  by  a  particular  policy, 
and  are  under  a  lord  warden ;  the  doke  of  Wellington  was  lord  warden  when  he  died 
in  1862.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  earl  now  marquess  of  Dalhousie,  who  then  held 
the  office  of  governor-general  of  India,  which  he  resigned  in  1866. 

CINTRA,  CONVENTION  or.  The  memorable  and  disgraceful  convention  concluded 
between  the  British  army  under  sir  Hew  Dalrymple,  and  the  French  under  marshsl 
Junot  By  thii  compact  the  defeated  French  army  and  its  chiefs  were  allowed  to 
evacuate  Portugal  in  British  ships,  carrying  with  them  all  their  ill-gotten  spoil; 
signed  the  day  after  the  battle  of  Vimeira,  Aug.  22, 1808.  A  court  of  inquiry  was 
held  at  Chelsea,  Nov.  17  same  year,  and  the  result  was  a  formal  declaration  by  the 
king  strongly  condemning  the  terms  of  the  convention. 


CIBCASSIA.  The  Circassians  are  descended  from  the  Alanians.  They  continued 
unsubdued,  even  by  the  arms  of  the  celebrated  Timour ;  but  in  the  sixteenth  century 
the  greater  part  of  them  acknowledged  the  authority  of  the  Csar,  Ivan  IL  of  Russia. 
About  A.V,  1745,  the  princes  of  Qreat  and  Little  Kabarda  took  oaths  of  fealty  to  that 
power.  One  branch  of  their  traffic  is  the  sale  of  their  daughters,  famed  throughout 
the  world  for  their  beauty,  and  whom  they  sell  for  the  use  of  the  seraglios  of  Turkey 
and  Persia;  the  merchants  who  come  from  Constantinople  to  purchase  these  girls  sre 
generally  Jews. — Klaproth*§  TraveU  in  the  Oavetutu  amd  Cfeirgia.  The  Circassians, 
under  a  native  chief,  named  Schamyl,  have  carried  on  a  war  of  independence  with 
Tarious  Buccen  against  the  whole  power  of  Russia  for  above  twenty  years  (1867). 

CIRCENSIAN  GAMES.  These  were  combats  in  the  Roman  circus,  in  honour  of  Census, 
the  god  of  coundU,  instituted  by  Evander,  and  established  at  Rome  732  b.o.  by 
Romulus,  at  the  rape  of  the  Sabines.  They  were  in  imitation  of  the  Olympian  games 
among  the  Greeks,  and,  by  way  of  eminence,  were  called  the  great  games,  but  Tarquin 
called  them  the  Ciroensian ;  their  celebration  continued  five  days,  beginning  on  the 
15th  Sept— Ftr^ 

CIRCUITS  IK  ENGLAND.  They  were  divided  into  three,  and  three  justices  were 
appointed  to  each,  22  Hen.  II.  1176.  They  were  afterwards  divided  into  four,  with 
five  justices  to  each  division,  1180. — Bapin.  The  number  and  arrangement  of  circuits 
have  been  frequently  altereid. — CcanuUn,  They  are  held  twice  or  thrice  a  year  in 
eaidi  county  for  the  readier  distribution  of  justice,  the  judges  being  commissioned 
each  time  by  the  king;  snd  this  is  called  going  the  circuit.  There  are  monthly 
sessions  for  the  city  of  London  and  county  of  Middlesex. 

CIRCULATING  LIBRARY.  The  first  in  England,  on  a  public  plan,  was  opened  by 
Samuel  Fancourt,  a  dissenting  minister  of  Salisbury,  about  1740.  He  bad  little 
encouragement  in  the  undertaking,  which  in  the  end  fidled.  More  success,  however, 
attended  similar  institutions  at  Bath  and  in  London,  and  in  a  short  time  they  spread 
throughout  the  kingdom. — FerguBon'a  Biog.  No  books  can  be  taken  from  the  British 
Museum  except  for  judicial  purposes,  but  the  libraries  of  the  Royal  Society  and  the 
principal  seienttfic  societies  are  circulating.  There  was  a  circulatmg  library  at  Crane 
oourt,  London,  in  1748,  of  which  a  catalogue  in  2  vols,  was  published.  The  London 
(circtdating)  Library  was  founded  in  1841,  under  the  highest  auspices,  and  is  of  great 
value  to  literary  men.  Of  the  subscription  libraries  belonging  to  individuals,  that  of 
Mr.  C.  Mudie,  in  New  Oxford-street,  is  the  most  extensive,  sevcoral  hundreds  of  the 
newest  works  being  always  in  circulation.  It  was  founded  in  1848,  when  the  first 
two  volumes  of  Maoaulay's  England  were  published. 


CIR 


158 


CIT 


CIRCULATION  or  thb  BLOOD.    See  Jiiood. 

CIRCUMCISION.  A  rite  iiutituted  1897  b.o.  It  was  the  seal  of  the  covenant  made  by 
God  with  Abraham. — Jotephiu.  It  was  practised  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  is 
still  by  the  Copts  and  many  of  the  Turks  and  Persians. — BelL  The  Festival  of  the 
Circumcision  was  originally  called  the  Octave  of  Christmas.  The  first  mention  found 
of  it  is  in  a.d.  487.  It  was  instituted  by  the  Churoh  to  commemorate  the  ceremony 
under  the  Jewish  law  to  which  Christ  submitted  on  the  eighth  day  of  his  nativity ; 
it  was  introduced  into  the  Liturgy  in  1550. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS.  Among  the  greatest  and  most  daring  of  human  enterprises 
was  the  circumnavigation  of  the  earth  at  the  period  when  it  was  fint  attempted, 
A.D.  1519.*  The  following  are  the  most  renowned  of  this  illustrious  class  of  men  ; 
their  voyages  were  undertaken  at  the  dates  affixed  to  their  names.    See  Naviffoian. 


XsgellUL  a  Portoffuese,  the  first 

oatorad  the  Paoiflc  ooean 
Oroalva,  a  Spaalah  navigator 
Avmlradi,  a  Spaaiard  . 

Menduia,  a  Spaaiard . 
Sir  Francis  Drake,  flnt  Bngllsh 
Oavendiah,  bis  first  rnyage 
Lo  Maire,  a  Dutchman    . 
Quiros,  a  Spaniard 
TuBDoan.  Dutch 
Cowley,  British  . 
Dampler,  an  Englishman 


who 

A«D.  1519 

.    .  1637 

.  1537 

.    .  1567 

.  1677 

.     .  1586 

.  1616 

.     .  1625 

.  1642 

.     .  1683 

.  1689 


Gooke,  an  EnglUhman       .  a.d.  1708 

Clipperton,  British 1719 

Roggewein,  Datch 1721 

Anson  ^afterwards  lord)  ....  1740 
Brron  (graud&ther  to  lord  Byron)    .     .  1764 

Wallis,  British 1766 

Carteret,  an  Englishman    .  .    .  1766 

Cook,  the  Illustrious  captain  .  .  1768 

On  tne  death  of  captain  Cook  his  last 

voyage  was  continued  by  King  .  .  1770 
Bougainville,  French  ....  1776 
Portlocke,  British 1788 


Sereral  voyages  hare  been  since  undertaken,  and,  among  other  nations,  by  the  Russians, 
who  are  honourably  distinguished  for  this  species  of  enterprise.  The  early  narigators, 
equally  illustrious,  such  as  sir  Hugh  Willoughby,  sir  Martin  Frobisher,  captain  Davis 
Ac,  are  named  elsewhere.    See  North  Wegt  Pottage, 

CIRCUS.  There  were  eight  (some  say  ten)  buildings  of  this  kind  at  Rome ;  the  largest 
of  them  was  called  the  (Sretu  Maximut,  which  was  built  by  the  elder  Tarquin,  605  bo. 
it  was  of  an  oval  figure;  its  length  was  three  stadia  and  a  half^  or  more  than  three 
English  furlongs,  and  its  breadth  960  Roman  feet.  It  was  enlarged  by  Csasar  so  as  to 
seat  150,000  persons,  and  was  rebuilt  by  Augustus.  Julius  Oeosar  introduced  in  it 
lai^  canals  of  water,  which  on  a  sudden  could  be  covered  with  an  infinite  number  of 
»]s,  and  represent  a  sespfight. — Plinjf,    See  Amphithtatret, 


CISALPINE  REPUBLIC.  Founded  by  the  French  in  June,  1797.  It  was  acknowled^sd 
by  the  emperor  of  Germany  to  be  independent,  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  («s4ie4 
see),  Oct.  17  following.  Received  a  new  constitution  in  Sept.  1798.  It  meroed  into 
the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  March,  1805;  Napoleon  was  crowned  king  in  May  following, 
and  was  represented  by  his  viceroy,  Eugene  Beauharnois.    See  lUujf. 

CISTERCIANS.  An  order  founded  by  Robert,  a  Benedictine,  abbot  of  Citeauz,  in  France. 
(1  Od^—ffenault.  1098.— J  ike.)  From  the  founder  it  was  called  the  order  of  Citeauz, 
in  the  eleventh  century.  It  became  so  powerful  that  it  governed  almost  all  Europe 
in  spiritual  and  temporal  concerns.  The  monks  observed  silence,  abstained  from 
flesh,  lay  on  straw,  and  wore  neither  shoes  nor  shirts. — De  Vitri. 

CITATE,  BATTLE  of.  The  Russian  general  Oortsehakoff,  intending  to  storm  KalafiO^ 
threw  up  redoubts  at  Citate,  close  to  the  Dsnube,  which  were  stormed  by  the  Turks 
under  Omar  Pacha,  Jan.  6,  1854.  The  fighting  continued  on  the  7th,  8th,  and  9th, 
when  the  Russians  were  oompelled  to  retire  to  their  former  position  at  Krajowa. 
havmff  lost  1500  killed  and  2000  wounded.  The  loss  of  the  Turics  was  estimated  at 
838  kSled  and  700  wounded. 

CITIE&  The  word  cUjf  has  been  in  use  in  England  only  since  the  Conquest,  at  which 
time  even  London  was  called  Londonhwrgh,  as  the  capital  of  Scotland  is  still  called 
EdMur^  The  English  cities  were  very  inconsiderable  in  the  twelfth  oentory. 
Cities  were  first  incorporated  a  J).  1079.  Towns  coiporate  were  called  cities  when 
the  seat  of  a  bishop's  see  and  having  a  cathedral  church. — Camden, 

CITIZEN.     It  vras  not  lawful  to  scoui^e  a  citizen  of  Rome. — Livy.     In  England  a 

*  Tlte  nrst  ship  that  sailed  round  the  earth,  an^  hence  determined  its  being  globular,  waaMagelhu)*^ 
or  Msgelfaaen's ;  ne  was  a  native  of  Pori^ugal,  in  the  service  of  Bpain.  and  by  keeping  a  westerly  oourse 
he  returned  to  the  same  place  be  had  set  out  firom  in  1619.  Tlie  Toyage  "was  computed  In  three  yeai* 
and  tiventy-nine  days ;  but  If  sgellaa  was  killed  on  his  homeward  paasoge,  at  the  rhiUppinei^  in  1&81. 
^Butler. 


CIU 


159 


CLA 


citizea  U  a  paraon  who  is  free  of  a  city,  or  who  doth  carry  on  a  trade  therein. — 
Oamdem^  Various  prinleges  have  been  conferred  on  citizens  as  freemen  in  seyeral 
reigns,  and  poweta  granted  to  them.  The  wives  of  citisens  of  London  (not  being 
aldermen's  wives,  nor  gentlewomen  by  descent)  were  obliged  to  wear  minever  caps, 
being  white  woollen  knit  three-cornered,  with  the  peaks  projecting  three  or  four 
inches  beyond  their  foreheads;  aldermen's  wives  made  them  of  velvet,  1  Elia.  1658. 
—Stowe.    Citizen  was  the  only  title  allowed  in  France  at  the  revolution,  1792. 

CIIJDAD  RODRIGK),  a  strong  fortress  of  Spain,  invested  by  the  French,  June  11, 1810 ; 
and  surrendered  to  them  July  10,  foUowmg.  It  remained  in  their  possession  until  it 
was  gallantly  stormed  by  the  British,  commanded  by  Wellington,  Jan.  19, 1812.  The 
loss  of  the  British  and  Portuguese  amounted  to  about  1000  killed  and  wounded;  thai 
of  the  garrison  was  the  same,  besides  1700  prisoners.— iVopier. 

CIVIL  L  A.W.  Seversl  codes  come  nnder  this  denomination  of  law&  A  body  of  Roman 
lawBi  founded  upon  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nations,  was  firat  collected  by  Alfrenos 
VamSb  the  civilian,  who  flourished  about  66  &a ;  and  a  digest  of  them  was  made  by 
Servius  Sulpidus^  the  civilian,  58  B.a  The  Gregorian  laws  were  compiled  ▲.d.  290  ; 
the  Theodosian  in  435;  and  the  Justinian,  529 — 534.  Many  of  the  former  laws 
having  grown  out  of  use,  the  emperor  Justinian  ordered  a  revision  of  them,  which  was 
called  the  Justinian  code,  and  this  code  constitutes  a  large  part  of  the  present  civil 
law.  Civil  law  was  restored  in  Italy,  Qermany,  &a  1127. — Blctir,  Civil  law  wis 
introduced  into  England  by  Theobald,  a  Norman  abbot^  who  was  afterwards  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  1183.  It  is  now  used  in  the  spiritual  courts  only,  and  in 
maritime  aiSurs.    See  Doctor^  Oommont,  and  LatoB. 


CiVJLLf  LIST.  This  comprehends  the  revenue  awarded  to  the  kings  of  England,  partly 
in  lieu  of  their  ancient  hereditary  income.  The  entire  revenue  of  Elizabeth  was  not 
more  than  600,000^  and  that  of  Charles  L  was  but  800,0002.  After  the  Revolution  a 
civil  list  revenue  was  settled  on  the  new  king  and  queen  of  700,0002.,  the  parliament 
taking  into  his  own  hands  the  support  of  &e  forces  both  maritime  and  military. 
The  civil  list  of  Geoige  II.  was  increased  to  800,0002 ;  and  that  of  George  III.  in  the 
55th  year  of  his  reign,  was  1,030,0002.  By  the  act  1  WUL  IV.  1881,  the  dvU  list  of 
that  sovereign  was  fixed  at  510,0002.  By  the  act  of  1  Vict  Dec.  1837,  the  civil  list  of 
the  queen  was  fixed  at  885,0002 ;  and  prince  Albert  obtained  an  exclusive  sum  from 
parliament  of  30,0002.  per  an.,  4  Vict  c.  1  &  2,  Feb.  7, 1840. 

CIVIL  SERVICE.  Nearly  17,000  persons  are  employed  in  this  service  under  the 
direction  of  the  Treasury,  and  the  Home,  Foreign,  Colonial,  Post,  and  Revenue, 
offices^  kc  In  1855  a  oommiMnon  reported  most  unfavourably  on  the  existing 
system  of  appointments,  and  on  May  21,  commissioners  were  appointed  to  examine 
into  the  qualifications  of  the  candidates. 

CLANSHIPS.  These  were  tribes  of  the  same  race,  and  commonly  of  the  same  name,  and 
originated  in  feudal  times.  See  Feudal  Lawt,  They  are  said  to  have  arisen  in 
Scotland,  in  the  reign  of  Malcolm  II.,  about  1008.  Clanships  and  other  remains  of 
heritable  jurisdiction  were  abolished  in  Scotlaad  (where  clans  were  taken  to  be  the 
tenants  of  one  lord),  and  the  liberty  of  the  English  was  granted  to  clansmen,  20 
Geo.  II.  1746. — Rufffuad.  The  following  is  a  cunous  and  rare  list  of  all  the  known 
dans  of  Scotland,  with  the  badge  of  distinction  anciently  worn  by  each. 


Jfoffie. 

Bado** 

Bachanan 

.       .  Biroh. 

Cameron  . 

.    .  Oak. 

OAtDpbell 
CRiishoIm  . 

.       .  Mvrtla. 
.    .  Aldor. 

Colqnhoan    . 

.  HanL 

Camming. 

.    .  Common  SaUow. 

.       .  HoUy. 

Fluquhanon 

Feivuaon 

ForbM 

.    .  Purple  Foxglove. 

.  Poplar. 
.    .  Broom. 

Pruer    . 

.  Tew. 

Oordon     . 

.    .  Iry. 

Graham 

.  LauraL 

Onmt 

.    .  Cranberry  heath. 

Gun 

.  Roaewort. 

Lamottt 

.    .  Crab-applo  tree. 

M'AUirter     . 

.  Fiv»>leaved  heath. 

M-Donald. 

.    .  BeU  heath. 

M'BonneU     . 

.  Mountain  heath. 

M'DougaU 

.    .  Qypresa 

Sdme. 

Sadffe. 

KTarUme 

.  Cloud-berry  buah. 

M'Oregor  . 

.    .  Pioe. 

Mantoeh 

.  Box-wood. 

MKay  . 

.  Bull-rniih. 

IfKenzie  . 

.    .  Deer-greacL 
.  St.  John's  wort 

M'Kinnon      . 

MXaohlan 

.    .  Mountain-aah. 

M'Lean. 

.  Blaokberry-heath. 

MOieod     . 

.    .  BedWhorUe-berrlee. 

M'Nab  .       .       , 

.  Bote  Blackberries. 

McNeil 

.    .  Sea-wan. 

M'PherMm    . 

.  Variegated  Box-wood. 

M'Quarrie 

.    .  Blackthorn. 

M'Rao    . 

.  Fir-club  Moes. 

Munro 

.    .  Eagles' feathers. 

Menxies. 

.  Ash. 

Murray     . 

.    .  Juniper. 

OffUvie  . 
Oliphant   . 
Roberteon 

.  Hawthorn. 

.    .  Great  Maple. 
.  Fern,  or  Brechans. 

CLA 


160 


CLA 


Ifame. 

Badgt. 

Stewart 

.  TbisUe. 

SutherUiid 

.    .  Oat's-tail-gTMB. 

CLANSHIPS,  wntinued. 

Name.  Badge. 

Bom Briar-roM. 

Bom       ....  Bear-beniee. 
Sinclair      .       .        .    .  Clover. 

The  chief  of  each  respective  clan  waa,  and  is,  entitled  to  wear  two  eagle's  feathers  in 
his  bonnet,  In  addition  to  the  distinguishing  badge  of  his  clan. — Cha$ib€n, 

CLABE,  EVGLAKD.  This  town,  in  Suffolk,  is  fismaouB  for  the  great  men  who  have  bone 
the  title  of  earl  and  duke  of  it  Richard  de  Clare,  earl  of  Gloucester,  is  said  to  have 
seated  here  a  monastery  of  the  order  of  Friars  Eremites,  the  first  of  this  kind  of 
mendicants  who  came  to  England,  1248. — Tanner,  Lionel,  third  son  of  Edward  III. 
becoming  possessed  of  the  honour  of  Clare,  bv  marriage,  was  created  duke  of 
Clarence.    The  title  haa  erer  since  belonged  to  a  branch  of  the  royal  fionil j, 

CLARE,  Ireland.  The  first  place  in  Ireland  for  140  yesn  that  elected  a  Roman  Catho- 
lic member  of  parliament.  This  it  did  prcTiously  to  the  passing  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Relief  bill,  in  1829,  and  in  despite  of  then  existing  laws  of  the  realm.  Sa» 
JZomon  CathoUcB.  The  memorable  election  was  held  at  Ennis,  the  county  town,  and 
terminated  in  the  return  of  Mr.  Daniel  O'Connell,  July  5, 182a 

CLARE,  NUNS  of  ST.  A  sisterhood  founded  in  Italy  about  a.d.  1212.  This  order 
settled  in  England,  in  the  Minories  without  Aldgate,  London,  about  1293.    Blandie 

aueen  of  NaTarre,  wife  of  Edmund,  earl  of  Lancaster,  brother  of  Edward  I.  founded 
tie  abbey  for  those  nuns  on  the  east  side  of  the  street  leading  from  the  Tower  to 
Aldgate ;  they  were  called  Minoresses  (hence  Minories) ;  and  the  order  continued  till 
the  suppression,  when  the  site  was  granted  to  the  bishopric  of  Bath  and  WeUs* 
81  Hen.  VIIL 1689.— ToniMr. 

CLAREMONT.  The  residence  of  the  late  princess  Charlotte  (daughter  of  the  prince 
regent,  afterwards  Qeorge  IV.),  and  the  scene  of  her  death,  Not.  6, 1817.  The  house 
was  originally  built  by  sir  John  Vanbrugh,  and  was  the  seat  of,  suoceseively,  the  eaii 
of  Clare,  afterwards  duke  of  Newcastle,  of  lord  Clive,  lord  Qalloway,  and  the  earl 
of  Tyrconnel.  It  was  purchased  of  Mr.  Ellis  by  government  for  65,000/.  for  the  prince 
and  princess  of  Saze-Coburg;  and  the  former,  now  king  of  Belgium,  assigned  it  to 
prince  Albert  in  1840.  The  exiled  royal  family  of  France  teok  up  their  residence  at 
Claremont^  March  4, 1848 ;  and  the  king,  Louis-Philippe,  died  at  Qaremont,  Aug.  89, 
1850.    See  Prance, 

CLARENCIEUX.  The  second  king  at  arms  here  with  us,  so  called  because  formeriy 
he  belonged  to  the  duke  of  Clarence ;  his  ofiBce  was  instituted  to  marshal  and  dispoae 
of  the  funerals  of  all  the  lower  nobility,  as  baronets,  knights,  esquires,  and  gentlemen , 
on  the  south  side  of  Trent,  from  whence  he  is  also  called  sur-roy  or  south-roy. 

CLARENDON,  STATUTES  of.  These  wete  statutes  enacted  in  a  parliament  held  at 
Clarendon,  the  object  of  which  was  to  retrench  the  then  enormous  power  of  the 
clergy.  Ihey  are  rendered  memorable  as  being  the  ground  of  Becket's  quarrel 
with  Henry  II.  A  number  of  regulations  were  drawn  up  under  the  title  of  the 
statutes  or  constitutions  of  Clarendon,  and  were  Toted  without  opposition,  a  p.  1164. 
—  H  amcr**  Ecd.  HitL    The  enactments  were  sixteen  in  number,  viz ; — 


L  That  all  suits  concemlDg  adTowaona 
should  be  determined  in  civil  courts. 

II.  That  the  clergy  accused  of  any  crime 
should  be  tried  by  myil  judges. 

III.  That  no  person  of  any  rank  whateTer 
should  be  permitted  to  leave  the  realm  with- 
out the  royal  licence. 

IV.  That  laics  should  not  be  accused  in 
spiritual  courts,  except  by  legal  and  reputable 
promoters  and  witnesses. 

V.  That  no  chief  tenant  of  the  crown  should 
be  excommunicated,  or  his  lands  put  under 
interdict. 

VI.  That  the  revenues  of  vacant  sees  should 
belong  to  the  king. 

VII.  That  goods  forfeited  to  the  crown 
ah<mld  not  be  protected  in  churches. 

VIII.  That  the  sons  of  villains  should  not 
be  ordained  clerks  without  the  consent  of 
their  lord. 

IX  That  bishops  should  be  regarded  as 


barons^  and  be  subjected  to  the  burthens 
belonging  to  that  raiuc 

X.  That  the  churches  belonging  to  the 
king's  see  should  not  be  granted  In  perpetuity 
against  his  wilL 

XI.  That  excommunicated  persons  should 
not  be  bound  to  give  security  for  continuing 
In  their  abode. 

ZII.  That  no  inhabitant  In  demesne  should 
be  excommunicated  for  non-appearanoe  in  a 
spiritual  court. 

XIII.  That  If  any  tenant  in  capUe  ahonld 
reAiso  submission  to  spiritual  courts,  the  esse 
should  be  referred  to  tne  king. 

XIV.  lliat  the  clexvy  should  no  longer  pre- 
tend to  the  right  of  enforcing  debts  oontrsctkd 
by  oath  or  promise. 

XV.  That  causes  between  lavmen  and 
eodesiaatics  should  be  determined  by  a  jury. 

XVI.  That  appeals  should  be  ultimately 
carried  to  the  King,  and  no  Auther  without 
his  consent 


CLA  161  CLE 

These  Btringent  statutes  were  enacted  to  preTent  the  chief  abuses  which  at  that  time 
prevailed  in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  put  a  stop  to  Church  usurpations,  which 
gradually  stealing  on,  threatened  Uie  destruction  of  the  dyil  and  royal  power. — Burnt. 

CLARION.  This  instrument  originated,  it  is  said  by  Spanish  writers,  with  the  Moon 
in  Spain,  about  a.d.  800.  The  clarion  was  at  first  a  trumpet,  serving  as  a  treble  to 
trumpets  sounding  tenor  and  bass. — A  the.  Its  tube  is  narrower  and  its  tone  shriller 
than  the  common  trumpet. — Pardcn. 

CLASSIS.  The  name  was  first  used  by  TalHus  Serviua  (the  sixth  king  of  ancient 
Rome),  in  making  divisions  of  the  Roman  people.  The  first  of  Uie  six  dasses  were 
called  dassiei,  by  way  of  eminence,  and  hence  authors  of  the  first  rank  came  to  be 
called  classics,  573  B.a — Mortimer,  Tulliua  Servius,  too»  was  the  first  who  introduced 
coin  or  stamped  money  into  Rome. — Idem. 

CL  AYICHORD.  A  musical  instrument  in  the  form  of  a  spinnet  (called  also  a  mauichord) ; 
it  had  49  stops,  and  70  strings,  which  bore  upon  five  bridges,  the  first  being  the 
highest,  and  the  others  diminishing  in  proportion.  The  chords  were  covered  with 
cloth,  which  rendered  the  sound  sweeter,  and  deadened  it  so,  that  it  could  be  heard 
only  at  a  small  distance.  It  was  much  in  use  in  the  nunneries  of  Spain.  This 
instrument  is  of  much  older  date  than  the  haipsiohord. — Pardon, 

CLEMENTINES.  Apocryphal  pieces,  fable  and  error,  attributed  to  the  primitive  father 
Clemens  Romanus,  a  contemporary  of  St.  Paul ;  some  say  he  succeeded  Peter  as  bkdiop 
of  Rome.  He  died  a.d.  102. — Niceron,  Also  the  decretals  of  pope  Clement  Y.  who 
died  1314,  published  by  his  successor. — Bowyer,  Also  Augustine  monks,  each  of 
whom  having  been  a  superior  nine  years,  then  merged  into  a  common  monk. 

CLEMENTINES  akd  URBANISTS.  Parties  by  whom  Europe  was  distracted  for 
several  years.  The  Urbanists  were  the  adherents  of  Pope  Urban  VI.,  the  others 
those  of  Robert)  son  of  the  Count  of  Geneva,  who  took  the  title  of  Clement  VII. 
All  the  kingdoms  of  Christendom,  according  to  their  various  interests  and  indina- 
tiona,  were  divided  between  these  two  pontiffs ;  the  court  of  France,  Castile,  Sootiand, 
&a  adhering  to  Clement,  and  Rome,  Italy,  and  England  declaring  for  Urban.  This 
contention  was  consequent  upon  the  deaUi  of  Gregory  XL  1878. — Hume, 

CLERGY.  In  the  first  century  the  clergy  were  distinguished  by  the  title  of  presbyters 
or  bishops.  The  bishops  in  the  second  century  assumed  higher  functions,  and  the 
presbyters  represented  tlie  inferior  priests  or  the  Levites.  This  distinction  was  stUl 
further  promoted  in  the  third  century ;  and,  under  Constantine,  the  clergy  attained 
the  recognition  and  protection  of  the  secular  power. 

CLERGY  nr  ENGLAND.  They  increased  rapidly  in  number  early  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, and  at  length  controlled  the  king  and  kingdom.  Drunkenness  was  forbidden 
among  the  clergy  by  a  law,  so  early  as  747,  a.d.  The  first-fruits  of  the  then  deigy 
were  assigned  by  parliament  to  the  king,  1534.  The  clergy  were  excluded  from 
parliament  in  1536.  The  conference  between  the  Protestant  and  Dissenting  clergy 
was  held  in  1604.  See  Conference,  Two  thousand  resigned  their  benefices  in  the 
Church  of  England,  rather  than  subscribe  their  assent  to  the  book  of  Common 
Prayer,  including  the  Thirty-nine  articles  of  religion,  as  enjoined  by  the  Act  of 
Uniformity,  1661-2.  The  Irish  Protestant  clergy  were  restored  to  their  benefices, 
from  which  they  had  been  expelled,  owing  to  the  state  of  the  kingdom  under  James 
IL,  1689.    The  Cleigy  Incapacitation  act  passed,  1801.    See  Church  of  England, 

CLERGY,  BENEFIT  of.  PrivUegiwn  Clerieale,  The  privilege  arose  in  the  pious 
regard  paid  by  Christian  princes  to  the  Church  in  its  infant  state,  and  consisted  of — 
Ist,  an  exemption  of  places  consecrated  to  religious  duties  from  criminal  arrests, 
which  was  the  foundation  of  sanctuaries ;  2nd,  exemption  of  the  persons  of  clergymen 
from  criminal  process  before  the  secular  judge,  in  particular  cases,  which  was  the 
original  meaning  of  the  privilegium  clerieale.  In  the  course  of  time,  however,  the 
hetu^  of  clergy  extended  to  every  one  who  could  read,  for  such  was  the  ignorance  of 
those  periods,  that  Ihie  was  thought  a  great  proof  of  learning;  and  it  waa  enacted, 
that  froim  the  scarcity  of  clergy  in  the  realm  of  England,  there  should  be  a  pre- 
rogative allowed  to  the  clergy,  that  if  any  man  who  could  read  were  to  be  con- 
demned to  death,  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  might,  if  he  would,  claim  him  as  a  clerk, 
and  dispose  of  him  in  some  places  of  the  clergy  as  he  might  deem  meet ;  but  if  the 
bishop  would  not  demand  him,  or  if  the  prisoner  could  not  read,  then  he  was  to  be 
put  to  death,  8  Edw.  L  1274.— Benefit  of  dergy  was  abolished  by  stat.  8  Geo.  IV.  1827. 

M 


CLE 


162 


CLO 


CLERQTMEN'S  WIDOWS'  and  ORPHANS*  CORPORATION.  Eatabliahed  in  Engl vid 
1670,  and  incorporated  1678.  William  Aasheton,  an  eminent  theological  writer,  wu 
the  first  proposer  of  a  plan  t-o  proyide  for  the  families  of  deceased  clergy. — WaU^9 
Life  of  A  aaheton.  The  festival  of  the  "  Sons  of  the  Clergy  "  is  held  annually  at  St.  Paul's 
cathedral :  the  charity  called  the  *'  Sons  of  the  Clergy  "  was  incorporated  in  1678. 

CLERK.  The  clergy  were  first  styled  clerks,  owing  to  the  judges  being  chosen  after  the 
Norman  custom  from  the  sacred  order;  and  the  officers  being  ^ergy  :  this  gave 
them  that  denomination,  which  they  keep  to  this  day. — Bladettvn^s  Comm,  **  As  the 
Druids,"  says  Pasquier,  "  kept  the  keys  of  their  religion  and  of  letters,  so  did  the 
priests  keep  both  these  to  tibemselves ;  they  alone  made  profession  of  letters,  and 
a  man  of  letters  was  called  a  clerk,  and  hence  learning  went  by  the  name  of  clerk- 
ship." This  is  still  the  appellation  of  cler^men ;  and  the  clergymen  of  our  Church 
distinguish  themselves  by  adding  "  clerk  to  their  name. — Pardon.  In  992,  the 
distinction  obtained  in  France. — ffencmit, 

CLERKENWELL,  a  parish  near  London,  so  called  firom  a  well  (fcmi  etericorum)  in 
Ray-street,  where  the  parish  dorks  occasionally  acted  mystery-plays;  once  before 
Richard  II.  in  1391.  Hunt's  political  meetings  in  1817  were  held  in  Spa-fields,  in 
this  parish.  In  St.  John's  parish  are  the  remains  of  the  prions  of  the  knights  of  St. 
John  of  Jerusalem.  Clerkenwell  prison  was  built  in  1615,  in  lieu  of  the  noted 
prison  called  the  Cage,  which  was  taken  down  in  1614;  it  ¥ras  erected,  the  then 
Bridewell  having  been  foimd  insufficient.  The  prison  called  the  House  of  Detention, 
erected  in  1775,  was  rebuilt  in  1818;  again,  1844.  At  Clerken well-close  formerly 
stood  the  house  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  where  some  suppose  the  death-warrant  of  Charles 
I.  was  signed,  Jan.  1649. 

CLERMONT,  COUNCIL  of.  The  celebrated  council  in  which  the  first  crusade  against 
the  infidels  was  determined  upon,  and  Qodfrey  of  Bouillon  appointed  to  command 
it,  in  the  pontificate  of  Urban  II.  1095.  In  this  council  the  name  of  pope  was  first 
given  to  tne  head  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  exclusively  of  Uie  bishops,  who 
used  until  this  time  to  assume  that  titla  Philip  I.  of  France  was  (a  seoond  time) 
excommunicated  by  this  assembly. — ffeiiauU. 

CLIMACTERIC.  The  term  applied  by  the  ancient  astrologers  and  physicians  to  certain 
periods  of  time  in  a  man's  life  (multiples  of  7  or  9),  in  which  they  afiSnned  several 
notable  alterations  in  the  health  and  constitution  of  a  person  happened,  and  exposed 
him  to  imminent  dangers.  Cotgrave  says,  "  every  7th  or  9th  or  68rd  year  of  a  man's 
life,  all  very  dangerous,  but  the  last  most."  Hippocrates  is  said  to  have  first  noticed 
these  alterations  in  human  life,  883  B.a  Much  misemployed  erudition  has  been 
expended  on  this  subject. 

CLIO.  The  initials,  C  L.  I.  0.,  forming  the  name  of  the  muse  of  history,  were  renda«d 
famous  from  the  most  admired  papers  of  Addison,  in  the  Spectator,  having  been 
marked  by  one  or  other  of  them,  signed  oonsecutively,  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
century. — Oihber,    These  initials  were  afterwards  adopted  by  other  eminent  writers. 

CLOCK.  That  called  the  clepsydra,  or  water-clock,  was  introduced  at  Rome  158  B.G.  hj 
Scipio  Nasica,  Toothed  wheels  were  applied  to  them  by  Ctesibius,  about  140  B.C. 
Said  to  have  been  found  by  Caesar  on  invading  Britain,  55  b.o.  The  only  clock 
supposed  to  be  then  in  the  world  was  sent  by  Pope  Paul  I.  to  Pepin,  king  of  Franoe» 
A.D.  760.  Pacificus,  archdeacon  of  Yerona^  invented  one  in  the  ninth  century. 
Originally  the  wheels  were  three  feet  in  diameter.  The  earliest  complete  dock  of 
which  there  is  any  certain  record,  was  made  by  a  Saiaoen  mechanic  in  the  13th  centuiy. 


The  acapoment  ascribed  to  Gerbert  A-D.  1000 
A  ffreat  clock   put  up  at  Canterbury 

CathednO,  cost  £30  ....  1202 

A  dock  constructed  by  Richard,  abbot  of 


St.  Alban's,  about 
A  striking  clock  in  Westminster       .    . 
A  perfect  one  made  at  Paris,  by  Vick    . 
The  first  portable  one  made   . 
In  England  no  clock  went  accurately 

before  that  set  up  at  Hampton-court 

(maker's  initials,  V.  O.)  . 
Bichard  Harris  (who  erected  a  clock  In 


1326 
1368 
1870 
1530 


1640 


the  church  of  St.  Paul's,  Covent-Oar- 
den)  and  the  younger  Galileo  con- 
structed  the  pendiUum  .  iUD.  1641 

Christian  Huygens  contested  tills  diaoo- 
very,  and  made  his  pendulum  dock 
some  time  previously  to  .  .    .  1658 

FromantiU  a  Dutchman,  improved  the 
pendulum  about 16fl9 

Bepeatinff  clocks  and  watches  invented 
by  Baru>w,  about     .....  1676 

The  dead  beat,  and  horizontal  escape- 
ments, by  Graham,  about  •       .       .  1700 


The  subsequent  improvements  were  the  spiral  balance  spring  suggested,  and  the 
duplex  Bcapement^  invented  by  Dr.  Hooke ;  pivot  holes  jewelled  by  Fade ;  the  detached 


CLO  168  CLU 

acapementy  inTented  bj  Madg«^  and  improved  by  Berthoud,   Arnold,  Eanuhaw 
and  others.    Clocka  and  watchos  were  taxed,  1797 ;  the  tax  waa  repealed,  1798. 

CLOCK,  THB  ELECTRIC,  Stbaxd,  Lohdoh.    See  RUdric  Clodc  and  Bait, 

CLOQHER,  BISHOPRIC  or.  Founded  by  St.  Macartin,  an  earl^  diaciple  of  St.  ?fttrick : 
he  fixed  the  aee  at  Clogher,  where  he  also  built  an  abbey  "  m  the  street  before  the 
royal  seat  of  the  kings  of  RpgaX,"  Clogher  takes  its  name  from  a  golden  stone,  from 
which,  in  times  of  paganism,  the  devil  used  to  pronounce  juggling  answers,  like  the 
oraclea  of  ApoUo  Pjfikiita,  as  is  said  in  the  register  of  Clogher. — Sir  Jama  Wart, 
Eleven  saints  have  held  this  see ;  the  first  vraa  St  Macartin,  who  died  in  a.d.  506. 
In  1041,  the  cathedral  was  built  anew,  and  dedicated  to  its  founder.  Clogher 
merged  on  the  death  of  its  late  prelate  (Dr.  Tottenham)  into  the  archiepisoopal  see 
ofArmagh,byaot8&4WiU.  lY.  &90, 1834.    Qoe  Bithopi  tf  JrdamL 

CLOKFERT,  SEE  or.  St.  Brendan  founded  an  abbey  at  Oonfert  in  668 ;  his  life  is 
extant  in  jingling  monkish  metre  in  the  Cottonian  Hbrary  at  Westminster.  In  his 
time  the  cathednl,  fitmous  in  ancient  days  for  its  seven  altan,  was  ereoted :  and 
Colgan  makes  St.  Brendan  the  founder  of  it,  and  the  fnt  bishop ;  but  in  the 
Ulster  Annals,  under  the  year  671,  the  deatili  of  the  fixat  prelate  of  this  see  is  thus 
remarked:  "Moemm,  bishop  of  Clonfert-Brenain,  went  to  rest."  Clonfert,  in  Irish, 
signifies  a  wonderful  den  or  retirement.  Three  saints  have  been  bishops  of  Clonfert. 
The  see  merged,  in  1889,  into  that  of  Killaloe.    See  Bith&pi. 

CLOKTARF,  BATTLE  or.  One  of  proud  record  in  the  annals  of  Ireknd,  ibnght 
between  the  Irish  snd  Danes,  the  former  headed  by  Biyan  Qoroimhe,  monarch  of 
Ireland,  who  signally  defeated  the  invaders  after  a  long  and  bloody  engagement. 
The  monarch  was  wounded  (and  soon  afterwards  died),  and  his  son  Murchard  fell 
with  many  of  the  nobility ;  but  11,000  of  the  Danes  perished  In  the  battle ;  fought  on 
Good  Friday,  lO39.-~.0iin»'«  Afmait. 

CLOSTEBSEYEN,  CONTENTION  or.  Entered  into  between  the  duke  of  Cumberland, 
third  son  of  Qeorge  II.,  and  the  duke  of  Richelieu,  commander  of  the  French  armies. 
By  the  stipulations  of  this  humiliating  treaty,  88,000  Hanoverians  laid  down  their 
arms  and  were  dispersed;  signed  Sept  10, 1767.  The  duke  immediately  afterwards 
resigned  all  his  military  commands. — QoldinUth, 

CLOTH.  Both  woollen  and  linen  cloth  were  known  in  rery  early  times.  Coarse 
woollens  were  introduced  into  England,  a.d.  1191 ;  and  seventy  fsmilies  of  cloth- 
workers  from  the  Netherlands  setUed  in  England  by  Edward  IlL's  invitation,  and 
the  art  of  weaving  waa  thereby  introduced^  1831. — Rynut'B  Fadervu  Woollens  were 
first  made  at  Kendal  in  18901  Medleys  were  manufactured,  1614.  Our  fine  broad 
cloths  were  yet  sent  to  Holland  to  be  dyed,  1664.  Dyed  and  dressed  m  England,  by 
one  Brewer,  from  the  Low  Countries,  1667.  The  manufacture  was  discouraged  in 
Ireland,  and  that  of  linen  countenanced,  at  the  request  of  both  houses  of  parliament, 
1698.    See  WooOm  Cloth, 

CLOVIS,  FAMILY  or.  Kings  of  F^ranoe.  The  real  founder  of  the  French  mosiarchy 
waa  Clovis  L  who  commenced  his  reign  a.d.  481,  and  was  a  warlike  prinoei  He 
expelled  the  Romans,  embraced  the  Christian  religion,  and  published  the  Salique 
law.  On  his  being  first  told  of  the  sufierings  of  Christ,  he  exclaimed,  **  Oh,  had  I 
been  there  with  my  valiant  Gauls,  how  I  would  haye  avenged  him  1 "  Clovis  united 
his  conquests  from  the  Romans,  Germans,  and  Gtoths,  sa  provinces  to  the  then  scanty 
dominions  of  France;  remored  the  seat  of  government  from  Soissons  to  Paris,  and 
nMkde  this  the  capital  of  his  new  kingdom ;  he  died  in  dll.^^JIenault, 

CLOYNE,  SEE  or.*  Founded  in  the  sixth  century  by  St  Coleman.  In  1431  this 
biahopric  was  united  to  that  of  Cork,  and  so  continued  for  200  years.  It^  is  not 
taxed  in  the  king's  books ;  but  in  a  maBuscripk  in  Marsh's  library,  Dublin,  it  is  men- 
tioned as  having  been  valued,  anno  88  Elia.  at  101,  lOa,  sterling;  and  in  another 
manuscript  in  the  college  library,  at  16/.  sterling.  It  was  united  with  that  of  Cork 
and  Rots  by  the  act  3  ft  4  Will.  lY.  a  90,  Aug.  16, 1834.    See  Bulwpi  oflrdand. 

CLXJNY,  ABBEY  or,  in  France,  formerly  one  of  the  most  magnificent  and  spacious 
rdlgious  instittttionB  in  the  world.    It  was  founded  by  Benedictines,  under  the  abbot 

*  The  exemplary  Uabop  Bsbxslkv,  to  whom  Pope  Mcribed  "every  virtue  under  heaven,"  wee 
biehop  of  this  aee.  In  1784.  He  died  in  1753,  expiring  without  a  groen  or  a  sigh  in  the  mid«t  of  his 
fiuuily.  Just  as  he  had  concluded  a  commentary  on  that  beautiftil  and  oonaoUnff  portion  of  Holy  Writ, 
the  16tJi  chapter  of  the  iirat  of  Corinthiaaa.  The  amiable  and  enlightened  Dr.  BaufKLSY,  royal 
aetroQomer  oi  Ireland,  was  aleo  bishop  of  Cioyae  in  1820 :  died  in  September,  1836. 

m2 


CLY 


164 


COA 


Bern,  about  a.d.  910,  and  was  Bustained  afterwards  by  the  munificence  of  'William,  duke 
of  Berry  and  Aquitaine ;  but  its  greatness  has  now  passed  away.  In  England  nimierous 
foundations  for  Clunaic  monks  were  among  the  earliest  monastic  institutions. 

CLYDE  CANAL.  The  navigation  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde  canal  was  commenced  by 
Mr.  Smeaton,  July  10, 1768 ;  and  was  opened  July  28,  1790.  It  forms  a  communi- 
cation between  the  eastern  and  western  seas  on  the  coasts  of  Scotland. 

COACH.  The  coach  is  of  French  invention.  Under  Francis  L,  who  was  a  contemponry 
with  our  Henry  VIII.,  there  were  but  two  in  Paris,  one  of  which  belonged  to  the 
queen,  and  the  other  to  Diana,  the  natural  daughter  of  Henry  II.  There  were  but 
three  in  Paris  in  1550 ;  and  Henry  lY.  had  onei,  but  without  straps  or  springs.  The 
first  courtier  who  set  up  this  equipage  was  John  de  Laval  de  Bois-Danphin,  who 
could  not  travel  otherwise,  on  account  of  his  enormous  bulk.  IVeviously  to  the  use 
of  ooaohes,  the  kings  of  Fnmce  travelled  on  horseback,  the  princesses  were  carried  in 
litters,  and  ladies  rode  behind  their  squires.  The  first  coa<^  seen  in  England  was  in 
the  reign  of  Mary,  about  1558. — PrieatUf^M  Led.  They  were  introduced  much  earlier. 
— Andrewi*t  Hut,  OretU  Brit,  They  were  introduced  by  Fits-Allen,  earl  of  Arundel, 
in  1580. — Siotoe,  And  in  some  years  afterwards  the  art  of  making  theuL — Andemm'g 
Hitt,  of  Commerce.  A  bill  was  brought  into  parliament  to  prevent  the  effeminacy  of 
men  riding  in  coaches,  43  "Eiiz,  1601.* — Cfarte,  Repealed  1625.  The  coach-tax  com- 
menced in  1747.    See  Car,  Carriage$,  Chorion,  HaaoMy  Coaehet,  Mail  Coachet,  Ac 

COAL.  It  is  contended,  with  much  seeming  truth,  that  coal,  although  not  mentioned  by 
the  Romans  in  their  notices  of  Britain,  was  yet  in  use  by  the  ancient  Britons. — Brandt. 
Coal  was  first  discovered  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  in  1284;  some  say  earlier,  and 
others  in  1239.  Sea-ooal  was  prohibited  from  being  used  in  and  near  London,  as 
being  "prejudicial  to  human  health ; "  and  even  smiths  were  obliged  to  bum  wood, 
1278. — Stotce.  Coal  was  first  made  an  article  of  trade  firom  Newcastle  to  London, 
4  Rich.  IL  1381. — Rjpnet^M  Fctdera,  Notwithstanding  the  many  previous  oomplainta 
against  coal  as  a  public  nuisance,  it  was  at  length  generally  burned  in  London  in 
1400 ;  but  it  was  not  in  common  use  in  England  untU  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  1626. 

COAL  OONSUMSD  VS  LONDON  IN  THE  FOLLOWINO  TSABS: — 


1700 

.  817,000  chald. 

1810     . 

.     080,872  chald. 

1835    . 

.  2,200,816  tons. 

1760  . 

.    .  510.000  ditto. 

1820 

.    .  1,171,178  ditto. 

1840 

.  2.638,266  dittow 

1800 

.  814,000  ditto. 

1830     . 

.  1,588,860  ditto. 

1850    . 

.  3.688,883  ditto. 

The  coal-fields  of  Durham  and  Northumberland  are  723  square  miles  in  extent; 
those  of  Newcastle,  Sunderland,  Whitehaven,  and  other  places,  are  also  of  vast 
magnitude ;  and  there  are  ezhaustless  beds  of  coal  in  Yorkshire.  The  coal  in  SouUi 
Wales  alone  would,  at  the  present  rate  of  consumption,  supply  all  England  for 
2000  years. — BaJceweU.  It  is  supposed  that  there  are  now  about  65  millions  of  tons 
extracted,  and  about  25  millions  consumed  annually  in  Qreat  Britain.  Mr.  Sopwith 
computes  the  annual  product  of  the  coal-mines  of  Durham  and  Northumberluid  at 
14  million  tons : — 6  niillions  for  London,  2^  millions  exported;  2^  millions  for  coke^ 
1  million  for  colliery  engines,  &c ;  and  2  millions  for  local  consumption.  Scotland 
teems  with  mines  of  coal,  and  besides  her  vast  collieries,  there  must  be  vaat  fields 
unexplored. — Pennant,  Fine  coal  is  found  in  Kilkenny,  Ireland.  The  first  ship 
laden  with  Irish  coal  arrived  in  Dublin  from  Newry  in  1742. — Bunu.  The  con- 
sumption of  coal  in  France,  which  in  1780  was  only  400,000  tons,  had  risen  in  1845 
to  6,000,000  tons.  In  1855  the  United  States  produced  between  8  and  9  millions  of 
tons  ;  Belgium,  5,000,000 ;  and  France,  4,500,000.  It  has  been  estimated  that  about 
1000  lives  are  lost  annually  in  coal  mines  by  accident. 

COALITIONS  AGAINST  FRANCE.  The  great  coalitions  against  France,  since  the  period 
of  the  French  revolution,  have  been  six  in  number;  and  they  generally  aroee  out  of 
the  subsidising  by  England  of  the  great  powers  of  the  Continent  They  were  entered 
into  as  follows : — 


let  The  king  of  Frania  iasned  his  ma- 
nifesto ....  June  28,  1792 
2|id.  By  Great  Britain.  Germany,  Russia, 
Maples,  Portugal,  and  Turkey, 
signed      .  June  22,  1799 

Std.  By  Great  Britain,  Russia,  Austria, 

and  Naples  .        .        .     Aug.  5,  1805 


4th.  By  Great  Britain,  Russia,  Prussia, 

and  Saxony     .  .  Got.  6^  18M 

5th.  By  England  and  Austria    April  6,  1800 
0th.  By  Russia  and  Prussia ;  the  treaty 

ratified  at  Kalisch        March  17,  1813 
See  Trtatiet. 


*  In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1619,  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  who  had  been  imprisoned  errr 
since  the  Gunpowder  plot,  obtained  his  liberation.    Hearing  that  Buckingham  was  drawn  about 


COA  165  COC 

**  COALITION  "  MINISTRY.  This  desigiiiaiioa  was  given  to  the  celebrated  ministry  of 
Mr.  Fox  snd  lord  North,  and  which  was  rendered  memorable  as  an  extraordinary 
imion  in  political  life  on  account  of  the  strong  personal  dislike  which  had  alwaya 
been  displayed  by  these  personages,  each  towards  the  other.  The  ministry  was 
formed  April  5, 1783 ;  dissolved  December  19,  same  year.  It  consisted  of  the  duke 
of  Portland,  first  lord  of  the  treasury;  viscount  Stormont,  president  of  the  council ; 
earl  of  Carlisle,  privy  seal ;  Frederick,  lord  North,  and  Charles  James  Fox,  home  and 
foreign  secretaries;  lord  John  Cavendish,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer;  viscount 
Keppel,  admiralty ;  viscount  Townshend,  ordnance ;  lord  Loughborough,  chief  com- 
missioner of  the  great  seal;  rt.  hon.  Charles  Townshend,  rt  hon.  Edmund  Burke^ 
ri.  hon.  Richard  Fitapatriek,  Ac.  Tins  name  has  been  recently  applied  to  the 
Aberdeen  administration,  which  ate, 

COAST  GUARD.  In  1855  the  raising  and  governing  this  body  was  transferred  to  the 
admiralty. 

COBALT,  a  marcasite  fossil,  was  found  among  the  veins  of  ores,  or  in  the  fissures  of 
stone,  at  an  early  date,  in  the  mines  of  Cornwall,  where  the  workmen  call  it  mundio. 
— HilL  It  was  distinguished  in  its  present  character  as  a  metal  by  Brandt,  in  1738 ; 
and  subsequently  by  others.    It  is  found  in  quantity  in  Saxony. 

COCCEIANS.  A  sect  founded  by  John  Cocceius,  of  Bremen ;  they  held,  amongst  other 
singular  opinions,  that  of  a  visible  reign  of  Christ  in  this  world,  after  a  general  con- 
version of  the  Jews  and  all  other  people  to  the  Christian  fiiith,  1665.  The  followers 
of  Cocceius  were  at  no  time  very  considerable. 

COCHINEAL.  The  properties  of  this  insect,  which  derives  its  colour  from  feediog  on 
the  eaeltu,  became  known  to  the  Spaniards  soon  after  their  conquest  of  Mexico,  in 
1518.  Cochineal  was  brought  to  Europe  about  1523.  It  was  not  known  in  Italy  in 
1548,  although  the  art  of  dyeing  then  flourished  there.  See  Dyeing.  The  annual 
import  of  this  article  into  Eogland  was  260,000  lb.  in  1830;  1,081,776  lb.  in  1845 ; 
2,360,000  lb.  in  1850. 

COCK-FIGHTINQ.  Practised  by  the  early  barbarous  nations,  and  by  Oreeoe.  It  was 
instituted  at  Rome  after  a  victory  over  the  Persians,  476  B.C. ;  and  was  introduced 
by  the  Romans  into  England.  William  Fitz-Stephen,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II. 
describes  cock-fighting  as  the  sport  of  school-boys  on  Shrovc'Tuesday.  Cock-fighting 
vraa  prohibited,  39  Edw.  IIL  1865 ;  and  again  by  Henrv  VIII.  and  also  by  Cromwel^ 
1653.  Psrt  of  the  site  of  Drury-lsne  theatre  was  a  cock-pit  in  the  ^ojga  of  James  I. ; 
and  the  cock-pit  at  Whitehall  was  erected  for  this  cruel  sport  by  Charles  IL  Till 
within  these  few  years  there  was  a  Cockrfnit  Royal,  in  St.  James's  Park ;  but  as  the 
ground  belonged  to  Christ*s  Hospital,  that  body  would  not  renew  the  lease  for  a 
buUding  devoted  to  cruelty.*  But  this  practice  is  happily  now  diBcouraged  by  the  law. 
See  article  Animala, 

COCK-LANE  OHOST.  A  IkmouB  imposition  practised  upon  the  credulous  multitude 
by  William  Parsons,  his  wife,  and  daughter.  The  contrivance  was  that  of  a  female 
ventriloquist,  and  all  who  heard  her  believed  she  was  a  ghost :  the  deception,  which 
arose  in  a  malignant  conspiracy,  was  carried  on  for  some  time  at  the  house  No.  38, 
Cock-lane,  London :  but  it  was  at  length  detected,  and  the  parents  were  condemned 
to  the  pUlory  and  imprisonment^  July  10, 1762. 

COCOA,  OB  CACAO  {Theobroma  cacao,  Linn.).  The  kernel  or  seed  of  this  tree  was 
introduced  into  this  country  shortly  after  the  discovenr  of  America,  where  it  forms 
an  important  article  of  diet.  From  cocoa  is  produced  cmocolate,  extensively  made  in 
these  realms.  The  cocoa  imported  into  the  united  kingdom,  chiefly  from  the  British 
West  Indies  and  Quiana,  was,  in  the  year  ending  Jan.  5,  1850,  1,989,477  lb.  The 
import  increased  to  4,849,051  lb.  in  the  year  ending  Jan.  5, 1852. 

COCOA.NUT  TREE  (Cocoa  nucifera,  Linn.).  The  cocoa-tree  supplies  the  Indians  with 
almost  whatever  they  stand  in  need  of,  as  bread,  water,  wine,  vinegar,  brandy,  milk, 

six  horses  in  hia  coach  (beiag  the  first  thst  was  so),  the  earl  put  on  eight  to  his,  and  in  that  manner 
passed  ftom  the  Tower  through  the  city. — JRapin, 

*  Mr.  Ardesoif,  a  gentleman  of  laxge  fortune  and  great  hospitality,  and  who  was  almost  uniiTalled 
in  the  splendour  of  his  equipages,  had  a  fitvourite  cock,  upon  which  he  had  won  many  profitable 
matches.  The  last  wager  he  Iiud  upon  this  cock  he  lost;  which  so  enraged  him,  that  in  a  fit  of 
passion  he  thrust  the  Urd  into  the  nre.  A  delirious  fever  was  the  result  of  his  rage  and  inebriety, 
whioh  in  three  days  put  an  end  to  his  life.  He  died  at  Tottenham,  near  London,  April  4,  1780 
—BuiUr. 


COD  166  COH 

oil,  honey,  sogar,  needles,  dothea,  thread,  caps,  spoons,  basins,  baskets,  paper,  masts 
for  ships,  saUs,  oordage,  nails,  oorering  for  their  houses,  fta — Rag* 

CODES  OF  LAWS.  The  laws  of  Phoronens  were  instituted  1807  B.a ;  those  of  Lycnr- 
gusy  884  B.O. ;  of  Draoo,  6*23  &o. ;  of  Solon,  587  b.c.  Alfrenns  Varus,  the  civilian, 
first  collected  the  Roman  laws  about  66  B.o.;  and  Senrius  Sulpicius,  the  civilian, 
embodied  them  about  68  b.o.  The  Gregorian  and  Hermoginian  codes  were  published 
A.i>.  290 ;  the  Theodosian  code  in  485 ;  the  celebrated  code  of  the  emperor  Justinian, 
in  529— a  digest  from  this  last  was  made  in  5ZZ.— Blair.  Alfred's  code  of  laws  ia 
the  foundation  of  the  common  law  of  England,  887.    See  Lawt. 

CCEUB  DE  LION  OB  THE  LION-HEARTED.  The  surname  given  to  Richard  Planta- 
genet  L  of  England,  on  account  of  his  dauntless  courage,  about  A.D.  1192.  This 
Biimame  was  also  conferred  on  Louis  YIIL  of  France,  who  signalised  himself  in  the 
crusades  and  in  his  wars  against  England,  about  1228.  This  latter  prince  had  also 
the  appellation  of  the  Lion  given  him. 

COFFEE.  It  gprows  in  Arabia,  Persia,  the  Indies,  and  America.  Its  use  as  a  beverage 
is  traced  to  the  Persians.*  It  came  into  great  repute  in  Arabia  Felix  about  a.d. 
1454 ;  and  passed  thence  into  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  thence,  in  1511,  to  Constantinople, 
where  coffee-houHes  were  opened  in  1554.  M.  Thevenot,  the  traveller,  was  the  ftnt 
who  brought  it  into  France,  to  which  country  he  returned  after  an  absence  of  seven 
years,  in  1662. — Chamba^,  Co£fee  was  brought  into  England  by  Mr.  Nathaniel 
CanopuB,  a  Cretan,  who  made  it  his  oommon  beverage  at  Baliol  college,  Oxford,  in 
1641. — Andenon,  The  quantity  of  coffee  imported  into  these  realms  ax^  entered  for 
home-consumption  in  the  year  ending  5  Jan.  1854,  was  87,091,814  lb. 

COFFEE-HOUSEa  The  first  in  England  was  kept  by  a  Jew  named  Jacobs,  in  Oxford, 
1650.  In  that  year  Mr.  Edwards,  an  English  Turkey  merchant,  brought  home  with 
him  a  Greek  servant  named  Pasquet,  who  kept  the  first  house  for  making  ooflfee  in 
London,  which  he  opened  in  Geoige-yard,  Lombard-street,  in  1 652.  Pasquet  afterwaids 
went  to  Holland,  and  opened  the  first  house  in  that  country — Anderton.  The  Rainbow 
coffee-house,  near  Temple-bar,  was  represented  as  a  nuisance  to  the  neighbourhood, 
1657.  Coffee-houses  were  suppressed  by  proclamation,  26  Car.  IL  1675.  The  pro- 
clamation was  afterwards  suspended  on  Uie  petition  of  the  traders  in  tea  and  coffeeu 

COFFEE-TREE.  The  eoffee-tree  was  conveyed  from  Mocha  to  Holland  about  the  year 
1616;  and  was  carried  to  the  West  Indies  in  the  year  1726.  First  cultivated  at 
Surinam  by  the  Dutch,  1718.  The  culture  was  encouraged  in  the  plantations  about 
1782,  and  the  BritLsh  and  French  colonies  now  grow  the  coffee-tree  abundantly.  Some 
affirm  this  tree  to  have  been  originally  a  native  of  ArabiarFelix,  and  certain  it  is^  that 
the  finest  specimens  are  from  the  neighbourhood  of  MochiL 

COFFERER  of  thb  HOUSEHOLD.  Formerly  en  officer  of  state,  usually  of  political 
rank,  and  always  a  member  of  the  privy  council :  he  had  special  charge  of  the  other 
officers  of  the  household.  Sir  Henxy  Cocks  was  cofferer  to  queen  Elisabeth.  Some 
of  the  highest  statesmen  filled  the  office  up  to  1782,  when  it  was  suppressed  by  act  of 
parliament,  and  the  duties  of  it  ordered  to  be  discharged  by  the  lord  steward  and  the 
paymaster  of  the  household. — BecUion, 

COFFINS.  The  Athenian  heroes  were  buried  in  coffins  of  the  cedar-tree;  owing  to  its 
aromatic  and  incorruptible  qualities. — Tkucydides,  Coffins  of  marble  and  stone  were 
used  by  the  Romans.  Alexander  is  said  to  have  been  buried  in  one  of  gold ;  and 
glass  coffins  have  been  found  in  England. — Chugh.  The  earliest  record  of  wooden 
coffins  amongst  us  is  that  of  the  burial  of  king  Arthur,  who  was  buriod  in  an  entire 
trunk  of  oak,  hollowed,  A.D.  542. — A  tier.  Stone  coffins  are  mentioned  in  almost 
every  age.    The  patent  coffins  were  invented  in  1796. 

COHORT.  A  division  of  the  Roman  army  consisting  of  about  600  men.  It  was  the  sixth 
part  of  a  legion,  and  its  number,  consequently,  was  under  the  same  fluctuation  aa 
that  of  the  legions,  being  sometimes  more  and  sometimes  less.  The  cohort  was  divided 
into  centuries.  In  the  time  of  the  empire,  the  cohort  often  amounted  to  a  thousand 
men.  In  the  4th  centunr  mention  is  made  of  an  Italian  cohort,  probably  so  called 
because  most  of  the  soldiers  belonging  to  it  were  Italians :  of  this  cohort  was  the 
celebrated  centurion  Cornelius. 

*  Some  ascribe  the  diaooveiy  of  ooflbe  as  a^veroge  to  the  prior  of  a  monastery,  who.  being  inibrroed 
by  a  goat-herd  that  his  oatUa  sometimes  browsed  upon  the  tree,  and  that  theywould  then  wake  at 
night,  and  sport  and  bound  upon  the  hilla,  beoame  ouriooa  to  prove  its  virtuea.  He  acoordingly  tried 
it  on  his  monks  to  prevent  their  sleeping  at  matins,  and  he  found  that  it  checked  their  alnmbera 


COI 


167 


COI 


COIF.  The  serjesnt's  ooif  was  originally  im  iron  Bkoll-cap,  worn  by  knights  under  then* 
helmeta.  The  ooif  was  introduced  before  1259,  and  was  used  to  hide  the  tonsure  of 
such  reuQgado  elei^men  as  chose  to  remain  as  advocates  in  the  secular  courts, 
notwithstanding  their  prohibition  by  canon. — Blaehtome.  The  eoif  was  at  first  a  thin 
linen  cover  gathered  together  in  the  form  of  a  skull  or  helmet,  the  material  being 
afterwards  changed  into  white  silk,  and  the  form  eventually  into  the  black  patch  at 
the  top  of  the  forensic  wig,  which  is  now  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the  degree  of 
seijeant-at-law. — Fou^s  Liva  of  the  Judges, 

COIN.  Homer  speaks  of  brass  money  as  existing  1184  b.o.  The  invention  of  coin  is 
ascribed  to  the  Lydians,  who  cherished  commerce,  and  whose  money  was  of  gold  and 
silver.  Both  were  coined  by  Phidon.  tyrant  of  Ai^^os,  862  b.g.  Money  vras  coined  at 
Rome  under  Serrius  Tullius^  about  573  ^o.  The  most  ancient  known  coins  are  Maoe> 
donian,  of  the  fifth  century  B.O. ;  but  others  are  believed  to  be  more  ancient.  Brasa 
money  only  was  in  use  at  Rome  previously  to  269  B.O.  (when  Fabius  Pictor  coined 
silver),  a  sign  that  little  correspondence  was  then  held  with  the  East»  where  gold  and 
silver  were  in  use  long  before.  Gold  was  coined  206  B.a  Iron  money  was  used  in 
Sparta,  and  iron  and  tin  in  Britam. — Dufregnoy,  Julius  Ciesar  was  the  first  who 
obtained  the  express  permission  of  the  senate  to  place  his  portrait  on  the  coins,  and 
the  example  was  soon  followed.  In  the  earlier  and  more  simple  days  of  Rome,  the 
likeness  of  no  living  personage  appeared  upon  their  money ;  the  heads  were  those  of 
their  deities,  or  of  Uiose  who  had  received  divine  honours. 

COIN  or  ENGLAND.  The  first  coinage  in  England  was  under  the  Romans  at  Camu- 
lodunum,  or  Colchester.  English  coin  wss  of  dififerent  shapes,  as  square,  oblong,  and 
round,  until  the  middle  ages,  when  round  coin  only  wss  used.  Qroats  were  the 
largest  silver  currency  untU  dfter  a.d.  1581.  Coin  was  made  sterling  in  1216,  before 
which  time  rents  were  mostly  paid  in  kind,  and  money  was  found  only  in  the  coffers 
*of  the  barons. — Stowe. 


The  fint  gold  coins  on  certain  record, 

struck  42  Hen.  III.  .  a.d.  1257 

Gold  florin  fint  strack,  Edw.nLCOiimicn)  1837 

nnt  atruck  (^tfttf) 1344 

Old  ■overeigiis  first  minted  .  1404 

ShiJlingB  fint  coined  {J>r.  Kdly)        .    .  1608 
Crowns  and  half  crowna  coined      .       .  1653 

Irish  shilling  struck 1660 

Milled  shiUing  of  Elizabeth     .  .  1602 

First  lar{(e  copper  coinage,  patting  an 
end  to  the  circulation  of  private  leaden 

pieces^  Ac 1620 

Modem  milling  introduced  .  1081 


Halfpence  and  {krthings  coined  .       a.d.  1666 
By  tne  government  23  Car.  II.  .  1672 

Ouiueas  first  coined,  26  Car.  II.         .    .  1673 

Double  guineas 1673 

FiTegumeaa 1673 

Halfguineas 1673 

Quarter  guineas  coined,  3  Geo.  I.      .    .  1716 
SeYen-shilling  pieces  coined    .  .  1797 

Two-penny  copper  pieces    .        ...  1797 
Sovereigns,  new  comage .        •  .1816 

Half&rtbingB 1843 

Silver  florin 1849 


Gk>ld  coin  was  introduced  in  six-shilling  pieces  by  Edward  III.  and  nobles  followed 
at  six  shillings  and  eightpence,  and  hence  the  lawyer's  fee ;  afterwards  there  were  half 
and  quarter  nobles.  Edward  IV.  coined  angels  with  a  figure  of  Michael  and  the  dragon, 
the  original  of  Qeorge  and  the  dragon.  Henry  VIII.  coined  sovereigns  and  half- 
sovereigns  of  the  modem  value.  Guineas  were  of  the  same  siie :  but  being  made  of 
superior  gold  from  sovereigns,  guineas  passed  for  more.  See  OmtMoe,  E^lish  and 
Irish  money  were  assimilated,  Jan.  1. 1826.    See  Qold. 


1I09ET8  { 

DOINED  TH  ' 

Elisabeth 

.  £6,88S.000 

Jama  I.  . 

.    2.600,000 

Charles  I. 

.  10.500,000 

Cromwell . 

.     1,000,000 

Charles  IL    . 

.    7,634.100 

James  II. . 

.     3,740,000 

WiUiam  III.  . 

.  10,611,900 

Anns 

.     8,601,626 

COINED  JV  THE  FOLLOWIKa  BBIQKS,  AND  THEIR  AMOUNT. 


George  L  .  £8,725,920 

Oeoi^ell.  .  .  11,966,676 
George    III.    and 

regency,  gold  .  74,501,686 
George  iV.  .  .  41,782,815 
William  IV.  .  .  10,827,603 
Victoria,uptol848, 

gold  .    .  29,886,467 


BUver     to     same 

year   . 
Copper,  ditto    .    . 
And   in   the    fire 

yeara        ending 

1852,  gold,  silrer 

and  copper 


£2,440,614 
48.743 


19,838,877 


The  coin  of  the  realm  wss  about  twelve  millions  in  1711. — Davenani,  It  was  esti- 
mated at  sixteen  millions  in  1762. — Anderton,  It  was  supposed  to  be  twenty  millions 
in  1786. — C^uUmert.  It  amounted  to  thirty-seven  millions  in  1800. — Phillipt,  The 
gold  is  twenty-eight  millions,  and  the  rest  of  the  metallic  currency  is  thirteen 
millions,  while  the  paper  largelv  supplies  the  place  of  coin,  1880. — Duke  of  WellingUm^ 
Prime  Minieter,  m  tJu  Hc/uae  of  Lwrde,  In  1840  the  metallic  currency  was  calculated 
as  reaching  forty-five  millions;  and  in  1858  was  estimated  as  approaching,  in  gold  and 
silver,  sixty  millions.  The  amount  of  gold  and  silver  coin  in  the  world  is  assumed 
by  the  able  writer  of  Tkt  Timet  money  articles  to  be  400,000,0002.  sterling,  of  which 
260,000,0002.  are  in  nlver  and  150,000,0002.  are  in  gold,^Timet,  June  25, 1852. 


COI 


168 


COL 


COIKINQ.  This  operation  waa  originally  perfonned  by  the  metal  being  placed  between 
two  Bteel  dies,  atruok  by  a  hammer.  In  1558,  a  mill  waa  inyented  by  Antonie  Bnicher. 
and  introduced  into  England,  1562.  An  engine  for  coining  was  invented  by  Balancier. 
in  1617.  The  great  improvements  of  the  art  were  effect^  by  Boulton  and  Watt»  at 
Soho,  1788,  and  subsequently.  The  art  was  rendered  perfect  by  the  erection  of  the 
present  costly  machinery  at  the  Mint,  London,  commenced  in  1811. 

COLCHEST£R,  Oamalodunum,  supposed  by  some  authors  to  be  the  birth-place  of 
Constantine  the  Qreat,  and  famous  in  history  as  a  Roman  station :  it  obtained  its  first 
charter  from  Richard  I.  in  1189.  Siege  of  Colchester  in  the  civil  war,  when  its  six- 
teen churches  and  all  its  buildings  sustained  great  damage ;  the  siege  continued  for 
ten  weeks,  1648.    The  l^dze  manufacture  was  established  here,  1660. — Andenom, 

COLD.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  found  to  produce  the  same  perceptions  on 
the  skin,  and  when  mercury  is  frozen  at  forty  degrees  below  zero,  the  sensation  ia 
the  same  as  touching  red-hot  iron.  During  the  hanl  frost  in  1740,  a  palace  of  ice  waa 
built  at  St.  Petersburg,  after  an  elegant  mc^el,  and  in  the  just  proportion  of  Augostan 
architecture. — Cfreig,  Perhaps  the  coldest  day  ever  known  in  London  was  Dec.  25. 
1796,  when  the  thermometer  was  16**  below  zero.  Quicksilver  was  frozen  hard  at 
Moscow,  Jan.  18, 1810.    See  ProsUf  Ice, 

COLDINQHAM,  nbab  BERWICK.  The  name  of  this  town  was  rendered  funooa  by  the 
heroism  of  its  nuns,  who,  on  the  attack  of  the  Danes,  in  order  to  preserve  themselves 
inviolate,  cut  off  their  noses  and  lips,  thereby  becoming  objects  of  horror  to  the 
lustful  invaders.  The  Danes,  in  revenf2;e,  hv^mt  the  whole  sisterhood,  with  the  abbeai 
Ebba,  in  their  monastery,  a.d.  886. — Stowe, 

COLDSTREAM  GUARDS.  General  Monk,  before  marching  from  Scotland  into  England, 
to  restore  Charles  II.,  raised  in  the  town  of  Coldstream  that  regiment  of  royal  guards, 
which  is  still  distinguished  by  this  honourable  name,  a.d.  1660.  The  town  is  situated 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Leet  with  the  Tweed,  which  is  crossed  by  a  neat  bridge  which 
unites  the  two  kingdoms. 

COLISEUM,  OB  COLOSSEUM,  at  Romb.  An  amphitheatre  of  elliptical  form,  of  whidi 
the  external  diameter  is  1641  Italian  feet.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  able  to  con- 
tain 80,000  spectators  of  the  fights  with  wild  beasts,  and  other  sports  in  the  arena. 
It  was  erected  between  a.d.  75  (some  say  77)  and  80,  by  the  emperors  Yespaaian  and 
Titus,  at  an  expense  sufficient  to  have  built  a  metropolis. 

COLLAR.  Generally  a  gold  enamelled  chain  with  ciphers  and  other  devices,  having  the 
badge  of  some  order  suspended  at  the  bottom.  The  collar  of  the  order  of  the  Garter 
consists  of  S.  S.,  with  roses  enamelled  red,  within  a  garter  enamelled  blue,  A.D.  1349-60. 
The  fashion  of  wearing  the  collar  of  S.  S.  in  honour  of  St  Simplidus  began  about  1407. 
One  was  given  to  the  mayor  of  Dublin,  Robert  Deey,  by  Charles  II.,  1660.  A  second 
was  presented  aa  a  royal  donation  to  the  chief  magistrate  of  Dublin,  the  former  one 
having  been  lost,  1697. — Annala  of  Dublin, 

COLLATION.  A  light  repast  of  fruits  on  fast^lays,  in  lieu  of  more  substantial  food  : 
anciently  even  bx^ead  waa  not  allowed  in  the  collations  in  Lent,  nor  anything  except 
a  few  comfits  and  dried  herbs  and  fruits,  until  a.d.  1513. — Lobineau, 

COLLECTS.  These  are  prayers  in  the  Roman  Mass,  and  also  in  the  English  Liturgy. 
The  first  was  appointed  by  pope  Gelasius,  a.d.  493.  The  king  of  England,  coming  into 
Normandy,  appointed  a  collect  for  the  relief  of  the  Holy  Land,  1166. — Xapin.  Hie 
collects  in  our  book  of  Common  Prayer  were  introduced  into  it  in  1548. 

COLLEGES.  University  education  preceded  the  erection  of  colleges,  which  were  muni- 
ficent foundations  to  relieve  the  students  from  the  expense  of  living  at  lodging-houses 
and  at  inna.  Collegiate  or  academic  degrees  are  said  to  have  been  first  conferred  at 
the  University  of  Paris,  a.d.  1140 ;  but  some  authorities  say  not  before  1215.  In 
England,  it  is  contended  that  the  date  is  much  higher,  and  some  hold  that  Bade 
obtained  a  degree  formally  at  Cambridge,  and  John  de  Beverley  at  Oxford,  and  that 
they  were  the  first  doctors  of  those  universities.    See  Cambridge,  Oxford,  Ac 


Birmingham,  Qaeen*flCoUeg6,foandod4..D.  1858 

CheBhunt  College 1792 

Docton' CommooB,  elTtt  law  .  .1670 

Dulwich  College 1619 

Durham  Univerrity 18S7 

Edlnbuzsh  University        ....  1680 
BtonCoUc«e 1441 


Olasffow  Univenity    .  .a.d.  1451 

Oresham  College 1581 

Harrow 1585 

Hayleybury,  or  East  India  College        .  1800 

Highbury  College 1826 

Highgate 1564 

KiBg^  College,  Aberdeen   ....  1494 


COL 


169 


COL 


COLLEGES,  eouimued. 

King's  OoU«ge,  London   . 
Mancehal  Golleg«p  Abordaen 
Maynooth  College    . 
Military  College.  Sandharst 
NataI  Odlege,  Portamouth 
FhysioiaaB,  London    . 
Ffaysiciana,  Dublin  . 
Physicians,  Edinburgh 
Bt  Andrew's,  Scotland    . 


▲.D.  1829  <  Slon  GoUege,  inoorporated  . 
.    .  15M 


▲.D.  1680 


1795 
1799 
1722 
1623 
1667 
1081 
1410 


Buigeons,  London 1745 

Ditto  xe-inoorporated 1800 

Burgeons,  Duolin 1786 

Burgeons,  Edinburgh  (new)  .    .  1808 

Trinity  College,  Dublin  ....  1591 
University.  London     .....  1820 

Winchester  College 1387 

Bee  them  CoUjtga  aevtraUjf, 


COLLEGES  IN  IRELAND.  The  new  colleges  in  Ireland  endowed  by  goyernment  "  for 
the  adyancement  of  learning  in  that  kingdom,"  have  heen  Tarioualy  c^ed  the  Govern- 
ment Colleges,  the  Queen's  Colleges,  and,  by  a  section  of  the  Roman  CatholicSi  the 
*'  Godless  Colleges."  They  were  mstituted  by  act  8  &  9  Yict.  e.  66,  passed  July  81, 
1 845,  and  were  designed  to  afford  collegiate  education  of  the  highest  oider  to  the 
yonth  of  all  religious  denominations,  and  wholly  irrespectiYe  of  religious  distinctions. 
The  seats  of  these  colleges  (three)  were  subsequently  fixed  at  Bel£ut,  Cork,  and 
Galway,  where  they  have  since  been  opened,  the  last  on  Oct  80, 1849.  The  colleges, 
wboee  liberal  and  beneficent  purpose  is  to  diffuse  intellectual  light  among  the  people, 
were  "  condemned  '*  by  the  propaganda  and  the  pope,  and  by  a  minority  (a  small  one) 
of  the  Irish  bishops  in  a  ^nod  held  at  Thurles,  in  Sept.  1850. 

COLOGNE.  Became  a  member  of  the  Hanseatic  league,  1260.  The  Jews  were  expelled 
from  here  in  1485,  and  the  Protestants  in  1618,  and  it  has  since  fallen  into  decay. 
Cologne  was  taken  by  the  French,  under  Jourdan,  Oct  6, 1794.  In  the  cathedral  are 
shown  the  heads  of  the  three  Magi ;  and  in  the  Church  of  St  Ursula  is  the  tomb  of 
that  saint,  and  bones  belonging  to  the  11,000  viigins  said  to  have  been  put  to  death 
along  with  her.    Cologne  was  made  over  to  Prussia  in  1814. 

COLOMBIA.  A  new  republic  of  the  western  world,  formed  of  states  which  declared 
their  independence  of  the  crown  of  Spain,  Deo.  1819,  but  its  several  chiefs  afterwards 
contending  one  against  another,  each  state  became  a  prey  to  civil  war,  and  the  stability 
of  the  union  is  not,  even  now,  assured. 


Kew  Grenada,  founded  by  Columbus, 

▲.D.  1497 

Venezuela  discovered 1498 

The  Carsocss  formed  Into  a  kingdom, 
under  a  captain-genenl  .  1547 

The  history  of  these  provinces,  under 

the  tyranny  and  oppression  of  the 

Spaniards,  presents  but  one  continuous 

scene  of  rapine  and  blood. 

•  •  • 

Confederation  of  Venezuela  .    .  1810 

Independence  formally  declared  .1811 

I>efeat  of  General  Miranda.  .    .1812 

Boilvar  defeated  by  Boves  .  1816 

Bolivar  defeats  Morillo  in  the  battle  of 

Sombrero Feb.  1818 

Union  of  the  States  of  Grenada  and 

Venezuela     ....    Deo.  17,  1819 


Battle  of  Carabobo,  the  royalists  wholly 
overthrown  June  24, 

Bolivar  is  named  dictator  by  the  Con- 
gress of  Peru  .    Feb.  10. 
Alliance  between  Colombia  and  Mexico 
formed      ....       June  SO, 
Alliance  with  Guatemala  March, 
Congress  at  Lima  names  Bolivar  presi- 
dent of  the  republic.        .  Aug. 
Bolivar's  return  to  Bogota  Nov. 
He  assumes  the  dictatorship      Nov.  23, 
Padilla's  insurrection               .    April  9, 
Conroiracy  of  Santander  against  the  life 
of  Bolivar.                               Sept.  26, 
Bolivar  resigns  his  office  of  president  of 
the  repuluic  ....  April  11. 
He  dies        ....         Deo.  17, 
Santander  dies.                       .    May  20, 


1821 

1824 

1824 
1825 

1820 
1826 
1828 
1828 

1828 

1829 
1830 
1840 


Great  Britain  has  accredited  envoys  extraordinary  and  ministers  plenipotentiary  to 
Colombia^  Venezuela,  New  Qrenada  and  Bolivia,  since  Feb.  28, 1826,  when  Mr.  Cock- 
bum  WBS  accredited  to  the  first-named  state.  Sir  Robert  Ker  Porter  to  Yenezuela, 
July  2,  1835 ;  Mr.  Turner  to  New  Qrenada,  June  26, 1837 ;  and  Mr.  Winton  Wilson 
to  BoliTia^  as  chargi  d*aff<ure»y  Nov.  18,  same  year.    See  Bolivia,  ko, 

COLOMBO.  Bmlt  a.d.  1638,  by  the  Portuguese,  who  were  expelled  by  the  Dutch,  in 
1666 ;  and  the  latter  surrendered  it  to  the  British,  Feb.  15,  1796.  The  British  troops 
were  murdered  here  in  cold  blood  by  the  adigar  of  Candy,  June  6, 1803.    See  Ceylon, 

COLON.  This  point  was  known  to  the  ancients,  but  was  not  expressed  as  it  is  in  modem 
times.  The  colon  and  period  were  adopted  and  explained  by  Thrasymachus  about 
873  B.C. — Suidat,  It  was  known  to  Aristotle.  Our  punctuation  appears  to  have 
been  introduced  with  the  art  of  printing.  The  colon  and  semicolon  were  both  first 
used  in  British  literature,  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

COLONIES  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN.  In  the  following  table  will  be  found  enumerated 
the  seyeml  colonies  belonging  to  the  British  empire,  together  with  the  date  at  which 
each  colony  was  captured,  or  ceded,  or  settled.  The  population  of  the  British  colonies 
in  all  parts  of  the  world  was  estimated,  in  1852,  at  182,983,672  (of  wbich  176,028,672 


COL 


170 


COM 


belong  to  the  East  Indies).  The  act  for  the  abolition  of  slarery  throtu^hout  the  Britiah 
colonies  and,  for  compensation  to  the  owners  of  slayes  (20,000,000(.  sterling),  was 
passed  3^4  Will.  IV.  1833.  By  the  provisions  of  this  statute  all  the  slaves  through- 
out the  British  colonies  were  emancipated  on  Aug.  1, 1834. 


Colony t  or  PotteuUm;  Dale  qf  Bettlenunt,  die. 

African  Forts     . 
AngfuiUa 
ADtigiia 

Australia,  South  . 
Aiutralia,  West. 
Bahama  Island 
BarbadoM  . 
Bengal  . 
Berbice 
Bermudas 
Bombay     . 
Canada,  Lower 
Canada,  Upper  . 
Cape  Breton . 
Cape  Coast  Castle 
Cape  of  Good  Hope 
Ceylon 


Settlement  .  .  1666 
Settlement  .  .  1632 
Settlement  .  .  1834 
Settlement  .  .  1829 
Settlements  1629,  tt»tq. 
Settlement  .  .  1605 
See/ndia. 

Capitulation,Sept  1803 
Settlements  1609,  et  <eg. 
See/ndia. 

Capitulation,  Sept.  1769 
CapituIation.8ept  1760 
Settlement  in .  .  1584 
Byoeaaion  .  .  1672 
Capitulation,  Jan.  1806 
Capitulation,  Sept.  1795 


CoUmy.  or  Poneuion  ;  Date  qf  SetUemgnt,  Jkc. 

Labuan .        .        .    .  See  Bortuo      .    .  1846 

Madras  .  See  India, 

Malacca  (under  Bengal). 

Malta.  .        .  Capitulation.Sept.180O 

Capitulatiou,  Dec.  1810 
Settlement,  in  .  163S 
Settlement  .  .  *  * 
Settlement,  in  .  1628 
Settlement,  in  .  1622 
Settlement,  about  1500 


Demerara  ft  Basequibo  Capitulation,  Sept.  1 803 


Dominica 
Falkland  Islands. 
Gambia  . 

Gibraltar 
Gold  Coast. 
Gosa 
Grenada 
Guiana,  British 
Heligoland 
Honduras 


Ceded  by  France.  1763 
See  FaUeUind  Idandi  1833 
.  Settlement  in  .  1631 
.  Capitulation,  Aug.  1704 
.  Settlement  .  .  *  * 
.  Capitulation.  Sept.  1800 
.  Ceded  by  France.  1763 
.  Capitulation  .  .  1803 
.  Capitulation  .  1807 
By  treaty,  in 


Mauritius 
Montserrat 
Natal     . 
Nevis . 

New  Brunswick   . 
Newfoundland  . 
New  South  Wales. 
Nora  Sootia 
Now  Zealand 
Port  PhUlip 


Settlement,  in 
Settlement,  in 
Settlement 
See  Ftctoria. 


1787 
1022 
1840 


Prince  Ed  wd's.  Island  Capitulated,  in 
Prince  of  Walee'Iidand  Settlement,  in 


.  1670 
Hong  Kong  (Victoria)  Ceded  in"   .        .  1842 

Ionian  Isles^ 1815 

Jamaica     .       .       .  (Capitulation        .  1665 


Sierra  Leone . 

Singapore  . 

St.  Christopher'B  . 

St.  Helena . 

St.  Lucia 

St  Vincent 

Swan  River  . 

Toboffo 

Tortola  . 

Trinidad     . 

Van  Diemen's  Land 


1745 
1786 
178T 
1810 
1623 
1600 


Settlement,  in 
Purchased  in 
Settlement  in 
Capitulateo,  in 
Capitulation,  June  1803 
Ceded  by  France.  1763 
Bee  Wat  AuMtraUa. 
Ceded  by  Pranoe.  176S 
Settlement,  in  .  1666 
Capitulation,  Feb.  1797 
Settlement,  in  .  180S 
Settlement,  in     .  1848 

1850 


Vancouver's  Island 
Victoria  (Port  PhiUip)  Settlement,  in 
Victoria              .       .  Seo  Hong  Konff. 
Virgin  Islss 1666 


COLOSSEUM,  REGENTS  PARK,  LONDON.  This  buildinff  was  planned  by  Mr. 
Homor,  a  land  surveyor,  and  commenced  in  1824,  by  Peto  and  Grissell  from  designs 
by  Decimus  Burton.  The  chief  portion  is  a  polygon  of  16  faces,  126  feet  in  diameter 
externally ;  the  walls  are  3  feet  thick  at  the  ground :  the  height  to  the  glazed  dome 
112  feet.  On  the  canvas  walls  of  the  dome  is  painted  the  Panoramic  view  of 
London,  completed  in  1829  from  sketches  by  Mr.  Homor  in  1821-2,  taken  from  the 
summit  of  St.  PauPs  Oathedral  The  picture  covers  above  46,000  square  feet,  more 
than  an  acre  of  canvas.  The  different  parts  were  combined  by  Mr.  E.  T.  Parria, 
who  in  1845  repainted  the  whole.  In  1848  a  panorama  of  Paris  was  exhibited;  suc- 
ceeded, in  1850,  by  the  Lake  of  Thorn  in  Switzerland;  in  1851  the  Panonuna  of 
London  was  reproduced.  In  1848  the  theatre  with  the  Panorama  of  Lisbon  waa 
added. — In  1831  Mr.  Homor  failed,  when  the  establishment  was  sold  for  40,000iL  to 
Messrs.  Braham  and  Yates.  In  1843  it  was  bought  by  Mr.  D.  Montague  for  23,000 
guineas. — Timht.  After  having  been  closed  for  some  time,  the  building  was  opened 
to  the  public  at  Christmas,  1856,  all  the  several  charges  being  merged  in  one  shilling. 

COLOSSUS  OF  RHODES.  A  brass  stotue  of  Apollo,  seventy  cubits  high,  erected  at  the 
port  of  Rhodes  in  honour  of  the  sun,  and  esteemed  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world. 
Built  by  Chares  of  Lindu8»  disciple  of  Lysippus,  290  B.o.  It  was  thrown  down  by  an 
earthquake  224  ac. ;  and  was  finally  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  on  their  taking 
Rhodes  in  a.d.  672.  The  figure  stood  upon  two  moles,  a  leg  being  extended  on  each. 
side  of  the  harbour,  so  that  a  vessel  in  full  sail  could  enter  between.  A  winding 
staircase  ran  to  the  top,  from  which  could  be  discerned  the  shores  of  Syria,  and  the 
ships  that  sailed  on  the  coast  of  Egypt.  This  statue  had  lain  in  ruins  for  nearly 
nine  centuries,  and  had  never  been  repaired ;  but  now  the  Saracens  pulled  it  to 
pieces,  and  sold  the  metal,  weighing  720,900  lb.  to  a  Jew,  who  is  said  to  have  loaded 
900  camels  in  transporting  it  to  Alexandria. — Dufiretnoy. 

COMBAT,  SINGLE  in  ENGLAND.  It  commenced  with  the  Lombards,  a.d.  659.— 
Baf<mitLi,  This  method  of  trial  was  introduced  into  England  and  was  allowed 
in  accusations  of  treason,  if  neither  the  accuser  nor  the  accused  could  produce  evidence 
of  the  charge,  or  of  innocence,  9  Will.  IL  1096.  The  first  battle  by  single  combat 
yna  that  fought  before  the  king  and  the  peers  between  Qeoiffnj  Baynard  and  WilluuQ« 

*  Only  under  the  protection  of  the  British  govemmeDt 


COM  in  COM 

earl  of  Eu,  who  wu  Moused  by  Baynard  of  high  iiwaaon ;  and  Baynard  having  oon- 
qiiered,  Ea  was  deemed  oonvioted.  The  last  oombat  proposed  was  between  lord 
Reay  and  Dayid  Bamsay,  in  1631,  but  the  king  prevented  it.  See  article  High  ConMtabU. 

COMBAT,  SINGLE,  nr  IRELAND.  The  same  method  of  trial  had  also  existence  in 
Ireland.  A  trial  was  appointed  between  the  prior  of  Kilmaioham  aud  the  earl  of 
Ormond,  the  former  having  impeached  the  latter  of  high  treason ;  but  the  quarrel 
having  been  taken  up  by  the  king,  was  decided  without  fighting,  1446.  Remarkable 
combat  in  Dublin  castle,  before  the  lords  justices  and  council,  between  Connor  Mac 
Cormack  O'Connor  and  Teig  Mao-OHpatrick  O'Connor,  in  which  the  former  had  his 
head  cut  off,  and  presented  to  the  loids  justices,  1553. 

COMEDY.  Thalia  is  the  muse  of  comedy  and  lyricpoetiy.  Susarion  and  Dolon  were 
the  inventors  of  theatrical  exhibitions,  562  b.o.  Toey  peiibrmed  the  first  comedy  at 
Athens,  on  a  waggon  or  movable  stage,  on  four  wheels,  for  which  they  were  rewarded 
with  a  basket  of  figs  and  a  cask  of  wine. — Arunddian  McwbUg,  .Ajistophanes  wss 
called  the  prince  of  ancient  comedy,  434  b.o.,  and  Menander  that  of  new,  320  b.g.  Of 
Plautos,  20  comedies  are  extant;  he  flourished  220  b.o.  Statins  C»cilius  wrote 
upwards  of  30  comedies;  he  flourished  at  Rome  180  B.C.  The  comedies  of  Lseliua 
and  Terence  were  first  acted  154  B.a  The  first  regular  comedy  was  performed  in 
England  about  a.i>.  1651.  It  was  said  of  Sheridan  that  he  wrote  the  best  comedy 
(the  School  for  Seandal),  the  beet  opera  (the  XHseiifui},  and  the  best  afterpiece  (the 
Oritic),  in  the  English  language.    See  Drama, 

COMETS.  The  first  that  was  discovered  and  described  accurately  was  by  Nioephoms. 
At  the  birth  of  the  great  Mithridates  two  large  comets  appeared,  which  were  seen  for 
eeventy-two  days  together,  whose  splendour  eclipsed  tluit  of  the  mid-day  sun,  and 
which  occupied  forty-five  degrees,  or  the  fourth  part  of  the  heavens,  185  b.c. — JtuUn, 
A  remarksble  one  was  seen  in  England,  10  Edw.  III.  June  1337. — ^<npe.  These 
phenomena  were  first  rationally  explained  by  Tycho  Brahe,  about  1577.  A  comet 
which  terrified  the  people  from  its  near  approach  to  the  earth,  was  visible  from  Nov. 
3,  1679,  to  Mareh  9,  1680.  The  orbits  of  comets  were  proved  to  be  ellipses  1^ 
Newton,  1704.  A  most  brilliant  comet  appeared  in  1769,  which  passed  within  two 
millions  of  miles  of  the  earth.*  One  still  mors  brilliant  appeared  in  Sept.  Oct.  and 
Nov.  1811,  visible  all  the  autumn  to  the  naked  eye.  Another  brilliant  comet 
appeared  in  1828.  See  the  three  next  artieUs.  Mr.  Hind,  in  his  little  work  on 
Comets,  gives  a  chronologrical  list.  One  of  the  grandest  comets  mentioned  in  history 
was  that  of  1264.  Its  tail  is  said  to  have  extended  100**.  It  is  considered  to  have 
re-appeared  in  1556,  with  diminished  splendour;  and  is  expected  to  appear  again 
about  Aug.  1858  or  Aug.  I860.— J7Mu2.t 

COMET,  BIELA'S,  has  been  an  object  of  fear  to  many  on  account  of  the  nearness  with 
which  it  has  approached,  not  the  earth,  but  a  point  of  the  earth*s  path :  it  was  first 
discovered  by  M.  Biela,  an  Austrian  officer,  Fek  28,  1826.  It  is  one  of  the  three 
comets  whose  re-appearance  was  predicted,  its  revolution  being  performed  in  six 
▼ears  and  thirty-eight  weeks.  Its  second  appearance  was  in  1832,  when  the  time  of 
its  perihelion  passsge  was  Nov.  27;  its  third  was  in  1839,  and  its  fourth  in  1845; 
ito  fifth  in  1852. 

COMET,  ENCKE'a  First  discovered  by  M.  Pons,  Nov.  26, 1818,  but  justly  named  by 
astronomers  after  professor  Encke,  for  his  success  in  detecting  its  oroit,  motions,  and 
perturbations ;  it  is,  like  the  preceding,  one  of  the  three  comets  which  have  appeared 
according  to  prediction,  and  its  revolutions  are  made  in  three  years  and  fifteen  weeks. 

COMET,  HALLEY*S.  Named  after  one  of  the  greatest  astronomers  of  England.  He 
first  proved  that  many  of  the  appearances  of  comets  were  but  the  periodical  returns 
of  the  same  bodies,  and  he  demonetrated  that  the  comet  of  1682  was  the  same  with 
the  comet  of  1456,  of  1531  and  1607,  deducing  this  fact  from  a  minute  observation  of 
the  first-mentioned  comet,  and  being  struck  by  its  wonderful  resemblance  to  the 
comets  described  as  having  appeared  m  those  years :  Halley,  therefore,  first  fixed  the 

*  This  beaatiftil  comet,  moving  with  immense  swiftneflfl,  was  seen  in  London ;  its  tail  stretched 
across  the  heavens,  Uke  a  prodigious  luminous  arch,  thirty-six  millions  of  miles  in  lengtix.  The 
farilliAnt  phenomenon  chat  accompanies  a  comet,  and  which  we  call  the  tail,  is  a  vast  stream  of  light 
The  computed  length  of  that  which  appeared  in  1811,  and  which  was  so  remarkably  conHpicuous,  was, 
on  October  15,  according  to  the  late  Dr.  Herscbel,  upwards  of  one  hundred  millions  of  miles,  and  its 
apparent  greatest  breadth,  at  the  same  time,  fifteen  millions  of  miles. — PhUot.  Trant.  Royal  Soe.  for 
1812. 

t  M.  Bablnet,  on  May  4, 1867,  considered  that  comets  had  so  little  density  that  the  earth  might 
tlurough  the  taU  of  one  without  our  being  aware  of  it 


COM 


172 


COM 


identity  of  comets,  and  predicted  their  periodical  retumo. — Vinc^i  Atlromomy,  The 
revolution  of  Halley's  comet  is  performed  in  about  aeventy-siz  years ;  it  appeared  in 
1759,  and  came  to  its  perihelion  on  March  13 ;  its  last  appearance  was  1835. 

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF.  This  rank  in  the  British  army  has  been  rery  frequently 
vacant,  and  sometimes  for  several  years  consecutively.  When  the  duke  of  Wellington, 
resigned  the  office,  on  becoming  minister,  in  1828,  his  grace's  successor,  lord  Hill, 
assumed  the  rank  of  commander  of  the  forces,  or  general  commanding  in  chief. 


OAPTAZXS-OBNERAX.. 

Duke  of  Albemarle 1660 

Duke  of  Monmouth 1C78 

Duke  of  Marlborough      ....  1702 

DukeofOrmoud 1711 

Duke  of  Marlborough,  again  .  .  1714 

Duke  of  Cumberland 1744 

Duke  of  York 1799 

OOMMANDSBS-IN-OHIEr. 

Duke  of  Monmouth 1674 

Duke  of  Marlborough      ....  1690 

Duke  of  Schombetg 1691 

DukeofOrmond 1711 

Earl  of  Stair 1744 

Field-Marshal  Wade        ....  1745 
Lord  Ligonier 1767 


Marqueu  of  Oranby  ....  1766 
Lord  Amherst,  general  on  the  staff  .  .  1778 
Hon.  general  Seymour  Conway      .       .  1782 

Lord  Amherst,  again 1793 

Frederick,  duke  of  York.  .1795 

Sir  David  Dundas  March  25.  1800 

Frederick,  duke  of  York,  again  May  29,  1811 
Duke  of  Wellington     .  Jan.  22,  1827 

Lord  Hill,  general  commanding  in  chief, 

or  general  on  the  staff  .        .    Feb.  25,  1828 
Duke    of   Wellington,    commander-in- 
chief,  again  Deo.  28,  1842 
Visoount  Hardinge  (died  Sept.  24, 1856). 

general  commanding  in  chief,  Sept.  28,  1852 
Duke    of    Cambridge,    oommanaer-in- 
chief July  15,  1856 


COKMERCK  Flourished  in  Arabia,  Egypt,  and  among  the  Phoenicians  in  the  earliest 
ages.  In  later  times  it  was  spread  over  Europe  by  a  confederacy  of  maritime  cities^ 
A.D.  1241.  See  Hante  Toums.  The  discoveries  of  Columbus,  and  the  enterprises  of 
the  Dutch  and  Portuguese,  enlarged  the  sphere  of  commerce,  and  led  other  nations, 
particularly  England,  to  engage  extensiyely  in  its  pursuit.  See  the  voitouf  artideM 
cormected  vith  this  iuibject  through  the  volume, 

COMMERCIAL  TREATIES.  The  first  treaty  of  commerce  made  by  England  with  anj 
foreign  nation  was  entered  into  with  the  Flemings,  1  Edw.  L  1272.  The  second  was 
with  Portugal  and  Spain,  2  Edw.  II.  1808. — Afidenon,    See  Treaties. 

COMMON  COUNCIL  or  LONDON.  Ito  formation  commenced  about  1208.  The 
charter  of  Henry  L  mentions  the  folh-mote,  this  being  a  Saxon  appellation,  and  which 
may  fairly  be  rendered  the  court  or  assembly  of  the  people.  The  general  place  of 
meeting  of  the  folk-mote  was  in  the  open  air  at  St.  Paul's  Cross,  in  St.  Paul's  diuivh> 
yard.  It  was  not  discontinued  till  after  Henry  III.'s  reign ;  when  certain  representa- 
tives were  chosen  out  of  each  ward,  who,  being  added  to  the  lord  mayor  and  alder- 
men, constituted  the  court  of  Common  CoUncQ.  At  first  only  two  were  returned  for 
each  ward ;  but  it  being  afterwards  considered  that  the  number  was  insufiicient,  it 
was  enlarged  in  1847,  and  since.  Tlus  council  soon  became  the  parent  of  other  similar 
institutiona  throughout  the  realm.  It  is  elected  annually  on  Dec.  21,  St.  Thomas's  day. 

COMMON  LAW  or  ENGLAND.  An  ancient  collection  of  unwritten  mATima  and 
customs,  which  had  subsisted  immemorially  in  this  kingdom ;  and  although  somewhat 
impaired  by  the  rude  shock  of  the  Norman  conquest,  has  weathered  the  violence  of 
the  times.  This  had  endeared  it  to  the  people  in  general,  as  well  because  its  decisions 
were  universally  kflown,  as  because  it  was  found  to  be  excellently  adapted  to  the 
genius  of  the  English  nation.  And  accordingly,  at  the  famous  parliament  of  Merton, 
"  all  the  earls  and  barons,"  says  the  parliament  roll,  "  with  one  voioe  answered,  that 
they  would  not  change  the  Uws  of  England,  which  have  hitherto  been  tised  and 
approved : "  eminently,  the  law  of  the  land. 

COMMON  LAW  COURTS.  The  process,  practice,  and  mode  of  pleading  in  the  superior 
courts  of  common  law,  were  amended  by  15  k  16  Vict.  c.  76  (June  80, 1852),  and 
17  &  18  Vict.  c.  125  (Aug.  12, 1854). 

COMMON  PLEAS,  COURT  of,  in  ENQLAND.  This  court  in  ancient  times  followed 
the  king's  person,  and  is  distinct  from  that  of  the  King's  Bench ;  but  on  the  confirma- 
tion of  Magna  Charta  by  king  John,  in  1215,  it  was  fixed  at  Westminster,  where  it 
still  continues.  In  it  are  debated  all  controversies,  in  matters  civil,  between  subject 
and  subject,  according  to  law.  Here  real  actions  are  pleadable ;  and  this  court  may 
grant  prohibitions,  as  the  court  of  King^s  Bench  doth.  In  personal  and  nuxed  actions 
it  has  a  concurrent  jurisdiction  vrith  that  court ;  but  no  oognisance  of  pleas  of  the 
crown.— Bladcstone,  By  8  ft  4  Will.  IV.  c  89  (1888),  the  mode  of  procedure  in  all 
the  superior  courts  was  made  uniform. 


COM 


173 


COM 


COMMON  PLEAS,  COURT  of,  nr  ENGLAND,  eontmned. 

CHIEF  JUSTICES  OF  THE  COMHON  PLEAS  OF  ENGLAND. 


From  tke  reiffH  ^f  Quern  £HMdbeth, 


1&58. 
1650. 
1582. 
1605. 
1606. 

1613. 
1626. 

1631. 
1034. 
1639. 
1640. 
1648. 
1660. 

1668. 
1675. 

1683. 

1686. 
1687. 

1680. 
1602. 
1701. 

1714. 

1725. 
1736. 
1737. 


Sir  Anthonr  Browiie»  knt. 

Sir  Jmmea  Dyer,  lent. 

Sir  Edmtind  Aoderaoo.  knt. 

Sir  Francis  Oftwdy,  knt 

Sir  Edward  Coke,  knt  afterwards  to 
K.B. 

Sir  Henry  Hobart,  knt. 

Sir  Tbomaa  Richardson,  knt  after- 
wards to  K.B. 

Sir  Robert  Heath,  knt 

Sir  John  Finch,  knt 

Sir  Edward  Ly  ttleton.  knt 

Sir  John  Banko^  knt 

Oliver  St  John,  esq. 

Sir  Orlando  Bridgman,  bart  afterwards 
lord  keeper. 

Sir  John  vaoghan,  knt 

Sir  Francis  North,  knt  aftenrards  lord 
Onilford,  and  lord  keeper. 

Sir  Frauds  Pomberton,  knt 

Sir  Thomas  Jones,  knt 

Sir  Henry  Bedingfield,  knt 

Sir  Robert  Wright,  knt 

Sir  Edward  Herbert,  knt 

Sir  Henry  Pollexfen,  knt 

Sir  Oeorgs  Treby,  knt 

Sir  Thomas  Trevor,  knt  afterwards 
lord  Trevor. 

Sir  Peter  King,  afterwards  lord  King, 
and  lord  ehaacellor. 

Sir  Robert  Eps,  knt 

Sir  Thomas  Reeve,  knt 

Sir  John  Willes,  knt 


1761. 

I766u 
1771. 

1780. 


1793. 
1790. 


1801. 

1804. 
1814. 
1818. 
1824. 


1820. 
1846. 


1850. 
1856. 


Sir  Charles  Pratt,  knt  afterwards  lord 

Camden,  and  lord  clianctdlor. 
Sir  John  Eardley  Wiimot  knt 
Sir  William  de  Orey,  afterwards  lord 

Walsinglism. 
Alexander  Wedderbume,  created  lord 

Loughborough,  afterwards  lord  chan- 
cellor, and  earl  of  Roeslyn. 
Sir  James  Eyre,  knt 
Sir  John  Scott  afterwards  lord  chan> 

oellor ;  craated  lord  Eldon,  and,  suh- 

sequentlv,  earl  of  Eldon. 
Sir  Richard  Pepper  Arden,  created  lord 

Alvanley.  May  22. 
Sir  James  Mansfield,  knt  April  21. 
Sir  Vicaiy  Oibbs,  knt  Feb.  24. 
Sir  Robert  Dallas,  knt  Nov.  5. 
Sir  Robert  OilTord,  Jan.  9 ;  created  lord 

OifTord  ;  master  of  the  rolls,  April, 

same  year. 
Sir  William  Draper  Besty  afterwards 

lord  Wynford,  April  15. 
Sir  Nicolas  Conyngnam  Tindal,  Jane  0 ; 

died,  July.  1846. 
Sir  Thomas  Wilde,  Jnly  11 :  craated  lord 

Truro,   and  made  lord  chanoellor, 

July.  1850. 
Sir  John  Jervls,  July  16 ;  died  Nov.  1, 

1856. 
Sir  Alexander  Cockbum,  Nov.  1 5.    The 

TO'esent  Chief  Justice  of  the  Common 

Pleas  of  England  (1857> 


In  England,  no  bairiBter  under  the  degree  of  a  aeijeant  oonld  plead  in  the  eonrt  of 
common  pleas;  the  aeijeants-at-law  enjoying  the  ezclnsiYe  right  The  act  9  &  10 
Vict,  c  54,  patsed  August  18, 1846,  extended  the  priyilege  to  btfristers  of  any  degree 
practising  in  the  superior  courts  at  Westminster.  All  barristers,  however,  were  pr»> 
▼iously  at  liberty  to  more  or  show  cause  against  a  rule  for  a  new  trial. 

COMV OK  PLEAS,  COUBT  or,  in  IRELAND.  The  Court  of  Common  Pleas  in  Ireland 
is  similarly  constituted  with  the  court  in  England ;  but  in  Ireland  it  always  was^  as 
it  still  is,  open  to  the  profession  at  laige. 

CHIEF  JUSTICES  OF  THE  COUHON  PLEAS  IN  IBELAND. 


1691.  Richard  Pvna,  Jan.  6. 
1005.  Sir  John  Helv,  Hay  10. 
170L  Sir  Richard  Cox,  Msy4. 
1708.  Robert  Doyne,  Dec.  27 
1714.  John  Forater.  Sept  80. 
1780.  Sir  Richard  Levinge.  Oct  13. 
1724.  Thomas  Wyndham,  Oct  S7. 
17S6.  William  Whitohed.  Jan.  28. 
1727.  James  Reynolds,  Nov.  8. 
1740.  Benty  Singleton,  May  11. 
1754.  Sir  William  Torke,  Sept  4. 
1761.  William  Aston,  May  5. 


From  the  Period  o/tKe  Revdutian, 

1786. 
1770. 
1787. 


Richard  Clayton,  Feb.  21. 
Marcus  Patterson,  June  18. 
Hugh   Carleton,   afterwards    viscount 
Carleton,  April  30. 
1800.  John  Toler,  afterwards  lord  NorbuTj, 

Oct  22. 
1827.  Lord  Flunket,  June  18. 
1830.  John  Doherty,  Dee.  23. 
1850.  James  Henry  Monahan,  Sept  23.    The 
present  (1857)  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Common  Pleas  in  Ireland. 


COMMON  PRATER  The  Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  ordered  to  be  published  in  the 
English  Isnguage  by  the  authority  of  parliament  in  1548.  In  the  time  of  the  civil 
war,  the  Common  Prayer  was  voted  out  of  doors,  by  parliament,  and  the  Directory 
(which  tee)  set  up  in  its  room  in  1644.  A  proclamation  was  issued  sgainst  it,  1647. 
Other  books  of  worship  experienced  the  same  fate. — Salm<m. 


First  book  of  Edward  VLjninted  .  .  1549 
Second  book  of  Bdward  Vl  .  .  1552 
First  book  of  Elisabeth  ....  1559 
King  James's  book 1804 


Scotch  book  of  Charles  I.        .       .       .  1887 

Charles  XL's  book 1682 

(The  one,  with  alterations^  now  in  use.) 


COMMONS,  HOUSE  or.  The  great  representatiye  Assembly  of  the  people  of  Great 
Britain.  It  originated  with  Simon  de  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,  who  ordered  re* 
turns  to  be  made  of  two  knights  from  erery  shire,  and  deputies  from  certain  boroughs 


CON  176  CON 

Gregory  XV.  and  by  Alexander  YlI.—EetMuU,  On  the  8th  of  Decmnber,  1854,  the 
pope  promulgated  a  bull  with  great  solemnity  and  pathos,  declaring  this  dogma  to  be  an 
article  of  faiw,  and  charging  with  heresy  those  who  should  doubt  or  speak  against  it. 

CONCERT.  The  first  public  subscription  concert  was  performed  at  Oxford,  in  1665« 
when  it  was  attended  by  a  great  number  of  personages  of  rank  and  talent  from  every 
part  of  En^and.  The  first  concert  of  a  like  kind  performed  in  London  was  in  1678. 
Concerts  afterwards  became  fashionable  and  frequent,  and  they  continue  to  be  among 
the  most  popular  musical  entertainments  of  the  present  day. 

CONCHOLOGT.  This  branch  of  natural  histoiy  is  mentioned  by  Aristotle  and  Pliny; 
and  was  a  favourite  with  the  most  intellectual  and  illustrious  men.  It  was  first 
reduced  to  a  system  by  John  Daniel  Major  of  Kiel,  who  published  his  classification  of 
the  Tetiaeea  in  167 5,  Ldstei^s  system  was  published  in  1685;  and  that  of  Laigius  in 
1722.  Johnston's  Introduction  (1850),  and  Sowerby's  Manual  of  Conchology  (1842), 
are  usefal  works. 

CONCLAVE  FOB  TBI  ELECTION  of  POPES.  This  term  is  deriyed  from  the  oondaTsi, 
a  range  of  small  cells  in  the  hall  of  the  Vatican,  or  palaoe  of  the  pope  of  Rome,  where 
the  oardiniUs  usually  meet  to  elect  a  pope,  and  is  luso  used  for  the  assembly  of  the 
cardinals  shut  up  for  the  purpose.  The  condave  had  its  rise  in  A.D.  1271.  Clement 
IV.  haying  died  at  Viterbo  in  1268,  the  cardinals  were  nearly  three  years  unable  to 
agree  in  the  choice  of  a  successor,  and  were  on  tjie  point  of  breaking  up,  when  the 
magistrates,  by  the  advice  of  St.  Bonaventure,  then  at  Viterbo,  shut  the  gat^s  of  their 
city,  and  locked  up  the  cardinals  in  the  pontifical  palace  till  they  agreed.  Hence  the 
custom  of  glutting  up  the  cardinals  while  they  elect  a  pope. 

CONCORDANC!E  to  the  BIBLE.  An  index  or  alphabetical  catalogue  of  all  the  woids 
in  the  Bible,  and  also  a  chronological  account  of  all  the  transactions  of  that  sacred 
volume.  The  first  concordance  to  the  Bible  was  made  under  the  direction  of  Hugo 
de  St.  Charo,  who  employed  as  many  as  500  monks  upon  it,  A.D.  1247. — Abbi  LengleL 
Cruden's  well-known  and  esteemed  Concordance  was  published  in  London  in  1737. 

CONCORDAT.  The  name  is  given  to  an  instrument  of  agreement  between  a  prince  and 
the  pope,  usually  concerning  benefices.  The  celebrated  concordat  between  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  and  Pius  VII.  whereby  the  then  French  consul  was  made,  in  effect,  the 
head  of  the  Gallican  Church,  as  all  ecclesiastics  were  to  have  their  appointments  from 
him,  was  signed  at  Paris,  Jtdy  15, 1801.  Another  concordat  between  Bonaparte  and 
the  same  pontiff  was  signed  at  Fontainebleau,  Jan.  25, 1813.  A  very  important  con- 
cordat was  signed  Aug.  18, 1855,  between  Austria  and  Rome,  by  which  a  great  deal 
of  the  liberty  of  the  Austrian  church  is  given  up  to  the  Papacy. 

CONCUBINES.  They  are  mentioned  as  having  been  allowed  to  the  priests,  a.d.  113Z 
Cujas  observes,  that  although  concubinage  was  beneath  marriage,  both  as  to  dignity, 
and  civil  effects,  yet  concubine  was  a  reputable  title,  very  different  from  that  of 
mistress  among  us.  Concubinage  was  a  term  for  a  lawful  marriage  between  a  noble> 
man  and  a  woman  of  mean  condition,  whose  children  were  incapable  by  law  of 
inheriting  their  father's  estate,  the  dignity  of  the  father  not  being  conferred  upon  the 
mother.  The  kind  of  union,  which  is  formed  by  giving  the  lefi  hand  instead  of  the 
rightf  and  called  half-marriage,  is  still  in  use  in  some  parts  of  Germany.  See 
Marriage^  Ealf,  and  McfrganaJtic  Marriage. 

CONDUITS.  Those  of  the  Romans  were  of  stone.  Two  remarkable  oonduita,  among  a 
number  of  others  in  London,  existed  early  in  Cheapside.  That  called  the  Great 
Conduit  was  the  first  dstem  of  lead  erected  in  the  city,  and  was  built  a.d.  1286.  At 
the  procession  of  Anna  Boleyn,  on  the  occasion  of  her  marriage,  it  ran  with  white  and 
claret  wine  all  the  afternoon,  June  1, 1538. — Siowe. 

CONFEDERATION  at  PARIS.  Upwards  of  600.000  citizens  formed  this  memorable 
confederation,  held  on  the  anniversary  of  the  taking  and  destruction  of  the  BastSe, 
at  which  ceremony  the  king,  the  national  assembly,  the  army,  and  the  people, 
solemnly  swore  to  maintain  the  new  constitution,  July  14,  1790.  See  Cftompf  de 
Mare,  Baetile, 

CONFEDERATION  of  tbx  RHINE.  The  League  of  the  Germanic  States,  formed 
under  the  auspices  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  By  this  oelebrated  league,  *the  minor 
German  princes  collectively  engaged  to  raise  258,000  troops  to  serve  in  case  of  war, 
and  they  established  a  diet  at  Frankfort,  July  12, 1806.  This  league  tenninated  with 
the  career  of  Bonaparte.    See  Oermanie  Confederation, 


CON  177  CON 

CONFERENCE  Thb  QREAT.  The  celebrated  religions  confereaoe  held  at  Hampton 
Court  Palace,  between  the  prelates  of  the  Church  of  England  and  the  dissenting 
ministers,  in  order  to  effect  a  general  union,  at  the  instance  of  the  king,  James  L  Jan. 
14-16, 1604.  This  eonference  led  to  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible,  which  was 
executed  in  1607-11,  and  is  that  now  in  general  use  in  England  and  the  United  States; 
and  during  the  meeting  some  alterations  in  the  Church  liturgy  were  agreed  upon,  but 
this  not  satisfying  the  dissenters,  nothing  more  was  done.  A  conference  of  the 
bishops  and  presbyterian  ministers  with  the  same  Tiew  wss  held  in  the  Savoy ,  April 

25  to  July  25, 1661.    The  dissenters'  objections  were  generally  disallowed,  but  some 
alterslions  were  recommended  in  the  Prayer-book. 

CONFESSION.  Auricular  confession  in  the  Bomish  Church  was  first  instituted  about 
▲.o.  1204,  and  was  regularly  enjoined  by  Innocent  III.  at  the  fourth  Lateran  council 
in  1215.  It  is  made  to  a  priest,  in  order  to  obtain  absolution  for  the  sins  or  faults 
acknowledged  by  the  penitent,  who  performs  a  penance  enjoined  by  the  priest ;  and 
if  this  be  done  with  a  contrite  heart,  the  sins  thus  absolved  are  supposed  to  be  absolved 
in  heaven.  At  the  reformation,  the  practice  was  at  first  left  wholly  indifferent  by  the 
council ;  but  it  was  afterwards  abolished  in  the  Church  of  England. 

CONFIRMATION.  One  of  the  oldest  rites  of  the  Christian  Church;  it  was  used  by 
Peter  and  Patil,  and  was  general,  according  to  some  Church  authorities,  in  a.d.  190. 
It  is  the  public  profession  of  the  Christian  religion  by  an  adult  person,  who  has  been 
baptised  in  infancy.  It  is  still  retained  in  the  Church  of  England;  but  to  make  it  the 
more  solemn,  it  has  been  advanced  into  a  sacrament  by  the  Church  of  Rome. 

CONFLANS,  TREATY  or.  The  celebrated  compact  between  Louis  XI.  of  France,  and 
the  dukes  of  Bourbon,  Britanny,  and  Buigundy.  By  one  of  the  provisions  of  this 
treaty,  Normandy  was  ceded  to  the  duke  de  Berri,  1465.  The  treaty,  which  put  an 
end  to  the  ''war  of  the  Public  Qood,"  was  confirmed  by  that  of  Peronne,  with  other 
stipulations,  in  1468. 

CONGELATION.  Ice  was  produced  in  summer  by  means  of  chemical  mixtures,  by  Mr. 
Walker,  in  1783.  The  congelation  of  quicksilver  was  effected  without  snow  or  ice,  in 
1787.  A  mixture  of  four  ounces  of  nitrate  of  ammonia,  four  ounces  of  sub^carbouate 
of  soda,  and  four  ounces  of  water,  in  a  tin  pail,  has  been  found  to  produce  ice  in  three 
hours.    See  CM,  Ice,  &e. 

CONGE  D*ELIRE.  The  licence  of  the  king,  as  head  of  the  Church,  to  chapters,  and 
other  bodies,  to  elect  dignitaries,  particularly  bishops.  After  the  interdict  of  the 
pope  upon  England  had  been  removed  in  1214,  king  John  had  an  arrangement  with 
the  clergy  for  the  election  of  bishops.    Bishops  were  elected  by  the  king's  oongi  cPelire, 

26  Hen.  VIII.  1535. 

CONGRESS.  An  asBembly  of  princes  or  ministers,  or  meeting  for  the  settlement  of 
the  affairs  of  nations  or  of  a  people.  Several  congresses  were  held  during  the  late 
continental  wars;  but  the  following  were  the  most  remarkable  congresses  of  Europe : — 


CongreMofSoiaBons  .        .    Juno  14,  1728 

Congress  of  Antwexp  .  April  8,  1798 

CoDgreas  of  Radstadt  Dec.  9,  1797 

Oongreaa  of  ChatiUon  .  Feb.  6,  1814 

Congreas  of  Vienna  .      Nov.  8, 1814 


CongresaofCarlabad  .    Aug.  1, 1819 

Congreas  of  Troupau    .  Oct.  20,  1820 

Congreas  of  Laybacb  May  6, 1821 

Congreas  of  Verona  Aug.  25, 1822 

See  AUianeeit  Conventicnt,  At. 


The  first  general  congress  of  the  United  States  of  America,  preparatory  to  their 
declaration  of  independence,  was  held  Sepl  5,  1774,  when  strong  resolutions  were 
passed,  also  a  petition  to  the  king,  and  an  address  to  the  people  of  England.  The 
first  federal  American  congress,  under  the  constitution,  was  held  at  New  York, 
George  Washington  president,  in  March  1789. 

CONGREYE  ROCKETS.  Invented  by  general  sir  William  Congreve,  in  1803.  They 
were  used  with  great  effect  in  the  attack  upon  Boulogne,  Oct.  8,  1806,  when  they  set 
a  part  of  the  town  on  fire,  which  burned  for  two  days ;  they  were  employed  in  various 
operations  in  the  French  war  with  much  success^  by  a  corps  called  rocket-men. 

CONIC  SECTIONS.  Their  most  remarkable  properties  were  probably  known  to  the 
Greeks  four  or  five  centuries  before  the  Christian  era.  The  study  of  them  was  culti- 
vated in  the  time  of  Plato,  390  B.C.  The  earliest  treatise  was  written  by  Aristseus, 
about  330  B.O.  Apollonius's  eight  books  were  written  about  240  B.a  The  parabola 
vnis  applied  to  projectiles  by  Galileo ;  the  eclipse  to  the  orbit  of  planets,  by  Kepler. 

CONJURATION  ahd  WITCHCRAFT.    They  wore  declared  to  be  felony  by  various 


CON  178  CON 

Btatutea,  and  the  most  absurd  and  wicked  laws  were  in  force  against  them  in  those 
countries  in  former  times.  See  article  WUdtcrafi,  Conjuration  was  felony  by 
statute  1  James  I.  1608.  This  law  was  repealed  9  Qea  II.  1736 ;  but  pretensions 
to  such  skill  were  then  made  punishable  as  a  misdemeanour. — Statutu, 

CONNOR,  BISHOPRIC  ot,  in  Ireland.  The  see  was  united  to  that  of  Down,  a  d.  1442. 
The  fint  prelate  was  iBogus  Hacnisius  who  died  a.o.  507.  The  united  see  of  Down 
and  Connor  was  united  with  that  of  Dromore  on  the  death  of  the  late  bishop  of  the 
latter,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  Irish  Church  Temporalities*  aot>  8  &  4 
Wm.  IV.  c  87,  passed  Aug.  14, 1883. 

CONQUEST,  THE.  The  memorable  era  in  British  history,  when  William  duke  of  Nor- 
mandy oYcrcame  Harold  II.  at  the  battle  of  Hastings,  and  obtained  the  crown  which 
had  been  most  unfairly  bequeathed  to  him  by  Edvmxd  the  Confessor  (for  Edgar  was 
the  rightful  heir),  Oct.  15, 1066.  William  has  been  erroneously  styled  the  Ckmqutrar, 
for  he  succeeded  to  the  crown  of  England  by  compact.  He  killed  Harold,  who  was 
himself  an  usurper,  and  defeated  his  army,  but  a  large  portion  of  the  kingdom  after- 
wards held  out  against  him,  and  he,  unlike  a  conqueror,  took  an  oath  to  obserre  the 
laws  and  customs  of  the  realm,  in  order  to  induce  the  submission  of  the  people 
Formerly  our  judges  were  accustomed  to  reprehend  any  gentleman  at  the  bar  who 
said  casually  William  the  Conqueror,  instead  of  William  I. — Selden,  Maolise  exhibited 
forty-two  draiWings  on  the  CTents  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  in  Kay,  1857. 

CONSCIENCE,  COURTS  of,  or  REQUESTS.  First  constituted  by  a  statute  of 
Henry  VII.  in  1493,  and  re-oiganiaed  by  statute  9  Hen.  VIIT.  1517.  These  courts 
have  been  improved  and  amended  by  various  acta;  their  jurisdiction  in  London 
reaches  to  52.  and  reached  (until  superseded  by  county-courts)  to  40«.  in  other  towns. 
The  practice  is  by  summons,  and  if  the  party  do  not  appear,  the  commissionera  have 
power  to  apprehend  and  commit    See  0(Ainty  Courtt. 

CONSCRIPT  FATHERS.  Patra  cmucripti  was  the  designation  (one  of  high  honour) 
given  to  the  Roman  senators,  and  used  in  speaking  of  them,  in  the  eras  of  &e  republic 
and  the  Csssars :  because  their  names  were  vmtten  in  the  registers  of  the  senate. 
Conscript  father  was  a  popular  name  among  the  people. — Pardcn. 

CONSECRATION.  That  of  churches  was  instituted  in  the  second  century,  the  temple 
of  worship  being  dedicated  with  pious  solemnitv  to  Ood  and  a  patron  saint.  Anciently 
the  consecration  of  popes  was  deferred  until  the  emperor  had  given  his  assent  to  the 
election.  Gregory  IV.  desired  to  have  his  election  confirmed  by  the  emperor  Louis, 
in  828. — HenauU.  The  consecration  of  churches,  places  of  burial,  &c.,  is  admitted  in 
the  reformed  religion.  The  consecration  of  bii^ops  was  ordained  in  the  Church  of 
England  in  16i9,---8towe. 

CONSERVATIVES.  This  name  is  of  modem  date,  and  is  given  to,  and  accepted  by,  a 
political  party,  whose  leading  principle  is  the  conservation  of  our  g^reat  and  ancient 
national  institutions.  It  sprung  up  m  England  at  the  time  when  the  Orange  societies 
and  lodges  were  di&couraged,  and  was  substituted  for  Orangemen,  as  a  less  obnoxious 
term,  and  as  indicative  of  milder,  but  equally  constitutional  opinions.  Cbaservctfm, 
has,  however,  in  some  measure  changed  its  signification,  and  in  popular  parlance  is  now 
opposed  to  LiberaL  Sir  Robert  Peel  acknowledged  himself  a  conservative  when  re- 
proached by  the  Irish  party  in  parliament  with  being  an  Orangeman ;  but  the  party  that 
afterwards  separated  from  him  called  their  principles  conservative,  in  oontraoiBtinetion 
to  his, — ^his  policy  and  measures  bding  changed. — PoUtieal  Notei.    See  ProtseUomuU. 

CONSERVATORS  of  the  PUBLIC  LIBERTIES.  Officers  chosen  m  England  to  inspect 
the  treasury,  and  correct  abuses  in  administration,  28  Hen.  IIL  1244. — Rapin,  ^e 
conservators  of  the  peace  were  officers  appointed  to  see  the  king's  peace  kept. — 
Pardcn,  Conservators  were  formerly  appointed  in  evexy  sea^port  to  take  cognisaooe 
of  all  offences  committed  upon  the  main  sea,  out  of  the  liberty  of  the  Cinque  Ports, 
against  the  peace. — Bailey, 

CONSISTORY  COURT.  Anciently  the  Consistory  wss  joined  with  the  Hundred  eourt  ; 
and  its  original,  as  divided  therefrom,  is  found  in  a  law  of  William  I.,  quoted  by  lord 
Coke,  1079.  The  chief  and  most  ancient  Consistory  court  of  the  kingdom  belongs  to 
the  see  of  Canterbury,  and  is  called  the  Court  of  Arches,  which  see. 

CONSPIRACIES  AND  INSURRECTIONS  iw  GREAT  BRITAIN.  Among  the  recorded 
conspiracies,  real  or  supposed,  the  following  are  the  most  remarkable.  They  are 
extracted  from  Camden,  Tempie,  Ifume,  and  other  authorities  of  note : — 


CON 


179 


CON 


CONSPIRACIES  AND  INSURRECTIONS  is  QREAT  BRITAIN,  amtumed. 


Of  the  Jforraan  Buona,  agminst  WlUiam 

tiM  OraMmeror       ....  a.d. 
Against  William  II.  1088  and    . 
Against   Henry  II.   by  his  qoeen  and 

children 

IiiBiureutiop  of  FooUc  de  Brent  against 

king  Henry  III 

Against  the  same  king  for  cancelling 

Moffna  (^arla 

Of  Edward  II.'s  queen,  when  the  king 

lUl  a  sacriiioe 

Of  the  dnke  of  Exeter  aoainst  the  life  of 

Henry  lY.,  discovered  by  the  dropping 

of  a  paper  accidentally 
Of  the  eaii  of  Gamlnrklge  and  others 

against  Henry  V 

Of  fUcliard,  duke  of  Gloucester,  against 

his  nephews,  Edward  and  York,  whom 

he  caoaed  to  be  murdered   . 
Of  the  earl  of  Suffolk  and  othara  against 

Henry  VII. 

Insurrection  of  the  Loudon  apprentices, 

7  Henry  VIII 

Of  Doctor  Story  and  others  agat&at  queen 

Elisabeth 

Of  Anthony  Babington  and  othsrsagainst 

Elixabeth.    (Sob  Babington) 
Of  LopesL  a  Jew,  and  others  .    . 

Of  Patrick  YiM'k,  an  Irish  fencing-master, 

hired  by  the  Spaniards  to  kill  the  queen 
Of  Walpole,  a  Jesuit,  and  Squire    . 
Tyrone's  insurrection  in  Irsland        .    . 
Against  James  L  by  the  marchioness 

Vemeuil,  his  ndstresis  and  other  per- 
sons        

The  Gunpowder  Flat  (ukiek  me)         .    . 
Tyrone's  conspiracy  to  surprise  the  castle 

of  Dublin 

Of  Sinderoomb  and  others,  to  assassi'- 

nate  Oliver  Cromwell  ... 


074 
098 

173 

224 

258 

327 


400 
416 


483 

600 

616 

671 

680 
693 

694 
698 
698 


804 
606 

007 

060 


Insurrection  of  the  Puritans  .  .  1067 

Insurrection  of  the  Fifth-mooarehy-men 
asainst  Charles  II 

Of  Blood  and  his  associates,  who  seised 
the  duke  of  Ormond,  wounded  hm>, 
and  would  have  hanged  him;  and 
who  afterwarda  stole  Um  crown  . 

The  pretended  conspiracy  of  the  French, 
Spanish,  and  Emrlish  Jesuits  to  anas* 
siiiate  Charles  II.,  revealed  by  the 
iniamous  Titus  Oatea,  Dr.  Tongue,  and 
others 

The  Meol-tnb  plot  (which  me)  . 

The  Rye-house  plot  to  ssssssinate  the 
kfaig  on  his  way  to  Newmarket  (See 
Xjft-houM  Plot) 1083 

Of  lord  Preston,  the  bishop  of  Ely,  and 
others  to  restore  James  iL  , 

Of  Granville,  a  Fmnch  chevalier,  to 
murder  king  William  In  Flanders  .    . 

Of  the  earl  of  Aylesbury,  called  the  As- 
sassination plot  (which  ««)   . 

Of  Simon  FMser,  lord  Lovat,  against 
quewi  Anne.    (See  Rebdlion*.)       .    . 

Of  the  marquess  Guiscard 

Of  James  Sheppard,  an  enthusiast,  to 
sssasslnate  George  1 1718 

Of  counsellor  Layer  and  othen;  to  bring 
in  the  Pretender 1722 

Of  the  Corresponding  Society  against 
the  state   ....        1797  and  1708 

Of  Colonel  Despard  snd  others,  to  over- 
turn the  government  ....  1802 

Of  Robert  Emmett  in  Dublin,  when  lord 
Kilwarden  was  killed  July  23,  1808 

Of  Moreau,  Pichegru,  and  Georges,sgainst 
Bonaparte     ....    Feb.  16,  1804 

Of  Thistlewood  and  others,  to  ssssssinate 
the  king's  ministers.    (See  Caio-Hreet.)  1820 
Bee  RebMiofU,  ChartisU. 


1060 


1071 


1078 
1079 


1801 

1692 

1090 

1703 
1710 


CONSTABLE,  LORD  HIGH,  Of  ENGLAND.    See  Lord  Btgh  OmtUMe, 

CONSTABLE,  LORD  HIGH,  of  SCOTLAND.    See  Lord  Constable  of  Scotland. 

CONSTABLES  or  HUNDREDS  and  FRANCHISES.  Institnted  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  L,  1285.  These  offioera  are  now  called  high  conetabloe  throughout  the 
realm.  There  are  three  kinds  of  constables,  high,  petty,  and  special:  the  high 
constable's  jurisdiction  extends  to  the  whole  hundred;  the  petty  constable's  to  the 
parish  or  liberty  for  which  he  is  chosen ;  and  the  special  constable  is  appointed  for 
particular  occasions  and  emergencies. 

CONSTABULARY  FORCE.  That  of  London  has  been  regulated  at  yarious  periods. 
See  article  Police,  Mr.  Peel's  act,  organising  a  new  and  more  efficient  force,  10  Geo.  lY. 
1829.  The  Constabulary  of  Ireland  act  passed^in  1828,  when  this  species  of  force  was 
embodied  throughout  the  country.  Several  subsequent  acts  were  consolidated  by  the 
statute  of  6  Will.  lY.  1836.  The  London  Police  Improvement  act  passed  3  Yict  1839. 
The  Counties  and  District  Constabulary  act  for  England  passed  8  Yict.  Aug.  1889. 

CONSTANCE,  COUNCIL  of.  The  celebrated  council  of  divinps  which  condemned 
the  pious  martym  John  Hues  and  Jerome  of  Prague  to  be  burnt  alive,  a  sentence 
executed  upon  the  first,  on  July  6,  1415,  and  on  the  other,  on  May  80  following. 
Hubs  had  complied  with  a  summons  &om  the  council  of  Constance  to  defend  his 
opinions  before  the  clergy  of  all  nations  in  that  city,  and  though  the  emperor  Sigia- 
mund  had  given  him  a  safe-conduct,  he  was  cast  into  prison.  Jerome  of  Pngue 
hastened  to  Constance  to  defend  him,  but  was  himself  loaded  with  chains,  and  in  the 
end  shared  the  fate  of  his  friend.  By  this  council  the  bones  of  Wickllffe  (at  Lutter- 
worth) were  ordered  to  be  disinterred. 

CONSTANTINA.  The  former  capital  of  Numidia.  It  has  become  known  to  Europeans 
but  very  recently,  they  being  strangers  to  it  until  the  French  occupation  of  Algiers. 
Here  was  fought  a  great  battle  between  the  French  and  Arabs,  Oct  18, 1837,  when 
the  former  carried  the  town  by  assaulty  but  the  French  general,  Damremont,  was 
killed.    Achmet  Bey  retired  with  12,000  men  as  the  victors  entered  Constantina. 

n2 


CON  180  CON 

CONSTANTINOPLE.  So  called  from  Constantine  the  Qreat,  who  remoTod  the  aeat  of 
the  Eaatern  Empire  here,  a.o.  828.  Taken  by  the  western  oniaadeny  who  pat  the 
emperor  Mourzoufle  to  death,  first  tearing  out  his  eyes,  1204.  Retaken  by  Michael 
PalsBologus,  thus  restoring  the  old  Greek  line,  1261.  Conquered  by  Mahomet  IL, 
who  slew  Constantine  Palsoologus,  the  last  Christian  emperor,  and  60,000  of  his 
people,  1453.  The  city,  taken  by  assault,  had  held  out  for  fifty-eight  days.  The 
unfortunate  emperor,  on  seeing  the  Turks  enter  by  the  breaches,  threw  himself  into 
the  midst  of  the  enemy,  and  was  cut  to  pieces ;  the  children  of  the  imperial  house 
were  massacred  by  the  soldiers,  and  the  women  reserved  to  gratify  the  lust  of  the 
conqueror.  This  put  an  end  to  the  Eastern  Empire,  which  had  subsisted  for  1125 
years,  and  was  the  foundation  of  the  present  empire  of  Turkey  in  Europe.  See 
Eaatern  Empire,  and  Turkey. 

CONSTANTINOPLE,  ERA  of.  This  era  has  the  creation  pUced  5508  years  aa  It 
was  used  by  the  Russians  until  the  time  of  Peter  the  Qreat,  and  is  still  used  in  the 
Greek  Church.  The  civil  year  begins  Sept  1,  and  the  eodeeiastical  year  towards  the 
end  of  March ;  the  day  is  not  exactly  determined.  To  reduce  it  to  our  era  subtract 
5508  years  from  January  to  August,  and  5509  from  Sept.  to  the  end. 

CONSTELLATIONS.  Those  of  Ardwus,  Orum,  the  Pleiades,  and  Matzaratk,  are  mam- 
tioned  by  Job,  about  1520  bo.  Homer  and  Hesiod  notice  constellations ;  but  though 
some  mode  of  grouping  Uie  visible  stars  had  obtained  in  very  early  ages,  our  first  direct 
knowledge  was  derived  frqm  Claud.  Ptolemseus,  about  a.d.  140. 

CONSTITUTION  of  ENGLAND.  It  comprehends  the  whole  body  of  laws  by  which 
the  British  people  are  governed,  and  to  which  it  is  presumptively  held  that  every 
individual  has  assented. — Lard  Somen,  This  assemblage  of  laws  is  distinguished 
from  the  term  government  in  this  respect — ^that  the  constitution  is  the  rule  by  whidi 
the  sovereign  ought  to  govern  at  all  times ;  and  government  is  that  by  which  he  does 
govern  at  any  particular  time. — Lord  Bolingbrohe,  The  king  of  England  is  not  seated 
on  a  solitary  eminence  of  power ;  on  the  contrary,  he  sees  his  equaU  in  the  coexisting 
branches  of  the  legislature,  and  he  recognises  his  superior  in  the  law.* — Sheridait, 

CONSTITUTION,  an  American  8h^),  carrying  54  heavy  guns,  engaged  the  British  frigate 
Ouerriire,  of  46  guns  of  smaller  calibre,  and  in  30  minutes  the  latter  was  reduced  to 
a  sinking  state :  and  having  lost  100  men  in  killed  and  wounded,  surrendered  to  the 
enemy,  who  lost  but  7  men  killed,  and  7  wounded ;  August  20, 1812. 

CONSULS.  These  officers  were  appointed  at  Rome,  509  B.a  They  posseeud  regal 
authority  for  the  space  of  a  year :  Lucius  Junius  Brutus,  and  Lucius  Tarquinius 
CoUatinus,  the  latter  the  injured  husband  of  Lucretia,  were  the  first  oonsuls.  A 
consular  government  was  established  in  Fnnoe,  November  9, 1799,  when  Bonaparte^ 
Cambac^rde,  and  Lebrun,  were  made  consuls;  and  subsequently  Bonaparte  was 
made  first  consul  for  life,  May  6,  1802.  Commercial  agents  were  first  distinguished 
by  the  name  of  consuls  in  Italy,  in  1485.  A  British  consul  was  first  appointed  in 
Portugal  in  1683. 

CONTRACTORS  with  GOVERNMENT  disqualified  from  sitting  in  parliament^  1788. 

CONTRIBUTIONS,  VOLUNTARY.  In  the  two  last  wars  voluntary  contribuUons  to  a 
vast  amount  were  several  times  made  by  the  Britii^  people  in  aid  of  the  govemmenl 
The  most  remarkable  of  these  acts  of  patriotism  was  that  in  1798,  when,  to  support 
the  war  against  France,  the  contributions  amounted  to  two  millions  and  a  half  ster- 
ling. Several  men  of  wealth,  among  others  sir  Robert  Peel,  of  Bury,  Lancashire, 
subscribed  each  10,0002. ;  and  200,000/.  were  transmitted  from  India  in  1799. 

CONTROUL,  BOARD  of.    See  Board  of  Controul,  and  Baet  India  BiU, 

CONVENTICLES.  Private  assemblies  for  religious  worship ;  the  name  was  particularly 
applied  to  those  who  differed  in  form  and  doctrine  from  the  Established  Church ; 

•  MorrwQUBU,  speftkiog  of  the  "  BtavHfvil  Pile  of  tht  BrUiik  CVwwrftfution."  mys :  "  It  lies  not  within 
the  competency  of  any  skill.  It  la  the  work  of  asee ;  the  production  of  a  happy  coneorrenoe  and  auo- 
ceeelon  of  circumBtancee,  growing  by  degrees,  and  accommodating  itself,  in  accordance  with  ita  growth, 
to  the  temper  and  manneni,  the  customs  and  character  of  the  British  people.  Ita  excellence  ie  proved 
by  its  operation,  rather  than  by  a  minute  examination  into  its  seyeral  parts.  Other  uatloaa  hare 
endeavourod,  but  vainly,  to  adopt  it.  France  tried,  among  the  rest,  to  accommodate  ita  prindplea  to 
her  own  state,  but  could  not  The  French  people  had  not  grown  with  it^  and  were  not  prepared  for 
the  real  liberty  which  it  diffused,  and  had  not  the  temper  for  it,  in  which  it  could  alone  endura.  The 
British  Constitution,  hi  any  other  country  than  that  to  which  it  is  so  aptly  fitted,  would  seem  a  pUtt  of 
anomalies  and  contradictious,  the  yery  contrary  of  what  it  is. " 


COK  181  CON 

but  it  WM  first  applied  in  England  to  the  schools  of  Wickliff.    Conventicles,  which 
were  namerous  at  the  time,  were  prohibited  by  a  statate  passed  12  Car.  II.  1661. 

CONTENTION  PARLIAMENT.  Two  memorable  parliaments  were  especially  distin- 
guished by  this  term ;  being  parliaments  which  assembled  without  the  kiDg^s  writ 
upon  extraordioary  occasions.  The  first  of  these  was  held  in  March,  1660,  voting 
the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  and  afterwards  enacting  many  salutary  statutes.  The 
second  was  held  in  1688,  and  by  a  minority  of  two  voices  declared  for  a  new  sovereign 
William  IIL  (and  Mary),  in  preference  to  a  regent  which  had  been  proposed. 

CONYENTIONa  See  AUitmeet,  Treaties,  &c.  The  following  are  the  principal  treaties 
entered  into  between  Great  Britain  and  foreign  powers,  under  the  title  of  Uonventumt, 
and  by  foreign  powers  with  each  other.  They  are  more  fully  described  in  their 
respective  places  through  the  volume : — 


Of  ClostexMyen  .  Sept.  10,  1757 

Of  Annod  Neutrality  .  .  July  9,  1780 

OfPUnltz         ....    July  20,  1791 
Of  Paris  (French  natioiul)  insUtuted 

Sept  17.  1792 
OtCiatni(vhieh$ee)        ,       .    Aug.  SO,  1808 


sition  fordalxna  on  Austria,  amoonUng 

to  80, 000.  OOOi.  sterling     .        .        .    .1824 

Of  Bnglaud  with  Russia  .     Feb.  28,  1826 

Of  England  and  United  States  Not.  26,  1826 

Of  Spain,    for  satisfying  the  claims  of 

British  merchants    .  June  26,  1828 


Of  Berlin Not.  5,  1808  i  Of  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt  and  Sir  Edward 


Of  Petcrswalden     .  July  8,  1813 

Of  Paris  ....  April  23,  1814 
Of  the  Dutch  with  England  .  Aug.  18,  1814 
Of  Vienna;  Saxony  placed  under  the 

control  of  Prussia    .  Sept  28,  1814 

Of  Zurich,  signed     .  .    May  20,  1815 

Of  Capua,  with  Murat  May20,  1815 

Of  St  Cloud,  between  DaToust,  and  Wel- 
lington and  Blucher  July  5,  1815 
Of  Psrist  with  the  allies             April  25,  1818 
Of  Aix-la-Chapelle   .  Oct.  9,  1818 
Of  Austria  with  England ;   the  latter 
agrees  to  accept  2;600,000<.  as  a  compo- 


Codrington,  for  xxsstoring  the  Greek 
captiTcs,  dtc.         .        .        .      Aug.  6,  1828 

Of  France  with  Brosil  Aug.  14,  1828 

CouTention  between  Holland  and  Bel- 
gium, signed  in  London      .  April  19,  1839 

Of  England  with  Austria,  Russia. 
Prussia,  and  Turkey,  for  the  settle- 
ment of  the  eastern  question  July  15,  1810 

Of  France  and  England,  respecting  the 
SlsTe  Trade  ....     May  29,  1845 

Of  England  with  the  Argentine  republic, 

Oct  24, 1849 
Bee  Treatiti, 


CONYENTS.  They  were  first  founded,  according  to  some  authorities,  in  A.D.  270.  The 
first  in  England  was  erected  at  Folkistone,  by  Eadbald,  in  680. — Camdeti,  The  first 
in  Scotland  was  at  C!oldingham,  where  Ethelreda  took  the  veil,  in  670.  They  were 
founded  earlier  than  this  last  date  in  Ireland.  Convents  were  suppressed  in  England 
in  various  reigns,  particularly  in  that  of  Henry  YIII.,  and  comparatively  few  now 
exist  in  Great  Britain.*  More  than  8000  have  been  suppressed  in  Europe  within 
the  last  few  years.  The  emperor  of  Russia  abolished  187  convents  of  monks, 
by  an  ukase  dated  July  81,  1832.  The  king  of  Prussia  followed  his  example,  and 
secularised  all  the  oouvents  in  the  duchy  of  Posen.  Don  Pedro  put  down  800 
convents  in  Portugal  in  1884,  and  Spain  has  abolished  1800  convents. 

COKYICTS.  The  first  arrival  of  transported  convicts  at  Botany  Bay  was  in  1788.  On 
the  20th  of  January  in  that  year,  governor  PhUlip,  the  first  governor,  with  shout  800 
convicts  under  sentence  of  transportation,  took  possession  of  this  settlement,  but  he 
subsequently  removed  to  Sydney,  denomiuated  from  lord  Sydney,  Sydney  Cove. 
Convicts  were  sent  to  Van  Diemen's  Land,  Norfolk  island,  Ac. ;  and  many  thousands 
of  them  are  transferred  to  penitentiaries,  and  set  to  labour  in  the  hulks  in  several 
ports  of  the  realm.    See  New  SofUh  WaUt,  and  TraniporlaUon, 

CONVOCATION  or  thi  CLERGY.  A  genersl  assembly  of  all  the  deigr  in  the  nation 
convened  by  the  sovereign's  writ,  to  consult  on  the  affiurs  of  the  Church,  and  directed 
to  the  arehbishop  of  each  province,  requiring  him  to  summon  all  the  bishops,  deacons, 
archdeacons,  &c  The  convocation  is  divided  into  two  houses,  called  the  upper,  con- 
sisting of  the  bishops ;  and  lower,  consistiug  of  the  deans,  prebendaries,  arch-deacons, 
and  deigy.  The  first  summoned  to  meet  by  writ  of  the  king  was  23  Edw.  1. 1295. 
The  power  of  the  convocation  was  limited  by  a  statute  of  Henry  YIII.,  in  whose  reign 
tiie  convocation  was  re-organised.  The  two  houses  of  convocation  were  deprived  of 
various  privileges  in  1716.  Formal  meetings  of  the  clergy  in  convocation  are  held 
annuallv,  and  attempts  were  made  since  1858  to  introduce  discussion  on  ecclesiastical 
affairs,  but  without  much  effect. 

CONYOLYULXJS.    The  Canary  Convolvulus  {Convolvulvs  Canariensis)  came  to  England 

*  In  1607,  lady  Mary  Percy  founded  a  oonvont  at  Bnusela,  which  floariahed  there  till  1794,  when 
the  nuns  were  compelled  to  remove  to  England.  They  were  received  by  bishop  11  liner,  and  placed  at 
Winchester,  at  which  place  they  remained  till  their  removal  to  East  Beii^holt,  in  Suffolk,  June.  1867. 
This  was  the  first  Engliah  ecmventual  eatablishment  founded  on  the  continent  alter  the  Reformation* 


coo  182  COP 

from  the  Canary  Islei,  1690.  The  maoy-flowered  oonvoWulus,  in  1779.  There  are 
▼arious  beautiful  specimens  of  this  flower,  which  are  justly  esteemed,  and  although 
at  first  rare,  now  grow  in  profusion  in  our  gardens. 

COOK'S  YOYAGES.  The  illustrious  captain  Cook  sailed  from  England  in  the  Bndeacimr 
on  his  first  yoyage,  July  30, 1768 ;  *  and  returned  home  after  having  ciroumnaTigated 
the  globe,  arriving  at  SpiUiead,  July  18,  1771.  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  afterwards  the 
illustrious  president  of  the  Boyal  Society,  accompanied  captain  Cook  in  this  voyage. 
Captain  Cook  again  sailed  to  explore  the  southern  hemisphere,  July,  1772,  and 
returned  in  July,  1775.  In  his  third  expedition,  this  great  navigator  was  killed  by 
the  savages  of  0-why-hee,  at  8  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  Feb.  l£  1779.  His  ships, 
the  Remyium  and  Ditcovery,  arrived  home  at  Sheemeas,  Sept.  22, 1780. 

COOPERAGE.  This  art  must  be  coeval  with  the  dawn  of  history,  and  seems  to  have 
been  early  known  in  every  country.  It  must  have  been  suggested  for  preserving 
wine  in  the  earliest  ages,  as  many  household  utensils  are  known  to  have  beea  of 
wood  as  well  as  pottery.  The  earliest  writers  speak  of  coopers.  The  ooopera  of 
London  were  incoiporated  in  1501. 

COPENHAGEN.  Distinguished  as  a  royal  residence,  A.O.  1448.  In  1728,  more  than 
seventy  of  its  streets  and  8785  houses  were  burnt-  Its  famous  palace,  valued  at  four 
millions  sterling,  was  wholly  burnt,  Feb.  1794,  when  100  persons  lost  their  Uvea.  In 
a  fire  which  lasted  forty-eight  hours,  the  arsenal,  admiralty,  and  fifty  streets  were 
destroyed,  1795.  Copenhagen  was  bombarded  bv  the  English  under  lord  Nelson  and 
admiral  Piurker ;  and  in  their  engagement  with  the  Danish  fleet  of  twenty-three  ships 
of  the  line,  eighteen  were  taken  or  destroyed  bv  the  BriUsh,  April  2, 1801.  Again, 
after  a  bombardment  of  three  days,  the  city  and  Danish  fleet  surrendered  to  admiral 
Qambier  and  lord  Cathcart,  Sept  7,  1807.  The  capture  conabted  of  eighteen  sail  of 
the  line,  fifteen  frigates,  six  brig%  and  twenty-five  gun-boats^  and  immense  naval 
stores.    See  Denmark, 

COPERNICAN  SYSTEM.  The  system  of  the  world  wherein  the  sun  is  supposed  to 
be  in  the  centre  and  immovable,  and  the  earth  and  the  rest  of  the  planets  to  move 
round  it  in  elliptical  orbits.  The  heavens  and  stars  are  here  imagined  to  be  at  rest, 
and  the  diurnal  motion  which  they  seem  to  have  from  east  to  west,  is  imputed  to  the 
earth's  motion  from  west  to  east.  The  system  was  published  at  Thorn,  a.d.  1530  ; 
and  may  in  many  points  be  regarded  as  that  of  Pythagoras  revived. — (/osieiidiit. 

COPPER.  It  is  one  of  the  six  primitive  metals.  Its  discovery  is  said  to  have  preceded 
that  of  iron.  We  read  in  the  Scriptures  of  two  vessels  of  fine  copper,  precious  as 
gold. — Exra  viii.  27.  The  divisibility  of  this  metal  almost  exceeds  belief;  a  grain  of 
it  dissolved  in  alkali,  as  pearl  ashes,  soda,  &c.,  will  give  a  sensible  colour  to  more  than 
500,000  times  its  weight  in  water ;  and  when  copper  is  iii  a  state  of  fusion,  if  the  least 
drop  of  water  touch  the  melted  ore,  it  will  fiy  about  like  shot  from  a  gun. — ^Bbf/c 
The  mine  of  Fahlun,  in  Sweden,  is  the  most  surprising  artificial  excavation  in  the 
world.  In  England,  copper-mines  were  disoovered  in  1561,  and  copper  now  forms 
an  immense  branch  of  trade :  there  are  upwards  of  fifty  mines  in  Cornwall,  where 
mining  has  been  increasing  since  the  reign  of  WUliam  III. — ^The  Burra  Burra  oopper- 
minee  in  S.  Australia  were  disoovered  in  1842.  They  have  brought  great  prosperi^  to 
that  colony. 

COPPER-MONEY.  The  Romans,  prior  to  the  leign  of  Servius  Tullius,  need  rude  pieces 
of  copper  for  money.  See  Coin,  In  England,  copper  money  is  of  extensive  omaage. 
That  proposed  by  sir  Robert  Cotton  was  brought  into  use  in  1609.  It  was  extensively 
coined  in  1665,  and  again  by  the  Crown,  28  Car.  IL  1672.  Private  traders  had  done 
so  previously  to  this  act.  In  Ireland,  copper  was  coined  as  early  as  1889  ^  in  Scotland 
in  1406 ;  in  France  in  1580.  Wood's  coinsge  in  Ireland  (whick  fee)  commenced  in 
1728.  Penny  and  two-penny  pieces  were  extensively  issued  1797.  The  half-&rthing 
was  coined  in  1848 ;  but  seems  disused.    See  ForthMtg, 

*  A  momorial  was  praeented  to  the  king  by  the  Royal  Society  In  1768.  setting  forth  the  adTantafres 
which  would  be  derived  to  eclence  if  an  accurate  observation  of  the  then  approaching  tranatt  of  Venus 
over  the  sun  were  taken  in  the  South  Sea.  The  ship  Bndiawmr  waa^  in  oonsMnionoe,  prepared  for  thai 
purpoae,  and  the  command  of  her  given  to  lieutenant  Jamea  Cook.  He  sallea  in  July,  170S,  tooehed 
at  Madeira  and  Rio  de  Janeiro,  doubled  Cape  Horn,  and  after  a  procperoos  voyage  rBoohed  Otaheit^ 
the  ploM  of  destination,  in  April,  1769.  By  a  comparison  of  the  observations  mode  on  thia  timnalt 
(June  S,  1769)  from  the  various  parts  of  the  globe  on  which  it  was  viewed  by  men  of  st^cnee.  the 
system  of  Uie  universe  has»  in  some  particulars,  been  better  undentood  ;  the  distance  of  the  aun  ftaak 
the  earth,  as  calculated  by  this  and  the  transit  in  1761,  is  now  settled  at  108,000,000  mUes,  Instead  of 
the  commonly  received  computation  of  95,000, OOJO. — B^Uler. 


COP 


183 


COR 


COPPEB-PLATE  PRINTING  was  first  inyented  in  Qenrany,  about  a^.  1450.  Rolling- 
prenas  for  working  the  plates  were  invented  about  1546.  Messrs.  Perkins,  of  Phila- 
delphia, invented  in  1819  a  mode  of  engraving  on  soft  steel  which,  when  hardened, 
will  multiply  copper-platee  and  fine  impressions  indefinitely.    See  inyraving, 

COPPERAS.  A  vitriolic  kind  of  mineral,  found  in  copper  mines,  commonly  of  a  green 
or  blue  colour;  first  produced  in  England  by  ComeliuB  do  Yos,  a  merchant,  In  1587. 

COPTS,  in  Egrpt,  the  supposed  descendants  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  mingled  .with 
Greeks  and  Persians.  Their  religion  is  a  form  of  Christianityi  derived  from  the 
Eutychians,  a  sect  of  the  5th  century,  %hich  iu, 

COPYRIGHT.  Decree  of  the  Stai^chamber  regarding  it,  a.d.  1556.  Every  book  and 
publication  ordered  to  be  licensed,  1585.  Ordinance  forbidding  the  printing  of  any 
work  without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  1649.  Copyright  further  secured  by  a 
statute  enacted  8  Anne^  1709.  Protection  of  copyright  in  prints  and  engraviogfi, 
17  Geo.  Ill  .1777.  Copyright  protection  act,  54  Geo.  III.  1814.  Dramatic  authoiV 
protection  act,  3  Will.  lY.  c  15,  June  1883.  The  act  for  preventing  the  publication 
of  lectures  without  consent,  6  Will  lY.  c  65,  Sept  9,  1835.  The  act  of  the  17th 
Geo.  III.  extended  to  Ireland,  7  Will.  lY.  c.  59,  Aug.  18,  1836.  InUmational  copy- 
right bill,  1  Yict.  1838.  Copyright  of  designs  for  articles  of  manufacture  protected, 
2  Yict.  c.  18,  June  4,  1839.  Act  to  carry  into  effect  a  convention  with  France 
relating  to  copyright,  15  Yict  c.  12,  paued  May  28, 1852.  For  the  important  act  of 
1842  regarding  literary  property,  see  LUerary  Property.  The  important  question  of 
a  foreigner  possessing  a  copyright  in  this  country  was  finally  decided  in  the  negative 
by  the  House  of  Lords,  in  August,  1854,  which  reversed  the  decision  of  the  Court  of 
Exchequer,  on  an  appeal  by  the  defendant  in  the  case  of  Boosey  v.  Jeffrey.  (In  1831 
Ifr.  Boosey  purchased  the  copyright  of  Bellini's  opera  Lq  iSoMnamMt/a,  from  which 
Mr.  Jeflrey  published  a  cavatina.  Six  of  the  judges  were  for  protecting  foreign  copy- 
rights and  seven  of  a  contrary  opinion.) 

COPYRIGHT,  INTERNATIONAL.  In  1 838  an  act  was  passed  to  secure  the  authors  in 
certain  cases  the  benefits  of  international  copyright  (1  &  2  Yict  c.  59),  aod  conven- 
tions have  in  consequence  been  entered  into  with  France,  Prussia,  &c.  In  Feb.  1854, 
a  treaty  for  the  same  purpose  was  signed  by  the  representatives  of  this  country  and 
the  United  States ;  but  in  consequence  of  opposition  in  the  latter  country  it  has  not 
yet  been  ratified. 

CORDAGE.  The  naval  cordage  in  early  ages  was,  probably,  merely  thongs  of  leather ; 
and  these  primitive  ropes  were  retained  by  the  Caledonians  in  the  third  century,  and 
by  some  northern  nations  in  the  ninth.  Cordage  of  weed  and  of  horse-hair  was  also 
used  anciently  before  that  made  of  hemp.  See  Hemp,  Chain-cables  (which  also  see) 
are  now  in  use  in  the  British  navy  and  merchant  service. 

CORDELIERS.  Friars  of  the  order  of  St.  Francis  and  the  same  with  the  Minorites. 
They  are  clothed  in  coarse  grey  cloth,  with  a  small  cowl  and  cloak  of  the  same 
material,  having  a  girdle  of  cord  or  rope,  tied  with  three  knots,  and  hence  the  name, 
which  was  first  given  to  them  by  St.  Louis  of  France,  about  a.o.  1227.  They  onoe 
had  the  degree  of  doctor  in  the  university  of  Paris,  and  in  that  city  were  all  Scotiata. 

CORFU,  formerly  Corey ra  (See  Corinth);  capital  of  the  island  of  the  same  name. 
The  island  of  Corfu  was  placed  under  British  administration,  by  the  treaty  of  Paris, 
Nov.  20, 1815.  It  is  the  chief  of  the  Ionian  Isles,  over  which  a  British  governor 
presidea  The  other  islands  are  Cephalonia,  Zante,  St.  Maura,  Ithaca,  Cerigo,  and 
Paxo.    Sir  Thomas  Maitland  was  first  high  commissioner,  May  7, 1816. 

CORINTH.  This  citr  was  built  in  1520,  and  the  kingdom  founded  by  Sisyphus  in  1376 
B.C.  In  146  B.O.  the  capital  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans,  but  was  rebuilt  by  Julius 
Cffisar ;  and  was  among  the  first  cities  of  Greece  that  embraced  the  Christian  religion. 
It  was  defended  by  a  fortress  called  Acrocorinth,  on  a  summit  of  a  high  mountain, 
surrounded  with  strong  walls.  The  situation  of  this  citadel  was  so  ibdvantageous, 
that  Cicero  named  it  the  Eye  of  Oreece,  and  declared,  that  of  all  the  dtiea  known  to 
the  Romans,  Corinth  alone  was  worthy  of  being  the  seat  of  a  great  empire. 


Corinth  built  en  the  ruins  of  Epbyn 
(AbUlatgUt)         ....  B.O.  1620 

Rebuilt  by  the  king  of  Bicyoo,  and  first 
called  by  its  nume 1410 

Bisyphus,  a  public  robber,  eeizas  upon 
the  dty  («if4fN) 1S70 


Tlie  Pytbian  gamee  instituted,  it  is  said 
by  Bifiyphna 1875 

Ihe  nigu  of  Baccbia,  whoee  succeaaorb 
are  called  BacchldfB,  in  lemembrance 
of  the  equity  of  bia  reiftn      ...    035 

The   CorinthuDS  invent    ships    called 


COR 


184 


COR 


CORINTH,  eotUinued. 

trirema:  vemels  consiBting  of  three 
benches  of  oars     ....  a.d.    786 

Thelestes  deposed,  and  the  goTerament 
of  the  Prytanee  instituted :  Automenee 
ia  the  first  on  whom  this  dignity  is 
conferred 767 

A  colony  goes  to  Sicily  and  they  build 
Syracuse        ......    732 

Sea-fight  between  the  Corinthians  and 
Corcyreans 664 

Periander  rulee,  and  enoourages  genius 
and  learning 629 


Death  of  Periander  .        .a.d.    585 

The  Corinthians  form  a  repubtio     .        .    5S2 
War  with  the  Corcyreans   .  4S9 

The  Conathitax  WOT  (which  aee)  .    S95 

Acrocorlnth  (citadel)  taken  by  Aratos   .    24S 
The  Roman  ambasradors  first  appear  at 

Corinth 228 

Corinth  destroyed  by  Lucius  Mummlua, 
who  sends  to  Italv  the  first  fine  paint- 
ings there  seen,  they  being  part  of  the 
spoil(Zivy) 146 


The  history  of  Corinth  may  be  divided  into  five  periods.  The  first,  as  already 
observed,  includea  nearly  250  years,  under  Sisyphus,  and  his  successors  called 
SitypkidcB ;  most  of  this  epoch,  particularly  the  early  part  of  it|  is  obscure ;  of  the 
kings,  little  is  known  beyond  their  names.  The  second  period  includes  about  820 
years,  under  the  HeracUdse,  called  also  BacchidcB,  from  Bacohis,  the  fourth  king  of 
this  race.  The  third  epoch  comprehends  202  years,  under  the  Prytanes  and  tyrants. 
The  fourth  period  exhibits  the  Corinthians  in  their  most  fiourishing  state  as  a  free 
republic,  and  includes  the  history  of  430  years.  In  the  fifth  epoch  the  Corinthians 
are  seen  under  the  dominion  of  Rome. 

CORINTHIAN  ORDER.  The  finest  of  all  the  orders  of  ancient  architecture,  aptly 
called,  by  Scamozzi,  the  virginal  order,  as  being  expressive  of  the  delicacy,  tendemesa, 
and  beauty  of  the  whole  composition.  This  order  is  designed  for  palaces  and  other 
buildings  of  show  and  magnificence.  Its  invention  is  attributed  to  Callimachus,  540 
B.O.    See  Abactu, 

CORINTHIAN  WAR.  The  war  which  received  this  name,  because  the  battlea  wei« 
mostly  fought  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Corinth,  was  begun  b.c.  895,  bv  a  confederacy 
of  the  Athenians,  Thebans,  Corinthians,  and  Argives,  against  the  LaeedaomoniansL 
The  most  famous  battles  were  at  Coronea  and  Leuctra,  iohich  see, 

CORK.  Built  in  the  sixth  century.  The  principality  of  the  M'Cartys  was  oonrerted 
into  a  shire  by  king  John,  as  lord  of  Ireland.  A  chapter  was  granted  to  the  city  by 
Henry  III-  in  1242 ;  its  great  charter  was  granted  by  Charles  I.  A  lazge  part  of  the 
town  was  consumed  by  an  awful  fire  in  1621.  The  earl  of  Ifarlborough  besieged 
and  took  Cork  from  king  James's  army,  in  1690,  when  the  duke  of  Qraflon,  a  natural 
son  of  Charles  II.,  was  slain.  The  cathedral  was  built  by  the  produce  of  a  coal 
duty,  between  the  years  1725  and  1735.  Explosion  of  gunpowder  here,  Nov.  10, 
1810.  One  of  three  colleges,  endowed  by  government  pursuant  to  act  8  &  9  Vict 
c.  66,  passed  July  81,  1845,  was  inaugurated  in  this  city,  Nov.  7,  1849.  See 
Colleges  im  Ireland.  Cork  Industrial  Exhibition  was  opened,  June  10,  and  dosed 
Sept.  11, 1862. 

CORK,  SEE  OF.  Its  foundation  is  ascribed  to  St.  Barr,  or  Finbarr,  early  in  the  seventh 
century.  About  1431,  this  see  and  that  of  Cloyne  were  canonically  united ;  but  on 
the  death  of  bishop  Synge,  in  1678,  they  were  separated,  the  see  of  Ross  having  been 
added  to  Cork  about  a  century  before,  a.d.  1582.  No  valuation  is  returned  of  this 
see  in  the  king^s  book ;  but  in  a  manuscript  in  Marsh's  library,  it  is  taxed  81  Eliz.  at 
40/.  sterling ;  and  in  a  MS.  in  the  college  library,  at  252.  The  sees  of  Coric  and 
Cloyne  have  been  again  united  by  act  8  &  4  Will  IV.  1833.    See  Bithope, 

CORK-TREE.  Called  the  Qnercut  tuber,  and  resembling  the  holm ;  it  is  a  species  of  the 
oak ;  its  fruit  is  an  acorn,  and  its  bark,  when  burned,  makes  the  cork  used  for 
stopping  bottles,  casks,  and  other  articles.  Cork  was  in  use  amongst  the  ancients. 
The  Egyptians  made  coffins  of  cork,  which,  being  lined  with  a  resinous  oomposiiion, 
preserved  dead  bodies  uncorrupted.  The  tree  grows  in  great  abundance  on  the 
Pyrenean  mountains,  and  in  other  parts  of  Spain,  in  Franoe,  and  in  the  north  of  New 
England.    The  cork-tree  was  brought  to  England  before  1690. 

CORN.  The  origin  of  iU  cultivation  is  attributed  to  Ceres,  who,  having  taught  the  art 
to  the  Egyptians,  was  deified  by  them,  2409  B.O.— irutuie/ian  Marbles.  The  art  of 
husbandry,  and  the  method  of  making  bread  from  wheat,  and  wine  from  rioe,  is 
attributed  by  the  Chinese  to  Ching  Noung,  the  successor  of  Fohi,  and  seoond 
monarch  of  China,  1998  B.o. —  Univ.  Hist.  But  corn  provided  a  common  article  of 
food  from  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world,  and  baking  bread  was  known  in  the 
patriarchal  ages.     See  Exodiu,  xii.  15.     Wheat  was  introduced  into  Britun  in  the 


k 


COR 


185 


COR 


rizth  oentory  by  CoU  ap  Coll  Frevn.-^  Robertas  Hiti.  Anc,  Britont,  The  tint 
importation  of  corn,  of  whioh  we  have  a  note,  waa  io  1847.  Bounties  were  granted 
on  its  importation  into  England  in  16S6.  Its  importation  from  Ireland  into 
England  has  long  formed  a  vast  branch  of  trado.  The  new  London  Com  Exchange, 
Mark'lane,  London,  was  opened  June  24,  1828,  and  was  erected  at  an  expense 
of  90,000^ 

CORN-BILLS.  Among  the  many  enactments  regulating  the  importation  of  com,  the 
most  important  recent  acts  have  been  :  A  bill  to  permit  the  exportation  of  com 
poBsed  in  1814.  Act  to  permit  its  importation  when  wheat  shall  be  at  eighty  shillings 
per  quarter,  was  passed  in  1815.  During  the  discussions  on  this  latter  bill,  mobs 
assembled  in  London,  and  many  of  the  houses  of  its  supporters  were  damaged,  Jan. 
28,  1815 ;  and  a  riQt  in  Westminster  continued  seyeral  days,  and  occasioneid  much 
mischief,  March  21,  eL  teq,  same  Tear.  The  memorable  Com  BUI,  after  passing  in  the 
commons,  was  defeated  in  the  house  of  lords  by  a  clause^  proposed  by  the  duke  of 
Wellington,  being  carried  by  a  majority  of  four,  June  1, 1827.  The  act  whereby 
wheat  wa9  allowed  to  be  imported  on  payment  of  a  duty  of  1/.  Bt,  Sd»  per  quarter, 
whenever  the  arersge  price  of  all  England  was  under  62t.;  from  62a.  to  63f.  12. 4«.  Sd. ; 
and  so  gradually  reduced  to  1«.,  when  the  average  price  was  73«.  and  upwards,  was 
passed  July  15,  1823  ;  this  aot  was  designated  as  the  "  SUding-scale."  The  act  5th 
Vict  c.  14,  passed  29th  April,  1842,  also  called  the  "  Sliding-ecale  act,"  regulated  the 
duty  on  wheat  as  follows ;  with  sliding  duties,  also,  on  other  articles  of  com.  We 
preserve  this  scale  as  an  historical  record  : 


Arer^me  ptr  mnmrttr. 

under  ol 


61  and  ttndar  52 

55  aod  under  55 

56  and  under  50 

66  and  under  67 

67  and  under  68 

68  and  under  59 


Dmtf.       II 

M    9. 

d. 

1    0 

0 

0  19 

0 

0  18 

0 

0  17 

0 

0  16 

0 

0  15 

0 

0  14 

0 

Jvtn90  per  aumrter. 
iUMliuta.    aLUimM. 

59  and  under  60 

60  and  under  01 

01  and  under  02 

02  and  under  03 

03  and  under  04 

04  and  under  05 
06  and  under  00 


Drntp.       II 

£   «. 

A       1 

0  18 

0 

0  12 

0 

0  11 

0 

0  10 

0 

0    9 

0 

0    8 

0 

0    7 

0 

Jftr^M  per  emgrttr. 
nUtmM§.   nUHmft 

00  and  under  09 
09  and  imder  70 

70  and  under  71 

71  and  under  72 

72  and  under  73 
78  and  upwards. 


0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 


ihrfjr. 


0 

6 
4 
8 


0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 


The  Corn  Ihportation  bill  (the  great  popular  measure  of  sir  Robert  Peel),  granting 
a  free  trade  in  com,  9  ft  10  Vict  c.  22,  passed  26th  June,  1846.  By  this  act  the  duty 
on  wheat  was  reduced  to  4fl.  when  imported  at  or  above  53t.  until  1st  Feb.  1849  ; 
after  which  day  the  duty  became  It.  per  quarter  only,  on  all  kinds  of  grain  imported 
into  the  United  Kingdom,  at  any  prices. 

CORN-LAWa  ANTI-GORN-LAW  LEAGUE.  From  metropolitan  and  provincial  anti- 
corn-law  associations  sprang  the  league,  headed  by  Mr.  Cobden  and  others.  Meetiogs 
were  held  in  various  places  in  Msrch  and  April,  1841.  A  meeting  of  a  disturbed 
character  was  held  at  Manchester,  May  18,  same  year.  A  baaaar  held  at  Manchester, 
at  which  the  league  realised  10,0002.  Feb.  2,  1842.  About  600  deputies  connected 
with  provincial  assodations  assembled  in  London,  and  held  meetings  from  Feb.  until 
Aug  1842.  The  League  at  Manchester  proposed  to  raise  50,000^,  to  depute  lecturers 
throughout  the  country,  and  to  print  pamphlets,  Oct.  20,  same  year.  Meetings 
commenced  at  Drury-lane  Theatre,  March  15, 1843.  Series  of  Monthly  meetings  at 
Covent-garden  commenced  Sept.  28 ;  and  great  free-trade  meeting  at  Manchester, 
Kov.  14,  same  year.  Ag^,  Jan.  22, 1845.  Bazaar  at  Covent-garden  opened,  May  5, 
1845.  Oreat  Manchester  meeting,  at  which  the  League  proposed  to  raise  a  quarter  of 
a  million  sterling,  Dec.  23,  same  year.  The  Com  Importation  bill  having  passed,  the 
League  was  formally  diasolved,  July  2, 1846  ;  and  Mr.  Cobden  was  rewarded  by  a 
national  subscription,  amounting  to  nearly  80,000^.* 

CORNWALL.  Originally  called  Kenwu,  a  term  connected  with  the  Latin  Comu,  a 
horn,  in  allusion  to  its  numerous  promontories  or  projecting  points.  On  the  retreat 
of  the  ancient  Britons,  Cornwall  was  formed  into  a  kingdom,  which  existed  for  many 
years  under  different  princes,  among  whom  were  Ambrosius  Aureliui,  and  the  cele- 
brated Arthur.  It  was  erected  into  a  dukedom  by  Edward  III.  in  1336,  and  the  heir 
to  the  crown  of  England,  if  a  prince,  is  bom  duke  of  Cornwall,  but  is  immediately 
afterwards  created  prince  of  Wales. 

CORONATION.  The  first  coronation  by  a  bishop  was  that  of  Majocianus,  at  Constan- 
tinople, in  A.D.  457.    The  ceremony  of  anointing  at  coronations  was  introduced  into 

*  On  the  appointment  of  the  Derby  ministry,  a  revival  of  the  anti-com-law  league  was  proposed 
at  a  meetinjc  held  at  Manchester,  BCarch  %  1863,  and  a  tubecrlption  for  the  puroose  was  opened,  which 
produced  withlo  half  an  hour  37,62(M.  But  subsequently,  the  reconstraction  of  the  lesgue  was  deemed 
to  be  iinnfireeiiry. 


CX)R  186  COR 

England  in  872,  and  into  Scotland  in  1097.  The  coronation  of  Henry  IIL  took  place, 
in  the  firet  instance,  without  a  crown,  at  Gloucester,  Oct.  28, 1216.  A  plain  drde 
was  used  on  this  occasion  in  lieu  of  Uie  crown,  which  had  been  lost  with  the  other 
jewels  and  baggage  of  king  John,  in  passing  the  marshes  of  Lynn,  or  the  Wash,  near 
Wisbeach.  At  the  coronation  of  William  and  Mary,  the  bishop  of  London  put  the 
crown  on  the  king's  head,  as  Dr.  Sancroft,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  would  not  take 
the  oaths  to  their  majesties.  Qeorge  lY.  was  crowned  July  19, 1821.  William  lY. 
crowned,  with  his  queen,  Sept.  8, 1831 ;  and  Yictoria,  June  28, 1838. 

CORONATION  CHAIR.  In  the  cathedral  of  Cashel,  formerly  the  metropolis  of  the 
kings  of  Munster,  was  deposited  the  Lia  Failf  or  Fatal  Sione,  on  which  they  were 
crowned.  In  A.D.  518,  Fei^s,  a  prince  of  the  royal  line,  having  obtained  the 
Scottish  throne,  procured  the  use  of  this  stone  for  his  coronation  i^  Dnnstaffiiage, 
where  it  oontinued  until  the  time  of  Kenneth  II.,  who  removed  it  to  Scone ;  and  in 
1296,  it  was  removed  by  Edward  I.  from  Scone  to  Westminster.  Edward  wishing  to 
annex  Sootland  to  his  own  dominions,  dethroned  John  Baliol,  lavaged  the  country, 
and  seised  this  stone,  among  other  monuments  of  SootUsh  history. 

CORONATION  FEASTS,  and  OATH.  The  oath  was  first  administered  to  the  kings  of 
England  by  Dunstan  (the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  afterwards  canonised),  to 
Ethelred  II.  in  979.  An  oath,  nearly  corresponding  with  that  now  in  use,  was 
administered  in  1377 ;  it  was  altered  in  1689.  The  fdtes  given  at  coronations  com- 
menced with  Edward  I.  king  in  1272.  That  at  the  coronation  of  Geoiige  lY.  rivalled 
the  extravagancies  and  sumptuousness  of  former  times. 

CORONEA,  BATTLE  or.  Fought  in  the  first  year  of  the  Corinthian  war.  The 
Athenians,  Thebans,  Argivee,  and  Corinthians  having  entered  into  a  league,  ofienaiTe 
and  defensive,  against  Sparta,  Agesilaus,  after  diflusing  the  terror  of  his  arms,  from 
his  many  victories,  even  into  Upper  Asia,  engaged  the  allies  at  Coronea,  a  town  of 
Bceotia,  and  achieved  a  great  victory  over  them,  394  B.O. — Com,  Nepa$, 

CORONERS.  They  were  officers  of  the  realm  in  ▲.!>.  925.  Coroners  for  every  county 
in  England  were  first  appointed  by  statute  of  Westminster,  4  Edw.  I.  1276. — Stcwe. 
Coroners  were  instituted  in  Scotland  in  the  reign  of  Malcolm  II.  about  1004.  By  an 
act  passed  in  the  6  &  7  Yiot.  coroners  are  enabled  to  appoint  deputies  to  act  for  them, 
but  only  in  case  of  illness,  Aug.  22, 1843. 

CORONETS.  The  caps  or  inferior  crowns,  of  various  forms,  that  distinguish  the  rank  of 
the  nobility,  llie  coronets  for  earls  were  first  allowed  by  Henry  III. ;  for  Tiaoounts 
by  Henry  YIII. ;  and  for  barons  by  Charles  II. — Baker.  But  authoritiea  conflict 
Sir  Robert  Cecil,  earl  of  Salisbury,  was  the  first  of  the  degree  of  earl  who  wore  a 
coronet,  1604. — BeaUon,  It  is  uncertain  when  the  coronets  of  dukes  and  marquesses 
were  settled. — Jdim. 

CORPORATIONS.  They  are  stated  by  Livy  to  have  been  of  yery  high  antiquity  amonic 
the  Romans.  Thev  were  introduced  into  other  countries  from  Italy.  These  political 
bodies  were  first  planned  by  Numa,  in  order  to  break  the  force  of  the  two  rival 
factions  of  Sabines  and  Romans,  by  instituting  separate  societies  of  every  manual 
trade  and  profession. — Plutarch. 

CORPORATIONS,  MUNICIPAL,  in  ENGLAND.  Bodies  poUtic,  authorised  by  the 
king's  charter  to  have  a  common  seal,  one  head  officer,  or  more,  and  members,  who 
are  able,  by  their  common  consent,  to  grant  or  receive  in  law,  any  matter  within  the 
compass  of  their  charter. — CoweL  Corporations  were  formed  by  charters  of  ri^ts 
granted  by  the  kings  of  England  to  various  towns,  first  by  Edward  the  Confessor. 
Henry  I.  granted  charters,  ▲.D.  1100:  and  succeeding  monarchs  gave  corporate 
powers,  and  extended  them  to  numerous  large  communitiee  throughout  the  realm, 
subject  to  tests,  oaths  and  conditions. — Blcicmtone.  The  Corporation  and  Test  Aet 
Repeal  bill  passed  9  Geo.  lY.  c  17,  May,  1828.  The  Corporation  Reform  bill,  for  the 
regulation  of  municipal  corporations  in  England  and  Wales,  passed  6  &  6  WilL  FY.  c. 
76,  Sept  9, 1835.  The  Irish  Municipal  Corporation  bill,  altering  the  entire  atruoture 
of  corporations  in  Ireland,  passed  4  Yict.  c.  108,  Aug.  10, 1840. 

CORPULENCY.  The  most  extraordinary  instances  of  corpulency  occur  in  En^an^ 
where  many  persons  are  loaded  with  flesh  or  fat, — Corwtro.  in  Qermany  aom«  ht 
monks  have  weighed  eighteen  nione.— Bender,  Of  modem  instances  known  in  this 
country,  was  Mr.  Bright,  a  tallow-chandler  and  grocer,  of  Maiden,  in  Essex,  who  died 
in  the  29th  year  of  his  oge.  Seven  persons  of  the  common  niae  were  with  ease 
enclosed  in  his  waistcoat.     He  was  buried  at  All   Saints,  Maiden,  Nov.  12, 1760. 


COB  187  COS 

Danioi  Lambert,  sappoeed  to  have  been  the  heaneet  man  that  ever  lived,  died  in  hie 
40Ui  jear,  at  Stamford,  in  Lineolnshire,  weighing  ten  atone  more  than  Mr.  Bright, 
June  21. 1809.  He  is  said  to  have  weighed  52  stone,  11  pounds.  James  Mansfield 
died  at  Debden,  Nov.  9,  1856,  aged  82,  weighing  88  stone,  14  pounds. 

CORREOIDOR.  An  officer  of  justice  in  Spain,  and  in  the  countries  subject  to  the 
Spanish  government,  acting  as  the  chief  judicial  minister  in  a  town  or  province ;  the 
office  existed  before  the  name,  which  is  referred  to  the  fifteenth  century.  A  similar 
functionary  heads  the  poUce  msgistrscy  in  Portu^^ 

CORROSIYB  SUBLIMATE.  A  preparation  of  quicksilver  which,  when  impregnated 
with  acids  and  sublimed  to  the  top,  is  called  corrosive  sublimate,  from  its  deadly 
eating  and  corroding  nature. — JBiti.  Phy$ic.  A  compound,  in  chemistry,  which  is 
200  of  mercury  and  72  of  chlorine ;  this  preparation  is  said  to  have  been  known  to 
the  Arabians  so  early  as  the  tenth  century. — A  the, 

CORSICA.  Called  by  the  Greeks  Oymot.  The  ancient  mhabitants  of  this  island  were 
savage,  and  bore  the  character  of  robbers,  liars,  and  atheists,  according  to  Seneca 
when  he  lived  among  them.  It  was  held  by  the  Cai-thaginians,  and  was  conquered 
by  the  Bomans,  231  B.a  In  modem  times,  Corsica  was  dependent  upon  the  republic 
of  Genoa,  until  U80 ;  and  was  sold  to  France  in  1788.  It  was  erected  into  a  kiugdom 
under  Theodore,  its  first  and  only  king,  in  1786.*  The  celebrated  Pascal  Paofi  was 
choeen  for  their  general  by  the  Corsioans,  in  1758.  He  was  defeated  by  the  count 
de  Yaux,  and  fled  to  England,  1769.  The  people  acknowledged  Geo.  IIL  of  England 
for  their  king,  June  17, 1794,  when  sir  Gilbert  Elliott  was  made  viceroy,  and  he 
opened  a  parliament  in  1795.  A  revolt  was  suppressed  in  June,  1796;  and  the 
iidand  was  relinquished  by  tbe  Bntiah,  Oct.  22,  same  year,  when  the  people  declared 
for  the  French. 

COBTES  or  SPAIN.  A  deliberative  assembly  under  the  old  constitution  of  Spain ; 
■everal  times  set  sside.  The  oortes  were  newly  assembled  after  a  long  interval  of 
years,  Sept.  24, 1810 ;  and  they  settled  the  new  oonstitution,  March  16, 1812.  This 
constitution  was  set  aside  by  Ferdinand  VII.  who  banished  many  members  of  the 
assembly  in  May,  1814.  The  cortes  or  states-general  were  opened  by  Ferdinand  VII. 
1820,  and  have  since  been  regularly  convened. — See  Spain, 

CORUNNA,  BATTLE  or.  The  British  army,  under  the  command  of  sir  John  Moore, 
amounting  to  about  15,000  men,  had  just  accomplished  a  safe  retreat  when  they  were 
attacked  by  the  French,  whoae  force  exceeded  20,000  :  the  enemy  were  completely 
repulsad,  but  the  loss  of  the  British  in  the  battle  was  immense.  The  illustrious  and 
honoured  hero  in  command  was  struck  by  a  cannon-ball,  which  carried  away  his  left 
shoulder  and  part  of  the  collar-bone,  leaving  the  arm  hai^ging  by  the  flesh ;  he  died 
in  the  arms  of  victory,  univereaUy  lamented.  In  the  evening  of  the  day  of  battle, 
the  remains  of  the  army  hastily  embarked  at  Corunna,  Jan.  16, 1809. 

CORYBANTICA,  FESTIYALS  or.  Held  at  Gnossus,  in  Crete,  in  commemoration  of 
the  Corybantes,  priests  of  Cybele :  they  fint  inhabited  Mount  Ida,  and  from  thence 
passed  into  Crete,  where  they  are  said  to  have  secretly  educated  Jupiter. — Morace. 
In  the  celebration  of  these  festivals  they  beat  their  cymbals  in  the  dance^  and  acted 
as  if  delirious,  1546  KO.'—ThuejfdideM, 

CORTPH  JSUS.  The  name  given  to  the  principal  of  those  who  compose  the  chorus  in 
the  sneient  tragedy ;  and  now  a  general  name  for  a  chief  or  principid  of  any  company. 
— South.  This  appellative  occun  in  describing  the  choruses  taught  by  Tysiss,  after- 
wards named  Stesichorus,  on  account  of  his  having  been  the  fint  who  instructed  the 
chorus  to  dance  to  the  lyre,  556  B.O. 

COSliETICS.  Preparations  for  improving  beauty  were  known  to  the  ancients,  and  some 
authorities  refer  them  even  to  mythology,  and  othera  to  the  Grecian  stage.  The 
Roman  ladies  painted ;  and  those  of  Italy  excelled  in  heightening  their  charms  arti- 

*  He  came  to  Enfflaud,  where  he  was  Imprisoned  in  the  mug's  Bench  prison  fur  debt,  and  for 
oiauy  yean  subsistod  on  the  benevolenoe  of  piivate  friends.  Having  been  released  by  an  act  of  insol- 
veucy  in  1756,  he  gave  in  his  schedule  the  klDgdom  of  Corsica  as  an  estate  to  his  creditors,  and  died 
the  same  year  at  Lis  lodgings  in  8oho.  The  luu-1  of  Oxford  wrote  the  foUo?ring  epitaph,  on  a  tablet 
near  his  gtave,  in  St.  Anne's  church,  Desn-street : — 

*'  The  grsTe,  groat  teacher  I  to  a  level  brings 
Heroes  and  beggars,  galley-slaves  and  kUiga. 
But  Theodore  this  moral  leam'd  ere  dead ; 
Fiite  poured  Its  lesson  on  his  living  head, 
BeeUm'd  a  kingdom  and  denied  him  bread." 


COS  188  COT 

.  fidally,  by  juices  and  coloura,  and  by  perfumes.  Rouge  has  always  been  in  disrepute 
among  virtuous  women  of  England,  though  some  simple  catmetia  are  regarded  as 
innocent  and  are  in  general  use. — A  the.  The  females  of  France  and  Germany  paint 
more  highly  than  most  other  nations. — Richardson.  A  stamp  was  laid  on  cosmetics, 
perfumery,  and  such  medicines  as  really  or  supposititiously  beautify  the  skin,  or  per- 
fume the  person,  and  the  venders  were  obliged  to  take  out  licences,  25th  Gbo.  IIL  1 786. 

COSHOQRAPHT.  The  science  which  teaches  the  structure,  form,  disposition,  and 
relation  of  the  parts  of  the  world,  or  the  manner  of  representing  it  on  a  plane. — 
Selden,  It  consists  of  two  parts,  astronomy  and  geography :  the  earliest  accounts  of 
the  former  occur  2284  B.O. — Blair.  The  first  record  of  the  latter  is  from  Homer,  who 
describes  the  shield  of  Achilles  as  representing  the  earth* — Iliad,  See  the  articles  on 
Astronomy  and  Oeography  respectlTely. 

COSSACKS.  The  warlike  people  inhabitmg  the  confines  of  Poland,  Rossia,  Tartary,  and 
Turkey.  They  at  first  lived  by  plundering  the  Turkish  galleys  and  the  people  of 
Natolia :  they  were  formed  into  a  regular  army  by  Stephen  Batori,  in  1576,  to  defend 
the  frontiers  of  Russia  from  the  incursions  of  the  Tartars.  In  the  late  great  war  of 
Europe  against  iVance,  a  vast  body  of  Cossacks  formed  a  portion  of  the  Russian 
armies,  and  fought  almost  invincibly. 

COSTA  RICA  A  republic  in  Central  America  established  in  1 848.  It  has  been  much 
disturbed  by  the  American  Filibusters.    See  Ntcaragtta,  and  dsntral  Americcu 

COSTUME.  See  Dreu,  Accounts  of  magnificent  attire  refer  to  very  remote  antiqmty. 
The  costume  of  the  Qrecian  and  Roman  ladies  was  comely  and  graceful.  The  women 
of  Cos,  whose  country  was  famous  for  the  silkworm,  wore  a  manufacture  of  cotton 
and  silk  of  so  beautiful  and  delicate  a  texture,  And  their  garments,  which  were  always 
white,  were  so  clear  and  thin,  that  their  bodies  could  be  seen  through  them. — Ovii, 
As  relates  to  costume  worn  on  the  stage,  ^schylus  the  Athenian  was,  it  is  said,  the 
first  who  erected  a  regular  stage  for  his  actors,  and  ordered  their  dresses  to  be  suited 
to  their  characters,  about  436  B.c. — Parian  Marbles, 

COTTAGER'S  STOVE.  This  useful  invention  was  designed  by  captain  John  Grant,* 
registered  Dec.  1849,  end  presented  by  him  to  the  Metropolitan  Association  for 
improving  the  dwellings  of  the  industrious  classes.  It  requires  no  fixing,  is  extremely 
simple  in  its  construction,  and  all  the  operations  of  cooking  may  be  carried  on  with 
any  description  of  fueL  100  lbs.  of  meat  and  115  lbs.  of  vegetables  have  been  cooked 
in  one  of  these  stoves,  with  less  than  20  lbs.  of  coal. 

COTTAGES  IN  ENGLAND.  The  English  cottage  is,  perhaps,  the  happiest  dwelling  on 
the  earth,  and  its  cleanly  hearth  and  general  aspect  and  economy  indicate  the  social 
order  of  its  inmates ;  even  though  homely  it  is  fiill  of  comforts  and  the  abode  of  con- 
tentment.— Richoi'dion,  The  home  of  the  husbandman  has  considerably  improved  in 
England  in  the  last  century. — HaU,  The  term  cottage  originally  applied  to  a  small 
house  without  land,  4  Edward  I.  1275.  **  No  man  may  build  a  cottage,  except  in 
towns,  unless  he  lay  four  acres  of  land  thereto,*'  kc  81  Eliz.  1589.  This  statute  was 
repealed,  15  Geo.  III.  1774.  By  returns  to  the  Tax  office,  in  1786,  the  number  of 
cottages  was  284,459.  The  number  in  1800  was  428,214 ;  the  number  in  1840  was 
about  770,000.    There  are  no  daia  to  show  the  amount  since. 

COTTON,  a  vegetable  wool,  the  produce  of  a  shrub  growing  naturally  in  tropical 

climates,  whence  it  has  been  transplanted  to  the  United  States  of  America,  which 

produced  in  1824-5,  560,000  bales,  and  in  1847-8,  2,347,684  bales.    The  method  of 

spinning  cotton  formerly  was  by  the  hand ;   but  about  1767,  Mr.  Hargreavea,  of 

I^ncashire,  invented  the  spinning-jenny  with  eight  spindles ;   he  also  erected  the 

first  carding-machine  with  cylinders.    Sir  Richard  Arkwright  obtained  a  patent  for  a 

new  invention  of  machinery  in  1769;   and  another  patent  for  an  engme  in  1775. 

Crompton  invented  the  mule,  a  further  and  wonderml  improvement  in  the  mann- 

iacture  of  cotton,  in  1779;    and  various  other  improvements  have  been  since  made. 

The  names  of  Peel  and  Arkwright  are  eminently  conspicuous  in  connection  with  this 

vast  source  of  British  industry ;   and  it  is  calculated  that  more  than  one  thousand 

millions  sterling  have  been  yielded  by  it  to  Great  Britain.    Cotton  manufactuiem' 

» 
*  Captain  Omnt  deriaed  a  tystem  of  cooking  for  Aldenhott,  whieli  has  oontinuttd  in  suooeasAil 
operation  for  the  service  of  between  12,000  and  14,000  men,  for  theee  last  twenty  months  (May,  1857). 
IVom  April  to  August,  in  the  last  year,  it  was  aubjected  to  the  levere  test  of  cooking  for  92,000  men, 
who  marched  in  and  out  of  the  encampment  during  that  period.  The  consuinptlan  of  ftiel  requisite 
for  this  Bystem  of  oooldng  is  one  half-pound  of  coal  per  man  per  dav,  and  the  ofnoial  rqxni  atatea  the 
eoet  to  be  one  hi^^penny  per  man  per  week  for  the  three  dally  meau. 


COT 


189 


COU 


Qtenails  were  prohibited  from  being  exported  in  1774.  There  have  pasaed  of  late 
yean  many  important  acts  regulating  cotton  fiM^tories,  and  particularly  relating  to 
the  employment  of  children ;  among  thete  are  the  acts  of  6  Oeo.  lY.  1825 ;  2  WiU. 
IV.  1831 ;  4  WiU.  IV.  Aug.  1833,  and  7  Vict.  June,  1844. 

COTTONIAN  LIBRARY,  formed  with  great  kbour,  and  judgment  by  sir  Robert 
Cotton,  A.D.  1600  et  seq.  After  having  been  with  difficulty  rescued  from  the  fury  of 
the  republicans  during  the  protectorate,  it  was  secured  to  the  public  by  a  statute, 
13  Will.  III.  1701.  It  was  removed  to  Essex-house  in  1712 ;  and  in  1730  to  DeanV 
yardy  Westminster,  where,  on  Oct  23, 1731,  a  purt  of  the  books  sustained  damoge  by 
fire.    The  library  was  removed  to  the  British  Museum  in  1753. 

COUNCILS.  An  English  council  is  of  very  early  origin.  The  wise  Alfred,  to  whom  W9 
are  indebted  for  many  excellent  institutions,  so  arranged  the  business  of  the  nation, 
that  all  resolutions  passed  through  three  councils.  The  first  was  a  select  council,  to 
which  those  only  high  in  the  king's  confidence  were  admitted ;  here  were  debated  all 
affiurs  that  were  to  be  laid  before  the  second  council,  which  consisted  of  bishops  and 
nobles,  and  resembled  the  present  privy  council,  and  none  belonged  to  it  but  those 
whom  the  king  was  pleased  to  appoint.  The  third  was  a  general  council  or  assembly 
of  the  nation,  called  in  Saxon,  Wittenagemot,  to  which  quality  and  offices  gave  a 
right  to  sit,  independent  of  the  king.  In  these  three  councils  we  behold  the  origin  of 
the  cabinet  and  privy  councils,  and  the  antiquity  of  parliaments ;  but  the  term 
Cabinet  Council  is  of  a  much  more  modem  date,  acconung  to  lord  Clarendon.  See 
Cabinet  Council,  Common  CoumcU,  Privy  Council,  &c. 

COUNCILS  OF  THE  CHURCH.  The  following  are  among  the  most  memorable  Christian 
councils,  or  councils  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  Most  other  councils  (the  list  of  which 
would  make  a  volume)  either  respected  national  churches  or  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment.   Sir  Harris  Nicolcu  enumerates  1604  councils. 


50 


314 


Of  the  Apostles  at  Jemaalem  .        .  a.d. 
Of  the  western    bishops  st   Aries,   in 

Pmaoe,  to  suppress  the    Donatists; 

throe  Cithers  of  the  English  church 

attendel 

The  first  (Ecumenical  or  General  Nicene. 

held  at  Nice  (Constantine  the  Qreot 

presidedX  on  the  con-substantiality  of 

the  Son  of  God;  Arianism  condemned. 

This  council   composed  the    Nicene 

creed 

At  Tyro,  when  the  doctrine  of  AthflOA- 

sius  was  canvassed       .... 
The  first  held  at  Oonstantinople,  when 

the  Arian  heresy  gained  gronud     .    . 
At  Rome,  concerning  Athanasjus,  which 

lasted  eighteen  months 
At  Sardis ;  370  bishops  attended,  Arians 

condemned 
Of  Rimtni ;  400  bishops  attended,  and 

Constantine  obliffed  them  to  sign  a 

new  confeasion  of  fiiith 
The  second  General  at  Constantinople : 

350  bishops  attended,  and  pope  Duma- 

sius  prasided 

The  thud  at  EphesuSt  when  pope  Celes- 

tine  presided 

Fourth  at  Chalcedon :  the  emperor  Mar- 
dan  and  his  empress  attended        .    . 
The  fifth  at  Gonstantmople,  when  pope 

VigiUtis  presided 

The  sixth  at  Constantinople,  when  pope 

Agatho  presided 660 

AutAoritv  of  the  six  general  councUa 

re-established  by  Theodosius 
The   second   Nioene   council,    soTenth 

General:  850  biahops atteaded       .    . 
Of  Constantinople,  eighth  General :  the 

emperor  Basil  attended 
Of  tiermont,  in  France,  convened  by 

Urban  II.  to  authorise  the  crusades; 

810  bisbopa  attended        .        . 
Ttie  first  Lateran,  the  ninth  General ; 


825 
335 
337 
348 
347 


350 


381 
431 
451 
553 


715 
787 
869 


1094 


id 


the  rifht  of   investiture  settled 

treaty  oetweon  pope  Galixtus  11.  an 

the  emperor  Henry  V.    .  a.d.  1122 

The  second  Laterun,  tenth  General ;  In- 
nocent II.  presided :  the  preservatiou 
of  the  temporalities  of  ecclesisstics, 
the  principal  subject^  which  occasion- 
ed the  attendance  of  1000  Ikthers  of 
the  churoh    ......  1180 

The  third  Lateran,  eleventh  General: 
held  against  schiamatics  .    . 

Fourth  Lateran,  twelfth  General:  400 
bishops  and  1000  aboots  attended :  In- 
nocent III.  presided      .... 

Of  Lyons,  the  thirteenth  General,  under 
pope  Innocent  IV 

Of  Lyons,  the  fourteentli  General,  under 
Grc)jp>ry  X 

Of  Vienue  in  Dauphind,  the  fifteenth 
Gtoueral :  Clement  V  presided,  and  the 
kiugs  of  Prance  and  Aragon  attended. 
The  order  of  the  Ku%ht-Templars 
suppressed 

Of  Pisa,  the  sixteenth  General :  Gregory 
XII.  and  Benedict  XIII.  deposed,  and 
Alexander  elected        .... 

Of  Constance,  the  seventeenth  General : 
Martin  V.  Is  elected  pope  ;  and  John 
Hues  and  Jerome  of  Pxngue  con- 
demned to  be  burnt  .        •    . 

Of  Basil,  the  eighteenth  General    . 

The  fifth  Lateran,  the  nineteenth  Gene- 
ral:  begun  bv  Julius  II.  •    « 

Continued  tmder  Leo  X.  for  the  sup- 

fression  of  the  pragmatic  sanction  of 
'rauce,  against  the  council  of  Piaa» 
Ac ,  till  ...... 

Of  Trent,  the  twentieth  and  last  General 
council  styled  Oicumenical,  as  regard- 
ing the  aflhire  of  all  the  Christian 
world  :  it  was  held  to  condemn  the 
doctrines!  of  tlio  reformers,  Luther, 
Zuiugliusy  and  Calvin-^AbM  Lenfftd    .  1545 


1179 


1215 
1245 


1274 


1811 


1409 


1414 
1431 

1512 


1517 


COtJNCILS,  FRENCH  REPUBLICAN.    The  councU  of  Ancibnts  was  an  assembly  of 
roTolutionaiy  France,  consisting  of  250  membersy  instituted  at  Paris,  Nov.  1,  1795, 


COU  190  COU 

togother  with  the  council  of  Fiye  Hnin>itBD :  the  executiye  was  a  Direetory  of  Fnrs. 
Bonaparte  di^peraed  the  conndl  of  Vlye  Hundred  at  St.  Cloud,  Not.  9,  1799,  declaring 
himself,  Roger  Ducoe,  and  Si^yte,  consuls  provitoirei.    See  France, 

COUNSEL.  See  Barritters,  Counsel  are  supposed  to  be  coeval  with  the  ewia  regis, 
AdTOcatea  are  referred  to  the  time  of  Edward  L  but  earlier  mention  is  made  of 
them.  Counsel  were  certainly  employed  in  the  previous  reign.  Counsel  who  were 
guilty  of  Heoeit  or  collusion  were  punishable  by  the  statute  of  Westminster,  IS  Edw. 
1. 1284.  Counsel  were  allowed  to  persons  charged  with  treason  by  act  8  Will.  III. 
1696.  Act  to  enable  persons  indicted  for  felony  to  make  their  defence  by  counsel, 
6  &  7  Will.  lY.  c.  114,  passed  Aug.  1886. 

COUNTIES.  The  division  of  this  kingdom  into  counties  began,  it  ia  said,  with  king 
Alfred  ;  but  some  counties  bore  their  present  names  a  centniy  before.  Tlie  division 
of  Ireland  into  counties  took  place  in  1562.  County  courts  were  instituted  in  the 
reign  of  Alfred,  896.  Counties  first  sent  members  to  parliament,  before  whidi  period 
knights  met  in  their  own  counties,  1285.    See  Cammans,  and  Pariiammt. 

COUNTT  DEBT-COURTS.*  These  are  courts  first  instituted  for  the  recovery  of  debts 
under  20/.,  superseding  courts  of  requests.  The  counties  of  England  and  Wales  are 
divided  into  sixty  districts,  each  district  having  a  county  court,  and  a  barrister  as 
judge,  and  juries  sworn  when  necessary.  Established  under  act  9  &  10  Vict.  c.  95, 
Aug.  1846.  These  courts  having  been  found  to  work  well,  their  jurisdiction  was 
extended  by  13  ft  16  Vict  c.  61,  Aug.  1850,  to  sums  not  exceeding  502L  and  their 
proceediniff  faciliUted  by  15  &  16  Vict  c  54.  June  30,  1852,  and  17  &  18  Viet  c.  16, 
June  2, 1854.  In  1850,  the  number  of  plaints  entered  at  the  courts  of  the  sixty 
circuits,  was  366,798,  for  1,265,1152. ;  the  number  of  causes  tried  was  217,178,  and  of 
these  4297  were  for  sums  between  20/.  and  502. — QjMal  JUiwma, 

COURIERS,  OB  Posts.  Xenopbon  attributes  the  first  couriers  to  Cyrus ;  and  Hero- 
dotus says  that  they  were  common  among  the  Persiana  But  it  does  not  appear 
that  the  Greeks  or  Romans  bad  regular  couriers  till  the  time  of  Augustus,  when  they 
travelled  in  cars,  about  24  B.a  Couriers  or  posts  are  said  to  have  been  instituted  in 
France  by  Charlemagne,  about  a.d.  800.  The  couriers  or  posts  for  letters  wero 
established  in  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XI.  of  Franee,  owing  to  this 
monarch's  extraordinary  eagerness  for  news.  They  were  the  first  institution  of  the 
kind  in  Europe,  a.d.  1463. — ffenatdt, 

COURT  PARTY— COUNTRY  PARTY.  The  latter  was  usually  directly  opposed  in 
sentiment  and  opinions  to  the  former,  and  was  a  class  of  politicians  of  very  fluctuating 
numbers  and  varying  power,  in  the  parliaments  of  England.  The  country  party  took 
its  rise  as  early  as  1620,  and  became  considerable  during  the  disputes  of  Uie  king  and 
commons.  At  the  end  of  the  17th  century  it  embodied  the  high  toryism  and 
high  church  principles  of  the  day,  with  a  strenuous  maintenance  of  the  assumed 
rights  of  "  the  land,  as  opposed  to  the  innovations  of  Whiggism  and  the  corruptions 
of  the  trading  or  moneyed  interests.  The  most  distinguished  statesman  of  the 
Country  Party  was  sir  Thomas  Hanmer  (the  Montalto  of  Pope's  Satires),  who  died 
in  1746.— iljAe. 

COURTS.  Courts  of  justice  were  instituted  at  Athens,  1507  B.O.  See  Areopagifte,  There 
were  courts  for  the  distribution  of  justice  in  Athens,  in  1272  &o. — Bfair,  They 
existed  under  various  denominations  in  Rome,  and  other  countrie&  For  courts  of 
justice  in  these  realms,  see  Chancery,  Common  Pleoi^  Extheqwr,  JTing^s  Bench,  Ac 
The  citizens  of  London  were  privileged  to  plead  their  own  cause  in  the  oourts  of 
judicature,  without  employing  lawyers,  except  in  pleas  of  the  crown,  41  Hen. 
III.  1257. — Siowe*s  Chron,  The  rights  of  the  courts  of  law  of  Ireland  were  esta- 
blished by  a  British  act  of  parliament,  in  April,  1788,  23  Geo.  III.  o.  28. 

COURT  BARON.  An  ancient  court  which  every  lord  of  a  manor  may  hold  by  prescrip- 
tion, and  which  he  may  keep  in  some  part  of  the  manor.  The  court  baron  is  supposed 
to  have  originated  with  the  distinction  of  nobility.  In  this  court,  duties,  heriots^ 
and  customs  are  received,  and  estates  and  surrenders  are  passed. 

COURT  OF  HONOUR.    In  England,  the  court  of  chivalry,  of  which  ifae  lord  high 

*  Cofinty-oourts,  or  schyremotes,  are  of  nuch  remote  antiquity  that  their  origin  is  loaL  In  the 
time  of  the  Siaxons  they  were  the  most  imnortant  tribunals  in  this  oountiy.  AliVed  k  said  to  ha^e 
divided  England  into  counties,  and  counties  into  hundreds ;  but  the  oounty-cmuts,  the  crealioii  ct 
whieh  is  Renerally  attributed  to  him,  would  seem  to  have  existed  at  a  poiod  long  anterior  to  hte 
reign,  and  to  have  been  an  eesential  part  of  the  Baxon  Judicial  system. 


COU  191  COV 

ohanoellor  was  a  judge,  waa  called  Curia  JHUUarii,  in  the  time  of  Heory  IV.  and 
subsequently  the  Court  of  Honour.  In  the  States  of  Bavaria,  in  order  to  prevent 
duelling,  a  court  of  honour  was  instituted  in  April,  1819.  In  these  countries,  Mr. 
Joseph  Hamilton  for  many  yean  ardently  laboured  to  establish  similar  institutions. 

COUBT  LEET.  A  court  of  record,  belonging  to  a  hundred,  instituted  for  punishing 
encroachments,  nuisances,  and  fraudulent  weights  and  measures^  and  also  offences 
against  the  crown.  The  steward  is  the  judge,  and  all  persons  residing  within  the 
hundred  (peersy  clergymen,  &c.  excepted)  are  obliged  to  do  suit  within  this  court. 

COCTBT  OT  REQUESTS.  This  court,  which  is  also  called  a  Court  of  Conscience,  was 
first  instituted  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  1493,  and  was  remodelled  by  a  statute  of 
Henry  VIII.  in  1617. — Stowe.  Established  for  the  summary  recovery  of  small  debts 
under  forty  shillings^  but  in  the  city  of  London,  the  jurisdiction  extends  to  debts  of 
five  pounds. — Aake,  There  were  courts  of  requests  in  the  principal  corporate  towns 
throughout  the  kingdom,  until  1847,  when  they  were  superseded  (those  of  the  eity 
of  London  only  excepted)  by  the  County  Debt-Courts,  whose  jurisdiction,  extending 
at  first  to  2QL  was  enhurged  in  1850  to  502.    See  Omniy  Courte. 

COVE  K ANTE  RS.  The  name  which  was  particularly  applied  to  those  persons  who  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  L  took  the  solemn  league  and  covenant,  thereby  mutually 
engaging  to  stand  by  each  other  in  opposition  to  the  projects  of  the  kmg ;  it  was 
entered  Into  in  1638.  The  covenant  or  league  between  England  and  Scotland  was 
formed  in  1643 ;  and  was  declared  to  be  illegal  by  parliament,  14  Chas.  IL,  1662. 

COVENT  GARDEN.  So  called  from  having  been  formerlv  the  garden  of  St  Peter's 
convent.  The  square  was  built  about  1638,  and  its  noble  piazza  on  the  north  side 
was  designed  by  Inigo  Jones.  The  shops,  stalls,  and  stores  of  the  fruit  and  vegetable 
maikets  were  rebuilt  in  1829-30  from  the  designs  of  Mr.  Fowler.  They  occupy  about 
three  aores  of  ground  belonging  to  the  duke  of  Bedford. 

COVENT  GARDEN  THEATRE.  This  theatre  spmog  out  of  the  celebrated  one  in 
LinoolnVinn-fielda,  and  is  indebted  for  its  origin  to  a  patent  granted  14  Chas.  II.  1662, 
to  sir  William  Davenant,  whose  company  was  denominated  the  duke's  servants,  as  a 
compliment  to  the  duke  of  Toric,  afterwards  James  II.  The  theatre  which  preceded 
the  last  was  first  opened  by  the  celebrated  Rich,  about  1732,  but  after  under- 
going several  alterations,  was  destroyed  by  fire,  Sept  20,  1808.  The  last  theatre 
vras  erected  during  the  ensuing  year,  the  first  stone  having  been  laid  by  the  prince  of 
Wales,  Dea  31, 1808,  and  it  opened  Sept  18,  1809,  with  Macbeth,  The  memorable 
O.  P.  riot,  on  account  of  the  increased  prices  of  admission,  commenced  on  the  first 
night,  and  did  not  terminate  until  Dea  10  following.  The  Covent  Garden  Theatrical 
Fund  was  instituted  in  1765.  This  theatre  was  opened  as  an  Italian  opera-house,  April 
6, 1847« — It  was  totally  destroyed  by  fire,  which  broke  out  about  five  o'clock  in 
the  morning  of  March  5, 1856,  at  the  close  of  a  bal-masqu^,  conducted  by  Mr.  Anderson, 
the  Wizard  of  tiie  North,  which  had  lasted  two  days.  A  new  theatre  is  about  to  be 
erected.    See  Drama,  Theatres,  fto. 

COVENTRY.  Leofric,  earl  of  Mercia,  lord  of  Coventiy,  about  a.d.  1040,  is  said  to  have 
relieved  it  from  heavy  taxes,  at  the  intercession  of  his  wife  Godiva,  on  condition  of 
her  riding  naked  through  the  streets,  about  1057.  A  parliament  was  held  here  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  called  parUametUum  indocttim,  or  the  unlearned  parliament, 
because  lawyers  were  excluded ;  and  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  another  senatorial 
congress  took  place  at  Coventry,  which  was  afterwards  called  pariiamentwn  diabolievm 
from  the  acts  of  attainder  passed  aoainst  the  duke  of  York  and  others.  The  town  is 
well  built,  and  was  surrounded  with  strong  walls,  three  miles  in  circumference^  and 
twenty-six  towers,  which  were  demolished  by  order  of  Charles  IL  in  1662. 

COVENTRY  ACT.  Sir  John  Coventry,  K.  K  and  a  member  of  parliament,  was 
attacked,  wounded,  and  maimed  in  the  streets  of  London,  and  his  nose  slit,  by  sir 
Thomas  Sandys  and  others,  his  adherents,  on  Christmas-day,  Dec.  25,  1670.  This 
outrage  caused  a  bill,  named  the  Coventry  act,  to  be  passed  on  March  6  following,  to 
prevent  malicious  maiming  and  wounding,  22  Charles  II.  1671. — Saltnon, 

COVENTRY,  BISHOPRIC  of.  Founded  by  Oswy,  king  of  Merda,  ad.  656.  This  see 
had  the  double  name  of  Coventry  and  Lichfield,  which  was  reversed  by  tiie  later 
bishops.  It  was  so  extremely  wealthy,  that  king  Ofia,  by  the  favour  of  pope  Adrian, 
made  it  archiepiscopal ;  but  this  title  was  laid  aside  on  the  death  of  that  king.  In 
1075  the  see  was  removed  to  Chester ;  in  1102,  to  Coventry;  and  afterwards  to  its 
original  foundation,  Lichfield,  but  with  great  opposition  from  the  monks  of  Coventry. 


cow  192  CRA 

The  dispute  was  finally  settled  in  a  manner  nearly  similar  to  that  mentioned  between 
Bath  and  Wells,  and  afterwards  the  see  was  called  that  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry. 
But  Coventry  has  lately  altogether  merged  into  the  bishopric  of  Lichfield.  Soe 
LUH^dd,    Coventry  has  given 'three  saints  to  the  Church  of  Rome. — Beatton, 

COWPOCK  INOCULATION.    See  InocuUUum,  SmaU  Pox,  Vaccination. 

CRACOW.  The  Poles  elected  Cracas  for  their  duke,  and  he  built  Cracow  with  the  spoils 
taken  from  the  Franks,  A.D.  700  et  aeq.  Cracow  taken  by  Charles  XII.  in  1702. 
Taken  and  reti^en  several  times  by  the  Russians  and  confederates  on  the  one  side, 
and  the  patriotic  people  on  the  other.  The  sovereign  was  cronwed  at  Cncow  until 
1764.  Kosciusko  expelled  the  Russians  from  the  city,  March  24,  1794 ;  but  it 
surrendered  to  the  Prussians,  June  15  same  year.  Cracow  was  formed  into  a 
republic  in  1815.  Occupied  by  10,000  Russians,  who  followed  here  the  defeated 
Poles,  Sept.  1831.  Its  independence  extinguished  ;  seized  by  the  emperor  of  Austria* 
and  incorporated  (as  before  1809)  with  the  Austrian  empire,  Nov.  16,  1846.*  A 
dreadful  fire  laid  the  greater  part  of  the  city  in  ashes,  July  18, 1850. 

CRANES.  They  are  of  very  early  date,  for  the  engines  of  Archimedes  may  be  so  called. 
The  crane  is  used  for  lifting  goods  out  of  or  into  a  ship,/>r  a  warehouse,  when  the 
latter  is  above  the  level  of  the  ground.  To  Archimedes  also  belong  the  theory  of  the 
inclined  plane,  and  the  invention  of  the  pulley,  &c.  220  B.C. — lAvy, 

CRANIOLOGT  (afterwards  Phrenoloot).  Names  given  to  the  study  of  the  external  form 
of  the  human  skidl,  as  indicative  of  mental  powers  and  moral  qualities.  Dr.  Oall,  the 
first  propounder  of  this  branch  of  knowledge,  was  a  German  physician,  bom  March,  1758. 
His  first  observations  were  among  his  schoolfellows.  Afterwiurds  he  studied  the  heada 
of  criminals  and  others,  and  eventually  reduced  his  ideas  to  a  system,  marking  out  the 
skull  like  a  map.  His  first  lecture  was  given  at  Vienna  in  1796.  In  1802  the  Austrian 
government  prohibited  his  teaching.  In  1800  he  was  joined  by  Dr.  Spurzheim;  and 
in  1810-12  they  published  at  Paris  their  great  work  on  the  "  Anatomy  and  PhysiolDgy 
of  the  Nervous  System,  and  of  the  Brain  in  particular."  Whatever  opinion  may  be 
entertained  of  phrenology,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  researches  of  Qall  and 
Spurzheim  have  contributed  greatly  to  physiological  science,  animal  and  mentaL 
Combe's  **  Phrenology "  is  the  popular  English  work  on  this  subject.  A  Phreno- 
logical Society  was  formed  in  London. 

CR ANMER,  LATIMER,  Aim  RIDLEY.  Illustrious  names  in  the  list  of  English  martyrs 
of  the  reformed  religion.  Ridley,  bishop  of  London,  and  Latimer,  bishop  of 
Worcester,  were  burnt  at  Oxford,  Oct  16, 1655 ;  and  Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Caster- 
buiy,  March  21, 1556.  His  love  of  life  had  induced  Cranmer,  some  time  previously, 
in  an  unguarded  moment,  to  sign  a  paper  wherein  he  condemned  the  Reformation ; 
and  when  he  was  led  to  the  sto^e,  and  the  fire  was  kindled  round  him,  he  stretched 
forth  his  right  hand,  with  which  he  had  signed  his  recantation,  that  it  might  be 
consumed  before  the  rest  of  his  body,  exclaiming  from  time  to  time,  "  This  unworthy 
hand !  "  Raising  his  eyes  to  heaven,  he  expired  with  the  dying  prayer  of  the  fint 
martyr  of  the  Christian  Church,  "  Lord  Jesus,  receive  my  spirit !  "    See  Afarfyra. 

CRANON,  BATTLES  of.  The  Macedonians  under  Antipater  and  Craterus  wera 
victorious  over  the  confederated  Greeks,  whom  they  defeated  twice  by  sea,  and  once 
by  land,  near  Cranon.  The  Athenians  demanded  peace,  and  Antipater  put  their 
orators  to  death,  among  whom  was  Hyperides,  who,  that  he  might  not  betray  the 
secrets  of  his  country  when  under  torture,  cut  out  his  tongue,  822,  B.a — Dv^frmoy. 

CRAPE.  A  light  kind  of  stuff  like  gauze,  made  of  raw  silk  gumm^  and  twisted  on  the 
mill.  Its  manufacture  is  of  very  early  date,  and  it  is  said  some  crape  was  made  by 
St.  Badour,  when  queen  of  Franco,  about  a.d.  680.  It  was  first  made  at  Bologna,  and 
in  modem  times  has  been  principally  used  for  mourning. 

CRAYANT.  John  Stuart,  earl  of  Buchan,  with  a  French  army,  was  besieging  this  place 
in  1423,  when  it  was  relieved  by  the  earl  of  Salisbury  with  an  army  of  English  and 
Burgundians ;  after  a  severe  contest,  the  French  were  totally  defeated. 

CRAYONS.  Substances  of  all  colours,  made  into  paste,  and  dried  into  pencils,  to  draw 
upon  paper. — Pardon.  They  were  known  in  France  about  ▲.D.  1422;  and  were 
improved  by  L'Oriot,  1748. 

•  This  annexatiou  was  subneqoently  protested  against  by  England,  Franco,  Sweden,  and  Ttu*ey ; 
btit  soon  afterwards  the  kingdom  of  Poland  was  incorporated  with  the  Buaaiaa  empuv,  and  made 
thenceforth  a  RuaaiaQ  province. 


CRE  193  GRE 

CREATION  OF  THE  WORLD.  It  ia  placed  by  Usher,  Blair,  and  Dufresnoy,  4004  B.O. 
Joaephua  makes  it  4658  years. — Whitlon.  The  first  date  agrees  with  the  common 
Hebrew  text,  and  the  yiiJgate  Latin  translation  of  the  Old  Testament.  There  are 
about  140  different  dates  assigned  to  the  Creation ;  some  place  it  8616  years  before 
the  birth  of  our  Saviour.  Plato,  in  his  dialogue  entitled  Oritiaa,  asserts  his  celebrated 
AtcUaniis  to  have  been  buried  in  the  ocean  about  9000  years  before  the  age  in  which 
he  wrote.  The  Chinese  represent  the  world  as  having  existed  some  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  years ;  and  we  are  told  that  the  astronomical  records  of  the  ancient 
Chaldeans  carried  back  the  origin  of  society  to  a  period  of  no  less  than  478,000  years. 

CREATION,  ERA  ov  ths.  In  use  by  many  nations.  This  era  would  be  found  con- 
venient^ by  doing  away  with  the  difficulty  and  ambiguity  of  counting  before  and  after 
any  particular  date,  as  is  necessary  when  the  era  begins  at  a  later  period ;  but  unfor- 
tunately, writers  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  right  time  of  commencmg.  The  epoch  is 
fixed  by  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  at  4700  b.o.  The  Septuagint  makes  it  5872.  The 
authors  of  the  Talmud  make  it  5844 ;  and  different  chronologers,  to  the  number  of 
120,  make  it  vary  from  the  Septuagint  date  to  8268.  Dr.  Hales  fixes  it  at  5411 ;  but 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  adopted  the  even  number  of  4000,  and  subsequently, 
a  correction  as  to  the  birth  of  Christ  adds  four  years :  therefore,  it  is  now  generally 
considered  as  4004  years,  which  agrees  with  the  modem  Hebrew  text. 

CREDIT  MOBILIER.  A  society  with  this  name  was  established  at  Paris,  Nor.  18, 
1852,  by  Isaac  and  Emile  Pereire,  and  others.  It  is  a  joint-stock  company,  and  takes 
up  or  ori^nates  trading  enterprises  of  all  kinds,  applying  to  them  the  principle  of 
eommiMndttS,  or  limited  liabilities;  and  is  authorised  to  supersede  or  buy  in  any  other 
companies  (replacing  their  shares  or  bonds  in  its  own  scrip),  and  also  to  carry  on  the 
ordinary  business  of  banking.  The  funds  were  to  be  obtained  by  a  paid-up  capital  of 
2$  million  sterling,  the  issue  of  obligations  at  not  less  than  45  days'  date  or  sight,  and 
the  receipt  of  money  on  deposit  or  current  account.  The  society  has  apparently 
prospered  up  to  the  present  time  (1857) ;  but  is,  nevertheless,  considered  by 
experienced  persons  as  a  near  approach  to  Law's  bank  of  1716,  and  likely  to  end 
diBBstrously. 

CRE£D.    See  ApotHe^",  Nicene,  and  other  creed*. 

CRESCENT.  A  symbol  of  sovereignty  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the  device 
of  the  city  Byzantium,  now  Constantinople,  whence  the  Turks  adopted  it  after 
capturing  the  city.  The  title  has  been  taken  by  three  orders  of  knighthood ;  founded 
1st,  by  Charles  I.  of  Naples ;  2nd,  by  R^n^  of  Anjou,  in  1448 ;  8rd,  by  the  Sultan 
Selim  in  180 1 ;  the  last  is  still  in  existence,  and  to  it  none  but  Christians  are  admissible. 

CRESST,  OR  CRECTy  BATTLE  of.  Edward  IIL  and  his  son,  the  renowned  Edward 
the  Black  Prince,  obtained  a  great  and  memorable  victory  over  Philip,  king  of  France, 
Aug.  26, 1346.  This  was  one  of  the  most  glorious  triumphs  ever  achieved  by  English 
arms.  John,  duke  of  Bohemia ;  James,  king  of  Majorca ;  Ralph,  duke  of  Lorraine 
(sovereign  princes) ;  a  number  of  French  nobles,  together  with  80,000  private  men, 
were  slflon,  while  the  loss  of  the  English  was  very  small.  The  crest  of  the  king  of 
Bohemia,  three  ostrich  feathers,  with  the  motto  "  Jck  Dien,**  in  English,  "  I  serve," 
has,  in  memory  of  this  victory,  since  been  adopted  by  the  heirs  to  the  crown  of 
England. — Froiuart,  Carte,  Hvme. 

CRESTS.  The  ancient  warriors  wore  crests  to  strike  terror  into  their  enemies  by  the 
sight  of  the  spoils  of  the  animals  they  had  killed.  The  origin  of  crests  is  ascribed  to 
the  Carians.  In  English  heraldry  are  several  representations  of  Richard  I.  1189, 
vrith  a  crest  on  the  helmet  resembling  a  plume  of  feathers ;  and  after  his  reign  most 
of  the  English  kings  have  crowns  above  their  helmets ;  that  of  Richard  IL,  1877,  was 
surmounted  by  a  Son  on  a  cap  of  dignity.  In  later  reigns  the  crest  was  regularly 
borne  as  well  on  the  helmets  of  the  kings,  as  on  the  head-trappings  of  their  horses. 
See  Crttty,  Alexander  IIL  of  Scotland,  1249,  had  a  plume  of  feathers,  by  way  of 
crest;  and  the  helmet  of  Robert  L  was  surmounted  by  a  crown,  1806 ;  and  that  of 
James  I.  by  a  lion,  1424.  From  this  period  crests  appear  to  have  been  very  generally 
borne  both  in  England  and  Scotland.  In  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  the 
palmy  days  of  heraldry,  the  crest  was  described  to  be,  as  it  still  is,  a  figure  placed 
upon  a  wreath,  coronet,  or  cap  of  maintenance. — OmUim, 

CRETE.  Now  Candia,  which  tee.  This  island  was  once  famous  for  its  hundred  cities, 
and  for  the  laws  which  the  wisdom  of  Minos  established  about  1015  &a  Some 
authors  reckoned  the  Labyrinth  of  Crete  as  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world. 

o 


CRT  194  CRI 

C^«ie  became  trabjeofc  to  the  Roman  empire,  68  B.O.  It  was  conqnered  by  the  8um- 
eenfl,  aJ).  808 ;  taken  by  the  Qfeeks,  961  ;  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Yeneiians, 
1194 ;  and  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Turks  in  1669.^Prie«(^. 

CRIHE.  It  has  been  computed  that  a  fifteenth  part  of  the  population  of  the  United 
Kingdom  live  by  crime.  The  increase  in  education  and  manu&cturas  is  gradually 
reducing  this  proportion. 

ooimanoNv  iir  bholaitd  awd  wales. 


In  1847 

.    21,542  peraons 

In  1862  . 

.    .    21,804  petBons 

yt       IqVO 

.    22,900       „ 

..    1858 

.    20,756       ,, 

M    1849 

.    21,001        „ 

„   1854  . 

.    .     23.047        „ 

^    1850  .        . 

.    20.537       .. 

„    1855 

.        .    19.971        „ 

»    1861 

.    21,579       „ 

..    1856   . 

.    .    14,784        „ 

In  1850,  there  were  committed  for  trial  in  England,  26.183 ;  in  Ireland,  81,826;  in  Sootlaod. 
4,468. 

In  1856  the  expenaee  for  criminal  praeeeutions  were  104,9121. 4«.  8d.  Sixteen  petvo 
were  executed  for  murder  in  1866,  of  wh<nn  four  were  forrignere.  2^666  penomi  w< 
Uberated  on  Uckete-oMeave  in  1856.  On  Feb.  17, 1857.  of  126  poreone  thus  Uberated  58  wc 
beUered  to  be  living  honestly. 

An  act  for  improying  the  criminal  law  of  England  passed  8  Qeo.  lY.  1827.  An  aei 
for  oonsoUdating  and  revisiog  the  laws  relatmg  to  crime,  conformably  with  Peel's 
digest,  passed  9  GkK>.  lY.  1828.  Hanging  criminals  in  chsins  was  abolished  by  atatate 
4  Will.  lY.  1884.  Various  statutes  ha^e  since  passed  or  been  amended  in  relation  to 
the  criminal  laws  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

CRIMEA,  OB  CRIH  TART  ART,  a  peninsula  in  the  Euxine  or  Black  Sea,  the  ancient 
Tamrioa  Okenoneatu,  Colonised  by  the  Greeks  about  B.a.  550.  The  Milesisns  founded 
the  Ungdom  of  Bosporos,  now  Kerteh,  which  erentually  formed  part  of  the  dominioiis 
of  Hithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  whose  descendants  continued  to  nile  the  country  under 
Roman  protection  till  the  irruption  of  the  Goths,  Huns,  &c.  About  ▲.D.  1237,  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Mongols  under  Genghis  Khan ;  soon  after  the  Venetians  esta- 
blished commercial  stations,  with  a  lucratiTe  trade;  but  were  supplanted  by  the 
Genoese,  who  were  permitted  to  rebuild  and  fortify  Kaffa.  In  1475  Mahomet  II. 
expelled  the  Genoese,  and  subjected  the  peninsula  to  the  Ottoman  yoke ;  permittini; 
the  goremment  to  remain  in  the  hands  of  the  natiye  Khans,  but  closing  the  BLeek 
Sea  to  Western' Europe.  In  1774,  by  the  intervention  of  the  empress  Catherine  IL, 
the  Crimea  reoovered  its  independence:  but  on  the  abdication  of  the  Khan  in  178S» 
the  Russians,  with  a  laige  army,  took  possession  of  the  oountiy,  which  was  pecswwi 
to  them,  after  a  war  with  Turiiey,  by  a  treaty  of  peace  in  1791.  The  Crimea,  now 
Taurida,  was  divided  into  eight  goTemments,  in  1802. — ^War  haying  been  dedared  bj 
England  and  France  against  Russia,  March  28, 1854,  laige  masses  of  troops  were  seot 
to  the  East,  which,  Am  remaining  some  time  at  Gallipoli,  Ac,  sailed  for  Vam% 
where  they  disembarked  May  29th.  The  expedition  against  the  Crimea  baring  been 
determined  on,  the  allied  British,  French,  and  Turkii£  forces,  amounting  to  68,000 
men  (25,000  British),  commandeid  by  Lord  Raglan  and  Marshal  St  A  maud,  suled 
from  Varna,  Sept  3,  and  landed  on  the  14th,  15th,  and  16th,  without  oppoaitioii,  at 
Old  Fort  near  Eupatoria,  about  SO  miles  from  SebastopoL  On  the  20th  they  attained 
the  Russians,  between  40,000  and  50,000  strong  (under  Prince  Menschikoff).  entrenched 
on  the  heights  of  Alma,  supposed  to  be  unassailable.  After  a  sharp  contest  the  Ruastaos 
were  totally  routed.  See  A Ima  and  Ruuo-Turkith  War,  Peace  was  proclaimed  in  Aprils 
1856,  and  the  allies  quitted  the  Crimea  in  July  following. 

CRIMPING-HOUSEa  These  were  houses  in  London  and  other  towns,  used  for  the 
purpose  of  entrapping  persons  into  the  army ;  and  hence  the  name  of  "  erimp 
Serjeant"  ^  In  a  riot  in  London,  some  of  these  receptacles  were  deetroyed  by  the 
populace,  in  consequence  of  the  death  of  a  young  man  who  had  been  enticed  into  one 
of  them,  and  who  was  killed  in  his  endeavours  to  escape  from  it  Sept  16,  1794. 
They  were  again  attacked  in  London  by  large  mobs  the  next  year ;  but  th^  were 
sared  by  the  military. 

CRIPPLEGATB,  LONDON.  This  well-known  locality  was  so  called,  from  the  kme 
beggars  who  sat  there,  so  early  as  the  year  1010.  The  gate  was  new-built  hj  the 
brewers  of  London,  in  1244 ;  and  was  pulled  down  and  sold  for  ninety-one  pounds  in 
July,  1760.    See  article  London  Oat€9. 

CRISPIN.  Crispin  and  Crispisnus  were  two  legendary  saintii,  bom  at  Rome,  from 
whence,  it  is  said,  they  travelled  to  Soissons,  in  France,  about  ^.d.  808,  to  propegate 


CRI  195  CRO 

the  Christiaa  religion ;  aod  because  they  would  not  be  chargeable  to  others  for  their 
mamteuaxioe,  they  ezeroised  the  trade  of  shoemakers ;  but  the  goyemor  of  the  town 
discovering  them  to  be  Christiana^  ordered  them  to  be  beheadMl.  On  this  account, 
the  shoemakers,  since  that  period,  have  made  choice  of  them  for  their  tutelar  saints. 

CRITica  The  first  socie^  of  them  was  formed  276  B.a,— Blair.  Of  this  dass  were 
Yarro,  Cicero,  ApoUonins,  and  many  distinguished  men.  In  modem  times,  the 
Jmmud  da  Sfomama  was  the  earliest  work  of  the  system  of  periodical  critidsm,  as  it 
is  now  known.  It  was  originated  by  Denis  de  Sollo,  ecclesiastiosl  counsellor  in  the 
parliament  of  France,  and  was  first  published  at  Paris,  Hay  80, 1655,  and  continued 
for  nearly  a  century.  The  first  work  of  this  kind,  in  England,  waa  called  the  Itemew 
of  Daniel  Defoe  (the  term  being  invented  by  himself),  published  in  Feb.  1708.  The 
Waia  of  LiUratutre  was  commenced  in  1714,  and  was  discontinued  in  1722.  See 
Reviewt^ — The  legality  of  fair  criticism  was  established  in  the  English  courts^  in  Feb. 
1794,  when  an  action,  that  excited  great  attention,  brought  by  an  author  against 
a  reviewer  for  a  severe  critique  upon  bis  work,  was  determined  in  fivour  of  the 
defendant,  on  the  principle  that  critidsm,  however  »harp,  if  just,  and  not  mftlicious, 
ia  allowable. 

CROCKERY- WARE.  In  use,  and  made  mention  o(  as  produced  by  the  Egyptians  and 
Greeks,  so  early  as  1390  Bx:.  The  Romans  excelled  in  this  kind  of  ware,  many  of 
their  domestic  articles  being  of  earthen  manufacture.  Crockeiy,  of  a  fiae  kiad,  in. 
various  household  utensils,  was  made  at  Faenza,  in  Italy,  about  aj>.  1810 ;  and  it  ia 
still  called  fayenee  in  French.    See  Barthenwart, 

CROPREDY-BRIDQE,  BATTLE  of,  Fought  in  the  civil  war  between  the  forces  of 
Charles  and  those  of  the  parliament,  June  6,  1644.  We  believe  that  this  engagement 
led  to  no  decisive  success  on  either  side;  for  we  find  the  victory  claimed  by  some 
accounts  for  the  royal  army,  and  by  others  for  the  parliamentariana. 

CROSIER  A  staff  surmounted  by  a  cross,  borne  before  an  archbishop.  The  pastoral 
ataff,  or  bishop's  staff,  with  which  it  Is  often  confounded,  was  in  the  form  of  a 
shepherd's  crook,  intended  to  admonish  the  prelate  to  be  a  true  spiritual  shepherd. 
The  custom  of  bearing  a  pastoral  staff  or  crosier  before  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  is 
Tery  andent,  as  appears  from  the  life  of  St.  Ciesarea  of  Aries,  who  lived  about  a.d. 
500.  A  religions  order  is  so  called,  because  they  carry  a  staff  with  a  cross  at  the 
end. — Pardim. 

CROS&  That  on  which  the  Redeemer  suffered  on  Mount  Calvary,  was  said  to  have  been 
found  at  Jerusalem,  deep  in  the  ground,  bv  St.  Helena,  mAj  8,  a.d.  828.  Three 
crosoos  were  found ;  and  certain  writers  affirm  that  that  of  Our  Saviour  was  distinguished 
frmtk  those  of  the  thieves  by  a  sick  woman  being  immediately  cured  upon  touching 
it.  It  was  carried  away  by  Ghosroes,  king  of  Persia,  on  the  plundering  of  Jeru- 
oalem ;  but  was  recovered  by  the  emperor  Hezadius  (who  defeated  him  in  battle), 
Sept.  14,  615,  and  that  day  has  been  since  commemorated  as  a  festival  It  is  asserted 
by  Church  writers  that  a  shining  cross,  two  miles  in  length,  was  seen  in  the  heavens 
by  Constantine,  and  that  it  led  him  to  adopt  it  on  his  standards,  with  the  inscription, 
**/»  hoc  tiffno  vinee$;"  "In  this  sign  thoushalt  conquer."  It  is  added  that  in  a 
dream  Christ  commanded  him  to  do  this.  With  these  standards  he  advanced  under 
the  walls  of  Rome,  where  he  vanquished  Maxentius,  driving  his  army  into  the  Tibeor, 
Oct.  27,  812.— Xen^/ef. 

CROSS,  SIGN  or  the,  &c  First  practised  by  the  Christians,  thereby  to  distinguish 
themselves  from  the  Psffana^  about  a.d.  110.  The  Exaltation  of  the  Holy  Cross 
{ExaUatio  Cruets),  a  feast  held  on  the  14th  Sept  was  instituted  on  the  restoration  of 
the  cross  to  Mount  Calvaiy,  in  642.— Maids  of  the  Cross  were  a  community  of  young 
women  who  made  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  instituted  in  1265. 
The  Order  of  the  Cross  was  instituted  by  the  empress  Eleonora  de  Gonsagay  queen 
of  Leopold  I.  being  an  order  of  the  higher  rank,  founded  in  1668. 

CROSSED  CHEQUSa    See  Draftt. 

CROSSES.  Psinted  crosses  in  churches  and  chambers  were  introduced  about  the  year 
481.  Crosses  were  first  set  up  on  steeples  in  568.  They  were  erected  in  England  in 
honour  of  queen  Eleanor,  in  the  places  where  her  hearse  rested  :  she  died  in  1296y 
and  these  monuments  were  set  up  between  that  date  and  1307.  Crosses  and 
idolatrous  pictures  were  removed  from  churches,  and  crosses  in  the  streets  demolished 
by  order  of  parliament,  17  Charles  I.  1641. 

o  2 


CRO  196  CRU 

CROW,  The.  The  well-known  ravenous  bird,  the  carrion  crow,  was  anciently  thought 
to  be  a  bird  of  bad  omen.  "Its  croaking  forebodes  rain." — Virgil,  An  act  was 
passed  for  the  destruction  of  crows  in  England  (which  breeds  more  of  them,  it  is 
said,  than  any  other  country  in  Europe),  24  Hen.  VIII.  1532.  Crows  were  anciently 
employed  aa  letter-bearers,  as  carrier  pigeons  are  now. 

CROWN.  The  most  ancient  mention  of  a  royal  crown  is  in  the  holy  stoiy  of  tba 
Amalekites  bringing  SauVs  crown  to  David. — Sdden,  The  first  Roman  who  wore  a 
crown  was  Tarquin,  616  B.C.  The  crown  was  first  a  fillet  tied  round  the  head; 
afterwards  it  was  formed  of  leaves  and  flowers,  and  also  of  stufik  adorned  with 
jewels.  The  royal  crown  was  first  worn  in  England  by  Alfred,  in  a.d.  872.  The 
first  crown  or  papal  cap  was  used  by  pope  Damssus  IL  in  1053;  John  XIX.  first 
encompassed  it  with  a  crown,  1276 ;  Boniface  VIII.  added  a  second  crown  in  1295 ; 
and  Bcuiedict  XIL  formed  the  tiara,  or  triple  crown,  about  1334.  The  pope  previoualy 
wore  a  crown  with  two  circles. — RainaUh, 

CROWN  ov  ENGLAND.  That  of  Alfred  had  two  little  bolls  attached ;  it  is  sud  to 
have  been  long  preserved  at  Westminster,  and  may  have  been  that  described  in  the 
parliamentary  inventory  taken  in  1649.  The  crown  worn  by  Athelstan  resembled  a 
modem  earl's  coronet,  929.  William  L  wore  his  crown  on  a  cap,  adorned  with 
points,  1066.  Richard  III.  introduced  the  crosses,  1488.  Henry  YII.  introduced 
the  arches,  1485.  The  crown  of  Charles  II.  made  in  1660,  is  the  oldest  existing  in 
our  day.  The  crown  and  other  royal  valuables  were  stolen  from  the  Tower  by  Blood, 
in  1673.  See  BloocPa  Compiraep.  The  crown  and  regalia  of  England  were  pledged 
to  the  city  of  London  by  Richard  II.  for  2000/.  in  1386«  See  the  king's  receipt  on 
redeeming  them. — Rymer. 

CROWNS  AND  HALF-CROWNS.  These  were  coined  in  England  very  near  to  the 
present  standard  in  the  last  year  of  Edward  YI.  by  whom  the  coinage  (which  had 
been  very  much  alloyed  and  debased  by  Henrv  YIIL)  was  in  some  degree  restored 
and  purified,  1553.  Crowns  and  half-crctwns  have,  since  that  time,  been  coined  in 
almost  every  reign. — Fleetwoods  Chron,  Pretioi, 

CRUCIFIXION.  A  mode  of  execution  common  among  the  Syrians,  Egyptians,  Pernana^ 
Carthaginians,  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Jews,  and  esteemed  the  most  dreaidful  on  account 
of  the  shame  attached  to  it :  it  was  usually  accompanied  by  other  tortures.  Amon^ 
early  accounts  may  be  mentioned,  that  Ariarathes  of  Cappadocia,  when  vanquished 
by  Perdiccas,  was  discovered  among  the  prisoners ;  and  by  the  conqueroi's  ordem, 
the  unhappy  monarch  was  flayed  alive,  and  then  naUed  to  a  cross,  with  his  principal 
oflScers,  in  the  eighty-first  year  of  his  age,  822  B.O.  Crucifixion  was  ordered  to  be 
discontinued  by  Constantine,  a.d.  330. — Lenglet,    See  Deo/A,  Pu-niahmeiU  of. 

CRUELTY  TO  ANIMALS.    Sbb  Animals. 

CRUELTY  TO  ANIMALS,  SOCIETY  fob  the  PREVENTION  of.  "Every  beast  of 
the  forest  is  mine,  and  the  cattle  upon  a  thousand  hills." — Psalm  1. 10.  This  society, 
which  has  lately  received  the  distinction  of  Royal,  is  held  at  Exeter-hall,  and  was 
instituted  in  1824.  Through  its  most  praiseworthy  exertions  several  hundreds  of 
cases  of  cruelty  are  annually  prosecuted  to  conviction. — Report  of  the  Society, 

CRUSADES  OR  HOLY  WARS.  (In  French  Cfroisadee.)  UnderUken  by  the  Christian 
powers  to  drive  the  infidels  from  Jerusalem  and  the  adjacent  countries,  called  the 
Holy  Land.*  They  were  projected  by  Peter  Gautier,  called  Peter  the  Hermit,  an 
enthusiast,  and  French  officer  of  Amiens,  who  had  quitted  the  military  profession  and 
turned  pilgrim.  Having  travelled  to  the  Holy  Land,  he  deplored,  on  his  return,  to 
pope  Urbsn  IL  that  infidels  should  be  in  possession  of  the  famous  city  where  the 

*  The  onunders  took  Jerusalem  by  amault,  Jnly  16, 1099,  after  a  siege  of  fiTO  weeks.  Impelled  by 
rnfle,  they  put  the  numeroas  garrisoo  and  inhabitants  to  the  sword  without  dieUnetion.  Neither  anna 
defended  the  TaUaut  nor  aubmiaaion  the  timid ;  no  age  or  aex  waa  aparod  ;  in&nta  on  the  braaat  were 
pierced  by  the  aame  blow  with  their  mothers,  who  implored  for  mercy ;  even  a  multitude,  to  tlie 
number  of  10.000,  who  had  aurrendered  themaelrea  prinonera,  and  were  promiaed  quarter,  wer* 
butchered  in  cold  blood  by  these  ferocioua  conquerora.  The  atroeta  of  Jeruaalem  were  oovered  with 
dead  bodies ;  and  the  triumphant  warriors,  after  every  enemy  was  subdued  aud  alaughtered.  Imme- 
diately turned  themaelvea  with  acntimentii  of  humiliation  towards  the  holy  acpulchrol  They  thivw 
away  their  arma  atill  atreamiog  with  blood  :  they  advanced  with  reclined  bodioa.  and  naked  feet  and 
handa,  to  that  aacred  monument ;  they  aung  anthems  to  their  Saviour,  who  hod  there  pnrrhancd 
aailvation  bv  hia  death  and  agony ;  and  uieir  devotion  so  overcame  their  ftiiy,  that  thev  diaiMilved  in 
tears,  and  bore  the  appearance  of  eveiy  aoft  and  tender  aentiment.  tk>  inconsistent  ia  human  natniv 
with  itaelf !  aud  ao  eiwily  doea  aupenitition  ally,  both  with  the  most  heroic  courage  and  with  the 
fieroeat  barbarity  \—Abbi  VtrM:  Hume,    It  ia  nckoned  that  2,000,000  periahod  in  the  cmaadcs. 


CRY 


197 


CRY 


author  of  Christianity  first  promulgated  hia  sacred  doctrines.  Urban  convened  a  council 
of  310  bishops  at  Clermont  in  Fnmcei  at  which  the  ambassadors  of  the  chief  Christian 
potentates  assisted,  and  gave  Peter  the  fatal  commission  to  excite  all  Europe  to  a 
general  war,  a.d.  1094.  The  first  crusade  was  published;  an  army  of  300,000  men  was 
raised,  and  Peter  had  the  direction  of  it,  and  Godfrey  de  Bouillon  Uie  command^ 
1095. —  Voltaire.  The  warriors  wore  a  red  cross  upon  the  right  shoulder,  with  the 
name  of  Crois^,  Crossed,  or  Crusaders;  their  motto  was  Volonte  de  JHeu^  "God's  wiU.** 


The Jtrtt  crusade  ended  in  establiahhig  Godfrey 
de  Bouillon  aa  king  of  Jerusalem,  1090. 

The  second,  preached  by  St.  Bernard  in  1146, 
was  headed  by  the  emperor  Conrad  II., 
and  Louis  Yil.  of  Fnuaoe.  Cnuaders 
defeated,  and  Jerusalem  lost  in  1187. 

The  third,  by  emperor  Frederick  Barbaroaaa, 
tc.  in  1188,  was  loined  by  Philip  II. 
of  Prance  and  Richard  L  of  England. 
Glorious,  but  fruitloes. 

The  /curlk,  in  1195,  by  emperor  Henry  VL, 
■uocessftil  till  his  death  in  1197. 

The  JVth^  proclaimed  by  pope  Innocent  III. 
in  1198.  Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders, 
attacked  the  Greeks,  and  took  Constanti- 
n<^le  in  1202.    His  companions  returned. 


The  tixth,  in  1S28,  by  the  emperor  Frederick 
II.,  who  obtained  possesaicm  of  Jerusalem 
on  a  truce  for  ten  years.  In  1240,  Richard, 
earl  of  Cornwall,  arrived  at  Palestine,  but 
soon  departed. 

The  teventh  by  Louis  IX  (Bt.  Louiai  who  was 
defeated  and  taken  priioner  at  Mansourah, 
April  5, 1250;  released  by  ransom;  truce 
often  years. 

The  eighth  and  last,  in  1270,  by  the  same 
prince,  who  died  on  his  way  of  a  con- 
tagious disease  at  Carthage  in  Africa. 
Other  princes  followed  him,  among  others 
prince  Edward,  afterwarda  our  Edward  I. 
In  1291,  the  soldan  took  Acre^  and  the 
Christians  were  driven  out  of  Syria. 


CRTOPHORUS,  Thb.  This  is  an  instrument  wherewith  is  demonstrated  the  relation 
between  evaporation  at  low  temperatures  and  the  production  of  cold.  It  was  inrented 
and  BO  named  by  Dr.  Wollaston,  about  the  year  1778.  The  invention  of  the 
cryophorus  has  led  to  much  scientific  research.    See  article  Cold, 

CRYSTAL  PALACE,  Htds  Pabk,  London,  built  for  the  great  Exhibition  of  1861.  Ita 
length  was  1851  feet,  corresponding  with  the  year;  the  width  408  feet,  with  an 
additional  projection  on  the  north  side,  936  feet  long,  by  48  wide.  The  central 
portion  was  120  feet  wide  and  64  feet  high,  and  the  great  avenues  ran  east  and  west 
through  the  building :  the  transept  near  the  centre  was  72  feet  wide  and  108  feet 
high.  The  entire  area  was  772,784  square  feet,  or  about  nineteen  acres.  Four 
galleriee  ran  lengthways,  and  others  round  the  transept.  The  ground-floor  and 
galleries  contained  1,000,000  square  feet  of  flooring.  There  were  altogether  4000  tons 
of  iron  in  the  structure,  and  seventeen  acres  of  glass  in  the  roof,  besides  about  1500 
vertical  glazed  sashes.  The  palace,  with  the  exception  of  the  flooring  and  joists,  was 
entirely  of  glass  and  iron.  It  was  designed  by  Mr.  (since  sir  Joseph)  Paxton,  and  the 
contractors  were  Messrs.  Fox  &  Henderson,  to  whom  it  was  agreed  to  pay  79»800<.,  or 
150,000/.  if  the  building  were  permanency  retained.  The  first  column  was  fixed 
Sept  26, 1850;  the  exhibition  was  opened  May  1, 1851;  and  was  dosed  to  the  public, 
Oct.  11,  same  year.    See  Exhibition  of  1861. 

CBT8TAL  PALACE,  Sydenham.  The  building  described  in  the  preceding  article 
having  been  surrendered  to  Messrs.  Fox  k  Henderson  on  Dec  1, 1861,  the  materials 
were  sold  for  70,0002.  to  a  company  (formed  by  Mr.  Leech),  who  soon  after  com- 
menced erecting  the  Crystal  Palace,  with  vast  alterations  and  improvements,  on  its 
present  rite,  near  Sydenham  in  Kent  (800  acres  having  been  purchased  for  the 
purpose),  under  the  direction  of  sir  Joseph  Paxton,  Messrs.  Owen  Jones,  Digby  Wyatt, 
and  other  gentlemen  engaged  in  the  erection  of  the  preceding  structure.  The  proposed 
capital  of  500,000/.  (in  100,000  shares  of  5/.  each)  was  increased  in  Jan.  1853  to  a 
million  pounds.  During  the  prepress  of  the  works  as  many  as  6400  men  were  engaged 
at  one  time.  By  the  falling  of  scaffolding,  Aug.  15,  1858,  twelve  men  were  unfor- 
tunately killed.  On  Dea  81, 1863,  a  dinner  was  given  to  professor  Owen  and  a  party 
of  savana  in  the  interior  of  the  model  of  the  iguanodon,  constructed  by  Mr.  Water- 
house  Hawkins. — The  first  column  was  raised  by  S.  Laing,  Esq.,  M.P.,  Aug.  6, 1862. 
In  addition  to  the  permanent  exhibition,  there  are  extensive  promenades,  gardens, 
with  magnificent  fountains,  &c.,  combining  illustrations  of  zoology,  geology,  botany, 
ethnology,  &c.  The  Crystol  Palace  was  opened  by  the  queen,  June  10,  1864.  At  the 
half-yearly  meeting,  July  20, 1854,  Mr.  Laing  stated  that  300,0002.  would  be  required  to 
complete  the  works  in  contemplation.  On  Oct.  28, 1854,  a  grand  musical  fdte  took  place 
on  behalf  of  the  Patriotic  fund;  and  on  April  20, 1855,  the  palace  was  visited  by  the 
emperor  and  empress  of  the  French,  &&  The  first  grand  display  of  the  great  foun- 
tains took  place  on  July  18,  1866,  in  presence  of  the  queen  and  20,000  spectators.* 

*  On  Nov.  1,  1856.  W.  Robson,  a  dork  of  the  company,  was  sentenced  to  20  years'  tranaportation, 
for  forging  and  selling  their  bonds. 


CUB  198  GUL 

The  Handel  festiyal  (prelimiDary  to  a  great  commemontioQ  in  1859)  was  held  here 
June  15, 17»  19, 1857*  See  Handel.— In  the  year  ending  April  SO,  1857,  the  receipts 
were  115,627A;  the  expenditure  87,8722.;  not  including  paymenU  for  prefereoce 
■hares,  &c. 

CUBA.  DiBcoyered  by  Columbus  on  hie  first  voyage,  in  1492.  It  was  conquered  hj 
Velasquez,  in  1511,  and  settled  by  the  Spaniards.  The  buccaneer,  Morgan,  took  the 
Havannah  in  1669.  See  Buccaneen,  The  fort  here  was  erected  by  admiral  Vernon, 
in  1741.  The  Havannah  was  taken  by  admiral  Pocooke  and  lord  Albemarle,  in  1702, 
but  was  restored  at  the  peace  in  1768.  A  marauding  expedition,  undertaken  by 
general  Lopez  and  a  large  body  of  Americans  with  the  view  of  wresting  this  island 
from  the  dominion  of  Spain,  landed  at  Cuba,  May  17, 1850 ;  but  it  ended  in  defeat 
and  disaster.  The  president  of  the  United  States  had  previously  (Aug.  11,  1849) 
published  a  strong  proclamation  denouncing  the  object  of  the  invaders.  Cuba  was 
agflun  invaded  by  general  Lopez  and  his  followers,  Aug.  13,  1851,  despite  a  second 
proclamation  of  the  American  president.  They  were  defeated  and  taken,  and,  in  the 
end,  fifty  of  the  latter  were  shot,  and  their  leader,  Lopez,  was  garrotted  at  BEavannah, 
Sept.  1,  following.  See  L<me  Star,  On  May  81, 1854,  the  president  of  the  United 
States  again  issued  a  proclamation  against  an  intended  expedition  agaiost  Cuba.* 

CUBIT.  A  measure  of  the  ancients,  and  the  first  measure  we  read  of ;  the  ark  of  Noah 
was  made  and  measured  by  cubits. — B olden.  The  Hebrew  sacred  cubit  was  two 
English  feet,  and  the  great  cubit  eleven  English  feet  Originally  it  was  the  distance 
firom  the  elbow,  bendiag  inwards,  to  the  extremity  of  the  middle  finger. — Oalnui. 

CUCUMBERS.  They  grew  formerly  in  great  abundance  in  Palestine  and  Egypt,  where, 
it  is  said,  they  constituted  the  greater  part  of  the  food  of  the  poor  and  slaves.  This 
plant  is  noticed  by  Virgil  and  other  ancient  poets.  It  was  brought  to  England  from 
the  Netherlands  about  1588.  English  culture  has  much  improved  the  cucumber,  of 
which  the  frame  grown  is  most  prized  for  its  fiavour. 

CUDDALORE,  INDIA.  On  the  coast  of  the  Camatio.  This  place  was  possessed  bj  the 
English  in  1681.  It  was  reduced  by  the  French  in  1758,  but  was  recaptured  two 
years  afterwards  by  sir  Eyre  Coote.  Again  taken  in  1781.  It  underwent  a  destnictive 
siege  by  the  British  under  general  Stuart,  in  1788,  which  was  continued  antU  news 
arrived  of  peace  hAving  been  signed.  Cuddalore  also  suffered  in  the  subsequent  wan 
with  Hyder  AH.    See  India, 

CUIRASS.  This  part  of  armour  was  that  most  in  use  by  the  Creeks  and  Romans. — 
TaeUtm.  First,  from  the  skins  of  beasts,  and  afterwards  from  tanned  leather,  was 
formed  the  cuirass  of  the  Britons  until  the  Anglo-Saxon  era.  In  process  of  time  it 
was  made  of  iron  and  brass,  and  covered  the  warrior  from  neok  to  waist  before  and 
behind,  as  a  protection  against  the  spear  and  arrow.  The  ouixaas  was  worn  by  the 
heavy  cavalry  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  1216  et  8eq.f 

CULDEES.  Monks  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  in  the  early  ages  of  Christianity,  of  simple 
and  peaceful  livesL— jBit&op  Llo^.  They  had  their  principal  seat  at  St.  Andiew'a ; 
and  in  Tipperar^  was  a  Culdean  abbey,  whose  monks  were  ''attached  to  simple  truth 
and  pure  Christian  worship,  and  had  not  yet  conformed  to  the  reigning  supentition,** 
in  A.D.  1185.— Z^dwicA. 

CULLEN'S-WOOD,  MASSACRE  at,  nr  Irelakd.  This  was  a  horrible  slaughter  of  the 
English  by  the  Irish  at  a  village  near  Dublin,  on  Easter  or  Bladt  Monday,  so  called 
from  this  massacre,  a.d.  1209.  The  English  were  a  colony  from  Bristol,  inhabiting 
Dublin,  whence  they  went  to  divert  themselves  at  CuUen's-wood,  when  the  O'Bymea 
and  O'Tooles,  mountain  enemies,  fell  upon  them,  and  destroyed  500  men,  beaidea 
women  and  children— one  of  the  most  unprovoked  massacres  on  record. 

CULLODEN,  BATTLE  of.  The  English,  under  William,  duke  of  Cumberland,  defeated 
tne  soottiah  rebels  headed  by  the  young  Pi^tender,  the  last  of  the  Stuarts,  near 

1  ^^Tf^  iP^  ^  ^'  ^  ^^^'    '^^  ^^^  ^^^  2^00  ™«°  ^  ^^^  upon  the  field,  or  in  the 
Biaugtiter  which  occurred  in  the  pursuit,  while  the  lots  of  the  English  did  not  &r 


t  Tha  lua  nfwiii.^.— T-      Tu  .  "*  *-u«»  wuiuu  ua     Mio  mam  ox  opsiuia  Honour  amm. 

known  under  the  flil-*  .!!****  *>ftoMU,  as  w«ll  M  the  una  of  bows  and  arrowt,  which  had  boon  haixfly 
(OanU.  o/CAartffl».)    chjJ!?***'w!?f  yn«»K  Franco)  beeamo  a  miUUiy  law  under  the  sooond  racoL 
hold  a  rank  In  the  arm^^7  *'  4^  H^^,  ^*«*"  ,V»  ^  introduced ;  the  knteht,  who  waa  oalled  MUn, 
*>"my,  IndopendenUy  of  hU  mlUtaiy  rank.    Rolgn  of  LouSi  V.,  year  wr.^OmamiL 


CUL  199  CUS 


exceed  200.  The  duke's  army  pnotiMd  great  cruelUea  upon  the  TaBquished,  aa  well 
aa  upon  the  defenoeleaa  inhabitanta  of  the  adjacent  diatriota  after  the  battle, — SmoUdU 
Immediately  after  the  engagement.  Prince  Charlea  Bought  aafety  by  flight,  and  con* 
tinued  wandering  among  the  wilda  of  Scotland  for  six  montha,  while  30,0001.  were 
offered  for  taking  him,  and  the  troops  of  the  conqueror  were  constantly  in  search. 
He  at  length  escaped  from  the  isle  at  Uist  to  Morlaiz,  and  died  at  Rome,  in  1788. 

CULYERINa.  Ordnance  so  called  from  the  French  couUvrine,  introduced  into  England 
from  a  French  model  in  1584.  It  waa  originally  fiTc  inches  and  a-quarter  diameter 
in  the  bore,  and  carried  a  ball  of  eighteen  pounds.— Ait^ey. 

Cnif  BBRLAKD,  MERCHANT  SHIP.  Memorable  and  valorous  achierement  of  wpUln 
fiarreit  of  this  ship,  who,  with  twenty-six  men,  defeated  four  priyateers,  taking  170 
men  who  had  boarded  the  Cumberland,  Jan,  16, 1811.  This  gallant  action  of  British 
seamen  in  the  merchant  service  is  eminently  deserving  of  record  in  our  naval  annals. 

CUKNERSDORF,  BATTLE  of.  The  king  of  Prussia,  with  50,000  men,  attacked  the 
Austrian  and  Russian  army  of  90,000  in  their  camp,  and  at  fint  gained  considerable 
advantages ;  but  pursuing  them  too  far,  the  Austrians  and  Russians  rallied,  and  gained 
&  complete  victory.  The  Prussians  lost  200  pieces  of  cannon  and  20,000  men  in  killed 
and  wounded,  Aug.  12^  1759. 

CURA9OA,  ISLAND  OF.  In  the  Caribbean  see,  seized  by  Holland  in  1684.  In  1800, 
the  French  having  settled  on  part  of  this  island,  and  beoominf  at  variance  with  the 
Dutch,  the  latter  surrendered  the  island  to  a  single  British  fngate.  It  was  restored 
to  the  Dutch  by  the  peace  of  1802,  and  taken  from  them  hj  a  Britiah  squadron  in 
1807,  and  again  restored  by  the  peace  of  1814. 

CURATE&  They  were  of  early  appointment  as  coadjutors  in  the  Romish  Church,  and 
are  mentioned  in  England  in  the  seventh  centuiyy  though  perhaps  there  were 
then  but  few.  Several  acts  have  passed  in  the  latter  reigns  for  the  relief  and 
protection  of  this  laborioua  class  of  the  clergy,  among  which  are  the  12th  Anne, 
1718,  and  86th  and  58th  Qeo.  II L  Among  the  more  recent  laws  for  their  better 
maintenance  were  the  58rd  Qeo.  III.  1818,  and  the  beneficent  act  2  WiU.  IV.  Oct  1881. 
It  appears  by  the  parliamentaiy  reports  on  ecclesiastical  revenues,  that  there  are 
6230  curates  in  England  and  Wales,  whose  stipends  amount  to  424,6952. ;  but  the 
numbers  in  some  benefices  have  not  been  returned  to  the  commissioners.  The 
greatest  number  of  cnmtes  in  one  diooese  is  in  that  of  Lincoln,  629;  and  the 
smallest  ia  in  that  of  St  Asaph,  48.^Par2.  Rep. 

CURFEW  BELL.  From  the  French  couvrtfev.  This  was  a  Norman  institution,  intro- 
duced into  England  in  the  reign  of  WilL  I.  ▲.D.  1068.  On  the  ringing  of  the  curfew 
at  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening  all  fires  and  candles  were  to  be  extinguished  under  a 
severe  poialty. — J^optii.    The  curfew  waa  abolished  1  Hen.  I.  a.d.  1100. 

CTURRANTa  From  Corinthui,  whence,  probably,  this  fruit  was  fint  brought  to  ns. — 
Br.  Johiucn,  A  small  and  smart  pleasant  fruit,  of  the  grape  kind,  brought  from  the 
Levant  and  Zante  about  1588.  The  hawthorn  currant  tree  (iU6ef  oxyaoanihoida) 
came  from  Canada  in  1705. 

GUSHES  PIECES.  The  invention  of  the  bold  and  heroic  Richard  Leake,  the  master- 
gnnner  of  the  Jioyal  Prinee  man-of-war,  whose  signal  bravery  on  board  that  ship  in 
the  engagement  with  the  Dutch  admiral.  Van  Tromp,  has  given  him  an  imperiahable 
renown.    The  cushee  piece  wss  invented  in  1678. 

CUSTOM.  This  is  a  kw,  not  written,  but  established  b^  long  usage  and  consent  By 
lawyers  and  civilians  it  is  defined  lex  non  acripta,  and  it  stands  opposed  to  lex  $eripta, 
or  the  written  law.  It  is  the  rule  of  law  when  it  is  derived  from  a  d.  1189  down- 
wardsL    Sixty  years  is  bmding  in  civil  law,  and  forty  years  in  ecdesiastioal  cases. 

CUSTOM-HOUSE.  That  of  London  is  of  early  institution  (see  BUUngtgate),  aa  customs 
were  collected  in  a  regular  manner  in  the  tenth  century.  A  custom-house  wss 
erected  on  a  large  scale  A.D.  1804 ;  and  another  on  a  yet  laiiger  scale  was  erected  in 
1559.  Tliis  last  was  burnt  down  in  1666,  and  a  new  one  waa  built  by  Charles  II. 
Again  burnt  down  in  1718,  and  again  rebuilt.  The  cuatom-house  once  more  becam 
a  prey  to  fire,  Feb.  12, 1814,  when  it  was  totally  burnt  down,  and  immense  property 
and  valuable  records  were  destroyed.  The  present  edifice  was  opened  May  12,  1817. 
The  Dublin  custom-house  waa  eommenced  in  1781,  and  was  opened  in  1791.  The 
eastern  wing  of  its  warehouse  was  destroyed  by  fire,  with  property  to  the  amount  of 
400,0002.  Aug.  9, 1882. 


cus 


200 


CYR 


CUSTOMS.  They  were  collected  upon  mercfaandise  in  England,  under  Ethelred  II.  in 
979.  The  king's  claim  to  them  by  grant  of  parliament  was  established  S  Bdw.  1. 1274. 
Q^e  cuBtomB  were  farmed  to  sir  Thomaa  Smith  for  annual  Buma  Taiying  from  14,000/. 
to  50,0002.  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. — Stove.  They  were  farmed  by  Charlee  II.  for 
890,000/.  in  the  year  1666. — Davauint.  In  1671  commissioners  were  appointed. 
Between  1820  and  1880  so  many  reductions  and  consolidations  have  been  made  in 
the  customs  department,  that  above  a  quarter  of  a  million  is  saved  in  salaries, 
although  the  work  has  enormously  increased. — Oommiuionen*  Report, 


In  1580  the  eustomfl  amounted  to . 

£14,000 

In  18S0  United  Kingdom 

.  £17,540.323 

In  1592 

ditto 

60.000 

In  1835 

ditto    . 

.    18.612.90ft 

In  1014 

ditto    . 

148,000 

In  1840 

ditto 

.     19.91S.S96 

In  1623 

ditto 

168.000 

In  1845 

ditto    . 

.    20,196.8M 

In  1648 

ditto    . 

600,000 

In  1860 

ditto  to  Jan.  6. 

.    20.995.133 

In  1681 

ditto       .       .    . 

680,000 

In  1851 

ditto  to  Jan.  6 

.     20.442.170 

In  1720 

ditto    . 

1.565.600 

In  1862 

ditto  to  Jan.  5. 

,     20.616,337 

In  1748 

ditto       .        .    . 

2.000.000 

In  1868 

ditto  to  Jan.  6     . 

.    30,651.641 

In  1808 

ditto    . 

.    9.973.240 

In  1864 

ditto  to  Jan.  5 . 

.     20.902.134 

Inl88S 

ditto               .    . 

.  11.498.762 

In  1860 

ditto  to  Jan.  6    . 

.     34,206.844 

The  customs  in  Irdand  were,  in  the  year  1224,  viz.,  on  every  sack  of  wool  3dL ;  on 
every  last  of  hides,  6<i. ;  and  2dL  on  every  barrel  of  wine. — AmuUi  of  DMm.  Custom- 
house offioers  and  offioers  of  excise  were  disqualified  from  voting  for  the  election  of 
members  of  parliament  by  statute  22  Geo.  III.  1782.  The  customs  bustnesa  of 
Ireland  was  transferred  to  the  London  board,  Jan.  6,  1830.  16  &  17  Vict,  c  106, 
was  passed  to  consolidate  the  Customs  Duties  acts,  Aug.  20,  1853 ;  it  contains  a  new 
tariff.  This  was  modified  by  17  &  18  Vict,  a  28,  29  (July  1854),  and  c.  122  (Au^. 
1854).    See  JUvenue, 

CYCLE.  That  of  the  sun  is  the  twenty-eight  years  before  the  days  of  the  week  return 
to  the  same  days  of  the  month.  That  of  the  moon  is  nineteen  lunar  years  and  seven 
intercalary  months,  or  nineteen  solar  years.  The  cycle  of  Jupiter  is  sixty  years,  or 
sexagenary.  The  Paschal  cycle,  or  the  time  of  keeping  Easter,  was  first  calculated 
for  the  period  of  582  years  by  Victorius,  a.d.  463. — Blair, 

CYCLOPiEDIA.    See  Sncydoptedia. 

CYMBAL.  The  oldest  musical  instrument  of  which  we  have  certain  record.  It  was 
made  of  brass,  like  a  kettle-drum,  and  some  think  in  the  same  form,  but  smaller. 
Xenophon  makes  mention  of  the  cymbal  as  a  musical  instrument^  whose  invention  m 
attributed  to  Cybele,  by  whom,  we  are  told,  it  was  used  in  her  feasts,  called  the 
mysteries  of  Cybele,  about  1580  B.o.  The  festivals  of  Cybele  were  introduced  by 
Scamander^  with  the  dances  of  Corybantes,  at  Mount  Ida,  1546  b.o. 

CYNICS.  The  sect  of  philosophers  founded  by  Antisthenes,  396  B.o.—Dioff.  LaerL  Ha 
lived  in  the  ninety-fourth  Olympiad.— Part/on.  These  philosophers  valued  themselves 
for  contemning  all  worldly  things,  and  even  all  sciences,  except  morality ;  they  were 
very  free  in  reprehending  vice,  and  did  all  their  actions  publicly,  and  practised  the 
greatest  obscenities  without  blushing. — Idem.  Diogenes  was  one  of  this  sect.  They 
generally  slept  on  the  ground.  —Diog,  Laeri, 

CYPRESS.  Cfuprestui  iempervirent,  A  tree  whose  wood  is  of  an  agreeable  smeU,  and 
that  scarcely  ever  decays,  or  takes  the  worm ;  it  was  originiJly  found  in  the  Isle  of 
Cyprus.  It  was  used  by  the  ancients  as  a  token  of  sorrow.  Some  are  of  opinion  that 
the  wood  gophvr,  of  which  Noah's  ark  was  made,  was  cypress;  and  the  Athenians 
buried  their  heroes  in  coffins  made  of  this  wood,  of  which  many  of  the  Egyptian 
mummy-chests  were  also  fabricated.  The  cypress  was  brought  to  England  about 
▲.D.  1441.  The  deciduous  cypress,  or  Chiprtaaui  diatuAa,  came  from  North  Amerioa 
before  the  year.  1640. 

CYPRUS.  An  island,  whose  inhabitants  anciently  were  much  given  to  love  and  plea- 
sure.— Pliny,  It  was  divided  among  several  petty  kings  till  the  time  of  Cyrus,  who 
subdued  them ;  it  ranked  among  the  proconsular  provinces  in  the  reign  of  Augustus 
Conquered  by  the  Saracens,  a  d.  648 ;  but  recovered  by  the  Romans,  in  957.  Cyprus 
was  reduced  by  Richard  I.  of  England,  in  1191.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  ths 
Venetians,  1480,  and  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Turks,  1570.— Priwf/ey. 

CYRENAIC  SECT.  Aristippus  the  Elder,  of  Cyrene,  was  the  founder  of  the  Cyrenaid, 
392  B.a  They  maintained  the  doctrine  that  the  supreme  good  of  man  in  this  life  is 
pleasure,  and  particularly  pleasure  of  a  sensual  kind ;  and  said  that  virtue  ought  to 


CYR  201  DAM 

be  commended  because  it  gave  pleasure,  and  only  bo  far  as  it  conducted  thexeto. 
The  sect  flourished  for  seveisl  ages. 

CTBENE.  Founded  by  Battus,  630  B.a  Aristssus,  who  was  the  chief  of  the  colomsts 
here,  gave  the  city  hia  mother's  name.  It  was  also  called  Pentapolis,  on  account  of 
its  five  towns ;  namely,  Cyrene,  Ptolemais,  Berenice,  ApoUonia,  and  Arsinolf.  Cyrene 
was  left  by  Ptolemy  Apion  to  the  Romans,  97  B.O.    It  is  now  a  desert. — PriuUey, 

CTZICUH,  BATTLE  of.  In  the  Peloponnesian  war,  the  Lacedemonian  fleet  under  the 
command  of  Mindarus,  assisted  by  Pfa&umabazus,  the  Persian,  was  encountered  by  the 
Atheniansi,  and  defeated  with  great  slaughter.  In  this  celebrated  battle  MindaruB  waa 
alain^  410  B.a — Pluiarck,    408  B.O. — Lenglei, 

CZAR.  From  Caesar,  a  title  of  honour  assumed  by  the  soyereigos  of  Russia.  Ivan 
BaaUowitz,  after  hAving  achieved  great  triumphs  over  the  Tartars,  and  made  many 
conquests,  pursued  them  to  the  centre  of  their  own  country,  and  returning  in 
triumph,  took  tho  title  of  Tzar,  or  Czar  (signifying  Great  King).  The  courts  of 
Europe  consented  to  address  the  Russian  Czar  by  the  title  of  emperor  in  l722.^A»pin, 

D. 

DAGUERREOTYPE^    See  Photography. 

DAHLIA.  This  beautiful  flower  was  imported  from  China,  of  which  it  is  a  native,  early 
in  the  present  century,  and  amateurs  in  flowers  have  annually  laid  out  hundreds  of 
pounds  in  England,  and  thousands  of  francs  in  France,  in  the  purchase  of  ik  The 
Swedish  botanist^  professor  Dahl,  first  cultivated  and  made  it  known.  It  soon  became 
a  favourite  in  England.  In  1815,  about  two  months  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo, 
it  vras  introduced  into  France,  and  the  celebrated  florist  Andr^  Thouine  suggested 
various  practical  improvements  in  its  managements  The  botanist  Georgi  had,  shortly 
before  this,  introduced  it  at  St  Petersburg ;  and  hence  it  is,  that  to  this  day  the 
dahlia  is  known  throughout  Germany  under  the  name  of  Oeorgina, 

DAMASCUS.  This  city  was  in  being  in  the  time  of  Abraham. — Cfen,  xiv.  It  is,  con- 
aequently,  one  of  the  most  ancient  in  the  world.  From  the  Assyrians,  Damascus 
paned  to  the  Persians,  and  from  them  to  the  Greeks  under  Alexander ;  and  after- 
wards to  the  Romans,  about  70  B.O.  It  was  taken  by  the  Saracens,  a.d.  633 ;  by  the 
Turks  in  1006;  and  was  destroyed  by  Tamerlane,  in  1400.  It  was  in  a  journey  to 
this  place  that  the  apostle  Paul  was  miraculously  converted  to  the  Christian  faith, 
and  here  he  bc^gan  to  preach  the  gospel,  about  a-D.  52.  Damascus  is  now  the  capital 
of  a  Turkish  pachalic.  The  disappearance  of  a  Greek  priest,  named  Father  Tommaso, 
from  here,  Feb.  1,  1640,  led  to  the  torture  of  a  number  of  Jews,  suspected  of  his 
murder,  and  in  the  end,  to  a  cruel  persecution  of  that  people,  which  caused  remon- 
strances from  many  states  of  Europe. 

DAMASK  LINENS  and  SILKS.~They  were  first  manufactured  at  Damascus,  and 
hence  the  name.  Their  large  fine  figures  represent  flowers,  and  are  raised  above 
the  ground-work.  They  were  beautifully  imitated  by  the  Dutch  and  Flemish 
weaTers;  and  the  manufacture  wos  brought  to  England  by  artisans  whofled  from  the 
persecution  of  the  cruel  duke  of  Alva»  between  the  years  1571  and  1573. — Andencn. 

DAMASK  ROSE.  The  damask  rose  was  transplanted  from  the  gardens  of  Damascus, 
and  brought  to  these  countries  from  the  south  of  Europe  and  Marseilles,  by  Dr. 
Linaore,  physician  to  Henry  VIII.,  about  a.d.  1540.    See  article  Boae» 

DAMIEN'S  ATTEMPT  on  tbb  LIFE  of  LOUIS  XV.  Louis,  who  was  styled  the 
Well-beloved,  was  stabbed  with  a  knife  in  the  right  side  by  Damiens,  a  native  of  Arras, 
Jan.  5,  1757.  For  this  crime  the  wretched  culprit  suiSered  a  dreadful  death;  he 
was  first  made  to  endure  the  most  excruciating  tortures,  nearly  sin^ilar  to  those  which 
had  been  inflicted  on  the  regicide  Ravaillao,  and  was  then  broken  on  the  wheel, 
March  28  following.    See  JRavaiUcuft  Murder  of  Henry  I F. 

DAMON  and  PYTHIAS^  Pythagorean  philosophers.  When  Damon  was  condemned 
to  death  by  the  tyrant  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  he  obtained  leave  to  go  and  settle  some 
domestic  s^rs,  on  the  promise  of  returning  at  the  appointed  time  of  execution,  and 
Pythias  became  surety  for  the  performance  of  his  engagement.  When  the  fatal  hour 
approached,  Damon  had  not  appeared,  and  Pythias  surrendered  himself,  and  was  led 
away  to  execution ;  but  at  this  critical  moment  Damon  returned  to  redeem  his  pledge. 


DAN 


202 


DAN 


DioDyaiiui  wai  so  struok  with  the  fidelity  of  these  friends,  that  he  remitted  the 
sentence,  and  entreated  them  to  permit  him  to  share  their  friendship,  887  B.O. 

DANCING.  The  dance  to  the  measure  of  time  was  invented  by  the  Curetes,  1584  B.a — 
Euaebius,  The  Greeks  were  the  first  who  united  the  dance  to  their  tragedies  and 
comedies.  Pantomimic  dances  were  first  introduced  on  the  Roman  stage,  22  B.a — 
Uther.  Dancing  by  cinque  paces  was  introduced  into  England  firom  Italy,  A.ri:  1641. 
In  modem  times,  the  French  were  the  first  who  introduced  hallett  analcgua  in  their 
musical  dramas.  The  country  dance  (eontr0dan9e)  is  of  French  origin,  but  its  date  is 
not  precisely  known. — S^man,    See  Morioe  Danee, 

DANE-GELD,  ob  DANEGELT.  A  tribute  formerly  paid  to  the  Danes,  arisbg  out  of 
their  exactions,  and  to  stop  their  ravages  in  this  kingdouL  It  was  first  ruaed  by 
Ethelred  II.  in  991,  and  was  again  collected  in  1008 ;  and  continued  to  be  levied  after 
the  expulsion  of  the  Danes,  to  pay  fleets  for  clearing  the  seas  of  them.  The  tax 
was  Buppresaed  by  Edward  the  Confessor  in  1051 ;  but  it  was  revived  by  William  the 
Conoueror,  and  formed  part  of  the  revenue  of  the  crown,  until  aboliihed  by  king 
Stepnen. — The  Danegelt  was  thus  raised  :  every  hide  of  land,  i.  f .  as  much  as  one 
plough  could  plough,  or  as  Btde  says,  maintain  a  family,  was  taxed  one  shilling. — ^Sfowe. 

DANES,  INVASIONS  or  the.  The  invasions  of  this  people  were  a  scourge  to  England 
for  upwards  of  two  hundred  yearsL  During  their  attacks  upon  Britain  and  Ireland, 
they  made  a  descent  on  France,  where,  in  895,  under  Rollo,  they  received  presents 
under  the  walls  of  Paris.  They  retomed  and  ravaged  the  Frenoh  territories  as  &r 
as  Ostend  in  896.  They  attacked  Italy  in  903.  Neustria  was  granted  by  the  king  of 
France  to  Rollo  and  his  Normans  (North-men),  hence  Normandy,  in  911.  The 
invaaiona  of  England  and  Ireland  were  as  follows :— 


riRST  BBBIKS  OP  IKVA8I0V8. 

First  hostile  appearanoe  of  the  Danes 

upon  the  coast      ....  a.d.    788 
They  land  near  Purbeok,  Dorset       .    .    787 
Descend  In  Northumberland;  are  re- 
pelled, and  perish  by  shipwreck.        .    794 
Tboy  Invade  Scotland  and  Ireland    .    .    796 
They  enter  Dublin  with  a  fleet  of  60  sail, 
and  possess  themsehes  of  Dublin,  Fin- 
gal,  and  other  places    ....    798 
They  take  the  Isle  of  Shepper  .       .    .    88S 
Defeated  in  Cornwall,  by  Egbert   .        .    836 
They  defeat  Ethelwolf  at  Charmouth     .    836 
Thev  land  in  Kent  fyom  850  vessels^  and 

take  canterbury  and  London      .       .    861 
Their  signal  defeat  by  Ethelwolf       .    .    868 
[This  defeat  closes  the  first  period  of  their 
ravages.] 

SBCOHD  8EHII8  OP  llTVASIOirS. 

They  return  to  England,  maike  a  descent 

on  Northumberland,  and  take  York  .  867 

They  defeat  the  Saxons  at  Herton .       .  871 

They  take  Wareham  and  Exeter       .    .  876 
They  take  Chippenham ;  but  120  of  their 

ships  are  wrecked        ....  877 

Defeated  by  the  earl  of  Devon   .       .    .  878 

Alftrd  enters  into  a  treaty  with  them   .  88S 
Their  fleet  totally  destroyed  by  Alfted 

atAppledore 894 

They  invade  and  waste  Anglesey      .    .  900 

They  submit  to  the  Saxons                    .  981 


They  defeat  the  people  of  Leinster,  whose 
king  is  killed    ....      a.d.    086 

Their  new  invasion  of  Donetshlre .        .    962 

Thev  ravage  Essex 991 

Then:  fleet  defeated  after  a  breach  of 
treaty,  purchased  by  money  .    99S 

They  land  in  Essex,  and  in  the  west»  and 
are  paid  a  simi  of  money  (16,0001.)  to 
quit  the  kingdom 995 

A  general  massacre  of  the  Danes,  byoider 
ofEtheh«dII.      .  Nov.  109S 

Swein  revenges  the  death  of  his  country- 
men, and  receives  36,0001.  (which  be 
afterwards  demands  as  an  annual  tri- 
bute) to  depart        1008 

They  make  IVesh  inroads^  and  defeat  the 
Saxons  in  SuflToUc         ....  1010 

They  again  sack  Canterbury,  and  put  the 
inhabitants  to  death  .    .  1011 

Their  conquest  of  England  oompletad   •  1017 

THIRD  SIBIES  OP  BAVAOBB. 

They  settle  in  Scotland  ....  1010 
Vanquished  at  Clontarf  in  Ireland,  in  a 

bloody  battle  (Me  C(on<ar/)  .    .  1039 

They  are  driven  out  of  England  .  1041 

They  land  again  at  Sandwich,  oanylng 

off  much  plunder  to  Flanden  .  .  1047 
They  bum  York,  and  put  8000  Nonnana 

to  the  sword 1009 

Once   more  invade  England  bat  are 

bribed  by  WUliam  to  depart  .       .    .  1074 


DANGEROUS  ASSOCIATIONS'  (IRELAND)  BILL.  The  statute  for  the  suppression 
of  daugerouB  associations  in  Ireland,  particularly  with  reference  to  the  then  Roman 
Catholic  Association,  passed  March  6,  1829.  This  law  was  enacted  when  the  Roman 
Catholic  Relief  Bill  was  psssed.    See  Romam  Oatholie  Aitociatiim, 

DANTZIC.  A  commerciDl  city  in  a.d.  997.— ^iMc&ifi^.  Built,  according  to  other 
authorities,  by  Waldemar  L,  in  1165.  Poland  obtained  the  sovereignty  of  it  in  1454. 
Seized  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  anneied  to  his  dominions  in  1793.  It  surrendered 
to  the  FVench  after  a  »iege  of  four  months,  May  5,  1807;  and  by  the  treaty  of  Tilait, 
W88  restored  to  its  former  independence,  under  the  protection  of  Prussia  and  Saxony. 
Dantzic  was  besieged  by  the  allies  in  1812;  and.  after  a  gallant  resistance,  surrender^ 
to  them  Jan.  1 ,  181 4.    By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  it  again  reverted  to  the  king  of  Prussia. 


DAN  208  DAT 

Awful  inundation  here,  owing  to  the  Vistula  breaking  through  its  dykes,  by  which 
10,000  head  of  catUe  and  4000  houses  were  destroyed,  and  a  Tost  number  of  lives 
lost,  Apnl  9, 1829. 

DANUBE.  (Oerman,  Donau ;  anciently  later,  in  its  lower  part)  Except  the  Wolga, 
the  laigest  river  in  Europe,  rising  in  the  Black  Forest  and  falling  into  the  Black  Sea. 
Its  navigatiou  has  been  considered  an  object  of  great  importance,  from  the  time  of 
Trajan  to  the  present  time.  Part  of  Trajan's  bridge  at  Gladova  still  remains.  It  was 
destroyed  by  Adrian,  to  prevent  the  barbarians  entering  Dacia.  Steam  navigation 
was  projected  on  tiiis  river  by  count  Szeneohyi,  in  1880,  and  in  that  year  the  first 
steamboat  was  launched  at  Vienna,  and  the  Austrian  company  was  formed  shortly 
after.  The  Bavarian  company  was  formed  in  1836.  Charlemagne,  in  the  eighth 
century,  contemplated  uniting  the  Danube  and  Rhine  by  a  canal,  and  actually  began 
a  work  which  is  now  in  progress  imder  the  auspices  of  the  Bavarian  government. 

DANTJBIAN  PRINCIPALITIES;  Wallaobia  and  Moldavia;  capitals, Bucharest  and 
Jassy.  These  provinoas  formed  part  of  the  ancient  Dacia,  which  was  oouquei^  by 
Trajan  about  A.D.  103,  and  abandoned  by  Aurelian  about  270.  For  tome  time  after, 
they  were  alternately  in  the  poasession  of  the  barbarians  and  the  Qreek  emperors ;  and 
afterwards  of  the  Hungarians.  In  the  thirteenth  century  they  were  subdued  by  the 
Turks,  but  permitted  to  retain  their  religious  customs,  &c.  In  1812,  part  of  Moldavia 
was  ceded  to  Russia.  The  provinces  havinar  participated  in  the  Greek  insurrection  in 
1821,  were  afterwards  severely  treated  by  the  Turks ;  but  by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople 
in  1829,  they  were  placed  under  the  protection  of  Russia.  In  June,  1849,  the  Porte 
appointed  as  hospodars  prince  Stirbev  for  Wallachia,  and  prince  Ghika  for  Moldavia, 
who  retired  from  their  governments  when  the  Russians  crossed  the  Pruth,  and  entered 
Moldavia  in  July  2, 1853.  See  JlutiO-Tiurkiih  war.  The  Russians  quitted  these  pro- 
vinces in  Sept  1854,  and  an  Austrian  army  entered  (by  virtue  of  a  convention  between 
the  sultan  and  Austria),  and  remained  there  till  March,  1857.  The  union  of  the 
principalities  in  one  government  is  said  to  have  been  agreed  to  by  the  allied  powers 
and  Russia,  after  much  opposition  on  the  part  of  England  and  Austria  (Aug.  1857). 

DARDANELLES,  PASSAGE  of  the.  The  Dardanelles  are  two  castles,  one  called 
Sestos,  seated  in  Romania,  the  other  called  Abydot,  in  NatoUa,  commanding  the 
entrance  of  the  strait  of  Gallipoli  They  were  built  by  the  emperor  Mahomet  IV., 
in  1659,  and  were  named  Dardanelles  from  the  contiguous  town,  Dardanus.  The 
gallant  exploit  of  forcing  the  passage  of  the  Dardanelles  was  achieved  by  the  British 
squadron  under  admiral  sir  John  Duckworth,  February  19, 1807;  but  the  admiral 
was  obliged  to  repass  them,  which  he  did  with  great  loss  and  immense  damsge  to  the 
fleet,  Much  2,  following,  the  castles  of  Sestos  and  Abydos  hurling  down  rocks  of 
stone,  each  of  many  tons  weight,  upon  the  decks  of  the  British  ships.  The  allied 
Rngltith  and  French  fleets  passed  the  Dardanelles  at  the  sultan's  request,  Oct.  1853. 

DARIC.  This  gold  coin  was  issued  by  Darius  the  Mede,  and  hence  its  name,  about 
338  B.O.  It  is  seldom  mentioned,  if  at  all,  by  Roman  historians. — Aahe,  Its  value 
was  two  shillings. — Bailey.  About  556  cents. — Knowlet,  It  weighed  two  grains  more 
than  the  English  guinea. — Dr.  Bernard, 

DARTFORD.  At  this  town  commenced  the  memorable  insurrection  of  Wat  Tyler, 
A.JD.  1881.  Here  was  a  celebrated  convent  of  nuns  of  the  order  of  St.  Augustin,  en- 
dowed by  Edward  III.,  1355,  which  was  converted  by  Henry  VIIL,  at  the  time  of  the 
Reformation,  into  a  royal  palace.  The  first  paper-mill  in  England  was  erected  at 
Dartford  by  sir  John  Speilman,  a  German,  in  1590. — Stowe.  And  about  the  same 
period  was  erected  here  the  first  mill  for  slitting  iron  bars.  The  powder-mills  here 
were  blo«n  up  four  times  between  1730  and  1738.  Various  explosions  have  since 
occurred,  in  some  cases  mth  loss  of  life  to  many  persons.  A  great  explosion  took 
place  Oct  12, 1790;  again  Jan.  1, 1795;  and  others  more  recently. 

DARTMOUTH.  Burnt  by  the  French  in  the  reigns  of  Richard  L  and  Henry  IV.  In  a 
third  attempt  the  invaders  were  defeated  by  the  inhabitants,  assisted  by  the  valour  of 
the  women.  The  French  commander,  M.  Castel,  three  lords,  and  thirty-two  knights 
were  made  prisoners,  1404.  In  the  war  of  the  parliament,  Dartmouth  was  taken 
(1648)  aiter  a  siege  of  four  weeks,  by  prince  Maurice,  who  garrisoned  the  place  for 
the  king;  but  it  was  retaken  by  general  Fairfax  by  storm  in  1646. 

DATES.  Dates  were  first  affixed  to  grants  and  assignments  18  Edw.  L  1290.  Before 
this  time  it  was  usual  at  least  to  pi^as  lands  without  doting  the  deed  of  conveyance. — 


DAU  204  DEA 

Lewis.  Numorous  inatruznents  of  assignment  enrolled  among  our  early  recorda 
establish  this  fact.  The  date  is  determined  by  the  names  of  the  parties,  particularly 
that  of  the  grantor :  the  possession  of  land  was  proof  of  the  title  to  it. — Hardie, 

DAUPHIN.  The  title  given  to  the  eldest  sons  of  the  kings  of  France,  from  the  proTinoe 
of  Dauphin^,  which  was  ceded  by  its  last  prince  Humbert  II.  to  Philip  of  Valois,  oa 
the  condition  that  the  heirs  to  the  French  throne  should  bear  the  arms  and  name  of 
the  province,  ▲.D.  1343. — Priestley.  It  is  a  vulgar  error  to  suppose  that,  by  the  treaty 
of  1343,  which  gave  the  full  sovereignty  of  Dauphin^  to  the  kings  of  France,  it  waa 
stipulated  that  Uie  eldest  son  of  the  king  should  bear  the  title  of  dauphin.  So  fiur 
from  it,  the  first  dauphin  named  in  that  treaty  was  Philip,  second  son  of  Philip  of 
Valois. — ffetiauli.  The  late  duke  of  Orleans,  eldest  son  of  Louis-Philippe,  was  not 
called  the  dauphin. 

DAVIS'S  STRAIT.  Discovered  by  the  renowned  English  navigator,  John  Davis,  whose 
name  it  bears,  on  his  voyage  to  find  a  north-west  passage,  in  1585.  Davis  made  two 
more  voyages  for  the  same  purpose,  and  afterwards  performed  five  voyages  to  the 
East  Indies.  In  the  last  he  was  killed  by  Japanese  pirates,  in  the  Indian  seas,  on  the 
coast  of  Malacca,  Dec  27, 1605. 

DAT.  Day  began  at  sunrise  among  most  of  the  northern  nations,  and  at  sunset  among 
the  Athenians  and  Jews.  Among  the  Romans  day  commenced  at  midnight,  as  it  now 
does  among  us.  The  Italians  in  most  places,  at  the  present  time,  reckon  the  day  from 
sunset  to  sunset,  making  their  clocks  strike  twenty-four  hours  round,  instead  of 
dividing  the  day,  as  is  done  in  all  other  countries,  into  equal  portions  of  twelve  hour& 
This  mode  is  but  partially  used  in  the  lai^er  towns  of  Italy,  most  public  docks  in 
Florence,  Rome,  and  Milan,  being  set  to  the  hour  designated  on  French  or  FiHgliah 
clocks.  The  Chinese  divide  the  day  into  twelve  parts  of  two  hours  each.  Our  civil 
day  is  distinguished  from  the  astronomical  day,  which  begins  at  noon,  and  is  the  mode 
of  reckoning  used  in  the  Nautical  Almanack.  At  Rome,  day  and  night  were  first 
divided  in  time  by  means  of  water  clocks,  the  invention  of  Scipio  Nasica,  153  b.c. 

DEACON.  An  order  of  the  Christian  priesthood  which  took  its  rise  from  the  institution 
of  seven  deacons  by  the  Apostles,  which  number  was  retained  a  long  period  in  many 
churches,  about  a.d.  51.  See  Acts,  chap.  vL  The  original  deacons  were  Philip, 
Stephen,  Prochorus,  Nicanor,  Timon,  Parmenos,  and  Nicolaa.  The  quaMcationa  of  a 
deacon  are  mentioned  by  St.  Paul,  1st  Timotky,  iii  8 — 13. 

DEAF  AND  DUMB.  The  first  systematic  attempt  to  instruct  the  deaf  and  dumb  was 
made  by  Pedro  de  Ponce,  a  Benedictine  monk  of  Spain,  about  a.d.  1570.  Bonet,  also 
a  monk,  published  a  system  at  Madrid  in  1620.  Dr.  Wallis  published  a  work  in 
England  on  the  subject  in  1650.  The  first  regular  academy  for  the  deaf  and  dumb 
in  these  countries  was  opened  in  Edinburgh  in  1773.  In  modem  times  the  abb^  de 
TEp^e  and  the  abb^  Sicard,  of  Paris;  the  rev.  Mr.  Townsend  and  Mr.  Baker,  of 
London ;  Mr.  Braidwood,  of  Edinburgh  ;  and  surgeon  Orpen,  of  Dublin,  have 
laboured  vrith  much  success  in  promoting  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb. 
An  asylum  for  teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb  poor  was  opened  in  London  through 
the  exertions  of  Mr.  Townsend,  in  1792.  Several  deaf  and  dumb  institutions  exist 
in  that  city.    The-asylum  at  Claremont,  Dublin,  was  opened  in  1816.    See  DmmA. 

DEAN,  FOREST  of.  Anciently  it  was  shaded  vrith  woods  quite  through,  and  was  of 
immense  extent;  and  in  the  last  century,  though  much  curtailed,  it  was  twenty  miles 
in  length  and  ten  in  breadth.  It  was  fiunous  for  its  oaks,  of  which  moat  of  our 
former  ships  of  war  were  mada  The  memorable  riots  in  this  district,  when  more 
than  8000  persons  assembled  in  the  forest,  and  demolished  upwards  of  fifly  milea  of 
wall  and  fence,  tiirowing  open  10,000  acres  of  plantation,  took  place  on  Jane  8, 1831. 

DEATH,  PUNISHMENT  of.  Death  by  drowning  in  a  quagmire  vraa  a  punishment 
among  the  Britons  before  450  B.a — Stawe.  The  most  eulogised  heroes  of  antiquity 
inflict  death  by  cruci6xion,  and  even  women  suffered  on  the  cross,  the  Tictima 
sometimes  living  in  the  most  excruciating  torture  many  days.  A  moat  horrifying 
instance  of  death  by  torture  occurs  in  the  fate  of  Mithridates,  a  eunuch,  an  ansannin 
of  Xerxes.  See  a  nole  to  the  article  Penia  ;  see  also  RavaiUac  ;  Boiling  to  death ; 
Burning  to  death,  &a  Maurice,  the  son  of  a  nobleman,  was  hanged,  drawn,  and 
quartered  for  piracy,  the  first  execution  in  that  manner  in  England,  25  Hen.  III. 
1241.  The  punishment  of  death  was  abolished  in  a  great  number  of  cases  by  sir 
R.  Peel's  acts,  4  to  10  Qeo.  IV.  1824-9.    Act  abolishing  the  punishment  of  dcatii  in 


DEA  205  DEC 

certain  other  cases,  2  &  3  Will  IV.  cap.  62,  July  11, 1882.  Act  of  same  session  to 
discontinue  the  punishment  of  death  in  cases  of  forgery,  except  in  the  forging  of 
wills  and  powers-of-attomey  to  transfer  stock  cap.  128,  Aug.  16, 1882.  Act  abolishing 
the  punishment  of  death  in  all  cases  of  forgery,  1  Vict.  cap.  91,  July  17, 1837. 

BEATH^  PARISH  KEGISTERS  of.  Cromwell,  earl  of  Essex,  who  was  one  of  the 
chief  instruments  of  Henry  VIII.  in  the  suppression  of  monasteries  and  abbeys,  was 
the  institutor  of  parish  reg^ters  of  deaths,  births,  and  marriages,  a.d.  1536 ;  but  they 
were  more  formally  compiled  in  1593,  after  the  great  plague  of  that  year.  A  tax  was 
levied  on  deaths  and  births  in  England,  23  Qeo.  IIL  1783. 

DEBT.    Bee  National  Debt 

DEBTORS.  See  BanhrupU  and  Imolvents,  Debtors  have  been  subjected  to  imprison- 
ment in  almost  all  countries  and  times ;  and  until  the  passing  of  the  later  bankrupt 
laws  and  insolTent  acts,  the  prisons  of  these  countries  were  crowded  with  debtors  to 
an  extent  that  is  now  scarcely  credible.  It  appeared  by  parliamentary  returns  that 
in  the  eighteen  months  subsequent  to  the  panic  of  December,  1825,  as  many  as 
101,000  writs  for  debt  were  issued  from  the  courts  in  England.  In  the  year  ending 
5th  Jan.  1830,  there  were  7114  persons  sent  to  the  several  prisons  of  London ;  and 
on  that  day,  1547  of  the  number  were  yet  confined.  On  the  first  Jan.  1840,  the 
number  of  prisoners  for  debt  in  England  and  Wales  was  1732 ;  in  Ireland  the  number 
was  under  1000 ;  and  in  Scotland  under  100.  The  operation  of  statutes  of  relief,  and 
other  causes,  hare  since  considerably  reduced  the  number  of  imprisoned  debtors. 
Arrest  of  AbKonding  Debtors  bill,  14  &  15  Vict.  cap.  52, 1852.    See  Armi, 

DECEMBER^  In  the  year  of  Romulus  this  was  the  tenth  month  of  the  year,  called  so 
from  deeem,  ten,  the  Romans  commencing  their  year  in  March.  Numa  introduced 
January  and  February  before  this  latter  month,  in  713  B.O.,  and  from  Uienceforward 
December  became  the  twelfth  of  the  year.  In  the  reign  of  Commodus,  December 
was  called,  by  way  of  flattery,  Amazonius»  in  honour  of  a  courtesan  whom  that  prince 
pasaionately  loved,  and  had  got  painted  like  an  Amazon;  but  it  only  kept  the  name 
during  that  emperors  life,  between  a.d.  181  and  192.  The  English  commenced  their 
year  on  the  25th  December,  until  the  reign  of  William  the  Conqueror.    See  Year. 

DECEMVIRI,  or  Ten  Men,  who  were  appointed  to  draw  up  a  code  of  laws,  and  to  whom 
for  a  time  the  whole  government  of  the  state  was  committed,  in  449  b.o.  The  laws 
they  drew  up  were  approved  by  the  senate  and  general  assembly  of  the  people, 
irritten  on  ten  metallic  tables,  and  set  up  in  the  place  where  the  people  met  (c&mt- 
tium).  The  decemviri  at  first  ruled  well,  but  the  tyranny  of  Appius  Claudius  towards 
Virginia  occasioning  an  insurrection,  they  were  forced  to  resign,  and  consuls  were 
again  appointed,  and  tranquillity  restored. 

DECEKNALIA.  Festivals  celebrated  by  the  Roman  emperors  every  tenth  year  of  their 
reign,  with  sacrifices,  games,  and  largesses,  instituted  by  Augustus,  17  B.O. — Livp, 
They  do  not  appear  to  have  been  continued  after  the  reigns  of  the  Csssars.  No 
mention  is  made  of  them  from  that  time. 

DECIMAL  SYSTEM  of  COINAGE,  WEIGHTS,  ftc.,  was  established  in  France  in  1790 
and  shortly  after  in  other  countries.  Sir  John  Wrottesley  brought  it  before  par- 
liament,  Feb.  25, 1824,  but  it  was  not  till  May,  1838,  that  a  commission  of  inc^uiry  was 
appointed  at  the  instance  of  the  then  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Mr.  Spnng  Rice, 
since  lord  Monteagle ;  and  in  June  20, 1843,  another  commission  was  appointed :  they 
both  consisted  of  eminent  scientific  men,  and  both  reported  strongly  in  favour  of  the 
changa  A  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  reported  to  the  same  effect,  August 
1, 1853.  Mr.  Gladstone,  however,  while  admitting  the  advantages  of  the  system, 
thought  its  introduction  premature.  In  June,  1854,  an  association  was  formed  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  adoption  of  the  system.  In  Nov.  1855,  a  commission 
for  inquiry  was  appointed,  consisting  of  lords  Monteagle  and  Overstone  and  Mr.  J. 
O.  Hubbard,  who  published  a  preliminary  report  (with  evidence),  but  expressed  no 
opinion  on  the  subject — The  decimal  currency  is  to  be  adopted  in  Canada  Jan.  1^ 
1858. — ^An  international  decimal  association  was  formed  in  1855. 

DB  COURCY'S  PRIVILEGE.  The  privilege  of  standing  covered  before  the  tmg, 
granted  by  king  John  to  John  de  Courcy,  baron  of  Kinsale,  and  his  successors,  in 
1203.  Sir  John  de  Courcy  was  the  first  nobleman  created  by  an  English  sovereign, 
27  Hen.  IL  1181 ;  and  was  entrusted  with  the  government  of  Ireland,  in  1185.  The 
privilege  accorded  to  this  family  has  been  exercised  in  most  reigns,  and  was  allowed 


DEC  200  DEL 

to  the  baron  Kinsale  by  Will.  III.,  Qeo.  IIL,  and  by  Qeo.  lY.  at  bis  court  held  in 
Dublin,  in  Aug.  1821. 

DECRETAD9.  The  decretals  formed  the  second  part  of  the  canon  law,  or  collection  of 
the  pope's  edicts  and  decrees.  The  first  of  these  that  is  acknowledged  to  be  genuine 
by  the  learned,  is  a  letter  of  Syricius  to  Himerus,  the  bishop  of  Spain,  written  in  ihm 
first  year  of  his  pontificate^  A.D.  886. — BoweL  The  decretals  of  Qratisn,  a  Benedictine 
(a  collection  of  canons),  were  compiled  in  1150. — ffenauU, 

DEDICATIONS.  The  dedication  of  books  was  introduced  in  the  time  of  Haoenas^ 
17  B.O.,  and  tiie  custom  has  been  practiBed  ever  since  by  authors  to  solicit  patronage, 
or  testify  respect.  Mseoenss  was  the  friend  and  privy  counsellor  of  Augustus  Gnsar. 
and  was  so  famous  a  patron  of  men  of  genius  and  learning,  that  it  has  beoi  customary 
to  style  erery  minister  of  a  sovereign  prince,  imitating  his  example,  the  Uscenas  oif 
the  sge  or  country  in  which  he  lives.—  Valerifu  Patereihu  ffitt.  Rom, 

DEDICATION  of  CHURCHES.  We  meet  in  the  Scriptures,  under  the  Jewish  dispen- 
sation, with  the  dedication  of  the  tabernacle  and  of  the  temple.  The  Christians, 
finding  themselves  at  liberty  under  Constantine,  built  new  churchea^  and  dedicated 
them  with  great  solemnity,  in  aax,  831  et  aeg. 

DEEDS.  They  were  formerly  written  in  the  Latin  and  French  languages :  the  earliest 
known  instance  of  the  ESiglish  tongue  having  been  used  in  deeds  is  that  of  the 
indenture  between  the  abbot  and  convent  of  Whitby  and  Robert,  the  son  of  John 
Bustard,  dated  at  York,  in  the  year  1848.  The  English  tongue  was  ordered  to  be  used 
in  all  law  pleadings  in  1864.*    Ordered  to  be  used  in  all  law-suits  in  May,  1781. 

DEFAMATION.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  on  this  subject  was 
abolished  by  18  &  19  Vict.  c.  41  (1855). 

DEFENDER  of  thb  FAITH.  Fidei  Jkfenaor,  A  title  conferred  by  Leo  JL  on 
Henry  VITI.  of  England.  The  king  wrote  a  tract  in  behalf  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
then  accounted  Domicilium  fidei  Catholicte,  and  again&t  Luther,  who  had  junt  begun 
the  Reformation  in  Germany,  upon  which  the  pope  gave  him  the  title  of  Defender  of 
the  Fait^,  a  title  still  retained  by  the  monarchs  of  Great  Britain ;  the  bull  conferring 
it  bears  date  Oct  9, 1521. 

DEFENDERS.  A  faction  in  Ireland,  which  arOM  out  of  a  private  qusrrel  between  two 
reridents  of  Market-hill,  July  4, 1 784.  Each  was  soon  aided  by  a  large  body  of  friends, 
and  many  battles  ensued.  On  Whit-Monday,  1785,  an  armed  assemblsge  of  one  of 
the  parties  (700  men),  called  the  Nappa^  Fleet,  prepared  to  encounter  the  Bawm 
Fleetf  but  ihe  engagement  was  prevented.  They  subsequently  became  religious 
parties.  Catholic  and  Presbyterian,  distinguished  as  Jkftukden  and  Peq^-o'-doy-ooyf  .- 
the  latter  were  so  named  because  Uiey  usually  visited  the  dwellings  of  &e  Defendera 
at  daybreak  in  search  of  arms. — Sir  Fichaird  Mutgravt, 

DEGREES.  The  first  attempt  to  determine  the  length  of  a  degree  is  recorded  as  having 
been  made  by  Eratosthenes,  about  250  B.O. — SmdlivM,  The  first  degree  of  lonntnde 
vms  fixed  by  Hipparch'us  of  Nice  (by  whom  the  latitude  was  determined  also),  at  Farro, 
one  of  the  Canary  islands,  whose  most  western  point  was  made  the  first  general 
meridian,  162  b.c.  Several  nations  have  fixed  their  meridian  from  places  connected 
with  their  own  territories ;  and  thus  the  Englidi  compute  their  longitude  from  the 
meridian  of  Greenwich.    See  LatUude,  Longitiide,  and  tke  varwui  CoUqgiaU  degrees 

DEISM.  This  denomination  was  first  assumed  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  oenturj 
by  some  gentlemen  of  France  and  Italy,  in  order  thus  to  disguise  their  opposition  to 
Christianity  by  a  more  honourable  appellation  than  that  of  Atheism. —  Ftrol**  ImMrm^ 
lion  Chritienmt,  1568.  Deism  is  a  rejection  of  all  manner  of  revelation :  ita  followeis 
go  merely  by  the  light  of  nature,  believing  that  there  is  a  God,  a  providence,  vice  and 
virtue,  and  an  afber^tate  of  punishments  and  rewards :  it  is  sometimes  called  fineo* 
thinking.  The  first  deistical  writer  of  any  note  in  England,  was  Herbert,  baron  of 
Cherbury,  in  1 624.  The  most  distinguished  deists  were  Hobbee,  Tindal,  Morgan,  lord 
Bolingbroke,  Hume,  Holcroft,  and  Godwin. 

DELEGATES,  COURT  of.  Once  the  highest  of  all  the  ecdcaastical  courts  in  England. 
Appeals  to  the  pope  in  ecclesiaBtioal  causes  having  been  forbidden  (sea  A^^peaiU),  thosa 

*  Edward  III.  ordered  that  all  pleadings  and  judgmentu  in  the  courts  at  Westminster  staoold  for 
the  Aiture  be  in  English,  whereas  ihev  were  previously  in  the  French  language.  As  for  other  pabUe 
acts,  such  as  statutes  and  the  like,  it  does  not  appear  that  they  were  wnttan  in  the  Amicb  until 
about  the  time  of  Edward  I.— Tindal,  note  6,  on  JZopm,  voL  1,  pa^e  4S. 


DEL  207  DEL 

cauBoa  were  for  the  future  to  be  heard  in  this  oourt,  by  stat.  24  Uenry  VIII.  1632 ; 
and  sooQ  afterwards  the  pope's  authority  was  superMded  altogether  in  England. — 
Siowe,  This  court  was  aoolished,  and  in  lieu  of  it  appeals  now  lie  to  the  Judicial 
Committee  of  the  Privy  Council,  as  fixed  by  stat  8  &  4  Will.  IV.  cap.  41  Aug.  14, 
1838.    See  Ar<Aat  CouH,  ftc 

DELFT.  This  town  was  founded  by  Godfrey  le  Bossu,  and  is  famous  for  the  earthenware 
or  counterfeit  porcelain  which  is  known  by  its  name,  and  which  was  first  manu&otured 
here  in  a.d.  1810.  But  the  sale  of  Dutch  delft  greatly  declined  after  the  introduction 
of  potteries  on  a  laige  scale  into  Qennany  and  England.  Delft  was  the  scene  of  many 
of  the  councils  and  preparations  of  the  Dutch  patriots  in  their  struggles  against  Spain. 
It  was  the  birth-place  of  the  renowned  Orotius. 

DELHI.  The  once  great  capital  of  the  Mogul  empire ;  it  is  now  in  decay,  but  contained 
a  million  of  inhabitants  in  1700.  In  1788,  when  Nadir  Shah  invaded  Hindoostan,  he 
entered  Delhi,  and  dreadful  massacres  and  fiunine  followed :  100,000  of  the  inhabitants 
perished  by  the  sword ;  and  plunder  to  the  amount  of  62,000,000^.  sterling  was  said 
to  hove  been  collected.  The  same  calamities  were  endured  in  1761,  on  the  invasion 
of  Abdalla,  king  of  Candahar.  In  1803,  the  Mahrattas,  aided  by  the  French,  got 
possession  of  this  place ;  but  they  were  afterwards  defeated  by  general  Lake,  and  the 
aged  Shah  Aulum,  emperor  of  Hindoostan,  was  restored  to  his  throne.  See  India, 
On  May  10, 1857,  a  mutiny  arose  in  the  sepoy  regiments  at  Meerut^  It  was  soon 
checked ;  but  the  fugitives  fled  to  Delhi,  and,  combined  with  other  troops  there, 
seized  on  the  city,  and  proclaimed  a  descendant  of  the  Mogul  king,  committing  most 
frightful  atrocities.    Delhi  was  shortly  after  besieged  by  the  British.    See  India,  1857. 

**  DELICATE  IN  VESTIQATION,"  Thb.  The  memorable  investigation  into  the  conduct 
of  the  princess  of  Wales,  afterwards  queen  of  Eogland,  as  consort  of  Qeo.  lY.  was 
commenced  by  a  committee  of  the  privy  council,  under  a  warrant  of  inquiry,  dated 
May  29,  1806.  The  members  were  lord  Qrenville,  lord  Erakine,  earl  Spencer,  and 
lord  EUenborough.  The  inquiry,  of  which  the  countess  of  Jersey,  sir  J.  and  lady 
Douglas,  and  other  persons  of  rank  were  the  prompters,  and  in  which  they  con- 
spicuously figured,  lasted  until  the  following  year,  and  led  to  the  publication  called 
"  The  Book,"  which  was  afterwards  suppressed.    See  Quieen, 

DELPHIC  ORACLEa  Delphi  is  celebrated  for  its  oracles  delivered  by  Pythia,  in  the 
temple  of  Apollo,  which  was  built>  some  say,  by  the  council  of  the  Amphictyona, 
1263  B.a  The  priestess  delivered  the  answer  of  the  god  to  such  as  came  to  consult 
the  oracle,  and  was  supposed  to  be  suddenly  inspired.  The  temple  was  burnt  by  the 
Pinstratidse,  548  B.O.  A  new  temple  was  raised  by  the  AlcmseonidsB  and  was  so  rich 
in  donations  that  at  one  time  it  was  plundered  by  the  people  of  Phocis  of  20,000 
talents  of  gold  and  silver ;  and  Nero  carried  from  it  600  costly  statues.  The  first 
Delphic,  or  sacred  war,  concerning  the  temple,  was  449  B.O.  The  second  sacred  war 
was  commenced  on  Delphi  being  attacked  by  the  Phocians,  856  b.o. — Da  Prunoy, 

DELPHIN  CLASSICS^  A  collection  of  the  Latin  authors  originally  made  for  the  use 
of  the  dauphin  {in  fuwn  Ddphini),  son  of  Louis  XIV.  Their  publication  commenced 
with  the  due  de  Montausier,  the  young  prince's  governor,  who  proposed  the  plan  to 
Huet,  bishop  of  Avranches,  the  dauphin's  preceptor;  and  he,  with  other  learned 
persons,  including  madame  Dacier,*  edited  this  edition  of  all  the  Latin  classics  with 
the  exception  of  Lucan.  Each  author  is  illustrated  by  valuable  notes,  critical  and 
explanatory,  with  an  index  containing  every  word  in  the  work,  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  eoncjknrdance  of  the  Scriptures.  The  number  of  volumes  published  was  sixty, 
all  printed  between  1674  and  1691,  except  Ausonius,  in  1750.  A  new  edition  of  the 
Delphin  Classics,  with  additional  notes,  &c.,  was  published  by  Mr.  Yalpy  of  London, 
early  in  the  present  century. — BtUter, 

DBLIJOB,  THB  QENERAL.  The  deluge  was  threatened  in  the  year  of  the  world  1536  ; 
and  it  began  Dec.  7, 1656,  and  continued  377  days.  The  ark  rested  on  Mount  Ararat, 
May  6, 1657 ;  and  Noah  left  the  ark,  Dec.  18  following.  The  year  corresponds  with 
that  of  2848  B.O. — Blair.  The  following  are  the  epochs  of  the  deluge  according  to 
the  Uble  of  Dr.  Hales  :— 

*  This  heautiflil  and  ^tted  woman,  for  Madame  Dader  was  equallv  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and 
iaamlng,  traoalated  OalUma^HB  at  the  age  of  twenty-three.  She  also  translated  Jnaereon,  Sappho, 
PtauttUf  Terenee,  and  B<nnfr.  Madame  Dacier,  as  mentioned  above,  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
Dclpbio  daasics;  and,  it  is  believed,  the  translator  of  Auioniiu,  although  this  last  work  was  not 
pululahed  until  many  yean  after  hor  death  in  1720. 


DEL 


208 


DEN 


DELUGE,  THE  OENERA.L,  coniinued. 


Soptuagint.  B.C.  S2t6 
Jackson.  .  .  8170 
Hales .  .  .  3155 
JosephuB        .    .  3146 


PersUa  .  b.o.  3103 
Hindoo  .  .  3102 
Samaritan  .  2998 
Howard        .    .  2098 


Playfair  .  B.C.  2352 
Usher  .  .  .  2348 
English  Bible  .  2348 
Maraham        .    .  2344 


Petavius  .  &c.  S3S9 
Strauchios  .  «  2293 
Hebrew  .  .  3288 
Vulgar  Jewish  .  2104 


Somo  of  the  states  of  Europe  were  alarmed,  we  are  told,  hj  the  prediction  that 
another  general  deluge  would  occur,  and  arks  were  everywhere  built  to  guard  against 
the  calamity;  but  the  season  happened  to  be  a  fine  and  dry  one,  a.d.  1524. 

DELUGE  OF  DEUCALION.  The  fiEtbulous  one  is  placed  1508  b.c.  according  to 
EuMebiut.  This  flood  has  been  often  confounded  by  the  ancients  with  the  general 
flood ;  but  it  was  845  years  posterior  to  that  event,  and  was  merely  a  local  inunda> 
tion  occasioned  by  the  overflowing  of  the  river  Pineus,  whose  coarse  was  stopped  bj 
an  earthquake  between  the  mounts  Olympus  and  Ossa.  Deucalion,  who  then  reigned 
in  Thessaly,  with  his  wife  Pyrrha,  and  some  of  their  subjects,  saved  themselves  by 
climbing  up  mount  Parnassus. 

DELUGE  07  OGTGES.  In  the  reign  of  Ogyges  was  a  deluge  which  so  innndated  the 
territories  of  Attica  that  they  lay  waste  for  near  200  years ;  it  occurred  before  the 
deluge  of  Deucalion,  about  1764  b.o. — Blair,  Buffbn  thinks  that  the  Hebrew  and 
Grecian  deluges  were  the  same,  and  arose  from  the  Atlantic  and  Bosphoma  buntinfj^ 
into  the  valley  of  the  Mediterranean. 

DEMERARA  and  ESSEQUIBO.  These  colonies,  founded  by  the  Dutch,  were  taken  bj 
the  British,  under  msjor-general  Whyte,  April  22, 1796,  but  were  restored  at  the  peace 
of  1802.  Demerara  and  Essequibo  ac^n  surrendered  to  the  British  under  general 
Grinfield  and  commodore  Hood,  Sept.  20, 1103.    They  are  now  fixed  English  ooloniet. 

DEMOCRATS.  Advocates  for  government  by  the  people  themselves  (demot,  people,  and 
krateinf  to  govern) :  a  term  adopted  by  the  French  republicans  in  1790  (who  termed 
their  opponents  aristocrats,  from  arittoi,  braveti  or  but).  The  name  DemocraU  has 
been  adopted  by  the  pro-slavery  party  in  N.  America  (the  southern  states).  The 
northern  states  are  now  called  Republicans,  Into  these  two  great  parties  a  number 
of  smaller  ones  were  absorbed  at  the  presidential  election  in  1856. 

DENARIUS.  The  chief  silver  coin  among  the  Romans  (from  deno»  aria),  weighing  the 
seventh  part  of  a  Roman  ounce,  and  value  sevenpence-three-fiirthings  sterling,  fint 
coined  about  269  B.O.,  when  it  exchanged  for  ten  ases  (see  article  Aa),  In  216  B.C.  it 
exchanged  for  sixteen  ases.  A  pound  weight  of  silver  was  coined  into  100  denariL 
— Dighy,  A  pound  weight  of  gold  was  coined  into  twenty  denarii  aurei,  in  206  B.a  ; 
and  in  Nero*s  time  into  forty-five  denarii  aurei — Lempriert, 

DENMARK.  The  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  this  kingdom  were  the  Cimbri  and  the 
Teutones,  who  were  driven  out  by  the  Jutes  or  Goths.  The  Teutones  settled  in 
Germany  and  Gaul;  the  Cimbrians  invaded  Italy,  where  they  were  defeated  by 
Marios.  The  peninsula  of  Jutland  obtains  its  name  from  the  Jutes ;  and  the  name  of 
Denmark  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  Dan,  the  founder  of  the  Danish  monarchy, 
and  marh^  a  German  word  signifying  country,  i,  e,  Dan-mark,  the  country  of  Dan. 


Reign  of  Sciold,  first  king       .       .  b.o.      60 
The  Dauinh  chronicles  mention  18  kings 
to  the  time  of  Ragnor  Lodbrog      a.d.    760 

[Ragnor  is  killed  in  an  attempt  to  inTade 
England,  and  for  more  than  200  years 
from  this  time  the  Danes  were  a  terror 
to  the  northern  nations  of  Europe,often 
landing  on  our  own  8hores,and  at  length 
conquering  all  England.    Bee  Jkmet.} 

Reign  ofCanute  the  Great  .  .  .1014 
Reign  of  Waldemar  the  Great  .  .  .  1167 
Waidoraar  II.  with  a  fleet  of  1000  sail, 

makes  immense  conquests  .  .  .  1223 
Gothland  conquered  .....  1S47 
Denmark,    Norway,    and   Sweden   are 

united  into  oue  kingdom  .  1397 

Revolt  of  the  Swedes  .....  1414 
The  nations  re-unitcd  ....  1430 
Copenhagen  made  the  capital  .  .  .  1440 
Accession  of  Christian  I.  from  whom  the 

present  royal  family  springs  .  1448 

Christian  II.  is  denosea,  and  the  inde- 
pendence of  Sweden  acknowledged    .  1623  J 


Lutlieranism  established  by  Christiiia 
III A.D.  15S6 

Danish  East  India  Company  esiablishod 
by  Christian  IV 161S 

Christian  IV.  chosen  bead  of  the  Pkt>tea- 
tant  league 1CS9 

Charles  OustaTus  of  Sweden  invades 
Denmark,  besieges  CopenbageUf  and 
makes  largo  conqiiests     .        .        .    .  I6S8 

The  crown  made  hereditary  and  afaeolnto  1660 

Frederick  IV.  lakes  Holstein,  Sleswick, 
(8chle6wlg)TonniDgen,  and  Stralsund ; 
reduces  Weismar,  and  drives  the 
Swedes  out  of  Norway .  1716  tt  $eq, 

Copenhagen  destroyed  by  a  fire  which 
consumes  1660  houses,  6  churches,  the 
university,  and  4  colleges  .    .  17SS 

The  peaceful  reign  of  Chi-istian  VT.  who 
promotes  tlic  happiness  of  his  subjects  1730 

Christian  VII.  in  a  fit  of  Jealousy,  sud- 
denly confines  his  qu>en,  Caroline* 
Matuda,  sister  of  George  III.  who  is 
afterwords  banished.  Sm  ZHL  Jan.  18,  177S 

The  counts  Btruensee  and  Brandt  are 


DEN 


209 


DEN 


DENMARK,  eoniintud, 

■eized  at  the  aome  time,  on  the  ehanie 
of  a  criminal  intorooune  with  the 
queen ;  and  the  former  confowring  to 
ayoid  the  torture,  both  are  beheaded 
for  high  treaaou   .  .  April  »,  1772 

The  queen,  Garolin**llati]da,  oiea  at 
JSeU May  10.  1775 

Chriatian  VII.  beoomea  deransed,  and 
prince  Frederick  ia  appointoa  regent ,  1784 

One-fourth  of  Copenhagen  ia  deetroyed 
by  fire June  9,  1796 

Adminda  Nelson  and  Parker  bombard 
Copenhagen,  and  enga^  the  Danish 
fleet*  taldng  or  destroying  18  ships  of 
the  line^  of  whose  crews  1800  are  killed. 
The  Confederacy  of  the  North  (see  . 
Armed  ITeutnUiiw)  is  thus  dissolved 

April  9^  1801 

Admiral  Oambier  and  lord  Oathcart 
bombard  Copenhagen,  and  seise  the 
Danish  fleet  of  18  ships  of  the  line,  15 
frigates^  and  87  brigs,  Ac.        Sept  7.  1807 

Pomerania  and  Rugen  are  annexed  to 
Denmark,  in  exchange  for  Norway    .  1814 

Commercial  treaty  with  England      .    .  1884 

Frederick  bestows  a  new  oonstitation 
on  his  kingdom 1881 

Declaration  of  the  king  in  relation  to 
the  succession,  and  to  the  right  of  the 
crown  (It  having  been  questioned)  to 
the  dudiies  of  Bchleswig,  Holstein, 
Ac. July  II,  1840 

Death  of  Christian  YIII.  and  accession 
of  Frederick  YII.  .  .    Jan.  SO,  1848 

The  duchies  of  Bchleswigand  Holstein 
revolt  from  the  crown  March  25,  1840 

Victory  of  the  Danes  over  the  Holsteinera 
and  Germans  .  April  10.  1849 

The  Prussians  drive  the  Danes  from  their 
entrenched  position  in  Sckerford,  and 
take  Schleewig,  *a .  AprU  2S,  1849 

Biockade  of  SchliDSvrig  and  Holstein  by 
the  Danes     ...  April  89,  1840 

Defeat  of  the  Germans  by  the  Danes  at 
Duppehi   ....         May  28,  1849  < 


Attack  by  the  Prussian  and  Hanoverian 
forces,  under  general  Wrangel,  on  the 
Danes  at  Duppeln  .     Jime  5,  1840 

Armistioe  between  the  Danes  and  PtntB' 
siana  algned  at  Malmo  Aug.  86.  1849 

Peace  vrith  Prussia  (which  had  aausted 
the  duchies)  ....     July  2,  1860 

Integrity  of  Denmark  guaranteed  by 
Kngland,  Fnnce,  Prussm,  and  Sweden, 
signed July  4,  1850 

Battle  of  Idstedtk  and  defeat  of  the  Hoi- 
steiners  by  the  Danea  .       .   July  25^  1860 

Protocol  signed  in  Londcm  by  the  minis- 
ters of  all  the  great  povrers^    Aug.  23,  1850 

Bombardment  of  Friedrichstadt  by  the 
Holsteiners,  and  the  town  almost  de- 
stroyed from  Sept.  29,  to     .      Oct  0,  1850 

The  Holsteinera  were,  however,  defeated 
in  their  attempt  to  take  the  town  by 
storm Oct  6,  1850 

Proclamation  of  the  stadtholdera  of 
Bobleawig-Holstein  placing  Uie  rights 
of  the  country  under  protMtion  of  the 
Germanic  confederation      .    Jan.  11,  1851 

The  intcffrity  of  the  Danish  monarchy 
seeure(^  and  the  independence  of 
Schleswig  and  its  old  union  with  Hol- 
stein guaranteed  by  treaty      Feb.  18,  1858 

Auatrians  evacuate  Holstein  and  Ham- 
burgh     March  2,  1858 

Trea^  of  the  great  European  powers  for 
tMTsettlement  of  the  suoceeaion  of  tho 
Danish  crown  ....  May  8,  1858 

[Bv  this  treaty  the  line  of  Augustenberg 
is  put  aside,  the  succession  in  the  line 
of  8onderbuj!g<Glucksburg  settled,  and 
the  integritv  of  the  Danish  crown 
guaranteed.] 

Tho  king  promulgates  a  new  constitu- 
tion         July  29,  1854 

Adopted Oct  1,  1855 

The  Sound  dues  abolished  {<ar  a  com- 
pensation       1857 


KINGS  OF  DENMARK. 


[The  Panitk  ehnmieUi  mention  85  kings 
to  the  reign  of  Harald ;  but  the  ac- 
counts di&r  mu<^  fh>m  ths  modern 
histories  of  Denmark  by  the  best 
authors  ] 
818.  Haiald,  or  Harold. 
850.  Eric  I. 

854.  Eric  II.  or  the  ChUd. 
883.  Gormo,  the  Old ;  reigned  63  years. 
M5.  Humid  II.  sumamed  Blue-tooth. 
iM6.  Saenon,    or    Sweyn,    somamed    the 

Forked-beard. 
1014.  Canute  II.  the  Great,  kbig  of  Denmark 

and  Bnffland. 
1088.  Canute  III.  his  son,  the  Hardicanute  of 
England. 
Magnus,  suraamed  the  Good,  of  Norway. 
Snenon,  or  Sw^yn  IX. 
[Interregnnm.] 
Harald,  called  the  Simple. 
Canute  IV. 


1042. 
1047. 
1073. 
1077. 
1080. 
lOSflL 
1005. 
1103 


Olaus  IV.  the  Hungry. 
Eric  III.  styled  the  Good. 


fluterregnuxn.] 
1106.  Nicholas  I.  killed  at  Sleswick. 
1135.  Brie  IV.  sumamed  Barefoot 

1187.  Eric  V.  the  Lamb. 

1147.  ( Suenon,  or  Sweyn   III.  ;  beheaded. 
1147.  (  Canute  V.  until  1164. 
1157.  Waldemar,  styled  the  Great 

1188.  Canute  VI.  sumamed  the  Pious. 
1802.  Waldemar  U.  the  Victorious. 


1241.  Eric  VI. 

1850.  Abel ;  assassinated  his  elder  brother 
Eric ;  killed  in  an  expedition  ag^nst 
the  Prisons. 

1868.  Christopher  I. :  poisoned. 

1269.  Eric  VII. 

1286.  Eric  VIII. 

1320.  Christopher  II. 

1384.  [Interregnum  of  7  years.] 

1340.  Waldemar  ni. 

1875.  [Interregnum.] 

1376.  Olaus  V. 

1387.  Maigaret,  styled  the  *'  Semlramla  of  the 
North,"  queen  of  Sweden,  Norway, 
and  Denmark. 

1397.  Margaret  and  Eric  IX.  (Eric  Kill,  of 
Sweden)  Jointly. 

1418.  Eric  IX.  reigns  alone;  obliged  to  resign 
both  crowns. 

1438.  [InterregnumJ 

1440.  Christopher  in.  king  of  Sweden. 

1448.  Christian  I.  count  of  Oldenburg,  elected 
king  of  Scandinavia*  which  compre- 
hended Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Nor- 
way ;  succeeded  hy  his  sco, 

1481.  John  ;  also  succeeded  by  his  son, 

1613.  Christian  II.  called  the  Crael,  and  the 
"  Nero  of  the  North ; "  among  other 
enormous  crimes  ho  caused  all  the 
Swedish  nobility  to  be  massacred : 
dethroned  for  his  tyranny  in  1528 ; 
died  in  a  dungeon  in  1669. 

P 


DEN  210  DER 

DENMARK,  continued. 

In   this  reigtu  Bwedon  Bueceoded  in  1 1730.  Christian  VI.  his  son. 
Bepamting  itoelf  from  the  erown  of   1746.  Frederick  V.  hU    son ;  married    the 
Denmark.  1  princess  Louisa  of  England,  daughter 

1528.  Fraderick  I.  duke  of  Holsteln,  unde  to  of  Georg^e  II. 

Christian  II. ;  a  liberal  ruler. 

1634.  Christian  III.  son  of  Frederick;  esta- 
blished the  Lutheran  religion ;  es> 
teemed  the  "  Father  of  his  People." 

1559.  Frederick  II.  son  of  Christian  III. 

1588.  Christian  IV.  son  of  the  last  king ; 
chosen  head  of  the  Protestant  league 
against  the  emperor. 

1848.  Fxederick  III. ;  changed  the  constitu- 
tion from  an  elective  to  an  hereditary 
monarchy  vested  in  his  own  family. 

1870.  Christian  V.  son  of  Frederick  III. ; 
succeeded  by  his  son, 

1009.  Frederick  IV. ;  leagued  with  the  cnur 
Peter  and  the  king  of  Poland  against 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden. 


1708.  Christian  VII.  son  of  ihe  preoediog; 
married  Caroline-Matilda,  sister  of 
Geoi^  IIL  In  a  fit  of  jealousy  he 
banished  his  queen  to  Zoll  (where 
she  died  in  1775X  and  put  to  doath 
his  ministers  Brandt  and  Struoneee. 

1784.  Regency.  The  crown  prince  Frederick 
declaral  regent*  in  consequence  of  the 
mental  derangement  of  his  father. 

1808.  Frederick  VI.  pxerioualy  r^ent^  now 

ktag. 
^839.  Christian  VIII.  son  of  the  preceding. 
^848.  Frederick  VIL  son  of  Christian  VIII. ; 
bom  Oct  0, 1808.  The  present  (1S57) 
king  of  Denmark. 


Danish  literature,  although  very  partially  known  out  of  the  country,  is  not  nnde- 
serying  of  attention  in  England.  Several  writers  have  cultivated  with  suooees  the 
department  of  Scandinavian  antiquities,  whUe  others  have  studied  hiatozy,  monda, 
and  natural  philosophy.  There  are  two  universities;  that  of  Copenhagen,  on  a  lai|^ 
scale,  and  that  of  Kiel,  comparatively  small,  but  on  a  very  judicious  plan. 

DENNEWITZ,  BATTLE  of.  In  this  battle  a  remarkable  victory  was  obtained  by 
marshal  Bemadotte,  prince  of  Ponte  Gorvo  (afterwards  Charles  XIY.  king  of  Sweden), 
over  marshal  Ney,  prince  of  Moscow,  Sept.  6,  1813.  The  loss  on  the  French  side 
exceeded  16,000  men,  and  several  eagles :  and  the  defeat  of  Napoleon  at  Leipaic,  oo 
the  18th  of  October  following,  closed  the  series  of  reverses  experienced  by  his  arms 
in  the  memorable  and  disastrous  campaign  of  this  year. 

DEPTFORD.  The  hospital  here  was  incorporated  by  Henry  VIII.  and  called  the 
Trinity-house  of  Deptford  Stroud;  the  brethren  of  Trinity-house  hold  their  oorpormte 
rights  by  this  hospitaL  Queen  Elizabeth  dined  at  Deptford  on  board  the  Pelioam^ 
the  ship  in  which  the  illustrious  Drake,  the  first  British  circumnavigator,  had  made 
hie  voyage  round  the  globe,  April  4, 1581.  The  Deptford  victualling-office  was  burnt 
Jan.  16,  1748-9 ;  the  store-house,  Sept  2, 1758 ;  the  red-house,  Feb.  26,  1761 ;  and 
the  king's-mill,  Dec.  1,  1755. 

DERBY,  EARL  of,  his  ADMINISTRATION,  consequent  on  the  resignation  of  lord 
John  Russell's  ministry.  Earl  of  Derby,  first  lord  of  the  treasury;  lord  St  Leonards 
(previously  sir  Edward  Sugden),  lord  dianoellor;  earl  of  Lonsdale,  president  of  tlie 
council ;  marquess  of  Salisbury,  lord  privy  seal ;  rt  hon.  Benjamin  Disraeli,  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer;  rt  hon.  Spencer  Horatio  Walpole^  earl  of  Malmeebury,  and  sir  John 
Pakington,  home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries;  rt  hon.  John  Charles  Herrieay 
board  of  control ;  rt  hon.  Joseph  Warner  Henley,  board  of  trade ;  earl  of  Hardwicke, 
postmaster-genenl ;  rt.  hon.  WiUiam  Beresford,  seeretary-at-war;  lord  John  Manners^ 
first  commissioner  of  works  and  public  buildings ;  rt  hon.  Robert  Adam  Christopher, 
lord  Colchester,  &c  They  were  sworn  into  office  Feb.  27,  1852;  and  resigned, 
Dec.  17  in  the  same  year. 

DERBY  TRIALS.  Brandreth,  Turner,  Ludlam  senior,  Ludlam  junior,  Weightman,  and 
othen,  convicted  at  this  memorable  commision  of  high  treason,  Oct  15, 1817;  and 
Brandreth,  Turner,  and  the  elder  Ludlam  executed,  Nov.  6  following.  Twenty-three 
were  tried,  and  twelve  not  tried. — PhiUipt,  Twenty-one  prisoners  were  indioted  ei 
Derby  for  the  murder  of  several  miners  in  the  Red'Soil  mine ;  but  were  acquitted  on 
the  ground  that  the  mischief  was  not  wilful,  March  23, 1834. 

DERRY,  BISHOPRIC  or.  The  bishopric  of  Derry  was  first  planted  at  Ardfrath ;  from 
thence  it  was  translated  to  Magheia;  and  in  1158,  was  transferred  to  Derry.  The 
cathedral,  built  in  1164,  becoming  ruinous,  was  rebuilt  by  a  colonv  of  Londonera 
who  setUed  here  in  the  reign  of  James  L  The  see  is  valued  in  the  king^s  books,  by 
an  extent  returned  15th  James  L  at  2501.  sterling ;  but  it  has  been  one  of  the  richest 
sees  in  Ireland. — Beaifon,  The  see  of  Raphoe  has,  under  the  Church  Temporalities 
act  (3  ft  4  WilL  lY.  c.  37,  passed  Aug.  14,  1833),  been  added  to  the  dioo«e  of 
Deny.    See  Bitkopi.    See  Londonderry, 


DES  211  DIA 

DESPARiyS  CONSPIRACr.  Colonel  Edward  Maroua  Despard,  a  natWe  of  the  Queea'a 
county  in  Ireland,  and  mx  others  (Broughton,  Fraocii,  Qraham,  M acnamara.  Wood 
and  Wrattan),  were  executed  in  London  on  a  charge  of  high  treason.  Their  plan  was 
to  lay  restraint  upon  the  king's  person  on  the  day  of  his  meeting  parliament,  Jan  16 
1803,  to  destroy  him,  and  overturn  the  government,  A  special  commission  was 
issued  on  Feb.  7,  and  they  suffered  death  on  the  top  of  Horsemonger-lane  gaol,  in 
the  Borough,  Feb.  21, 1803.* 

DETTINQEN,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  British,  Hanoverian,  and  Hessian  army, 
commanded  by  king  Geoif^e  IL  of  England,  in  person,  and  the  earl  of  Stair,  on  one 
side,  and  the  French  army,  under  marshal  Noailles  and  the  duke  de  Qrammont,  on 
the  other;  the  first  62,000,  and  the  later  60,000  strong.  The  French  passed  a  defile 
which  they  should  have  been  contented  to  guard ;  uid  uie  duke  deOnmnBont,  heading 
the  fVench  cavalry,  charged  the  British  foot  with  great  fury,  but  was  received  with 
such  intrepidity,  that  he  was  obliged  to  give  way,  and  to  repass  the  Mayne,  and  was 
defeated,  losing  5000  men,  June  16, 1743. 

DEVONPORT.    See  PlymouiK. 

DEVONSHIBFS,  DUKE  of,  and  MR.  PITTS  ADMINISTRATION.  William,  duke 
of  Devonshire,  first  lord  of  the  treasury ;  hon.  Henry  Bilson  Legge,  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer;  earl  Qranville,  lord  president ;  earl  Qower,  privy  seal;  earl  of  Holder- 
nesse  and  Mr.  Pitt  (afterwards  earl  of  Chatham),  secretaries  of  state ;  rt.  hon.  Qeorge 
Qrenville,  earl  of  Halifax,  dukes  of  Rutland  and  Grafton,  earl  of  Rochfort,  viscount 
Barrington,  &c  The  great  seal  in  commission,  Nov.  1756.  The  ministry  was 
dissolved  June  following,  when  the  duke  of  Newcastle  came  into  power.  This 
adnuniitration  has  been  usually  called  lord  Chatham's  first  administration. 

DIADEM.  The  band  or  fillet  worn  by  the  ancients  instead  of  the  crown,  and  which  was 
consecrated  to  the  gods.  At  first,  this  fillet  was  made  of  silk  or  wool,  and  set  with 
precious  stones,  and  was  tied  round  the  temples  and  forehead,  the  two  ends  being 
knotted  behind,  and  let  fall  on  the  neck.  Aurelian  was  the  first  Roman  emperor  who 
wore  a  diadem,  a.d.  272. — TUlemont. 

DIALS.  Invented  by  Anaximander,  550  B.O. — Pliny,  The  first  dial  of  the  sun  seen  at 
Rome  was  placed  on  the  temple  of  Quirinus  by  L.  Papirius  Cursor,  when  time  was 
divided  into  hours,  293  B.C. — Blair.  In  the  times  of  the  emperors  almost  every 
palace  and  public  building  had  a  sun-diaL  They  were  first  set  up  in  churches  in  a.d. 
613.-— £ei^fe«. 

DIAMONDS.  They  were  first  brought  to  Europe  from  the  East,  where  the  mine  of 
Snmbulpoor  was  the  first  known ;  and  where  the  mines  of  Golconda  were  discovered 
in  1534.  This  district  may  be  termed  the  realm  of  diamonds.  The  mines  of  Brazil 
were  discovered  in  1728.  From  these  last  a  diamond,  weighing  1680  carats,  or 
fourteen  ounces,  was  sent  to  the  court  of  Portugal,  and  was  valued  by  M.  Romeo 
de  risle  at  the  extravagant  sum  of  224  millions;  by  others  it  was  valued  at  fifty-six 
millions ;  its  value  was  next  stated  to  be  three  millions  and  a-half ;  but  its  true  value 
(it  not  being  brilliant)  is  400,0002.  The  great  diamond  of  the  emperor  of  Russia 
weighs  198  carats,  or  1  oz.  12  dwt.  4  gr.  troy.  The  empress  Catherine  II.  offered  for 
it  104,1 66A  ISs.  4c2.,  besides  an  annuity  for  life  to  the  owner  of  1041/.  13«.  id.,  which 
was  refused ;  but  it  was  afterwards  sold  to  Catherine's  favourite,  count  Orloff,  for  the 
first-mentioned  sum,  without  the  annuity,  and  was  by  him  presented  to  the  empress 
.on  her  birtii-day,  1772;  it  is  now  in  the  sceptre  of  Russia.  The  Pitt  diamond 
weighed  136  carats,  and  after  cutting,  106  carats ;  it  was  sold  to  the  king  of  France 
for  125,0002.  in  1720.  The  Pigott  diamond  was  sold  for  9500  guineas.  May  10, 1802. 
Diamonds  were  found  in  the  Ural  mountains  in  1829.  The  diamond  called  tlie 
MovKTAis  OF  Light,  or  Koh-i-noor.  This  marvellous  and  matchless  treasure  was 
found  in  the  mines  of  Qolconda,  in  1550,  and  was  brought  to  England  in  1850, 
precisely  Uiree  centuries  alter:  it  is  the  forfeit  of  oriental  faithlessness,  and  the 
prize  of  British  valour.  It  was  secured  among  the  valuables  of  the  Lahore  treasury^ 
at  the  commencement  of  the  late  insurrection,  and  came  in  the  steam-sloop,  Medea, 
which  reached  Portsmouth  in  July.  Its  original  weight  was  nearly  800  carats,  but  it 
was  reduced  by  the  unskilfulness  of  the  artist,  Hortensio  Borgese,  a  Venetian,  to  its 
present  weight,  279.    A  general  idea  may  be  formed  of  its  i^pe  and  size,  by  oon- 


*  Deopord,  and  between  thirty  and  rariy  persons  of  inferior  order,  some  of  them  soldiers  in  the  foot 
(Ttiards,  wore  tmken  into  custody  for  this  conspiracy,  on  November  16,  1802,  when  their  treason  was 
diacoTered,  which  caused  the  greatest  consternation  at  the  time. 

F  2 


DIA  212  DIE 

ceiving  it  as  the  pointed  half  (rose-cut)  of  a  small  hen's  egg.  The  value  is  scarcely 
computable,  though  two  millions  sterling  have  been  mentioned  as  a  justifiable  price, 
if  calculated  by  the  scale  employed  in  the  trada  This  diamond  was  re^ut  in  London 
in  1852.  A  diamond,  termed  the  Star  of  the  South,  was  brought  from  Brasil, 
in  1855,  weighing  254  ^  carats,  half  of  which  it  lost  by  cutting. 

DIAMONDS,  INFLAMMABILITY  or.  Boetius  de  Boot  conjectured  that  the  diamond 
was  inflammable,  1609. — Jliit,  of  Oenu,  It  was  discovered  that  when  exposed  to  a 
luKh  temperature  it  gave  out  an  acrid  vapour,  in  which  a  part  of  it  was  dissipated, 
167S. — Boyle,  Sir  Isaac  Newton  concluded,  from  its  great  refracting  power,  that  it 
must  be  combustible,  1675. — Newton't  Optica.  The  celebrated  Averani  demon- 
strated, by  conoentratiog  the  rays  of  the  sun  upon  it,  that  the  diamond  was  exhaled 
in  vapoujp,  and  entirely  disappeared,  while  other  precious  stones  merely  grew  softer, 
1695.  It  has  been  ascertained  by  Quyton,  Davy,  and  others,  that  although  diamonds 
are  the  hardest  of  all  known  bodies,  they  yet  contain  nothing  more  than  pure 
charcoal,  or  carbon.  In  1848  diamonds  were  charred  by  the  intense  heat  of  the 
voltaic  battery,  by  IL  Dumas,  in  Paris,  and  by  Professor  Faraday,  in  London. 

DIANA.  TEMPLE  of,  at  £P£[£SUa  One  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world,  built  at 
the  common  chaige  of  all  the  Asiatic  states.  The  chief  architect  was  Otedphon ;  and 
Plmy  says  that  220  years  were  employed  in  completing  this  temple^  whose  riches 
were  immense.  It  was  425  feet  long,  225  broad,  and  was  supported  by  127  columns 
(60  feet  high,  each  weighing  150  tons,  of  Parian  marble),  furnished  by  so  many  kings. 
It  was  set  on  fire,  on  the  night  of  Alexander's  nativity,  by  an  obscure  individual 
named  Eratostratus,  who  confessed  on  the  rack,  that  the  sole  motive  which  had 
prompted  him  to  destroy  so  magnificent  an  edifice  was  the  desire  of  transmitting  his 
name  to  future  ages,  856  B.C.  The  temple  was  rebuilt,  and  again  burnt  by  the  Gotlis, 
in  their  naval  invasion,  a.i>.  256. — Univ.  Hist, 

DICE.  The  invention  of  dice  is  ascribed  to  Palamedes^  of  Qreece,  about  1244  B.o.  The 
game  of  Tali  and  Tessera  among  the  Romans  was  played  with  dice.  The  use  of  dice 
is  of  very  early  date  in  this  country.  Stowe  mentions  two  entertainments  given  bj 
the  city  of  London,  at  which  dice  were  played.*  Act  to  regulate  the  licenses  of 
makers,  and  the  sale  of  dice,  9  Qeo.  IV.  1828. 

DICTATORS.  These  were  supreme  and  absolute  magistrates  of  Rome,  instituted  493 
B.a,  when  Titus  Lartius  Flavua,  the  first  dictator,  was  appelated.  This  office^ 
respectable  and  illustrious  in  the  first  ages  of  the  republic,  became  odious  by  tiie 
perpetual  usurpations  of  Sylla  and  J.  Csesar ;  and  after  the  death  of  the  latter,  the 
Roman  senate,  on  the  motion  of  the  consul  Antony,  passed  a  decree,  which  for  ever 
forbade  a  dictator  to  exist  in  Rome,  44  B.a 

DICTIONARY.  A  standard  dictionary  of  the  Chinese  language,  containing  about 
40,000  characters,  most  of  them  hieroglyphic,  or  rude  representations^  somewliat  like 
our  signs  of  the  zodiac,  was  perfected  by  Pa-out-she,  who  lived  about  1100  &a — 
Morrison.  The  oldest  Greek  dictionary  is  the  Onomastikon  of  Julius  Pollux,  written 
about  B.0. 120 ;  a  Latin  one  was  compiled  by  Yarro,  bom  B.0. 116.  QydOpsodias  were 
compiled  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  The  first  dictionary  of  oelebri^» 
perhaps  the  first,  is  by  Ambrose  Calepini,  a  Venetian  friar,  in  Latin ;  he  wrote  one  in 
eight  languages,  about  A.D.  1500. — Nvoeron.  The  Lexicon  ffeptagloUon  was  published 
l^  Edmund  Castell,  in  1659.  Bayle's  Dictionary  was  published  in  1696,  *'the  first 
work  of  the  kind  in  which  a  man  may  learn  to  think." — VoUairs.  Chambers* 
Cyclopsedia,  the  first  dictionary  of  the  circle  of  the  arts»  sciences,  fta,  was  published 
in  1728.  The  great  dictionary  of  the  English  language,  by  Samuel  Johnson,  who 
was  truly  called  the  **  Leviathan  of  Literature,**  appeared  in  1755.  FVanois  Qrose  s 
Dictionary  of  the  Vulgar  Tongue  was  compiled  in  1768;  and  from  this  period 
numerous  dictionaries  have  been  added  to  our  store  of  literature.    See  Encyckjpttditu 

DIEPPE,  Fbanob.    This  town  was  bombarded  by  an  English  fleets  under  admiral 

*  The  IdngB  of  Scotlund,  France,  and  Cyprus  being  in  Enfflnnd,  on  a  visit  to  Edward  III.  a  flfreai 
toumameut  wmb  held  In  SmithGeld,  and  aftorward>;  the  mayor  kept  his  hall  for  all  oomers  who  were 
willing  to  play  at  dice  and  hazard.  The  lady  Maigaret,  his  wife,  kept  her  chamber  to  the  same  ttOact. 
Hhortly  alierwards  they  entertained  the  prluoesB  of  Wales,  her  son,  prinoe  Richard,  and  their 
atten({ants,  with  a  grand  masquorade  on  horseback,  the  procession  beginning  at  Newgate  and  endioff 
at  Kenniugton.  Being  anivod  at  the  peJaoe,  one  of  Uie  masques  produced  a  pair  of  dice,  and  propoeed 
to  play  with  the  prince.    The  dice  were  so  artfUlly  contrivedlthat  when  the  prinoe  threw  he  was  sure 


to  win,  and  having  thrown  three  times  his  royal  highness  wbn  a  bowl,  a  cup,  and  a  ring,  all  of  gold  ; 

>bihty  attending  the  like  opportuni^  to  win  each  a 


and  having  given  the  princess  and  each  of  the  not 
gold  ring,  they  were  highly  pleased.— ^iTf. 


DIE  218  DIO 

Russell,  and  laid  in  ashes,  July  1694.  It  has  not  been  so  considerable  since  that  time. 
In  1794  it  experienced  a  similar  calamity.  It  waa  again  bombarded,  together  with 
the  town  of  Otanville,  by  the  British,  Sep.  14, 1803. 

DIET  ov  THB  GERHAN  EMPIRK  The  supreme  authority  of  this  empire  may  be  said 
to  have  existed  in  the  assemblage  of  princes  under  this  name.  The  diet,  as  composed 
of  three  colleges,  tiz. — the  college  of  electors,  the  oolite  of  princes,  and  the  college 
of  imperial  towns,  commenced  with  the  &mou8  edict  of  Charles  lY.  1856.  See 
QoliUn  BuU,  Diets  otherwise  constituted  had  long  previously  been  held  on  important 
oocasionB.  The  diet  of  Wurtibuig,  which  proscribed  Heury  the  Lion,  was  held  in 
1179.  The  celebrated  diet  of  Worms,  at  which  Luther  assisted  in  person,  was  held 
in  1521.  That  of  Spires,  to  condemn  the  Reformers,  was  held  in  1529;  and  the 
famous  diet  of  Augsburg,  in  1530.  In  the  league  of  the  Qerman  princes,  called  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  they  fixed  the  diet  at  Frankfort,  July  12, 1806,  Ger- 
many ia  now  goyemed  by  a  diet  of  88  members  having  votes  varying  from  four  to  one 
eaeh.  But  fi^m  the  unsettled  state  of  Germany  much  change  may  be  produced  in 
the  constitution  of  this  assembly. 

"  DIEU-D0NN6.**  The  name  given  in  his  mfancy,  to  Zouts  2e  Oraind,  king  of  France, 
because  the  French  considered  him  as  the  gift  of  Heaven,  the  queen,  his  mother, 
having  been  barren  for  twenty-three  years  previously.  a.d.  1688. —  Voltaire,  One  of 
the  popes  of  Rome,  who  obtained  the  tiara  in  672,  was  named  Adeodatui,  or  God's 
gift ;  he  had  the  character  of  a  pious  and  charitable  pontiff 

DISU  ET  JH  ON  DROIT,  "  God,  and  my  right.'*  This  was  the  parole  of  the  day,  given 
by  Richard  I.  of  England  to  his  army  at  the  battle  of  Gisors,  in  Fi«nce.  "  It  was  used 
hj  Richard  to  show  that  he  held  his  kingdom  of  no  mortal,  but  God  only." — 
Fwrdon.  In  ihe  battle  (tfAtdi  <fe)  the  French  army  was  signally  defeated ;  and  in 
remembrance  of  this  victory,  Richard  made  "  DUu  ti  mom  dmU  "  the  motto  of  the 
royid  anna  of  England,  and  it  has  ever  since  been  ratained,  a.d.  1198. — Rywya'B 

DIFFERENTIAL  ENGINE.    See  OatoOaiiHg  Machine. 

DIGEST.  The  first  collection  of  Roman  laws  under  this  title  was  prepared  by  AUrenus 
Yarua,  the  civilian,  of  Cremona,  66  B.O. — QuintU.  Other  digests  of  Roman  laws 
followed.  The  Digest,  so  called  by  way  of  eminence,  was  the  collection  of  laws  made 
by  order  of  the  emperor  Justinian :  it  made  the  first  part  of  the  Roman  law,  and 
the  first  volume  of  the  dvil  law.    Quotations  from  it  aro  marked  wi^  a  ff. — Pardim, 

DIGITS.  Arithmetical  figures  wero  known  to  the  Arabian  Moors  about  a.d.  900.  They 
wero  introduced  from  thence  into  Spain  in  1050,  and  into  England  about  1253.  The 
digit  is  any  whole  number  under  10— as  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  which  are  called  the 
nine  digits ;  also  a  measura  containing  three  quarters  of  an  inch.  In  astronomy,  the 
digit  is  also  a  meaauro  used  in  the  cuculation  of  eclipses,  and  is  the  twelfth  part  of 
the  luminary  eclipsed.    See  article  Figurei. 

DIOCESK  The  first  division  of  the  Roman  empiro  into  dioceses,  which  wero  at  that 
period  dvil  governments,  is  ascribed  to  Constantine,  a.d.  323 ;  but  Strabo  romarks 
that  the  Romans  had  the  departments  called  dioceses  long  before.— iS(ra5o,  lib.  xiii. 
In  England  these  circuits  of  the  bishop's  jurisdiction  aro  cOeval  with  Christianity ; 
thero  are  twenty-four  dioceses,  of  which  twenty-one  aro  suffragan  to  Canterbury,  and 
three  to  York.    See  the  Bithopria  eeveraUy, 

DIOCLETIAN  ERA.  Called  also  the  era  of  Martyrs,  was  used  by  Christian  writers  until 
the  introduction  of  the  Christian  era  in  the  sixth  century,  and  is  still  employed  by  the 
Abyssinians  and  Copta.  It  dates  from  the  day  on  which  Diocletian  was  proclaimed 
emperor  at  Chalcedon,  29th  August,  284.  It  is  called  the  era  of  Martyrs,  on  account 
of  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian. 

DIORAMA.  This  species  of  exhibition,  which  had  long  previously  been  an  object  of 
wonder  and  delight  at  Paris,  was  first  opened  in  London  by  MM.  Bouton  and  Daguerre, 
Sept.  29,  1823.  The  diorama  differs  from  the  panorama  in  this  respect,  that,  instead 
of  a  circular  view  of  the  objects  ropresented,  it  exhibits  the  whole  picture  at  once  in 
perspective,  and  it  is  deddedly  superior  both  to  the  pauorama  and  the  cosmorama  in 
the  fidelity  with  which  the  objects  aro  depicted,  and  in  the  completeness  of  the 
Ulufiion.  It  was  not  successful  fommerdally,  and  was  sold  in  1848.  The  building  in 
Regent's  Park  waa  purohaaed  bv  sir  &  M.  Peto  in  1855  to  be  used  as  a  Baptist  chapel. 
It  is  the  handsomeat  dissenters  chapel  in  London* 


DIR  214  DIV 

DIRECTORY,  thb  CHURCH.  The  book  so  called  was  publiahed  in  England  at  the  period 
of  the  civil  war.  It  was  drawn  up,  at  the  instance  of  the  parliament,  by  an  aaaemUy 
of  diyines  at  Weetminster,  with  the  object  that  the  ministers  might  not  be  wholly  at 
a  loss  in  their  devotions  after  the  suppression  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  Thero 
were  some  general  hints  given  which  were  to  be  managed  with  discretion ;  for  the 
Directory  prescribed  no  form  of  prayer,  nor  manner  of  external  worship,  nor  enjoined 
the  people  to  make  any  responses  except  Amen.  The  Directory  was  established  bj 
an  ordinance  of  the  parliament  in  1644. — Bishop  Taylor, 

DIRECTORY,  the  FRENCH,  waa  installed  at  the  Little  Luxembourg  at  Paris,  under  a 
new  constitution  of  the  government,  Nov.  1, 1795,  and  held  the  executive  power  four 
years.  It  was  composed  of  five  members,  and  ruled  in  connection  with  two  chambers, 
the  Council  of  Anaenta  and  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  vhieh  tee.  Deposed  by 
Bonaparte,  who,  with  Cambac^rds  and  Sidyte,  became  the  ruling  power  of  France,  the 
three  governing  as  consuls,  the  first  as  chief,  Nov.  9,  1799.    See  Bonaparte. 

DISCIPLINE,  THX  BOOK  of.  Drawn  up  by  an  assembly  of  ministen  in  Scotland,  in  aj>. 
1650.  In  this  book  the  government  of  the  Church  by  prelates  was  set  aside.  The 
followers  of  the  Presbyterian  sect  were  called  Disciplinarians  from  their  clamour 
about  discipline. — SanJmcn, 

DISPENSATIONS.  Ecclesiastical  dispensations  were  first  granted  by  pope  Innocent  m. 
in  1200.  These  exemptions  from  the  law  and  discipline  of  the  Church  led  eventually, 
with  indulgences,  absolutions,  and  the  remission  of  sins,  to  the  Reformation  in 
Qermany  in  1517,  and  subsequently  to  that  in  England,  in  1534  et  teq. 

DISPENSING  POWER  or  thb  CROWN.  The  power  of  dispensing  with  statutes  was 
unconstitutionally  asserted  by  James  II.  in  1686.  Most  of  the  judges  were  dismisaed 
by  that  infatuated  monarch  for  refusing  to  allow  the  legality  of  this  power,  1687. 
Since  this  period  the  same  power  has  been  on  certain  occasions  exercised,  as  in  the 
case  of  embargoes  upon  ships,  the  restraint  upon  com  leaving  the  kingdom,  &e^ 
without  the  previous  concurrence  of  parliament.    See  Indemnity. 

DISSECTION.    See  Anatomy, 

DISSENTERS.  They  arose  early  in  the  Reformation,  contending  for  a  more  complete 
departure  from  the  Romish  models  of  Church  government  and  discipline.  They  were 
reproached  with  the  name  of  Puritans,  on  account  of  the  purity  they  proposed  in 
religious  worship  and  conduct;  and  the  rigorous  treatment  they  endured  under 
Elizabeth  and  James  I.  led  multitudes  of  them  to  emigrate  in  those  reigns.  The  first 
place  of  worship  for  Dissenters  in  England  was  established  at  Wandsworth,  a  yillage 
near  London,  Nov.  20,  1572.  In  1851,  in  London  alone,  the  number  of  chapela, 
meeting-houses,  &c.,  for  all  classes  of  Dissenters,  amounted  to  more  than  554. 
(The  Church  of  England  458 ;  Roman  Catholics  85).  The  great  act  for  the  relief  of 
Dissenters  from  civil  and  religious  disabilities  was  the  statute  psssed  9  Geo.  IV.  o.  17. 
By  this  act,  called  the  Corporation  and  Test  Repeal  act,  so  much  of  the  several  acta 
of  preceding  reigns  as  imposed  the  necessity  of  receiving  the  sacrement  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  as  a  qualification  for  certain  offices,  &o.,  was  repealed.  May  9, 1828.  Seyeral 
other  acts  of  ameliorating  efifect  have  been  since  passed.    See  Worship, 

DISTAFF.  The  staff  to  which  hemp,  flax,  wool,  or  other  substances  to  be  spun  is 
fastened.  The  art  of  spinning  with  it»  at  the  small  wheel,  first  taught  to  English 
women  by  Anthony  Bonavisa,  an  Italian,  20  Hen.  YII.  1505. — Siowe,  The  distedOT  ia 
used  as  an  emblem  of  the  female  sex,  and  formerly  occupied  the  place  in  the  drawing- 
room  of  English  ladies  that  the  harp  or  piano  does  now. 

DISTILLATION,  and  the  various  chemical  processes  dependent  on  the  art»  are  generally 
believed  to  have  been  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Moors  about  a.d.  1150;  their 
bretiiren  of  Africa  had  them  from  the  Egyptians.  The  diatillation  of  spirituous 
liquors  was  in  practice  in  these  countries  in  the  sixteenth  century. — Burnt, 

DIVINATION.  In  the  Scriptures  we  find  mention  made  of  different  kinds  of  divina- 
tion; and  by  most  of  the  ancient  authors.  It  was. retained  in  the  hands  of  the 
priests  and  priestesses,  the  magi,  soothsayers,  augurs,  and  other  like  professors,  till 
the  coming  of  Christ,  when  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  and  the  spirit  of  philosoi^y 
banished  such  visionary  opinions.  The  oracles  of  Delphi  began  1268  B.a  Augura 
were  instituted  by  Numa  at  Rome,  710  B.a    See  Au^/ury,  Moffi,  Witchcraft,  dx, 

DiyiNO-BELL.  First  mentioned,  though  obscuroly,  by  Aristotle  325  ao.  The  diving- 
bell  was  first  used  in  Europe,  a.d.  1509.    It  is  said  to  have  been  used  on  Uie  coast  of 


DIV  215  DOC 

Hully  in  aearching  for  the  wreck  of  part  of  the  Spaniah  Armada,  before  a.d.  1662. 
Halley  greatly  improved  this  machine,  and  was,  it  is  said,  the  first  who,  by  means  of 
a  diTing-bell,  set  his  foot  on  the  gromid  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  Smeaton  applied 
the  condensing-pump,  to  force  down  air.  Mr.  Spalding  and  his  assistants  going 
down  in  a  diving-bell  in  Ireland  were  drowned,  June  1,  1788.  The  Mayal  Qeorge 
man-of-war,  which  was  sunk  oflf  Portsmouth  in  1782,  was  first  surveyed  by  means  of  a 
diving-bell  in  May,  1817.  Latterly,  it  has  been  employed  in  all  submarine  surveys. 
The  first  diving-d<(2e  was  the  wife  of  Captain  Morris,  at  Plymouth,  who  descended  in 
one  a  few  years  ago. 

DIVORCES  FOB  ADULTERY.  Of  the  earliest  institutioo,  both  in  ecclesiaBtical  and 
civil  law,  among  the  ancients.  First  put  in  practice  by  Spurius  Carvilius  at  Rome, 
231  B.a — Blair,  At  this  time  morals  were  so  debased,  tnat  8000  prosecutions  for 
adultery  were  enrolled.  Divorces  are  of  two  kinds;  one,  a  vinculo  tMUriaumii;  the 
other,  a  tMnud  et  thoro.  Divorces  were  attempted  to  be  made  of  more  easy  obtainment 
in  England,  in  a.d.  1589.  The  bill  to  prevent  women  marrying  their  seducers  was 
brought  into  Parliament  in  1801.  In  April,  1853,  the  commissioners  on  the  law  of 
divorce  issued  their  first  report.  A  bill  materially  altering  the  law  on  this  subject 
is  now  before  parliament  (July,  1857).* 

DIZIER,  ST.,  IV  CHAMPAGNE.  One  of  the  most  memorable  sieges  in  modem  history 
was  sustained  by  this  town  for  six  weeks  against  the  army  of  Charles  V*  emperor  of 
Germany,  a.d.  1544.  A  battle  was  fought  here  between  the  army  of  the  allies  on  one 
side,  and  the  French  commanded  by  Napoleon  in  person  on  the  other^  in  which  the 
latter  army  was  defeated  with  considerable  loss,  Jan.  27,  1814. 

DOCKS  OF  LONDON.  They  are  said  to  be  the  most  extensive  and  finest  in  the  world. 
The  following  are  the  principal : — The  West  India  docks,  the  act  for  whose  formation 
passed  in  July,  1799;  they  were  commenced  Feb.  8, 1800,  and  were  opened  Aug.  27, 
1802,  when  the  Henry  Addington,  West  Indiaman,  first  entered  them,  decorated  with 
the  colours  of  the  different  nations  of  Europe,  llie  London  Docks  were  oommenoed 
June  26, 1802,  and  were  opened  Jan.  31, 1805.  The  East  India  Docks  were  commenced 
under  an  act  passed  July  27,  1803,  and  were  opened  Aug.  4, 1806.  The  first  stone  of 
the  St.  Katherine  docks  was  laid  May  8, 1827 ;  and  2500  men  were  daily  employed 
upon  them  until  they  were  opened,  Oct.  25, 1828. 

DOCK-YAEDp,  ROTAL.  There  are  seven  chief  dock-ysrds  in  England  and  Wales,  and 
nine  others  in  various  of  our  colonies.  That  of  Woolwich  was  already  an  extensive 
one  in  1509.  Chatham  dock-yard  was  founded  by  queen  Elizabeth,  and  is  one  of  the 
principal  stations  of  the  royal  navy;  it  contains  immente  magazines  of  warlike 
stores,  rendering  it  one  of  the  finest  arsenals  in  Europe.  The  dock-yard  at  Ports- 
mouth was  established  by  Henry  VIIL  '  Plymouth  dock,  now  Devonport»  is  a 
matchless  naval  magazine  and  rendezvous.  After  the  insult  of  the  Dutch,  who  burnt 
our  men-of-war  at  Chatham  in  1667,  Charles  II.  strengthened  Sheemesa,  where  there 
is  a  fine  dock-yard.  Great  fire  in  the  dock-yard  at  Devonport,  by  which  the  Tcdavera, 
of  74  guns,  the  Imogene  frigate,  of  28  guns,  and  immense  stores,  were  destroyed ;  the 
relics  and  figure  heads  of  the  favourite  ships  of  Boscawen,  Rodney,  Duncan,  and  other 
naval  heroes,  which  were  preserved  in  a  navnl  museum,  were  also  burnt,  Sept.  27, 
1840  ;  the  loss  was  estimated  at  200,000/.  A  fire  occurred  at  Sheemess  dock-yard  on 
board  the  Camperd^wn,  Oct.  9, 1840.    See  Liverpool 

DOCTOR.  This  rank  was  known  in  the  earliest  times.  Doctor  of  the  Church  was  a 
title  given  to  SS.  Athanasius,  Basil,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  Chrysostom,  in  the 
Greek  Church :  and  to  SS.  Jerome,  Augustin,  and  Gregory  the  Great,  in  the  Romish 
Church,  A-D.  373  et  itq.  Doctor  of  the  Taw  was  a  title  of  honour  among  the  Jews. 
The  degree  of  doctor  was  conferred  in  England,  8  John,  1207,— Spelman.  Some  give 
it  an  earlier  date,  referring  it  to  the  time  of  the  Venerable  Bed e  and  John  de  Beverley, 
the  former  of  whom,  it  is  said,  was  the  first  that  obtained  the  degree  at  Gambridge, 
about  A.D.  725.    See  ColhgiaU  Degrees* 

DOCTORS'  COMMONa  The  college  for  the  professors  of  civil  and  canon  law,  residbg 
in  the  city  of  London;  the  name  of  Commons  is  given  to  this  collage  from  the 
civilians  commoning  together  as  in  other  colleges.  Doctors'  Commons  was  founded 
by  Dr.  Henry  Hervie,  in  1568 ;  but  the  original  college  was  destroyed  in  the  great  fire 

*  There  hare  be«n  in  England,  since  the  Reformation,  817  diTorcea  by  act  of  parliament:  in  8cot« 
Isnd,  by  the  law,  174  divorces  oinoe  1846. 


DOa  210  DOM 

of  1666,  and  after  some  years  (in  1672),  it  was  rebuilt  on  the  old  lite.*  After  the 
great  fire,  and  until  1672,  the  society  held  its  courts  at  Exeter-house,  in  the  Strand. 
It  was  incorporated  by  charter  in  June,  1768. — Oootc.  The  causes  taken  oognuanoe 
of  here  are,  or  hare  been,  bhuphemy,  diyoroes,  bastardy,  adultery,  penance,  tithes, 
mortuaries,  probate  of  wills,  &c.    See  article  Oivtl  Law, 

DOG.  Bufifon  considers  the  shepherd's  dog  as  ''the  root  of  the  tree,"  assigning  as  his 
reason  that  it  possesses  from  nature  the  greatest  share  of  instinct.  The  Inah  wolf- 
dog  is  supposed  to  be  the  earliest  dog  known  in  Europe  if  Irish  writers  be  oorreot. 
Dr.  GkJl  mentions  that  a  dog  was  taken  from  Vienna  to  England ;  that  it  eaci4>ed  to 
Dover,  g^t  on  board  a  vessel,  landed  at  CslaiB,  and,  after  accompanying  a  gentleman 
to  Mentz,  returned  to  Vienna.  Statute  against  dog-stealing,  10  Geo.  III.  1770.  Dog- 
tax  imposed,  1796,  and  again  in  1808.  The  employment  of  dogs  in  drawing  carts 
and  burthens  through  the  streets  was  abolished  Jan.  1, 1840.    See  OreyhowuL 

DOG-DATS.  The  canicular  or  dog-days  commence  on  the  3rd  of  July,  and  end  on  the 
11th  of  August  The  rising  and  setting  of  Sirius,  or  the  dog  star,f  with  the  sun,  has 
been  regarded  as  the  cause  of  excessive  heat,  and  of  consequent  (»lamities,  instead  of 
its  being  viewed  as  the  sign  when  such  effects  might  be  expected.  The  star  not  only 
varies  in  its  rising  in  every  year  as  the  latitude  varies,  but  is  always  later  and 
later  every  year  in  all  latitudes,  so  that  in  time  the  star  may  by  the  same  rule,  oome 
to  be  obliged  with  bringing  frost  and  snow. — Dr.  BtUUm. 

DOGK  The  title  of  the  duke  of  Venice,  which  state  was  first  governed  by  a  prince  so 
named,  Anafesto  Paululio,  a.d.  697.  See  Adriatic  The  Genoese  revolted  against 
their  count,  and  chose  a  doge  from  among  their  nobility,  and  became  an  aristocratic 
republic,^  1080-4. 

DOGGETS  GOAT  avd  BADGE.  The  annual  rowing  match  upon  the  Thames,  thus 
called,  originated  in  this  way :  Mr.  Thomas  Dogg^t,  an  eminent  actor,  of  Dniry-lane, 
on  the  first  anniversary  of  the  accession  to  the  throne  of  (}eorge  L  gave  a  waterman's 
coat  and  silver  badge  to  be  rowed  for  by  six  young  watermen  in  honour  of  the  day. 
And,  to  commemorate  that  event,  he  bequeathed  at  his  death  a  sum  of  money,  the 
interest  whereof  was  to  be  appropriated  annually,  for  ever,  to  the  same  purpose. 
The  candidates  starts  at  a  signal  given,  at  that  time  of  the  tide  when  the  cuirsnk  is 
strongest  against  them,  and  row  from  the  Old  Swafi,  London-bridge,  to  the  White 
Swan  at  Chelsea;  first  match,  Aug.  1, 1715. 

DOIT.  A  silver  Scottish  penny,  of  which  twelve  were  equal  to  a  penny  sterling.  Some 
of  those  struck  by  Charles  I.  and  II.  are  in  the  cabinets  of  the  curious.  A  Dutch 
piece  of  this  name  was  also  coined. 

DOME'S-DAT  BOOK.    See  DwmU-day  Book. 

DOMINICA.  DLsoovered  by  Columbus  in  his  second  voyage  in  1498.  This  island  wts 
taken  by  the  British  in  1761,  and  was  confirmed  to  them  by  the  peace  of  1768.  *  The 
French  took  Dominica  in  1778,  but  restored  it  at  the  subsequent  peace  in  1788.  It 
Buffered  great  damage  by  a  tremendous  hurricane  in  1806 ;  and  several  devastating 
hurricanes  have  more  recently  occurred. 

DOMINICAL  LETTER.  Noting  the  Lord's  day,  or  Sunday.  The  seven  days  of  the 
week,  reckoned  as  b^;inning  on  the  1st  of  January,  are  designated  by  the  first 
seven  letters  of  the  alphabet,  A,  B^  C,  D,  E,  F,  G ;  and  the  one  of  these  which  denotes 
Sunday  is  the  dominical  letter.  If  the  year  begin  on  Sunday,  A  is  the  dominical 
letter;  if  it  begin  on  Monday,  that  letter  is  G;  if  on  Tuesday,  it  \b  F,  and  so  on. 
Genendly  to  find  the  Domini(»l  letter  call  New  Tear's  day  A,  the  next  day  B,  and  go 
on  thus  until  you  come  to  the  first  Sunday,  and  tiie  letter  that  answers  to  it  is  the 
Dominical  letter;  in  leap  years  count  two  letters. 

DOMINICANS.    A  religious  order  whose  power  and  influence  were  almost  univeraaL 

*  In  Febraary.  1568,  Dr.  Hemy  Hervle,  dean  of  tho  arches  and  master  of  Trinity  Hall  (a  seminary 
founded  at  Cambridge  chiefly  for  the  study  of  the  civil  and  canon  laws)  procured  ftt>m  the  dean  aoa 
chapter  of  the  diocese  of  London  a  lease  of  Montijoy  House  and  other  buUdinge  in  the  pariah  of 
St  Bene'tk  Paul's  WoarC  for  the  accommodation  of  the  society.  The  courts  over  which  he  pnoldod, 
the  prerogative  court  of  Canterbury,  that  of  the  bishop  of  London,  and  also  the  court  of  afdmimlty 
(except  for  criminal  caaes)  were  thenceforward  holden  in  the  buildings  thus  assigned,  and  the  wholo 
place,  for  an  obvious  roasoo,  received  the  apiMllation  of  *'  Dootobs'  Coiacoira"— CboC«'«  Btigiith  dtiUamM, 

f  Mathematicians  assert  that  Sirius.  or  the  Dog  Star,  is  the  nearest  to  us  of  all  the  fixed  stan ;  and 
they  compute  ite  distance  from  our  earth  at  2,200,000  millions  of  miles.  They  maintain  that  a  aoond 
,Would  not  roach  our  earth  from  Sirius  in  60.000  years ;  and  that  a  cannon-bail,  flying  with  its  nsoal 
Telocity  of  489  miles  an  hour,  would  consume  523,211  years  in  its  piissage  thence  to  our  globe. 


DON  217  DOV 

They  were  called  in  Fniaoe  Jacobiii0»  and  in  England  Black  friars,  and  were  founded 
by  St  Dominiok,  approTcd  by  Innocent  IIL  in  1215 ;  and  the  order  was  confirmed  by 
a  boll  of  Honorius  III.  in  1216,  under  St.  Austin*!  rules,  and  the  founder's  particular 
constitution.  In  1276  the  corporation  of  London  gave  them  two  whole  streets  by 
the  riTsr  Thames,  where  they  erected  a  large  and  elegant  oonyent.  whence  that  part 
is  still  called  Blaokfriars. 

DOKATISTS.  An  ancient  sect  of  schismatics  founded  by  Donatus,  bishop  of  Carthage, 
about  A.O.  831.  The  general  profession  of  this  sect  was  an  exduuTo  pretended 
PuritanisnL^iTbolaer.  The  Donatists  held  that  the  Father  was  above  the  Son,  and 
the  Son  aboTC  the  Holy  Ghost ;  and  that  there  was  no  virtue  in  the  Church,  for  which 
reason  those  who  joined  their  sect  were  re-baptised. 

DONNINQTON,  BATTLE  of,  in  Lxnooln.  This  place  was  the  scene  of  a  severe  action 
between  the  royalists,  under  the  command  of  colonel  Okvendish,  and  the  parliamentary 
forces,  in  which  the  hvtter  were  defeated,  1648. — ^Battlb  of  Donninoton,  in  Oloucester- 
shire,  in  which  the  royalists,  under  lord  Ashton,  were  defeated  by  colonel  Morgan,  1646 : 
this  latter  victory  led  to  the  surrender  of  the  king's  garrison  at  Oxford. 

DOOITS-OAT  o&  DOtfE*S-DAT  BOOK.  Libtr  Judieiariiu  vd  OMtuatU  Anglia.  A 
book  of  the  general  survey  of  England,  commenced  in  the  reign  of  William  L  a.d. 
1080.  The  intent  of  this  book  was,  to  be  a  register  whereby  to  determine  the  right 
in  the  tenure  of  estates ;  and  from  this  book  the  question  whether  lands  be  ancient 
demesne  or  not  is  sometimes  still  decided.  The  book  is  still  preserved  in  the 
Chapter-boose,  Westminster-abbey,  fair  and  legible,  consisting  of  two  volumes,  a 
greater  and  lesser,  wherein  all  the  counties  of  England,  except  Northumberland  and 
Durham,  are  surveyed.  It  was  finished  in  A.D.  1036,  having  been  completed  by  five 
justices.  "  This  Dome  SHlay  book  was  the  tax-book  of  kingeWaiiam."—CViiiMie».  The 
taxes  were  levied  aocording  to  this  survey  till  18  Hen.  VIIL  1522,  when  a  more  accurate 
survey  was  taken,  and  was  called  by  the  people  the  New  Doom*s-Day  Book. 

DORCHESTEB,  BISHOPRIC  of.  Founded  in  a.d.  625.  The  first  bishop  was  Birinos, 
or  St.  Birinus,  called  the  apostle  of  the  West  Saxons.  The  see  continued  for  upwards 
of  460  years.  In  a.d.  1094,  Remigius,  its  last  prelate,  who  was  canonised,  transferred 
it  to  Lincoln,  into  which  bishopric  it  merged.    See  Lincoln, 

DORIC  ORDER  of  ARCHITECT (7RE.  The  most  ancient  of  the  five,  the  mvention  of 
the  Dorians,  a  people  of  Qreece.  It  is  somewhat  lighter  than  the  Tuscan,  and  is  used 
indifferently  in  many  sorts  of  buildings.  It  is  called  the  second  order.  The  Dorians 
alao  gave  the  name  to  the  Doric  muse.  The  migration  of  this  people  to  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus took  place  1104  b  a  They  sent,  in  their  spirit  of  enterprise,  many  colonies 
into  different  places,  which  afterwanis  bore  the  same  name  as  their  native  country. 

DORT.  Here  happened  an  awful  inundation  of  the  sea,  A.D.  1446.  It  arose  in  the 
breaking  down  of  the  dykes ;  and  in  the  territory  of  Dordrecht  10,000  penons  were 
overwhelmed  and  perished ;  and  more  than  100,000  round  Dullart^  in  Friesland,  and 
in  Zealand.  In  the  last  two  provinces  upwards  of  800  villages  were  overflowed,  and 
the  tope  of  their  towera  and  steeples  were  for  ages  alter  to  be  seen  rising  out  of  the 
water.  Dort  is  famous  for  the  Protestant  synod  held  in  1618 ;  a  general  assembly,  to 
which  deputies  were  sent  from  England,  and  from  all  the  reformed  churches  in 
Europe,  to  settle  the  differences  between  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  Calvin,  and 
Arminius,  principally  upon  pointe  of  justification  and  grace.  This  synod  condemned 
the  tenets  of  Arminius. — Atlzetna, 

DOUAT,  nr  Fbanok.  Erected  into  a  university  by  Philip  IL  of  Spain,  who  founded 
here  the  celebratod  college  of  Roman  Catholics,  ▲.D.  1569.  Douay  was  taken  from 
the  Spaniards  by  Louis  XIV.  in  person  in  1667.  It  was  taken  by  the  duke  of 
Marlborough,  in  1710 ;  and  retaken  bv  the  French  next  year.  This  town  gives  its 
name  to  the  Roman  Catholic  edition  of  the  Bible,  which  continues  in  use,  by  the  con- 
sent of  the  popes,  as  the  only  authorised  English  yersion;  its  toxt  is  explained  by  the 
notes  of  Roman  Catholic  divines.  The  Old  Testament  was  first  publishod  by  the 
English  college  at  Dauay  in  1609 ;  the  New  had  been  published  at  Rheims  in  1582. 

DOVE.  This  bird  ha<i  been  always  in  great  fietvour  with  the  Eastern  nations,  and  was 
held  sacred  in  the  early  ages  by  many  of  them.  The  dove  was  sent  from  the  ark,  and 
returned  2347  B.O.  Fuller,  in  his  history  of  the  Holy  War,  tolls  us  that  at  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem  the  Christians  intercepted  a  letter  tied  to  the  feet  of  a  dove,  in  which  the 
Perdian  emperor  promised  assistance  to  the  besieged-^-^a^i^r,  book  i.  cap.  xsiv. 


DOV  218  DBA 

DOVER.  Here  Julius  Caesar  made  his  first  landing  in  England,  Aug.  26,  55  &a  Its 
original  castle  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  him  soon  after ;  but  this  is  disputed.  The 
works  were  strengthened  by  Alfred  and  the  succeeding  Saxon  kings.  The  earliest 
named  constable  is  Leopaldus  de  Bertie,  in  the  rdgn  of  Ethelred  IL,  followed  by  earl 
Godwin,  Odo  the  brother  of  William  I.,  &c  In  modem  times  this  offiee  and  that  of 
warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports  has  been  frequently  conferred  on  the  prime  minister 
for  the  time  being,  e.  g.  lord  North,  Mr.  Pitt,  lord  Liverpool,  and  the  duke  of 
Wellington ;  the  earl  of  Dalhousie,  late  governor-general  of  India,  was  appointed 
in  Jan.  1853,  and  is  the  present  constable  (1857). — The  castle  was  rebuilt  and 
strengthened  by  Henry  II.,  and  rendered  impregnable  by  the  towers  and  works 
erected  in  succeeding  reigns.  The  priory  was  commenced  by  archbishop  Corboyl,  or 
Corbois,  about  a.d.  1130.  At  Dover,  king  John  ingloriously  resigned  his  kingdom  to 
Pandolf,  the  pope's  legate,  May  13,  1218.  The  pier  was  projected  by  Henry  VIIL  in 
1533.  Charles  II.  landed  here  from  his  exile.  May  25, 1660.  The  foot-barracks  were 
burnt  down  by  an  accidental  fire,  July  80, 1800.  A  large  part  of  the  difffeU,  Nor.  27, 
1810.  The  quantity  of  land  lost  by  two  fiills  was  estimated  at  six  acresL  A  vast 
portion  of  the  oliff  fell,  Jan.  18, 1853. 

DOWER  The  gifts  of  a  husband  for  a  wife.— (TimeRjr,  xxxiv.  12.  The  custom  is  said  to 
be  derived  from  the  Germans ;  and  it  was  a  usage  among  the  Saxons,  as  appears  from 
the  laws  of  king  Edmund,  by  which  a  widow  was  entitled  to  a  moiety  of  her  husband's 
property  for  her  life,  a.d.  941.  The  widows  of  traitors,  but  not  those  of  felons,  are 
debarred  their  dower  by  statute  6  Edw.  YI.  1550. — StatuUi, 

DOWN,  BISHOPRIC  of.  An  ancient  see,  whose  firat  bishop  was  St.  Oulan,  in  499.  At 
the  instance  of  John  de  Courcy,  the  conqueror  of  Ulster,  the  cathednl,  although 
previously  consecrated  to  the  Trinity,  was  dedicated  to  St.  Patrick,  about  11&. 
Christopher  Pembridge  states,  in  his  Annals,  that  many  believed  Courcy  by  this 
act  had  drawn  on  himself  that  vast  train  of  misfortunes  which  afterwards  befel  him. 
The  sepulchre  of  St.  Patrick  (who  was  buried  here  in  493,  in  the  abbey  of  Saul, 
founded  by  himself)  brought  this  place  into  great  repute.  The  see  was  united  with 
that  of  Connor  in  1441  (see  Oonnor);  and  the  see  of  Dromore  was  united  to  both 
by  the  provisions  of  the  Irish  Church  Temporalities  act,  8  and  4  Will.  lY.  c  87, 
Aug.  14, 1833.  The  cathedral  of  Downpatrick  was  destroyed  by  lord  Grey,  lonl 
deputy  of  Ireland,  for  which,  and  other  crimes,  he  was  impeached,  and  beheaded,  in 
1541. — BeaUon, 

DRACO,  LAWS  of.  Draco  when  he  exercised  the  office  of  archon,  made  a  code  of  Uwa, 
which,  on  account  of  their  severity,  were  said  to  be  written  in  letters  of  blood ;  by 
them  idleness  was  punished  with  as  much  severity  as  murder;  the  smallest  tranagraa- 
sion,  he  said,  deserved  death,  and  he  could  not  find  any  punishment  mora  rigorona 
for  more  atrocious  crimes,  628  B.C. — Sigoniut  de  Bepub,  AAen. 

DRAFTS.  By  19  and  20  Yict  c.  25  (1856),  drafts  crossed  with  a  banker's  name  are 
payable  only  to  or  through  the  same  banker.  This  act  was  passed  in  consequence  of 
the  decision  (to  the  contrary)  in  the  case  of  Carlon  v.  Ireland,  Dec.  12, 1855. 

DRAGOONS.  The  name  ia  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from  dragon,  "  because 
mounted  on  horseback  with  lighted  match  he  seemeth  like  a  fiery  dragozk'* — Meyricfs 
Pref.  to  Ane,  Armour,  The  DRxcoNARn  were  horse  soldiers  who  bore  dragona  for 
ensigns.  The  first  regiment  of  dragoons  wos  raised  in  England,  it  is  beUeved,  a.d. 
1681.  "  King  Charles  II.  at  the  Restoration  established  a  regiment  of  Life  Guards, 
to  which  he  added  a  regiment  of  Borse  Ouardi  and  two  regiments  of  Foot  Guards ; 
and  a  third  regiment  of  Foot  Guards  was  raised  at  Coldstream,  on  the  bordan  of 
Scotland." — Captain  Curling. 

DRAKE'S  CIRCUMNAYIGATION.  Sir  Francis  Drake  sailed  from  Plymouth  Nov.  18, 
1577,  and  sailing  round  the  globe  returned  to  England  after  many  perilous  adventures 
Nov.  8,  1580.  This  illustrious  seaman  was  vice-admiral  under  lord  Howard,  high 
admiral  of  England,  in  the  memorable  conflict  with  the  Spanish  Armada,  July  19, 
1 588.  His  expeditions  and  victories  over  the  Spaniards  have  been  equalled  by  modem 
admirals,  but  not  his  generosity ;  for  he  divided  the  booty  he  took  in  proportioDsl 
shares  with  the  common  sailors,  even  to  wedges  of  gold  given  him  in  return  for  bis 
presents  to  Indian  chie&. — Stotee,    Hapin. 

DRAMA.  We  owe  both  forms  of  composition,  tragedy  and  comedy,  to  the  Greeks.  The 
first  comedy  was  performed  at  Athens,  by  Sosarion  and  Dolon,  on  a  movable  scaAald, 
562  B.O.    See  Comedy,    The  chorus  was  introduced  556  b.o.    See  CAoms.    Tragedy 


DRA  219  DRB 

was  fint  represented  at  Athens  by  Thespis,  on  a  waggon,  536  B.o,--Arund,  Marb. 
Thespia  of  Icaria^  the  inventor  of  tragedy,  performed  at  Athens  Alcettit,  and  was 
rewarded  with  a  goat,  536  B.a— P/ivije.  Anazandridos  was  the  first  dramatic  poet 
who  introduced  intrigues  upon  the  stage.  Ue  composed  a^out  a  hundred  plays,  of 
which  ten  obtained  the  prize;  he  died  340  B.o. 

DRAMA  m  ROME.  The  drama  was  first  introduced  into  Rome  on  occasion  of  a  plague 
which  raged  during  the  consulate  of  C.  Sulpicius  Peticus  and  C  Ludnius  Stolo.  The 
magistrates  to  appease  the  incensed  deities  instituted  the  games  called  the  Sceniei, 
wliich  were  amusements  entirely  new.  Actors  from  Etruria  danced,  after  the  Tuscan 
manner,  to  the  flute,  364  B.a ;  subsequently  came  satires  accompanied  with  music  set 
to  the  flute;  and  afterwards  plays  were  represented  by  Livius  Andronicus,  who, 
abandoning  satires,  wrote  plays  with  a  regular  and  connected  plot,  240  B.a — Idvy. 
Andronicus  was  the  first  person  who  gave  singing  and  dancing  to  two  difierent 
performers;  he  danced  himself,  and  gave  the  singing  to  a  younger  exhibitor. — Ifivy. 

DRAMA,  EARLY  ENQLISH,  &c.  The  modem  drama  arose  early  in  the  rude  attempts 
of  minstrels  and  buflbons  at  fairs  in  France,  Italy,  and  EngUmd. —  Wart&n.  Stories 
from  the  Bible  were  represented  by  the  priests,  and  wer^  the  origin  of  sacred  comedy. 
— Idem,  Gregory  Nasianzen,  an  early  fiither  of  the  Church,  is  said  to  have  constructed 
a  drama  about  ▲.D.  364,  on  the  Passion  of  Christ,  to  counteract  the  profanities  of  the 
heathen  stagey  and  thus  to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  the  modem  romantic  drama ; 
but  this  is  not  clearly  proved.  Fitzstephen,  in  his  Life  of  Thomoi  d  Becket,  asserts 
that  "London  had  for  its  theatrical  exhibitions  holy  plays,  and  the  representation  of 
•miracles,  wrought  by  holy  confessors."  The  Chester  Mysteries  were  performed 
about  1270.  Plays  were  performed  at  Clerkenwell  by  the  parish  clerks  in  1397,  and 
miracles  were  represented  in  the  fields.  Allegorical  characters  were  introduced  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  YL  Individual  characters  were  introduced  in  Henry  Y II.'b  reign. 
The  fimt  regular  drama  acted  in  Europe  was  the  "Sophonisba"  of  Trisiuno,  at  Rome, 
in  the  presence  of  pope  Leo  X.  1516. —  VoUaire, 

DRAMA,  MODERN  ENGLISH.  The  English  drama  became  perfect  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth.  The  first  royal  licence  for  the  drama  in  England  was  to  master  Burbage, 
and  four  others,  servants  to  the  earl  of  Leicester,  to  act  plays  at  the  Globe,  Bankside, 
1574.  A  licence  was  granted  to  Shakspeare  and  his  associates  in  1603.  Plays  were 
opposed  by  the  Puritans  in  1633,  and  were  afterwards  suspended  until  the  Restoration 
in  1660.  Two  companies  of  regular  performers  were  licensed  by  Charles  II.,  Killigrew's 
and  Dayenant's,  in  1662.  Killigrew's  patent  bears  date  April  25,  in  that  year; 
and  sir  William  Davenanfs  was  regulated  same  tima  The  first  was  at  the  Bull, 
Yere-street,  Clare-market,  which  was  immediately  afterwards  removed  to  Drury-lane; 
the  other  in  Dorset-gardens.  Till  this  time  boys  performed  women's  parts;  but 
Mm  Coleman  (the  first  female  on  the  stage)  had  performed  lamthe  in  Davenant's  Siefft 
of  Jihodes,  in  1656.  Sir  William  Davenant  introduced  operas,  and  both  companies 
united,  1684,  and  continued  together  till  1694,  when  a  sclusm  under  Betterton  led  to 
the  opening  of  a  theatre  in  lincoln's-Inn-fields,  1695,  which  was  the  parent  of 
Covent-garden.  Act  for  the  revision  of  plays,  and  for  licensing  them  previously 
to  being  performed,  1737.  Authors'  Dramatic  Copyright  Protection  act,  3  WiU.  IV. 
June,  1883.    See  Covent^arden,  Drury-lane,  and  article  Theatres* 

DREAMS.  The  first  who  attempted  to  give  an  interpretation  to  dreamsi  and  to  draw 
prognostics  from  omens,  was  Amphictyon  of  Athens,  1497  b.g.  Laodice,  the  mother 
of  Seleucus,  nine  months  before  his  birth,  dreamed  that  Apollo  presented  her  vrith  a 
precious  stone,  on  which  was  engraved  the  figure  of  an  anchor,  and  commanded  her 
to  deliver  it  to  her  son  as  soon  as  bom.  It  is  said  that  in  the  morning  she  found  a 
ring,  answering  in  description  the  jewel  she  had  dreamed  of;  and  that  not  onlv  the 
son  of  whom  she  was  Uien  pregnant,  but  all  his  successors  of  the  house  of  the 
Seleucidse,  had  the  mark  of  an  anchor  on  the  thigh|  353  b.o.  There  is  scriptural 
authority  for  a  reliance  upon  dreams;  particularly  may  be  mentioned  the  dream  of 
Joseph,  see  MatUiew,  L  20.  In  Westminster-abbey  are  singular  records  of  the  dreams 
of  Edward  the  Confessor ;  and  instances  of  faith  in  visions  would  fill  a  volume.  A 
remarkable  modem  instance  is  attested  in  the  Life  of  Thomas,  lord  Lyttelton ;  that 
nobleman  expired  three  days  after  a  singular  dream,  in  which  he  was  warned  of  his 
approaching  dissolution^  1779.^ 

*  Lord  Lyttelton  dreamt,  or  had  a  visioD,  that  a  young  female,  dressed  in  white,  solemnly  warned 
him  of  hisdisaolution  in  three  days  from  that  time.  On  the  third  day,  his  lordship  had  a  party  to 
q>end  the  eyening  with  him,  and  about  the  time  predicted,  he  observed  to  the  company  present,  that 


DRE  220  DRO 

DRESDEN.  Peace  of  Dresden,  between  Saxony,  Prussia,  and  the  queen  of  Huugiiiy, 
confirming  the  treaties  of  Berlin  and  Breslau,  Dec.  25, 1745.  Siege  of  Dresden  by  the 
king  of  Prussia ;  during  which  memorable  inyestment  he  bombarded  the  town,  but 
was  obliged  to  retire  aftef  nine  days,  1759.  This  city  has  been  taken  and  retaken 
several  times.  Battle  of  Dresden,  iee  next  article.  Here  marshal  St.  Cyr,  and  25,000 
French  troops,  surrendered  to  the  allies,  Kot.  6, 181 3.  Political  commotion ;  the  king 
of  Saxony  resigns  the  royal  authority,  and  prince  Frederick,  his  nephew,  is  declared 
regent,  Sept.  9  et  teq.,  1830.    See  Saiony, 

DRESDEN,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  allied  army  under  the  prince  of  Schwansenber^ 
and  the  French  army  commanded  by  Napoleon,  Aug.  26  and  27, 1813.  The  allies^ 
who  were  200,000  strong,  attacked  Napoleon  in  his  position  at  Dresden,  and  the  erent 
had  nearly  proved  fatal  to  them,  but  for  an  error  in  the  conduct  of  general  Vandammoi 
They  wero  defeated  with  dreadful  loss,  and  were  obliged  to  repeat  into  Bohemia; 
but  Yandamme  pursuing  them  too  far,  his  division  was  cut  to  pieces,  and  himself  and 
all  his  staff  made  prisoners.  In  this  battle  general  Moreau  received  liis  mortal  wound, 
while  in  conversation  with  the  emperor  of  Russia^ 

DRESDEN  CHINA*  The  fine  porcelain  ware  known  as  Dresden  China  was  discovered 
by  M.  Boeticher,  who  was  at  the  time  an  apothecary's  boy,  1700.  Services  of  this 
ware  have  cost  many  thousands  of  pounds  each.  A  costly  service,  eacb  piece 
exquisitely  pointed,  with  battles,  &c.,  was  presented  to  the  duke  of  Wellington  by  the 
king  of  Prussia,  in  1816,  and  was  the  finest  in  England. 

DRESS.  Excess  in  dress  was  restrained  by  a  law  in  England,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV. 
1465.  And  again  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  1574.— SKom^  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  we  are 
told,  wore  a  white  satin-pinked  vest,  close-sleeved  to  the  wrist,  and  over  the  body  a 
brown  doublet  finely  flowered,  and  embroidered  with  p^ls.  In  the  featiier  of  his 
hat  a  large  ruby  and  pearl  drop  at  the  bottom  of  the  sprig  in  place  of  a  button.  His 
breeches,  with  his  stockings  and  ribbon  garters,  fringed  at  the  end,  all  white ;  and 
buff  shoes,  which  on  great  court  days  were  so  goiigeously  covered  with  precioiiB 
stones,  as  to  have  exceeded  the  value  of  66002. ;  and  he  had  a  suit  of  armour  of  solid 
silver,  with  sword  and  belt  blazing  with  diamonds,  rubies,  and  pearls.  King  James's 
favourite,  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  could  afford  to  have  his  diamonds  tacked  so 
loosely  on,  that  when  he  chose  to  shake  a  few  off  on  the  ground,  he  obtained  all  the 
fiitme  he  desired  £ix>m  the  pickers-up,  who  were  generally  le«  Damet  de  la  Oour.* 

DROGHEDA,  andently  called  Tredagh,  and  a  pl&ce  of  great  importance,  having  the 
privilege  of  coining  money.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  YI.  an  act^  yet  unrepealed,  was 
passed  for  the  foundation  of  a  university  here.  It  was  besieged  several  times  in  the 
contests  between  1641  and  1691.  Cromwell  took  the  town  by  storm,  and  put  the 
governor,  sir  A.  Aston,  and  the  whole  of  the  garrison,  to  the  sword,  Aug,  14, 1649. 
More  than  3000  men,  most  of  them  English,  perished.    See  Boyne, 

DEOMORE,  BISHOPRIC  of.  Its  founder  was  St  Coleman,  descended  fh)m  a  sept  of 
tiie  Arads;  he  was  first  bishop,  about  556;  the  cathedral  is  dedicated  to  the  IMeemer. 
"Bv  an  extent  returned  15  James  I.  this  see  vras  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  50/. 
The  learned  and  pious  doctor  Jeremy  Taylor  was  bishop  of  Down  and  Connor  in 
1660,  and  bishop  of  this  see  in  1661.  The  see  of  Dromore  has  been  united  to  that  of 
Down  (on  its  last  avoidance)  under  the  operation  of  the  Irish  Church  Temporalitiee 
act,  3  &  4  Will.  IV.,  passed  Aug.  14, 1833.    See  BtMhcpi. 

DROWNING,  PUNISHMENT  of.  The  punishment  of  death  by  drowning  is  very 
ancient,  and  was  practised  by  many  countries,  even  by  our  own.  The  Britons  inflicted 
death  by  drowning  in  a  quagmire,  before  450  B.C. — Stcwe,  It  was  inflicted  on  eighty 
intractable  bishops  near  Nicomedia,  a.d.  370.  It  was  practised  in  fVance  under 
Lotiis  XI.,  and  on  the  French  cleigy  in  1792,  when  they  were  termed  JVbyadea. 

DROWNING  PERSONS.  Societies  for  the  recovery  of  drovming  persons  were  first 
instituted  in  Holland,  a.d.  1767.    The  second  society  is  said  to  have  been  formed  at 

"  he  believed  he  should  jockey  the  ghost ;  **  but  in  a  few  minutes  afterwards  he  was  stised  with  a 
sudden  fiaintnese,  carried  to  bed,  and  rose  no  more.    He  died  in  1779,  aged  86. 

*  We  mt^  here  mention  a  novel  and  outri  dress,  the  Bloombb  OmTUiiE.introdaoed  into  America 
by  a  lady  of^  that  nameu  and  worn  there  by  many  of  the  women.  It  resembles  male  attire,  being  an 
open-fh)nted  jacket  and  loose  trowsers,  the  latter  wide,  like  those  of  the  Turk,  but  gathered  in  at  the 
ankles.  The  Bloomer  dress  was  first  adopted  (partially,  of  course)  by  females  in  tbe  western  pairts 
of  London,  in  August,  1851;  but  though  it  was  recommended  by  some  American  ladlea  in  popular 
lectures,  it  was  soon  afterwards  totally  discontinued. 


DRU 


221 


DUB 


Jfilaa,  in  1768 ;  the  third  in  Hamburg,  in  1771 ;  the  fourth  at  Paris,  in  1772 ;  and 
the  fifth  in  London,  in  1774.  Similar  aocieties  have  been  instituted  in  other  oountriea. 
The  motto  of  the  Royal  Humane  Society  in  England  Ls  yery  appropriate : — LaUeU 
9emtiUulafonam~--^9k  small  spark  may  perhaps  lie  hid." 

DRUIDS.  A  celebrated  order  among  the  ancient  Qermans,  QauIs^  and  Britons,  who 
from  their  veneration  for  the  oak  (Brit,  derw)  were  so  called.  They  acted  as  priests  and 
magistrates;  one  of  them  was  invested  occasionally  with  supreme  authority.  In 
Eogland  they  were  chosen  out  of  the  best  families,  that  the  dignity  of  their  station, 
added  to  that  of  their  birth,  might  procure  them  the  greater  respect.  They  were 
Tersed  in  sciences,  had  the  administration  of  all  sacred  ttungs,  were  the  interpreters 
of  the  goda^  and  supreme  judges  in  all  causes.  The  Druids  headed  the  Britons  who 
opposed  OiBsar^s  first  landing,  55  B.a  They  were  cruelly  put  to  death,  when  defending 
the  freedom  of  their  country  against  the  Roman  governor,  Suetonius  Paulinus^  who 
totally  destroyed  eveiy  mark  of  Druidism,  A.i>.  59. — BouAandC§  Afona  AnHqua, 

DRUli.  A  martial  instrument  whose  invention  is  ascribed  to  Bacchus,  who,  according 
to  PolysBnus,  "  gave  his  signals  of  battle  with  cymbala  and  drums."  The  drum  was 
an  oriental  invention,  brought  by  the  Moors  into  Spain,  a.d.  713. — Le  CUre.  The 
braces  on  the  sides,  whereby  the  sound  may  be  rendered  louder  or  slacker,  are  of 
later  date.— ^sA«.  In  navigation,  the  drum,  or  drum-capstan,  for  weighing  anchors, 
was  invented  by  sir  S.  Moreland,  in  1685. — Arkdenon, 

DRUNKARDS.  The  phrase  "Drunk  as  a  lord,"  arose  out  of  an  older  pro?erb, 
^  Drunk  as  a  beggar ; "  and  we  are  told  that  it  wss  altered  owing  to  the  vice  of 
drunkenness  prevailing  at  the  time  among  the  great.  Drunkenness  was  punished 
in  many  of  the  early  nations  with  exemplary  severity.  Drunkards  were  to  be  excom- 
monioated  in  the  early  Church  (1  Cor.  vi.).  In  England,  a  canon  law  restrained  it  in 
the  deigy  so  early  as  a.d.  747.  Constantino, -king  of  Scots,  punished  this  offence 
against  society  with  death.  He  used  to  say  that  a  drunkard  was  but  the  mimic  of  a 
man,  and  differed  from  the  beast  only  in  slmpe,  ad.  870.  Drunkenuess  was  restrained 
in  the  commonalty  in  England  in  975;  and  many  later  laws  have  been  enacted 
against  it. 

DRURT-LANE  THEA.TRE.  It  derives  its  origin  from  a  cockpit,  which  was  converted 
into  a  theatre  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  It  wav  pulled  down  and  rebuilt,  and  called 
the  Phcenix ;  and  Charles  IL  granted  an  exclusiTc  patent  to  Thomas  Killigrew,  April 
25, 1662.  The  actors  were  called  the  king's  servants,  and  ten  of  them,  who  wera 
called  gentlemen  of  the  great  chamber,  had  an  annual  allowance  of  ten  yards  of 
scarlet  cloth,  with  a  suitable  quantity  of  lace.  The  theatre,  with  sixty  adjoining 
hooaeo^  was  burnt  down  in  1671 ;  and  a  new  edifice  was  built  in  its  room  by  sir 
Christopher  Wren,  in  1674.  The  interior  was  rebuilt  by  Mr.  Adams,  and  was 
re-opened  Sept  23,  1775.  The  Drury-lane  Theatrical  Fund  was  originated  by 
David  Qarrick  in  1777.  In  1791,  the  theatre  was  pulled  down ;  it  was  rebuilt  and 
opened  March  12,  1794.  It  was  totally  destroyed  by  fire,  Feb.  24,  1809 ;  and  was 
rebuilt  and  opened  Oct  16, 1812.    See  Thaairt*  and  Drama, 

DUBLIN.  This  city,  anciently  called  Aschded,  built  a.d.  140.  It  obtained  its  present 
name  from  Alpinus,  a  lord  or  chief  among  the  Irish,  whose  daughter,  Auliana  having 
been  drowned  at  the  ford  where  now  Whitworth-bridge  is  built,  he  changed  the  name 
to  Auliana,  by  Ptolemy  called  Bblana  (afterwards  corrupted  into  Dublana),  that  she 
might  be  had  in  remembrance.  Alpinus  is  the  first  chief  mentioned  in  history  as 
having  made  this  place  his  residence,  which  he  did  about  a.d.  155,  when  he  brought 
*'  the  then  rude  hUl  into  the  form  of  a  town."    See  Ireland, 


Christianity  eotabliBhod  here  on  the  ar- 

riyal  of  8t  Patrick       .  .  a.d.    488 

[St.  Patrick's  oathedial  founded  about 

this  time.] 
Dublin  environed  with  ^alla  by  the 

Danes.  or08tmen(eee  i>an««).  .  .  798 
Named  by  king  Edgar  in  the  preface  to 

hia  charter.  ^'  KobUurima  CimUu "  .  064 
Battle  of  Cloutarf(feAicA  Me)  .    .  1039 

Dublin  taken  by  Raymond  le  Ores,  for 

Heniy  II.  who  eoon  after  arrives  .  1171 
Charter  granted  by  this  king  .  .  .  1173 
Christ  Church  buUt,  1088  ;  rebuilt.  .  1190 
Slaughter  of  600  Eritiah  by  the  Irish  citi- 

sens  near  DubUn  (see  (\tU«n'«  wood)   .  1209 


Assemblage  of  Irish  princes,  who  swear 
allegnnce  to  king  John  .a.d.  1210 

Foundation  of  Dublin  castle  laid  by 
Henzy  de  Loundres,  1205 ;  finished    .  1213 

John  le  Deoer  tirst  provost ;  Richard  do 
8t  Olave  and  John  Stakebold,  first 
boilifBi  (nee  Jiayor)       ....  1308 

Thomas  Cusack,  first  mayor  (idem)    .    .  1409 

Besieged  bv  the  sou  of  the  earl  of  Kil- 
dare,  lord  deputv 1500 

Christ  Church  made  a  deanery  and  chap- 
ter by  Henry  VIII.    Bee  Christ  Ckureh  1541 

Name  of  bailifrchonffed  ;  John  Ryan  and 
Thomas  Comyn,  first  sherU&      .        .  1548 

University  founded 1591 


DUB 


222 


DUE 


DUBLIN^  eontintied. 

Charter  flfraoted  by  James  I.  .  .  a.d.  1609 
Convocation    which     established     the 

Thirty-nine  articles  of  religion  .  .  1614 
Besieged  by  the  marquis  of  Ormond,  and 

battle  of  RathminesCwAicA  «m)  .  .  1649 
Cromwell  arrives  in  Uublin  with  9000 

foot  and  400  horse    .        .  Aug.  1619 

Chief  magistrate  honoured  with  the  title 

of  lord  while  holding  office  .  .  .  1665 
Blue-coat  hospital  incorporated  .  .  .  1670 
Essex -bridge  built  by  sir  H.  Jervis  .  1676 
Royal  Hospital,  Kilmainham,  founded  .  1683 
James  II.  arrives  in  Dublin     .  .  1688 

Great  gunpowder  explosion  .  .  .  169S 
Lamps  first  erected  in  the  city  .  1698 

Infirmary,  Jervis-street,  founded  .  .1728 
Parliament-house  began .  .  .  .  1729 
Foundling  Hospital  incorporated  .  .  1789 
St  Patrick's  spire  erected.    BwPairkk'i 

CatJudixd 1749 

Boyal  Dublin  Society,  originated  1781 ; 

incorporated 1749 

Lock  Hospital  opened     ....  1758 

Hibernian  Society 1765 

Marine  Society 1766 

Queon's-bridge  first  erected,  1684 ;  de- 
stroyed by  a  flood,  1763  ;  rebuilt  .  .  1768 
Act  for  a  general  pavement  of  the  streets 

ofthedty 1773 

Bojral  Exchange  began,  1769  ;  opened  .  1779 
Order  of  St  Patrick  instituted  .  .  1788 
Bank  of  Ireland  instituted  (see  JSanI;)  .  1783 
Police  established  by  statute  .  .  .  1786 
Royal  A(»dcmy  incorporated  .  .  .  1786 
Duke  of  Rutland's  fUneral       .  .  1787 

Custom-house  begun,  1781 ;  opened  .  .  1791 
Dublin  library  instituted  .  .  .  1791 
Fire  at  the  Parliament-house  .    .  1792 

Carlifllo-bridge  erected  ....  1794 
City  armed  aesociation  ....  1796 
New  law  courts  opened  ....  1796 
The  Rebellion ;  arrest  of  lord  Edward 

JFItzgeraJd,  in  Thomas-street,  Hay  19,  1798 
Union  with  England  (see  Union)  Jan.  1,  1801 
Eromett's  insurrection  July  23,  1803 

Hibernian  Bible  Society .  .        .  1806 


Bank  transferred  to  College-green 
Dublin  Institution  founded    . 
Riot  at  the  theatre 
Visit  of  George  IV.   . 
The  "  Bottle  Conspiracy  "  . 
Hibernian  Academy 
Dublin  lighted  with  gas 
Great  Custom-house  fire . 
Railroad  to  Kin^town 
British  Association  meet  here 
Dublin  New  Police  Act 
Cemetery,  Mount  Jerome, 


A.D. 


Dec.  16, 
Aug.  12, 
Dec.  14, 
Aug.  16, 
.  Oct  5, 

Aug.  9, 
Aug.  17, 

Aug.  6, 

.  July  4, 

consecrated 

Sept  19,  18» 

April  25^  18S7 

.   July  81. 

.  Jan.  6, 

Oct  14. 
Feb.  12, 
May  15, 


1808 
1811 
1814 
1821 
1823 
1823 
18S5 
1833 
1884 
18S5 
1836 


1838 
1839 
1843 
18U 
1847 


Royal  Arcade  burnt    . 

Poor  Law  Bill  passed  . 

AwAil  storm  raged 

O'Connell's  arrest  (see  Tri<d8) . 

He  is  found  guilty 

His  death  at  Genoa . 

Arrest  of  Mitchell,  of  the  Unittd  Jritk- 
man  newspaper        .  May  IS,  1848 

State  trial  of  Wm.  Smith  O'Brien  and 
Meagher  in  DubUn  .    May  15.  1848 

[These  persons  were  afterwards  tried  at 
Clonmel,  and  found  gu.Hty.'] 

Trial  of  MitcheU  ;  yuiily      .         May  26,  1848 

Iruk  Fdon  newspaper  first  published 

Julyl.  1848 

Naiion  and  JrUh  Fdon  newspapers  sup- 
pressed     ....        July  29,  1848 

Conviction  of  O'Doherty.        .     Not.  1.  1848 

The  Queen  visits  Dublin  .  Aug.  8,  1849 

Death  of  Richard  Lalor  Shiel  at 
Florence        ....    May  25,  1851 

Proposed  exhibition  of  Irish  manufi^c- 
tures,  to  encourage  which  Mr.  Dargan 
presents  to  the  Royal  Dublin  Society 
26,000f June  24.  1853 

Royal  Exchange  opened  by  the  corpora- 
tion as  a  City  hall  (see  Irdaind)  Sept.  iXH^  1853 

Industrial  Exhibiticm  opened  May  12, 
1853 ;  closed  (see  next  ariieU)    Nov.  1,  1853 

Acts  passed  to  establish  a  natiooal  gal- 
lery, museum,  &c.        .        .  Aug.  10.  1854. 

and  July  2,  1855 
(See  Ireland). 


DUBLIN  INDUSTRIAL  EXHIBITION.  The  building  for  thia  exhibition,  which  owed 
its  existence  to  Mr.  Dargan,  who  advanced  80,0002.  for  the  purpose,  was  erected  by 
Mr.  (now  sir)  John  Benson,  in  the  Dublin  Society's  grounds  near  Merrion-equareu  It 
consisted  of  one  large  and  two  smaller  halls  lighted  from  above.  It  was  opened  by 
earl  St.  Germains  the  lord -lieutenant,  May  12, 1858,  and  visited  by  the  queen  and 
prince  Albert,  Aug.  80,  and  closed  on  Nov.  1.    It  was  eminently  successful. 

DUBLIN,  ARCHBISHOPRIC  of.  United  to  the  see  of  Glendelagh,  or  Olendalagh,  in 
A.D.  1214.  It  is  supposed  that  the  bishopric  of  Dublin  was  founded  by  St  Piatri^, 
in  448.  Gregory,  who  succeeded  in  the  prelacy  in  1121,  afterwards  (in  1162)  became 
arcMriMkop  ;  and  George  Browne,  an  Augustine  fiiar  of  London  (deprived  by  queen 
Mary  in  1554),  was  the  the  first  Protestant  archprelate  of  this  see.  Dublin  has  two 
cathedrals,  Christ  Church,  and  St  Patrick's,  both  in  the  city,  a  most  rare  thing.  The 
revenue  was  valued,  in  the  king's  books,  80  Hen.  VIII.  at  5842.  15i.  2d.  Irinh. 
Kildare,  on  its  last  avoidance,  was  annexed  to  this  see  under  the  provisions  of  the 
Church  Temporalities  act,  passed  in  1888.    See  BisJiops. 

DUCAT.  First  coined  by  Longinus,  governor  of  Italy. — ProcopifU.  Fini  struck  m  the 
duchy  of  Apulia. — Du  Cavge.  Coined  by  Robert,  king  of  Sicily,  in  A.D.  1240.  The 
ducat  is  so  called  because  struck  by  dukes. — Johnton.  It  is  of  silver  and  gold,  the 
value  of  the  first  being  is.  6d.  and  that  of  the  gold  9&  6<i.  The  ducatoon,  an  Italian 
silver  coin  of  the  value  of  4«.  Sd. — Pardon, 

DUELLING  AUD  KNIGHT-ERRANTRY  took  their  rise  from  the  judidal  combata  of 
the  Celtic  nations.  Tlie  first  duel  in  England,  not  of  this  character,  took  place 
A.D.  1096.  Duelling  in  civil  matters  was  forbidden  in  France,  1305.  The  present 
practice  of  duelling  arose  in  the  challenge  of  Francis  I.  to  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
1527.    The  fight  with  email  swords  was  introduced  into  England,  29  Elia.  1587. 


DUE 


223 


DUE 


Proclamation  that  no  person  should  be  pardoned  who  killed  another  in  a  duel, 
30  Charles  II.  1679.  Duelling  was  checked  in  the  army,  1792 ;  and  has  been  almost 
abolished  in  England  by  the  inflaenoe  of  the  prince-consort  (1857).  See  BaUd^ 
Woffer  of,  and  ConUnU. 


LATS  KSMORABLC  DUBXA 

Between  the  duke  of  Hamilton  and  lord 

Hobun,  fought      .  .  a.d.  1712 

{Thia  duel  was  fought  with  small  swords 
In  Hyde-park.  Lord  Mohun  was  killed 
upon  the  spot»  and  the  duke  expired 
of  his  wounds  as  he  was  being  carried 
to  his  coach.*] 
Captain  Peppaid  and  Mr.  Hayes;  the 

latterkilled 1728 

Mr.  Hamilton  and   Mr.  Morgan;  the 

former  killed 1748 

Mr.  6.  Martin  and  Mr.  Wilkes,  M.P. .    .  1763 
Lord  Townshend  and  lord  Bellamont; 

lord  Bellamont  wounded  Feb.  1,  1778 

The  count  d'Artois  and  the   duke  of 

Bourbon   ....      March  21,  1778 
Charles  James  Fox  and  Mr.  Adam ;  Mr. 

Fox  wounded       .        .        .   Nov.  30,  1779 
Mr.  Donovan  and  captain  Hanson ;  the 

latter  killed  .  Nov.  13,  1779 

Colonel  Fullerton  and  lord  Bhelbume; 

the  latter  wounded      .         March  22,  1780 
Rev.  Mr.  Allen  and  Lloyd  Dulany ;  the 

latterkilled      .  .        June  18,  1782 

Colonel  Thomas  of  the  Guards  and  coL 

Gordon;  coL  Thomas  killed     Sept.  4,  1783 
Lord  Macartney  and  m^or-gen.  Stuart ; 

the  former  wounded  .  June  8,  1786 

Mr.  Barrington  and  Mr.  M'Kenzie ;  (the 

former  killed  on  the  ground  by  general 

Gillespie,  the  second  of  the  latter)      .  1788 
Mr.  M'Keon  and  George  Nugeut  Rey- 
nolds ;  the  latter  murdered  by  the 

former      ....         Jan.  31,  1788 
Mr.  Purefoy  and  colonel  Roper;   the 

latter  killed  ....    Dec  17,  1788 
Duke  of  York  and  colonel  Lenox,  after- 
wards duke  of  Richmond        May  27,  1789 
Sir  George  Ramsay  and  captain  Maonea ; 

sir  Geoige  killed 1790 

Mr.  Curran  and  m^or  Hobart     April  1,  1790 
Mr.  Macduff  and  Mr.  Prince ;  the  latter 

killed June  4,  1790 

Mr.  Harvey  Aston  and  lieut.  Fitzgerald ; 

tiie  former  severely  wotmded  June  26,  1790 
Mr.  Stevens  and   Mr.  Anderson ;  the 

former  killed  .        .  Sept.  20,  1790 

Mr.  Graham  and  Mr.  Julius ;  the  former 

kUled        ....        July  19,  1791 
Mr.  John  Kemble  and  Mr.  Aiken ;  no 

fktality March  1,  1792 

Earl  of  Lonsdale  and  captain  Cuthbert ; 

no  fatality        .  .June  9,  1792 

M.  de  Chauvigny  and  Mr.  Lameth  ;  the 

latter  wounded     .  Nov.  8,  1792 

Mr.  Carpenter  and  Mr.  Pride ;  the  former 

killed        ....        Aug.  20,  1796 
Lord  Norbury  and  Mr.  Napper  Tandy 

(an  aiCfdr ;  no  meeting)        .  Aug.  21,  1796 
Lord   Valentia  and   Mr.  Gawler;    the 

fiormer  wounded      .  June  28,  1796 

Rt  hon.  William  Pitt  and  Mr.  Geoige 

Tiemey May  27,  1798 

Rt.  hon.  Isaac  Cony  and  rt  hon.  Henry 

Grattan    ....         Jan.  15,  1800 
Lieut.  Willis   and   mi^or  Impey;    the 

mi^or  killed.  .   Aug.  26,  1801 

Rt.  hon.  Geoiigo  Ogle  and  Bernard  Coyle 

(eifflUihoU;  nofaialUy)  ....  1802 


Sir  Richard  Mnsgrave  and   Mr.  Todd 

Jones ;  sir  Richard  wounded   June  8,  1802 
Colonel  Montgomery  and  captain  Mac 

Namara :  the  former  killed      April  6,  1803 
Gen.  Hamilton  and  col  Burr;  the  gen. 

killed,  greativ  lamented  .1804 

Lord  (^melford  and  captain  Best ;  lord 

Camelford  killed      .       .     March  10,  1804 
Surgeon  Fisher  and  Ueut.  Torrens ;  tibe 

latter  killed  .        .       .        March  22,  1806 
Baron  Hompesch  and  Mr.  Richardson ; 

the  latter  severely  wounded   Sept  21,  1806 
Sir  Francis  Burdett  and  Mr.  PauU  ;  the 

former  wounded  .  May  5,  1807 

Mr.  Alcockand  Mr.  Coldough  ;  the  latter 
killed  (the  survivor  soon  after  lost  bis 

reason) June  8,  1807 

M.  de  Granpree  and  M.  Le  Pique,  in 
balloons,  near  Pans,  and  the  latter 

killed Mays,  1808 

M^or  Campbell  and  captain  Bovd  ;  the 

latter  murdered  June  23,  1808 

Lord    Paget    and    captain    Codogan ; 

neither  wounded  .  .    May  30,  1809 

Lord  Castlereagh  and  Mr.  George  Can- 
ning ;  the  latter  wounded       Sept  22;  1809 
Mr.  Qwrm  Pavne  and  Mr.  Clarke ;  the 

former  Killed         .        .        .    Sept  6,  1810 
Captain  Boardman  and  ensign  de  Bol- 
ton ;  the  former  killed    .       March  4,  1811 
Ueut  Stewart  and  lieut  Begnal;  the 

latter  mortally  wounded  Oct  7,  1812 

Mr.  Edward  Moguire  and  lieut  Blun- 

dell ;  the  latter  kiUed  .  July  9,  1813 

Mr.  Hatchell  and  Mr.  Morley     Feb.  12,  1814 
Cant    Stockpole    {StcUira)    and    Ueut 

Cecil :  the  captain  kUlod  .  April,  1814 
Mr.  0'(k>nnell  and  Mr.  D'Esterro ;  Mr. 

D'Esterre  kiUed  .        .  Feb.  1,  1816 

Col.  Quentin  and  coL  Palmer .      Feb.  7,  1815 
Mr.  O'Connell  and  Mr.  Peel  (an  afblr ; 

no  meeting)  Aug.  31,  1815 

Mi^of  Greene  and  Mr.  Price  in  America ; 

the  latter  killed,  greatly  lamented  .  1816 
Captain  Fottrell  and  colonel  Ross ;  five 

shots  each,  but  no  fatality  Dec.  — t  1817 
Lieut.  Hindes  and  lieut  Gilbert  Conroy ; 

the  former  killed  .  .  March  6,  1817 

Mr.  John  Sutton  and  Mi^or  Lockyer; 

the  former  kiUed     .  Dec.  10,  1817 

Mr.  O'Callaghan  uid  lieiit  Bayley  ;  the 

latter  killed  ....  Jan.  12,  1818 
Mr.  Grattan  and  the  earl  of  Clara  June  7,  1820 
Mr.  Heushaw  and  Mr.  Hartinger ;  both 

desperately  wounded  .  .  Sept.  18,  1820 
Mr.  Scott  and  Mr.  Christie ;  the  former 

killed  ....  Feb.  16,  1821 
M.  Manuel  and  Mr.  Beaumont  April  9,  1821 
Sir  Alexander  Boswell  and  Mr.  James 

Stuart ;  the  former  killed  Maroh  26,  1822 
The  duke  of  Buckingham  and  the  duke 

of  Bedford ;  no  fatality  .  May  2,  1822 
General  Pepe  and   general  C^rascosa : 

the  latter  wounded  .  Feb.  28,  1823 

Mr.  Westall  and  captain  Gk>urlay;  the 

latterkilled 1824 

Mr.  Beaumont  and  Mr.  Lambton 

Julyl,  1826 
Mr.  Brie,  barrister,  and  Mr.  Hayes  ;  the 
former  killed  .        .    Deo.  26,  1826 


*  The  duke  was  attended  by  colonel  Hamilton,  and  lord  Mohun  by  lieutenant-general  Macartney. 
Colonel  Hamilton  was  wounded  in  the  foot,  and  surrendered  himself  on  the  22i]a  of  Novemtwr,  one 
week  after  the  duel,  which  took  place  on  the  Ifitli.  Macartney  made  his  escape,  and,  upon  the 
relation  of  colonel  Hamilton,  it  was  generally  believed  that  the  duke  of  Hamilton  was  unfairly  killed 
by  Macartney. — Ktardtj^t  Annali  of  Engiand, 


DUE 


224 


DUN 


DUELLING  AND  KNIGHT-ERRANTRY,  conlinued. 


Bev.  Mr.  Hodaon  and  Mr.  Orady ;  the 
latter  wounded        .  Aug. 


1827 


Mi^or  Edgeworth  and  Mr.  Henry  Oral 

tan  (an  af&ir ;  no  meeting)  Sept.  — , 
Mr.  Long  Wellealev  and  Mr.  Creapigny ; 

neither  wounded 18S8 

Duke  of  Wellington  and  the  earl  of 

Winohilaea    .  March  21, 

Itieut.  Crowther  and  captain  Helaham ; 

the  former  killed  .  .  '^P^  ^* 
Mr.  Wm.   Lambrecht  and  Mr.  Oliver 

Clayton ;  the  latter  killed  .  Jan.  8, 
Captain  Bmith  and  Mr.  O'Orady;  the 

latter  killed  .  .  .  March  18, 
Mr.  Storey  and  Mr.  Mathiaa ;  the  latter 

wounded  ....  Jan.  22, 
Mr.  Maher  and  Mr.  CoUea  .  Jan.  22, 
Sir  John  W.  Jeffcott  and  Dr.  Hennia ; 

the  latter  mortally  wounded,  and  died 

on  the  18th       .        .  May  10, 


1827 


1829 

1829 

1830 

1880 

1883 
18SS 


1888 


Captain  Welledey  Aahe  and  air  Charies 

Hampton  ....  Sept  11,  1834 
Lord  Alvanley  and  Mr.  Morgan  O'Gon- 

nell :  two  ahota  each  .  May  4,  18S5 

Sir  Cofqxihoun  Grant  and  lord  Seymour ; 

no  fatality  ....  Hay  29,  18S5 
Mr.  Boebuck,M.P.,andMr.  BUiek,editcxr 

Mem.  Chron,,'  two  shots  each  Nor.  19,  1836 
Mr.  Ruthven  and  Mr.  Soott ;  and  Mr. 

Ruthven  and  Mr.  Close  (Mr.  SooU'a 

aeoond)^  the  latter  wounded  Mav  28,  1886 
The  earl  of  Cardigan  and  capt  Tuckett, 

11th  Begt. ;  two  shots  each ;  the  latter 

wounded  ....  Snit.  li^  1840 
Gapt.  Boldero  and  hon.  Craven  Berkeley ; 

no  fatality  ....  July  16,  1842 
Colonel  Fawcett  and  capt.  Munroe :  ooL 

Fawoett  killed ....  July  1.  184S 
lieut  Beton  and  lieut.  Hawkey;  the 

former  killed.  .    May  21.  1845 


4t 


As  many  as  227  official  and  memorable  duels  'were  fought  during  my  mnd  climao> 
teric." — Sir  J.  Sarringfon.  A  single  writer  enumerates  172  duels,  in  i^ch  63  indi- 
viduals were  killed  and  96  wounded ;  in  three  of  these  cases  boiUi  the  combatants 
were  killed,  and  18  of  the  surriTors  suffered  the  sentence  of  the  law. — BamUtvtu 

DUKE.  Originally  a  Roman  dignity,  first  given  to  the  generals  of  armies.  In  England 
during  Saxon  tmieSi  the  commanders  of  armies  were  called  dukes,  tiiccet. — Cam^dau 
In  Qmuitf  chap,  zzxvi  some  of  Esau's  descendants  are  termed  d^kn.  The  title  lay 
dormant  from  the  Conquest  to  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  who  conferred  it  on  his 
eldest  son,  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  by  the  style  of  duke  of  Cornwall,  a.d.  13d6w 
Robert  de  Vere  was  created  marquess  of  Dublin  and  duke  of  Ireland,  9  Rich.  II.  1885. 
The  first  duke  created  in  Scotland  was  by  king  Robert  III.  who  created  David,  prince 
of  Scotland,  duke  of  Rothesay,  a  title  which  iSterwards  belonged  to  the  king^s  eldest 
son,  A  J).  1898,  and  is  now  borne  by  tiie  prince  of  Wales. 

DUKE,  QRAND.  The  Medici  family  was  one  of  extraordinary  greatness  and  imn^ense 
wealth.  Of  this  family,  Alexander  de'  Medici  was  acknowledged  the  chief  of  the 
republic  of  Tuscany  in  1531 ;  he  was  stabbed  in  the  night,  and  his  son,  Cosmo,  was 
created  grand-duke,  the  first  of  that  rank,  by  pope  Pius  Y.  in  1569.  Duke-dukowas 
a  title  given  in  Spain  to  the  house  of  Sylvia,  on  account  of  its  posseesing  such  a 
number  of  duchies. 

DULWICH  COLLEGE.  Founded  by  Edwsrd  Allej  ne,  an  eminent  comedian,  and  called 
God's-Gift  College,  was  completed  in  1617  ;  he  was  the  first  master  of  hia  own 
college,  and  died  in  1626.  A  fine  gallery,  to  contain  the  BouiKOois  collection  of 
pictures,  bequeathed  by  sir  Francis  Bourgeois,  was  annexed  in  1818.  The  manor  of 
Dulwich  belongs  to  the  corporation  of  this  college-;  and  the  estate  being  much 
increased  by  enclosures,  donations,  and  the  advanced  value  of  land,  while  the  original 
number  of  persons  relieved  has  not  been  enlarged,  a  situation  in  God's-Gift  Culege 
approaches  to  opulence. — Ltigh.    Alterations  are  in  contemplation  (1857). 

DUMB.  At  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Pedro  de  Ponce  educated  two  duldreo  of 
the  constable  of  Castile,  who  were  bom  deaf  and  dumb,  so  as  not  only  to  read  and 
write  and  know  arithmetic,  but  to  understand  several  languages,  and  the  piincfplea  of 
religion,  philosophy,  and  astronomy.  Perreira,  a  Spaniard,  eviibited  at  Paris  children 
instructed  by  him,  whose  acquirements  astonished  the  Academy  of  Sdenees  there, 
1748.  The  Abbd  TEp^  has  oeen  most  successful  in  Fhmce;  and  in  these  countries 
are  many  asylums  for  teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb.    See  Dtaf  and  Duimb, 

DUMBLANE  ob  DUNBLANE,  BATTLE  ov.  Called  also  the  battle  of  Sheriffinuir. 
Between  the  royalist  army  and  the  Scots  rebels,  the  former  commanded  by  the  duke 
of  Arcyle  and  the  latter  by  the  earl  of  Mar,  who  was  defeated,  Nov.  12, 17l5u  The 
duke  had  in  his  army  4000  veteran  troops  ;  the  earl  had  8000  men,  but  all  newly 
raised ;  the  loss  was  equal  on  both  sides,  and  each  claimed  the  victory.  The  HigUand 
foot  behaved  most  gauantly. 

DUNBAR,  BATTLE  of.    Between  the  Scottish  and  English  army,  in  which  John 
'  Baliol  was  defeated  by  the  earl  of  Warrenne,  and  Scotland  subdued  by  Edward  L 
Fought  April  27, 1226.    Battle  between  the  Scots  and  the  English  under  Cromwell, 
who  obtained  a  signal  victoxy,  Sept.  8, 1650. 


DUN  226  DWA 

BUKDAJiK.  After  the  defeat  of  the  unfortunate  Edward  Brace  who  had  invaded 
Ireland  in  1315,  and  had  been  crowned  king,  he  was  beheaded  here  in  1818,  and  with 
him  6200  Scots  invaders  lost  their  lives.  The  walls  and  forti6cations  of  Dundalk 
were  destroyed  in  1641.  The  first  cambric  manufiMture  in  Ireland  was  established 
in  this  town  bj  artisans  from  France  in  1727. 

DUNGAN-HILL,  BATTLE  of,  in  Ibblakd.  Between  the  English  and  Irish  armies, 
the  former  commanded  by  colonel  Jones,  who  signally  defeated  the  Irish,  of  whom 
6000  are  said  to  have  been  slain,  while  the  loss  on  the  side  of  the  English  was 
inconsiderable,  July  10, 1647. 

DUNKIRK.  This  town  was  taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  the  English  and  French,  and 
put  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  June  24, 1658,  the  last  year  of  Crom well's  adminis- 
tration. It  was  sold  by  Charles  II.  for  500,0002.  to  Louis  XIV.  in  1662.  The  French 
king  made  Dunkirk  one  of  the  best  fortified  ports  in  the  kingdom ;  but  all  the  works 
were  demolished,  and  the  basins  filled  up,  in  consequence  of  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in 
171S.  The  French  afterwards  resumed  the  works,  but  they  were  ordered  to  be 
demolished  at  the  peace  of  1763.  They  continued  thus  till  the  peace  of  1788,  when 
they  were  again  resumed.  The  Englisn  attempted  to  besiege  this  place ;  but  the 
duke  of  York,  who  commanded,  was  defeated  by  Hoche,  and  forced  to  retire  with 
loss,  Sept  7, 1798.    Made  a  free  port  in  1816. 

DUNMOW,  IN  Essex.  This  town  is  famous  for  the  tenure  of  the  manor,  '*  that  what- 
ever married  couple  will  go  to  the  priory,  and,  kneeling  on  two  sharp-pointed  stones, 
will  swear  that  they  had  not  quarrelled  nor  repented  of  their  marriage  within  a  year 
and  a  day  after  its  celebration,  shall  receive  a  flitch  of  bacon."  'Hiis  custom  was 
instituted  by  Robert  de  Fitzwalter,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  1244.  The  earliest 
recorded  daim  for  the  bacon  was  in  1445,  since  which  period  it  has  only  been 
demanded  five  times.  The  last  claimants  previous  to  1855  were  John  Shakeshanks 
and  his  wife,  who  established  their  right  to  it,  June  20,  1751 :  they  made  a  large 
sum  by  selling  slices  of  the  flitch  to  those  who  were  witnesses  of  the  ceremony, 
there  being  5000  persons  present.  This  custom  was  revived  on  July  19, 1855,  when 
flitches  were  awanled  to  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Barlow,  of  Chipping-Ongar,  and  the  Chevalier 
Chatelaine  and  his  lady.  The  lord  of  the  manor  opposed  the  revival,  but  Mr.  W. 
Harrison  Ainsworth  and  some  friends  defrayed  the  expense,  and  superintended  the 
ceremonials.    Endeavours  have  been  made  to  perpetuate  the  custom. 

DUKSIKANE,  BATTLE  of.  Celebrated  in  dramatic  story  by  the  immortal  Shakspeare. 
On  the  hill  of  Dunsinane  was  fought  the  renowned  battle  between  Macbeth  the 
thane  of  Olammis,  and  Seward,  earl  of  Northumberland.  Edward  the  Confessor  had 
sent  Seaward  on  behalf  of  Malcolm  III.  whose  father,  Duncan,  the  thane  and  usurper 
had  murdered.  Macbeth,  who  was  signally  defeated,  fled,  and  was  pursued,  it  is  said, 
to  Lumphanan,  in  Aberdeenshire,  and  there  slain,  1057.  The  history  of  Macbeth  is 
the  subject  of  Shakspeare's  incomparable  drama. 

DURHAM,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  English  and  Scottish  armies,  fonght  at  Kevill's- 
crofls,  near  Durham.  The  former  army  was  commanded  by  queen  PhUippa  and  lord 
Piercy,  and  the  latter  by  David  Bruce,  king  of  Scotland,  who  was  vanquished, 
fifteen  thousand  of  Bruce's  soldiers  were  cut  to  pieces,  and  himself  with  many  of 
his  nobles  and  knights,  and  many  thousand  men  were  taken  prisoners,  Oct.  17, 1846. 

DURHAM,  BISHOPRIC  of.  First  fixed  at  Holy  Island,  on  the  coast  of  Korthumber- 
land,  in  635,  but  forced  from  it  by  the  merciless  invasion  of  the  Danes.  It  was  next 
fixed  at  Cheeter-le-street  for  200  years,  and  then  finally  at  Durham.  The  bones  of 
Si.  Cuthbert,  the  sixth  bishop,  were  taken  to  Durham,  and  Interred  in  the  cathedral 
founded  there.  This  see,  deemed  the  richest  in  England,  was  valued  in  the  king's 
books  at  282U  The  Palatinate  jurisdiction  of  Durham  was  separated  from  the 
diocese,  and  vested  in  the  crown,  June  21, 1886. 

PUUMVIRL  Two  noble  patricians  at  Rome,  who  were  first  appointed  by  Tarquin  the 
Proud  to  take  care  of  the  books  of  the  Sibyls,  which  were  supposed  to  contain  the 
fate  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  Sibylline  books  were  placed  in  the  Capitol,  and 
secured  as  a  sacred  deposit  in  a  chest  under  the  ground.  The  Duumviri  were  insti- 
tuted 520  B.O. ;  their  number  was  increased  to  ten,  called  the  Decemviri,  865  B.C., 
afterwards  to  fifteen ;  the  added  five  were  called  ^inque  viri. 

DWARFS,  ANCIENT.  The  dwarf  most  celebrated  in  ancient  history,  for  shortness  of 
stature,  was  Philetus  of  Cos,  who  was,  at  the  same  time,  most  distinguished  in  bis 
age  as  a  poet,  and  for  learning ;  he  was  bo  diminutive  that  he  always  carried  leaden 


DWA  226  EAR 

weights  in  his  pockets,  to  prevent  his  being  blown  away  by  the  wind.  Philetaa 
preceptor  to  Ptolemy  Philadelphua. — jElian.  Julia,  niece  of  Augustaa,  had  a  dwarf 
called  Coropas,  but  two  feet  and  a  hand's  breadth  high ;  and  Andromeda,  a  freed-maid 
of  Julia*8y  was  of  the  same  height. — Pliny.  Aug.  Ciesar  exhibited  in  hia  plays  a 
man  not  two  feet  in  stature. — Siieton.  Alypius  of  Alexandria,  a  logician  and  phi- 
losopher, was  but  one  foot  five  inches  and  a  half  high ;  "  he  seemed  to  be  consumed 
into  a  kind  of  divine  nature." —  Vast.  InslU. 

DWARFS,  MODERN.  John  de  Estrix,  of  Mechlin,  was  brought  to  the  duke  of  Parma, 
in  1592,  when  he  was  35  years  of  age,  having  a  long  beard.  He  was  skilled  in  lan- 
guages, and  not  more  than  three  feet  high.  Jeffrey  Hudson,  an  English  dwarf,  was 
served  up  to  table  in  a  cold  pie,  before  the  king  and  queen,  at  a  feast  given  to  them 
by  the  duchess  of  Buckingham,  in  1626 ;  he  was  then  a  youth  of  18  inches  high.  In 
later  years,  Jeffrey  having  challenged  a  Mr.  Crofts,  who  had  offended  him,  to  fight  a 
duel,  the  latter  came  to  the  ground  armed  only  with  a  squirt :  this  new  indigaity  led 
in  the  end  to  an  actual  meeting,  and  the  dwarf  shot  his  antagonist  dead,  1658.  Count 
Borowlaski,  a  PoUsh  gentleman,  of  great  accomplishments  and  elegant  manners,  well 
known  in  England,  where  he  resided  many  years,  was  bom  in  Nov.  1739.  Hia 
growth  was,  at  one  year  of  age,  14  inches;  at  six,  17  inches;  at  twenty,  33  inches  ; 
and  at  thirty,  89.  He  had  a  sister,  named  Anaatasia,  seven  years  younger  than 
himself,  and  so  much  shorter  that  she  could  stand  under  his  arm.  He  visited  many 
of  the  courts  of  Europe,  and  died  in  England  at  the  great  age  of  98,  in  1837.  The 
celebrated  "  Tom  Thumb,"  exhibited  as  a  dwarf  in  England,  1846  et  nq.,  was  after- 
wards acknowledged  to  be  younger  than  originally  stated. 

DTBINQ,  ART  of.  The  discovery  of  it  is  attributed  to  the  Tyrians.  In  dyeing  and 
dipping  their  own  cloths,  the  English  were  so  little  skilled,  that  their  manufactures 
Were  usually  sent  white  to  Holland,  and  returned  to  England  for  sale.  The  art  of 
dyeing  woollens  was  brought  from  the  Low  Countries  in  1608.  "  Two  dyers  of 
Exeter  were  flogged  for  teaching  their  art  in  the  north  **  (of  England),  1628.  A  atatate 
against  abuses  in  dyeing  passed  in  1783.  The  art  is  greatly  improved  by  chemical 
dSBOoveriea  in  the  present  century. 

E. 

EAQLE.  An  ancient  coin  of  Ireland,  made  of  a  base  metal,  and  current  in  the  first 
years  of  Edward  I.  about  a.d.  1272;  it  was  so  named  from  the  figure  impressed 
upon  it.  The  American  gold  coinage  of  eagles,  half-eagles,  and  quartereagles, 
began  Dea  6, 1792 ;  an  eagle  is  of  the  value  of  10  dollars,  or  about  two  gmneaa. 

EAGLE,  THE.  The  standard  of  the  eagle  was  first  borne  by  the  Persians ;  and  the 
Romans  carried  figures  of  the  eagle,  as  ensigns,  in  silver  and  gold,  and  aometimea 
represented  with  a  thunderbolt  in  its  talons,  on  the  point  of  a  spear ;  they  adopted 
the  eagle  in  the  consulate  of  Marius,  102  B.o.  When  Charlemagne  became  master  of 
the  whole  of  the  German  empire,  he  added  the  second  head  to  the  eagle  for  hia  arms, 
to  denote  that  the  empires  of  Rome  and  Germany  were  united  in  him,  a.d.  802.  The 
eagle  was  the  imperial  standard  of  Napoleon  I.  and  is  that  of  Napoleon  IIL  ;  as  well 
as  of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia. — White  Eagle,  an  order  of  knighthood  instituted 
in  1325,  by  Uladislaus,  kiog  of  Poland,  on  the  mai'riage  of  his  son  Casimir  with  a 
daughter  of  the  great  duke  of  Lithuania ;  the  knights  of  this  order  wore  a  gold  chain 
on  the  breast,  to  which  hung  a  silver  eagle  crowned.  See  Knighthood. — Black 
Eaole  was  an  order  of  the  same  kind,  instituted  in  1701,  by  the  elector  of  Branden- 
burg, Frederick  I.,  on  his  being  crowned  king  of  Prussia. 

EARL,  TITLE  of.  An  honour  which  came  from  the  Saxons,  and  continued  for  many 
ages  the  highest  rank  in  England,  until  Edward  III.  created  dukes,  and  Richard  II. 
created  marquesses,  both  having  precedency  assigned  above  earls.  They  had  anciently 
for  the  support  of  their  state,  the  third  penny  out  of  the  sheriff's  court,  issuing  out 
of  the  pleas  of  the  shire  whereof  they  had  their  title,  as  in  ancient  times  there  were  no 
ooimte  or  earls  but  had  a  county  or  shire  for  his  earldom.  Upon  the  increase  of 
earls  their  revenue  ceased,  and  their  powers  were  abridged.  Alfred  used  the  title  of 
earl  as  a  substitute  for  king.  William  Fitz-Osbom  was  made  earl  of  Hereford  bv 
William  the  Conqueror,  ▲.D.  1066.  Gilchrist  was  created  earl  of  Angus,  in  SooUand, 
by  king  lialcolm  III.  in  1037.  Sir  John  de  Couroy  created  baron  of  Kiniale  and 
earl  of  Ulster  in  Ireland,  by  Henry  II.  1181. 


EAR 


227 


EAR 


EARL  MARISCHAL  of  SCOTLAND.  The  Earl  Maruchml  of  Scotland  wm  an  offioer 
who  commanded  the  cavalry,  wheraaa  the  constable  commanded  the  whole  army ;  but 
they  seemed  to  have  had  a  joint  command,  as  all  orders  were  addressed  to  "our  oou' 
stable  and  marischaL"  The  office  of  earl  marisohal  has  never  been  oat  of  the  noble 
family  of  Keith.  It  was  reserved  at  the  Union ;  and  when  the  heritable  jurisdictions 
were  bought,  it  was  in  the  crown,  being  forfeited  by  the  rebellion  of  Qeorge  Keith, 
earl  mariscbal,  in  1715. 

EARL  MARSHAL  OF  ENGLAND.  The  eighth  great  officer  of  sUte.  This  office,  until 
it  was  made  hereditary,  always  passed  by  grant  from  the  king.  The  rank  was  lord 
marahal  only,  until  Richard  XL  in  1S97  granted  letters  patent  to  th^  earl  of  Netting^ 
ham,  by  the  style  of  earl  marshal.  In  1672,  Charles  II.  granted  to  Henry  lord 
Howard,  the  dignity  of  earl  marshal,  with  power  to  execute  the  same  by  deputy. 
Gilbert  de  Clare  was  created  lord  marshal  by  king  Stephen,  1135.  The  last  hrd 
marshal  was  John  Fits-Allan,  lord  Maltravers.— Canuiefi  /  Auhmol^s  InttU. 

EARTH.    See(72o^ 

EARTHENWARE.  Vessels  of  this  ware  were  in  use  among  the  most  ancient  nations. 
Various  domestic  articles  were  made  by  the  Romans,  715  &a  The  art  was  revived 
and  improved  in  Italy,  ▲.D.  1810.  Wedgwood*s  patent  ware  was  first  made  in  1762. 
His  pottery  in  Staffordshire  was  extended  to  a  variety  of  purposes  and  thereby 
rendered  a  very  important  branch  of  commerce.    See  CIdnii. 

EARTHQUAKES.  The  theory  of  earthquakes  has  not  yet  been  formed  with  any  degree 
of  certainty.  Anaxagoras  supposed  that  earthquakes  were  produced  bv  subterraneous 
clouds  bursting  out  into  lightning,  which  shook  the  vaults  that  confined  them,  B.a 
485. — Diog.  LaierL  Kircher,  Des  Cartes,  and  others,  supposed  that  there  were  many 
vast  cavities  under  ground  which  have  a  communication  with  each  other,  some  of 
which  abound  with  waters,  others  with  exhalations,  arising  from  inflammable  sub- 
stances, as  nitre,  bitumen,  sulphur,  &c.  These  opinions  continued  to  be  supported 
till  1749-50,  when  an  earthquake  was  felt  at  London,  and  several  parts  of  Britain. 
I^.  Stukeley  and  Dr.  Priestley  attributed  them  to  electricity.  In  many  cases,  how- 
ever, it  appears  probable  that  the  immense  power  of  water  converted  into  steam  by 
subterraneous  fires  must  contribute  to  augment  the  force  which  occasions  earth- 
quakes.  Among  those  recorded  as  having  been  the  most  destructive,  are  the  followioe, 
which  are  quoted  from  the  best  sources :  it  would  be  impossible  to  eniunermte  in  this 
volume  all  that  have  occurred  :  * — 


One  which  made  the  peninsola  of  Bubosa 
en  island B.O.    425 

Ellice  and  Bula  in  the  Peloponnesua 
■wallowed  up 872 

One  at  Borne,  when,  in  obedience  to  an 
oracle,  M.  Curtius  armed  and  mounted 
cm  a  stately  horse,  leaped  into  the 
dreadful  chasm  it  occeeloned  (LivjfS^.  a    358 

Duns,  in  Qreeoe,  buried  witn  Ml  its 
inhabitants ;  and  twelve  cities  in  Cam- 
pania also  burled      845 

Lysimachia  totally  buried,  with  all  its 
inhabitanU 283 

Awful  one  in  Asia,  which  overttuued 
twelve  cities    .        .  ad.      17 

On«  accompanied  by  the  eruption  of 
Vesuvius ;  the  cities  of  Pompeii  and 
Herculanenm  buried  .    .      70 

Four  cities  in  Asia,  two  in  Oreeoe,  and 
two  in  Galatis  overturned   .  .    107 

Antiodii  destroyed 114 

Nicomedia,  Cnsarea,  and  Kieea  in  Bithy- 
nia»  ovbTtumed 126 

In  Asia,  Pontus,  and  Kacedonia,  150 
cities  and  towns  damsged  .    .    857 

Nicomedia  sgain  demolished,  and  its  in- 
habitants buried  in  its  ruins       .        .    858 

One  felt  by  nearly  the  whole  world  .    .    543 


At  Constantinople ;  its  edifices  destroyed, 

and  thousands  perished  .    A68 

In  Africa;  many  cities  overtiurned    .    .    500 
AwAil  one  in  Syria,  ralesiine,  and  Asia ; 
more  than  500  towns  were  destroyed, 
and  the  loss  of  life  surpassed  all  caicu- 

lation 742 

In  France,  Germany,  uid  Italy  .        .    .    801 
Coostantinople     ovotumod,    and     all 

Greece  shaken 980 

One  felt  throughout  England  .     .  1089 

Oue  at  Antioch ;  many  ttiwns  destroyed : 

among  them,  Hariseum  and  Mamistrla  1114 
Catsnia  in  Sicily  overturned,  and  15,000 

persons  buried  in  the  ruins  .1187 

One  severely  felt  at  Lincoln  .    .  1142 

At  Calabria,  when  one  of  Its  cities  and 
all  its  Inhabitants  were  overwhelmed 
in  the  Adriatic  Sea       .       .        .        .1186 
One  again  felt  throughout  England  .    .  1274 
In  England,  the  greatest  ever  known 

there         ....        Nov.  14,  1328 
At  Naples,  when  40,000  of  its  inhabitants 

perished 1456 

At  Lisbon,  1500  houses,and  30, 000  persons 
buried  in  the  ruins ;  several  ueighbour- 
ing  towns  engulfed  with  their  inhabi- 
tants     Feb   1531 


"  Shocks  of  earthquakes  are  recorded  as  oecunln^  at  various  times  in  these  realms ;  but  they  have 
never  been  fiital  in  their  oooseauenoes,  although  in  some  cases  (but  the  instances  are  rare;  a  few 
buildings  have  fidlen,  or  sustained  partia  Idamage.  To  avoid  the  fatal  eflTects  of  a  more  terrible  shock 
predicted  by  a  madman,  for  the  8th  of  April  following,  thousands  of  persons,  particularly  those  of  rank 
and  fortune,  passed  the  night  of  the  7tti  April,  1760,  m  their  carrisges  and  in  tents  in  Ilyde-park. 

q2 


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228 


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EARTHQUAKES,  eotUinued. 

One  talt  in  London :  part  of  St.  Paurs 
and  the  Temple  churches  fell  .        .    .  1580 

In  Japan,  several  citiee  made  ruina»  and 
thoiuandi  perished      ....  1696 

AwAil  one  at  Calabria        ....  1638 

One  in  China,  when  800,000  persons  were 
buried  in  Pekin  alone  ....  1662 

One  seversly  felt  in  Ireland       .        .    .  1690 

One  at  Jamaica,  which  totally  destroyed 
Port  Royal,  whose  houses  wsre  engulfed 
forty  fathoms  dsep^  and  800  persons 
perished 1602 

One  in  Sicily,  which  overturned  54  cities 
and  towns,  and  800  villages  OfOatanla 
and  its  18.000  inhabitants,  not  a  trace 
remained ;  more  than  100, 000  lives  were 
lost Sept.  1603 

Palermo  nearly  destroyed,  and  6000  per- 
sons perished 1726 

Again  in  China;  and  100,000  people 
swallowed  up  at  Pekin  .  1781 

One  in  Hungary,  which  tamed  a  moun- 
<tain  round 1736 

One  at  Palermo,  which  swallowed  up  a 
convent;  but  the  monks  escaped       .  1740 

lima  and  Callao  demolished;  18,000  per- 
sons buried  in  the  ruins  .        Oct.  28,  1746 

In  London,  the  inhabitants  terrified  by  a 
slight  shock      ....    Feb.  8,  1750 

Another,  but  severer  shock  .    March  8,  1750 

Adrianople  nearly  overwhelmed        .    .  1752 

At  Grand  Cairo,  half  of  the  houses  and 
40,000  perw>ns  swallowed  up  .  1754 

Quito  destroyed  .        .       April,  1755 

Great  earthquake  at  Lisbon.  In  about 
eight  minutes  most  of  the  houses,  and 
upwards  of  50,000  inhabitants  were 
swallowed  up,  and  wholestreets  buried. 
The  cities  of  Coimbra,  Oporto,  and 
Braga,  suffered  drmdftilly,  and  St.  Ubes 
was  wholly  overturned.  In  Spain,  a 
laqpe  part  of  Kalaga  became  ruins. 
One  half  of  Fes,  in  If  orooco,  was  de- 
stroyed, and  more  than  12;000  Arabs 
peiishea  there.  Above  half  of  the 
island  of  Madeira  became  vraste ;  and 
1000  houses  in  the  island  of  Metelincb 
in  the  Archipelago,  were  overthrown  : 
this  awftxl  earthquake  extended  5000 
miles,  even  to  Scotland  Nov.  1,  1755 

One  in  Syria,  extended  over  10, 000  square 
miles;  Balbec destroyed.  .    .  1750 

One  at  Martinioo,  when  1600  persons  lost 
their  lives      ....         Aug.  1767 

At  Guatemala,  which,  with  8000  inhabi- 
tants, was  swallowed  up.       .  July  6,  1774 

A  destructive  one  at  Smyrna .  .  1778 

AtTauris:  15,000  houses  thruwn  down, 
andfmultitudes  buried    .        ...  1780 

One  which  overthrew  Messina  and  a 
number  of  towns  in  Italy  and  Sicily : 
40.000  persons  perished  Febw  6,  1788 

Arohindschan  wholly  destroyed,  and 
12.000  persons  buried  in  its  ruins  .    .  1784 

At  Borgo  di  San  Sepolcro,  an  opening  of 
the  earth  swallowed  up  many  houses 
and  1000  persons  .  .  Sept.  30,  1780 

Another  fatal  one  in  Sicily.  .    .  1701 

One  in  Naples,  when  Vesuvius  Issuing 
fbrth  its  dames,  overwhelmed  the  city 
of  Torre  del  Greco        ....  1794 

In  Turkey,  where,  in  three  towns,  10,000 
persons  lost  their  lives    .  .    .  1794 

The  whole  country  between  Santa  Ftf 
and  Panamk  destroyed,  including  the 
cities  of  Cusoo  and  Quito,  40,000  of 
whose  people  were,  in  one  second, 
hurled  into  etemitv     .    Feb.  4  to  SO.  1707 

One  at  Constantinopfe,  which  destroyed 
(he  royal  palace  and  an  immensity  of 


buildings,  and  extended  into  Romania 
and  Widlachia 1800 

A  violent  one  felt  in  Holland  .        .  Jan.  1804 

In  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  where  20,000 
persons  lost  their  lives    .         July  26,  1805 

At  the  Asores :  a  village  of  St.  Miohaers 
sunk,  and  a  lake  of  boiling  water  ap- 
peared in  its  place  .  Aug.  iX  1810 

AwfUl  one  at  Caraocas  («*idk  see)       .    .  1812 

Several  felt  throughout  India.  The  dis- 
trict of  Kutoh  sunk ;  2000  persons  were 
buried  with  it  June,  1819 

In  Genoa,  Palermo,  Rome,  and  manj 
other  towns;  great  damage  sustained, 
and  thousands  perished  ....  1819 

One  fktal  at  Messina  .  Oct  1826 

One  in  Spain,  which  devastated  Mureis, 
and  numerous  villages ;  6000  persons 
.perished    ....      March  21,  18S9 

In  the  duchy  of  Parma ;  no  leas  than  40 
shocks  were  experienced  at  Borgo- 
taro ;  and  at  Pontremoli  many  houses 
were  thrown  down,  and  not  a  chimney 
was  left  standing .  .    Feb.  14,  1884 

In  many  cities  of  Southern  Syria,  by 
which  hundreds  of  houses  were 
thrown  down,  and  thousands  of  the 
inhaUtsnts  perished  Jan.  22,  1887 

At  Martinique^  by  which  neariy  half  of 
Port  Royal  vras  destroyed,  nearly  700 

Srsons  killed,  and  the  whole  Island 
maged       ....    Jan.  11,  1889 

At  Temate:  the  island  made  a  waste, 
almost  every  houss  destroved,  and 
thousands  of  the  inhabitantBiost  their 
lives  .....        Feb.  14,  1840 

Awftil  and  destructive  earthquake  at 
Mount  Ararat ;  in  one  of  the  districts 
of  Armenia  8187  houses  were  over- 
thrown, and  several  hundred  persons 
perished        ....     July  2^  1840 

Gnat  earthquake  at  Zante,  where  many 
persons  perished  Oct  30,  1840 

At  Cape  Haytlen,  St.  Domingo,  which 
destroyed  nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
town;  between  4000  and  5000  lives 
were  lost       ....      Msy  7,  184S 

At  Point  k  Pitre,  Guadaloupe,  which 
was  entirely  destroyed    .        .  Feb.  8,  1848 

At  Rhodes  and  Macri,  when  a  mountain 
Ml  in  at  the  latter  place,  crushing  a 
village,  and  destroymg  600  persons, 

March,  1851 

At  Yalpaimiso,  where  more  than  400 
housee  vrere  destn^ed  April  2;  1851 

In  South  Italy :  the  towns  of  Mdfi  and 
Venoea  almost  laid  in  ruins    Aug.  14,  1851 

At  Philippine  Isles:  ManilU  neariy 
destroyed  .  Sept.  and  Oct.  185S 

In  N.  W,  of  England,  slight    .     Nov.  0,  185S 

At  Thebes  in  Greece,  the  town  neariy 
destroyed Sept.  185S 

St  Salvador,  in  South  America,  de- 
stroyed   April  16.  1864 

Onasaca  in  Japan,  and  Simoda  in 
Niphon,  destroyed  ;  Jeddo  much  in- 
jured  Dec  SS.  1854 

Broussa,  in  Turkey,  nearly  destroyed 

Feb.  281  1856 

Several  villages  in  Central  Europe  de- 
stroyed    ....  Juhr  25,  26,  lav 

Jeddo  nearly  destroyed  .        .   Nov.  U,  1855 

At  the  island  of  Great  Sanger,  one  of  the 
Moluccas^  volcanic  emption  and  earth- 
quake, nearly  8000  lives  lost  March  1^  1866 

In  the  Mediterranean :  at  Ouidia,  500 
lives  lost;  Rhodes,  100;  and  other 
islands  150    ...       .    Oct  1%  1866 


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229 


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At  the  time  of  the  great  earthqamke  at  Liabon,  aboTe-mentioned,  in  Not.  1756«  a 
■ingalar  phenomenon  happened  to  the  hot-well  at  Briatol :  the  water  euddenly 
beoame  as  red  as  blood,  and  so  veiy  tiirUd  that  it  oould  not  be  drunk.  The  water 
■lao,  of  a  common  well,  which  had  been  remaikably  clear,  at  once  turned  aa  black  as 
ink,  and  continued  unfit  for  use  nearly  a  fortnight  The  tide,  Ukowise,  in  the  river 
Avon  flowed  back,  contrary  to  its  natural  course;  and  Tarious  other  effects  of  some 
unknown  conyulsion  in  the  boweb  of  the  earth,  were  perceived  in  different  places. 
But  all  ooDJecture  as  to  the  cause  of  these  extraordinary  circumstances  was  vain,  till 
the  news  arrived  of  the  earthquake  at  Lisbon  having  happened  on  the  same  day, 
which  gave  a  satis&otory  solution  to  the  seversl  phenomena.  Mrs.  Somerville  states 
that  about  266  earthquiJces  have  occurred  in  the  British  Islands,  all  slight. 

EAST  ANQLEa  The  kingdom  of  the  East  Angles  (the  sixth  of  the  Heptarchy)  was 
commenced  by  Uffit,  a.d.  676,  and  ended  with  Ethelbert  in  792.  See  Briiain,  Of 
this  name  was  an  ancient  lee  founded  by  St.  Felix,  who  converted  the  Esst  Angles  in 
630.  In  669,  it  was  divided  into  two  bishoprics,  vis.  Klmham  and  Dunwich,  which 
were  united  in  966.  The  bishopric  was  removed  to  Norwich,  in  1088.  See  Norwich, 
BiMkoprie  of, 

EAST  INDIA  BILL.  This  bill  originated  in  a  parliamentary  committee  on  East  India 
affiura^  which  exposed  a  scene  of  disgraceful  intrigues  and  crimes  :  a  governor-general 
was  appointed  to  reside  m  Bengal,  to  whioh  the  other  presidencies  were  now  made 
subordinate ;  a  supreme  court  of  judicature  was  instituted  at  Calcutta :  the  salary  of 
the  governor  was  fixed  at  25,000/L  per  year ;  that  of  the  council  at  10,000^  each ;  and 
of  the  chief  judge  at  8000/. :  the  affairs  of  the  company  were  controlled ;  all  the 
departments  were  reorganised,  and  all  the  territorial  correspondence  wss  henceforth  to 
be  laid  before  the  British  ministry,  June  16, 1773.  Mr.  Pitt*s  bill  appointing  a  Boazd 
of  Control,  passed  May  18, 1784.    See  Board  of  Control,  India. 

EAST  INDIES,  ob  INDIA.  A  country  of  vast  extent,  power,  and  wealth,  under  the 
management  in  its  political  as  well  as  its  commercial  concerns,  of  a  great  company  of 
merdiants.  This  is  a  phenomenon,  astonishing  in  itself,  end  without  parallel  in  the 
history  of  the  world.  For  all  particulars  relating  to  the  Blast  Indies,  see  India. — The 
East  India  house,  Leadenhall-street,  was  built  in  1726,  and  considerably  enkrged  in 
1799.— The  East  India  Docks  were  opened  Aug.  4, 1806. 

EAST  SAXONS,  KINGDOM  of  thx.  The  kingdom  of  the  Esst  Saxons  began  with 
Erehenwin,  a.d.  627,  and  consisted  of  Essex,  Middlesex,  and  part  of  Herts;  and  ended 
with  Sigered,  the  last  monarch  previous  to  the  union  of  the  kingdoms  of  the  Heptarchy 
under  Egbert^  in  828.    See  article  Britain, 

EASTER.  The  festival  observed  by  the  Church  in  commemoration  of  Our  Saviour^s 
resurrection.  So  called  in  England  from  the  Saxon  goddess  Eoitre.  The  festival  of 
Easter  was  instituted  about  a.d.  68 ;  the  day  for  the  observance  of  it  was  fixed  in 
England  by  St.  Austin,  in  697.  It  was  ordained  by  the  council  of  Nice  to  be  observed 
on  the  same  day  throughout  the  whole  Christian  world.  Blaster  is  the  first  Sunday 
after  the  first  full  moon  that  occurs  after  the  21st  of  March. 

EASTER  ISLAND.  This  island,  which  lies  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  was  discovered  by 
Davis,  in  1686 :  it  was  visited  by  Roggewin,  in  1722,  and  from  him  it  obtained  the  name 
it  now  bears;  it  wss  visited  by  Captain  Cook,  in  1774.  At  the  south-east  extremity  is 
the  crater  of  an  extinguished  volcano,  about  two  miles  in  circuit  and  800  feet  deep. 

EASTERN  EMPIRE.  Commenced  under  Valens,  a-D.  864,  and  ended  in  the  defeat  and 
death  of  Constantine  XllL  the  last  Christian  emperor,  in  1463.  Mahomet  II.  resolved 
to  dethrone  him,  and  possess  himself  of  Constantinople ;  he  laid  siege  to  that  city 
both  by  sea  and  land,  and  took  it  by  assault  after  it  had  held  out  fifty-eight  days. 
The  unfortunate  emperor,  seeing  the  Turks  enter  by  the  breaches,  throw  himself  into 
the  midst  of  the  enemy,  and  was  cut  to  pieces ;  the  children  of  the  Imperial  house 
were  massacred  by  the  soldiers,  and  the  women  reserved.  Thus  terminated  the 
dynasty  of  the  Constantines^  and  commenced  the  present  empire  of  Turkey,  May  29, 
1463.    See  Twk^, 


IMgnofYalens  ....  a.d.  864 
Mftximus,  the  tyrant,  defeated  and  [lUt 

to  death 888 

Th«odoaitu  defeats  Bugoniua  .  .    892 

Public  schools  instituted,  and  Theodo- 

nuB  II.  endeavours  to  restore  learning  425 
Constantinople  besieged  by  Vitalianua, 


whose  fleet  is  burned  wiU)  a  brazen 
speculum  by  Proclus   .        .        .  a.d. 

Turkish  empiire  begins  in  Asia  .        .    . 

Pbocas,  a  simple  ocuturiou,  elected  em- 
peror, after  a  revolt  of  the  soldieiy, 
and  murder  of  Maurice  and  his  ohil- 
dren 


614 
645 


602 


EAS 


230 


EAS 


EASTERN  EMPIRE,  ecnUinwd. 

Power  of  the  popes  begins,  by  the  con- 
cesnonaof  Phocas   .  .    .  a  d. 

The  Peniana  beeiege  Comtatttlnoide 

The  Ambe  besiege  it 

It  is  besieeed  by  the  Sanioenfl,  whoee 
fleet  is  destroyed  by  the  Greek  fire. 

DOe  vlYot  fiT€  •  •  .  .  . 

fleoond  lieje  of  CoiietftQtiDople  by  the 
Arabs 

Zo6  prostitutes  herself,  and  poisons  her 
husband;  her  fkrourite,  Michael,  a 
Paphlagonisn  money-londerp  ascends 
the  throne 

Zo6  adopts  for  her  son  Michael  Y.  sur- 
named  Oalaphates 

Isaac  Comnenus  chosen  emfieror  by  the 
soldiery 

Isaac  Comnenus  abdicates  .        . 

Bomanus  taken  prisoner  by  tlie  Turks . 


I 


006 
626 
668 


678 
716 

1034 

1011 

1067 
1059  I 
1078  I 


Alexius  Angelus,  brother  of  Isaac  II. 
revolts,  puts  out  the  emperor's  eyes, 
and  ascends  the  throne   .  a.d. 

Constantinople  is  taken  by  the  Latins, 
who  restore  Isaac  with  his  son   . 

The  Cather  and  son  murdered  by  Mour- 
zoufle 

The  French  and  Venetians  take  Constan- 
tinople by  storm ;  Moursoufle  put  to 
death,  his  eyes  being  first  torn  from 
his  head 

Constantinople  recoTered  from  the 
Latins  by  the  Greek  emperors       .    . 

Andronicus  abdicates      .        .        .        . 

Turks  first  enter  Europe    . 

Fall  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  and  extinc- 
tion of  the  imperial  fiunilies  of  the 
Comneni  and  Paleologi 

Bee  Turkey. 


ll»5 

120S 


1904 


1804 

1261 
1320 
1»S 


1458 


EMPERORS  OP  THE  EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


864. 

879. 
806. 
408. 
460. 
467. 
468. 
474. 
474. 
401. 
618. 
627. 
666. 
678. 
582. 

602. 


610. 
641. 


641. 
668. 
686. 


005. 

008. 
706. 


711. 
718. 


716. 
718. 


741. 

776. 
780. 
790. 


792. 
802. 


Valens. 

Theodosius  the  Great. 

Arcadiua.  tbe  son  of  Theodosius 

Theodosius  II.  succeeded  his  lather. 

Marcian,  a  Thracian  of  obscure  family. 

Leo  I.  the  Tluacian. 

Ardaburius. 

Leo  the  vounffer,  died  the  same  year. 

Zeno,  called  the  ImuHoH. 

Anastasius  I.  an  lUyrian,  of  mean  birth. 

Justin  I.  originally  a  private  soldier. 

Justinian,  founder  of  the  Digest. 

Justin  II.  nephew  of  Justinian. 

Tiberius  II.  renowned  for  his  virtnea. 

Maurice,  the  Cappadocian:  murdered 
with  all  his  children,  by  his  successor. 

Fhocas  the  Usurper,  whose  crimes  and 
cruelties  led  to  his  own  assassination, 
in  610. 

Heraclius.  by  whom  Phocas  was  de- 
throned. 

Constantine  IIL  (Heraelius-Constan- 
tine)  reigned  a  few  months;  poisoned 
by  his  step-mother  Martina. 

Oonstans  II. :  asaaweinated  in  a  bath. 

Constantine  IV.  Pcvonatus. 

Justinian  II.  son  of  the  preceding :  ab- 
horred for  his  exactions,  debauch- 
eries, and  cruelties:  dethroned  and 
mutilated  br  his  sueoessor. 

Leontius;  dethroned  and  mutilated  by 
Tiberius  Aspimar. 

Tiberius  III.  Aspimar. 

Justinian  II.  restored.  Leontius  and 
Tiberias  degraded  in  the  Hippo- 
drome, and  put  to  death.  Justinian 
slain  in  711. 

Philippicus-fiardanes :  aawassinated. 

Anastasius  II. :  fled  on  the  election  of 
Theodosius  in  716  ;  afterwards  deliv- 
ered up  to  Leo  III.  and  put  to  death. 

Theodosius  III. 

Leo  III.  the  Isaurian. 

[In  this  reign  (726)  commences  the  great 
Iconoclastic  controverqr;  the  alternate 
prohibition  and  restoration  of  images 
involves  the  peace  of  several  reigns.  J 

Constantine  V.  Copronymus,  son  of  the 
preceding ;  succeeded  by  his  son. 

Leo  IV. 

Constantine  VI.  and  his  mother  Irene. 

Constantine,  alone,  by  the  desire  of  the 
people,  Irene  having  become  un- 
popular. 

Irene,  again,  Jointiy  with  her  son,  and 
afterwards  alone:  deposed  for  her 
cruelties  and  murders,  and  exiled. 

Klcephorus  I.  sumamed  Logothetes : 
skjn. 


811. 
811. 

813. 


820. 
829. 
842. 


867. 
886. 
911. 


919. 

020. 
928. 


945. 
959. 

968. 
960. 

975. 

1028. 
1034. 
1041. 

1042. 

1054. 
1056. 

1057. 
1050. 


Staurachius:  reigns  a  few  days  only. 

Michael  I. :  defeated  in  battle,  abdieatas 
the  throne^  and  retires  to  a  mooasteiy . 

Leo  V.  the  Armenian:  killed  in  the 
temple  at  Constantinople  on  Christ- 
mas-day, 820.  by  conspirators  in  the 
interest  of  his  suoceasor. 

Michael  II.  the  Stammerer. 

Theophiliis.  son  of  MlchaeL 

Michael  III.  sumamed  Porphyrogvsi- 
netes,  and  the  Sot,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding: murdered  by  his  suoceasor. 

Baailius  I.  the  Macedonian. 

Leo  VI.  styled  the  Philosopher. 

Alexander,  and  Constantine  VII. 
brother  and  son  of  Leo,  the  latter 
only  six  years  of  age :  the  former 
dying  in  912;  Zo6,  mother  of  Coo- 
Btanttne,  assumes  the  regency. 

Romanus  Lecapenus  usurps  the  impe- 
rial power. 

Constantine  VIII.  his  son. 

Stephen  and  Christopher. 

[Five  emperors  now  reign :  of  these, 
Christopher  dies  in  981 ;  Romanus  is 
exiled  $y  his  sons,  Constantine  and 
Stephen,  who  are  themselves  han1thf>d 
the  next  year. 

Constantine    VII.  now  reigns  alone: 

?9isoned    by    his    daughtei^in-Iaw, 
heophania. 
Romanus  II.  son  of  the  preceding :  this 

monster,    who    had    contrived    his 

fiftUier's  death,  baniahas  his  mother 

Helena. 
Nioephorus  IL  Phocas :  manries  Thaa- 

phonia,    his    predecessor's    ooasoi\ 

who  has  him  assassinat^ed , 
John  I.  Zemiscee,  celebrated  general ; 

takes  Basiliua  II.  and  C(»istantine  IX. 

sons  of  Romanus  II.  as  colleagues : 

John  dies,  supposed  by  poison,  and 
Basiliua  IL  and  Constantine  IX  rsign 

alone :  the  former  dies  in  1025 ;  tLe 

latter  in  1028. 
Romanus  III.  Atgyropulus:  poisoned 

by  hii  consort  ^OfH^  who  raises 
Michael  IV.  the  PaphlMpnian.  to  the 

throne :  on  his  death  2o6  places 
Michael  V.  sumamed  Calaphates,  aa 

his  successor:   him  she  dethrones, 

hss  his  eyes  put  out,  and  marries 
Constantine  X  Monomaehos,  who,  and 

Zo«,  rsign  jointiy :  Zo«  dies  in  1060. 
Theodora,  widow  of  Constantine. 
Michael  VL  Stratiotes,  or  Strato:  de- 
posed. 
Isaac  I.  Comnenus :  abdicates. 
Constantine  XI.  sumamed  Docaa. 


£AS 


231 


ECC 


EASTERN  EMPIRE,  wHimued. 

1M7.  Eudoda,  ooiutort  of  the  precedlnfif,  and 
BomanuB  IV.  Bumamed  Dtogenea, 
whom  she  marries :  reign  to  the  pre- 
judice of  Michael,  Conatantine'a  aon. 

1071.  Michael  VI  I.  ParapinaccB,  recovers  his 
throne,  and  reigns  jointly  with    * 
Coustantine  XII. 

1078.  NicephcruB  III.  :  dethroned  by 

1081.  Alexius  I.  Comnenus,  succeeded  by 

1118.  John  Comnenus,  his  son,  sumamed 
Kalos :  died  of  a  wound  from,  a 
poisoned  arrow. 

1143.  Hanuel  I.  Comnenus,  son  of  John. 

1180.  Alexius  IL  Comnenus,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, imder  the  regency  of  the 
empress  Maria,  his  mother. 

118S.  Andronicusl.  Comnenus,  causes  Alexius 
to  be  strangled  and  seizes  the  throne : 
put  to  death  by 

1185.  Isaac  II.  Angelus-Comnenus,  who  is 
deposed,  imurisoned,  and  depriyed  of 
his  eyes  by  nis  brother 

1195.  Alexius  III.  Angelus,  called  the  Tyrant : 
this  last  deptMed  in  his  turn,  and  his 
eyes  put  out ;  died  in  a  monastery. 

1208.  laaac  II.  again,  associated  with  his  son, 
Alexius  IV.  :  deprived. 

lATIK  2MPKHOR& 

1204.  Baldwin  I.  earl  of  Flandera.  on  the  cap- 
ture of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins, 
elected  emperor :  made  a  prisoner  by 
the  king  of  Bulgaria,  and  never  heard 
of  afterwards. 

1200.  Henry  I.  his  brother :  dies  in  1217. 

1217.  Peter  de  Cuurtenay,  his  brother-in-law. 

1221.  Bobert  de  Courtenay,  his  son. 


1228. 


1261. 


1204. 
1222. 
1255. 
1269. 
1260. 


1261. 


1282. 


1832. 
1341. 


1847. 

1355 

1391. 

1425. 
1448. 
1453. 


Baldwin  II.  his  brother,  a  minor,  and 

John  de  Brienne,  of  Jerusalem,  regent 

and  associate  emperor. 
[Constantinople    recovered,    and    the 

empire   or    the    Franks   or  Latins 

terminates.] 

ORFXK  nCPIBB  AT  MICK. 

Theodore  LascaiiB. 
John  Ducos,  Vataces. 
Theodore  Lascaris  IL  his  son. 
John  Lascaris,  and 
Michael  VIII.  Pabeologut. 

KMPEROBS  AT  CONSTANTIKOPLK. 

Michael  VIII.  now  at  Constantinople: 
he  puts  out  the  eyes  of  John,  and 
reigns  alone. 

Audrunicus  II.  PalsBologns  the  Elder, 
son  of  the  preceding :  depoB«l  by  his 
grandson  Andronicus  the  Younger. 

Andronicus  III.  the  Younger. 

John  Palteologus,  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  John  Cantacusenus :  the  latter 
proclaimed  emperor  at  Adxiauople. 

John  Cautacuzeuus. 

John  Palwolo^nis,  restored. 

Manuel  PalaMMogus,  his  son;  suooeeded 
by  his  son  and  cnllesgue, 

John  PaliiK>loorus  II. 

Const  uitine  XlII.  Palieoloffus,  his  son. 

[Constantinople  taken  on  May  29,  1453, 
bv  the  Ottomans  under  their  sultan, 
Mahomet  II.  ;  Oonstantine  is  slain, 
and  with  him  ends  the  Eastern 
Empire,  which  had  subsisted  for 
1125  years.] 


EBIONITES.  Ancient  heretics  wbo  arose  in  the  very  first  age  of  the  Church,  and  who, 
denying  the  divinity  of  Christ,  formed  themselves  into  a  sect  in  the  second  century. 
The  Ebionites  seem  to  have  been  a  branch  of  the  Nazarenes. — Eut^ut.  The 
Ebionites  were  of  two  descriptions :  one,  who  believed  that  Our  Saviour  was  bom  of 
a  virgin,  and  observed  all  the  parts  of  the  Christian  religion,  but  adding  the  ceremonies 
of  the  Jewish  people  ;  the  other,  who  believed  that  Christ  was  bom  after  the  manner 
of  all  mankind^  and  denied  his  divinity. — Pardon, 

EBRO,  THX  RiYEB,  nr  Spain.  The  scene  of  a  signal  defeat  of  the  Spaniards  by  the 
French,  near  Tudela,  Nov.  23,  1808;  and  also  the  scene  of  several  important  move- 
ments of  the  allied  Britiish  and  Spanish  armies  during  the  Peninsular  war,  between 
the  years  1809  and  1814  ei  teq. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  COURTS.  There  existed  no  distinction  between  lay  and  eccle- 
siastical courts  in  England  until  after  the  Norman  conquest,  a.d.  1066.  See  Arcftes, 
Cansistcry  and  the  otlur  £cdeti€Utical  Cowts,  The  following  are  the  causes  cognbable 
in  ecclesiastical  courts :  blasphemy,  apostasy  from  Christianity,  heresy,  schism,  ordi- 
nations, institutions  to  benefices,  matrimony,  divorces,  bastardy,  tithes,  incests,  fomi' 
cation,  adultery,  probate  of  wills,  administrations,  &c. — Bladutone,  Qreat  alterations 
are  in  contemplation  (1857). 

ECCLESIASTICAL  STATE,  or  STATES  of  the  CHURCH.  With  pope  Stephen  IL 
A.U.  752,  commenced  the  temporal  power  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  In  1798,  this 
State  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  French,  who  erected  it  into  the  "Roman 
Republic.*'  They  obliged  the  pope  Pius  VI.  to  remove  into  Tuscany,  and  afterwards 
into  Fiance,  where  he  died,  in  1 799.  In  1800,  cardinal  Chiaramonti,  who  was  elected 
pope,  under  the  title  of  Pius  VII.  resumed  the  dominion  of  the  Ecclesiastical  State. 
This  power  was  held  until  1809,  when  he  wss  deprived  by  Bonaparte  of  his  temporal 
sovereignty,  and  reduced  to  the  condition  of  bishop  of  Rome ;  but  in  1814  the  pope 
was  restored.  In  1849,  Nov.  24,  Pius  IX.  was  forced  to  flee  in  disguise  from  Rome  to 
Qaeta,  and  the  Roman  chambers  appointed  a  provisional  government  They  declared 
the  pope  divested  of  all  claims  to  temporal  power,  Feb.  9,  1850.  He  appealed  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  powers  of  Europe  for  assistance,  and  a  French  army,  after  attacking 
Home,  in  the  end  restored  him  to  his  sovereignty.    For  subsequent  events,  see  i2ome. 


ECC 


232 


EDD 


ECCLESIASTICAL  TITLES  BILL.  A  bull  of  pope  Piua  IX.  eatabliahing  a  Roman 
Catholic  hierarchy  in  England,  was  iasued  Sept*  SO,  1860,  by  which,  among  other 
aatumptionfl  of  spiritual  and  temporal  authority.  Dr.  Wiseman,  vicar  apostolic  of 
London,  was  created  a  cardinal,  and  made  lord  archbishop  of  Westminster,  and  other 
Roman  Catholic  priests  were  raised  to  prelacies.  See  Papal  Aggretrion,  In  con- 
sequence  of  the  popular  ferment  thus  excited,  and  to  vindicate  the  authority  of  the 
queen  in  her  own  realms,  thus  infringed,  this  bill  wss  framed  and  peaied  14  ft  15 
Vict  c  60,  (1851). 

ECHOES.  The  time  which  elapses  between  the  utterance  of  a  sound  and  ita  retnm 
must  be  more  than  one-twelfth  of  a  second,  to  form  an  echo.  Echo  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  nymph  who  pined  into  a  sound. — Sydn/ey,  The  whispering  galleiy  of 
St  Paul's  is  a  well-known  example.  The  echo  of  Westminster-bridge  once  obtained 
a  dramatic  fiime. 

ECKMUHL,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  main  armies  of  FVsnoe  and  Austria ;  the  one 
commanded  by  the  emperor  Napoleon  in  person,  and  the  other  by  the  archduke 
Charles.  Napoleon  adopted  his  usual  plan  of  breaking  through  the  enemy's  line  to 
which  the  Austrian  position  afforded  too  great  facility  :  and  the  conflict  terminated 
in  the  disastrous  defeat  of  the  Imperialists,  whose  loss  of  this  battle  led  to  other  and 
immediate  reverses,  April  22, 1809. 

ECLECTICS.  Ancient  philosophers  also  called  Analogetid,  and  PhUaletKes,  or  the  lovers 
of  truth.  Without  attaching  themselves  to  any  sect,  they  chose  what  they  judged 
good  from  each :  founded  by  Polemon  of  Alexandria,  about  a.d.  1. — Drydem.  Also 
a  sect,  so  called  in  the  Christian  Church,  who  considered  the  doctrine  of  Plato 
conformable  to  the  spirit  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Christian. 

ECLIPSES.  The  theory  of  eclipses  was  known  to  the  Chinese  at  least  120  B.0 — QathU. 
An  eclipse  was  supposed  by  most  of  the  eastern  nations  to  be  the^  effect  of  magic ; 
hence  the  custom  among  them  of  drumming  during  its  continuance.  The  first  ecUpee 
recorded,  happened  March  19,  721  bo.  at  8''  40"  pji.  according  to  Ptolemy;  it  waa 
lunar,  and  was  observed  with  accuracy  at  Babylon.  See  Attrtmomy,  The  following 
were  extraordinazy  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon : — 


or  THB  BUK. 

That  predicted  by  Thales ;  observed  at 
BanUs*  (P/my.  lib,  U.) .  .  B.a 

One  at  Athoiia(7VUicycfu2(E«,  {t6.  It.)   .    . 

Total  one;  thrae  daya' supplication  de- 
creed at  Rome  (JAvy)    .... 

One  general  at  the  death  of  Jebua  Chrtot 

(/Oiftpkut) A.D. 

One  at  Rome,  causing  a  total  darkneas 
at  noon-day  (Xtvy)         .        .        .        . 

One  obeervod  at  Constantinople        .    . 

In  France,  when  it  waa  dark  at  noon- 
day (iht  Fremoy)  .  .  June  29. 

In  England,  where  it  occaaioned  a  total 
darkness  ( ITm.  Ifa/nu6.).  .    . 

Again ;  the  stars  Tiaible  at  ten  in  the 
morning  (Cb»wf<n)  .  June  33, 

The  true  sun,  and  the  appearance  of  ano- 
ther, so  that  aatronomers  alone  could 
distinguish  the  diflbrence  by  their 
glasses  (Comp.  Hitt.  Buff.)  .    . 


686 
424 

188 

88 

291 
968 

1033 

1140 

1191 


1191 


Again ;  total  darkness  ensaedCtcbm)  a.i>.  1S31 

A  total  one ;  the  darkness  so  great  that 
the  stars  ahone^  and  the  birds  went  to 
roost  at  noon  (OtdmixoiCM  AtmaU  <^ 
Geo.  I.)      .  .  April  2^  1715 

Remarkable  one,  central  and  annular  in 
the  interior  of  Europe  .        .    Bept  7,  1802 

Remarkable  ones  in  1842  and  .    .  1861 

or  THS  MOOK. 

The  first,  observed  by  the  Chaldeans  at 

Babylon  (Ptomdy,  lib,  iv.)  .  .  B.C.  Tfl 
A  totu  one  observed  at  Saidia  (Tteey- 

dide$,  lib.  viL) 413 

Again,  in  AsU  Minor  (PoI^m)  .  .  219 
One  at  Rome,  predicted  by  Q.  Sulnitlus 

OaUus  (Uw,  lib.  xliv.)    .  .    .    168 

One  terrifiea  the  Roman  troops  and 

quelled  their  revolt  (Taeihu)      .  a.o.      14 


The  revolution  of  eclipses  was  first  calculated  by  Calippus,  the  Athenian,  S36  B.a 
The  Egyptians  said  they  had  accurately  observed  378  eclipees  of  the  sun,  and  8S2  of 
the  moon,  up  to  the  period  from  Vulcan  to  Alexander,  who  died  823  B.O. 

EDDTSTONE  LIGHT-HOUSE,  off  the  port  of  Pltvouth.  Erected  by  the  Trinity- 
house  to  enable  ships  to  avoid  the  Eddystone  rock.  It  waa  commenoed  under 
Mr.  Winstanley,  in  1696 ;  was  finished  in  1699 ;  and  was  destroyed  by  the  dreadfnl 
tempest  of  Kov.  27, 1703,  and  by  which  Mr.  Winstanley  and  those  with  him  perished. 
It  was  rebuilt  by  act  of  parliament^  4  Anne,  1706,  and  all  ships  were  obliged  to  pay 
one  penny  per  ton  inwards  and  outwards  towards  supporting  it.  This  Ught-honse 
was  burnt  in  1755;  and  one  on  a  better  plan  was  erected  by  Mr.  Smeaton,  and 
finished  Oct  9,  1759.  Of  this  Isst,  the  woodwork  was  bum^  in  1770«  bat  it  waa 
afterwards  renewed  with  stone,  and  has  continued  uninjured  since  1744. 

•  Considered  bv  Mr.  Airy  to  be  the  one  recorded  by  Herodotus  as  interrupting  a  battle  between 
the  Medes  and  Lydiaus. 


EDE 


233 


EDI 


EDEN,  GARDEN  of.  The  question  about  the  site  of  Eden,  Qen.  iL,  8,  9,  haa  gnaUy 
agitated  theologians;  some  pU^  it  near  Damascos^  others  in  Armenia,  some  in 
Caucasu4,  others  at  Uiliah  near  Babylon,  others  in  Arabia,  and  some  in  Abyssinia. 
The  Hindoos  refer  it  to  Ceylon;  and  a  learned  Swede  asserts  that  it  was  in 
Sudermania  I  Several  authorities  concur  in  placing  it  in  a  peninsula  formed  by  the 
main  river  of  Eden,  on  the  east  side  of  it,  below  the  confluence  of  the  lesser  riverSf 
which  emptied  themselves  into  it,  about  2V  N.  lat  now  swallowed  up  by  the  Persian 
Gulf,  an  event  which  may  have  happened  at  the  Univenal  Deluge,  2348  B.O.  The 
country  of  Eden  extended  into  Armenia^ — C(Umei» 

EDGEHILL,  BATTLE  of,  also  called  EDGEHILL  FIGHT.  Between  the  royaUits 
and  the  parliament  army,  the  first  engagement  of  importance  in  the  civil  war; 
Charles  I.  was  personally  present  in  tMs  battle.  Prince  Rupert  commanded  Uie 
royalists,  and  the  Earl  of  Essex  the  parliamentarians.  The  earl  of  Lindsay,  one  of 
Charles's  generals,  who  headed  the  foot  forces,  was  mortally  wounded,  and  ta^en 
prisoner.  The  king's  army  lost  6000  dead  on  the  field  of  battle,  with  vast  numbers 
of  wounded  and  prisoners ;  but,  owing  to  the  great  loss  on  the  other  side  also,  the 
action  produced  no  decisive  consequence  to  either  party,  and  neither  could  fairly 
claim  the  victory,  though  the  parliament  army  did.    Oct.  28, 1642. 

EDICTS.  Public  ordiaances  and  decrees,  usually  sent  forth  by  sovereigns :  the  name 
originated  with  the  Romans.  The  Perpetual  Edict  :  Salvius  Julianus,  of  Milan,  a 
civilian  at  Rome  (the  author  of  several  treatises  on  public  right),  wss  employed  by 
the  emperor  Adrian  to  draw  up  this  edict  or  body  of  uiws  for  the  Praetors,  aj>.  132. 

EDICT  OF  NANTES.  By  which  Heniy  IV.  of  France  granted  toleration  to  his 
Protestant  subjects,  in  1598.  It  wss  revoked  by  Louis  XIV.  Oct.  24, 1685.  This 
bad  and  unjust  policy  lost  to  France  800,000  Protestants,  and  gave  to  Eneland  (part 
of  these)  60,000  industrious  artisans.  Some  thousands,  who  brought  with  them  the 
art  of  manufacturing  silks,  settled  in  Spitalfields,  where  their  descendants  yet  remain ; 
others  planted  themselves  in  Soho  and  St.  Giles's,  and  pursued  the  art  of  making 
crystal  glasses  and  various  fine  works  in  which  they  excelled ;  among  these,  jewellery, 
then  little  understood  in  England. 

EDINBURGH,  the  metropolis  of  Scotland,  derives  its  name — in  ancient  records  Jhm 
Edin,  signifying  "the  hill  of  Edin" — from  its  castle,  founded  or  rebuilt  by  Edwin, 
king  of  Northumbria,  who  having  greatly  extended  his  dominions,  erected  it  for  the 
protection  of  his  newly  acquired  territories  from  the  incursions  of  the  Scots  and  Picts, 
A.D.  626.  But  it  is  said  the  castle  was  first  built  by  Camelon,  king  of  the  Picts, 
330  B.C.  It  makes  a  conspicuous  appearance,  standing  at  the  west  end  of  the  town, 
on  a  rock  300  feet  high,  and  before  the  use  of  great  guns,  was  a  fortification  of 
considerable  strength. 


ChriKtianiij  introduoed,  the  reign  oi 

Doxudd  L A.D.    801 

Bdlnborgh  token  by  the  Anglo-Saxoue .  482 
Betaken  by  tbe  Picts  ....  695 
City  fortified,  and  castle  rebuilt  .  .  1074 
Besieged  by  Donald  Bane  .  1003 

Abbey  founded  by  David  I.  ...  1128 
Edinburgh  oonsUtated  a  bui^h  .   *  * 

CasUe  surrendered  to  Henry  IL  .  .  1174 
A  parliament  is  held  here  under  Alex- 

undw  II.  in  .  .       *.  .  1215 

City  Uken  by  the  Bofflish  ....  1296 
Grant  ofthe  town  of  Leith      .  .  1329 

James  II.  first  kin((  crowned  here  .  .  1437 
Execution  here  of  the  earl  of  Atbol  and 

his  grandson 1487 

Annual  fair  granted  by  James  II.  .  .  1447 
City  strengthened  by  a  wall   .  .  1450 

Charter  of  James  III. 1477 

Edinburgh  made  the  metropolis  of  Boot- 
land  by  king  James  III.      .  .  1482 
Royal  College  of  Suigeous  inoOTporated 

by  charter 1605 

Charter  of  James  IV 1508 

rrhe  Palace  of  Holyrood  is  built  in 
the  reign  of  James  IV.] 

High  school  founded 1518 

A  British  foroe^  landing  from  a  fleet  of 


800  ships,  takes  Edinburgh  and  Leith, 
and  bums  both  towns .  .  a.o. 

Leith  is  tigain  bumt^  but  Edinburgh  is 
spared 

Marrtsge  of  Queen  Mary  and  lord  Dam- 
ley  at  Holyrood-house .... 

DaVid  Rizxlo  murdered  .    . 

Lord  Damley  (the  husband  of  Mary)  is 
blown  up  in  a  private  house  by  gun- 
powder :  he  is  supposed  to  have  been 
first  murdered  .    Feb.  10, 

Mary's  marriage  with  James  Hepburn, 
eariofBothwell  May  15,  1667 

Era  of  the  civil  war  on  account  of  Mary's 
forced  resignation        .... 

Death  of  John  Knox 

University  founded  by  James  YI.  Bee 
Sdinburgh  Univenity    .        .  April  24, 

Earl  of  Bothwell's  attempt  on  Holyrood- 
house        ....        Deo.  27, 

Riot  in  the  city,  in  which  the  mob 
attacks  the  king 

James  VI.  leaves  Edinburgh,  as  king  of 
England    ....         April  5, 

He  visits  Edinburgh  .    May  16, 

Heriot's  Hospital  rounded  .  .    . 

Charles  I.  visits  Edinburgh     . 

Edinburgh  erected  into  a  bishoprio  by 
Charles  I.  while  here  ...  1638 


1544 

1647 

1565 
1566 


1567 


1570 
1678 

1588 

1501 

1596 

1608 
1617 
1624 
1633 


EDI 


234 


EDU 


EDINBURGH,  continued. 

PftrliameDt  house  finished  .  a.1>.  1640 

CharloB  offaiu  Tieita  the  city  .    .  1641 

The  Caaue  la  surrendered  to  Cromwell 

by  Duudaa 1650 

Oo^te-houses  first  opened  .  .  .  1677 
Merchauta'  Company  incorporated  .  1681 
College  of  Physidaua  incorporated  .  .  1681 
Earl  of  ArgirU  beheaded  .  .  June  30,  1685 
African  aud  East  India  Company  incor- 
porated      1695 

Bank  of  Scotland  founded  .  1605 

Union  of  the  UnffdomB  .  •  .  .  1707 
Boyal  bank  founded  ....  1727 
Bo:trd  of  Trustees  of  trade  and  manu- 

fiftctures  appointed 1727 

B^al  Infirmary  incorporated  .  1796 

Affidr  of  Captain  Forteous:  he  is  hanged 
by  the  populace  in  the  Graasmarket. 

(See  PorUoui) 1786 

Medical  Soeioty  Uwtituted      .  .  1737 

The  young  Pretender's  army  occupies 

the  city 1745 

He  takes  possession  of  Holyrood  .  .  1745 
Modem  improvements  commenced  .  .  1753 
Magistrates  assigned  gold  chains  .  .  1754 
Royal  Bxchaugo  completed  .    .  1761 

Foundation  stone  of  the  North  Bridge 

laid Oct  21,  1763 

Theatre  Royal  erected        ....  1760 
Oreat  fire  in  the  Lawn-market       .       .  1771 
Register-office,     Princes-street^      com- 
menced      1774 

Great  commotion  and  tumult  against 

popery  in  the  city  .  .1779 

Society  of  Antiquaries  ....  1780 
Royal  Society  instituted .  .        .  1783 

South  Bridge  commenced  .  .    .  1785 

Royal  College  of  Burgeons  incorporated 

by  charter 1788 

Fiist  stone  of  the  present  xmiyersity 

laid Nov.  16.  1789 

Robertson,  the  historian,  died  at  Edin- 
burgh   .....  June  11,  1793 
Bridewell.  Calton-hill,  erected  .        .    .  1796 
Holvrood  affords  an  asylum  to  Louis 
XVlII.  and  his  brother,  afterwards 
Charles  X.  trom  1795  to       .        .        .  1799 
(Charles  X.  subsequent  to  the  revoltt- 
tiou  of  1830,  resided  here.] 
New  Bank  commenced       .         June  8,  1801 
Bdinburgh  JZeview  published    .  .  1802 


New  system  (^police  established  .  a.d.  1806 
Alarming  riots  ners  .    Dec.  31.  1811 

Neladn's  monument  completed  •  .  .  1815 
Gas  Company  incorporated  .  .  .  1818 
Water  company  incorporated  .  .  .  1819 
Professor  PJay&ir  diea  .  .  July  20,  1819 
Society  of  Arts  instituted   .  .    .1881 

Union  Canal  completed  ....  1822 
George  IV.'s  visit  Aug.  U,  1822 

He  holds  his  lev^    .  .   Aug.  17,  1822 

And  Uaves  for  Englnnd  Aug.  29,  1622 

Foundation  of  the  great  nationsl  monu- 
ment of  Scotland  laid  ....  1822 
Royal  Institution  erected  ....  1823 
Destructive  fires  June  and  Nov.  1824 

Scottish  Academy  founded .  .    .  1886 

Lord  Melville's  monument  erected  .  1828 
The  Edinburgh  and  Dalkeith  Railway 

opened July,  1831 

Statue  of  George  IV.  erected  .  .  1832 

Death  of  sir  Walter  Scott  .  Sept  81,  1832 
Association  of  the  Fine  Arts  .  .1833 

Ekiinburgh,  Leith,  and  Granton  Railway 

commenced 1836 

Art-union  of  Scotland      ....  1837 
Monument  to  sir  Walter  Scott   com- 
menced (since  finished)  .                .    .  1840 
Society  of  Art^  founded  in  1821,  and  in- 
corporated in        IS42 

Railway  between  Edinlnugh  and  Glas- 
gow opened  .        Feb.  21,  1842 
Queen  Victoria  visits  Edinburgh  Aug.  31,  1842 
Her  public  entry  .    Sept  3,  1842 
Her  Majesty  holds  her  court  at  Dalkeith 

Palace  ....  Sept  5^  1842 
And  leaves  for  England  .  .  Sept  15,  1848 
New  College  instituted  ...  1843 

North  British  Railway  commenced  .  1844 
The  monument  to  tlie  political  martyn 

of  1793-4,  laid  by  Mr.  Hume   Aug.  21,  1844 
The  Britii«h  Association  holds  its  meet- 
ing in  this  city      .  .   July  31,  18S0 
The  queen  again  visits  Edinburgh  (one 
of  her  many  viaita  to  Scotland)  and 
holds  her  court  at  the  ancient  Holy- 
rood-house                .  Aug.  80,  1850 
Prince  Albert  lays  the  foundatioD-stone 

of  the  Scotch  national  gallery  Sept  1,  1850 
Meeting    for    vindication    of   Scottish 
rights,  iic         ....  Nov.  i,  1858 
SeeSecHand. 


EDINBURGH,  BISHOPRIC  of.  This  see  was  created  by  Charles  L  when  that  monarch 
was  in  Scotland  in  1683;  and  William  Forbes,  one  of  the  ministen  of  Edinburgh, 
was  made  first  bishop.  Tlie  king  allotted  the  parishes  of  the  shires  of  Edinburgh, 
Linlithgow,  Haddlogton,  and  a  part  of  Berwick  and  of  Stirlin^ire,  to  oompoee  Uie 
see.  The  sixth  and  last  prelate  was  Alexander  Ross,  who  was  ejected  on  the  abolition 
of  episcopacy,  at  the  period  of  the  revolution,  in  1688.  Edinburgh  became  a  post- 
revolution  bishopric  in  1720.    See  Bishapt, 

EDINBURGH  UNIVERSITY.  A  college  was  commenced  by  the  town-coundl  of 
Edinburgh,  for  which  Queen  Mary  had  given  the  site  of  ancient  religious  houses,  and 
Robert  Reid,  bishop  of  Orkney,  the  funds,  1581.  The  university  was  founded  by 
James  y I.  afterwards  James  I.  of  England,  in  1582.  The  first  prinoipai  was  appointed 
in  1685.  The  foundation  stone  of  the  new  buildings  was  laid  by  Francis,  lord  Napier, 
grand-master  of  the  masons  of  Scotland,  Nov.  16, 1 789.  In  1845,  the  library  contained 
upwards  of  80,000  volumes,  besides  numerous  curious  and  rare  KS&  and  documenta. 

EDUCATION.  The  art  of  developing  the  physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  faculties  of 
man,  has  occupied  the  greatest  minds  in  all  ages,  such  as  Plato,  Aristotle,  Cicero, 
Quintilian,  Bacon,  Milton,  Locke,  Rousseau,  ko.  In  England  the  earliest  schools  for  the 
lower  classes  were  those  attached  to  the  monasteries ;  for  the  higher  classes  halls  and 
colleges  were  gradually  founded  (see  Oxford  and  Cambridffe), — In  137S,  William  of 
Wykeham  planted  the  school  at  Winchester,  whence  arose  his  college  at  that  place  and 
Oxford.  Eton  College  was  founded  by  Henry  V I.  in  1440.— In  the  thirty  yean  following 


mQA  235  KQY 

the  reformation  education  was  greatly  promoted,  and  many  g^mmar  ■cbools  were 
erected  and  endowed  by  Edward  VL  and  Elizabeth.  Westminster  school  waa  founded 
by  the  latter  in  1560.  Queen  Anne  waa  the  zealous  friend  of  education  ;  she  founded 
the  Grey-coat  school,  Westminster,  in  1698,  and  cordially  supported  the  settiog  up 
parochial  charity  schools  (one  of  which  had  been  estAbliahed  in  1688  at  St.  Mu^aret's, 
Westminster).  In  1741  nearly  2000  of  these  schools  were  established  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  principally  by  the  instrumentality  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Christian  Knowledge.  About  1784  Mr.  Robert  Raikos  originated  Sunday  aehools, 
of  which  there  were  in  England  in  1833  16.828,  with  1,548,890  scholan.  The  Sunday 
School  Union  was  formed  in  1808.  In  1 796,  Joseph  Lancaster,  a  young  Quaker,  began 
to  instruct  the  children  of  the  poor.  He  had  90  pupils  before  he  was  18  years  old, 
and  1000  pupils  in  1798.  To  provide  teachers  he  inyented  the  monitorial  system.  By 
his  exertions  the  present  British  and  Foreign  School  Society  was  founded  in  1808,  with 
the  name  of  the  "  Royal  Lancaaterian  Institution,"  &a  This  being  unseotarian  was 
followed  by  the  institution  of  the  Church  of  England  "National  Society  for  educating 
the  Poor**  in  1811.— Between  1819  and  1840  the  Charity  Commission,  appointed  at 
the  instance  of  Mr.  (now  lord)  Brougham,  published  their  reports  on  Education  in  37 
volumes  folio. — In  1884  the  government  began  the  annual  grant  of  20,000/.  which 
was  continued  till  1839,  when  the  committee  of  the  Privy  Council  on  Education  was 
constituted  for  the  distribution  of  the  money.  The  grant  in  1852  was  150,000^  In 
1836  the  Home  and  Colonial  School  Society  waa  instituted,  and  about  1843  were 
formed  the  Voluntary  School  Society  and  the  Congregational  Board  of  Education. 
In  1851  out  of  a  population  of  17,927,609  there  were  2,466,481  day  scholarB.~A 
great  educational  conference  took  place  June  22-24,  1857»  at  Willis*s  Rooms,  the 
prince  consort  in  the  chair. 

fiGALIT^y  Equality.  The  surname  assumed  by  Philip  Bourbon  Capet,  the  infamous 
duke  of  Orleans,  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  republicans,  on  the  abolition  of 
monarchy  in  France,  Sept.  11,  1792.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVL  his 
relative ;  but  this  did  not  save  him  from  a  like  doom.  He  was  guillotined  Nov.  6, 1793. 
Louis-Philippe,  the  late  king  of  the  French,  was  the  son  of  EgaiUi.    See  France. 

EGYPT.  The  dynasty  of  its  Pharaohs,  or  kings,  commenced  with  Mizraim,  the  son  of 
Ham,  second  son  of  Noah,  2188  B.o.  The  kingdom  lasted  1663  years;  it  was 
conquered  by  Cambyses,  525  b.o.  In  a.d.  639,  this  country  was  wrested  from  the 
eastern  emperor  Heraclius,  by  Omar,  caliph  of  the  Saracens.  The  famous  Saladin 
established  the  dominion  of  the  Mamelukes,  in  1171.  Selim  I.  emperor  of  the  Turks, 
took  Egypt  in  1517,  and  it  was  governed  by  beys  till  1799,  when  a  great  part  of  the 
country  was  conquered  by  the  French,  under  Bonaparte.  In  1801  the  invaders 
were  <Uspo8se8sed  by  the  British,  and  the  government  was  restored  to  the  Turks. 
See  Turkey,  for  modem  events. 


Beoostris,  son  of  Xaeris,  reigns :  he  ez- 
toids  his  dominion  by  conquest  over 
Arabia,  Persia,  India,  and  Asia  Minor 
{LtnglU)* B.C.  1818 

Settlement  of  the  Ethiopians  (Jtatr)      .  1015 

Rampses,  who  imposed  on  his  subjects 
the  boildinff  of  walls  and  pyramids, 
and  other  labours,  dies  {LmgUt)      .     .  1492 

Amenophis  11.  is  oyerwhelmed  in  the 
Red  Sea,  with  all  his  army  (UngUt, 
Blair) 1493 


Meoes  ....  s.a  8893  or  864S 
Mizraim  builds  Memphis  (Alatr)  .  .  2188 
E^pt  made  four  kingdoms,  vu. :  Upper 

Egypt,  Lower  Egypt,  This,  and  "iiem- 

j>haB(AbM  LengUt,  Blair)      .  .2126 

Athotes  invents  hieroglyphics  .  .  .  2212 
Busiris  builds  Thebes  (^«A<r).  .2111 

Osymandyas,    the   first  warlike   king, 

passes  into  Asia,  oonquera  Bactria,  and 

causes  his  exploits  to  be  represented  in 

sculpture  and  painting  (uvur^  LengUt)  2100 
The  Phmnidans  invade  Lower  Egypt,  i  Beign   of  JEgvptua^    from   whom   the 

and  hold  it  260  years  (Uiher)  .  2080  |     country,  hitherto  oOled  Mi>sntim,  is 

The  Lake  of  Mcsris  constructed  .  .  .  1938 
The  patriarch  Abraham  visits  Egypt  to 

avoid  the  (amine  in  Canaan                .  1021 
Byphoas  introduces  the  use  of  the  com- 
mon letters  (e/«Aer)  1891 

Memnon  invents  the  Egyptian  letters 

{Biatr,  LemgUt) 1822 

Amenophis  1.  is  acknowledged  the  king 

of  an  Egypt  (LengUt)  ....  1821 
Joseph  the  Israelite  is  sold  into  Egypt 

as  a  slave  (I«ii^)  ....  1728 
He  interprets  the  king's  dreams  .  .  1715 
Uis  figither  and  brethzvn  settle  here        .  1706 


now  called  Egypt  (.Blair)         .        .     .  1485 
Reign  of  Thuoris  (the  Proteus  of  the 
Oreeks)  who  had  the  (acuity  of  assum- 
ing whatever  form  he  ploaiied,  as  of  a 
lion,  a  dragon,  a  tree,  water,  fire        .  1189 
[These  fictions  were  probobly  intended 
to  mark  the  profound  policy  of  tfcus 
king,  who  was  eminent  for  his  wis- 
dom, by  which   his  dominion  flou- 
rished.— Blair.  ] 
Pseusennes    enters  Palestine^   ravages 
Judea,  and  carries  off  the  sacred  ves- 
sels of  the  temple     971 


*  The  epoch  of  the  reign  of  Sesoetris  is  very  uncertain ;  Blair  makes  it  to  fall  138  years  later.  As 
to  the  achievements  of  thu  monarch  they  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  labours  of  several  kings 
attributed  by  the  Egyptian  priests  to  Sesostria  alone,  whose  very  existence,  indeed,  is  doubted. 


EQY 


2S6 


ELBI 


146 

161 


Itf 

190 


119 


119 
118 


1» 


Al 


47 


SaYPT,  caniiw^ed. 

The  dynasty  of  kings  called  TaniUt  "b^ 

ginawithPetuba8tes(Atotr)  .  B.C.  815 
The  dyuMty  of  SaiUMiBUnr)  .    .    781 

Bebsoon   invades  'Bgjpt,  subdues   the 

king,  Boochoris,  whom  he  orders  to  be 

roasted  aUTe(£4bfr)     .  .787 

Psammetichus  the  Powerful  reigns  .  .  660 
He  inTOsts  AjK>th,  which  holds  out  for 

Itt  yeoriL  the  longest  siege   in   the 

annals  of  antiquity  (27«A«r)  .  .    647 

Necho  begins  the  famous  canal  between 

the  AmUc  gtilf  and  the  Mediterranean 

aea(iHair) 610 

This  canal  abandoned  after  costing  the 

lives  of  120, 000  men  (i?«rodoCw«;  .  .  609 
Kebuchaduessar   of    Bal^lon    depooes 

ApTifM  (mher) 581 

Apries  taken  prisoner  and  strangled  in 

his  palace  (piod.  Sieului)  ...  571 
The  ptiiloiiopner  Pythagoras  comes  troia. 

SunOS  into  ESgypt^  and  is  instructed  in 

the  myBteries  of  Egyptian  theology 

(Usher) 685 

The  line  of  the  Pharaohs  ends  in  the 

murder  of  Psammenitus  by  Cambysea 

{Btair) 516 

Breadfiil  excesses  of  OambTses ;  he  puta 

the  children  of  the  grandees,  male  and 

female,  to  death,  and  makes  the  coun- 
try a  waste  (£r«rodolii«)  .  .  .  524 
He  sends  an  army  of  50,000  men  across 

the  desert  to  destroy  the  temple  of 

Jupiter  Ammon,  but  they  all  perish 

in  the  burning  sands  (Judtn)  .    514 

Egypt  revolts  from  the  Persians ;  again 

subdued  by  Xerxes  (Blair)  .  .  .  487 
A  revolt  under  Inarus  (Blair) .  .    463 

Successful  revolt  under  Antyrtsras,  who 

is  proclaimed  king  (Xicn^tet)  .    .    414 

Egypt  again  reduced  by  Persia,  and  its 

temples  pillitfod  (£7«Acr)  .        .    850 

Alexander  the  Great  enters  Egypt,  wrests 

it  from  the  Persians,  and  builds  Alex- 
andria riMaJr)  882 

PhiladelpnuB  completes  the  Pharos  of 

Alexandria  (^lair)  ....  288 
The  Septuagint  vendon  of  the  Old  Tea* 

tament  made  about  this  time .  .  .  288 
The  famous  iibnuy  of  Alexandria  also 

dates  about  this  period  r^tr)  .  .  288 
Ambassadors  first  sent  to  Rome        .    .    269^ 

The  history  of  Egypt  may  be  diyided  into  three  epochs  :  lBt»  From  the  foundation  of 
the  empire  to  its  conquest  by  Cambysea :  the  kings  who  reigned  in  this  period  are 
designated  by  the  title  of  Pharaoh,  signifying,  in  the  ancient  £^ptian  langu^e^ 
"Cfreat  King."  2ndly.  From  the  Persian  Conquest  to  the  death  of  Alexander  the 
Great  Srdly.  The  reign  of  the  Ptolemies,  ending  with  the  death  of  Cleopatra,  and 
the  subjugation  of  the  countiy  by  the  Romans.  The  incidents  relating  to  ^ypt^  of 
modern  date,  will  be  found  interwoTen  with  those  of  Syria.    See  Sjuria  &o.* 

EGYPTIAN  ERA.  The  old  Egyptian  year  was  identical  with  the  era  of  NabonaMW, 
beginning  Feb.  26,  747  B.a  and  consisted  of  865  days  only.  It  was  reformed,  SO  bu& 
at  which  period  the  commencement  of  the  year  had  arriyed,  by  continually  receding 
to  the  29Ui  August,  which  was  determined  to  be  in  future  the  first  day  of  the 
year.    To  reduce  to  the  Christiaa  era,  subtract  746  years,  126  days. 

ELBA,  ISLE  OF.  Taken  poaaession  of  by  the  British,  Julv  6, 1796;  but  abandoned  the 
next  year.  Elba  was  conferred  upon  Napoleon  (with  the  title  of  emperor  oontinaed) 
as  the  place  of  his  retreat  upon  relinquishing  the  throne  of  France,  April  6, 1814.  He 
secretly  embarked  from  this  island  with  about  1200  men  in  hired  feluccas,  on  tho 
night  of  Feb.  25, 1815,  and  landed  in  Provence,  March  1,  to  recoyer  the  Imperial 
crown.  See  B<maparte  and  France.  After  baring  been  quitted  by  Bom^artc^  Elba 
was  taken  poeseaeion  of  by  the  Grand  duke  of  Florence,  July,  1815. 

TJ''"*®  "?■*  magnificent  works  have  been  published  on  Egypt ;  in  France,  JkaeripUm^dfrt^mH:^ 

1S0O-22;  In  Italy,  Rosellini's  ifonwnwnto  deU'  EgiUo,  1832-44 :  and  in  Prussia,  LepaiuiP  DMAaytfcr  m 


Ptolemy  Eaergetes  OTenuns  Syria,  and 
returns  laden  with  rich  spoila  and  i500 
atatues  and  veasela  of  gold  and  diver, 
which  Cambyaes  had  taken  from  the 
Egyptian  temples  (Mair)    .       .  B.a 

Rei^  of  Philometer  and  rhrmsaa     .    . 

At  the  death  of  Philometer,  hia  btothar 
Phyaoon  marries  his  qiieen,  and  on 
the  day  of  hia  nuptials  murdera  the 
infant  son  of  Philometsr  in  its  mo- 
ther's anna    

He  repudiates  hia  wife,  and  marries  her 
daughter  by  hia  brother  (Blair)      .    . 

His  su^jectfl^  wearied  with  his  cnidtiea 
and  crimes,  demolish  his  statoea,  set 
fire  to  hia  pc^ce,  and  he  fl&ea  trom 
their  fury  (Blair)  ... 

He  murders  his  son  by  his  new  queen  ; 
also  hia  son  hv  her  mother,  sending 
the  head  and  Umba  of  the  latter  aa  a 
present  to  the  parenta  on  a  feaat-day  . 

Yet>  defeating  the  Egyptian  army,  he 
recovera  his  throne ;  and  dies 

PestUenoe  from  the  putrefiurtioii  of 
swarms  of  loouata ;   800,000 
periah  in  Egy|.t 

Revolt  in  Upper  E^ypt ;  the  fiunona  city 
of  Thebes  destroyed  after  a  siege  of 
three  years  (J>iod.  JSieulut)  . 

Auletea  dying,  leaves  his  kingdom  to 
his  eldest  son,  Ptolemy,  and  the  fia- 
mous  Cleopatra  fJMoir)    .... 

During  a  civil  war  between  Ptolemy  and 
Cleopatra,  Alexandria  is  besieged  by 
Cnsar,  and  the  fiunona  libraxy  nearly 
destroyed  by  fire  (Stair) 

Caesar  defeats  the  king,  who,  in  crossing 
the  Nile,  is  drowned;  and  the  younger 
Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra  reign  .       .    . 

Cleopatra  poisons  her  brother  (only  14 
years  of  age)  and  reigns  alone 

She  appears  before  Mare  Antony,  to 
answer  for  this  crime.  Faacinatea  by 
her  beauty,  he  followa  her  into  ^gypt 

Antony  defeated  by  Octavlua  Gsasar  at 
the  batUe  of  Aetium( JCair)    .        .    . 

Octavius  enters  Egypt;  Antony  and 
Cleopatra  kill  themselvos ;  and  the 
kingdom  beoomea  a  Roman  province 


40 

SI 


90 


For  aubtequefU  and  modtm  aimaiM,  see  Si^ria. 


ELE  237  KLE 

ELBiLTIC  SECT.  Founded  by  Xenopbanes^  tbe  pbiloeopher  of  Colopbon:  be  bad 
been  banlebed  to  Sicily  on  account  of  bia  wild  tbeory  of  Qod  and  Katore,  and  bia 
Beet  originated  tbere.  Tbia  tbeoriat  sapposed  tbat  tbe  atara  were  extinguiabed  every 
morning  and  rekindled  at  nigbt ;  tbat  ectipaee  were  occaaiooed  by  a  partial  extinction 
of  the  ann ;  tbat  tbere  were  aeveral  auna  and  moona  for  tbe  convenience  of  tbe 
different  olimatea  of  tbe  earbb,  fta,  abont  635  B.O. — Sirabo, 

ELECTIONS^  BRIBERY  at.  Yariooa  statutes  bare  been  enacted  against  it  from  time 
to  time.  Tbe  principal  acta  relating  to  elections  commenced  witb  7  Henry  IV.  1409. 
Eleotiona  were  made  void  by  bribery,  in  1696  et  mq.  Tbe  later  acta  are  16  &  17  Vict. 
CL  68  (1853);  and  17  ft  18  Viet  c  102  (1854);  by  tbe  laafe»  treating  eleoton»  cockades, 
flags,  iNuida  of  music,  ftc^  are  atrictly  forbidden. 

ELECTORS.  Those  for  members  of  parliament  for  counties  were  obliged  to  have  forty 
abillinga  a-year  in  bmd,  39  Hen.  VL  1460.— Attjf&eflHT*  StatuUM,  Among  tbe  acta 
relating  to  electors  are  the  following: — Act  depriving  excise  and  custom-bouae  officers, 
and  contractors  witb  government,  of  their  votes,  1782.  Act  to  regulate  polling,  0 
Gea  lY.  cap.  59, 1828.  Reform  in  parliament  bill  (see  Rrform  BiU),  2  ft  3  WilL  IV. 
1882.    County  Elections*  act,  7  WUL  lY.  cap.  102,  20  Aug.  1836. 

ELECTORS  OF  GERHAKT.  Originally,  all  tbe  members  of  tbe  Germanic  body  made 
choice  of  their  head ;  but  amidat  the  violence  and  anarchy  which  prevailed  for  several 
centuries  in  tbe  empire,  seven  princes  who  possessed  the  greatest  power  assumed  the 
exclusive  privilege  of  nominating  the  emperor. — Dr,  Roberitcm,  An  eighth  elector  waa 
made  in  1648 ;  and  a  ninth,  in  favour  of  tbe  duke  of  Hanover,  in  1692.  Tbe  number 
waa  radooed  to  eight  in  1777 ;  and  was  increased  to  ten  at  the  peace  of  Luneville,  in 
1801.  The  electorship  ceased  on  the  dissolution  of  tbe  German  empire,  and  when 
tbe  crown  of  Auatria  waa  made  hereditary,  1804-1806.    See  Oermany, 

ELECTRICITY, — ^m  ^Xf  crpor,  electrum,  amber,  the  electrical  properties  of  which  are 
aaid  to  have  been  known  to  Thales,  600  BiO.  The  phenomena  of  electricity  were 
piodaced  firom  variona  substances  and  recorded  by  Dr.  Gilbert^  of  Colchester,  in  1600, 
and  by  Otto  von  Ghiericke,  to  whom  is  attributed  the  origin  of  the  electric  machine, 
in  1647.  In  1730,  Stephen  Grey  divided  all  material  substances  into  conductors  and 
non-conductora,  and  shortly  after,  Dufay  discovered  the  phenomena  of  attraction  and 
repulaion.  In  1746,  the  experiments  of  Kleist,  Cunseua,  and  Muscbenbroek,  led  to 
the  discovery  of  the  Leyden  phial  or  jar,  about  1755.  Franklin's  researches  extended 
from  1747  to  1760.  To  him  we  owe  the  theory  of  induction  and  the  proofii  of  the 
identity  of  lightning  and  electricity.  He  first  drew  lightning  from  the  clouds,  and 
suggested  li^^tning  conductors  (see  Lightning  Oondueton),  While  repeating  some  of 
Franklin's  experiments,  Richman,  of  St.  Petersbuii^  was  killed  in  1753.  Tbe 
following  were  eminent  electricians.  Canton,  Beccana,  iEpinus,  Symmer  (1753*6). 
The  electricity  developed  by  fishes  waa  investigated  by  Ingenbouas,  Cavendish,  and 
others,  about  1773.  Cavendish  constructed  an  artificial  torpedo;  to  him  also  is 
mainly  due  the  foundation  of  chemical  electricity.  He  decomposed  atmospheric  air 
and  water  by  the  agency  of  electricity,  about  1787.  Coulomb  is  regarded  aa  tbe  father 
of  Electro-statics,  and  to  him  we  owe  tbe  torsion  balance^  about  1785.  A  new  epoch 
was  created  by  tbe  discoveries  of  Galvani,  in  1790,  and  Yolta,  in  1800,  about  which  time 
Wilkes  discovered  the  Slectrophonu  and  Henley  the  SledromeUr  (see  Odhaniim  and 
VoUaie  EUdricUff),  The  successive  researches  of  Lavoisier,  Priestley,  Davy,  Cavallo, 
Potason,  SausBure^  ftc.  are  very  important.  In  1820,  Oersted  announced  the  diKovery 
of  Electro-magnetism,  and  in  1831,  Faraday  that  of  Magneto-electricity.  The  eleotricid 
researches  of  the  latter  are  publiahed  in  three  octavo  volumes  (1833-55).  Sir  W.  Snow 
Harria  received  5000IL  for  his  invention  of  a  permanent  system  of  lightning  conductors 
for  ships,  which  is  stated  to  be  ao  perfect,  tbat  no  instance  of  serious  damage  by 
lightning  has  occurred  in  the  British  navy  in  tbe  last  twenty-five  years.  In  1840,  the 
electricity  of  steam  was  discovered,  on  which  Mr.  Armstrong  of  Newcastle,  made  many 
experiments,  and  finally  constructed  tbe  powerful  hydro- electric  machine.  A  large 
and  powerful  electric  machine  and  Leyden  battery  was  put  into  perfect  action  at  the 
PUioptioon  in  Leicester-square,  London,  in  the  spring  of  1855,  by  Dr.  H.  M.  Noad. 
Tbe  most  eminent  pbilosopbenrof  the  present  day  are  still  devoting  their  attention 
to  electricity,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Faraday,  Harris,  De  la  Rive,  Grove, 
Wheatatone^  Riess,  Matteucci,  Du  Bois-Reymond,  Tyndail,  ftc.* 


*  An  Skctrie  LetMp  bss  been  constructed  by  M.  Dubotoq.  of  Paris.  It  was  used  by  Dr.  Tyndail 
with  very  great  effect,  in  1866,  to  illostraio  bis  leotorM  on  Light  and  Colours,  at  the  Royal  Institution, 
London. 


ELB  238  ELK 

ELECTRIC  CLOCK  and  BALL.  Mr.  Alexander  Bain  is  aaid  to  have  first  oonceiTed  tbe 
idea  of  working  clocks  by  electricity,  in  1837;  his  clocks,  as  well  as  those  of  Mr. 
Shepherd,  appeared  in  the  exhibition  of  1851.  An  electric  clock,  with  four  dials, 
illuminated  at  night,  was  set  up  in  front  of  the  office  of  the  Electric  Telegraph  com- 
pany, in  t^e  Strand,  London,  July  1852.  It  indicates  Greenwich  time  at  all  hours ; 
and  the  various  railway  stations  receive  their  time  from  the  Strand-office,  which  is  the 
medium  of  communication  from  tbe  Greenwich  Observatory.  This  is  one  purpoee  of 
the  new  time-'ball  on  the  top  of  the  office  in  the  Strand ;  the  EUectric  Telegraph 
company,  the.  South-Eastem  Railway  company,  and  the  Astronomer-Royal  having 
acted  in  conjunction  in  laying  down  a  subterranean  wire  from  the  Observatory  in 
Qreenwich  park.  At  one  o'clock  precisely  to  a  second,  the  ball  suddenly  slides  down 
upon  a  kind  of  piston  in  an  air  cylinder,  so  as  to  break  the  force  of  the  concussion. 
As  this  time-ball  is  180  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Thames,  and  as  it  is  six  feet  in 
diameter,  exhibits  bright  colours,  and  falls  through  a  oonsidenble  space,  its  descent 
can  be  seen  for  a  great  distance  on  all  sides.  A  time  ball  was  set  up  by  Mr.  French  in 
Cornhill  in  1856. 

ELECTRIC  TELEQRAPH.*  Between  1787  and  1820,  ten  applications  of  electricity  to 
telegraphic  purposes  are  recorded.  In  1819,  Oersted  discovered  that  an  electric 
current,  transmitted  through  a  wire  placed  parallel  to  a  magnetic  needle,  either  above 
or  below  it,  causes  the  needle  to  deviate  either  to  the  right  or  the  left  according  to  the 
direction  of  the  current ;  and  the  celebrated  Ampere  proposed  a  telegraph  on  this 
principle  in  1820,  suggesting,  however,  that  as  many  magnetic  needles  and  as  many 
circuits  should  be  employed  as  there  were  characters  to  be  indicated.  Baron 
Schelling  and  Fechner  proposed  to  limit  this  number  by  employing  fewer  needlea. 
In  1833,  Oauss  and  Weber  proposed  a  telegraph  by  means  of  magneto-electridty.  The 
first  electric  telegraph  in  England,  founded  on  Oersted's  discovery,  was  invented  by 
professor  Wheatstone  in  1837,  the  application  being  adapted  to  ndlwaysw  Morse  in 
America,  Steinheil  in  Qermany,  and  other  partiee  elsewhere,  constructed  or  proposed 
electric  telegraphs  about  the  same  time.  The  electric  telegraph  on  the  London  and 
Blackwall  railway  was  the  first  efficient  example  of  the  application  of  these  telegraphs 
to  general  and  commercial  purposes.  Electric  telegraphs  have  since  been  con- 
structed on  every  railway,  and  form  most  important  adjuncts.  For  the  submarine 
telegraph  connecting  Franoe  and  England  (first  attempted  on  August  28, 1850)  see 
Submarine  Telegraph, 

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.  Analogies  between  electricity  and  magnetism  discovered 
by  Oerated  of  Copenhagen,  in  1807,  were  established  by  him  in  1819  et  teq,  and 
were  confirmed  by  numerous  subsequent  experiments  made  by  philosophen  in  Eng- 
gland,  France,  Germany,  America,  and  other  countries  most  eminently  by  Amph^ 
The  electro-magnetic  force  is  now  applied  by  M.  Breguet  of  Paris  in  the  manu&^ofe 
of  theodoUtes  and  the  finer  kinds  of  mathematical  instruments  (1855). 

ELECTRO-PHTSIOLOGT.  This  branch  of  science  has  not  been  much  cultivmted  since 
the  discoveries  of  Galvani  in  1790;  all  the  phenomena  of  Electro-physiology  or  animal 
electricity  being  considered  by  Yolta  as  due  to  an  ordinary  electric  current.  The 
correctness  of  V olta's  views  are  now  doubted  by  many,  in  consequence  of  the  researches 
of  Nobili  (1827),  Matteucci,  and  othen  at  the  present  time,  who  consider  that  there 
is  in  the  living  body  a  nervous  and  muscular  electric  current  M.  Du  Bois-Beymood 
lectured  on  this  subject  at  the  Royal  Institution,  May  and  June,  1855. 

ELECTRO-TINT.  Mr.  Palmer,  of  Newgate-street,  London,  has  patented  an  invention  by 
which  engravings  may  not  only  be  copied  from  other  engraved  plates,  but  the 

*  Experiments  have  been  tried  with  a  view  to  determine  the  rate  at  which  electricity  tnvsb, 
by  ProfeBflor  Wheatstone,  who  has  hiyented  ui  instrument  for  the  purpoee.  It  is  stated  ***»* 
electrid^  travels  round  the  globe  in  the  tenth  part  of  a  ueond.  Lord  Paunezston  on  one  orr  uAtm,  at 
a  public  dinner  in  Southampton,  pleasantly  alluded  to  a  prospective  period  when,  if  a  w*<«i«i*ir 
were  asked  in  the  house  of  commons  "whether  it  were  true  that  a  war  had  broken  out  in  India f* 
he  might,  perhaps,  be  able  to  answer,  "Wait  an  instant,  until  I  telegraph  the  govemor-gexMral, 
and  I  will  tell  you/'    Yet  the  Submarine  Telegraph  had  not  then  been  thought  of. 


But  one  of  the  most  a/btonishing  results  of  the  Electric  Telegraph  occurred  in  America^ 

the  telegraph  raav  be  said  to  have  run  a  race  with  Time,  and  b«aten  him.     New  Orleans  is 

word  of  New  Tork,  and  the  clocks  are  thus  later  in  the  former  city  than  in  the  latter,  in  proportioci 
to  the  difference  of  longitude.  When  the  Atlantic  made  her  first  return  voyage  trom  Liverpool,  a  brief 
abstract  of  her  news  was  telegraphed  to  New  Orleans  at  a  few  minutes  ti^/ter  noon  (New  Tco-k  time):  it 
reached  its  destination  at  a  few  minutes  b^ort  noon  (New  Ch*leans  timeX  and  was  {mblished  in  the  New 
Orleans  papers  on  the  evening  of  the  very  day  when  the  ship  arrived  at  New  Yoric:  the  evening 
of  New  York  and  New  Orleans  gave  the  same  news  at  the  same  hour  1 


ELE  239  ELY 

engraying  itaelf  actually  produced,  by  electrical  agency.  There  are  leTeral  prooenet 
by  which  thia  is  accomplished,  one  of  which,  also  protected  by  a  patent,  Mr,  Palmer 
calls  Qlyphography.    See  Photo-gaivanography. 

ELECTRO-TTPK  Mr.  Spencer  in  England  and  professOT  Jacobi  in  Russia,  made  the 
first  experiments  in  thia  art  in  1837  and  1888.  Since  then,  Mr.  Smee  and  others  haTo 
perfected  the  prooeasea.  In  1840  Mr.  Ruolz  and  Mr.  Elkington  applied  it  to  gilding 
and  siWer  plating.  The  warehouses  of  the  latter  in  London  and  Birmingham  are 
well  known.  Within  the  last  few  years  printing  types  and  woodcuts  and  casts  from 
tiiem,  have  been  electrotyped  with  copper. 

ELEPH  A.NT.  This  animal,  in  the  earliest  times,  was  trained  to  war.  The  history  of  the 
Maccabees  informs  us,  that  "  to  every  elephant  thoy  appointed  1000  men  armed  with 
coats  of  mail,  and  500  horse :  and  upon  the  elephants  were  strong  towers  of  wood," 
&c.  The  elephants  in  the  army  of  Anttochus  were  provoked  to  fight  by  showing  them 
the  "  blood  of  grapes  and  mulberries."  The  first  elephant  said  to  have  been  seen  in 
EngUnd,  was  one  of  enormous  size,  presented  by  the  king  of  France  to  our  Henry 
IIL,  in  12ZS*—Baker't  Chnm. 

ELEUSINIAN  MYSTERIES.  A  great  festival  under  this  name  was  observed  by  the 
Athenians  and  other  nations :  these  mysteries  were  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the 
religious  ceremonies  of  Greece,  and  were  instituted  by  Eumolpus,  1356  B.o.  They 
were  so  superstitiously  observed,  that  if  any  one  revealed  them,  it  was  supposed  that 
he  had  called  divine  vengeance  upon  him,  and  he  was  put  to  death.  The  mysteries 
were  introduced  from  Eleusis  into  Rome,  and  lasted  about  1800  years,  and  were  at 
last  abolished  by  Theodosius  the  Great,  a.d.  389. 

ELGIN  MARBLES.  These  admirable  works  were  derived  chiefly  from  the  Parthenon, 
a  temple  of  Minerva  in  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  of  which  they  formed  part  of  the 
frieze  and  pediment,  built  by  Phidias  about  500  b.o.  Lord  Elgin  began  the  collection 
of  these  marbles  during  his  mission  to  the  Ottoman  Porte,  in  1802;  they  were 
purchased  of  him  by  the  British  government  for  86,000IL  and  placed  in  the  British 
Museum,  in  1816. 

ELL.  An  English  measure  containing  a  yard  and  a  quarter.  It  was  so  named  from 
ulna,  the  arm,  and  was  fixed  to  this  precise  length  by  king  Henry  I.  in  1101.  This 
sovereign  fixed,  at  the  same  time,  the  measure  of  the  yard  to  the  length  of  his  arm.— 
Slowe, 

ELOPEMENT.  A  married  woman  who  departs  from  her  husband,  loses  her  dower  by 
the  statute  of  Westm.  2,  c.  14 — except  that  her  husband,  without  coercion  of  the 
Church,  shall  become  reconciled  to  her,  13  Edw.  1. 1234. — Vinet^a  SteUtUes.  Earlier 
laws  punished  elopement  with  great  severity,  and  in  cases  wherein  adultery  followed 
it,  it  was  punished  with  death.    See  Adultery. 

ELPHIN,  BISHOPRIC  of.  St.  Patrick  founded  a  cathedral  near  Elpfain,  "by  a  river 
issuing  from  two  fountains."  in  the  fifth  century,  and  placed  over  it  St.  Asicus,  whom 
he  created  bishop,  and  who  soon  after  filled  it  with  monks.  After  many  centuries, 
and  a  little  before  the  arrival  of  the  English,  this  see  was  enriched  with  h^ge  estates, 
upon  the  translation  of  Roscommon  to  it.  Ardcam,  Drumclive,  and  others  of  less 
note,  where  also  annexed  to  Elphin ;  and  by  these  unions  it  became  at  length  one  of 
the  richest  in  all  Ireland.  It  is  valued  in  the  king's  books,  by  an  extent  returned 
28  Eliz.  at  103/.  ISt,  sterling.  The  see  is  now  united  to  Kilmore,  under  the  pro- 
visions  of  the  Church  Temporalities'  act,  passed  Aug.  1833. 

ELY,  BISHOPRIC  of.  A  church  was  built  here  by  Etheldra,  queen  of  Egfrida,  king  of 
Northumberland,  who  founded  also  a  religious  house,  and  planted  it  with  vii^ns, 
and  beoune  first  abbess  herselt  The  Danes  ruined  the  latter ;  but  *the  monastery 
was  rebuilt  and  filled  with  monks,  on  whom  king  Edgar  and  many  succeeding 
monarehs  bestowed  great  privileges,  and  made  grants  of  land ;  so  that,  in  process  of 
time,  the  abbey  of  Ely  became  the  richest  in  England.  Richard,  the  eleventh  abbot, 
wishing  to  free  himself  from  the  bishop  of  Lincoln,  made  great  interest  with  Henry  I. 
to  get  Ely  erected  into  a  bishopric.  His  successor  was  the  first  prelate,  A.D.  1109. 
It  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  21341. 18s.  6d, 

*  Whan  Alaxander  had  conquered  Poms,  kinff  of  India,  he  took  a  great  elephant,  which  hud  fought 
TalianUy  for  the  king,  and  naming  him  AJaz,  dedicated  him  to  the  sun.  and  let  him  go  with  ih.\a 
Inscription : — "  Alexander,  the  son  of  Jupiter,  bath  dedicated  A^nx  to  the  son."  This  elephant  was 
fotmd,  it  is  said,  with  the  inscription,  850  years  after. 


EMA 


240 


EMI 


EMANCIPATION  or  ths  ROMAN  CATHOLICS.    See  JUmum  CoUkoUeg. 

EMBALMING.  The  ancient  EgypiUms  believed  that  their  souls,  after  many  thousand 
years,  would  come  to  reinhabit  their  bodies,  in  case  these  latter  were  preserved 
entire.  Hence  arose  their  practice  of  embalming  the  dead.  The  Elgyptian  manner 
of  preserving  the  dead  has  been  the  admiration  and  wonder  of  modem  times.  They 
rendered  the  body  not  only  incorruptible,  but  it  retained  its  full  proportion  of  sixe, 
symmetry  of  features,  and  personal  likeness.  The  embalmed  bodies  are  called 
mummiet,  some  of  which,  buried  8000  years  ago,  are  perfect  to  this  day.  The  art  of 
such  embalming  is  now  lost.  When  Nicodemus  came,  with  Joseph  of  Arimathea, 
to  pay  the  last  duties  to  Our  Saviour  after  his  crucifixion,  he  brought  a  mixture  of 
myrrh  and  aloes  to  embalm  his  body. — John  xix.  88. 

EMBARGO.  This  power  is  vested  in  the  crown,  but  is  rarely  exerelBed  except  in  extreme 
cases,  and  sometimes  as  a  prelude  to  war.  The  most  memorable  instances  of  embargo 
were  those  for  the  prevention  of  com  going  out  of  the  kingdom  in  1766 ;  and  for  the 
detention  of  all  Russian,  Danish,  and  Swedish  ships  in  the  several  ports  of  the  king- 
dom, owing  to  the  armed  neutrality,  Jan.  14, 1801.    See  Arwied  Neutrality. 

EMBER  WEEKa  Observed  in  the  Christian  Church  in  the  third  century,  to  implore 
the  blessing  of  God  on  the  produce  of  the  earth  by  prayer  and  fluting^  Ehber 
Dats^  three  of  which  fall  in  tnese  weelu,  and  in  which  penitents  sprinkle  the  adies 
(embers)  of  humiliation  on  their  heads.  Four  times  in  each  year  were  appointed 
for  these  acts  of  devotion,  so  as  to  answer  to  the  four  seasons. 

EMBROIDERY.  Its  invention  is  usually  ascribed  to  the  Phrygians ;  but  we  leam  from 
Homer,  and  other  ancient  authors,  that  the  Sidonians  particularly  excelled  in  this 
decorative  species  of  needlework.  Of  this  art  very  early  mention  is  made  in  the 
Scriptures. — Exodtu  xxxf .  85,  and  xxxviii  23.  Aa  ancient  existing  specimen  of 
beautiful  embroidery  is  the  Bayeux  tapestry,  worked  by  Matilda,  the  queen  of 
William  L  of  England.    See  Baytux  Tapestry, 

EMERALD.  The  precious  stone,  of  a  green  colour,  is  found  in  the  East  and  in  Pern ; 
inferior  ones  in  other  places.  It  has  been  alleged  that  there  were  no  true  emendda 
in  Europe  before  the  conquest  of  Peru ;  but  there  is  a  genoine  emerald  in  the  Paris 
Museum,  taken  fh>m  the  mitre  of  Pope  Julius  II.  who  died  in  1513,  and  Peru  was 
not  conquered  till  1545;  hence  it  is  inferred  that  this  emerald  was  brought  from 
Africa,  or  the  East. 

EMIGRATION.  Of  late  years,  emigrations  from  Britain  have  been  considerable.  In 
the  ten  years  ending  1830,  the  emigrations  to  our  North  American  Colonies,  West 
Indies,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  New  South  Wales,  Swan  River,  Van  Dieman's  Land, 
&C.,  were,  according  to  official  returns,  154,291.  In  the  decennial  period  to  1840, 
emigration  had  increased  to  277,695,  exclusively  of  the  vast  numbera  that  preferred 
setting  in  the  United  States  of  America. 

In  1846b  From  England  87.611. 
In  1847.  Ditto  .  .  163.898. 
In  1848,  Ditto  .  .  .  176,883. 
In  1840,  Ditto  .  .  212,124. 
In  1850,  Ditto  .  .  .  214,612. 
In  1851,  Ditto       .        .  254.970. 

Fnrm  Vu  Unittd  Kingdom. 


From  IreUmd  88.818. 

From  Scotland 

8.427. 

Total,  129.861. 

Ditto     .        .  96,766. 

Ditto 

8.616. 

T^itai.  ssatro. 

Ditto         .    .  69,701. 

Ditto  .        .    . 

11,605. 

Total.  248.088L 

Ditto     .        .  70,247. 

DiUo 

17,127. 

Total,  299.498. 

Ditto         .     .  61.088. 

Ditto  .        .    . 

16,164. 

Total.  280.849. 

Ditto     .        .  62,850. 

Ditto 

18.646. 

Total,  886,966. 

In  1852 868.764 

In  1858 829.937 

In  1854 823.429 

To  North  Jmeriean  ColUmiu,  in  1842,  54.128; 

in  1847,  109,680 ;  in  1856,  16,878. 
3V>  Vnitfd  Statt*,  in  1842.  63,862;   in  1847. 

142.154^  in  1856,  111.837. 


In  1856                               ...  176^807 
In  1856 176^564 

To  Jtutralia  and  New  Zealand,  in  1842.  85S4 ; 
in  1846.  S80  ;  In  1860,  16,037 ;  in  1662  (poU 
dueover^),  87,881 ;  in  1868,  61.401 ;  in  1664, 
88.287 ;  in  1866.  6S;809 ;  in  1856^  44.584. 


EMINENCE.  A  spiritual  dignity  in  the  Roman  States,  conferred  upon  cardinals  by  a 
decree  of  Pope  Urban  VIII.  dated  Jan  10, 1630,  as  being  more  honourable  than  the 
title  of  Excellency.  Previously  to  that  time,  cardinsls  had  the  title  of  lUmtiriaaimL 
— Athe,    The  grand-master  of  Malta  also  obtained  this  title. — Pardon, 

EMIR.  A  title  of  dignity  among  the  Turks  and  Persians,  first  given  to  caliphs.  His 
rank  was  first  awarded  to  the  descendants  of  Mahomet,  by  his  daughter  Fatima,  about 
A.D.  650. — JUcaut.  To  such  only  (who  were  held  in  great  esteem)  was  otjgiiiaiUy 
given  the  privilege  of  wearing  the  green  turban.  The  title  is  also  given  to  high 
officers^  another  title  being  joined. 


EML 


241 


ENQ 


EMLY,  BISHOPRIC  of.  An  ancient  IriBh  see,  ropposed  to  have  been  founded  by 
St.  Patrick,  and  formerly  endowed  with  large  poaseaaiona.  Bmly  waa  called  Imelaca> 
Ibair :  and  St.  Ailbe  waa  the  first  biahop  in  a.d.  448.  Emly  ia  now  an  inconaider^le 
Tillage.  In  1568,  the  aee  waa  united  to  the  then  archiepiacopal  aee  of  CaaheL 
BeeCaahd, 

EMPALEMENT.  Thia  mode  of  executing  criminals,  mentioned  by  JuTenal,  and  often 
inflicted  in  Rome^  ia  atill  uaed  in  Turkey  and  Arabia.  The  dead  bodiea  of  murderera 
were  aometimea  staked  in  thia  manner,  preyiously  to  being  buried,  in  England.^ 
Williama  (who  committed  suicide),  the  murderer  of  the  Marr  fSamily,  in  Batcliffe 
Highway,  London,  Dea  8,  1811,  was  staked  in  hia  ignominiotia  grave.  Thia  praotice 
haa  been  since  aboliahed  with  ua.    See  Bwrying  Alive, 

EMPEROR  Originally  a  title  of  honour  at  Roma^  conferred  on  Tictorioua  generala, 
who  were  fint  saluted  by  the  aoldiera  by  that  name.  Aug^uatua  Coaar  waa  the  first 
Roman  emperor,  27  b.o.  Valena  waa  the  fint  emperor  of  tiie  eaatem  empire,  ajd, 
S64.  Charlemagne  was  the  first  emperor  of  Germany,  crowned  by  Leo  III.  a.d.  800. 
Othman  L,  founder  of  the  Turkiah  empire,  waa  the  first  emperor  of  Turkey,  1296. 
The  Csar  of  Ruaaia  waa  the  firat  emperor  of  that  country,  1722.  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte waa  the  first  emperor  of  France,  in  1804.  Don  Pedro  IV.  of  Portugal  waa  the 
first  emperor  (of  Bnudl)  in  the  New  World,  1825. 

EMPIRICS.    They  were  a  aet  of  early  physicians  who  contended  that  all  hypothetical 
reaaoning  respecting  the  operationa  of  the  animal  economy  waa  uaeleas,  and  that 
experience  and  obaenration  alone  were  the  foundation  of  the  art  of  medicine.    The 
.aaet  of  Empirica  waa  inatituted  by  Acron  of  Agrigentum,  about  478  RC. 

ENAMBLLINO.  The  origin  of  the  art  of  enamelling  ia  doubtful  It  waa  practised  by 
the  Egyptiana  and  other  early  nations,  and  waa  known  in  England  in  the  time  of  the 
Saxona.  At  Oxford  ia  an  enamelled  jewel  which  belonged  to  Alfred,  and  which,  aa 
appears  by  the  inacription,  waa  made  by  his  order,  in  lua  reign,  about  ▲.D.  887. 

ENCAUSTIC  PAINTING.  The  art  of  enamelling  or  painting  by  fire.— £at2ry.  Painting 
with  burnt  wax,  which  was  known  to  the  ancients.  Thia  very  beautiful  art^  after 
baring  been  loat^  waa  restored  by  Coimt  Caylua  and  M.  Bachelier,  ▲  d.  1749. 

ENCENI  A.  FestiTala  anciently  kept  on  the  daya  on  which  oitiea  were  built  and  ohurches 
consecrated ;  and,  in  later  times,  ceremoniea  which  were  renewed  at  certain  perioda, 
aa  at  Oxford,  at  the  celebrationa  of  founders  and  benefactora. — OULuwofih.  They 
were  feasta  celebrated  by  the  Jewa  on  the  25th  of  the  ninth  month,  in  commemoration 
of  the  cleansing  or  purifying  the  temple  by  the  Maccabeea,  which  had  been  polluted 
by  Antiochua  Epiphanea,  131  B.a 

ENCOMBERED  ESTATES  (IRELAND)  BILL.    See  Inevmbered  BtUOa, 

ENCTCLOPiEDIA,  o&  CTCLOP.£DIA,  a  general  dictionary  of  art»  acience,  and  litera- 
ture. Thia  name  haa  been  given  to  a  work  by  Abulpharagiua  in  the  18ch  century. 
Hofmainn*»  Lexicon  VnivertaU  appeared  in  1697.  The  earliest  Engliah  encyclop»iia 
appeara  to  be  the  Lexie(m  Ttdinicum  of  John  Harria,  172544. 


ChambeTB*  CydopedlA    .  .a.d.  1728 

BncTclop6die  (by  Diderot  and  D'Alam- 

bert) 1761-80 

EDcyeioiMBdfA  BriUnnioa,  fint  edition, 

(tbe  «^MA  now  publishing,)  .  1778 

EncyclopAlie     Xdthodique    (by    Pan- 

coock) 1781-1880 

Chainben' Cydopedia  (by  Bees)  .  .  1786 
Reea' Cydopttdia        ....  1808-20 


CoDTeraationa-Lexioon    (fint     edition, 

new  one  now  pabliahing)  .  a.d.  1818 

Enmlopndia  Metropolltana      .       .  1830-46 
Cabiuet    Cydopndia   (a    collection   of 

treatiaea) 1880-41 

Penny  Cydopiedia      ....  18SS-46 
Knight's     EngUah     (}ydopndia    (now 
pubUahing) 1864 


ENGHIEN,  BATTLE  or.  Fought  by  the  Britiah  under  William  III.  and  the  French 
under  Marahal  Luxembuig,  who  were  rictorioua,  Aug.  8,  1692.  William  had  put 
bimaelf  at  the  head  of  the  confederated  army  in  the  Netherlanda,  and  leagued  himaelf 
with  the  Proteatant  powera  upon  the  continent  againat  the  ambition  of  Louia  XIV., 
and  in  the  end  he  triumphed.  A  victory  obtained  here  by  the  great  Cond^,  firat  gaye 
the  ducal  title  to  a  prince  of  the  houae  of  Bourbon  Cond^.  The  duke  D'Enghien 
waa  ahot  by  torch-light,  immediately  after  condemnation  by  a  military  oourt|  at 
Yinoennea,  March  20, 1804.    The  body  waa  exhumed,  March  20, 1816. 

ENGINEERS.  Thia  name  ia  of  modem  date,  aa  engineera  were  formerly  called  Trench- 
iiiaater&  Sir  William  Pelham  officiated  aa  Trench-maater  in  1622.  The  chief  engineer 
waa  called  camp-maater^general  in  1684.    Captain  Thomaa  Rudd  had  the  rank  of  chief 


ENG 


244 


ENG 


ENGLAND,  e(mti$med. 

Death  of  Charles  JamaB  Fox  .  SoptlS,  1806 
Death  of  Geoeral  Moore.    (Bee  OtrmuMt, 

JfaitUnf)       ....    Jan.  16.  1800 
Dake  of  York  impeached  by  oolonel 

WanUe Jan.  2^  1800 

The Jubaee (which me).  Oct  25.  1800 

Sir  Francis  Bordett's  airest,  and  subse- 
quent riots  April  6.  1810 
King's  malady  returns    .  Nor.  S;  1810 
The  prince  of  Wales  is  sworn  as  prince 

regent Feb.  S,  1811 

Assasrinatlcm  of  Mr.  Perceral,    prime 

minister  ....  May  11,  181S 
War  with  America  is  commenced.    (See 

UniUdSUUa)  .  June  18,  1812 

Peace  with  France  April  14,  1814 

Visit  of  the  emperor  of  Russia  and  king 

of  Prussia  to  England  .       .    June  7,  1814 
Centenary  of  the  house  of  HanoTer  cele- 
brated      ....         Aug.  1,  1814 
Peace  with  America  .    Dea  24,  1814 

Battle  of  Waterloo,  whicli  flnallv  closes 

the  French  war    .  .  June  18,  1816 

Death  of  Sheridan  July  0.  1810 

Spa-fields  meeting  (vkidk  see)  Dec.  S;  1816 
^iBen-bag  inquiry  (wAidb  m)  Feb.  2,  1817 
Habeaa  Cwrjmt  suspended  .  Feb.  21,  1817 
Cash  payments  resumed  Sept.  22,  1817 

Princess  Charlotte  of  Wales,  who  had 

married  prince  Leopold,  May  2, 1816, 

dies  in  childUrth  .  .     Not.  6,  1817 

Duke  of  Clarence's  (afterwards  William 

lY.)  marriage  .    July  11,  1818 

Queen  Chariotte^  consort  of  Oeoive  IIL, 

dies  at  Kew  .  Not.  17,  1818 

Manchester  reform  meeting  {whieh  $et) ; 

its  disastrous  termination  .  Aug.  16,  1810 
Duke  of  Kent  dies  Jan.  2S,  1820 

Death  of  Oeoige  III.  .    Jan.  20,  1820 

Trial  of  Queen   Caroline.     (See  Quem 

Osrottm'f  TriaO    .  .  Aug.  10,  1820 

Coronation  of  Oeone  IV.  .  Ju^  10,  1821 
Queen  Caroline  exp&es  atHammersmith, 

near  London    .  Aug.  7,  1821 

Lord  Byron  dies  .  .  .  April  10,  1824 
Duke  of  Tork  dies  Jan.  22,  1827 

Mr.  Canning,  flnt  lord  of  the  treasury. 

(See  AdnMttratioiu)  .  .  April  10.  1827 
His  death  ....  Aug.  8,  1827 
The  portals  of  the  constitution  thrown 

open  to  the  Roman  Catholics.    (Bee 

Roman  Oatholie$)   .  .  April  IS,  1820 

DeathofGeoigelV.    .  June  26   1880 

Mr.  Huskisson  killed  on  the  LiTerpaol 

railway  (which  ««)    .  Sept  15,  1880 

The  cholera  morbus  makes  great  rsTsges 

in  Bn«^nd.  (See  ChoUrS)  Oct  26.  1881 
Parliamentarr  reform ;  act  passed.   (See 

JK^orm  in  Parliament) .  .  June  7,  1832 
Sir  Walter  SooU  dies  .  Sept  21,  1832 

Assault  on  William  IV.  by  a  dischaiged 

pensioner  at  Ascot  .  June  10,  1882 

Coleridge  dies  ....  July  25,  1884 
SIsTery  abolished.  (See5Za«»)  Aug.1.  1884 
Corporation  reform;  act  passed.    (See 

OorponUiont)    ,  Sept  0,  1885 

William  IV.  dies  .  June  20,  1837 

[The  crown  of  Hanorer  is  now  sepa- 
rated from  that  of  Great  Britam.] 

Coronation  of  Victoria  June28k  1838 

Bsginning  of  war  with  China  .  .  .  1880 
Marriage  of  the  queen  with  prince  Albert 

of  Saxe-Coburg  Feb.  10,  1840 

Oxford's  assault  on  the  queen.     (See 

(htford,  Bdward)    .  .  June  10,  1840 

Prince  of  Walee  bom  .  Nor.  0,  1841 

King  of  Prussia  Tisits  Bngland.  Jan.  24,  1842 
John  Francis  fires  a  pistol  at  the  queen. 

(^^•Franeit),  .    lUySO,  1842 


Bean,  a  deformed  yoath,  prossnts  a  pis- 

tolather  ....  JulyS,  1842 
Peace  of  Nankin  (with  China)  .  .  .  1842 
Queen  embarks  for  Scotland  on  her  first 

Tisit  then  Aug.  29,  1842 

Southeydies    .  Mar^2].  184S 

Queen's  Tisit  to  the  Orleans  fiunily  at 

ChAteau  d'Bu  .    Sept  2,  184S 

King  of  Saxony  Tisits  England  May  281,  1844 
Emperor  of  Russia's  Tisit  .  June  1.  1844 
Louis  PhiUppe's  Tisit  .  .  Oct  7.  1844 

Queen's  Tidt  to  Germany  .  Aug.  9,  1845 
TbB  exiled  French  royal  fhmOy  take  xtp 

their  residence  at  Claremont  Marohi,  1848 
Great  Chartist  demonstratian  in  Lon- 
don         April  10:  1848 

Cholerare-appearsin  England  in  1848 and  1849 
Queen  embans  on  her  Tisit  to  Ireland, 

Aug.  1.  1849 
Adelaide,  dowager  queen,  dies  Dee  S,  1848 
The  "Exhibition  of  1851"  officially  an- 

nounoed  ....  Jan.  8,  1850 
Death  of  Wonlsworth.  April  28.  1850 

Pate's  assault  on  the  queen  .  June  27,  1880 
Death  of  sir  Robert  Peel     .  July  2.  1850 

Duke  of  Cambridge  dies.  .  Julys,  1850 
Queen's  Tisit  to  Belgium  .  Aug.  21.  1850 
Great  excitement  occasioned  fay  the 
pope's  establishment  of  a  luwnan 
Cstholic  hierarchy  in  England  Not.  1860 
Death  ofthe  poet  Thomas  Moore.  Feb.  20,  1852 
Death  of  Wefiingtan  .  Sept  14.  1852 

His  public  Amend  at  St  Paul's.    (See 

WdlingUm'$  FtmenU)  .  .  Not.  18.  18SS 
Slight   earthquake  at  LiTerpool,    Ac 

Not.  0.  1852 
Prince  Leopold  bom   .  April  7.  1858 

Mrs.  Stowe  Tisits  EngUmd,  Aa  April.  I86S 
Camp  at  Chobham  formed  on  June  14 ; 

breaks  up  ...  .  Aug.  10.  185S 
Death  of  nr  Charles  Napier,  conqueror 

of  Sdnde  ....  Aug.  20.  I85S 
English  and  French  fleets  enter  Boa- 

pnorus Oct  22,  1853 

Protocol  signed  between  England, 
France,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  for  re- 
establishment  <k  peace  between  Rn^ 
sia  and  Turkey     .  Dec  5^  1853 

Many  meetings  on    Eastern   question. 

fiiTourable  to  Turkey  .  Sept  to  Dec..  1858 
Exportation  of  miUtaiy  stores  prohibited 

Feb.  18,  1854 
(Sreat  strike  at  Preston,  14,072  hands 
unemployed  at  one  time,  Oct  15^  1858, 

to  May  1,  1864 
Queen  reTiews  Baltic  fleet  March  11,  1854 
maty  of  allianoe   between   England!, 

France,  and  Turksy.  signed  March  12.  1854 
War  declared  against  Russia.  (See  Bu$$o- 

Turiuh  War)  March  28,  1851 

Fast  day  on  account  of  the  war  April  96.  1864 
Marquis  of  Anglesey  dies        .    Hay  28.  1854 
Important  commeroial  treaty  concluded 
with  United  States  by  Lord  Elgin  on 
behalf  of  Canada  June  7,  1854 

King  of  Portugal  Tisits  England  Jnn«^  1864 
Cryrtal  Palace  opened  by  the  queen. 

Juno  10,  1854 
Cholera  preTsils  in  south  and  west  of 

London  .  Aug.  and  Sept,  1854 

Death  of  Lord  Denman  Sept  2t  1854 

ThanksgiTing   for    abundant    harreat, 

Oct  1.  1854 
Great  explosion  and  fln  at  Gateshead 

and  Newcastle  ....  Oct  6^  1854 
Meeting  of  Parliament  .  .  Dec.  12,  1854 
Resignation  of  Lord  At>erdeen's  ministry. 

and  ministerial  crisis  Jan.  20,  1855 

Farmaticnof  Lord  Palmerston's  ministry 

Feb.  1855 


BNG 


245 


ENG 


ENGLAND,  eontmued. 

Death  of  Joseph  Hume  (aged  78)  Feb.  SO,  1856 
Sebaetopol   Inquiry   Committee  nomi- 
nated      Feb.  28,  1866 

Visit  of  Emperof  and  EmpresB  of  French 

April  16  to  81,  1856 
Loan  of  16  milliona  agreed  to  .  April,  1865 
Distribution  of  Crimean  medals  May  18,  1866 
New  Metropolitan  cattle  maiicet  opened, 

June  IS.  1866 
Death  of  Lord  Raglan  JuneSS^  1866 

Agitation  and  rioting  eoncemincr  Sun- 
day trading  bill,  wnich  is  withdrawn, 

July  S,  1866 


The  queen  and  pilnee  visit  Puis,  Aug.  18, 
Peace  with  Russia  proclaimed,  Apru  19; 
Thanksgiving  day.  May  4 ;  Illumina- 
tions, Ac       ...        .    May  29, 
War  with  China  (wkidk  me) .       .     Oct. 
War  with  Persia  (whiek  m)     .        Nov., 
DlsMlution   of  parliament,  March  21 ; 
new  parliament  meet  .       .  April  30, 
Birth  of  Prinoess  Beatrice  .       April  16, 
Death  of  Duchess  of  Gloucester  (sged  81)^ 

April  80, 


1856 


I860 
1866 
1864 

1867 
1867 

1867 


KINGS  AND  QX7EENS  OF  ENGLAND. 


827. 
837. 
867. 

860. 
866. 

872. 
901. 
934. 
940 

947. 
965u 


960. 

974. 

9T9. 
1018. 
1014. 
1015. 
1016. 

1010. 
1080. 
1089. 
1041. 

1000. 


BSrOBS  TRX  OOVQUEST. 

Egbert,  first  sole  monarch,  so  reigned 
ten  years;  succeeded  by  his  son. 

Bthelwolf ;  reigned  twenty  years;  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son. 

Ethelbald,  called  the  Second ;  died  20tk 
Dea  800;  succeeded  by  his  next 
brother. 

Ethelbert;  died  in  880,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by 

Bthelred.  third  son  of  Ethelwolf ;  died 
April  27th.  872 ;  succeeded  hy 

Alfred,  sumamed  the  Great,  fourth  son 
of  Bthelwolf.  died  2Sth  Oct  901. 

Edward  the  Elder ;  succeeded  his  fother 
Alfred;  died  in  924. 

Athelatan,  eldest  son  of  the  last  king ; 
died  Oct  17,  940. 

Edmund  I.,  fifth  son  of  Edward  the 
Elder :  bled  to  death  from  a  wound 
received  in  an  afflray,  May  26th,  947. 

Edred,  brother  of  Edmund,  died  in  965, 
and  was  succeeded  hy 

Edwy,  eldest  son  of  Edmund,  died  of 
grief  in  969.  In  this  reign,  Dunstan. 
a  turbulent  and  ambitious  priest, 
ruled  the  king;  who  aAerwarcb  ban- 
ished him. 

Edgar,  styled  the  Peaceable^  brother  of 
Edwy ;  died  July  1st,  974. 

Edward  the  Martyr,  his  son,  stabbed  at 
Corfe  Gsstle,  at  the  instance  of  his 
mother-in-law.  Blfrida,  Mar.  18th,  979. 

Ethelied  II. ;  succeeded  his  half-brother 
Edward;  retired. 

Swetne.  proclaimed  king;  died  Feb.Srd, 
1014 ;  sucoeeded  by  Us  son. 

Ctoute  the  Great;  while  absent  in 
Denmark  the  exiled  king  returned. 

Btheh«d  reatored/  died  April  24th,  1010, 
succeeded  by  hislson. 

Edmund  Ironside;  divided  the  king- 
dom with  Canute ;  murdered  at  Ox- 
ford, Nov.  SOth,  1010;  reigned  seven 
months. 

Canute  aaain:  married  Emma,  widow 
of  Ethelred;  died  in  1080. 

Harold  I.,  his  natural  son;  a  cruel 
jnrince ;  died  Ai^  14th,  1039. 

Hardicaoute,  son  of  Canute  and  Emma; 
died  of  repletioD  at  a  marriage  feast. 

Edward  the  Confessor,  son  of  Ethelred 
and  Emma :  died  JaiL  6, 1000.  naming 
Tniliam  of  Normandy  his  successor. 

fiarold  II.,  son  of  Earl  Godwin:  reigned 
nine  months:  killed  in  battle. 
[WllUam  of  Normandy  invaded  Eng- 
land in  Sept  1000,  with  a  nowerftil 
fleet  and  army,  and  gave  oattle  to 
Hwnold,  at  Hastings^  on  the  14th 
October  following,  over  whom  he 
obtained  a  commete  victory,  and 
Harold  being  dain.  he  was  pro- 
claimed king  by  his  triumphant 
army  on  the  spot.] 


Arm  THX  CDvqnur. 

1000.  William  the  Conqueror ;  died  at  Rouen, 
Sept  9. 1087. 

1087.  William  II.  RuAis;  killed  by  an  arrow, 
Aug.  2,  1100. 

1100.  Henry  I.  Beauderk,  his  brother ;  died 
of  a  surfeit,  Dea  1st,  1186. 

1186.  Stephen  eari  of  Bkrfs^  nephew  of  Henry: 
tne  empress  Maud,  daughter  of 
Henry,  contended  with  him  for  the 
crown ;  died  Oct  26th.  1164. 

1154.  Henry  II.  Plantagenet.  grandson  of 
Henry  and  son  of  Maud;  married 
Eleanor  of  France;  died  July  0th, 
1189. 

1180.  Richard  I.  Oomr  de  Xton,  his  son;  died 
of  a  wound,  April  0, 1199. 

1199.  J<dm.  the  brother  of  Richard ;  married 
Isabella  d'AngoulAme ;  died  Oct  18tli, 
1210. 

1210.  Henry  III.  son  of  John;  married  Elea- 
nor of  Provence ;  died  Nov.  10th,  1272. 

1272.  Edward  I.  son  of  Heniy:  sumamed 
Longtkamkt;  married  Eleanor  of  Cas- 
tile ;  2ndly,  Margaret  of  France ;  died 
July  7th.  1807. 

1807.  Edward  II.  son  of  Edward  I. ;  married 
Isabella  of  France ;  dethroned,  Jan. 
26th.  1827;  mwrdtrtd  at  Berkd«y 
Cfestle,  Sept  21,  following. 

1827.  Edward  IIL  his  son;  married  PhlUppa, 
of  Hainault;  died  June  21,  1877. 

1877.  Richard  IL  son  of  Edward  the  Black 
Prince,  and  grandson  of  Edward  III. ; 
married  Anne  of  Austria;  2ndly, 
Isabella  of  France;  dethroned  Sept 
28th,  1399;  mwrdend  at  PomiSvt 
Castle,  10th  F6b.  following. 

ROVIX  or  LAKCASrSB. 

1399.  Henrv  IV.  cousin  of  Richard  II. ;  mar- 
risd  Joan  of  Navarre ;  died  Mar.  SOth, 
1418 ;  sucoeeded  by 

1413.  Hennr  V.  his  son ;  married  Catherine 
of  France ;  died  Aug.  81st,  1422. 

1422.  Henry  VI.  his  son ;  married  Margaret 
of  Anjou ;  deposed  Mar.  4tb,  1401 ; 
mwrdtrtd  by  Richard,  duke  of  Glou- 
cester, in  the  Tower,  June  20th,  1471. 

ROVBB  or  TOIUC. 

1401.  Edward  IV. :  married  lady  EUxabeth 
Grey;  died  April  0th.  1488. 

1488.  Edward  V.  his  son ;  deposed  June  22nd, 
1488,  and  murdend  in  the  Tower  by 
Gloucester ;  reigned  two  months  and 
18  days. 

1488.  Richard  IIL  brother  of  Edward  IV. ; 
«(a«H  at  Boeworth,  Aug.  22nd,  1485. 

HOXmB  or  TOSOB. 

1485.  Henry  VII.;  married  EUzabeth  of  York; 

died  April  22nd,  1609. 
1509.  Henry  vIII.  his  son.    Bee  prteedkig 
'     died  Jan.  28th,  1647. 


ENG 


246 


ENO 


ENGLAND,  eotUinued. 

1647.  Edward  VI.  son  of  Henrv  VIII.  (by  the 

lady  Jaae  Seymour),  died  July  6th, 

1658. 
166S.  MaiTf  daughter  of  Henrv  (bv  Catherine 

of  ArragonX  nuinied  rhUlp  of  Spain ; 

died  Not.  17th,  1668. 
1658.  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Henry  (by  Anna 

BoleynX  died  Mar.  24th,  1003. 

H0U8B  or  BTuuer. 

1608.  James  I.  of  EngUiud,  and  VI.  of  Scot- 
land, son  of  Marv,  queen  of  Soota : 
married  Anne,  pxincaM  of  Denmark ; 
died  Mar.  27th,  16S5. 

1626.  Charles  I.  hla  son ;  married  Henrietta 
of  France;  behtatdid  at  Whitehall, 
Jan.  80th,  1649. 

1649.  Commonwealth.  OliTor  Cromwell  made 
protectr/r,  Dea  12th,  1063 ;  died  Sept. 
8rd,  1658.  Richard  Cromwell,  his 
son,  made  protector  SepL  4th,  I6684 
resigned  AprU  22nd,  1669. 

1060.  Charles  II.  son  of  Charles  I. ;  married 
the  Infanta  Cathexine  of  Portugal ; 
died  Feb.  6th.  1685. 

1685.  James  II.  his  orother;  married  1st. 
Anne  Hyde;  flndly,  the  princess  of 
Modena;  abdieaui  by  fUght,  Deo. 
12th,  1688;  died  in  exile,  Aug.  6th, 
1701. 


1689. 


1702. 


1714. 


1727. 


1760. 


1820. 
1830. 


1837. 


(William  III.  prince  of  Orange,  and 
(  Mary,  his  queen,  daughter  of  James ; 
began  their  raign,  Feb.  ISth,  1889; 
Mvy  died  Deo.  28th,  1094 ;  and  Wil- 
liam of  a  (all  fh>m  his  lunae,  Mar.  8th, 
1702. 
Anno,  second  daughter  of  James;  mar- 
riea  George,  prinoe  of  Denmark ;  died 
without  issue,  Aug.  Ist^  1714. 

HOUra  or  HAVOTCB. 

Qeofge  I.  eleetor  of  HanoTar  aad  dnke 
of  Brunswick-Lunenboxg ;  aoa  of 
Sophia,  who  was  dauffhtar  of  Eliaa- 
beth,  the  daughter  of  James  L ;  maz^ 
ried  the  princess  Sophia;  died  Jane 
11th.  1727. 

George  II.  his  son ;  married  to  IHIhel- 
mina-CaroUne  of  Brandenbuxg-An- 
spach ;  died  Oct  26th,  1760. 

George  III.  grandson  of  Geoige  II.; 
muried  Charlotte  of  Mecklenboxg- 
StnUU  :  died  Jan.  99th,  1820. 

George  IV.  his  son ;  married  OaroUna 
of  Brunswick ;  died  Juue  26th,  1890. 

William  IV.  brother  of  George  IV. ;  mar- 
ried Adelaide  of  Saxe-Meiningen; 
died  June  20th,  1837. 

Victmia,  the  reigning  queen,  wbom 
Goo 


THE  PRESENT  (1867)  ROTAL  FAMILY  OF  ENGLAND. 

The  QvBKV.    Alezandrina-ViOTOMA.  only  daughter  of  Edward,  duke  of  Kent ;  bom  May  34,  1819  ; 
succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  decease  of  her  uncle,  William  IV.  June  20, 1837.    Crowned  at  W< 


minster,  June  28, 1838.  Married  (Feb.  10, 1840)  to  her  cousin,  Francis- ALBXRT-Augustua-Chariaa- 
Emmanuel,  duke  of  Saxe,  prinoe  of  Saxe-Goburg  and  Gotha  (ordered,  June  20, 1867,  to  be  ctjl«l 
Prine^-Oofuort),  and  has  issue : 


1.  Victoria- Adelaide-Mary-Louisa,      princess 

ro^  bom  Nov.  21.  1840.  Betrothed  to 
pnnoe  Frederick-William  of  Pniasia  in 
May,  1867  (dowry  40,000{.,  and  annuity 
ofSOOOf.) 

2.  Albert-Edward,  prince  of  Wales,  duke  of 

Saxony,  duke  of  Cornwall  and  Rothesay, 
earl  of  Chester  and   Carrick,  baron  of 
Renfirew,  and  lord  of  the  Isles,    bom 
Not.  9,  1841. 
8.  Alice-Maud-Mary,  bom  April  25, 1843. 


4.  Alfhsd-Bmest,  bom  Aug.  6,  1844. 
6.  Helena-Augiista-Victoria,    bom    May   2Sk 
1846. 

6.  Louiaa-GkroUna-Alberta,  bom   March  18, 

1848. 

7.  Arthur-Patrick-Albert,  bom  M^jr  1, 1850. 

8.  Leopold-Geoige-Duncan-AIb<nt»boim  AiHil 

7, 1853. 

9.  Beatrice-Maxy-Victoria-Feodore,  bom  April 

17, 1857. 


The  Queen's  Mothsb.  Victoria-Maria-LouiBa,  duchess  of  Kent,  aunt  to  the  duke  of  Saxe-Coborg  and 
Goth^  bom  Aug.  17,  1786 ;  married,  1st  (Dea  21,  1803)  Exnich-Charles,  prince  of  Leiningeii,  who 
died  July  4, 1814,  leaving  issue,  Charles,  prince  of  Leiningen,  bom  Sept  12,  1804,  and  the  prmrnsa 
Feodore,  bom  Dec.  7,  1807.  Married,  2na  (May  28,  1818)  to  Edward  duke  of  Kent,  who  died  Jan. 
23,  1820.    Issue,  The  Qukkn. 

The  (Queen's  Aukt  and  Coaaiwa  Augusta,  duchess  (widow  of  the'late  duke)  of  (3ambridge ;  bora  July 
25,  1797.  Her  ton,  George,  duke  of  Cambridge,  oommander-in-chiefl  bom  Mardi  20, 1819:  and  ktr 
daug^den,  Augusta,  orand  duchess  of  Mecklenburg-Strelits,  bom  July  19, 1822 ;  and  the  pvineesn 
Mary  of  Cambridge,  oom  Nov.  27, 1838. 

England  and  Wales  were  united  a.d.  1283,  and  Scotland  was  united  to  both  in  1707, 
and  the  three  were  then  styled  Great  Britain.  Ireland  was  incorporated  with  these 
countries  by  tlie  act  of  Legislative  Union,  Jan.  1, 1801,  and  the  whole  called  the 
United  Elingdom  of  Cheat  Britain  and  Ireland. 

ENGLAND,  NEW,  North  Amsrioa.  First  settled  by  the  Puritans  who  were  driven 
from  Europe  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  by  religious  persecution.  The 
first  attempt  to  form  a  settlement  was  made  in  1607.  Named  New  England  by 
captain  Smith,  in  1614.  Settlement  of  the  Plymouth  company  in  1620.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  mostly  descendants  from  the  natives  of  England. 

ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  See  article  Languageg.  From  the  High  Dutch  or  Teofconie 
sprung  (among  others)  the  English  language,  now  one  of  the  most  copious  and 
beautuul  of  Europe.  Law  pleadings  were  made  in  English  by  order  of  Edward  III. 
instead  of  the  French  language,  which  had  been  continued  from  the  time  of  the 
Conqueror,  ▲.D.  1362.    The  English  tongue  and  English  apparel  were  ordered  to  be 


ENG  U7  ENV 

uMd  in  Ireland,  28  Hen.  VUL  1586.    The  Engliih  was  ordered  to  be  need  in  all 
lawBuita,  and  the  Latin  djanaed,  May,  1781. 

ENQRAYINO.  The  eDgnying  of  gema  ia  a  branch  of  art  of  the  highest  antiquitj.  The 
earUeat  writen  make  mention  of  engrared  aeda  and  seal  rings,  and  theie  still  exist 
many  antique  engraTinga  equal  to  later  productiona  of  aimilar  artiita.  Engraving 
firom  platea  and  wood  is  chiefly  of  modem  invention,  having  its  origin  aboat  the 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Engraving  on  glaas  waa  peifeoted  to  an  art  by 
Boodier,  of  Paris,  1799.  The  copyright  to  engiavings  haa  been  protected  by  aevend 
statutaa ;  among  the  principal  are  the  acta  16  and  18  Qeo»  III.  1778  and  1777 ;  and 
the  acta  7  &  8  Vict  Aug.  6, 1844,  and  15  Vict  Hay  28, 1852. 

ENQRAVIlf  O  ON  COPPEB.  Printa  from  engraved  oopper-platea  made  their  appeanmce 
about  A.D.  1450,  and  were  first  produced  in  Qermaoy.  Masso,  aumamed  Finiguen% 
waa  the  first  Italian  artist  in  tlua  way,  1460.  The  earlieat  date  known  of  a  copper- 
plate engraving  is  1461.  Rolling  presses  for  working  the  plates  were  invented  in 
1545,  and  many  improvements  of  it  followed.  Of  the  art  of  etching  on  copper  by 
means  of  aguafortia,  Francis  Marxonli,  or  Parmegiano,  ia  the  reputed  inventor,  about 
A.D.  1582.— Dg  Piie$. 

ENORAYING,  LITHOGRAPHIC.  This  is  a  new  branch  of  the  art,  and  Alois  Senne- 
felder  may  be  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  it.  It  waa  first  announced  on  the  continent 
in  1798,  and  became  more  known  as  polyautograpby  in  1808.  It  was  introduced 
into  general  use  in  England  by  Ur.  Aokermann,  of  London,  in  1817,  sinoe  which  time 
it  has  come  into  very  general  use. 

ENGRAVING,  MEZZOTINTO.  The  art  was  discovered  by  Siegen,  and  was  improved 
by  Prince  Rupert  in  1648;  sir  Christopher  Wren  farther  improved  it  in  1662. 
Aquatinta,  by  which  a  soft  and  beautiful  effect  is  produced,  was  invented  by  Uie 
celebrated  French  artiat,  St^  Non,  about  1662 ;  he  communicated  hia  invention  to  Le 
Prince.  Bairabe  of  Paria  was  distinguished  for  his  improvements  in  this  kind  of 
engraving,  1768.  Chiai^-oscuro  engraving  originated  with  the  Germans,  and  waa 
first  practised  by  Mair,  one  of  whose  prints  beara  date  1491.    See  Zimco(fraphy,  ftc. 

ENGRAVING  oir  STEEL.  The  mode  of  engraTing  on  soft  steel,  which,  after  it  haa 
been  hardened,  will  multiply  copper-platea  and  fine  impressions  indefinitely,  waa 
introduced  into  England  by  Messrs.  Perkins  and  Heath,  of  Philadelphia,  in  1819. 
Steel  engraving  producea  the  most  delicate  and  beautiful  impreaaionB,  and  is  more 
esteemed  than  engraving  on  oopper. 

ENGRAVING  oir  WOOD.  Took  its  rise  from  the  hrirf  maklen,  or  manufiMsturen  of 
playing-cards,  about  A.D.  1400 ;  and  from  thia  sprung  the  invention  of  printing;  first 
attempted  by  means  of  wooden  types,  not  moveable.  See  Printing,  The  art  ia 
referred  bv  some  to  a  Florentine,  and  by  othera  to  Reuas,  a  German ;  it  was  greatly 
improved  by  Durer  and  Luoaa  Van  Leyden,  in  1497 ;  and  waa  brought  to  perfection 
in  England  by  Bewick,  hia  brother,  and  pupils,  Nesbett,  Anderson,  fto.,  1789  et  seq. 
The  earliest  wood  engraving  which  haa  reached  our  timea  is  one  representing  St. 
Christopher  carrying  the  infant  Jesus  over  the  sea;  it  bears  date  a«d.  1428. 

ENLISTMENT  of  SOLDIERS  akd  SEAMEN.  It  is  declared  by  aUtute  that  no 
persona  enlisting  as  soldiera  or  sailors  are  to  be  awom  in  before  a  magistrate  in  less 
than  twenty-four  hours,  and  then  they  are  at  liberty  to  withdraw  upon  their 
returning  the  enlistment  or  bounty  money,  and  21f.  costs.  Enlistment,  formerly 
moat  arbitrary,  and  forcibly  made,  is  now  entirely  voluntary. 

ENNISKILLEN,  Ibelaitd.  The  people  of  this  town  occupy  a  remarkable  place  in  the 
history  of  the  civil  wars  of  Ireland.  They  made  an  obstinate  defence  against  the 
army  of  Elisabeth,  1595.  Their  memorable  defence  sgainst  Jamea  II.,  1689. 
1500  Enniakilliners  met  general  M*Carty  with  a  force  of  6000  men,  of  whom  8000 
wer«  slain,  and  nearly  all  the  rest  were  made  prisoners,  they  losing  but  20  men,  July 
20, 1689.    The  dragoon  regiment  called  the  "  Inniakillingera,"  is  recruited  here. 

ENTOMOLOGY.  Thia  branch  of  nattiral  history  cannot  be  regarded  aa  rankins  aa  a 
science  until  the  arrangement  of  Linnaeus,  1739.  The  London  Entomological 
Society  was  instituted  in  1806 ;  it  is  devoted  chiefiy  to  the  study  of  insects  found  in 
Great  Britain ;  and  inquires  into  the  best  methods  of  destroying  noxious  insects, 
and  making  known  such  aa  are  uaefUl. 

ENVOYS  AT  COURTS.  MinLsters  m  dignity  below  ambassadors.— <Str  T.  Mm^oi, 
Envoys  enjoy  the  protection,  but  not  the  ceremonies  of  ambassadors.     Envoys 


ESQ 


250 


ETO 


repulsed  after  a  long  and  desperate  engagement,  losing  12,000  killed  and  wonnded, 
500  prisoners,  and  seven  pieces  of  cannon.  May  22, 1794. 

ESQUIRES.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  esquires  were  armoar-bearers  to,  or 
attendants  on,  a  luught — Bhvnt  In  England  the  king  created  eaquires  by  patting 
about  their  necks  the  collar  of  SS,  and  bestowing  upon  them  a  pair  of  silver  spurs. 
A  British  queen  is  recorded  as  having  married  the  armigtr,  or  esquire,  of  her  deoeased 
husband.  The  distinction  of  esquire  was  first  given  to  persons  of  fortune  not 
attendant  upon  knights,  A.D.  1845. — JSiome;  Mtyria^a  Amdad  Armtmr. 


ESSLINO,  BATTLE  or.  Between  the  armies  of  Fiance  and  Austria*  commanded  by 
Napoleon  and  the  uchduke  Charles ;  a  dreadful  conflict  which  commenced  on  May  21, 
and  was  renewed  with  increased  vigour  on  the  next  day.  May  22,  1809.  Napoleon 
was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  80,000  men  ;  but  the  loss  of  the  Austrians,  also  most 
severe,  exceeded  20,000.  This  was  the  severest  check  that  the  French  emperor  had 
yet  experienced,  and  his  army  was  greatly  endangered  in  its  retreat. 

ETHER  was  known  to  the  earliest  chemists.  Nitric  ether  was  first  discovered  by  Kunkel, 
in  1681 ;  and  muriatic  ether,  from  the  chloride  of  tin,  by  Courtanvaux,  in  1759.  Acetic 
ether  was  discovered  by  count  Lauraguaia,  same  year ;  and  hydriodic  ether  was  fint 
prepared  by  Gay-Lussac.    The  phosphoric  was  obtained  by  M.  Boullay. 

ETHER  AND  CHLOROFORM  iv  SURGICAL  OPERATIONa  The  employment,  m 
1846,  of  ether  and  chloroform  (the  latter  the  more  powerful  of  the  two)  as  anasthetic 
agents,  promises  to  be  of  vast  benefit  to  mankind.  The  discovery  that^y  inhaling 
ether  the  patient  is  rendered  unconscious  of  pain,  is  due  to  Dr.  Charles  T.  Jackson, 
of  Boston,  U.S.  Mr.  Thomas  Morton,  of  the  same  plaoe^  first  introduced  it  into 
surgical  practice  under  Dr.  Jackson's  directions.  Chloroform  was  first  implied  for 
the  same  purpose  by  Dr.  Simpson,  of  Edinburgh,  and  was  first  administered  in 
England  by  Mr.  James  Robinson,  suigeon-dentist ;  and  these  discoveries  immediately 
drew  the  attention  to  them  of  the  whole  medical  world.  Some  few  &ilures  have 
occurred,  and  a  few  deaths  ensued,  but  the  application  of  these  agents  has  been 
generally  successfuL     See  Amylene, 

ETHIOPIA.  The  name  was  applied  anciently  rather  vaguely  to  countries  the  inhabitants 
of  which  had  tun^mnU  complexions,  in  Asia  and  Africa ;  but  is  now  considered  to  apply 
properly  to  the  modem  Nubia,  Sennaar,  and  northern  Abyssinia.  Many  pyramids 
exist  at  Napata,  the  capital  of  Meroe,  the  civilised  part  of  ancient  Ethiopia. 


Zerah,  the  Etfaiopiaii  defeated  by  Aaa 

B.C.     941 
A  dynasty  of  Ethiopian  kings  reignod 

over  E^^t  from  76i  to        .  .715 

Torhalcah,  king  of  Ethiopia,  marches 

against  Sennacherib  .    .    710 


Ethiopia  invaded  by  Gambysea,  without 
8UCO08B,  between  .  .    B.C.  SS5— 322 

Candace,  queen  of  MeroS,  advandnir 
M[ainst  the'  Roman  settlements  m 
Btophantine,  defeated  and  subdued 
by  Potronixis  ▲.!>.  SS>-8S 


STHNOLOOY.  The  study  of  the  relations  of  the  different  divirions  of  mankind  to  each 
other.  It  is  of  recent  origin.  The  great  work  on  this  subject  it  Dr.  Pricfaard*s 
Besearcka  on  the  Physical  History  of  Mankind^  1841-7.  The  Ethnological  Society, 
established  in  1843,  publishes  its  Transactions.  Dr.  R.  Q.  Latham  is  Uie  great  living 
writer  on  this  subject  in  this  country. 

ETNA,  MOUNT.  Here  were  the  fabled  foi^ges  of  the  Cyclops :  and  it  is  called  by 
Pindar  the  pillar  of  heaven.  Eruptions  are  mentioned  by  Diodoros  Siculus  as 
happening  1698  B.O.,  and  Thucydides  speaks  of  three  eruptions  as  occurring,  7S4, 
477,  and  425  B.c.  There  were  eruptions,  125,  121,  and  43  B.O. — Livy,  Eruptions 
A.D.  40,  253,  snd  420. — Carrera.  One  in  1012. — Qeojprty  de  VUerbo.  Awful  one  which 
overwhelmed  Catania,  when  15,000  inhabitants  perished  in  the  burning  ruins,  1169. 
Eruptions  equally  awful  and  destructive,  1329, 1408, 1444, 1586, 1587, 1564,  and  in 
1669,  when  tens  of  thousands  of  persons  perished  in  the  streams  of  lava  which  roRed 
over  the  whole  country  for  forty  days.  Eruptions  in  1766,  1787,  1809, 1811,  and  in 
May  1830,  when  several  villages  were  destroyed,  and  showers  of  larva  reached  near  to 
Rome.  Another  violent  eruption,  and  the  town  of  Bronte  destroyed,  Nov.  18,  18S2. 
Another  and  violent  eruption  occurred  in  August  and  September,  1852. 

ETON  COLLEGE.  Founded  by  Henry  VL  in  1441,  and  designed  as  a  nursery  to  King's 
College,  Cambridge.  John  Stanberry,  confessor  to  Henry  VI.  (bishop  of  Bangor  in 
1448,)  was  the  first  provost  Besides  about  three  hundred  noblemen's  and  gentle- 
men's sons,  there  are  seventy  king's  soholazs  on  the  foundation,  who,  when  properly 


KTO  251  EVI 

quAlifiody  are  elected,  on  the  fint  Tuesday  in  Augnat,  to  King^i  College,  CMnbiidge, 
and  are  remored  when  there  are  tacanciee,  aecordlng  to  aeniority.    See  OoMiAfidgtm 

ETON  HONTEBL  The  establishment  of  the  Montem  is  nearly  ooeral  with  the  coIla|^, 
and  consisted  in  the  procession  of  the  scholars,  arrayed  in  fancy  dresses,  to  Salt-hill, 
onoe  in  three  years,  to  collect  donations  on  the  road.  The  money  so  collected  has 
amounted  to  8001.  sad  was  giTen  to  the  senior  or  best  scholar,  their  captain, 
going  off  to  Cambridge,  for  his  support  while  studying  at  that  uniTerslty. — L^ton^s 
Magna  Brkammia,  The  montem  was  discontinued  in  Jan.  1847.  The  regatta  is 
takkig  its  place. 

ETRURIA,  an  ancient  province  of  Ital^,  whence  the  Romans  in  a  great  measure  dented 
their  laws,  customs,  and  supetstittons.  Herodotus  asserts  that  the  country  was 
conquered  by  a  colony  of  Lydiana.  The  subjugation  of  this  country  forms  an 
important  part  of  early  Roman  history.  The  Ysses  and  other  works  of  the  Etruscans 
stiU  remaining  show  uie  degree  of  dvilisation  to  which  they  had  attained. 

EUCLID,  ELEMENTS  of.  Euclid  was  a  natiye  of  Alexandria^  and  flourished  there 
about  800  fi.0.  The  SUmenU  are  not  wholly  his,  for  many  of  the  invaluable  truths 
and  demonstrations  they  contain  were  discovered  and  invented  by  Thales,  Pythagoras, 
Eudoxus,  and  others;  but  Euclid  was  the  fint  who  reduced  them  to  regi^ar  order, 
and  who  probably  interwove  many  theorems  of  his  own,  to  render  the  whole  a  com- 
pleto  and  connected  system  of  geometry.  The  Bkmtntg  were  lint  printed  at  Basil  by 
Simon  Qiynous,  in  a.d.  1538. 

EUDIOMETER.    To  ascertain  the  purity  of  atmospheric  air,  or  the  quantity  of  oxygenou 
gae  or  fital  air  contained  in  it,  was  invented  (among  other  instruments)*by  Dr.  PrMstley, 

m  1772.    Some  improvements  upon  this  instrument  have  been  since  made. 

• 

EUNUCHS.  This  species  of  mutilation  is  first  mentioned  among  the  Egyptian  and 
Assyrian  nations ;  and  eunuchs  in  the  earliest  times  were  attott£nts  in  courts.  The 
first  princess  who  was  waited  upon  by  eunuchs  in  her  chamber,  was  Semiramis,  queen 
of  Assyria  and  Babylon,  about  2007  B.a — LengUt, 

EUPATORIA  (Eoslbtt).  A  sea-port  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Crimea.  After  the  allied 
French,  English,  and  Tuildsh  armies  landed  in  the  Crimea,  Sept  14, 1854,  a  detach- 
ment under  captain  Brock  occupied  this  place,  which  wss  afterwards  reinforced  by 
the  Turks.  It  was  attacked  Feb.  17, 1855  by  40,000  Russians  under  Liprandi,  who, 
were  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  500  men  by  the  Turks,  whose  loss  was  only  50,  among 
which,  however,  was  Selim  Pasha,  the  commander  of  the  Egyptian  contingent 

EURTMEDON,  BATTLE  or.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  battles  in  Grecian  history, 
when  Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades,  destroyed  the  Persian  fleet  at  Cyprus,  and  defeated  the 
land  forces  of  the  Persians  near  the  river  Eurymedon,  in  Pamphilia,  hence  the  name 
of  this  battle,  fought  470  KO.—LengUt, 

EUTYCHIAN  HERESY,  so  called  from  Eutyches,  an  abbot  of  Constantinople  who 
asserted  in  448  a.  D.  that  there  was  but  one  nature  in  Christ,  the  human  having  been 
absorbed  in  the  divine.  It  was  condemned  by  councils  at  Constantinople  in  the  same 
year,  and  at  Chalcedon  in  451.  It  has  been  also  called  MtmopkytUe  (of  one  nature), 
and  JaeobUe,  from  Jacobus  Baradsaus  its  sealous  defender  in  the  6th  century.  It  is 
the  form  of  Christianity  now  existing  among  the  Copts  and  Armenians. 

EUXINE.    SeeBladtSea. 

EYANOELISTS.  Mark  and  Matthew  wroto  their  gospels  in  a.d.  44 ;  Luke  in  55 ;  and 
John  in  97.  In  95,  John  was  thrown  into  a  caldron  of  boiling  oil  at  Rome,  whence, 
being  taken  out  unhurt,  he  was  banished  to  the  Isle  of  Patmos,  and  there,  in  the  year 
96,  he  wroto  the  ApoealffpBe,  and  died  in  100. — Butler,  At  the  council  of  Nice  in  325, 
there  were  200  varied  versions  of  the  adopted  Evangelists. 

EVESHAM,  BATTLE  or,  between  prince  Edward,  afterwards  Edward  I.  and  Simon 
ds  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,  Aug.  4, 1265,  in  which  the  barons  were  defeated,  and 
the  earl,  his  son,  and  most  of  his  adherente  slain.  Henry  III.  at  one  period  of  the 
battle  was  on  the  point  of  being  cut  down  by  a  soldier  who  did  not  know  his  rank, 
but  was  saved  by  his  timely  exclamation,  "Do  not  kill  me,  soldier;  I  am  Henry  of 
Win^eator,  thy  king !  **    Tiiis  victory  broke  up  the  combination  of  the  barons. 

EVIL  MAT-DAT,  thus  called  on  account  of  the  dreadful  excesses  of  the  apprentices 
and  populace,  directed  against  foreigners,  particularly  the  French.    ''The  rioters 


EXC 


262 


EXC 


were  headed  by  one  Lincoln,  who,  with  15  others,  was  hanged;  and  400  more  in 
shirts,  and  bound  with  ropes,  and  halters  about  their  neoks,  were  carried  to  W«si- 
minster,  but  they  crying  'mercy,  mercy  I '  were  all  pardoned  by  the  king  (Henry  YILL) 
which  demency  gained  him  much  Iotc."    May  1, 1517. — J)elau,ne, 

KXCHANGK  One,  called  Collegium  Mereaionm,  existed  at  Rome^  498  &a  The 
Exchange  at  Amsterdam  was  reckoned  the  finest  structure  of  the  kind  in  the  woiid. 
Many  edifices  of  this  name  in  the  United  Kingdom  are  magnificent.  The  Exchange 
of  London  was  founded  by  sir  Thomas  Gresham,  June  7, 1566^  and  was  called  JKoyal 
br  Elizabeth,  on  her  paying  it  a  yisit  in  Jan.  1571.  This  edifice  was  boili  on  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Tun-prison.  It  was  totally  destroyed  in  the  memorable  fire  of  1666 ; 
and  was  rebuilt  by  Nicholas  Hawksmoor,  1668;  and  repaired  and  beautified  in  1769, 
Again  burnt,  and  made  a  pile  of  ruins,  with  a  number  of  public  offices  and  adjoining 
houses,  Jan.  10,  1838.  Its  rebuilding  was  commenced  under  Mr.  Tite,  in  1840,  and 
it  was  opened  Oct  28, 1844.    See  Bills  qf  Exchange,  and  Boyal  Exchange, 

EXCHEQUER.  An  institution  of  great  antiquity,  oonsisting  of  officers  whose  fonctiona 
are  financial  and  judicial :  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  is  the  first  of  these,  and  he 
formerly  sat  in  the  court  of  exchequer  above  the  barons.  The  first  chancellor  wae 
Eustace  de  Fauconbridge,  bishop  of  London,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IIL  about  1221. 
The  exchequer  stopped  payment  firom  Jan.  to  May  24th,  Charles  II.  1673. — Stewe, 
The  English  and  InJBh  exchequers  were  consolidated  in  1816. 

EXCHEQUER  BILLa  The  government  securities  so  called  were  first  issued  in  1697, 
and  first  circulated  by  the  bank  in  1796.  These  bills,  of  which  more  than  twenty 
millions  sterling  are  often  in  circulation,  are  in  effect  accommodation  notes  of  govern* 
ment,  that  are  issued  in  anticipation  of  taxes,  at  daily  interest;  and,  being  received  for 
taxes,  and  paid  by  the  bank  in  lieu  of  taxes,  in  its  dealings  with  the  exchequer,  they 
usually  bear  a  premium.  Robert  Aslett,  a  cashier  of  the  Bank  of  England,  was  tried 
at  the  Old  Bailev  for  embesEling  exchequer  bills,  and  found  noi  guiUg  on  account  of 
the  invalidity  of  the  bills,  though  the  actual  loss  to  the  ben^  amounted  to  820,0001L 
Mr.  Beaumont  Smith  was  tried  for  forging  exchequer  bills,  pleaded  guilty,  and 
sentenced  to  transportation,  Dec  4,  1841. 


EXCHEQUER  CHAMBER*  COURT  or.  Erected  by  Edward  IIL  in  1857.  It 
remodelled  by  Elizabeth,  in  1584,  and  then  made  to  comprise  the  judges  of  all  the 
courts.  This  court  is  for  error  firam  the  judgments  of  the  courts  of  Qaeen*s  Bench, 
Common  Pleas,  and  Exchequer,  of  pleas  in  actions  commenced  therein.  RemodeUed 
by  act  11  Geo.  IT.  &  1  Will.  IV.  c  70,  July  23,  1880.  The  Exchequer  office^ 
Westminster,  was  instituted  by  Henry  IV.  in  1899. 

EXCHEQUER,  COURT  of.  Instituted  by  William  L  on  the  model  of  the  Transmarine 
Exchequer  of  Normandy,  in  1079 ;  according  to  some  authorities,  by  Heniy  I.  It 
included  the  Common  Pleas  until  they  were  separated,  16  John,  1215. — OMe  RqporU, 
The  exchequer  is  so  named  from  a  chequered  cloth  which  anciently  covered  the  tabls 
where  the  judges  and  chief  officers  sat.  Here  are  tried  all  causes  relating  to  the  king'a 
revenue;  such  as  are  concerning  accounts,  disbursements,  customs,  and  fines  imposed, 
sfl  well  as  sll  matters  at  common-law  between  subject  and  subject  The  judges  are 
styled  barons. — BeaUon.  There  aro  a  chief  and  four  puisne  barons;  the  fifth  judge 
having  been  added  July  28, 1830.  The  office  of  Cursitor  Baron  was  abolished  m 
1856,  by  18  &  19  Yict  c.  86. 


CHISF  BARONS  OF  THE  BXCHEQUBR. 


1080. 
1096. 

m*. 

171«. 
1722. 
1728. 

1726. 
1726. 
1780. 
1738. 
1740. 
1742. 
1772, 
1777. 


Sir  Robert  AtkioB.    April  10. 

Sir  Edward  Ward.    June  10. 

Sir  Samuel  Dodd.    Nov.  22. 

Sir  TbonuM  Bury.    June  11. 

Sir  Jamea  Montagu.    If  ay  9. 

Sir  Robert  Eyre.    Dec.  6 :   afterwarda 

C.  J.  common  pleaa. 
Sir  Geoflfrey  Gilbert.    June  1. 
Sir  Thomaa  Pangelly.    Oct  29. 
Sir  James  Reynolds.    April  80. 
Sir  John  Comyn.    July  7. 
Sir  Edmund  nobyn.    Nov.  24. 
Sir  Tbomaa  Parker.    Not.  29. 
Sir  Sydney  StaiTord  Smythe.    Oct.  29. 
Sir  John  Skynner.    Doc.  17. 


1787. 

1793. 
1818. 

1814. 
1817. 
1824. 
1881. 


1884. 
1844. 


26:  afterwania 


Sir  Jamea  Eyre.    Jan. 

C.  J.  common  pleaa. 
Sir  Archibald  Xacdonald.    Feb  IS. 
Sir  Vicazy  Qibba.    Nor.  8 : 

C.  J.  common  plean 
Sir  Alexander  Thompaon.    Feb.  24. 
Sir  Richard  Richarda.    April  23: 
Sir  William  Alexander.    Jan.  9. 
John  Lord  I^yndhurat.    Jan.  18. 

▼ioualy  lord  chancellor;  and 

lord  chancellor  in  1834. 
Sir  James  Scarlet    Dea  S4. 

lord  AUnser,  Jan.  1835. 
Sir  Frederid:  Pollock.    April  15.    The 

present  (iSST)  Chief  Baron  of  the 

Exchequer  in  England. 


SXCHEQUBR,  COURT  ot,  t 

CHIEF  BARONS  OF  THE  BXCBBQUBR  IN  IRELAND. 


Joho  Hal7     Dec  S. 

TboiuM  XwlsT.     SapL  W. 

i7»« 

AnthoojF-u*.    SoptS. 

Ct.  et&ndlth  O'Ondj  (■flanrvdi  ri 


i.  Btiptsn  Woulh.    JiilyM. 
).  MMinreBr*'-     "^   " 


.    d  PlffoC-     Bi 
(IBST)  Chlif  B 


EXCHEQtJEB,  EQUITY.    In  proooM  of  t£ni«  the  o 

omit)  beonme  gndnally  enlArged  in  it(  j  uiudiction,  until  »t  lengtli  it 
marel;  a  rerenue  oourt  tnd  one  M  common  Uw  between  (ubjeot  Hid  nitqeot,  but 
one  in  which  Boita  in  equity  were  *l>o  inttituted.  In  fact,  until  the  >ot  Sth  Yict. 
c  6,  1841,  the  oourt  of  exchequer  pcewMod  >  triple  juriediotion;  but  b;  thii  itatute, 
its  eqoitf  bnaineea  ma  tranifarred  to  the  court  of  chuioei;. 
RXCHEQUEB,  TELLERS  or  thb.  Beuda*  ohunberlaina  of  the  aiohsquar,  cleiki  of 
the  pelU,  luid  Auditor  of  the  ezohequar,  offloee  which  hkre  sll  been  diacontinued 
■ince  their  laat  aToidance  in  Oct,  1826,  or  bj  mrreuder  or  abolition,  in  Oct.  1831, 
there  were  the  four  lucrative  offices  of  teliert  of  the  exchequer,  also  aboli^ed,  10th 
Oct.  1831.  John  JeEfreja  Pratl^  earl  and  marqueaa  Camden,  ma  appointed  one  of 
the  four  tellen  of  the  sxchequar,  when  a  commoner,  in  ITSO,  and  held  the  appoint- 
ment until  hi*  death,  in  1840.  almoat  aixtj  ;eara.  During  nearly  half  of  this  long 
term,  he  relinquiihed  the  vaat  income  ariaing  from  the  office,  amounting  in  the  whole 
to  upward!  of  a  quarter  of  a  million  iterling,  and  placed  it  at  the  MrTioe  of  the  atate, 
aa  it  annually  accrued ;  an  act  of  patriotiam  that  ahedi  a  luatre  on  hia  name. 

EXCHEQUER,  COU  FT'hOLI.ER-QENERAL  or  TBS.  Thia  office  ma  created  on  the 
abolition  of  Uie  officea  of  the  auditor  and  the  four  tellera  of  the  esohequer,  and  the 
dark  of  the  pella,  mentioned  in  the  preceding  article.  The  firat  comptroller-general 
waa  sir  John  Newport,  appointed  Oct.  11,  I8S4.  34,4881.  per  tamum  have  been  aaved 
to  the  atate  by  the  retrench msnta  in  thia  department  of  the  goTomment. 

EXCISK  The  exciae  lyatam  wsa  aatAbliihed  in  England  by  the  Long  Parliament.  It 
waa  continued  under  Cromwell  and  Charlea  II. ;  and  waa  orgauiaed  aa  at  preaent  bj 
the  Walpole  adminiatration.  Exciae  waa  &rat  collected  and  an  office  opened  in  1B4^ 
and  the  duty  waa  arbitrarily  levied  upon  liquora  and  proviiiona  to  support  the  parlia- 
ment foroea  againat  Charlea  I.  The  old  excise  office  waa  built  on  the  site  of  Qreebam 
College  in  1T74;  the  preaent  ia  at  Someraet-hooae.  The  officera  of  exciae  and  cuatoma 
were  deprived  of  their  votaa  for  returning  members  of  parliament  in  IT8S,  See  AnvniK. 


T44.  Great  Britain 

m 

Tt 

1B4S. 

United  Ktngdoio 

.  £lB,ftlD,Ul 

m 

9M.       Ditto  .       .        . 

If  otwithatanding  the  abolition  of  eiciaa  duty  upon  nnmeroua  articlea,  and  the  reduc- 
tion of  duty  upon  various  othen,  of  late  ysnra,  the  total  excise  revenue^  ao  far  from 
having  docreoaed,  haa  progreasively  advanced  (1B5S  excepted)  in  its  aggregate  aonnal 
amount  Additional  exciae  dutiea  ware  charged  by  IT  &  18  Vict.  o.  27.  July  S,  1864. 
EXCOUHUNICATION.  An  ecolemaatical  anathema,  or  interdict  from  Chrietian  com- 
munion. It  waa  orijinaJly  inatituted  for  praaerving  the  purity  of  the  Church ;  but 
ambitiouB  ecoleaiaatica  converted  it  by  degrees  into  an  engine  for  promoting  their 
own  power.  Soma  auppoee  excommunication  to  be  of  Hindoo  origin  in  the  Pariah 
caate,  and  that  it  was  adopted  by  the  Jews  (who  had  three  degreea  of  it),  and  from 
theoe  latter  by  the  Christian  Churches.  The  Qreek  and  Roman  priests,  and  even  the 
Druida,  h«d  nmilar  puniahmenta  in  aid  of  their  reapective  religiona. — PkUUpt. 


EXC 


254 


EXE 


EXCOMMUNICATION  bt  the  POPES.  The  Oatholio  Cfanrch  ezeommimicatM  bj 
bell,  book,  and  candle.  See  £eU^  Book,  and  Cankdle,  The  popes  have  carried  tli«r 
authority  to  such  excess  as  to  ezcommnnicate  and  depose  soYereigns.  Qregory  YII. 
was  the  first  pope  who  assumed  this  extravagant  power.  He  exoommnnicated  Henrj 
IV.  emperor  of  Germany,  in  1077|  absolving  his  subjects  from  their  aUegianoe ;  and 
on  the  emperor's  death,  **  his  excommunicateid  body  "  was  five  years  above  ground,  no 
one  daring  to  bury  it.  In  England  were  many  excommunications  in  Henry  IL's 
reign ;  and  king  John  was  excommunicated  by  pope  Innocent  III.  in  1208,  when  all 
England  lav  tmder  an  interdict  for  six  years.  The  citisens  of  Dublin  were  excom- 
municated Dy  Clement  IV.  in  1206.  Bulls  denouncing  hell-fire  to  queen  Elisabeth 
accompanied  the  Spanish  Armada,  and  plenary  indulgences  were  offered  to  all  who 
should  assist  in  deposing  her.    See  article  InterdicL 

EXECUTIONS.  See  Orinu.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIU.  (thirty-eight  years)  it  is 
shown  that  no  less  a  number  than  72,000  criminals  were  executed. — Siatoe,  In  the 
ten  years  between  1820  and  1880,  there  were  executed  in  England  alone  707  orimi- 
nals ;  but  as  our  laws  became  leas  bloody,  the  number  of  executions  proportionally 
decreased.  In  the  three  years  ending  1820,  the  executions  in  England  and  Wales 
amounted  to  812 ;  in  the  three  years  ending  1880,  they  were  zeduMd  to  178 ;  in  the 
three  years  ending  1840,  they  had  decreased  to  62. 


1890 
188S 
18S0 
1835 
1880 


SXI0UTI0V8  Uf  LONDON. 

43  1837  

17  1838    

8  1839  

0  1840   

0  1849  


9 
0 

a 

1 
2 


184S 
1844 
1845 
1846 
1847 


0 
1 

s 

2 
0 


IK  ENGLAND,  MIDDLESEX,  AND  fiUBBEY. 


1847 
1848 
1849 
1850 
1861 
185S 


England.  Middlesex.  Surrey. 

.8  .        .1       .        .0 

.  12  .  .    .  2  .        .    .  0 

.16  .        .0        .        .2 

.    8  .  .    .  0  .        .    .  0 

.10  .        .0                .2 

.     9  ,  .    .  1  .        .     .  1 


Oanry  forward  60 


England.    Middlesex.  Surrey 
Brought  forward  60  .4  .5 

1853  .   ..8.   ..1.    ..0 

1854  .5       .0       .0 

1855  .    ..7.    ..2.    ..0 

1856  .    .15   .   .2       .0 


Total 


95 


EXECUTIONS  or  BEMABKABLB  CBIHINALB. 


Jfamc 
Jack  Sheppard 
Lord  Balmorino  and  othera 
Lord  Lovat  . 

Eugene  Aram 
Theodore  Oardolle  . 
Earl  Ferrers 
John  Perrott  . 
John  M*Naiighten,  esq.    . 
Elizabeth  Brownrigg     . 

Daniel  Perreau  )  u«rt*i%»»- 

RobertPerreau  ;»*<««>«" 

Rev.  Dr.  Dodd 

John  Donellan,  esq.  . 

Mr.  Hackman 

Mrs.  Phepoe 

Sir  Edward  Croebie 

Moflsrs.  Sheares. 

Galloping  Dick 

OovemorWall    . 

Mr.  Crawley   . 

Geoige  Foster    .       . 

Colonel  Dospard 

*  John  Hatneld  . 

Robert  Bmmett 

Richard  Pfttch   . 

t  John  Holloway     . 

Owen  Haggerty. 

T.  Simmons,  the  man  of  blood 

M^jor  Campbell 

Capt.  Sutherland       .        .    . 

Richard  Armitage . 


.} 


Crime. 
Celebrated  robber  . 
Rebellion    . 
Rebellion 
Murder 

Murder    .... 
Murder  of  his  steward 
Fraudulent  bankrupt    . 
Murder  of  Miss  Knox 
Murder  of  her  apprentice 

tsee  rWfftfjf 

Forgery  (see  Forgtify 

Murder 

Murder  of  Miss  Reay     . 

Celebrated  murderess 

High  treason  . 

High  treason 

Highway  robbery  . 

Mmrder  of  seij.  Armstrong    . 

Murder  of  two  females  . 

Murder  of  his  wife  and  child . 

High  treason  .... 

Forgery      .        .       . 

High  treason  .... 

Murder  of  Mr.  Bligh .        .    . 

Murder  of  Mr.  Steele     . 

Murder  ... 

Murd.  of  Capt.  Boyd  in  a  duel 

Murder 

Fofgery      ... 


SiteevJt/oi. 
TybiuTj  . 
Tower-hill . 
Tower-hiU 
York  . 
Haymarkot 
Tyburn 
Smithflekl 
Strabane    . 
Tyburn  , 

Tybom 

Trbum  . 
Warwick    . 
Tyburn  . 
Old  Bailey. 
Ireland  . 
DubUn 
Aylesbury 
Old  Bailey . 
Dublin    . 
Old  Bailey . 


Atfs. 
.  Not.  16, 

Aug.  18, 
Mai^ao, 

.Aug  6, 
.    April  4, 

.  May  5, 
.   Not.  11. 

Dee.  IS, 
.  Sept  14, 

Jan.  17. 

.  June  27, 
April  2, 

.  AprillS, 

Dec.  11, 

Junel^ 

July  12, 

.  April  4, 
Jan.  28, 

Maxt:hl6, 
Jan.  18, 


1794 
1746 
1747 
1757 
1700 
1760 
1701 
17C1 
1767 

1776 

1777 
1778 
1779 
1797 
1706 
1799 
1800 
1802 
1802 
1809 
1SQ8 
ISO 
1806 
1S06 


Horsemonger-la.  Feb.  18, 
Carlisle  SepC  8, 

Dublin    .        .  Sept.  90, 
Horsemongar4a.  Ap.  8, 

Old  Bailor.        Feb.  9^  1807 

Hertford        .  Mardi  7.  1808 
Armagh  .  Oct  %  1806 

Bxeeution*dock,Jime99,  1896 
Old  Bailey.       June  94,  Ull 


*  He  was  a  rank  Impostor,  and  married,  by 
celebrtted  "  Beauty  of  Buttermere." 

t  Thirty  of  the  spectators  of  this  execution 
maimed,  and  wounded. 


of  the  most  odious  deceit  and  frsnd,  the 
txt>dden  to  death,  and  nnmben  were 


1 


EXE 


255 


EXE 


BXECUTIONS,  continued, 

J^ame. 
John  Bdlingfaam   . 

Fhilip  Nicholson  .    . 

FrandB  Tuita .... 

Charles  Gallaghan  .    . 

WiUiam  Sawyer 

Gftpt.  Onint        .        .        .    . 

John  Omhinim 

Murderers  of  the  Lynch  fiunUy 

*8Uza  Penning 

TiM  8  AshcroffaB,  father  A  aoas 

Brandreth  and  others    . 

Charles  Hussey  .        ... 

John  Scanlan,  esq. 
Arthur  Thistlewood 
John  Brunt 
James  Inos 
John  DaVldsan 
Richard  Tidd     . 
John  Chennell 
lljomas  Oalcrafl 
Murderers  of  Miss  Thompson 
David  Haggart  .        . 
Joslah  Cadman 
Mnrdemrs  of  Mrs.  Tonanoe  . 
Murderers  of  Mr.  HoaUna 
John  Smith        .        .        .    . 
Samuel  Qreenwood 
JohnThurtell    .       .       .    . 
JohnWayte    .        .       .       . 
Hen.  Fumtleroy,  esq.  hanker 
Xdward  Harris       ... 
IProbert,  Thurtell's  associate 
Spitalfields  gang     . 
Charles  Thomas  White 
SEdward  Lowe 
Catherine  Walsh 

yTilliam  Bea 
illiam  Corder  . 
Joseph  Hunton,  quaker 
Burke,  the  murderer 
Anne  Ch^nnan 
Stewart  and  wife 
Mr.  Comvn     .       • 
John  Bishop  . 

Thomas  Wllliamfl   .       , 
Elizabeth  Cooke     . 
John  Smith 
James  Pratt    . 
Maryanne  Burdock  . 
John  Pegsworth     ,       . 
James  Greenacre 
William  Lees  . 
Francois  Be^j.  Courvoisier 
Josiah  Misters   . 
Robert  Blakesl^  . 
John  Delahunt  . 
Daniel  €k>od   . 
WiUiam  Crouch . 
James  Tapcdng 
John  Tawell 
Thomas  Henry  Hoeker . 
Joseph  Connor  . 
John  Platts    . 
Catherine  Foster 

James  Bloomfleld  Rush 

Fred.  Geoige  Manning,  and  1 
hliwife^Maria 


I 


IfM^whig  J 


Crime. 
Murder  of  Mr.  Perceval    .    . 

Murder  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Bonar 

Murder  of  Mr.  Gtoulding  .    . 

Murder  of  Mr.  Meny 

Murder  of  Jack  Hacket 

Famous  Irish  robber 

Spa-fields  riots   . 

wild-goose-lodge  aiEiir 

Administering  poison 

Murder  . 

High  treneoQ 

(  Murder  of  Mr.  Binl  and  {' 
(     lus  housekeeper  ) 

Murder  of  Ellen  Hanley    .    . 

Gato-street  gang;  murder) 
and  treason  (see  Oaio-> 
street  Oonspiraey) .  J 

Murder  and  parricide  of) 
Mr.  ChenudL  sen. . 


Famous  robber 
Forgery  . 


Murder 

Highway  robbery  . 

Murder  of  Mr.  Weare 

Forgery  . 

Forgery 

Robbei 


sry 


) 


Highway  robbery  . 
Arson .... 
Coining   . 

Murderof  her  child  . 
Highway  robbery  . 
Mmder  of  Maria  Marten 
Forgery  . 
^See  Burking) 
Murder  of  her  child 
Koted  murderers 
Burning  his  own  house 
Murder  of  a  poor   Italian) 

boy  (see  A»riru^  . 
Burking  of  Cath.  Walsh 

Unnatural  crime 

Remarkable  ca.  of  poisoning  . 

Murder 

Murder  of  Hannah  Brown 
Murder  of  his  wife  .    . 

MurderoflordW.  Russell  . 
Wounding  Mr.  Mackreth  .  . 
Miuder  of  Mr.  Burden  .  . 
Murder  of  Thomas  Maguire  . 
Murder  of  Jane  Jones  . 
Murderof  his  wife  .    . 

Murder  of  Emma  Whiter 
Murder  of  Sarah  Hart       .    . 
Murder  of  Mr.  Delarue  . 
Murder  of  Mar^  Brothers 
Murder  of  Oollis 
Murder  of  her  husband     . 
f  Murder  of  Messrs.  Jermy,  > 
\    sen.  and  jun.        .       .j 

Murder  of  O'Connor 


•Bxeeuitd,  DaU. 

Old  Bailey     .     May  18,  1812 

(  Pennenden-heath, 

\  Aug.  SS,  1813 

Dublin    .        .      Oct.  9,  1818 

Horsemonger-la.  Apr.  2,  1814 

OldBaUey      .    May  15,  1814 

Maryborough,    Aug.  16,  1816 

Skinner-street  March  12,  1817 

Ireland       .        July  19.  1817 

Old  Bailey      .    July  96,  1817 

Lancaster  .         Sept.  8,  1817 

Derby     .        ,     Nov.  6^  1817 

Pennenden-heath,Aug.S,  1818 

Limerick        March  16,  18S0 


OldBail^.       .  Mayl.  18S0 


Oodalming       .  Aug.  17,  1820 

Dublin  .  Mi^yS,  1821 

Edinburgh  .  June  11,  1821 

Old  Bailey.  Not.  21,  1821 

Ireland  .  .    Dec.  19,  1821 

Ireland       .  .  Aug.  8,  1822 

Maidstone  .    Dec.  23,  1822 

Old  Bailey.  Dec.  27,  1822 

Hertford  .      Jan.  9,  1824 

Old  Bailey .  Feb.  24.  1824 

Old  Bailey  .   Nov.  80.  1824 

Old  Bailey .  Feb.  22,  1825 

Old  Bailey  .  June  SO,  1825 

Old  Bailey .  Nov.  29,  1826 

Old  Bailey  .     Jan.  2,  1827 

Old  BaUey .  Nov.  22,  1827 

Old  Bailey  .  April  14,  1828 

Old  Bailey .  .  July  4,  1828 
Bury8t.Edmunds,Aug.8, 1828 

Old  Bailey.  .  Dec.  8,  1828 

Edinburgh  .    Feb.  16,  1829 

Old  Bailey .  June  SO,  1829 

Glasgow .  .    July  24,  1829 

Ennis.        .  March  18,  18.30 

Old  Bailey      .     Dec.  5,  1881 

Old  Bailey    .       Jan  9,  1882 

Old  Bailey    .      Aprils,  1885 

Bristol      .  April  15,  1885 

Old  Bailey  .    March  7.  1837 

Old  Bailey  .    May  2,  1837 

Old  Bailey  .     Doc.  16,  1839 

Old  Bailey  .    JuW  6,  1840 

Shrewsbury  .      April  2,  1841 

Old  Bailey  .  Nov.  15,  1841 

Dublin  .  Feb.  5,  1842 

Old  BaUey  .  May  23,  1842 

Old  Bailey  .      MIty  27,  1844 

OldBolley  March  24,  1845 

Aylesbury  .  March  28,  1845 

OldBaUey  April  28.  1845 

Old  BaUey  .      June  2,  1845 

Derby       .  .  AprU  1    1847 
Bur7Bt.Edmunds,Ap.l7,  1847 

Norwich       .    April  SI,  1849 
HoiMmong«r-la.NoT.13,  1849 


*  Immediately  after  her  execution  ft  great  and  painftil  sensation  was  caused  by  its  being  uniyersaUy 
believed  that  this  young  creature  suffered  innocently. 

t  This  criminsl  was  an  accomplice  of  Thurtell's  in  the  memorable  murder  of  Mr.  Weare,  and  he 
beeame  approver ;  but  was  afterwards  hansed  for  horse-stealing. 

t  He  was  the  last  coiner  drawn  on  d  sleoge  to  the  scaHbld. 

1  Captain  Charles  Montgomery  was  ordered  for  execution  this  day,  for  foigery ;  but  he  took  a  dose 
fan  oonoe  and  an  half)  of  pvsslc  aeid,  to  ssTe  himself  fVom  the  ignominy  of  the  gallows,  and  he  was 
nmnd  dead  in  his  oeU  by  too  offloen  of  Justice. 


EXE 


256 


EXE 


EXECUTIONS,  amtinued. 

Name. 
James  Barbour 
Henry  Horler 
Qrant»  Quin,  and  Coomey 

Bxnuiuel  Barthelemy 
WnUam  Bouafleld  . 


William  Palmer  (of  Rugeley)  . 

William  Dove 

Joseph  Jenkins  (aliiu  Robt. 

Marley) 
liigaTSk  Bartel 

trick 
Dedea  Redanies 
Thomas  M  ansell  (after  seven ) 

months'  respite)  .  ) 


}Te     .  .    . 

kins  (ai<(U  Robt.  ) 

rtelano,  and  Pet- ) 

•  *  •  •      I 


Crime. 
Murder  of  Robinson  .        .    . 
Murder  of  his  wife . 
Murder  of  Thos.  Bateeon  .    . 
(  Murder  of  Mr.  Moore  and  ) 
1     C-  Collaid    .  .  f 

J  Murder  of  his  wife  and  8  ) 
\  children  .  .  .  f 
Murder  of  J.  P.  (Took  by  poison. 
Murder  of  his  wife  by  poison  . 
Murder  of  Cope,  a  shopman  ) 

in  Westminster  .  j 

Murder  of  two  officers,  and  i 

piracy     ...  ) 

Murder  of  two  girls  at  Dover  . 

Murder  of  a  soldier 


BxeadtA, 
York     . 
Old  Bailey 
Monsghnn 

OldBaUey 

Old  Bailey 

Stafford 
York      . 

Old  BaUey 

Wtncheater 

Maidstone 

Maidstone 


IkUt, 
Jan  1&,  185S 
Jan  1ft,  1853 
April  10,  18M 

Jan.SS;  1855 

March  80,  1856 

June  14.  1850 
Auff.  1858 

Dee.  15,  1856 

DecSS,  1856 
Jan.  1,  1857 
Jnly^  1867 


The  executions  In  the  preceding  list  are  only  those  of  criminals  remarkaUe  for  the  atrodty  of  their 


EXETER.  This  city  ia  said  to  have  been  early  honoured  with  the  name  of  Avgrnta 
from  having  been  occupied  by  the  second  Augustan  legion,  commanded  by  Vea- 
pasian  :  its  present  name  is  derived  from  ExeeaUv,  '*  the  castellated  eity  of  the  Exe." 
It  was  for  a  considerable  time  the  capital  of  tiie  West  Saxon  kingdom.  When  held 
by  the  Danes,  Alfred  invested  the  city  and  compelled  them  to  capitulate.  Again 
relieved  by  Alfred  in  A.D.  894.  Sweyn  laid  siege  to  Exeter,  1003,  when  a  dreadful 
massacre  of  the  inhabitants,  and  the  destruction  of  the  town,  ensued.  Besieged  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  1067.  The  castle  surrendered  to  king  Stephen,  llSd. 
Edward  I.  held  a  parliament  here,  1286.  Besieged  by  sir  William  Courtenay,  14d9. 
The  city  sustained  a  violent  assault  from  Perkin  Warbeck,  1497.  Welsh,  the  vicar 
of  St.  Thomas's,  hanged  here  on  the  tower  of  his  own  church;  as  a  chief  leader  in 
the  great  western  and  Cornish  rebellion,  July  2,  1649.  Exeter  was  constituted  a 
county  of  itself  by  Henry  VIII.  rendering  it  thereby  independent  of  Devon. 


The  see  of  Devon  is  semoyed  to  Bxeter .  1040 
The  city  first  governed  by  a  mayor  .  1200 
The  celebrated  nunnexr  founded  .  .  1236 
The  ancient  bridge  built  .  litO 

The  Black  Prince  risita  Exeter .  .  .  1371 
The  duchess  of  Clarenoe  takes  reftige  in 

the  city 1460 

Annual  festlTal  consecrated  .    .  1549 

The  guildhall  built 1598 

Prince  Maiirioe  takes  Exeter  for  king 

Charles  I Sept.  4,  1043 

The  eity  surrenders  to  the  forces  of  the 

Parliament  ....  April,  1646 
The  canal  to  Toneham  cut  .  .  .  .  1675 
A  mint  established  by  James  I.     .        .  1688 

Water- works  erected 1604 

The  sessions  house  built  .1773 
The  new  bridge  built 1778 


The  theatre  erected         ....  1783 
Lunatic  asylum  founded  ...  1795 

County  gaol  built 1796 

Subscription  library  founded  .    .  1807 

Devon  and  Exeter  institution  for  tbe 
promotion  of  science,  established       .  1613 

New  city  prison  built 1818 

The  last  of  the  andeut  walls  removed  .  1818 
The  subscription  rooms  opened  .  .  .  1890 
The  public  baths  erected  .  18S1 
Mechanics'  institution  opened  .  .  .  1825 
New  oemetenr  commenced  .  1837 
Great  fire^  80  houses  burnt .  Auff.  S,  1844 
Another  great  iire  .  .  April  S6,  1847 
The  case  of  the  rev.  Mr.  Gorham  t.  the 
bishop  of  Exeter.  Bee  a  noit  to  TriaU, 
Aug.  2 1849 


EXETER,  BISHOPRIC  of.  This  bishopric  anciently  constituted  two  sees,  Devonshire 
and  Ck>mwalL  The  church  of  the  former  was  at  Crediton,  and  of  the  latter  at  Bod- 
min. In  A.D.  1032  the  sea  was  united,  and  soon  after  the  seat  was  removed  to 
Exeter.  St.  Patroe  was  the  first  bishop  of  Cornwall,  before  900 ;  (Edulphu%  the 
first  bishop  of  Devonshire,  905 ;  and  Leofric,  the  first  bishop  of  Exeter,  in  1049.  The 
cathedral  belonged  to  a  monastery  founded  by  Athelstan :  Edward  the  ConfeoMV 
removed  the  monks  to  his  new  abbey  of  Westminster,  and  gave  their  church  for  a 
cathedral  to  the  united  see  :  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  6002.  per  tnmum. 

EXETER  CHANGE,  Lovdon.  Built  by  Walter  Stapelton,  bishop  of  Exeter,  and  lotd 
treasurer  in  1318.  It  was  entirely  demolished  at  the  perfod  of  the  Strand  improve- 
ments in  1829.  The  new  Exeter  Change,  built  by  the  marquis  of  Exeter  near  its 
site,  and  running  from  Wellington-street  to  Catherine-etreet,  with  a  passage,  on  cadi 
side  of  which  are  shops  for  fancy  articles,  was  opened  in  1846.  This  place,  eometimes 
called  the  **  Wellington  Areadci"  forms  a  communication  between  the  two  stneeta 
mentioned,  and  is  12  feet  wide,  20  feet  in  height,  and  60  in  length. 

EXETER  COLLEGE,  Oxford.  Owes  its  foundation  to  Walter  Stapelton,  biahop  of 
Bxeter,  in  1314.    This  prelate  was  lord  treasurer  of  England  in  1819,  and  again  in 


EXE 


257 


EYR 


1324;   and  was  beheaded  by  order  of  the  queen-regent,  Isabella,  in   1326.    The 
college  buildings  consist  of  a  handsome  quadrangle  in  the  later  Gothic  style. 

EXETER  HALL,  Strand,  London.  For  the  meetings  of  religious,  scientific,  and 
other  institutions,  concerts,  oratorios,  and  moaioal  societies,  a  large  and  magnificent 
apartment*  with  a  splendid  orchestra  and  organ,  and  having  attached  rooms  for 
committees,  &c.,  was  erected  in  1830.  Religious  services  were  commenced  here  in 
1856  by  Mr.  Spuiigeon,  and  in  1857  by  the  Ministers  of  the  church  of  England. 

EXHIBITION  OF  1851.  See  Oryttal  Palace,  This  wonderful  emporium  of  the  "  Works 
of  Industry  of  all  Nations  "*  was  projected  by  prince  Albert,  and  was  opened  by  a 
royal  ceremonial.  May  1,  1851.  The  building  (chiefly  of  iron  and  glass,)  was  designed 
by  Mr.  now  sir  Joseph  Paxton.  The  length  was  1851  feet;  the  general  width  408 
feet ;  the  area  about  19  acres.  It  cost  176,030/.  13jl  8d  The  number  of  exhibitors 
exceeded  15,000,  but  the  articles  exhibited,  in  arts,  manufactures,  and  the  Tarious  pro- 
duoe  of  countries^  even  the  most  remote,  defy  all  numerical  calculation.  The  palace 
continued  open  twenty-three  weeks,  and  the  fragments  of  two  other  weeks,  altogether 
144  days,  within  which  time  it  was  yisited  by  6,170,000  persons,  averaging  43,536  per 
diem,  whose  admission  at  the  respective  prices  of  one  pound,  halfa-crown,  and  one 
shilling,  amounted  to  505,107/.  including  season  tickets,  leaving  a  surplus,  after 
payment  of  expenses,  of  about  150,000/.  The  greatest  number  of  visitors  in  one  day 
was  109,760  (Oct.  8) ;  and  at  one  time  (2  o'clock,  Oct.  7)  were  93,000.*  The  exhibi- 
tion was  closed  to  the  public,  Oct.  11,  1851. 

EXPEDITIONS,  OB  DESCENTS  of  thb  BRITISH.  These  will  be  found  described 
under  their  respective  heads  through  the  volume.  The  following  are  the  most 
remarkable  of  our  later  expeditions,  and  are  those  most  commonly  referred  to : — 


Fnmoe,  near  Port  I'Oiient .  .  Oct  1,  1746 
Cherbourg  ....  Aug.  7,  1758 
St.  Malo ;  4000  men  lost  .  .  Bept  1758 
Qoiberon  Bay  (French  emifframU)  .  .  1796 
Oaund  (all  made  pritwieri).  May,  1798 

Holder  Point  and  Zuyder  Zee         Sept.  1799 


Ferrol,  in  Spain 
Egypt  (AbtrcrombU) 
Copenhagen  (which  iee) 
Walcherea  (u^fortunatt) 
JBeigen-op-zoom 
Crimea 


Aug.  1800 
.  Ifarch.  1801 

Sept  1807 
.  July,  1809 
March  8,  1814 
.     Bept.  1854 


EXPORTS.  See  Revenue.  The  exports  of  British  manufactures  are  increasing  annually. 
Edward  III.  by  his  encouragement  of  trade  turned  the  scale  so  much  in  favour  of 
English  merohandise,  that  by  a  balance  of  trade  taken  in  bis  time,  the  exported 
commodities  amounted  to  294,000/.  and  the  imported  to  only  38,000/. 

OFFICIAL  VALUE  OF  XXF0BT8  FBOM  GREAT  BBITAIH  TO  ALL  PARTS  OF  TBS  WORLD,  VIZ. : — 


In  1700      .        .    .£6,097,120 
In  1750  .                .  10,130,991 
In  1775      .        .    -.  16,326,363 
In  1800  .                .  38,120,190 

In  1810      .        .     £45,869,839 
In  1820  .        .        .  51,733,113 
In  1830       .        .    .  66.735,445 
In  1835  .        .        .  78,376,782 

In  1840 
In  1845 
In  1850 
In  1851 

.    .£97.402,726 
.  131,564.503 

.     .  175,126,706 
.  190,897,810 

The  declared  value  is  of  infinitely  less  amount  than  the  official. 

TOTAL  DEOLARSD  VALUE  OF  BRITISH  AND  IRISH  PRODUCE 

EXPORTED. 

In  1851               .    £74,448,722 
In  1852  .        .        .  78,076,854 

In  1853      .        .    £98.933,781 
In  1854  .        .        .  97,184,726 

In  1855 
In  1856 

£95,688,085 
.  115,890,857 

•      A1-                                   A     1-1               J 

ETLAU,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  French  and  Russians,  one  of  the  most  bloody  of 
the  French  war :  it  terminated  in  favour  of  Napoleon,  who  commanded  in  person ;  but 
both  armies  by  this  and  other  recent  battles  were  to  much  reduced,  that  the  French 
retired  to  the  Vistula,  and  the  Russians  on  the  Pregel ;  the  loss  to  the  victor  wsa 
15,000  men,  and  the  Russian  loss  in  slain  alone  was  20,000.    Feb.  8, 1807. 

ETRE,  JUSTICES  in.  The  term  signifies  the  itinerant  court  of  Justices.  This  court 
was  instituted  by  Henry  I. ;  and  when  the  forest  laws  were  in  force,  the  office  of 
Chief  Justice  in  Eyre  was  one  of  great  trust  and  dignity.  By  an  ancient  custom  these 
justices  should  go  their  circuit  every  third  year,  and  puniah  all  abuses  committed  in 
the  king's  forests.  The  last  inataoce  of  a  court  being  held  in  any  of  the  forests  is 
believed  to  havQ  been  during  the  reign  of  Charles  IL  a.d.  1671. — Bcation* 

*  TbeM  93,000  persona  were  aasembled  at  one  time,  not  in  an  open  area,  like  a  Roman  amphitheatre, 
bat  (it  Bfaould  be  reooUected)  within  a  windowed  and  floored  and  roofed  building.  There  is  no  like  vast 
aaMmblage  recorded  in  either  ancient  or  modem  annate,  as  having  been  gathered  together,  it  may  be 
■aid,  in  one  nnna. 


B 


FAB  258  FAL 


F. 

FAB II.  A  noble  and  powerful  family  at  Rome,  who  deriyed  their  name  from  faha^  a 
beao,  because  some  of  their  ancestors  cultivated  this  paUe;  they  were  said  to  be 
descended  from  Fabius,  a  supposed  son  of  Hercules,  and  were  once  so  nomeroqs  that 
they  took  upon  themselves  to  wage  war  against  the  Veientes.  They  came  to  a  general 
engagement  near  the  Cremera,  in  which  all  the  family,  consisting  of  806  men,  wers 
slain,  B.a  477.  There  only  remained  one,  whose  tender  age  had  detained  him  at  Rom^ 
and  from  him  arose  the  noble  Fabii  in  the  following  ages. 

FABLES.  "  Jotham's  fable  of  the  trees  (Judges  ix.  about  B.o.  1209)  is  the  oldest  eztant» 
and  as  beautiful  as  any  made  since." — Addison,  Nathan's  fable  of  the  poor  man 
(2  Sam.  xii.  about  B.0. 1034)  is  next  In  antiquity.  The  earliest  collection  of  &bleB 
extant  is  of  eastern  origin,  and  preserved  in  the  Sanscrit  The  fables  of  Vishnoo 
Sarma,  called  Pilpay,  are  the  most  beautiful,  if  not  the  most  ancient  in  the  world. — 
Sir  William  Jonei.  The  well  known  ^sop's  fables  {which  tee),  were  written  about 
540  years  B.O. — Plutcuxh, 

FACTIONS.  Among  the  Romans,  factions  were  parties  that  fought  on  chariots  in  the 
circus,  and  who  were  distinguished  by  their  different  colours,  as  green,  blue,  red,  and 
white,  to  which  Domitian  added  two  others,  one  in  coats  embroidered  with  gold,  a 
second  wearing  scarlet,  about  ▲.d.  90.  Both  the  emperors  and  people  had  generally 
greater  inclinlition  for  some  particular  colour  than  the  rest;  but  upon  a  quarrel 
happening  in  Justinian's  reign,  between  the  blue  and  green,  when  40,000  were  killed 
on  both  sides,  the  name  of  faction  was  abolished. 

FAIRLOP  OAK.  A  celebrated  tree  in  the  forest  of  Hainault,  Essex,  blown  down  in 
February,  1820.  Its  extended  branches  covered  a  space  of  more  than  800  feet  in 
circumference  :  and  beneath  them  a  fair  was  annually  held  on  the  first  Friday  in 
July.  This  fair  originated  with  the  eccentric  Bfr.  Day,  a  pump  and  block  maker  of 
Wapping,  who,  having  a  small  estate  in  the  vicinity,  annually  repaired  hers  with  a 
party  of  friends,  to  dine  on  beans  and  bacon.  Every  year  added  to  the  number; 
and  in  a  short  time  a  fair  was  beg^n,  which  is  still  continued. 

FAIRS  AND  WAKES.  They  are  of  Saxon  origin,  and  were  first  instituted  in  England 
by  Alfred,  a.d.  886. — Spelman.  They  were  established  by  order  of  Gregory  VII.  in 
1078,  and  termed  Feria,  at  which  the  monks  celebrated  the  festival  of  their  patron 
saint :  the  vast  resort  of  people  occasioned  a  great  demand  for  goods,  wares,  &e. 
They  were  called  wakes  from  the  people  making  merry  daring  the  vigil  or  eve. 
Fairs  were  established  in  France  and  England  by  Charlemagne  and  William  the 
Conqueror,  about  a.d.  800  in  the  first,  and  1071  in  the  latter  kingdom.  The  fiurs  of 
Beaucaircy  Falaise,  and  Leipsic,  are  the  most  famous  in  Europe. 

FALCONRY.  The  certainty  of  falconry  in  England  cannot  be  traced  until  the  reign  of 
king  Ethelbert,  the  Saxon  monarch,  a.d.  850. — Pennamt,  There  are  thirty-two  speeiee 
of  the  falco  genus.  The  falcon  is  a  bird  of  prey  of  the  hawk  kind,  but  superior  to  all 
others  for  courage,  docility,  gentleness,  and  nobleness  of  nature ;  and  it  is  no  credit 
to  our  country  to  state  that  these  noble  birds  used  formerly  to  be  tamed,  and  kept 
for  the  genteel  pastime  of  falconry. — PhUUpe.  It  is  said  that  the  grand  seignior  at 
one  time  kept  six  thousand  fiilconers  in  his  service. — Pardon, 

FALCZI,  PEACE  of.  This  celebrated  peace  was  concluded  between  Russia  snd  Turkey, 
July  2, 1711,  the  Russians  giving  up  Azoph  and  all  their  possessions  on  the  BUok  Sea 
to  the  Turks ;  in  the  following  year  the  war  was  renewed,  and  terminated  by  the 
peace  of  Constantinople,  April  16,  1712. 

FALERNIAN  WINE.  This  wine,  so  celebrated  by  the  Roman  poets,  especially  Vii^l 
and  Horace,  was  the  produce  of  Falemus,  or,  as  called  by  Martial,  Mons  Bftasaicaa, 
a  mountain  and  plain  of  Campania.  In  Rome  the  age  of  wine  was  a  criterion  of  its 
goodness ;  and  Horace  in  his  Odet  boasts  of  having  drunk  Falemian  wine  that  had 
been,  as  it  were,  bom  with  him,  or  which  reckoned  its  age  from  'the  same  oonsa]% 
14  B.O.    The  Opimian  wine  is  said  to  have  been  kept  for  200  yesn. 

FALKIRK,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  English  under  Edward  L  and  the  Soot^ 
commanded  by  Wallace,  in  which  it  is  said  from  20,000  to  40,000  of  the  latter 
were  slain ;  the  whole  Scotch  army  was  broken  up,  and  was  chased  off  the  field 
with  dreadful  slaughter,  July  22, 1298.    The  English  archers,  who  began  about  this 


FAL 


259 


FAS 


time  to  surpASB  those  of  other  nationBy  first  chased  the  Scottish  bowmen  from  the 
ground,  and  then  pouring  in  their  arrows  among  the  pikemen  who  were  cooped  up 
within  their  entrenchments^  threw  them  into  border,  and  rendered  the  assault  of 
the  English  pikemen  and  cavalry  more  easy  and  successful. — Hvme.  Battle  of 
F^alkirk  between  the  king's  forces  and  prince  Charles  Stuart,  in  which  the  former 
were  defeated,  Jan.  18, 1746. 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  islands  in  the  South  Atlantic,  belonging  to  Great 
Britain.  Seen  by  Americus  Yesputitts ;  and  visited  by  Davis,  1692.  lUien  possession 
of  by  France,  1763.  The  French  were  expelled  by  the  Spaniards ;  and  in  1771,  Spain 
gave  up  the  sovereignty  to  England,  Not  having  been  colonised  by  us,  the  republic 
of  Buenos  Ayres  assumed  a  right  to  these  islands,  and  a  colony  from  that  country 
settled  at  port  Louis;  but  owing  to  a  dispute  with  America,  the  settlement  wss 
destroyed  bv  the  latter  in  1831.  In  1833  the  British  flag  was  hoisted  at  Port  Louis, 
and  a  British  officer  has  since  resided  there. — McCuUock. 

FAMILY  OF  LOYE.  A  society,  called  also  Philadelphians,  from  the  love  they  professed 
to  bear  all  men,  even  the  most  wicked.  They  assembled  at  Brew-house  yard, 
Nottingham.  Their  founder  was  a  fanatic  named  David  George,  an  Anabaptist,  of 
Holland,  who  propagated  his  doctrines  in  Switzerland,  where  he  died  in  1556.  After 
this  event>  the  tonets  of  the  society  were  declared  to  be  impious,  and  George's  body 
and  books  were  ordered  to  be  burned  by  the  hangman. — See  Affapemoniam, 

FAMINES,  Aim  SEASONS  of  REMABKABLE  SCARCITY.  The  famine  of  the  seven 
years  in  Egypt  began  1708  B.c. — Uther;  Blair.  In  a  famiDC  that  raged  at  Rome 
thousands  of  the  people  threw  themselves  into  the  Tiber,  436  B.o. — Livy, 


Awftil  {amino  in  Egypt   .  .  a.d.      42 

At  Rome,  attended  by  plague    .        .    .    262 
In  Britain,  ao  grievoui  that  people  ate 

the  bark  of  treea 272 

In  Scotland,  and  tfaouaands  die .        .    .    806 
In  England,  where  40,000  periah    .        .    810 

Awful  one  in  Phrygia 870 

8o  dreadihl  in  Italy,  that  parenta  ate 

their  children  (Du/irttnoy)  .  ,  ,  4£0 
In  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland  .  .  730 
Agjdn,  when  thotuanda  starve       .  823 

Again,  which  lasts  fouryeam  .    .    054 

Awful  one  throughout  Europe       .        .1016 

In  England.  21  William  1 1087 

In  En^na  and  France;  this  famine 
leads  to  a  pestilential   fever,  which 

lasts  from  1193  to 1195 

Another  &mine  in  Englxmd        .        .    .  1251 
Again,  so  dreadful,  that  the  people  de- 
voured the  flesh  of  horses,  aogs^  cats, 

and  vermin 1815 

One  occasioned  by  long  rains     .       .    .  1836 


1853 


1488 
1565 
1603 
1748 
1771 


One  in  England  and  France  (J2aj>>n)  a.d. 
Again,  one  so  great,  that  bread  was 
made  from  fern-roots  (Stow)  .  .  . 
One  throughout  these  island* 
Awful  one  in  France  (  Voltaire)  .  .  . 
One  general  in  these  realms  . 
One  which  devastates  Bengal  .  . 
At  the  Gape  de  Verde,  where  16,000  per- 
sons perish    1775 

One  grievously  felt  in  Franco    .        .    .  1789 
One  severely  felt  in  England  .        .        .  1795 
Again,  throughout  the  Kingdom       .    .  1801 
At  Drontheim,  owing  to  Sweden  Inter- 
cepting the  supplies     .... 
Scarcity  of  food  severely  felt  by  the  Irish 
poor,  1814,  1816,  1822,  1831.  1846,  in 
consequence  of  the  failure  of  the  potato 
crop.   Grants  by  parUamont,  to  relieve 
the  suffering- of  the  people,  were  made 
in   the   session   of  1847,  the   whole 
amounting  to  ten  millions  sterling. 


1813 


FAN.  The  use  of  the  fan  was  known  to  the  ancients ;  Cafie  hoc  ftahellum  ei  ventulum, 
hwie  »ie  fttcUo. — Tebenoe.  The  modem  custom  among  the  ladies  was  borrowed  from 
the  East.  Fans,  together  with  muffs,  masks,  and  false  hair,  were  first  devised  by  the 
harlots  in  Italy,  and  were  brought  to  England  from  France. — Stow.  The  fan  was 
used  by  females  to  hide  their  ia^  at  Church. — Pardon.  In  the  British  Museum  are 
fan-handles  and  other  articles  .of  Egyptian  manufacture,  iised  anciently*  by  women. 

FARCE.  This  epedes  of  dramatic  entertainment  originated  in  the  droll  shows  which 
were  exhibited  by  charlatans  and  their  buffoons  in  the  open  street.  These  were 
introduced  into  our  theatres  in  a  less  ludicrous  and  more  refined  form ;  and  they  are 
now  shorter,  but  often  superior  to  the  pieces  called  comedies.    See  article  Drama. 

FABTHINQ.  One  of  the  earliest  of  the  English  coins.  Farthings  in  silver  were  coined 
by  king  John ;  the  Irish  farthing  of  his  reign  is  of  the  date  of  1210,  and  is  valuable 
and  rar&  Farthings  were  coined  in  England  in  silver  by  Henry  YIII.  First  coined 
in  copper  by  Charles  II.  1665;  and  again  in  1672,  when  there  was  a  laige  coinage  of 
copper  money.  Half-farthings  were  first  coined  in  the  reign  of  Victoria,  1843.  See 
Queen  Annt^s  Farthings. 

FASTS.  They  were  practised  and  observed  by  most  nations  from  the  remotest  antiquity. 
Annual  &ste,  as  that  of  Lent,  and  at  other  stated  times,  and  on  particular  occasions, 
to  appease  the  anger  of  Qod,  began  in  the  Christian  Church,  in  the  second  century, 

82 


FEA  260  FER 

A.D.  138.    Fast  days  are  appointed  by  the  reformed  Churches  in  times  of  war  and 
pestilence  (as  March  21,  1855  for  the  Russian  war).    See  Abstinence, 

FEASTS  AVD  FESTIVALS.  The  feast  of  the  tabernacles  was  instituted  by  Moses  in 
the  wilderness,  1490  B.C.  but  was  celebrated  with  the  greatest  magnificence  for  four- 
teen days,  upon  the  dedication  of  the  temple  of  Solomon*  1005  b.o. — JotephuM,  In  the 
Christian  Church  those  of  Christmas,  Easter,  Ascension,  and  the  Pentecost,  or  Whit- 
suntide, were  first  ordered  to  be  observed  by  all  Christians,  a.d.  68.  Rogation  days 
were  appointed  in  469.  Jubilees  in  the  Romish  Church  were  instituted  by  Boniface 
YIII.  in  1300.  See  JubUees.  For  fixed  festivals  observed  in  the  Church  of  England* 
as  settled  at  the  Reformation,  et  uq.  see  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

FEBRUARY.  The  second  month  of  the  year,  so  called  from  Februa,  a  feast  which  was 
held  therein  in  behalf  of  the  manes  of  deceased  persons,  when  sacrifices  were  per- 
formed, and  the  last  offices  were  pud  to  the  shades  of  the  dead.  This  month,  with 
January,  was  added  to  the  yssr>  which  had  previously  but  ten  months,  by  Kama, 
713  B.O.    See  Calendar  and  Year, 

FECIALES.  Heralds  of  ancient  Rome  to  denounce  war  or  proclaim  peace.  When  the 
Romans  thought  themselves  injured,  one  of  this  sacerdotal  body  was  empowered  to 
demand  redress ;  and  after  thirty-three  days,  if  submission  were  not  made,  war  was 
declared,  and  the  Feciales  hurled  a  bloody  spear  into  the  territories  of  the  enemy,  in 
proof  of  intended  hostilities.    They  were  instituted  by  Kuma,  about  712  B.C. — Livy. 

FENCING.  This  science,  as  it  is  called,  was  introduced  into  England  from  France, 
where  it  had  long  before  been  tolerated,  and  is  still  much  in  use,  as  instruction  in  self- 
defence,  duels  being  fought  chiefly  by  small  swords  there.  Fencing  schools  havinff 
led  to  duelling  in  England,  they  were  prohibited  in  London,  by  statute  18  EdwTL 
1284.— iVoftAoitcFt  Hut.  of  London, 

FERE-CHAMPENOISE,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  French  army  under  Marmont^ 
Mortier,  and  Arrighi,  and  the  Austrians  under  the  prince  of  Schwartzenberg,  by 
whom  the  French  were  surprised  and  defeated,  March  25,  1814.  Paris  surrendered 
to  the  allied  armies  six  days  after  this  battle.    See  France, 

FERIiB  LATINS.  These  were  festivals  at  Rome,  instituted  by  Tarquin  the  Proud. 
The  principal  magistrates  of  forty-seven  towns  of  Lattum  assembled  on  a  mount  near 
Rome,  where  they  and  the  Roman  authorities  offered  a  bull  to  Jupiter  TAfci^ijf, 
During  these  festivals  it  was  not  lawful  for  any  person  to  work,  534  B.C. — Livp, 

FERNS,  BISHOPRIC  of,  nr  Ireland.  Anciently  this  see  was  for  a  time  arcfaiepia- 
copal ;  for  in  the  early  ages  of  Christianity  in  Ireland,  the  title  of  archbishop,  except 
that  of  Armagh,  was  not  fixed  to  any  particular  see,  but  sometimes  belonged  to  one, 
aud  sometimes  to  another  city,  according  to  the  sanctity  and  merits  of  the  presiding 
bishop.  He  was  not  denominated  from  his  see,  but  from  the  province  in  which  hia 
prelacy  was  situated.  St.  Edan  was  seated  here  in  a.d.  598.  Leighlin  and  Fenn 
were  united  in  1600;  and  by  the  Church  Temporalities'  aot,  passed  Aug.  1833,  both 
have  lately  been  united  to  the  bishopric  of  Ossory.    See  Oaorjf, 

FEROZESHAH,  BATTLE  of,  India.  Between  the  Sikhs  and  British.  The  British 
attacked  the  entrenchments  of  the  Sikhs,  and  carried  by  storm  their  first  line  of 
works,  Dec.  21 ;  but  night  coming  on,  the  operations  were  suspended  till  daybreak 
next  day,  when  their  second  line  was  carried,  and  their  guns  captured ;  the  Sikhs 
advanced  to  retake  their  guns,  but  were  repulsed  with  great  loss,  and  retreated 
towards  the  Sutl^,  Dec.  22 ;  and  recrosaed  that  river  unmolested,  Dec.  27, 1845. 

FERRARS'  ARREST.  Mr.  Geoi^ge  Ferrars,  a  member  of  parliament^  being  in  attendance 
on  the  house,  was  taken  in  execution  by  a  sheriff's  officer  for  debt,  and  committad 
to  the  Compter.  The  house  despatched  their  seijeant  to  require  his  release,  which 
was  resisted,  and  an  affray  taking  place,  his  mace  was  broken.  The  house  in  a  body 
repaired  to  the  Lords  to  complain,  when  the  contempt  was  adjudged  to  be  very  great, 
and  the  punishment  of  the  offenders  was  referred  to  the  lower  house.  On  another 
messenger  being  sent  to  the  sherifb  by  the  commons,  they  delivered  np  tiie  senator, 
and  the  civil  magistrates  and  the  creditor  were  committed  to  the  Tower,  the  inferior 
officers  to  Newgate,  and  an  act  was  passed  releasing  Mr.  Ferrate  from  liability  for  ib» 
debt  The  king,  Henij  YIII.  highly  approved  of  all  theee  proceedings,  and  the 
transaction  became  the  basis  of  that  rule  of  parliament  which  exempts  members  to 
this  day  from  arrest,  A.D.  1542. — HollingsKed, 

FERRO.    The  most  western  of  the  Canary  Isles,  from  whose  west  point  some  geo- 


FER  261  FIE 

graphen  have  taken  their  fitst  meridian.  Thia  ialand  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and 
was  re^isooyered  in  1402.  See  Canary  IsUmds.  In  the  middle  of  the  Island  of 
Feiro  is  the  fountain  tree^  from  whose  leaves  great  quantities  of  water  are  distilled. 

FERROL,  BRITISH  EXPEDITION  Ta  Upwards  of  10,000  Britiih  landed  near  Ferrol 
under  the  command  of  Sir  James  Pulteney,  in  August,  1 800.  They  gained  possession 
of  the  heights,  notwithstanding  which  the  British  general,  despairing  of  snocest,  on 
account  of  the  strength  of  the  works,  desisted  from  the  enterprise,  and  re-emharked 
the  troops.  His  conduct  on  thia  occasion,  which  was  in  opposition  to  the  opinion  and 
adTioe  of  the  ofBoers  of  his  army,  was  Tory  much  condemned  in  England.  The 
French  took  seren  saU  of  the  line  here,  Jan,  27*  1809. 

f£TE  SB  DIEU.  Berengarius,  archbishop  of  Angers,  was  oppoeed  to  the  doctrine  of 
tnmsubatantiation  when  it  was  first  propagated,  and  to  atone  for  this  crime  a  yearly 
procession  was  made  at  Angers,  which  was  called  lafite  dt  Dieu,  a.d.  1019. 

FfiTE  DB  VERTU.  An  assemblage,  chiefly  of  ^oung  persons,  annually  brought  together 
by  lady  Harcourt^  to  whom  were  to  be  adjudged  rewards  for  industry  and  yirtue, 
held  at  Kuneham  in  Oxfordshirsu  These  fdtes  were  commenced  in  1789,  and  con- 
tinued till  lady  Harcourt's  death. 

FEUDAL  LAWS.  The  tenure  of  land,  by  suit  and  service  to  the  lord  or  owner  of  it, 
was  introduced  into  England  by  the  Saxons,  about  a.d.  600.  The  slarery  of  this 
tenure  was  increased  under  William  L  in  1068.  This  was  done  by  dividing  the 
kingdom  into  baronies,  and  giving  them  to  certain  persons,  requiring  them  to  furnish 
the  king  with  money,  and  a  stated  number  of  soldiers.  Iliese  laws  were  discoun- 
tensnced  in  France  by  Louis  XL  in  1470.  The  vassalage  was  restored,  but  limited 
by  Heniy  VIL  1495.  Abolished  by  statute  12  Chas.  IL  1663.  The  feudal  system  was 
introdu<^  into  Scotland  by  Malcolm  IL  in  1008.  The  hereditary  jurisdictions  were 
finally  abolished  in  that  kingdom,  20  Geo.  IL  17 i^.—Lyltelton :  Ruffkead;  Blaekttone. 

FEUILLANS.  The  order  of  Feuillans,  which  had  been  founded  in  France  the  preceding 
year,  settled  in  Paris  in  1587< — Benault,  Members  of  a  socie^  formed  in  Paris  to 
counteract  the  intrigues  and  operations  of  the  Jacobins,  named  from  the  Feuillan 
convent,  where  their  meetings  were  held,  early  in  the  Revolution.  A  body  of 
Jacobins  invested  the  building,  burst  into  their  hall,  and  obliged  them  to  separate^ 
De&  25, 1791.— ITtMi.  French  lUvoluium. 

FEZ  (the  ancient  Mauritania),  founded  by  Edrus,  a  descendant  of  Mahomet,  a-D.  79S. 
It  soon  after  became  the  capital  of  all  the  western  Morocco  States.  Leo  Africanus 
describes  Mauritania  as  containing  more  than  seven  hundred  temples,  moeques,  and 
otlier  public  edifices  in  the  twelfth  century. 

FICTIONS  IN  LAW.  Invented  by  the  lawyers  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  as  a  means  of 
carrying  cases  from  one  court  to  another,  whereby  the  courts  became  checks  to  each 
other. — Htune.  Memorable  declaration  of  lord  Mansfield,  in  the  court  of  King^s 
Bench,  emphatically  uttered,  that  "  Ko  fictiok  of  law  shall  eybr  so  far  prbyail 

AOAI58T  THE  BBAL  TRUTH,  AB  TO  FRBVENT  THB  EXECUTION  OF  JUSTICE,"  May  21,  1784. 

This  constitutional  maxim  is  now  a  rule  of  law. 

FIEF.  In  France  we  find  fiefs-men  mentioned  as  early  as  the  age  of  Childebert  I.  a.d.  511. 
They  were  introduced  into  Italy  by  the  Lombards.  Into  Spain,  before  the  invasion 
of  the  Moors,  a.d.  710.  Into  England,  by  the  Saxons  (see  Feudal  Laws).  Into 
Scotland,  directly  from  England,  by  Malcolm  IL  1008.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
second  race  of  kings,  France  was  held  as  a  feudal  tenure,  and  was  governed  as  a  great 
fief  rather  than  as  a  monarchy. — Mtaeray, 

FIELD  OF  THE  CLOTH  of  GOLD.  Henry  VIIL  embarked  at  Dover  to  meet  Francis  I. 
of  France  at  Ardres,  a  small  town  near  Calais  in  France,  May  81,  1520.  The  nobility 
of  both  kingdoms  here  displayed  their  magnificence  with  such  emulation  and  profuse 
expense,  as  procured  to  the  place  of  interview  (an  open  plain)  the  name  of  TKe  Field 
of  the  Cloth  of  Chid,  Many  of  the  king's  attendants  involved  themselves  in  great  debts 
on  this  occasion,  and  were  not  able,  by  the  penury  of  their  whole  lives,  to  repair  the 
vain  splendour  of  a  few  days.  A  painting  of  the  embarcation,  and  another  of  the 
interview,  are  at  Windsor  Castle. — Butler. 

FIESCHFS  ATTEMPT  on  LOUIS-PHILIPPE  of  FRANCK  This  assassin  fired  an 
infernal  machine  at  the  French  king,  as  he  rode  along  the  lines  of  the  National  Ouard, 
on  the  Boulevard  du  Temple,  accompanied  by  his  three  sons  and  suite.  The  machine 
consisted  of  twenty-five  barrebs  charged  with  various  species  of  missiles,  and  lighted 


FIF  262  FIR 

simultaneously  by  a  train  of  gunpowder.  The  king  and  hia  sons  escaped ;  but  Marshal 
Mortier  (duke  of  Treviso)  was  shot  dead,  many  officers  were  dangerously  wounded, 
and  an  indiscriminate  slaughter  was  made  among  the  spectatora,  there  being  upwards 
of  forty  persons  killed  or  injured,  July  28, 1836. 

FIFTH-MONARCHT  MEN.  These  were  fanatical  levellers  who  arose  in  the  time  of 
Oliver  Cromwell,  and  who  supposed  the  period  of  the  Millennium  to  be  just  at  hand, 
when  Jesus  should  descend  from  Heaven,  and  erect  the  fifth  universal  monarchy. 
They  actually  proceeded  in  their  fanaticism  so  far  as  to  elect  Jesus  Christ  king  at 
London  1  CromweU  dispersed  them,  1653. — Keaniey, 

FIQ  TREE,  Fiem  Cariccu  Brought  from  the  south  of  Europe,  before  A.D.  1548.— The 
Botany-Bay  Fig,  Ficut  AwtraUi,  brought  from  N.  S.  Wales,  in  1789.    See  EruiU. 

FIQURES.  The  numerical  characters,  or  arithmetical  figures  (nine  digits  and  zero),  and 
the  method  of  computing  by  them,  said  to  be  of  Eg^tian  origin,  were  brought  into 
Europe  from  Arabia,  about  a.d.  900.  They  are  said  to  have  been  first  known  in 
Englimd  about  the  year  1253  (reign  of  Henry  III.),  previously  to  whidi  time  the 
numbering  by  Roman  letters  was  in  use  in  these  coun^es.    See  Artthmeiie, 

FILIBUSTERS.  A  name  given  to  the  Spanisli  Freebooters  who  plundered  the  coasts 
of  America  in  the  17th  century.  It  has  been  applied  to  Walker  and  other  adventurers 
from  the  United  States,  who  within  the  last  few  years  endeavoured  to  obtain 
possession  of  Central  America. — See  Nicaragva. 

FINES  AND  RECOVERIES.  Conferring  the  power  of  breaking  aneient  entails  and 
alienating  estates.  The  practice  of  breaking  entails  by  means  of  a  fine  and  recovery 
was  introduced  in  the  reign  of  Edward  lY.  but  it  was  not,  properly  speaking,  law, 
till  the  statute  of  Henry  VIL  which,  by  correcting  some  abuses  that  attended  the 
practice,  gave  indirectly  a  sanction  to  it;  4  Heniy  VIL  1489. — ffvme.  Fines  and 
recoveries  are  now  abolished. 

FIRK  It  is  said  to  have  been  first  produoed  by  striking  flints  together.  The  poets 
suppose  that  fire  was  stolen  from  Heaven  by  Prometheus.  Zoroaster,  king  of  Bactria^ 
was  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Magi,  or  Worshippers  of  Fire,  since  known  by  the 
appellation  of  Quebres,  still  numerous  in  the  countries  of  the  East,  2115  B.a — JutHnj 
Pliny,  Heraclitus  maintained  that  the  world  was  created  from  fire,  and  he  deemed 
it  to  be  a  god  omnipotent,  and  taught  this  theory  about  596  ac. — Ntmv,  Diet, 

FIRE-ARMS.  Small  arms  were  contrived  by  Schwartz,  a.d.  1378 ;  they  were  brought 
to  England  about  1388.  Fire-arms  were  a  prodigious  rarity  in  Ireland  in  1489,  when 
six  muskets  were  sent  from  Germanv  as  a  present  to  the  earl  of  Kildare,  who  was 
then  chief -governor.  Muskets  were  first  used  at  the  siege  of  Rhegen,  in  1525.  The 
Spaniards  were  the  first  nation  who  armed  the  foot  scndier  with  these  wes^ns. — 
VUoa,  Voltaire  states,  that  the  Venetians  were  the  first  to  use  guns,  in  an  engage- 
ment at  sea  against  the  Genoese,  1377 ;  but  our  historians  affirm,  that  the  English  had 
guns  at  the  battle  of  Cressy,  in  1346;  and  at  the  siege  of  Calais,  in  1347.    See  AHiUerf, 

FIRE-BARS,  DEATH  bt  thi.  An  ancient  punishment  of  China,  the  invention  of  the 
emperor  Sheoo,  who  reigned  in  the  12th  centuiy  B.o.  The  sufferer  was  compelled  to 
walk  on  bars  of  red-hot  iron,  from  which,  if  he  fell,  his  almost  certain  fate,  he  was 
received  in  a*  burning  furnace  beneath,  and  was  consumed  in  the  flames.  The 
Carthaginians  are  said  to  have  had  a  punishment  similar  to  this. 

FIRE-ENGINES.  .  The  fire-engine  is  of  modern  invention,  although  the  forcing-pump,  of 
which  it  is  an  application,  is  more  than  two  centuries  old.  The  fire-engine,  to  foitse 
water,  was  constructed  by  John  Vander  Heyden,  about  the  year  1663 ;  it  was  im- 
proved materially  in  1752,  and  from  that  time  to  the  present  The  fii«-watch,  or 
fire-guard  of  London,  was  instituted  Nov.  1791.  The  fire-brigade  was  established  in 
London  in  1833. 

FIRErSHIPS.  They  were  first  used  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Among  the  most  for- 
midable contrivances  of  tlus  kind  ever  used,  was  sn  explosion  vessel  to  destroy  a 
bridge  of  boats  at  the  siege  of  Antwerp,  in  1585.  The  first  use  of  them  in  the 
English  navy  was  by  Charles,  lord  Howard  of  Effingham,  afterwards  earl  of  Notting- 
ham, lord  high  admiral  of  England,  in  the  engagement  of  the  Spanish  Armada, 
July,  1588. — Rapin, 

FIRE-WOREa  Are  said  to  have  been  fiimiliar  to  the  Chinese,  in  remote  ages:  they 
were  invented  in  Europe,  at  Florence,  about  iLD.  1860;  and  were  first  exhibited  as  a 


FIR 


268 


FIR 


•pecUcle  in  158&  At  an  exhibition  of  fire-works  in  Parii,  in  honour  of  the  marriage 
of  the  dauphin,  afterwards  Louis  XYL  the  paasages  being  stopped  up,  occasioned 
such  a  crowd,  that  the  people,  seised  with  panic,  trampled  upon  one  another  till  they 
lay  in  heaps;  a  scaffold  erected  over  the  river  also  broke  down,  and  hundreds  were 
drowned;  more  than  1000  persons  perished  on  this  occasion,  June  21,  1770. 
Madame  Blanchard  sscending  from  TiToli  Gardens,  Paris,  at  night  in  a  balloon  sur- 
rounded by  fire-works,  the  balloon  took  fire,  and  she  was  precipitated  to  the  ground, 
and  dashed  to  pieces,  July  6, 1819.    See  BaUoon, 

FIRE-WORKS  IV  ENGLAND.  Hacaulay  states  that  the  fire-works  at  the  peace  of 
Ryswick  in  1697  cost  12,000i!.  Very  grand  fire-works  were  let  off  from  a  magnificent 
building  erected  in  the  Green-park,  London,  at  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  signed 
April  80, 1748.  The  grand  display  of  fire-works,  Aug.  1, 1814,  under  the  direction  of 
sir  WnL  Congrere  on  the  celebration  of  the  general  peace,  and  to  commemorate  the 
centenary  accession  of  the  family  of  Brunswick  to  the  BritLsh  throne,  surpassed  all 
proTious  exhibitions.  The  latest  display  of  this  kind  (at  a  cost  of  10,0002.)  was  on  May 
29, 1856,  to  celebrvte  the  peace  with  Russia. 

FIRES  IN  LONDON.  The  conflsgration  of  a  city,  with  all  its  tumult  of  concomitant 
distress,  is  one  of  the  most  dreadful  spectacles  which  this  world  can  offer  to  human 
eyes. — Dr,  JoknMm.  In  London  hsTe  been  many  fires  of  awful  magnitude.  Among 
the  early  firee^  was  one  which  destroyed  the  greater  part  of  the  city,  a.d.  982.  A  fire 
happened  in  the  20th  of  William  1. 1086;  it  consumed  all  the  houses  and  churches 
from  the  west  to  the  east  gate. — £aktr*i  Chrwu  For  the  Gbkat  Fireb  in  London  see 
ntxi  article.  The  following  are  among  the  memorable  fires  of  more  recent  occurrence 
in  the  metropolis : — 


In  Sottthwiu-k,  00  hoiUM  burnt  .  ▲.!>.  1676 
In  Wappiog,  160  ha\ue9  burnt  .  .  .  1716 
At  Shadweli,  50  hoiuefl  burnt  .  1736 

In  Comhill  ward,  200  houses  burnt ; 
this  fire  began  in  Change-alley,  and 
waa  the  most  terrible  ainoe  the  great 
fire  of  1666  .     March  26,  1748 

At  CoTent-finrden,  60  houaea  .  .  .  1759 
In  Bmithfield,  28  houaea  burnt  .  .  .  1761 
At  Shadwell,  80  houaea  burnt  .  ,  1761 
In  Ihrogmorton-atreet,  SO  houaea  .  .  1774 
At  Wapphig,  SO  houaea  ....  1775 
At  Hermitage-staira,  31  houaea .  .  .  1779 
At   Horal^-dowBr  80  houaee,   besides 

many  wu^ouaea  and  ahipa 
In  the  Strand,  40  houaea    . 
In  Aldemgaie-atreet,  40  houaea ;  the  loaa 
exceeding  100,000f.  .     Nov.  6, 

At  Rotherhithe,  20  houaea  .         Oct.  12, 
Again,  when  many  ahipa  and  60  houaea 
were  consumed  .  Sept.  14, 

At  Wapping,  630  houaea.  and  an  Eaat 
India  warehouse,  in  which  36,000  bags 
of  aaltpetre  were  stored ;  the  loaa 
LOOO.OOOL  .        July  21, 

AaUey'a  Amphitheatre  .  .  Sept.  17, 
At  Shadwell,  80  houaea  burnt  .  Nov.  1,  1796 
In  the  Jf  inoriea,  80  houaea  March  28,  1797 
In   the   King'a  Bench,    50  rosidencea^ 

July  14,  1709 
Near  the  Cuatoma,  8  West  India  ware- 
houses ;  loaa  800,0001.  .       .    Feb.  11, 
At  Wapping,  SO  houaea  .  Oct  6^ 

In  Store-atraet,  Tottenham-court-road, 
immenae  property  deatroyed,  Sept  27, 
The  great  tower  over  the  choir  of  weat- 
minater  Abbey  burnt  .  July  9, 

Astley'a  again,  and  40  houaea .  Sept.  1, 
Corent-garden  theatre  .  Sept.  20, 
Druxy-kme  theatre  .  .    Fob.  24, 

In  Conduit-atreet ;  Mr.  Windham,  in 
aiding  to  aave  Mr.  North'a  library, 
reeeived  an  ii\jury  which  caused  hla 

death July  9, 

In  Bnry-atreet,  St  Mary-axe,  half  the 

atreet  made  ruina.  .  June  1^ 

Cuatom-houae  burned  down,  with  many 

adjoining  worohouacs^  and  the  public 

records      ....        Feb.  12,  1814 


1780 
1781 

1783 
1790 

1791 


1794 
1794 


1800 
1800 

1802 

1803 
1808 
1808 
1809 


1809 
1811 


At  Rotherhithe  ;  loaa  90,000L  March  It,  1820 

At  Mile-end  ;  loaa  200.000J.  Jan.  22,  1821 

In  Smithfield ;  loaa  100,0001.   .  Aug.  14,  1822 

In  Red-llon-atreet,  15  houaea       June  6,  1823 

English  Opera-houae,  and  aeveral  houaea 
in  ita  rear,  burnt  .        .        .    Feb.  16, 

The  two  Houaea  of  Parliament  entirely 
consumed.  Oct  16,  1834 

The  Royal-exchange  and  many  houaes 
burnt  to  the  ground     .        .    Jan.  10, 

At  Wapping,  12  houaea  June  16, 

Aatley'a  theatre  again  .    June  8, 

At  the  Tower;  the  armoury  and  280.000 
atand  of  arma,  Ac.  deatmyed  Oct.  80, 

At  Do?er-8treet,  Piccadillv  fRaggetfa 
hotel)  several  persons  of  hign  respect- 
ability perished  in  the  flames  May  27, 

A  deatructive  fire,  burning  several  houaes 
in  Lincoln'a-inn,  New-aquaro  Jan  14, 

One  in  St  MartinVlane  (at  the  house  of 
a  publican  named  fien  CauntX  three 
lives  lost       ....    Jan.  15, 

Fire  at  Duke-street  London-bridge ; 
property  eatimatea  at  60,0OM.  dam- 
aged   Feb.  19, 

At  the  Rose  and  Crown,  Love-lane,  City, 
four  Uvea  loat        .        .        .    May  18,  1861 

A  BTCni  fire  at  the  foot  of  London-bndge, 
four  large  hop  warehouaea  burnt,  lose 
150,00« June  28, 

The  warehouses  of  Messrs.  Pawson,  St 
Paul's  Churchyard  burnt    .    Feb.  24, 

Works  of  Gutta  Percha  Company,  near 
City-rood ;  loaa  100.  OOM. .        .  June  5, 

Messrs.  Scott  Russdl  and  Co.'s  worka, 
Millwall ;  loss  100,000{.        .  Sept  10,  1858 

Premises  of  Messrs.  Saville  and  Edwards^ 
printers,    Chandoa-streety    destroyed. 

Sept  30, 

Fremisea  of  Messrs.  Townend.  Ac. 
Bread-street^  destroyed;  loss  80,00OZ. 

Dec.  31, 

Messrs.     Boutledge's    premises,   near 
Blackfriara'-road ;  loaa,  one  life  and 
150,000/,     ....        Feb.  16, 

Of  Etna  steam  battery  at  Measrs.  Scott 
Russell's  worka    .  May  8. 

Pavilion  theatre  .  Fob.  IS, 

Covent-garden  theatre    .        .  Mareh  5, 


1830 


1888 
1840 
1841 

1841 


1846 
1849 


1851 


1851 


1851 
1863 
1858 


1858 


1853 


1855 

1855 
1856 
1856 


FIR  261  FLA 


FIRES  IN  LONDON,  eoiUtntted. 

Measn.  Dobbs'  premiaea,  Fleet-etreetk 

AprU  1.  1860 
Messrs.  BroAdwood's,  pianoforte  makers, 

Westminster.  .   Aug.  12,  1860 

Fnmisea  of  Messra.  Almond's^  army  ac> 


coutrement  makers,  and  others,  in  St. 
Martin'»-lane ;  eatimated  loa  SO.OOOL 

Not.  0,  1S5« 
Messrs.  Pickford's  premises,  at  Chalk> 
fiurm  station  .  .     June  9,  18S7 


These  are  but  a  few  fires  out  of  many  hundreds.    The  insurance-offices  calculate  that 
300  fires  occur  annually  in  London  on  the  average.    There  were  953  in  1854. 

FIRES  OF  LONDON,  the  GREAT.  Awful  one  at  London-bridge,  which  began  on  the 
Southwark  side,  but  bj  some  accident  (not  accounted  for)  it  took  fire  at  the  other 
end  also,  and  hemmed  in  the  numerous  crowd  which  had  assembled  to  help  the 
distressed.  The  sufferers^  to  avoid  the  fiames,  threw  themselves  over  the  bridge  into 
boats  and  baiges;  but  many  of  these  sank  bv  persons  crowding  into  them,  and 
3000  were  drowned  in  the  Thames.  The  fire,  hkewise,  for  want  of  hands  to  extin- 
guish it,  burnt  great  part  of  the  citv  north  and  south  from  the  bridge,  14  John,  121 SL 
The  fire,  called  the  Great  Fire,  whose  ruins  covered  436  acrei^  extended  from  the 
Tower  to  the  Temple-church,  and  from  the  north-east  gate  to  Holbom-bridge.  It 
began  at  a  baker's  house  in  Pudding-lane  behind  MonumoDt-yard,  and  deatroyed  in 
the  space  of  four  days,  eighty-nine  churches,  including  St  Paul's ;  the  city  galea,  the 
Royal  Exchange,  the  Custom  House,  Guildhall,  Sion  Ck>llege,  and  many  other  public 
buildings,  besides  13,200  houses,  laying  waste  400  streets.  This  conflagration 
happened  (not  without  strong  suspicion  of  treason),  Sept.  2, 1666,  and  continued  three 
days  and  nights,  and  was  at  last  only  extinguished  by  the  blowing  up  of  houses. 

FIRST  FRUITS,  were  offerings  which  made  a  large  port  of  the  revenues  of  the  Hebrew 
priesthood.  First  fruits  were  instituted  by  pope  Clement  Y.  in  a-d.  1306 ;  and  were 
collected  in  England  in  1316.  The  first  year's  income  of  every  Church  benefice  in 
England  was  given  to  the  popes  till  the  27th  of  Hen.  YIIL  1535,  when  the  first  fniita 
were  assigned,  by  act  of  parliament,  to  the  king  and  his  successors. — Oarte,  Granted 
together  with  the  tenths,  to  increase  the  incomes  of  the  poor  deigy,  by  queen  Anne, 
Feb.  1704.  The  offices  of  First  Fruits,  Tenths,  and  queen  Anne's  Bounty,  were 
consolidated  by  1  Vict.  c.  20,  1838.    See  AvffmetUaiion  of  Poor  Livingg, 

FISHEIRIES.  The  Fishmongers'  company  of  London  was  incorporated  in  1536.  Fishing 
towns  were  regulated  by  an  act  passed  in  1542.  Fishing  on  our  coasts  was  forbidden 
by  statute  to  strangers  in  1609.  The  Dutch  paid  30,000/.  for  permission  to  fiah  on 
the  coasts  of  Britain,  1636.  The  corporation  of  tiie  Free  British  Fisheries  was 
instituted  in  1750.  Fish-machines  for  conveying  fish  by  land  to  London  were  set  up 
in  1761 ;  and  supported  by  parliament,  1764.  The  British  Society  of  Fisheries  was 
established  in  London  in  1786.  The  Irish  Fishery  Company  was  formed  in  Deo. 
1818.    See  Herring,  Whale,  and  Newfoundland  FUheriea. 

FIVE-MILE  ACT,  an  oppressive  statute  passed  in  the  16th  year  of  (Tharles  II.  Oct. 
1665.  It  obliged  non-conformist  teachers,  who  refused  to  take  the  non-resistanee 
oath,  not  to  come  within  five  miles  of  any  corporation  where  they  had  preached  ainoe 
the  act  of  oblivion  (unless  they  were  travelling),  under  the  penalty  of  fifty  pounds. 

FLAG.  The  flag  acquired  its  present  form  in  the  sixth  century,  in  Spain ;  it  vras  prs- 
viously  small  and  square. — A  the.  The  flag  is  said  to  have  been  introduoad  there  by 
the  Sajracens,  before  which  time  the  ensigns  of  war  were  extended  on  cross  pieces  of 
wood. — Pardon,  The  term  flag  is  more  particularly  used  at  sea,  to  denote  to  what 
country  a  ship  belongs,  and  the  quality  of  its  commander.  The  honour-of-the-flag 
salute  at  sea  was  exacted  by  England  from  very  early  times;  but  it  was  fonnally 
yielded  by  the  Dutch  in  a.d.  1673,  at  which  period  they  had  been  defeated  in  many 
actions.  Louis  XIY.  obliged  the  Spaniards  to  lower  their  flag  to  the  Frendi,  16S0. 
HenauU.  After  an  engagement  of  three  hours  between  Tourville  and  the  Spanish 
admiral  Papachin,  the  latter  yielded  by  firing  a  salute  of  nine  guns  to  the  Frendi  flag, 
June  2,  1688 Idem.    See  SaluU  at  Sea. 

FLAGELLANTS,  SECT  or.  A  general  plague,  which  swept  away  a  vast  multitude  of 
people,  gave  rise  to  this  fanatic  sect. — Benault,  They  established  themselveB  at 
Perouse,  ^.D.  1260.  They  maintained  that  there  was  no  remission  of  sins  without 
flagellation  and  publicly  lashed  themselves,  until  the  blood  flowed  firom  their  naked 
backs.    Their  leader,  Conrad  Schmidt,  was  burnt,  1414. 

FLAMBEAUX,  FEAST  of.  This  was  a  feast  instituted  in  Greece,  to  commemorate  the 
fidelity  of  Hypermnestn,  who  saved  her  husband  Lynceus  (son  of  ^gyptos)  while 


FLA  265  FLI 

her  forty-nine  sisten^  on  the  night  of  their  nuptials,  lacrificed  theirs,  at  the  eommand 
of  their  jealous  and  cruel  father,  Danaua,  1425  B.O.    See  Argo$. 

FLANDERS.  The  country  of  the  ancient  Belgo ;  oonqaered  by  Julius  Caesar,  47  B.O. 
It  passed  into  the  hands  of  France,  ▲.D.  412.  It  was  govemed  by  its  earls  subject  to 
that  crown,  from  864  to  1369.  It  then  came  into  the  house  of  Austria  by  marriage; 
but  was  yielded  to  Spain  in  1556.  Flanders  shook  off  the  Spanish  yoke  in  1572 ; 
and  in  1725,  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  it  was  annexed  to  the  German  empire. — 
PriuiUy,  Flanders  was  OTerrun  by  the  French  in  1792  and  1794,  and  was  declared 
part  of  their  Republic.  It  was  made  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  in  1814, 
and  was  erected  into  the  kingdom  of  Belgium  in  1831.    See  Bdgiws^. 

FLAT-BUSH,  BATTLE  of,  Long  Island,  fought  between  the  British  and  the  rerolted 
Americans,  when  the  latter,  after  a  desperate  engagement,  were  defeated,  with 
the  loss  of  2000  men  killed,  and  1000  prisoners,  Aug.  27, 1776.  The  Americans,  in 
their  retreat  to  New  York,  were  saved  by  the  interposition  of  a  thick  fog. 

FLATTERT  CAPE.  Situate  on  the  western  coast  of  North  America.  It  wsa  so  named 
by  the  illustrious  English  nayigator.  Captain  Cook,  because  it  had  promised  to  him  a 
harbour  at  a  distanoe,  which  it  did  not  yield  him  upon  his  nearer  approach  in  1778. 
This  disappointment  was  severely  felt  by  his  crew,  who  at  the  time  were  in  want  of 
provisions  and  refreshments. — Ciok*$  Voyagei. 

FLAX.  The  flax  seed  was  first  planted  in  England  in  a.d.  1588.  For  many  ages  the 
core  was  separated  from  the  flax,  the  bark  of  the  plant,  by  the  hand.  A  mallet  was 
next  used ;  but  the  old  methods  of  breaking  and  scutching  the  flax  yielded  to  a 
water-mill  which  vros  invented  in  Scotland  about  1750.  See  article  Hemp, — In  1851, 
Chevallor  Claussen  patented  a  method  of  '*  cottoning  "  flax. 

FLEET  MARKET,  PRISON,  &c  Built  on  the  small  river  Fleta,  now  arched  over,  and 
used  as  a  common  sewer.  In  the  reign  of  Hen.  YIL  this  river  was  navigable  to 
Holbom-bridge ;  and  the  obelisk  in  Fleet-street  denotes  the  extent  of  it  in  1775.  The 
prison,  for  debtors,  was  founded  as  early  as  the  first  year  of  Richard  I.  It  was  the 
place  of  confinement  for  those  who  had  incurred  the  displeasure  of  that  arbitrary 
court,  the  Star  Chamber ;  and  persons  were  committed  here  for  contempts  of  the 
court  of  Cliancery.  The  Fleet  prison  was  burnt  down  by  the  prisoners,  June  7, 
1780.*  Fleet  market  was  originally  formed  in  1787;  and  was  removed  from 
Farringdon-fitreet,  Nov.  20, 1829.  The  granite  obelisk  in  FleetHstreet,  to  the  memory 
of  Alderman  Waithman,  erected  June  25,  1883,  and  completed  in  one  day.  Fleet 
Prison  demolished  (the  debtors  having  been  removed  to  the  Qu6en*s  Bench),  1845. 

FLEUR-DE-LIS.  The  emblem  of  France,  and  of  which  it  is  gravely  recorded  that 
it  was  sent  to  the  F^nch  people  from  heaven  by  an  angel,  whose  commission  was 
addressed  to  Clovis,  their  first  Christian  king,  who  it  is  related,  made  a  vow  that 
if  he  proved  victorious  in  a  pending  battle  with  the  Alemans  near  Cologne,  a.d.  496, 
he  would  embrace  Christianity.  Having  been  successful  he  adopted  this  emblem, 
and  it  was  the  national  emblem  till  the  revolution. 

FLEURUS,  BATTLE  or.  Between  the  allies  under  the  prince  of  Cobm^,  and  the 
French  revolutionary  army  commanded  by  Jourdan.  The  allies,  with  an  army 
of  100,000  men,  had  for  their  object  the  relief  of  Charleroi,  when  they  were  met 
on  the  plains  of  Fleurus,  and  signally  defeated.  Between  eight  and  ten  thousand 
were  killed,  wounded,  and  taken  prisoners;  and  Jourdan  was  enabled  to  form  a 
junction  with  the  French  armies  of  the  Moselle,  the  Ardennes,  and  the  north.  In 
this  memorable  battle  the  French  made  use  of  a  balloon  to  reconnoitre  the 
enemy's  army,  an  experiment  which,  it  is  said,  contributed  to  the  success  of  the  day, 
June  17, 1794. 

FLIES.  There  happened  an  extraordinary  and  memorable  fall  of  these  insects  in  London, 
oorering  the  clothes  of  passengers  in  the  streets,  in  which  they  lay  so  thick,  that  the 
impressions  of  the  people's  feet  were  visible  on  the  pavements,  as  they  are  in  a  thick 

*  An  eztnordinary  and  formidable  eril  once  prevailed  in  this  prison.  Illicit  marria«re>  were  cele- 
brated in  it  to  an  amazing  extent  Between  the  19th  October,  1704,  and  February  12, 1705,  there  were 
celebrated  2064  marriM:es  in  the  Fleet,  without  license  or  certificate  of  banns.  Twenty  or  thirty  couple 
were  aometimea  joined  in  one  day,  and  their  names  concealed  by  private  marks,  if  they  oboM  to  pay  an 
extra  fee.  Pennant,  at  a  later  period,  describes  the  daring  manner  In  which  this  nefarious  traffic  was 
carried  on.  He  says,  that  in  waUdng  by  the  prison  in  his  youth,  he  has  been  often  aocoeted  with  "  Sir, 
wHlyott  please  to  walk  in  and  be  married?"  And  he  states,  that  pahited  signs,  of  a  male  and  female 
band,  conjoined,  with  the  inscription,  "  Marrisfles  performed  within,"  were  common  along  the  building. 
This  g^Unng  abase  was  put  an  end  to  by  the  Marnago  Act  hi  1753. 


FLU  268  FOR 

FLUXIONS.  Invented  by  Newton,  1669.  The  differential  calculua  by  Leibnitz,  1684. 
The  finest  applicationa  of  the  calculuB  are  by  Newton,  Euler,  La  Grange,  and  La  Plaee. 
The  first  elementaiy  work  on  fluxions  in  England  is  a  tract  of  twen^-two  pages  in 
A  New  Short  Treatite  of  Algdbra,  together  with  a  Specimen  of  the  NcUvre  and  Atgoritkm 
of  Fluxions,  by  John  Harris,  H.A.    London,  octavo,  1702. 

FLTING,  ARTIFICIAL.  It  has  been  attempted  in  all  ages.  Friar  Bacon  maintained 
the  possibility  of  the  art  of  flying,  and  predicted  it  would  be  a  general  practice,  A.D. 
1278.  Bishop  Wilkins  says,  it  will  yet  be  as  usual  to  hear  a  man  call  for  his  wimgB 
when  he  is  going  on  a  journey,  as  it  is  now  to  hear  him  call  for  his  boots,  1651. 

FONTHILL- ABBEY,  in  Wiltshire.  The  celebrated  mansion  of  a  remarkable  character, 
Mr.  Beckford.  Within  this  vast  and  sumptuous  edifice  (the  building  of  which  alone, 
cost  Mr.  Beckford  278,000/.),  were  collected  the  most  costly  articles  of  yertu,  the 
rarest  works  of  the  old  masters,  and  the  finest  apedimens  of  the  arts.  The  auction  of 
its  treasures,  and  the  sale  of  the  abbey  to  Mr.  Farquhar,  took  place  in  1819;  7200 
catalogues,  at  a  guinea  each,  were  sold  in  a  few  days. 

FONTAINEBLEAU,  PEACE  of,  concluded  between  France  and  Denmark  in  1679. 
Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  between  the  emperor  of  Germany  and  Holland,  Not.  8, 
1785.  Trbatt  of  Fontainebleau  between  Napoleon  and  the  royal  family  of  Spain, 
Oct.  27, 1807.  Concordat  of  Fontainebleau  between  Napoleon  and  pope  Pius  VII. 
Jan.  25,  1813.  Fontainebleau  was  entered  by  the  Austrians,  Feb.  17,  1814.  Here 
Napoleon  resigned  his  dignity,  and  bade  farewell  to  his  army,  April  5, 1814. 

FONTENOT,  BATTLE  of,  near  Toumay.  Between  the  French,  commanded  by  ooont 
Saxe,  and  the  English,  Hanoverians,  Dutch,  and  Austrians,  commanded  by  the  duke 
of  Cumberland.*  The  battle  was  fought  with  great  obstinacy,  and  the  carDase  on 
both  sides  was  considenible,  the  allies  losing  12,000  men,  and  the  French  nearly  an 
equal  number  of  lives ;  but  the  allies  were  in  the  end  defeated.  Count  Saxe,  who 
was  at  the  time  ill  of  the  disorder  of  which  he  afterwards  died,  was  carried  about  to 
all  the  posts  in  a  litter,  assuring  his  troops  that  the  day  would  be  their  own ;  fought 
April  30,  (May  11,)  1745. 

FONTS.  Formerly  the  baptistery  was  a  small  room,  or  place  partitioned  off  in  a  church 
where  the  persons  to  be  baptised  (many  of  whom  in  tiie  early  ages  were  adults)  were 
submerged.  Previously  to  these  artificial  reservoirs,  lakes  and  rivers  were  i:>esorted 
to  for  immersion.    Fonts  were  Instituted  in  a.d.  167* 

FOOLSk  FESTIYALB  of,  at  Paris.  These  were  held  on  the  first  of  January,  and  were 
continued  for  240  years.  In  their  celebration,  we  are  told,  all  sorts  of  absurdities 
and  indecencies  were  committed,  a.d.  1198.  Fools  or  licensed  jesters  were  kept  at 
court  in  England  (as  they  were  at  other  courts  in  Europe),  and  were  tolerated  up  to 
the  time  of  Charles  L  1625. 

FOREIGNERS.  See  A  Item.  Foreigners  were  banished  by  proclamation,  in  oonseqnenee 
of  England  being  overrun  with  Flemings,  Normans,  and  the  people  of  other  nations, 
2  Hen.  1. 1155.  Foreigners  were  excluded  from  enjoying  ecclesiastical  benefices,  by 
the  statute  of  provisors,  18  Edw.  III.  1848. — Viner.  The  later  alien  acts  operate 
much  in  relieving  foreigners  from  coercion  and  restraint. 

FOREIGN  LEGION.  Foreigners  have  frequently  been  employed  as  auxiliaries  in  the 
pay  of  the  British  government.  (See  Hessians,)  An  act  (18  &  19  Vict  c.  2),  for  the 
formation  of  a  Foreign  Legion  as  a  contingent  in  the  Russian  war  (1855)  was  pateed 
Dec.  23, 1854.f  The  Queen  and  Prince  Albert  reviewed  3500  soldiers,  principally 
Swiss  and  Germans,  at  Shomcliffe,  Aug.  9, 1865.  On  the  peace  in  1856  many  wen 
sent  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

FOREIGN  ORDERS.  No  British  subject  is  permitted  to  accept  a  foreign  order  from 
the  sovereign  of  any  foreign  country,  or  wear  the  insignia  thereof,  without  her 
Majesty's  consent;  see  Regulations  published  in  London  GNizette,  May  10,  1855. 

FORESTS.  There  were  in  England,  even  in  the  last  century,  as  many  as  68  forests^  18 
chases,  and  upwards  of  780  parks.    The  New  Forest  in  Hampshire  was  made  by 


*  The  king,  LouIb  XV.  and  the  dauphin  were  preeent  at  this  great  battle.  The  soooew  of  the 
British  at  the  eommeoocment  of  It  is  still  quoted  by  military  men  as  the  beat  UluatratJon  of  the  «xti»- 
ordinary  power  of  a  column.  The  adyanco  of  the  Austrians  during  aevenJ  houra  at  the  baitle  of 
Mareuso  (fouffht  June  14,  1800)  waa  compared  to  it  by  Bonaparte. 

t  Tne  endeayour  to  enlist  for  this  legion*  in  1854,  in  the  United  States,  gave  great  ofibnoe  to  the 
American  government  Mr.  Crampton,  our  envoy,  was  diamisaed  May  88,  1856,  in  spite  of  all  the 
JudUdoos  pacific  efforta  of  lord  Clarendon.    Lord  Napier  was  sent  out  sa  onr  reproaentative  In  1867. 


FOR  269  FOB 

William  I.  who  for  that  purpose  destroyed  36  parishes,  palled  down  36  churches,  and 
dispeopled  tho  country  for  80  miles  round,  A.D.  1079-85.— Stoiff.  The  oommissionen 
i^)pointed  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  the  woods  and  forests,  between  A.D.  1787  and 
1793,  reported  the  following  as  belonging  to  the  Crown,  vis :— in  Berkshire,  Windsor 
Forest  and  Windsor  Great  and  Little  Park.  In  Dorset,  Cranbum  Chase.  In  Essex, 
Waltham  or  Epping  Forest  In  Gloucestershire,  Dean  Forest.  In  Hampshire,  the 
New  Forest,  Alice  Holt,  and  Woolmer  Forest,  Bers  Forest  In  Kent,  Greenwich 
Park.  In  Middlesex,  St  James's,  Hyde,  Bushy,  and  Hampton-court  Parks.  In 
Northamptonshire,  the  Forests  of  Whittlebury,  Saloey,and  Rockingham.  In  Notting- 
ham, Sherwood  Forest  In  Oxford,  Whichwood  Forest  In  Surrey,  Richmond 
Park.    Some  of  these  have  since  been  enclosed. 

FORESTS,  CHARTER  or  thk.  Ckarta  de  Foraia.  Granted  by  king  John,  as  well 
as  the  grand  charter  of  liberties,  Jfo^na  Charta,  a.t>.  1215.  This  king  having 
meanly  resigned  his  orown  and  dominions  to  the  pope  Innocent  III.  to  obtain 
absolution  for  the  murder  of  his  nephew  Arthur ;  and  having,  in  a  full  assembly  of 
dergy  and  laity,  submitted  to  the  humiliation  of  receiving  them  again  from  the  pope's 
legate,  to  whom  he  paid  homage  for  them,  and  took  an  oath  to  hold  them  as  his 
v;^sal,  under  the  yearly  tribute  of  1000  marks,  the  bishops  and  barons,  incensed 
at  the  indignity,  and  roused  by  his  exactions,  entered  into  a  confederacy  against 
him,  rose  in  arms,  and  compelled  him  to  sign  the  great  national  charters.  See 
Mftgna  Charta,  There  have  been  several  Forest  charters.  A  charter  of  Henry  II. 
was  found  by  the  Record  Commission,  when  inspecting  the  ancient  records,  Oct  1, 1813. 

FORFARSHIRE  STEAMER.  This  vessel,  on  its  passage  from  Hull  to  Dundee,  was 
wrecked  in  a  violent  gale,  and  thirty-eight  persons  perished.  Owing  to  the  noble  and 
courageous  conduct  of  the  Outer-Fern  Lighthouse  keeper  (J.  Darling),  and  his  heroic 
daughter  (Grace  Darling),  who  ventured  out  in  a  tremendous  sea  in  a  coble,  several 
of  the  passengers  were  rescued.  There  were  fifty-three  persons  in  the  vessel  before 
she  struck.  Sept  5, 1888. 

FORGERY.  The  forging  of  deeds,  ftc.,  or  giving  them  in  evidence  was  made  punishable 
by  fine,  by  standing  in  the  pillory,  having  both  ears  cut  off,  the  nostrils  slit  up  and 
seared,  the  forfeiture  of  land  and  perpetual  imprisonment,  5  Eliz.  1562.  Forgery 
was  first  punished  by  death  in  1634.  Since  the  establishment  of  paper  credit  a 
multitude  of  statutes  have  been  enacted.  Forging  letters  of  attorney,  for  the  transfer 
of  stock,  was  made  a  capital  felony  in  1722.  Mr.  Ward,  M.P.  a  man  of  prodigious 
wealth,  was  expelled  the  house  of  Commons  for  forgery,  May  16, 1726  ,*  and  was  con- 
signed to  the  pillory,  March  17,  the  following  year.  The  value  of  forged  notes  which 
were  presented  at  the  bank  during  ten  years,  from  January  1,  1801,  was  nominally 
101,661/. — Bank  JUtumt,  In  one  year  (1817)  the  bank  prosecuted  142  persons  for 
forgery  or  the  uttering  of  forged  notes.* — Parliamentary  Betunu.  Statutes  reducing 
into  one  act  all  such  forgeries  as  shall  henceforth  be  punished  with  death,  1  WilL  iV. 
1830.  The  pumahment  of  forgery  with  death  ceased  by  stat.  2  &  8  Will  lY. 
Aug.  1832,  except  in  cases  of  foiling  or  altering  wills  or  powers  of  attorney  to  transfer 
stodc ;  but  these  cases  also  are  no  longer  punishable  by  death,  having  been  reduced 
to  transportable  offences,  by  act  1  Yict  c.  84,  July  17, 1837. 

FORGERY,  REMARKABLE  EXECUTIONS  roK  The  unfortunate  David  and  Robert 
Perreau,  brothers  and  wine-merchants,  were  hanged  at  Tyburn,  Jan.  17, 1776.  The 
rev.  Dr.  Dodd  was  found  guilty  of  forging  a  bond,  in  the  name  of  Lord  Chesterfield, 
for  4200/. :  the  greatest  interest  was  made,  and  the  highest  influence  was  exerted  to 
save  him,  but  when  the  case  came  before  the  council,  the  minister  of  the  day  said  to 
George  III.  "If  your  majesty  pardon  Dr.  Dodd,  you  will  have  murdered  the 
Perreaus; "  and  he  was  hanged  accordingly,  June  27, 1777.  John  Hatfield,  a  heartless 
impostor,  who  had  inveigled  '*  Mary  of  Buttermere,*'  the  oelebrated  beauty,  into  a 
marriage  with  him,  was  hanged  for  forgery  at  Carlisle,  Sept  3,  1803.    Mr.  Henry 

*  The  offidal  returns  of  cases  of  fonrery  are,  many  of  them,  very  curious.  From  these  it  appears 
tbat  the  first  forger  on  the  bank  of  England  was  Richard  William  Vaughan,  a  linen-draper  of  Stafford, 
in  the  year  1758,  before  wbich  time,  from  the  establishment  of  the  bank,  a  period  of  sixty-six  years,  no 
attempt  at  this  species  of  forgery  had  been  made.  Vaughan  had  employed  a  number  of  artists  on 
diibrent  parts  of  the  notes  fabricated,  which  had  all  the  appearance  of  bemg  genuine.  The  criminal 
bad  filled  up  twenty  of  the  notes,  and  had  deposited  them  in  the  hands  of  a  young  lady  of  high 
rsapectability  to  whom  he  was  attached,  and  on  the  point  of  being  married,  as  a  proof  of  his  being  a 
man  of  substance  ;  and  buik-notes  having  been  in  circulation  so  long  preyiously,  and  none  haying  beoi 
before  counterfeited,  no  suspicion  of  these  notes  being  spurious  was  entertained.  One  of  the  artiste 
the  informer  and  accuser. 


FOR  270  POU 

Fauutleroy,  a  London  banker,  was  hanged,  Not.  80, 1824.  Joseph  Hunton,  a  quaker 
merchant,  suffered  death,  Dec.  8, 1828.  The  last  criminal  hanged  for  forgeiy  at  the 
Old  Bailey  was  Thomas  Maynard,  Dec.  31, 1829. 

FORKS.  They  were  in  use  on  the  Continent  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries. — Voltaire. 
This  is  reasonably  disputed,  as  being  too  early.  In  Fynes  Moryson's  Itinerary,  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  he  says,  "At  Venice  each  person  was  served  (besides  his  knife  and 
spoon)  with  a  fork  to  hold  the  meat,  while  he  cuts  it,  for  there  they  deem  it  ill 
manners  that  one  should  touch  it  with  his  hand."  Thomas  Coryate  describes,  with 
much  solemnity,  the  manner  of  using  forks  in  Italy,  and  adds,  "I  myself  have  thought 
it  good  to  imitate  the  Italian  fashion  since  I  came  home  to  England.*  a.o.  1608. 

FORMA  PAUPERIS.  A  person  having  a  just  cause  of  suit,  certified  as  such,  yet  so 
poor  that  he  cannot  meet  the  cost  of  maintaining  it,  has  an  attorney  and  ooonsel 
assigned  him  on  his  swearing  he  is  not  worth  62.  by  stat.  Hen.  YII.  1495.  This 
act,  subsequently,  was  remodelled ;  and,  at  the  present  day,  persons  may  plead  ns 
formd  pavperU  in  the  courts  of  law. — Law  Did, 

FORT  ERIE,  Upper  Canada.  This  fortress  was  taken  by  the  American  general 
Browne,  July  3, 1814.  It  was  attacked  unsuccessfully  by  the  British,  with  the  loss 
of  962  men,  Aua.  16,  following.  A  sortie  from  the  fort  was  repulsed  by  the  Britiahy 
but  with  great  loss.  Sept  17»  1814.  Evacuated  by  the  Americans,  Nov.  5,  1814. 
This  place  is  now  considerably  strengthened,  and  is  connected  by  a  chain  of  field 
works,  with  a  contiguous  strong  battexy.    See  Lake  Erie, 

FORTH  AKD  CLYDE  CANAL.  This  great  undertaking  was  commenced  July  10, 1768, 
under  the  direction  of  the  ingenious  Mr.  Smeaton ;  and  the  navigation  was  opened 
July  28, 1790.  By  uniting  tlie  Forth  and  Clyde,  it  forms  a  communication  between 
the  eastern  and  western  seas  on  the  coast  of  Scotland ;  and  thereby  saves  the  long 
and  dangerous  navigation  round  the  Land's  End,  or  the  more  hazardous  course 
through  the  Pentland  Frith. 

FORTIFICATION.  The  Phoenicians  were  the  first  people  who  had  fortified  oitiea. 
Apollodorus  says  that  Perseus  fortified  Mycenae,  where  statues  were  afterwards 
erected  to  him.  The  modem  system  was  introduced  about  a.d.  1500.  Albert  Durer 
first  wrote  on  the  science  of  fortification  in  1527 ;  and  improvements  were  made  by 
Yauban  and  others,  towards  1700.  The  fortification  of  Paris,  the  most  recent  work 
claiming  notice,  was  completed  in  1846.    See  Parii. 

FORTUNE-TELLERS.  Fortune-telling  is  traced  to  the  early  astrologers,  by  whom  the 
planets  Jupiter  and  Venus  were  the  supposed  betokeners  of  happiness  and  saocessL 
The  Sibyllas  were  women  who  flourished  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  and  who 
were  said  to  have  been  inspired  by  heaven.  See  8ibyU,  The  Gypsy  tribe  (see  QyptAa) 
has  been  celebrated  for  ages,  and  in  all  countries,  as  fortune-tellers,  notwithstanding 
the  severe  penalties  to  which  the  exercise  of  the  art  subjected  its  profeason.  Our 
modem  fortune-telling  may  be  traced  to  the  divination  of  the  ancients. — Bedb^. 
Augury  and  divination  led  to  palmistry,  professed  by  modem  fortune-tellers. — Atku 
In  England  the  laws  against  this  species  of  imposition  upon  the  credulity  of  the  weak 
and  ignorant,  were,  at  one  time,  very  severe.  A  declaration  was  published  in  Franosr 
Jan.  11, 1680,  of  exceeding  severity  against  fortune-tellers  and  poisoners,  under  which 
several  persons  suffered  death. — IfenauU, 

FOTHERINGAT  CASTLE,  Nobthamftonshtbe.  Built  a.d.  1408.  Here  Richard  IIL 
of  England  was  bora,  in  1443 :  and  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  was  beheaded  in  this  castle^ 
in  which  she  had  been  long  previously  confined,  Feb.  8, 1587,  after  a  o^tivity  of 
almost  nineteen  years  in  England.  It  was  ordered  to  be  demolished  by  her  aon, 
James  I.  of  England. 

FOUNDLINQ  HOSPITAL.  "A  charity  practised  by  most  nations  about  ns  for  those 
children  exposed  by  unnatural  parents." — Addiaon,  Foundling  hospitals  are,  com- 
paratively, of  recent  institution  in  England,  where,  it  would  appear,  none  existed 
when  Addison  wrote  in  1713.  The  Foundling  hospital  at  Moscow,  built  by  Catherine  IL 
was  an  immense  and  costly  edifice,  in  which  8000  infant  children  were  suocoured. 
The  London  Foundling  Hospital  was  projected  by  Thomas  Coram,  a  benevolent  sea- 
captain,  the  master  of  a  vessel  trading  to  the  colonies;  it  was  incorporated  by  a 
charter  from  Qeorge  II.  in  October,  1739,  and  succours  about  500  infant  ehildraL 
Coram's  statue  was  put  up  in  1856. 

FOUNDLINQ  HOSPITAL,  DUBLIN.   The  FoundHng  Hospital  in  Dublin  was  inatitntad 


FOX 


271 


FRA 


in  1704;  ia  this  charity  there  had  been  receiTed,  according  to  parliamentary  retuma, 
in  the  thirty  years  preceding  Jan.  1825,  as  many  as  52,150  infants :  of  these  14,613 
had  died  infants — 25,859  were  returned  as  dead  from  the  country,  where  they  were 
out  nursing — 730  died  in  the  infirmary  after  returning — 322  died  grown  children — 
total  deaths,  41,524;  so  that  10,626  only  escaped  this  fate.  Owing  to  this  mortality, 
and  from  certain  moral  considerations,  the  intern  department  was  closed  by  order  of 
government,  March  31, 1835. 

FOX  AND  OREmriLLE  ADMINISTRATION.    See  '*AU  the  TaUmiUf  AdmnittrcUion." 

FOX-QLOVE.  A  plant  of  which  we  have  various  specimens. — MiUer,  The  canary  fox- 
glove {DigitaUa  Oanarienria),  brought  from  the  Canary  islands  to  these  countries,  a-D. 
1698.  The  Madeira  fox-glove  brought  from  that  island  in  1777.  The  fox-grape  shrub 
(  VUia  Vulpina),  brought  from  Virginia  before  A.0. 1656. 

FRANCE.  This  country  was  known  to  the  Romans  bv  the  name  of  QauL  In  the 
decline  of  their  power  it  was  conquered  by  the  Franks,  a  people  of  Germany,  then 
inhabiting  what  is  still  called  Fninoonia.  These  invaders  gave  the  name  to  the 
kingdom;  but  the  Ghinls  being  by  far  the  mo§t  numerous,  are  the  real  ancestors  of 
the  modem  French.  There  is  no  nation  in  Europe  where  the  art  of  war  is  better 
understood  than  in  France :  the  government  has  always  been  military,  and  every  man 
bred  to  the  use  of  arms.  The  ladies  are  more  celebrated  for  their  wit  and  vivacity, 
than  for  their  beauty ;  and  the  peasantry,  who  are  destitute  of  the  embellishments  of 
apparel,  are  remarkably  ordinary.  The  gentry  excel  their  neighbours  in  the  arts  of 
dancing,  fencing,  and  dress,  and  are  the  leaders  of  fashions  in  Europa  Previous  to 
the  revolution  in  1789,  France  was  divided  into  32  provinces ;  and  after  that  era  it 
was  divided,  first  into  84,  and  subsequently  into  103,  departments,  including  Corsica, 
Geneva,  Savoy,  and  other  places,  chiefly  conquests.    See  Bonapart^t  Empire, 


The  Franks,  nnder  their  leader  Fhara- 
moad,  settle  in  that  part  of  Oaul,  till 
late  called  Flanders  .  a.d.    420 

Reign  ofClovis  the  Great  .  .  .  .  481 
He  defeats  the  Romans  at  Solssons  .  48d 
He  defeats  the  Alemanni  at  Cologne .  .  496 
Clovis  embraces  Christianity  .  .    496 

He  kills  Alaric  the  Qoth,  in  battle,  near 
Foictiers,  and  conquers  all  the  country 
from  the  Loire  to  the  Pyrenees ;  makes 
Paris  the   capital ;   and  founds  the 

monarchy 607 

He  proclaims  the  Salique  law.  .  .511 
Clovis  dies,  leaving  four  sons  .    .    511 

[Thierry  reigns  at  M  eta ;  Clodomlr  at 
Orleans ;   Childebert  at  Paris ;   and 
Clotbab«  at  Soissons.] 
Clothidre  reigns  alone      ....    600 
The  nuiyors  of  the  palace  now  assume 

idmost  aovereiffn  authority     .        .    .    684 
Charles  Martel  becomes  mayor  of  the 
palace,  i.  e.  governor  of  France,  and 
rules  with  d^potic  sway     .  .    714 

Invasion  of  the  Saracens  .  .  .  .  720 
Reign  of  Pepin  the  Short        .  .751 

Reign  of  Charlemagne  .    .    768 

He  is  crowned  emperor  of  the  West  .  800 
Rollo  obtains  Normandy.  (See  Djma)  .  005 
Reign  of  Hijgh  Capet  .  .987 

Paste  made  capital  of  all  France  .  .  906 
Letters  of  franchise  granted  to  cities  and 

towns  by  Louis  VI.  ....  1135 
Louis  VIL  Joins  in  the  crusades  .  .  1146 
Louis  VIIL,  OoBur-de-Lion,  gives  freedom 

to  thepeasantry 1226 

Louis  IX,  called  St  Louis,  defeats  John 
of  England;  conducts  an  army  into 
Palestine ;  takes  Damietta ;  and  dies 

before  Tunis 1270 

Philip  the  Fair  excommunicated  by  the 

pope 1301 

Knights  Templars  supprasaed  .  .  .  130S 
Union  of  France  and  Navarre .  .  1314 

Philip  71.  defeated  at  Cressy  .  .  .  1846 
Calais  taken  by  Edward  IIL  .  .1347 

Dauphiny  annexed  to  Fnmoe  .    .  1349 

BatUe  of  Foictlera  (which  m),  John,  king 


of  France,  taken,  and  brought  pri* 
soner  to  England .        .  .  a.d.  1356 

Fnmce  Laid  under  an  interdict  by  the 

pope .        .        . 1407 

Battle  of  Aginoourt(wAieA«ee)  .1415 

Entire  conquest  of  France  bv  Henrv  V. 
of  England,  who  is  acknowledged  heir 

to  the  kingdom 1420 

Henrv  VI.  crowned  at  Paris ;  the  duke 

of  Bedford's  regency    ....  1422 
Siege  of  Orleans ;  battle  of  Patay ;  the 

English  defeated  by /oano^i^fv     .    .1420 
England  lost  all  her  possessions  (but 

Calais)  in  France,  between  1434  and  1450 
Study   of  the  Greek  introduced  into 

France 1473 

The  splendid  Interview  of  the  CMh  ^f 
Gohl,  between  Frands  I.  and  Henry 

VIII.  of  England 1520 

League  of  England  with  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  against  France  .    .  1544 

Death  of  Rabeiaii 1553 

Calais  is  lost  to  England  in  the  reign  of 

Mary.    (See  Calais) 1553 

Religious  wars ;  massacre  at  Vassy        .  1561 
Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew     Aug.  24.  1572 
Duke  of  Guise  assassinated  by  command 
of  the  king,  and  his  brother,  the  cardi- 
nal next  day  .        •    Dec.  23,  1588 
Henry  III.  murdered  by  Jacques  Cle- 
ment, a  friar    ....  Aug.  1,  1589 
[In  the  death  of  this  prince  ends  the 
house  of  Valois.l 
Celebrated  edict  of  Nantz  by  Henry  IV. 

(»ee  Sdiet  0/ NanU)      .        .        .        .1598 
Murder  of  Henry  IV.  by  Ravaillac    (See 

article  AavaiUoc) 1010 

[Mary   de  Medicis,  widow   of  Henry, 
grovems    the    kingdom    during    the 
minority  of  Louis  XI 11.] 
Navarre  re-united  to  France  .        .        .  1620 
Death  of  Cardinal  Richelieu       .        .    .  1042 
Splendid  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  snmamod 

the  Great 1643 

Death  of  Moli^re 1673 

Death  of  Oomeille 1684 

Edict  of  Nants  revoked      ....  1685 


FRA. 


272 


FRA 


FRANCE,  eofUinued, 

Peace  of  Ryawick     .  .        .  a.d.  1697 

Death  of  Racine 1<»» 

Peace  of  Utrecht  (wAicA  Me)     .        .        .  1713 

Death  of  F^n^on 1716 

Law's  bubble  in  Franco.    (See  Lav)       .  1716 

Death  of  cardiual  Floury        .        .       .  1748 

Death  or  Monteequieu         .        ...  1765 

Damien'fl  attempt  on  the  lifeof  LouIb  XV. 
(Seeikunim) 1767 

The  Jeaults  banished  from  France,  and 
their  effects  confiscated  •        .       .    .  1762 

Peace  of  Paris  (with  England)  .  176S 

Louis  XVI.  assists  America  to  throw  off 
its  dependence  on  England,  at  first 
secretly 1778 

Torture  is  abolished  in  courts  of  French 
Judicature 1780 

The  memorable  French  revolution  com- 
mences with  the  destruction  of  the 
BastUe  {which  tee)  July  14,  1789 

France  divided  into  80  departments,  Oct.  1789 

The  National  Assembly  {which  «m)  de- 
crees that  the  title  of  the  "  king  of 
Fnmce"  shall  be  changed  to  that  of 
the  "king  of  the  French"  .    Oct.  16,  1789 

The  plate  and  other  property  of  the 
clergy  is  confiscated  .    Nov.  6,  1789 

Confederation  of  the  Champ  de  Mart, 
France  is  declared  a  limited  monarchy, 
(Bee  Champ  de  Mart)        .        .        .    .  1790 

The  silver  plate  used  in  the  churches 
decreed  to  be  transferred  to  the  mint, 
and  coined    ....  March  %  1791 

Death  of  If  irobeau  .        April  2.  1791 

The  king  (Louis  XVI.),  queen  and  royal 
fiimily  arrested  at  Varennes,  in  their 
flight  ftx>m  Paris       .  June  22,  1791 

Louis  (now  a  prisoner)  aanctions  the 
National  Constitution    .         Sept.  16,  1791 

Condoroet's  manifesto   .  Dec.  SO,  1791 

The  Jacobin  club  declare  their  sittings 
pernvuient      .  Jime  18,  1792 

The  multitude  march  to  the  Tuileries  to 
make  demands  on  the  king,  bearing 
the  red  bonnet  of  Liberty  .    June  20,  1798 

Six  hundred  volumes,  the  monuments  of 
the  privil^ied  orders,  are  seised  and 
publicly  burnt  .       .    June  25,  1792 

The  regiment  of  royal  Swiss  guards  cut 
to  pieces    ....        Aug.  10,  1792 

The  statues  of  the  kings  and  those  of 
La  Fayette,  M.  Necker,  and  M inibeau, 
demolished  ....    Aug.  11,  1798 

Decree  of  the  National  Assembly  against 
the  priesthood;  of  whom  40,000  are 
subjected  to  exile  Aug.  23,  1792 

Dreadful  massacre  in  Paris ;  the  prisons 
broken  open  :  1200  persona,  including 
100  priests,  slain  .        .        .    Sept.  2,  1792 

*^Honible  murder  of  the  princess  de 
Lamballe  ....         Sept  3, 1792 

The  National  Convention  (which  tee) 
opened Sept  17,  1792 

Royalty  abolished  by  a  decree  of  the 
Convention  .       Sept  21,  1792 

The  French  people  deolare  their  frater- 
nity with  all  nations  who  desire  to  be 
free Nov.  19,  1792 

The  National  Convention  determines  on 
the  trial  of  the  king        .        .   Dec.  2,  1792 

Decree  for  the  perpetual  biuiishment  of 
the  Bourbon  Family,  those  confined 
in  the  Temple  excepted     .      Deo.  80,  1792 


Louis  is  imprisoned  in  the  Temple  dis- 
tinct (h>m  the  Queen ;  and  is  brought 
to  trial       ....        Jan.  19.  1703 
[Of  746  members  composing  the  National 
Convention.  603  vote  the  king  ffuiHp, 
26  make  different   declarations,   but 
do  not  vote  negatively,  and  26  are  ab- 
sent.] 
Louis  is  condemned  to  death  .    Jan.  90,  1793 
And  is  beheaded  in  the  Place  de  Louit 

QvinMe  ....  Jan.  21,  179S 
Six  thousand  emigrants  are  arrested  in 

Paris Jan.  22,  179S 

Marat  stabbed  to  the  heart  by  Charlotte 

Corday  ....  July  l\  1T9S 
The  queen  beheaded  .    Oct  16.  1795 

The  infamous  Philip  Ega1it4,  the  duke 
of  Orleans,  who  had  voted  for  Uie 
king's  death,  is  himself  guillotined  at 

Paris Nov.  6.  179S 

Princess  Elisabeth  beheaded  .  May  12,  1794 
Robespierre  guillotined  .  July  27,  1794 
Louis  XVII.  dies  in  prison  .  June  8,  1795 
French  Directory         .  Nov.  1,  179ft 

Council  of  Five  Hundred  (which  tee) 
deposed  by  Bonaparte,  who  is  dedared 
First  Consul  .        .        Nov.  9,  1790 

[For  the  Career  of  Napoleon,  see  Ama- 

parte't  Empire  of  France.] 
Legion  of  Honour  instituted   .  May  18,  180S 
Duke  d'Enghien  shot  March  20,  1804 

France  formed  into  an  Empire  under 

Napoleon,  emjieror     .  May  20,  1804 

He  is  crowned  king  of  Italy  .  May  26,  1806 
New  nobility  of  France  created  .  1808 

Holland  united  to  France  July  9,  1810 

The  war  with  Russia,  in  the  end  so  fittal 
to  the  fortunes  of  Napoleon,  declared 
by  France  June  82,  1812 

Triple  alliance  of  Austria,  Russia,  and 

Prussia,  against  France  .  Sept  9,  1813 
The  British  pass  the  Bidaasoa»  and  enter 

France  ....  Oct  47,  1813 
Surrender  of  Paris  (see  Satilee)  to  ttie 

allied  armies  .    March  31,  1814 

Abdication  of  Napoleon  .  .  April  fi,  1814 
Bourbon  dynasty  resttired,   and  Louis 

XVI IL  arrives  at  Paris  .  May  S,  1814 
Napoleon  returns  to  France  .  March  1.  1815 
His  defeat  at  Waterloo  .  June  18,  181ft 
Paris  again  surrenders  .     July  3,  1815 

Louis  re-enters  the  capital  .  July  8,  1815 
Execution  of  Marshal  Ney  .  Aug.  Id,  1815 
Duke  de  Berry  murdered  .  Feb.  13,  1890 
Louis  XVIII.  dies    .  .  Sept  16,  18d4 

National  Ouard  disbanded  .  April  30,  1827 
Seventy-six  new  peers  created  Nov.  6,  1627 
Polignac  administration  .  .  Aug.  4,  1829 
Chamber  of  Deputies  dissolved  .  May,  1830 
The  obnoxious  ordinances  regarding  the 
wess,  and  re-construotion  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  July  26,  1880 

Revolution  commenced  .       .    July  27,  1830 
Conflicts  in  Paris  betvreen  the  populace 
(ultimately    aided    by   the    national 
guard)  and  the  army ;  they  con^ue 
three  days,  till  .  July  SO,  1890 

Charles  X.  retires  to  Rambouillet;  flight 

of  the  ministry     .  .    July  30,  1890 

The  duke  of  Orleans  (Louis  Philippe  L) 

accepts  the  crown      .  Aug.  9,  1880 

Charles  X.  retires  to  England  .  Aug.  17,  1830 
Polignao  and  other  late  n^nisters  are 


*  The  multitude  hurried  to  the  Temple,  bearing  the  mutilated  body  of  Madame  de  lamba&e.  la 
order  to  exhibit  the  "  impious  head  "  of  their  relative  to  the  royal  (kmily  :  the  queen  and  the  inriocasi 
Elisabeth  manifested  the  duenest  emotion  and  sensibility ;  but  the  king  said  with  aasamed  apathy 
(while  shrinking  at  the  sight)  to  the  person  by  whom  it  was  shown  to  him,  "  V<ntt  ova  rviiiM, 
Ifofwinir."  "You  are  right,  Sir!"  These  nftirnflnfni  were  termed  the  SeptembriMn  (wlUdi  «*>— 
HiM.  Ft.  BaoL 


FRA 


273 


FRA 


May  20, 

in    the 
July  15, 

Feb.  8,  1835 
1835 


1834 


FRANCE,  eoiUinued. 

foond  guilty,  and  aentenoed  to  perpe- 
tual impriflonment       .       .    Dec  21,  1830 

The  aboUtion  of  the  hereditary  peerage 
decreed  hr  both  chambeis;  that  of 
the  peers  (36  new  peers  being  created) 
ooneurring  by  a  maiority  of  103  to  70, 

Deo.  27,  1831 

Napoleon'*  eon,  the  dake  of  Reiehstadty 
formerly  the  king  of  Borne,  diee  at 
Schoenbrunn,  in  Austria     .    July  22,  1832 

Cfaaties  X.  leaves  Holyrood-house  for 
the  Continent  .       .  Sept  18,  1832 

Ministry  of  Manhal  Soult;  duke  of  Dal- 
matia Oct  11,  1832 

Bergeron  and  Benoit  tried  for  an  at- 
tempt on  the  life  of  Loois-Philippe  ; 
acouittedb^  the  Jury     .      March  18^  1833 

The  duchess  de  Beni,  who  has  been  de- 
liTered  of  a  female  child,  and  aseerts 
her  secret  marrisge  wiUi  an  ItaUan 
nobleman,  is  sent  off  to  Palermo^ 

JuneO,  1833 

M.  Boorrienne,  author  of  "  Memoin  tf 
HapoUtnt,"  dies  mad  at  Caen,    Peb.  7,  1834 

Death  of  La  Fayette    .  May  20.  1834 

Marshal    Gerard  takes    office 
ministry       .        .        •       • 

M.  Dupuytren  dies 

Due  de  BrqgUe,  minister  .       March  14,' 

Fieschi's  attempt  on  the  life  of  the  king, 
by  firing  the  inliemal  machine.  (See 
Fiaeki)       ....      July  28,  1835 

Louis  Aliband  fires  at  the  king  on  his 
way  from  the  Tuiieries  June  26,  1836 

He  is  guiUotined     .        .       .    Julvll,  1836 

Ministey  of  cotmt  Mol^  who  dlsplaoes 
M.  Thiers  ....        Sept.  7,  1836 

Prince  PoUgnac  set  at  liberty  fh>m  the 
priMm  of  Ham,  and  sent  out  of  France 
with  other  exiles  .        Nor.  28,  1836 

Meunier  fires  at  the  king  on  his  way  to 
open  the  French  CliamDers  .    Dec  27,  1836 

TalleTrand  dies     .  .       May  17,  1838 

Marshal  Sonlt  i^ypears  at  the  coronation 
of  the  queen  of  England,  as  special 
ambassador  firom  France    .    June  28,  1838 

Death  of  the  duchess  of  Wurtembuig, 
daughter  of  Louis-Philippe,  and  who 
excelled  in  sculpture  .    Jan.  2,  1839 

M.  Thiers  takes  the  presidency  of  foreign 
aflUra       ....        March  1,  1840 

The  French  chambers  decree  the  re- 
moval of  the  ashes  of  Napoleon  ttufta 
8t  Helena  to  France  May  10,  1840 

Descent  of  prince  Louis  Napoleon,  gen. 
Montholon,  and  50  followers,  at  Vime- 
roux,  near  Boulogne  (afterwards  tried, 
and  the  prince  imprisoned)    .  Aug.  6,  1840 

Darmes  fires  at  the  king  Oct.  15,  1840 

M.  Onizot  becomes  minister  of  foreign 
afliurs Oct.  29,  1840 

*The  ashes  of  Napoleon  are  deposited  in 
the  H6tel  des  Invalides    .        Dec  15,  1840 

Project  of  law  for  an  extraordinary  cre- 
dit of  140,000,000  of  fhincs,  for  erecting 
the  forUflcations  of  Paris    .    Dee.  15,  1840 

The  chamber  of  deputies  fix  the  dura- 
tion of  copsrright  to  80  yean  after  the 
author's  death  March  80,  1841 

Statue  of  Napoleon,  of  bronse,  placed 


on  the  column  of  the  Orsnde  Arm^, 
Boulogne  ....        Aug.  15, 

Attempt  to  asssasinate  the  dnke  of 
Aumale.  son  of  Louis-Philippe,  on  his 
return  from  Africa  .    Sept  13, 

The  duke  of  Orleans,  heir  to  the  neoch 
throne^  killed  by  a  fidl  from  his  car- 
riage   July  13. 

Visit  of  the  queen  of  England  to  the 
French  royal  family  at  the  ChAteau 
d'Eu  .    from  Sept  2  to  7. 

Attempt  made  by  Lecomnie  to  assassi- 
nate the  king  in  the  park  of  Fontaine- 
bleau.       ....       April  16, 

Prince  Louia-Napoleon  makes  his  eec^M 
from  Ham   ....      May  26, 

Another  attempt  (the  seventh)  maoe  on 
the  lifb  of  the  king^  Louis-Philippe, 
by  Joseph  Henri  .  .    July  29, 

Marriage  of  the  due  de  Montpenrier  with 
the  inflmta  of  Spain  .  Oct  10, 

Disastrous  inundation  in  France,  Oct  20, 

The  Praslin  murder.  (See  FnuUn,) 

Aug.  17, 

Death  of  Marshal  Oudinot  (duke  of  Beg- 
gio)  at  Paris,  in  his  Olst  year.  Sept  13, 

Soult  made  marshal-general  of  Frsnoe, 
in  his  room  .       Sept  26, 

Prince  Jerome  Bonaparte  returns  to 
France  after  an  exile  of  32  years 

Oct  10, 

Death  of  the  ex-empresi,  Maria  Louisa, 
of  Austria  ....        Dec  17, 

And  of  madame  Adelaide       .    Dec.  80, 

The  proposed  grand  refohn  benquet  at 
Paris,  suppressed  >  eb.  21, 

Violent  revolutionary  tumult  in  oonse- 

?uence ;  barricades  thrown  up,  the 
uileries  ransacked,  the  prisons  opened, 
and  frightful  disoroers  committed  by 
the  populace  Feb.  22,  23,  24, 

The  king,  Louis-Philippe,  abdicates  Uio 
throne,  in  flavour  o(^  dIb  infinnt  grand- 
son, the  duke  of  Orleans  (but  it  is 
not  aooeptod)    .  Feb.  24, 

The  royal  fi&mily  and  ministera  effect 
their  escape  ....    Feb.  24, 

A  republic  proclaimed  from  the  steps  of 
the  H6terde  Ville    .  Feb.  26, 

The  ex-king  and  his  queen  arrive  at 
Newhaven  in  England  March  8, 

Grand  f^eral  procession  in  honour  of 
the  victims  of  the  revolution,  kUled 
during  the  preceding  excesses 

March  4, 

The  provisional  gDvemment  which  had 
been  formed  in  the  great  public  com- 
motion, resigns  to  an  executive  commis- 
sion, elected  by  the  National  Assembly 
of  the  French  Republic  May  6, 

[The  members  of  this  new  government 
were:  MM.  Arago,  Gamier-Pag%^ 
Marie,  Itfunartine,  and  Ledru-Rollin.j 

Perpetual  banishment  of  Louis-Philippe 
and  bis  familv  decreed  May  30, 

Election  of  Prince  Louis  Napoleon  for 
the  department  of  the  Seine,  and  tiiree 
other  departments,  to  the  National 
Assembly  June  12, 

Awful  struggle  and  great  loss  of  life  in 


1841 


1841 


1842 


1848 


1846 
1846 


1846 

1846 
1846 

1847 

1847 

1847 


1847 

1847 
1847 

1848 


1848 


1848 
1848 
1848 
1848 


1848 


1848 


1848 


1848 


*  *  The  remains  of  the  emperor  Napoleon  were,  with  the  permisdon  of  the  British  Government 
taken  fh>m  the  tomb  at  St  HelenA,  and  embarkea  on  the  16th  of  October,  1840,  on  board  of  the  BdU 
Potde  French  frigate,  under  the  command  of  the  prince  de  Joinville ;  the  vessel  reached  Cherbourg 
on  November  30th  ;  and  on  December  15th  the  boay  was  r»-interred  in  the  H6tel  des  Invalides.  The 
ftineral  ceremony  was  one  of  the  most  grand,  solemn,  and  imposing  spectacles  that  have  ever  been 
pneented  in  France.  It  was  witnessed  by  one  million  of  persons;  150,000  soldien  assisted  In  the 
obsequies ;  and  the  royal  fiunUy  and  all  the  high  personages  of  the  realm  wera  present ;  but  it  vras 
remarkable  that  all  the  relatives  of  the  emperor  were  absent  being  proscribed,  and  in  exile  or  in 
prison. 

T 


FRA 


274 


FRA 


FRANCE,  conUnu£d, 

PuIb;  tfaepoople  eiuMrad  ftffafnst  the 
troops  aad  National  OuaitL  Mora 
than  800  barricades  thrown  up,  and 
firing  continues  in  all  parts  of  Paris 
daring  the  night  June  SS.  1848 

The  tro^  under  generals  ChTaignac  and 
Lsmoridbre  suooeed,  with  immense 
loss,  in  driving  the  Insurgents  firom 
the  left  bank  of  the  Seine  .  June  24,  1848 
Paris  declared  in  a  state  of  siege,  June  25,  1848 
The  finubouxs  du  Temple  carried  with 
cannon  ana  howitiens  and  the  insur- 

Cts  surrender  .  .    JuneSO^  1848 

national  losses  caused  by  this 
dresdfol  outbreak  were  estimated  at 
30.000.000  francs;  16,000  kUled  and 
wounded,  and  8000  prisoners  were 
taken.  The  Archbishop  of  Puis  was 
amonff  the  kiUed.] 

Prince  Couis-Napoleon  tskes  his  seat  in 
the  National  Assembly    .       Bept  20,  1848 

Paris  relieyed  ttom  the  state  or  sl^ge, 
which  had  continued  4  months,  Oct  20. 1848 

Solemn  promulgation  of  the  constitution 
in  front  of  the  Tuileries  Oct.  20,  1848 

Prince  Louis-Napoleon  declared  presi- 
dent of  the  French  republic  by  a  minor- 
ity of  4, 000,770  votes  Deo.  11,  1848 

[He  had  0,O48»872  votes,  leaving  him  the 
above  nudority]. 

Death  of  uie  ex-king,  Louis-Philippe^ 
in  exile^  .at  Claremont,  in  England, 

Aug.  26,  1850 

Gen.  Cbangamier,  deprived  of  the  com- 
mand in  chief  of  the  national  guard, 

Jan.  10,  1851 

Death  of  the  duchess  of  AngoulAme, 
daughter  of  Louis  ZVI.,  at  Frohndorf 

Oct.  10,  1851 

Death  of  marshal  Boult  Oct  26^  1851 

The  legislative  assembly  dissolved;  uni- 
venal  suffiage  established,  and  Puis 
declared  In  a  state  of  siwe.  The 
election  of  a  presidont  for  ten  years 
proposed,  and  a  second  chamber  or 
senate Dec.  2,  1851 

MM.  ThienL  Changamier,  Oavaignac, 
Bedeau,  Lamcnridere,  and  Q^rras 
arrested,  and  sent  to  the  csstle  of 
Yincennes Dea  2,  1851 

About  180  memben  of  the  assembly, 
with  M.  fierryerat  their  head,attempt- 
ing  to  meet,  are  arrested,  and  Paris 
occupied  by  troops  .  .  Dec.  2,  1861 

ConsultativeoommJsslonfoundedjDeo.12,  1851 

Voting  throughout  France  for  tiie  elec- 
tion of  a  president  of  the  republic  ftn* 
ten  yesn ;  affirmative  votes  7,439,210, 
negative  votee  640.787    .    Deo.  21,  22,  1851 

Installation  of  the  prince-president  in  the 
cathedral  of  Notre-Dame ;  the  day  ob- 
served as  a  national  holiday  at  Paris, 
and  Louis-Napoleon  takes  up  his  resi- 
dence at  the  Tuileries  .  Jan.  1,  1852 

Gens.  Cbangamier,  Lamorioitee,  and 
others,  oonductod  to  the  Belgian 
frontier      ....         Jan.  9,  1852 

And  83  memben  of  the  late  legislative 
assembly  banished,  and  575  penons 
arrested  for  nsistanoe  to  the  eottp-cT- 
Aai  of  Dec.  2,  and  conveyed  to  Havra 
for  transportation  to  Cayenne,* Jan.  10,  1852 

The  national  guard  disbanded,  and  re-  i 

oiganised  anew,  and  placed  under  the 


oontrolof  the  ezeeuttv^s,  the  prssldsDt 
appointing  the  offioen.       .    Jan,  10,  1852 

A  new  oonstitutioa  published  by  the 
prinoe-prssident     .  .  Jan.  15,  1852 

Decree  obliging  the  Orleans  fiunily  to  ssli 
all  their  real  and  personsl  pcm>Sfty  in 
Franee  within  a  year .  Jan.  28,  1852 

Second  decree,  annulling  the  settlement 
madebyLouis-PhiUppe  upon  his  flunily 
pnvious  to  his  aooessioa  in  1830,  ana 
annexing  the  property  to  the  domain 
ofthesUte.  Jan.  23,  1852 

The  birth-day  of  Napoleon,  first  anperor 
(Auff.  15;^  to  be  the  only  nntiimal 
lioliday Feb.  17,  1852 

The  departments  of  France  released  from 
a  state  of  siege    .  .  March  28»  1852 

Installation  of  the  legislative  dhambera, 

March  29.  1852 

A  permanent  Crystal  palace  authorised 
to  be  erected  in  the  Champs  Blystesat 
Paris      ....        MandiSO,  1862 

Plot  to  assassinate  the  prince-preridsnt 
discovered  at  Paris    .  July  1,  1852 

President's  visit  to  Stnsbuig  .  July  19,  1852 

M.  Thien  and  other  exiles  permitted  to 
return  to  France  Aog.  8,  1852 

The  French  senate  prays  "  the  re-estab- 
lishment of  the  nereditaiy  sovere^ 
power  in    the    Bonaparte    fikaily," 

Sept  13,  1852 

Bnthusisstic  reception  of  the  prince- 
president  at  Lyoos  .  Sept  19.  1852 

Infernal  machine  intended  to  deetxoy  the 
prince-president,  seised  at  Marsolles^ 

Sept  23,  1852 

Prince-president  visits  Toulon,  Sept  27.  1852 

He  visits  Bourdeaux,  where  he  ssy  s  *  *  the 
empire  is  peace."  Oct  7,  1852 

He  releases  Abd-el-Kader.  (See  artidJe 
Algien) Oet  l«w  1852 

He  convokes  the  senste  for  November,  to 
deliberate  on  a  change  of  govenmieiit, 
when  a  teaotiU  eofimttuM  will  be  pro- 
poeed  fbr  the  ratification  of  the  French 
people Oct  19,  1852 

Protest  of  the  comte  de  Chambord, 

Oct  25,  1852 

In  his  message  to  the  senate,  the  prince- 
president  announoee  the  contemplated 
restoration  of  the  empire,  and  ordera 
the  people  to  be  eonsulted  upon  this 
change  of  government    .       .  Nov.  4,  1S52 

Votes  for  the  empire.  7,864,189 :  noes, 
253,146;  null,  68,320  .  Dec.  1,  1862 

The  prince-preddent  is  dedaredemperor, 
and  ansumes  the  title  of  Napoleon  HL 
(See  the  nuecneiing  lAtt  of  Boveragna  o/ 
Cranes:)      ....        Dec.  %  1852 

Marriage  of  the  emperor  with  Bugtfnie^ 
countess  T^ba,a  Snanish  Iady,dai^hter 
of  the  countess  of  Montq}o,at  the  cathe- 
dral of  Notre-Dame :  the  ceremony  per- 
formed by  the  archbp.  of  Paris,  Jan.  30^  1 853 

4812  political  offsnden  pardoned  Feb.  %  1853 

Breed  riots       ....         Sept  1853 

Military  campatSatoiy,  near  Paris^  Sept  1853 

Emperor  and  empress  visit  tiie  pvo- 
vlnoes  (many  political  prisonen  dls- 
chaised)  .       r       .       .       .       Oet  1833 

Arago  died      ....        Oet  2,  1353 

Attempted  assassination  of  the  emperor; 
ten  peisoDS  condemned  to  tranqyoita- 
tion  for  life       ....     Nov.  1853 


«  •* 


Liberty,  Bqwdity,  Fraiemity/*  an  ordered  by  the  minister  of  the  interior  to  bo  forthwith 
wherever  the  words  are  inscribed,  throughout  France,  and  the  old  names  of  streets,  public  buildii^i^ 
and  places  of  resort  to  be  restored.    The  trees  of  liberty,  once  so  dear  to  the  French  people,  an  ev« 
where  hewn  down,  and  their  trunks  and  branches  borne  away  by  the  versatile  popuJace^  or  burnt 
the  spot  when  they  stood. 


FRA 


276 


FRA 


FRANCE,  e<miinued. 

Beonnriliittop  of  the  two  bvmnchea  of 

tlie  Boarboiu  At  Frohadorf  .    Nov.  20,  1858 
Tf^T^Kmi  Ney'a  statue  inaugurated  ex- 

aoUy  thlrty'eight  yean  after  his  death 

on  the  spot  where  it  oocunred,  Dec.  7,  1853 
War  declared  agaiziatRaasia.  (BeeJKiuio- 

TurkiMhwar)     .  March  S7»  1864 

Visit  of  Frinee  Albert  at  Boulogne, 

8epL  &,  1854 
Death  of  Marshal  8t  Amaud.  Sept  29»  1854 
TheBmpoorand  Empress  visit  London, 

April  16—21,  1866 
Attempted  sswssfnstion  of  the  Emperor 

by  Pianori  Apnl  28,  1855 

QoMQ  Vietoria  and  Prince  Albert  visit 

Paris Aug.  18,  1865 

Attempted  sssassinatioD  of  the  Bmperor 

by  Bellemarre,  a  lunatic,      .   Sept.  8;  1866 


Death  of  Count  MoM  Nov.  24,  1866 

Birth  of  the  imperial  Prince  (amnesty 
granted  to  1000  political  prisoners) 

March  16,  1856 
Peace  with  Russia  signed  March  80,  1866 
Awftil   inundation  in    the    south  of 

France,*  ....  June,  1856 
Distress  in  money  market  .  .  Oct.  6.  1866 
Sibour,  archbishop  of  Fsiis^  issssrinated 

by  Veiger,  a  priest  Jan.  8,  1867 

Jilectlons  (3,000,000  voters  to  elect  267 
deputiesX  Gen.  Cavaignac  elected,  but 
declines  to  take  the  oath,  Jane  21,  22,  1857 
Consplrscy  to  ssssseinste  the  emperor 

in  Psris  detected  .  .   July  11,  1867 

The  ooDspiratora,  Grilli,  Bartolotti,  and 
Tibaldi,  tried  and  convicted,  and  sen- 
tenced to  transportation,  Ac,  Aug.  6, 7,  1867 


KING8  OF  FRANCE. 


MXBOVniGIAH  SAGS. 

418.  Pharmmond. 

427.  Clodion,  or  Clodios,  the  Hairy;  supposed 

son  of  Pharamond. 
448.  MeroviBUS,    or   Merov^    son-in-law  of 

Clodion :  this  race  of  kings  called  from 

him  Merovingians. 
458.  Chllderic,  son  of  Merovte. 
481.  Clovis  the  Great,  his  son,  and  the  real 

founder   of  the   monarchy. — Htnayit. 

He  left  four  sons,  who  divided  the 

empire  between  them : 
511.  CbUdebert;  Paris. 

—  Clodomir :  Orleans. 

—  Thierry ;  Meta  ;  and 

—  Clotaire,  or  dothariua ;  Solasons. 
684.  Theodebert;  Mcts. 

548.  Theodebald,  succeeded  in  Metz. 

668.  Clotidre ;  now  sole  ruler  of  France.  Upon 
his  death  the  kingdom  was  sgain 
divided  between   his  four  sons:   vie. 

561.  Charebert,  ruled  at  Paris. 

—  Gontran  in  Orleans  and  Buigundy. 

—  Siarabert  at  Meta,  andl     both  aassssi- 

—  ChUperio  at  Soissons.    j  nated. 

[France  continued  at  times  afterwards 
to  be  ruled  in  various  dlrisioos  by 
separate  kings.] 
676.  Chiklebert  II. 
584.  Clotaire  IL ;  Soissons. 
696.  Thierry  II.,  son  ofChUdebert;  in  Orleans. 

—  Theodebert  II. ;  Metx. 

618.  Clotaire  II. :  became  sole  Idaa. 

628.  Dagobert  the  Great,  son  oHK>tairs  II. : 

he  divided  the  kingdom,  of  which  he 

had  become  sole  monarch,  between  his 

two  sons:— 
638.  Clovis  II.,  who  had  Burgundy  and  Neu- 

stria;  and 

—  Sigebert  II.  who  had  Austrasla. 
656.  Clotaire  III.,  son  of  aovlsll. 

670.  Childerie  II.  :  he  became  king  of  the 
whole  realm  of  France :  assassinated 
with  his  queen,  and  his  son  Dsgnbert, 
in  the  forest  of  Livri. — HenauU, 
[At  this  time  Thierry  III.  rules  in  Bur- 
gundy and  Neustria,  and  Dsgobert  If. 
son  of  fflgebert,  in  Austrasia.    Dago- 


bert is  assassinated,  and  Thierry  reigns 

alone.— /ijenaittt.] 
691.  Clovis  III.    Pepin,  mayor  of  the  palace, 

rules  the  kingdom,  in  the  name  of  this 

sovereign,  who  is  succeeded   by  his 

brother, 
695.  Childebert  III.,  sumamed  the  Just :  in 

this  reign  Pepin  also  exerdses  the  royal 

power. 
711.  r^bert  III.,  son  of  Childebert. 
716.  Chflperic  II.  (Dsnlel) :  he  is  governed, 

and   St   length   deposed,    by  Charles 

Martel,  mayor  of  the  palace,  whose  sway 

is  now  unbounded. 

719.  Clotaire  IV.,  of  obaeure  origin,  raised  by 

Charies  Martel  to  the  throne ;  dies  soon 
after,  and  Chilperic  Is  recalled  from 
Aouitaine,  whither  he  had  fled  for 
renige. — HmavU, 

720.  Chilperic  II.,  restored :  he  shortly  after- 

wards dies  at  Noy  on,and  is  succeeded  by 
—  Thierry  IV.,  son  of  DM;obert  III.,  sur- 
ntoMd  de  CheOti  :  died  in  787.  Charles 
Martel  now  rules  under  the  new  title 
of  "  duke  of  the  French.**— JTenautt. 

737.  Interregnum,  till  the  death  of  Charles 
Martel,  in  741 ;  and  until 

742.  Childerie  III.,  son  of  Chilperic  II ,  mvr- 
named  the  Stupid.  Osrloman  and  Pepin, 
the  sons  of  Cnarles  Martel,  share  the 
government  of  the  kingdom,  in  this 
reign. 

THB  CABLOTISaiAHB. 

762.  Pepin  the  short,  son  of  Charles  Martel : 
he  is  succeeded  bv  his  two  sons, 

768.  fCharlemagne  and  Garloman :  the  fbr- 
mer,  sumamed  the  Gkeat,  erowned  em- 

gsror  of  the  West,  by  Leo  III.,  in  800. 
arlornsn  reigned  but  three  years. 
814.  Louis  le  DUxmnaire^  emperor :  dethroned 

but  restored  to  bis  dominiona 
840.  Charles,  sumamed  the  Bald ;  emperor  in 

875 :  poisoned  by  Zedechlas,  a  Jewish 

physicisn. — HtmauU. 
877  Louis  the  Stammerer,  son  of  Charles  the 

Bald. 
879.  Louis  III.  and  Carloman  II. :  the  former 


*  The  subscriptions  at  London  to  relieve  the  sufferers  amounted  to  43,0001.  Sir  Jamse^ee 
J^jeebboy,  of  Bombay,  gave  5001.  for  the  same  purpose. 

t  This  great  prince  von  only  a  plain  doublet  in  vinUrt  made  of  an  oUer*$  «Hn,  a  wnAlgn  tuniCt  ftrinoed 
wtiA  *Uk,  and  a  Uue  eoat  or  cauoek;  kit  Koh  eontitttd  of  tranverM  band»  or  JUlHi  of  different  eoUntn.  ae 
would  march  with  the  greatest  rapidity  from  the  Pyrenean  mountains  into  Germany,  and  ftom 
Germany  into  Italy.  The  whole  wond  echoed  his  name.  He  was  the  tallest  and  the  strongest  man  of 
faia  time.  In  this  respect  he  resembled  the  heroes  of  fabulous  story :  but  be  differed  fhnn  then^  ss  he 
thought  that  force  was  of  use  alone  to  conquer,  and  that  laws  were  neceosary  to  govern.  Acooroingl^ 
he  enacted  several  laws  after  the  form  observed  in  those  days,  that  is,  in  mixed  assemblies,  composed 
of  a  number  of  bishops  and  the  principal  lords  of  the  nation. — SffinMard. 

T  2 


FRA 


278 


FRA 


1806.  The  Frankfort  diet  published  ft  federative  constitution,  March  80, 1848.  The 
restricted  diet  of  the  German  Confederation  was  constituted  ftt  Frankfort,  Aug.  10. 
1850.  The  plenipotentiaries  of  Austria,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Hanover,  Wurtembog^ 
Mecklenburg,  &c.  assembled  here  and  constituted  themselves  the  council  of  tho 
Qermanic  diet,  Sept.  1, 1850.    PruBsia  refused  to  recognise  it.^  See  Oermanjf. 

FRANKING  of  LETTERS.  The  privilege  of  letters  passing  free  of  postage  was  claimed 
by  parliament  (almost  from  the  regular  institution  of  the  postroffioe),  a.d.  1660. 
Various  statutes  were  enacted  to  regulate  firanldqg.  The  privilege  was  abolished  by 
the  introduction  of  the  uniform  penny  postage,  which  came  into  operation  January 
10, 1840.    The  queen  was  among  the  first  to  relinquish  her  privilega 


FRANKLIN,  SIR  JOHN,  hib  ARCTIC  EXPEDITION.  Sir  John  Franklin,  with 
tains  Cromer  and  Fitsjames,  in  H.  M.  ships  Brdna  and  Terror  (carrying  in  all  138 
persons),  sailed  on  an  arctic  expedition  of  discovery  and  survey,  from  Oreenhithe,  on 
May  24, 1845.  Their  last  despatches  were  from  the  Whalefish  ishmdi,  dated  July  12, 
1845.  Their  protracted  absence  caused  intense  anxiety  throughout  Europe^  and 
numerous  expeditions  were  sent  from  England  and  elsewhere  in  search  of  them  to 
various  parts  of  the  polar  regions.  Quantities  of  coals,  provisions,  clothing,  and 
other  comforts,  were  deposited  in  such  places  in  the  Arctic  seas  as  the  crews  of  tfaa 
Brehut  and  Terror  discovery  ships  might  visit,  so  as  to  afford  them  immediate  relief, 
by  our  own  and  by  the  American  government,  by  lady  Franklin,  and  numerona 
private  persons.  The  Trudove,  captain  Parker,  which  arrived  at  Hull,  Oct.  4, 1849,  from 
Davis's  Straits,  brought  intelligence  (not  afterwards  confirmed)  that  the  natives  had  seen 
sir  John  Franklin's  ^ps  as  late  as  the  previous  March,  beset  or  fix)zen  up  by  the  ice  in 
Prince  Regent's  inlet.  Other  accounts  were  equally  illusory.  Her  majesty's  govern- 
ment, on  March  7, 1850,  offered  a  reward  of  20,0002.  to  any  party,  of  any  country,  that 
should  render  efficient  assistance  to  the  crews  of  the  missing  i&iips.  Sir  John's  first 
winter  quarters  were  found  at  Beechey  Island  by  captains  Oiumanney  and  Penny. 


8EAB0H  FOB  SIR  JOHN  FBANKLZN. 


1848 


1848 


1849 


1.  H.lf.8.  PUvtr,  capt  Moore  (after- 
wardB  under  capt.  ICa^reX  flailed 
from  Bheemeflfl,  to  Behnng'B  Straits^ 
in  search       ....     Jan.  1, 

2.  Land  expedition  under  sir  John  Rich- 
ardson and  Dr.  Rae,  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company,  left  England  March  25, 

[Sir  Jonn  Richardson  returned  to 
England  in  1849.  and  Dr.  Rae  con- 
Unued  his  search  till  1851.] 
8.  Sir  James  Roes,  with  the  Bnttrpriie 
and  Invatiffator  (June  18,  1848X  hav- 
ing also  sailed  in  search,  to  Barrow's 
Stndts,  returned  to  E<ngland  (Scar- 
borough)      ....     Nov.  8, 
4.  The  »Uerpri$$^  eapt  ColUnson,  and 
Invatigator,      commander     M'Clure, 
sailed  firom  Plymouth,  for  Behring's 
Straits       ....        Jan.  20. 1860 
[Both    of   these    ships    proceeded 
through  to  the  eastward.] 
6.  Capt.  Austin's  expedition,  viz. : 
BeMolMttt  capt.  Austin,  C.B., 
Auistanet,  capt.  Ommanney, 
Intrepidt  lieut.   (now   commander) 

Bertie  Cator,  and 
Pioneer,   lieut.   (now    commander) 
Sherard  Osbom, 
sailed   flx>m  England,    for   Barrow's 

Straits April  26,  1860 

I  Returned  Sept.  1851.] 

6.  The  Ladp  Franklin,  capt.  Penny,  and 
Sophia,  capt.  Stewart,  sailed  fh>m 
Aberdeen  for  Barrow's  Straits  April  18,  1860 

[Returned  home  Sept.  1861.] 

7.  The  Ajcxricam  expeoition  in  the  Ad- 
vanee  and  Baeue,  under  lieut.  De 
Haven  and  Dr.  Kane  (son  of  the 
judgeX  towards  which  Mr.  Orinnell 
subecribed  80,000  dollars,  sailed  for 
Lancaster  Sound  and  Barrow's  Straits ; 
after  drifting  in  the  pack  down  Baffin's 


Bay,  tha  sh^  were  released  in  1851 
nnit^urod      ....    May  26.  1850 

8.  The  Felix,  sir  John  Ross,  fitted  out 
chiefly  by  the  Hudson  Bay  Company, 
sailed  to  the  same  locality       May  22,  1850 

[Returned  in  1851.] 

9.  U.M.S.  North  Star,  commander  Saun- 
derSt  which  had  sailed  from  Englmd  in 
1849,  wintered  in  Wolstenholme  Sound, 

and  returned  to  Spithead    .  S^>t  28»  1860 

10.  H.M.S.  Herald,  d^t.  KeUett^  CB., 
which  had  sailed  in  1848,  made  three 
voyages  to  Behring's  Straits,  and  r»- 
turued  in 1851 

Ueut.  Pirn  went  to  St.  Petersburg  with 
the  intention  of  travelling  through 
Siberia  to  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Kolyma ;  but  was  dissuaded  from 
proceeding  by  the  Russian   flpovexn- 

uient Nov.  18,  1851 

[The  Bnlerpriee  and  InveatigaUr  («ee 
4.  above)  not  having  been  heard  of 
for  two  years] 

11.  Sir  Edvrard  Belcher's  expedition, 
consisting  of— 

AetUtanee,  sir  Edward  Belcher,  C.  B. , 
XeeolfUe,  capt  Kellett.  C.B., 
North  SUir,  oapt  Pullen, 
Intrepid,  capt  M'Clintock,  and 
Fioneer,  capt.  Sherard  Osbom, 
sailed  fh>m  Woolwich  April  16.  1852 

[This  expedition  had  arrived  at 
Beechey  UJand,  Aug.  14,  1862. 
The  Amietanee  and  Fioneer  pro* 
ceeded  through  WeUington  (%a&> 
Del,  and  the  Reeotwie  and  Inirgrid 
to  Melville  Island ;  the  North  &ar 
remaining  at  Beech^  Island.] 

LADY  ntAKKUV'S  SQUIPMCirra. 

Lady  Fraukliu,  flnom  her  own  resouroefl, 
aided  by  a  few  friends  (and  by  the 


FRA 


279 


FRA 


FRANKLIN,  SIR  JOHN,  Rn  ARCTIC  EXPEDITION,  e(mtinft€d. 


"TannaDian  Tribute"  of  15001), 
equipped  four  aeparate  priTate  expe- 
ditions: 

12.  Tlie  Princt  Atbert,  capt  Forsyth, 
aaUed    ttom   Aberdeen   to   Barrow's 

Straits Jime  6,  1850 

rRetumed  Oct.  1,  1850.] 

IS.  The  Frine*  Albert,  Mr.  Kennedy, 
accompanied  by  Ueut.  Bellot  of  the 
French  navy,  and  John  Hepburn,  sailed 
fixxn  Btromness  to  Prince   Regent's 

inlet June  4,  1851 

[Returned  Oct  1852.] 

14.  The  Itabd,  commander  Infi^efleld, 
sailed  for  the  head  of  BaiBn^s  Bay, 
Jones's  Bound,  and  the  Wellingtona 
ChanneL    July  6,  and  returned.  Nor.  185! 

15.  Mr.  Kennedy  sailed  again  m  the 
Jtabdf  on  a  renewed  search  to  Beh- 
rinflr's  Straits 1853 

16.  H.M.S.  JZatflemaic,  oommanderTrol- 
lope,  despatched  to  assist  the  Plover, 
capt  Maguire  (who  succeeded  capt 
MooreX  at  Point  Barrow  in  April,  met 
with  it Aug.  1858 

17.  The  second  AmebicaV  expedition,  the 
Jdvafutj  under  Dr.  Kane,  early  in  Juno,  1853 

18.  The  Phcenix  (with  the  Breadalbane 


transportX  commander  Inglefield,  ac- 
companied by  lieut  Bellot  suledin 
May,  and  returned  in  Oct  18a3 

19.  The  Phctnix^  North  Star,  and  Talbot, 
under  the  command  of  capt  Inglefield, 
sailed  in  May,  and  returned  In      Oct  1854 

20.  The  third  AHsaucAir  expedition,  in 
search  of  Dr.  Kane  in  the  Advance, 
consisted  of  the  Rdease  and  Uie  steamer 
Arctic,  the  baraue  Bringo,  and  another 
vessel  under  toe  commend  of  lieut 
H.  J.  Hartstene,  acoompanied  hj  a 
brother  of  Dr.  Kane  as  suiveon  May  81 ,  1865 

[On  May  17,  1866,  Dr.  Ks&e  and  his 
paHy  quitted  the  Advance,  and 
journeyed  over  the  ice,  1800  miles, 
to  the  Danish  settlement :  on  their 
way  homo  in  a  Danish  vessel  they 
fell  in  with  lieut  Hartstene^  Sept 
18 :  and  arrived  vrith  him  at  New 
YorkOet.11,1865.  Dr.  Kane  visited 
England  in  1850.    He  died  in  1857.  J 

21.  The  eighteenth  British  expedition, 
fequipped  by  Lady  Frsnklin  and  her 
irienas,  the  sovemment  having  de- 
clined)—-the  fox,  screw  steamer,  capt 
M'Clintock,  &N.  (see  No.  HX  sailed 
from  Aberdeen      .  July  1,  1867 


In  1853,  eight  yean  had  elapsed 'since  the  receipt  of  any  authentic  intelligence  of 
Franklin  and  his  companions,  and  anxiety  was  beginning  to  be  felt  respecting  the  state 
of  the  expeditions  under  captain  Colllnson  and  sir  £.  Bdcher  (see  Nos.  4  and  11,  abcfvt). 
In  Octbber,  captsin  Inglefield  returned  in  the  Phcenix,  brineing  despatches  from  sir 
E.  Belcher.  Ac  The  InvtiHgaUxr,  snd  sir  K  Belcher's  squadron,  were  safe ;  but  no 
traces  of  Franklin's  party  had  been  met  with.  Lieutenant  Bellot*  was  unfortunately 
drowned  in  August  while  voluntarily  conreying  despatches  to  sir  E.  Belcher. — Captain 
M'Clore  had  left  the  Htrald  (10)  at  Gape  Lisbume,  July  81, 1850.  On  Oct  8,  the 
■hip  was  frozen  in,  and  so  continued  for  nine  months.  On  Oct  26, 1850,  while  on  an 
excursion  party,  the  captain  discovered  an  entrance  into  Barrow's  Straits,  and  thus 
established  the  existence  of  a  N.E. — N.W.  passage.  In  Sept  1851,  the  ship  was  again 
fixed  in  ice,  and  so  remained  till  lieutenant  Pirn  and  a  party  from  captain  Kellett's 
ahip^  the  Ruclvte  (11),  fell  in  with  them  in  April,  1853.  The  position  of  the  SnUrpnae 
(4)  was  still  unknown. — In  the  spring  of  1853,  Dr.  Rae  again  proceeded  towards  the 
magnetic  pole,  and  in  July,  1854,  he  reported  to  the  Admiralty  that  he  had  purchased 
from  a  party  of  Esquimaux  a  number  of  articles,  which  had  belonged  to  sir  J.  Franklin 
and  his  party,  namely,  sir  John's  star  or  order,  part  of  a  watch,  silver  spoons,  and 
forks  with  crests,  &c.  He  also  reported  the  statement  of  the  natives,  that  they  had 
met  with  a  party  of  white  men  about  four  winters  previous  and  had  sold  them  a  seal, 
and  that  four  months  later,  in  the  same  season,  they  had  found  the  bodies  of  thirty 
men  (some  buried)  who  had  evidently  perished  by  starvation ;  the  place  appears,  from 
the  description,  to  have  been  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Qreat  Fish  River  of  Back. 
Dr.  Rae  arrived  in  England  in  Oct  22, 1854,  with  the  melancholy  relics,  which  have 
since  been  deposited  in  Qreenwich  HospitiJ.t — ^After  mature  deliberation,  in  April 
1854,  sir  £.  Belcher  determined  to  abandon  his  ships,  and  gave  orders  to  that  effect 
to  all  the  captains  under  his  command;  and  captain  Kellett  gave  similar  orders  to 
captain  M'Clure  of  the  InvesHg<Uor.  The  vessels  had  been  abandoned  in  June  t  when 
the  crews  of  the  Phoenix  and  Talbot  (under  captain  Inglefield)  arrived  (19).  On  their 
return  to  England  the  captains  were  all  tried  by  coui't-martial  and  honourably 
acquitted,  Oct  17-19,  1854. — The  fate  of  capt.  CoUinson  in  the  Enterpriae  (4)  was  still 
uncertain,  and  another  expedition  was  in  contemplation,  when  intelligence  came,  in 
Feb.  1865,  that  he  had  met  the  RaUUnake  (16)  at  Fort  Clarence,  in  August  21, 1854, 

•  A  momnnent  has  been  erected  to  Us  memory  on  the  quay  at  Greenwich.  His  Journal  was  pub- 
ltabedinl864. 

t  Dr.  Rae  and  his  companions  received  the  reward  of  10,000(.  for  discovering  these  remains,  as  the 
fint  elae. 

t  Captain  Kellett's  ship,  the  RachUe,  was  found  adrift  1000  miles  distant  from  where  she  was  left, 
by  a  Mr.  Oeoiige  Henry,  commanding  an  American  whaler,  who  brought  her  to  New  York.  The  British 
government  havinsr  abandoned  their  claim  on  the  vessel,  it  was  bought  by  order  of  the  American 
congress,  tborooghly  repaired  and  equii^wd,  and  entrusted  to  capt  H.  J.  Hartstene,  to  be  presented  to 
queen  Victoria.    It  arrived  at  Southampton,  Deo.  12, 1866,  sad  was  visited  by  her  Majesty  on  the  16th. 


FRE  280  FRE 

and  had  sailed  immediately  in  hopes  of  getting  up  with  captain  Maguire  in  the  Piaver 
(1)  which  had  Bailed  two  days  previously.  Captain  Collinson  having  &iled  in  getting 
through  the  ice  in  1860  with  captain  M'Clure,  returned  to  Hong  Kong  to  winter.  In 
1851  he  passed  through  Prince  of  Wales's  Straits,  and  remained  in  the  Arctic  regions 
without  obtaining  any  intelligence  of  Franklin  till  July  1854,  irheo,  being  once  more 
released  from  the  ice,  he  sailed  for  Port  Clarence,  where  he  arrived  as  above  men- 
tioned. Captains  Collinson  and  Maguire  arrived  in  England  in  May,  1855. — ^All  appear 
to  have  nobly  and  ably  performed  their  allotted  work  in  the  above  expeditions ;  and 
the  loss  of  life  has  been  exceedingly  smalL  The  Hudson's-Bay  Company,  under  advioe 
of  Dr.  Rae  and  sir  Q.  Back,  sent  out  an  overland  expedition  June  1855,  which  returned 
Sept.  following.    Some  more  remains  of  Flranklin's  party  were  found.    (See  21  abcme.) 

FREDERICKSHALL,  SIEQE  of.  Rendered  memorable  by  the  death  of  Charles  XIL 
of  Sweden,  who  was  killed  by  a  cannon-shot  before  its  walls,  and  while  in  the 
trenches,  leaning  against  the  parapet,  examining  the  works.  He  was  found  in  that 
position,  with  his  hand  upon  his  sword,  and  a  prayer-book  in  his  pocket,  Deo.  11» 
1718.  It  is  now  generally  supposed  that  a  pistol  fired  by  some  traitorous  hand  closed 
the  career  of  this  monarch,  aptly  styled  the  "  Madman  of  the  North." 

FREE  CHURCH  or  SCOTLAND,  was  formed  by  an  act  of  secession  of  nearly  half  the 
body  from  the  national  church  of  Scotland,  May  18, 1848.  The  difference  arose  on 
the  question  of  the  right  of  patrons,  who  claim  the  right  of  intruding  their  own 
nominees  into  the  livings.  The  Free  church  claims  for  the  parishioners  the  right  of 
a  veto.  Much  distress  was  endured  the  first  year  by  the  ministers  of  the  new  churchy 
although  866,719^.  14i.  8(2.  had  been  received  by  subscription.  In  1858  there  weie 
850  oongrsgations.  A  large  college  was  founded  in  1846.  In  1856  the  sostenation  fimd 
amounted  to  108,6882.  from  whidi  was  paid  tiie  sum  of  1882.  each  to  700  ministen. 

FREEHOLDERS.  Those  under  forty  pounds  sterling  per  annum  were  not  qualified  to 
vote  for  members  of  parliament,  a.d.  1429.  Those  for  members  for  counties  weve 
obliged  to  have  forty  diillings  a-year  in  land,  89  Henry  VI.  1460.— i2t(f  Aecufs  iSkofetes. 
Various  aots  have  been  passed  for  the  regulation  of  the  franchise  at  different  perioda. 
Among  the  more  important  recent  acts  were,  the  act  to  regulate  polling,  9  Qeo.  IV. 
1828.  Bill  for  the  disqualification  of  freeholders  in  Ireland,  which  deprived  those  of 
forty  shUlings  of  tins  privUege,  passed  April  18, 1829 ;  Reform  Bill,  2  ft  8  WiU.  lY. 
1882.    County  elections  act»  7  WUl.  IV.  1836. 

FREEMASONRY.  Of  great  antiquity.  Writers  on  masonry,  themselves  masons,  affirm 
that  it  has  had  a  being  *'  ever  since  symmetry  began,  and  harmony  displayed  her 
charms."  Masonry  is  traced  by  some  to  the  building  of  Solomon's  temple ;  and  it  is 
said  the  architects  from  the  African  coast,  Mahometans,  brought  it  into  Spain,  about 
the  sixth  century,  as  a  protection  against  Christian  fanatics.  Its  introduction  into 
these  realms  has  been  fixed  at  the  year  a.d.  674 ;  by  others  it  is  assigned  an  earlier 
date.  The  grand  lodge  at  Tork  was  founded  a.d.  926.  Freemasonry  was  interdicted 
in  England,  a.d.  1424 ;  but  it  afterwards  rose  into  great  repute.  In  1717,  the  grand 
lodge  of  EngUnd  was  established;  that  of  Ireland  was  established  m  1780 ;  and  that 
of  Scotland  in  1736.  Freemasons  were  excommunicated  by  the  pope  in  1788.  Hie 
Freemasons'  hall,  London,  was  built  1775 ;  the  charity  was  instituted  1788. 

FRENCH  LANGUAGE.  The  huiguage  of  Fhmce  and  many  of  the  French  laws  and 
customs  were  first  introduced  into  England  by  William  L  1066.  The  language  and 
fiuhions  in  dress  and  diet  of  France  were  then  very  general  in  England  &t>m  this 
time.  Law  pleadings  were  changed  from  French  to  E^lish,  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
IIL  1862. — Stowe.  It  does  not  appear  that  our  statutes  and  other  public  acts  had 
been  written  in  French  until  about  the  time  of  Edward  I,—'TindaL 

FRENCH  REVOLUTIONART  CALENDAR.  In  the  year  1792,  the  French  nation,  in 
their  excessive  desire  to  change  all  the  existing  institutions,  adopted  a  new  calendar 
founded  on  philosophical  principles ;  but  as  they  were  unable  to  produce  any  plan 
more  accurate  and  convenient  than  that  previously  in  use,  they  were  contented  to 
follow  the  old  plan  under  a  different  name,  merely  changing  some  of  the  minor  details 
and  subdivisions,  and  commencing  the  year  at  a  different  period  of  time,  llie  first 
year  of  the  era  of  the  republic  be^  on  the  22nd  of  September,  1792. 

AoTUMii.— VendAnlalre Vintage  month  .  from  Sept.  28  to  Oet  21. 

Bnimaire Fog  month     .    .  from  Oct.  22  to  Nov.  90. 

Frimain Bl«et  month        .  from  Nov.  21  to  Deo.  20. 


FBE  281  FRO 

FRENCH  RBYOLUTIONART  CALENDAR,  amim^ed, 

Wmrcft. — ^Nivofle Snow  month  .    .  from  Dec.  21  to  Jan.  10. 

PlnvioM Rain  month        .  from  Jan.  SO.  to  Feb.  18. 

Yentoae Wind  month  .    .  from  Feb.  10  to  March  20. 

Spbxho.—  Gerniiaal Sprouts'  month  .  from  Maroh  21  to  April  19. 

Flor^al Fluwere'  month  .  from  April  20  to  May  19. 

Prairial Pasture  month   .  from  May  20  to  June  IS. 

Summer. —Measidor Harvest  month  .  from  June  19  to  July  18. 

Fenridor Hot  month  .        .  frt>m  July  10  to  Aug.  17. 

Fructidor Fruit  month  .    .  from  Aug.  18  to  Sept  10. 

BANSCULOTTIDES»  OR  FEASTS  DEDICATED  TO 


LesYertoM.       .       .  The  Virtues .  Sept.  17. 
Le  G^nie  .    .  Genius     .    .  Sept  18. 

Le  Travail ...  Labour .       •  Sqit  19. 


L'Opinion  .    .  Opinion   .    .  Sept  SO. 

Les  Btfoompensea      .  Rewards      .  Sept  21 


Ab  all  the  public  acts  of  the  French  nation  were  dated  according  to  this  altered  rtyle 
for  a  period  of  more  than  twelve  years,  its  record  here  may  be  useful.  Though  this 
era  commenced  on  the  22nd  of  Sept  1792,  its  establishment  was  not  decreed  until 
the  4th  Frimaire  of  the  year  II.  (24th  Not.  1793.)  The  revolutionary  calendar  existed 
until  the  10th  Nivoee,  year  of  the  repablie  XIV.,  being  the  81st  Dea  1805,  when  the 
Qregorian  mode  of  calculation  was  restored  at  the  instance  of  Napoleon. 

FRBNCHTOWN,  Cakada.  This  town  was  taken  from  the  British  by  the  American 
general  Winchester,  Jan.  22, 1813,  the  period  of  the  late  (the  second)  war  with  the 
United  States  of  America.  It  was  retaken  by  the  British  forces  under  General 
Proctor,  immediately  afterwards,  and  the  American  commander  and  the  whole  of  his 
troops  were  made  prisoners. 

FRIDAY.  The  sixth  day  of  the  week ;  so  called  from  Friga,  a  goddess  worshipped  by 
our  forefiithers  on  this  day,  commonly  supposed  to  be  the  same  with  Venus.  Friga 
was  the  wife  of  Thor,  and  goddess  of  peace,  fertility,  and  riches.  This  goddess,  with 
Thor  and  Odin,  composed  the  court  or  supreme  council  of  the  gods,  and  the  three 
were  objects  of  worship  among  the  Scandinavians.  Good  Friday  is  a  fast  in  the 
Church  of  England  in  memory  of  our  Saviour's  crucifixion.    See  Oood  Friday, 

FRIEDLAKD,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  allied  Russian  and  Prussian  armies  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  French  commanded  by  Napoleon  in  person,  who  completely  van- 
quished the  allies,  with  the  loss  of  eighty  pieces  of  cannon,  and  about  18,000  men,  on 
June  14,  1807.  The  French  lost  about  10,000  men.  This  victory  led  to  the  peace  of 
Tilsit,  l^  which  Russia  lost  no  territory,  but  Prussia  was  obliged  to  surrender  nearly 
hidf  her  dominions. 

FRIENDLT  ISLES.  They  lie  in  the  Southern  Pacific,  and  consist  of  a  group  of  more 
than  150  islands,  forming  an  archipelago  of  very  considerable  extent  These  islands 
were  discovered  by  Tasman,  ad.  1642.  Visited  by  Wallis,  who  called  them  Keppel 
Isles,  1767 ;  and  by  Captain  Cook,  who  called  them  by  their  present  name  on  account 
of  the  friendly  disposition  of  the  natives,  1773.  But  subsequent  voyagers  have  dis- 
pelled this  illusion,  and  describe  them  as  capable  of  the  most  ferocious  conduct. 

FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES.  These  useful  institutions  originated  in  the  clubs  of  the 
industrious  classes ;  and  since  they  began  to  spring  into  importance  they  have  been 
regulated  and  protected  by  various  legislative  enactments.  They  have  now,  with 
other  similar  institutions,  more  than  twenty  millions  sterling  in  the  public  funds. 
The  laws  regarding  Friendly  Sooities  were  consolidated  June,  1829.  Other  acts  were 
potted  in  1834, 1840,  1846, 1850, 1855,  and  1857. 

FRIESLAND.  Formerly  governed  by  its  own  countL  On  the  death  of  prince  Charles 
Edward,  in  1744,  it  became  subject  to  the  king  of  Prussia ;  Hanover  disputed  its 
possession,  but  Prussia  prevailed.  It  was  annexed  to  Holland  by  Bonaparte,  in  1806, 
and  afterwards  to  the  French  empire;  but  Prussia  regained  the  country  in  1814. 
The  term  Chevaux  de  Frite  (sometimes,  though  rarely,  written  Cheval  ae  FnH,  a 
Friedfmd  Hone)  is  derived  from  Friesland,  where  it  was  invented. 

FROBISHER'S  STRAITS.  Discovered  by  sir  Martin  Frobisher,  the  first  Englishman 
who  tried  to  find  a  north-west  passage  to  Chins,  in  1576.  After  exploring  the  coast 
of  New  Greenland,  he  entered  this  strait,  which  has  ever  since  been  called  by  his  name. 
Frobisher  returned  to  England,  bringing  with  him  a  quantity  of  black  ore,  which  was 
supposed  to  contain  gold,  and  which  induced  queen  Elisabeth  to  patronise  a  second 
Toyage,  and  lend  a  sloop  of  war  for  the  purpose.  The  delusion  was  even  kept  up  to 
a  third  expedition ;  but  all  of  them  proved  fruitless. 


FRO 


282 


FRU 


FROGMORE.  This  charming  estate  near  Windsor,  held  on  lease  from  the  Crown  by  the 
hon.  Mrs.  Egerton,  was  purchased  in  1792  by  queen  Charlotte,  consort  of  Qeoige  III. 
Her  majesty  had  a  private  printing-press  here. 

FRONDE,  CIVIL  WARS  of  the.  In  France,  in  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  (1648^3) 
between  the  followers  of  the  court  (Anne  of  Austria  and  cardinal  Mazarine) :  and  the 
nobility,  the  parliament,  and  the  citizens.  The  latter  were  called  FrvndiMin  {dingerM)^ 
it  is  said,  from  an  incident  in  a  street  quarrel.  In  a  riot  on  Aug.  27, 1648,  bairicadea 
were  erected  in  Paris. 

FROSTS.  The  Euzine  Sea  frozen  over  for  twenty  days,  A.D.  401.— {7ntV  HuL  A  Iroet 
at  Constantinople  which  commenced  in  Oct.  768,  and  continued  until  February  of  the 
next  year;  the  two  seas  there  were  frozen  a  hundred  miles  from  the  shore. — Umiv, 
JBist.  A  frt>6t  in  England  on  Midsummer-day  was  so  violent  that  it  is  sud  to  hare 
destroyed  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  1086. — Speed, 


Thames  frozen  for  14  weeks  .  .  a.d.  1068 
Dreadful  frosts  in  England  from  Xov.  to 

April  (Mat.  Paris) 1076 

The  Categat  entirely  frosen    .  .1294 

The  Baltic  passable  to  foot  trayellers  and 

horsemen,  for  six  weeks .  ...  1S2S 
The  Baltic  frozen  from  Pomerania  to 

Denmarlc  for  some  weeks  .  .  1402 

In  Eoffland.  when  all  the  small  birds 

periuied,  0  Henry  lY.      .  .     .  1407 

The  ice  bore  riding  upon  it  from  Lubeck 

to  Prussia 1426 

Awfkilly  severe  frosty  when  even  the  large 

fowl  of  the  air  sought  shelter  in  the 

towns  of  Oermsnv 1433 

The  river  frozen  below  bridge  to  Gravos- 

end,  from  Nov.  24  to  Feb.  10  .  .  1434 
The  Baltic  frozen,  and  horse  passengers 

crossed  from  Denmark  to  Sweden ; 

the  vineyards  deatroved .  .  .  .  1460 
The  winter  so  severe  In  Flanders,  that 

the  wine  distributed  to  the  soldiers 

was  cut  by  hatchets  ....  1468 
One  so  intense,  that  carriages  passed 

over  flx>m  Lambeth  to  Westminster  .  1515 
The  wine  in  Flanden  again  frtizen  into . 

solid  lumps 1644 

Sledges  drawn  by  oxen  travelled  on  the 

sea  from  Rostock  to  Denmark  .  .  1548 
The  Scheldt  frozen  so  hard  as  to  sustain 

loaded  waggons 1565 

The  Rhine,  the  Scheldt^  and  even  the 

sea  at  Venice,  frt>zen  .    .  1594 

Fires  and  diversions  on  the  Thames  .  1607 
The  rivers  of  Europe  frozen,  and  even 

the  Zuyder  Zee ;  a  sheet  of  ice  covered 

the  Hellespont 1622 

Charles  X,  of  Sweden  crossed  the  Little- 
Belt  over  the  ice  from  Holsteiu  to 

Denmark,  with  his  whole  army,  horse 


and  foot,  with  huge  trains  of  artilleiy 
and  baggage .  .ad.  165S 

The  forest  uees,  and  oven  the  oaks  in 
England,  split  by  the  frxist;  most  of 
the  hollies  were  killed;  the  Thames 
was  covered  with  ice  eleven  incbes 
thick ;  and  nearly  all  ttie  bjrds 
perished* 1684 

The  wolves  drivoi  by  the  cold,  entcvcd 
Vienna^  and  attacked  the  cattle^  and 
even  men 1691 

Three  months'  frost  wlUi  heavy  snow, 
&t>m  December  to  March,  8  Anne  .    .  1709 

A  fair  held  on  the  Thames,  and  oxen 
roasted  ;  this  frtwt  continued  from 
Nov.  24  to  Feb.  9 1716 

One  which  lasted  9  weeks,  when  ooaehes 
plied  upon  the  Thames,  and  ftstlvities 
and  diversions  of  all  kinds  were  en- 
joyed upon  theioe.  This  season  was 
called  the  "hard  winter"       .        .    . 

From  Dec.  25  to  Jan.  16,  and  (hnn  Jan. 
18  to  22 ;  most  terrible  in  its  effects    . 

One,  general  throughout  Europe.  The 
Thames  was  passable  opposite  the 
Custom  House,  from  Nov  to  Jan. .    . 

One  fh>m  Dec  84, 1794.  to  Feb.  14, 1795, 
with  the  intermission  of  one  day's 
sudden  thaw.  .    Jan.  23; 

Intense  frost  in  all  December    .       .    . 

Booths  erected  on  the  Thames ;  the  win- 
ter Ytry  severe  in  Ireland    .        .  Jan. 

The  frost  so  intense  in  parts  of  Norway, 
that  quicksilver  freezes,  and  persons 
exposed  to  the  atmosphere  lose  their 
breatii Jan  2, 

Very  severe  frost  in  London,  Jan.  14  to 
Feb.  24  ;  and  very  cold  weather  up  to 
June  26 16fi5t 


1740 
1766 


17S0 


1T95 
1796 

1814 


1849 


The  frost  in  Russia  in  1812  surpassed  in  intenseness  that  of  any  winter  in  thai  oomitry 
for  many  preceding  yean,  and  was  very  destructive  to  the  French  army  in  its 
retreat  from  Moscow,  at  the  close  of  that  memorable  year.  Napoleon  commenoed  his 
retreat  on  the  9th  November,  when  the  frost  covered  the  ground,  and  the  men 
periBhed  in  battalions,  and  the  horses  fell  by  hundreds  on  the  roads.  What  with  her 
loss  in  battle,  and  the  effects  of  this  awful  and  calamitous  frost,  fVanoe  lost  in  the 
campaign  of  this  year  more  than  400,000  men. 

FRUITS  or  FOREIGN  COUNTRIEa  Several  varieties  of  fruit  are  mentioned  as 
having  been  introduced  into  Italy,  70  B.a  et  teq.  Exotic  fruits  and  flowen  of  various 
kinds,  previously  unknown  in  England,  were  brought  thither  in  the  reigns  of  Henry 
VII.  and  YIII.,  and  of  liiary  and  Elizabeth,  between  the  years  1500  and  157&  See 
Chrdening  and  Floteert,    Among  others  of  less  note,  were  musk  lemons,  plnm  trett, 

*  **  The  frost  this  year  was  terrible.  It  began  in  the  beginning  of  December,  1681  The  peo|4« 
kept  trades  on  the  Thames  as  in  a  fklr,  till  February  4, 1684.  About  forty  coaches  daily  ^Sed  on  tho 
Thames  as  on  drye  land.  Bought  this  book  at  a  shop  upon  the  ice  in  the  middle  of  the  Tliamea." — 
Entry  in  the  memoranda  of  a  Citizen. 

t  On  February  22.  fires  were  made  on  the  Serpentine.    A  traffic  on  tho  ice  of  85  miles  loDg, 
established  in  Linoolnsbire. 


FUB 


283 


PUN 


aad  carmnt  plants  of  Bundry  aorta,  the  mask  ood  damaak  roaes,  tnlipa,  fto.;  aUo 
saffron,  woad,  and  other  dniga  for  dyeing,  but  these  laat  were  attempted  to  be 
cultifated  ¥rithoat  succeaa. — Haklupt ;  Lord  Karnes.  The  following  are  among  the 
fruita  whoae  introduotion  into  England  has  been  traced : — 


FBUIT8,  Ac. 
Almond-tree^  Barbary  .  a,.d.  1648 

Apples,  Syria 152*2 

Apple,  the  ctxetard.  North  America  .  1730 
Apple,  the  oeage,  ditto       ....  1818 

Aprloote,  Epirus 1540 

Cherry-trees,  Poatus 100 

Cherries,  finest  kinds,  Flanders  .  1540 

OomeUaQ  cherry,  Austria  ....  1606 

CmrantSk  Zante 1588 

Currant,  the  hawthorn,  Canada.  .  .  1705 
Ftg-tree,  south  of  Europe,  before  .  .  1548 
Fig;  the  Botany-bay,  New  South  Wales.  1789 
Oooaeberries,  Fianden,  before  .  1540 

Grapes,  Portugal 1528 

Lemons,  Spain 1554 

Limes,  Portugal 1564 

lime,  the  Americin,  before    .        .        .  1752 

Melons,  before 1540 

Hock  orange,  south  of  Europe,  before  .  1690 
Mulberry,  Italy 1520 


Mulberry,  white,  China,  about  .  ▲.!>.  1696 
Mulberry,  the  red,  ftom  N.  America,  bef.  1029 
Mulberry,  the  paper,  from  Japan,  before  1754 

Nectarine,  Persia 1502 

Olive,  the  Cape.  Cape  ....  1730 
Olive,  tlie  sweet-scented,  China 

Oranges 

Peaches,  Persia  .... 

Pears,  from  rarious  climes 

Pine-apple,  Brasils 

Pippins,  Netherlands 

Plums,  Italy        .... 

Plum,  the  date,  Barbu'y . 

Pomejipranate,  Spain,  befure 

Quince,  Austria 

Quince,  the  Japan 

Raspberry,  the  flowering.  North  America  1700 

Raspberry,  the  Yirginian,  ditto,  before .  1690 

Strawberry,  Flanders      ....  1530 

Strawberry,  the  Oriental,  Levant       .    .  1724 

Walnut»  the  black,  N.  America,  before  .  1029 


1771 
1695 

1562 

•  • 

1668 
1526 
1522 
1690 
1548 
1578 
1796 


FUENTES  D£  ONORE,  BATTLE  of.  On  May  2,  Maaaena  croaaed  the  Agueda,  with 
40,000  infantry,  5000  horae,  and  about  30  piecea  of  artillery,  to  relieve  Almeida.  He 
expected  ererj  day  to  be  auperaeded  in  hia  command,  and  he  wiahed  to  make  a  last 
effort  for  hia  own  military  character.  Wellington  could  muster  no  more  than  82,000 
men,  of  which  only  1200  were  cavalry.  He,  however,  determined  to  fight  rather  than 
give  up  the  blockade  of  Almeida.  After  much  fighting,  night  came  on,  and  put  an 
end  to  the  battla  Next  day,  Maaaena  waa  joined  by  Beaai^rea  with  a  body  of  the 
Imperial  guard;  and  on  the  5th,  the  enemy  made  hia  grand  attack.  The  battle  raged 
throughout  a  vaat  plain,  and  in  all  the  war  there  waa  not  a  more  dangeroua  hour  for 
EngUmd.  The  fight  laated  until  evening,  when  the  lower  part  of  the  town  waa 
abcmdoned  by  both  partiea — ^the  firitiah  maintaining  the  chapel  and  craga,  and  the 
French  retiring  a  cannon-ahoi  from  the  atream.    May  5, 1811. — NapUr. 

FUGITIYE  SLAVE  BILL.  Was  paaaed  by  the  American  legialature  in  1850.  It  impNoeea 
a  fine  of  1000  dollara  and  6  montha  imprisonment  on  any  person  harbouring  fugitive 
alavea  or  aiding  in  their  eaoape.  Thia  law  waa  declared  to  be  unconatitutional  by  the 
Judges  of  the  Superior  Court  on  Feb.  3, 1855.  It  is  carried  into  effect  with  great 
difficulty. 

FUMIGATION.  The  purifying  the  air  by  burning  sweet  woods,  flowers,  guma,  &c. 
Acron,  a  physician  at  Agrigentum,  is  aaid  to  have  been  the  first  who  cauaed  great 
fires  to  be  Ughted,  and  aromatica  to  be  thrown  into  them  to  purify  the  air;  and 
by  thia  prooeea  he  put  a  atop  to  the  plague  at  Athens  and  other  placea  in  Greece 
about  473  B.a — Univ,  Did, 

FUNDS.  To  the  Venetiana  ia  aacribed  the  origin  of  the  funding  system,  in  a.d.  1171. 
Public  funds  were  raised  by  the  Medici  family  at  Florence,  in  1840.  Our  funding 
system,  or  the  method  of  raising  the  supplies  for  the  public  service  in  England,  by 
anticipations  of  the  publio  revenues  (the  origin  of  the  national  debt),  was  introduced 
at  the  Revolution,  1689. — MorHTner't  Broker.  The  funding  system  is  coeval  with  the 
commencement  of  the  BanJc  of  England. — Anderson.  The  Three  per  cent,  annuities 
were  created  in  1726.  The  three  per  eeni.  conaols  were  created  in  1781.  The  Three 
per  eent.  reduced,  1746.  Three  per  cent,  annuities,  payable  at  the  South  Sea-house, 
1751.  Three-and-a-half  j}er  oeni.  annuities  created,  1758.  Long  annuities,  1761.  Four 
per  cent,  consols,  1762.  Five  per  cent,  annuities,  1797,  and  1802.  Five  per  cents. 
reduced  to  four,  1822.  Old  Four  per  cents,  reduced  to  three-and-a-half  in  1824. 
Further  reductiona  were  made  in  1825, 1830, 1834,  1841,  and  1844 :  the  maTtimum 
being  now  thiae4Uid-a-half  per  cent. 

FUNERAL  GAMES.  Are  mentioned  by  most  early  writers.  Among  the  Greeks  they 
were  chiefly  horse  races;  and  among  the  Romans,  processions,  and  the  mortal 
combata  of  gladiators  around  the  ftmeral  pile.  These  games  were  abolished  by  the 
emperor  Claudius,  A.D.  47.  Funeral  orations  have  a  heathen  origin.  Solon  was  the 
first  who  spoke  one,  580  ao.    They  were  indispensable  among  the  Romans,  and  still 


FUN  284  GAL 

common  abroad;  the  custom  of  led  honeB  took  place  A.D.  1268.    A  tax  ma  laid  <mi 
funerala  in  England,  1798. 

FUNERAL  ORATIONS.  The  Romans  pronounced  harangues  oyer  their  dead,  when 
people  of  quality,  or  eminent  for  great  deeds  and  Tirtues.  Theopompus  obtained  a 
prize  for  the  best  funeral  oration  in  praise  of  Mausolus,  353  B.a  PopiHa  was  the  first 
Roman  lady  who  had  an  oration  pronounced  at  her  funeral,  which  was  done  by  her 
son  Crassus ;  and  it  is  obeeired  by  Cioero  that  Julius  CsBsar  did  the  like  for  his  aunt 
Julia  and  his  wife  Cornelia.  In  Greece,  Solon  was  the  first  who  pronounced  a  funeral 
oration,  according  to  Herodotus,  580  B.a 

FUNERALS,  PUBLIC.  Among  the  late  instances  of  public  funeral  honours  being  paid 
to  illustrious  men  of  Great  Britain,  and  Toted  by  parliament  as  national  demonstrations 
of  respect,  are  the  following:  Duke  of  Rutland's  funeral  in  Ireland,  Not.  If,  1787 ; 
lord  Nelson's  funeral,  Jan.  9,  1806;  Mr.  Pitt's  funeral,  Jan.  22,  1806;  Mr.  Fox's 
funeral,  Oct.  10,  1806 ;  that  of  Richard  Brinaley  Sheridan,  July  18, 1816 ;  of  the  r^^t 
hon.  George  Canning,  Aug.  16, 1827 ;  and  of  the  duke  of  Wellington,  Not.  18, 1852. 

FUR.  They  were  worn  by  our  first  Henry,  about  a.d.  1125.  Edward  IIL  enacted  that 
lUl  such  persons  as  could  not  spend  100/.  a  year,  should  be  prohibited  this  spedea 
of  finery,  1337. 

G. 

OABELLE.  The  old  duty  upon  the  consumption  of  salt.  First  imposed  on  the  subjects 
of  France  in  1435. — Dufresnoy.  The  assessments  were  unequal,  being  Tezy  hesTy  in 
some  proTinces  and  light  in  others ;  owing  to  priTileges  and  exemptions  purchised 
from  the  soTereigns  in  early  periods. — Neduw  on  the  Fimamcea  of  France, 

GAGGING  BILL.  A  bill  properly  so  called,  but  meant  to  protect  the  king  and  gorem- 
ment  from  the  harangues  of  seditious  meetings,  was  enacted  in  1795 ;  it  whidi  time 
the  popular  mind  was  much  excited.  In  Not.  1819,  soon  after  the  Manchester  affrmr, 
a  bill  for  restraining  public  meetings  and  cheap  periodical  publications,  was  popularly 
called  a  "gagging  bill."  More  recently,  statutes  coercing  popular  assemblies^  par> 
ticularly  in  Ir^and,  hsTe  been  so  designated. 

GALLEYS.  The  ancient  galleys  with  three  rows  of  rowers,  iri-remee,  were  iuTcnted  by 
the  Corinthians,  786  &a — Blair.  They  were  built  at  Athens,  786  B.a  Galleys  were 
mentioned  by  most  of  the  Roman  authors.  They  are  chiefly  used,  in  modem  times, 
by  Uie  states  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean.  The  terms  "galley  slaTe,"  and 
"condemned  to  the  galleys,"  arose  from  these  "sea-Tessels"  hsTing  m>m  25  to  30 
benches  on  each  side,  manned  by  four  or  Atc  slaTcs  to  each  bench,  sentenced  to 
'  this  slaTexT  as  a  punishment  for  crime.  In  France  they  had  a  general  of  galleys^  of 
whom  the  oaron  de  la  Garde  was  the  first,  1544. — ffenauU, 

GALLIPAG03.  Islands  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Ecuador,  of  Quito^  Not.  8, 1854, 
the  British,  French,  and  other  powers  protesting  against  it^ 

GALLIPOLL  A  seaport  in  Turkey  in  Europe,  128  miles  west  of  Constantinople^  It 
was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1357,  and  afterwards  fortified  bT  Bajaset  L — ^llie  first 
diTision  of  the  French  army  engaged  in  the  Russo-TurkiBh  war,  under  Qenenl 
Canrobert,  arriTed  here  March  81,  1854,  and  established  a  camp.  They  were 
immediately  afterwards  followed  by  the  English  army,  who  encampted  at  Scutari. 
The  allied  armies  left  for  Varna  in  May  following. 

GALVANISM.  The  diacoTery  of  it  is  recent;  it  was  first  noticed  in  1767,  by  Saltnr;  but 
it  was  not  till  about  1789  that  Madame  GalTani,  wife  of  Dr.  GidTani,  of  Bologna,  acci- 
dentally diseoTered  its  extraordinary  eftedB  on  animals ;  and  ftx>m  the  name  of  the 
discoTerer  it  was  called  GalTanism.  This  lady  haTing  obserTed  the  conTulaioBB 
produced  In  the  muscles  of  frogs  by  the  contact  of  metals,  directed  her  husband's 
attention  to  the  phenomenon;  and  in  1791,  GalTani  announced  the  result  of  his 
observations  on  this  subject  Since  that  period  a  great  many  experiments  hsTe  been 
made,  and  many  curious  facts  obserTcd,  which  haTe  excited  much  attention  among 
philosophers.  In  1808,  Napoleon  presented  Volta,  on  account  of  his  diacoTtties  in 
galTanic  electricity,  with  a  gold  medal  and  3000  liTres. 

OALWAT,  Irelakd.  The  ancient  settlers  here  were  dlTided  Into  thirteen  tribes;,  a 
distinction  not  forgotten  to  this  day.    In  1690  Galway  declared  for  king  James,  but 


k 


OAK 


285 


OAB 


it  WM  inTestad  and  taken  by  general  Ginckel  immediately  after  the  decisive 
battle  of  Aogbrim,  July  12,  1691. — Here  is  one  of  the  new  colleges  endowed  by 
goTemment  for  the  advancement  of  learning  in  Ireland,  pureuant  to  act  8  ft  9  Vict. 
c  66,  July  31, 1845.    The  college  was  inangarated  Oct.  80,  1849.    See  CoUeffu. 

OAlfE  LAWS.  The  laws  restricting  the  killing  of  game  are  peculiar  to  the  north  of 
Enrope,  and  partd:e  of  the  nature  of  the  forest  laws  imposed  by  William  the 
Conqueror,  who,  to  preserve  his  game,  made  it  forfeiture  of  property  to  disable 
a  wild  beast;  and  loss  of  eyes,  for  a  stag,  buck,  or  boar.  Of  these  laws  the 
clergy  were  zealous  promoters;  and  they  protested  against  ameliorations  under 
Henry  IIL  The  first  game  act  passed  in  1496.  Game  certificates  were  first  granted 
with  a  duty  in  1784-5.  Numerous  statutes  haye  been  passed  on  this  subject  from 
time  to  time.  An  act  to  prevent  the  destruction  of  game  passed  July  19, 1828.  The 
game  act  amending  all  previous  laws  is  1  ft  2  WiU.  I  v.  a  32, 1881. 

GAMES.  Those  of  Greece  and  Rome  wUl  be  found  under  their  respectiTe  heads.  The 
candidates  for  athletic  games  in  Greece  used  to  be  dieted  on  new  cheese,  dried  figs, 
and  boiled  grain,  with  warm  water,  and  no  meat.  The  games  were  leaping,  foot-races, 
darting,  quoits,  wrestling,  and  boxing.  See  the  CapUoHne,  Itthmian,  Oiympief  Pytkkm^ 
Secular,  and  other  (Tomer. 

GAMING.  Introduced  into  England  by  the  Saxons ;  the  loser  was  often  made  a  slare  to 
the  winner,  and  sold  in  traffic  like  other  merchandisa  7— Camc20»  /  Siow.  Act 
prohibiting  gaming  to  all  gentlemen  (and  interdicting  tennis,  cards,  dice,  bowls,  &a, 
to  inferior  people,  except  at  Christmas  time),  83  Hen.  YIII.  1541.  Gaming-houses 
were  licensed  in  London  in  1620.  Act  to  prevent  excessive  and  fraudulent  gaming, 
when  all  private  lotteries,  and  the  games  of  Faro,  Basset,  and  Hazard  were  suppressed, 
13  Geo.  II.  1739. — ^The  profits  of  a  well-known  gaming  house  in  London  for  one  season 
have  been  estimated  at  150,0002.  In  one  night  a  million  of  money  is  said  to  haye 
changed  hands  at  this  placa — Leigh,  The  Lord  Chancellor  refused  a  bankrupt  his 
certificate,  because  he  had  lost  five  pounds  at  one  time  in  gaming,  July  17,  1788. — 
PhiUipt,  Three  ladies  of  quali^  convicted  in  penalties  of  50^  each  for  playing  at 
Faro,  March  11, 1797. — Idem,    Gaming-houses  were  licensed  in  Paris,  until  1836. 

GAMING,  STATUTES  aoainst.  Any  person  losing,  by  betting  or  playing,  more  than 
100/.  at  any  one  time,  is  not  compellable  to  pay  the  same,  16  Charles  II.  1663.  Bonds 
or  other  securities  given  for  money  won  at  play,  not  recoverable ;  and  any  person 
losing  mors  than  lOL  may  sue  the  winner  to  recover  it  back,  9  Anne  1710.  Several 
other  laws  have  been  made  from  time  to  time,  but  ineffectually,  to  restrain  this  vice. 
The  act  to  amend  the  laws  against  games  and  wagers,  8  ft  9  Vict.  c.  109,  passed 
Aug.  1845. 

GANGES  CANAL^  for  irrigating  the  country  between  the  Ganges  and  Jumna.  The 
main  line  (525  miles  long)  was  opened  in  1854.  When  completed  it  will  be  900 
miles  in  length  and  will  irrigate  not  less  than  1,470,000  acres.  It  is  the  greatest 
work  of  the  kind  in  the  world.  Its  estimated  cost  is  1,555,548/.  The  immense 
difficulties  in  its  execution  have  been  overcome  by  the  skill  and  perseverance  of  its 
engineer,  sir  Proby  Cautley- 

GARDENING.  The  first  garden,  Eden,  was  planted  by  God.  See  Eden.  Gardening 
was  one  of  the  first  arts  that  succeeded  the  art  of  building  houses. —  WcUpoU.  Noah 
planted  a  vineyard  and  drank  of  the  wine.  Of  fruit,  flower,  and  kitchen-gardens, 
the  Garden  of  Eden  was  no  doubt  the  prototype. — Idem.  There  wants  nothing  but 
the  embroidery  of  a  parterre  to  make  a  garden  in  the  reign  of  Trajan  serve  for  a 
description  of  one  in  that  of  our  William  III. — Idem.  The  art  of  gardening  became 
better  understood  in  England  about  a.d.  1500,  before  which  time  many  of  our 
vegetables  were  imported  from  Brabant.  The  era  of  the  art  was  the  reign  of  Elizabeth; 
but  the  modem  mode  of  gardening  was  introduced  about  1700.  The  following  came 
from  the  countries  respectively  named : — 


HOOTS  Aim 

VIEOBTABLBI. 

Shallots 

Ric6,  from 

.  Ethiopia. 

Horse-mdish 

Buck-wbeat . 

.  Asia. 

Kidney  Boans 

Boraga 

.  Syria. 

GouTxls 

CraMos 

.  Crato. 

Lentils. 

Cauliflower 

:2ir- 

Cheryil      . 

Asparagus    . 

Celery  . 

liottaoe 

.  Brabant. 

Potatoes   . 

Artichokes  . 

.  Holland. 

Tobacco 

Oarlio 

.  The  East. 

Cabbage    . 

Siberia. 

China. 

East  Indies. 

Astraean. 

France. 

Italy. 

Flanders. 

Brazil. 

America. 

Holland. 


Anise    . 
Fanley 
Carrots . 
Brocoll 
Beans   . 
Peas  . 


Egypfc. 

Flanders. 

Cjrprua. 

Greece. 

Spain. 


VJlUrrS  AND  FLOWSRS. 

Jasmine        .    .  Circassia. 
ffldar-tree.       .  Persia. 


GAR 

286 

GAS 

GARDENINO,  contiwued. 

Tulip    . 

.  Cappadocia. 
I  Syr^ 

Musk-rose. 

.  Damascus. 

Nectarine     .    . 

Persia. 

Daffodil    . 

Plums  . 

.  Damascus. 

Passion-flower  . 

BnuEiL 

LHv      . 
Tuborooe  . 

Oranges    . 

.  Spain. 

Pomegrsnato 

Spsin. 

.  Java,  Ac 

Lemons 

.  Spain. 
.  Italy. 

Rosemary. 

Italy. 

Carnation 

.  Italy,  Ao. 

Pink. 

Laburnum   .    . 

Hungaiy. 

Ranunculus 

.  Alps. 

Provenoe-roee 

.  MarseUles. 

Laurel 

Levant 

Apples . 

.  Syria. 
.  ifpiruB. 

CoUTOlTUlUfl 

.  Canaries. 

Lavender     .    . 

Italy. 

Apricots    . 

Arctopus 

.  Cape. 

Peaches    . 

Penda. 

Currants 

.  Zante. 

Bell-flower 

Quinee.        .    . 

Austria. 

Damask-rose 

.  Damascus. 

Cherries 

.  Pontus. 

Weeping  WUlovi 

r  Levant 

Hops    . 

.  Artois. 

Pigs  . 

.  Italy. 
.  BarDsry. 

Fennel .        .    . 

CanarieiL 

Gooseberries 

.  Flanders. 

Date-plum   . 

Gilly-flowers 

.  Toulouse. 

Mulbeny  . 

.  Italy. 

Muak-melons  and  other  rich  fniita  that  are  now  cultiyated  in  England,  and  the  pal« 
gooseberry,  together  vrith  BsJada,  garden  roots,  cabbages,  &a,  were  brought  from 
Flanders,  and  hops  from  Artois,  in  1620.  The  damask-rose  was 'brought  hither  bj 
I^.  Linacre,  physician  to  Henry  Till,  about  1540.  Pippins  were  brought  to  England 
by  Leonard  Mascal,  of  Plumstead,  in  Sussex,  1525.  Currants  or  Corinthian  grapes 
were  first  planted  in  England  in  1638,  brought  from  the  Isle  of  Zante.  The  Mask- 
rose  and  several  sorts  of  plums  were  brought  from  Italy  by  lord  CromwelL  Apricots 
came  from  Epirus,  1640.  The  tamarisk  plant  was  l>r6ught  from  Germany,  by  arch- 
bishop Grindal,  about  1670;  and  about  Norwich,  the  Flemings  planted  flowers 
unknown  in  England,  as  gilly-flowers,  carnations,  the  Provence-rose,  kc  1567.  Weed 
came  originally  from  Toulouse,  in  France.  Tulip  roots  from  Vienna,  1578;  also  beaD% 
peas,  and  lettuce,  now  in  common  use,  1600.    See  Flowen;  FruitM, 

GARTER,  ORDER  of  the.  It  owes  its  origin  to  Edward  III.  who,  with  a  view  of 
recovering  France,  was  eager  to  draw  the  best  soldiers  of  Europe  into  his  interest 
and  thereupon  projecting  the  revival  of  king  Arthur's  round  taole,  he  proclaimed  s 
solemn  tilting,  to  invite  foreigners  and  others  of  quality  and  courage  to  the  exercise. 
The  king,  upon  New  Tear's  day,  1344,  published  royal  letters  of  protection  for  the 
safe  coming  and  returning  of  such  foreign  knights  as  had  a  mind  to  venture  their 
reputation  at  the  jousts  and  tournaments  about  to  be  held.  The  place  of  the  solemnity 
was  Windsor;  it  was  begun  by  a  feast,  and  a  table  was  erected  in  the  castle  of  200 
feet  diameter,  in  imitation  of  king  Arthur's  at  Winchester,  and  the  knights  were 
entertained  at  the  king's  own  expense  of  100/.  a  week.  In  1846,  Edward  gave  his 
garter  for  the  signal  of  a  battle  that  had  been  crowned  with  success  (supposed  to  be 
Cressy),  and  being  victorious  on  sea  and  land,  and  having  David,  king  of  Sootland,  a 
prisoner:  and  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  his  son,  having  expelled  the  rebels  in  Castile, 
and  enthroned  the  lawful  sovereign,  Don  Pedro,  he,  in  memory  of  these  exploits^ 
instituted  this  order,  April  23, 1349-50.    The  following  were  the 


ORIOIKAL  KHI0HT8,  18S0. 

Edward,    prince    of   Wales, 

(called  the  Black  Prince^ 
Heniy,  d\ike  of  Lancaater. 
Thomaa,  earl  of  Warwick. 
Plera,  captal  de  Buch. 
Ralph,  earl  of  Stafford. 
William,  earl  of  SalisbuTy. 
Roger,  earl  of  Mortimer. 


Sir  John  Lisle. 
Barth,  lord  Butf^herah. 
John,  lord  Beauchamp. 
John,  lord  Mohun,  of  DunBtar. 
Hugh,  lord  Courtenay. 
Thomas,  lord  Holland. 
Lord  Gray,  of  Codnore. 
Sir  Richard  Fita-Simon. 
Sir  Miles  Stapleton. 


Sir  Thomas  Wale. 
Sir  Hugh  Wrottesley. 
Sir  Nele  Lorin. 
John,  lord  Chandoa. 
Sir  James  Audley. 
Sir  Otho  Holland. 
Sir  Henzy  Earn. 
Sir  San.  Daubrichcomt. 
Sir  Walter  Farelqy. 


Edward  gave  the  g^er  pre-eminence  among  the  ensigns  of  the  order;  it  is  of  bine 
velvet  bordered  with  gold,  with  the  inscription  in  old  French — "Eoni  toii  jP»  ■m'  9 
penH,*' — ^Evil  be  to  him  who  evil  thinks.  The  knights  are  aj  ways  installed  at  Windsor ; 
and  were  styled  JSquites  amrea  Peritcdidis,  knights  of  the  golden  garter.— JBeolsMk 
The  honour  was  conferred  on  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  in  1856. 

GARTER  KINQ  at  ARMa  This  office  was  instituted  by  king  Heniy  Y.  in  1420, 
and  is  one  of  considerable  honour ;  he  carries  the  rod  and  soeptre  at  every  feast  of 
St  Qeorge. — Spelman.  The  order  of  the  garter  in  Ireland,  to  which  a  similar  f^e- 
tionary  was  attached,  was  instituted  in  imitation  of  that  of  £b:igland,  by  Edward  IV.  in 
1466 ;  but  it  was  abolished  by  an  act  of  parliament,  10  Hen.  YII.  Udi.—AAmMz  In$HL 

GAS-LIQHTS.  The  inflammable  aeriform  fluid  was  first  evolved  from  coal  by  Dr.  Clayton, 
in  1739.— P&a.  Trant.  Its  application  to  the  purposes  of  illumination  was  first  tried 
by  Mr.  Murdoch,  in  Cornwall,  in  1792.  The  first  display  of  gae-lights  was  made  at 
Boulton  &  Watt's  foundry,  in  Birmingham,  on  the  occasion  of  the  rejoicings  for  peaoe, 
in  1802.    Qas  was  permanently  used,  to  the  exclusion  of  lamps  and  candles,  at  the 


OAT  287  GEN 

ootton-mlUa  of  Phillips  ft  Lee,  Biauchester,  where  1000  biinien  were  lighted,  1806. 
Gaa-Ughta  were  first  introduced  in  London,  at  Qolden-lane,  Aug.  16,  1807.  They 
were  used  in  lighting  Pali  Mall,  in  1809 ;  and  were  general  through  London  in  1814. 
They  were  first  used  in  Dublin  in  1816,  and  the  streets  there  generally  lighted  in 
Oct.  1825.  The  gas-pipes  in  and  round  London  extend  upwards  of  1100  mUes,  and 
are  daily  increasing. 

GATESHEAD,  a  borough  in  Durham,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Tyne,  opposite  New- 
castle. At  Gateahead-fell,  William  I.  defeated  Edgar  Atheling  in  1068.  It  was  made 
a  parliamentary  borough  by  the  reform  bill  in  1832. — ^Between  twelve  and  one  o'clock, 
OcL  6,  1854,  a  fire  broke  out  in  a  worsted  manufactoij  here,  which  shortly  after 
Ignited  a  bond  warehouse  containing  a  great  quantity  of  nitre,  sulphur,  Ac,  causing 
a  terrific  explosion,  felt  at  nearly  twenty  miles'  distance,  totally  destroying  many 
buildings,  and  burying  many  persons  in  the  ruins.  At  the  moment  of  explosion 
large  masses  of  blsmng  material  flew  over  the  Tyne  and  set  fire  to  many  warehouses 
in  Newcastle.  About  fifty  lives  were  lost,  and  verv  many  persons  were  seriously 
wounded.     The  damage  was  estimated  at  about  a  million  pounds. 

GAUGING.  To  measure  the  contents  of  any  vessel  of  capacity.  The  gauging  of  wine 
and  other  liquids  was  established  by  a  law,  27  Edw.  III.  1852. 

GAUNTLET.  An  iron  glove,  first  introduced  in  the  13th  century,  perhaps  about  1225. 
It  was  a  part  of  the  full  suit  of  armour,  being  the  armour  for  the  hand.  The  gauntlet 
was  of  thin  iron,  with  several  plates  jointed  for  ^e  fingers ;  it  was  afterwards  made 
of  strong  and  thick  leather.  It  was  commonly  thrown  down  as  a  challenge  to  an 
adversary,  like  the  glove. 

G AUZEL  This  figkbrio  was  much  prized  among  the  Roman  people,  about  the  beginning  of 
the  first  century.  **  Brocadoes  and  damasks,  and  tabbies  and  gauzes,  have  been  lately 
brought  over**  (to  Ireland).^-Z>«aM  Sw{ft,  in  1698.  The  manufacture  of  gauze  and 
articles  of  a  like  £abric,  at  Paisley,  in  Scotland,  where  they  maintain  great  repute,  was 
commenced  about  1759. 

G  AYEL-KIND.  The  custom  of  dividing  paternal  estates  in  land  equally  among  mole 
children,  without  any  distinction,  is  derived  firom  the  Saxons,  about  a.d.  550.  This 
usage  is  almost  universal  in  Kent,  where  it  was  first  practised. — ^By  the  Irish  law  of 
gavel-kind  even  bastards  inherited. — Davie*,  Not  only  the  lands  of  the  father  were 
equally  divided  among  all  his  sons,  but  the  lands  of  the  brother  also  among  all  his 
brethi^n,  if  he  had  no  issue  of  his  own. — Law  Diet. 

GAZETTE.  A  paper  of  public  inteUigenoe  and  news  of  divers  countries,  first  printed 
at  Venice,  about  the  year  1620,  and  so  called  (some  say)  because  icita  goMCtta,  a  small 
piece  of  Venetian  coin,  was  given  to  buy  or  read  it.  Others  derive  the  name  from 
paaa,  Italian  for  magpie,  i.e.  chatterer. — Truder,  A  gazette  was  printed  in  France  in 
1631 ;  and  one  in  Germany  in  1715. — Nowv,  Did,  HUU 

GAZETTE,  THB  LONDON.  See  Newspapen,  The  first  English  gazette  was  published 
at  Oxford,  the  court  being  there  then  on  account  of  the  plague,  Nov.  7, 1665.  On 
the  removal  of  the  court  to  the  capital,  the  title  was  changed  to  the  London  Gasette, 
Feb.  5, 1666.  London  OazHUs  Bztraordinarff  are  used  for  Uie  publication  of  extraor- 
dinary official  news.  One  of  these  latter  was  forged  with  a  view  of  affecting  the  funds. 
May  22, 1787.  The  fraud  succeeded,  and  the  planners  of  it  were  never  discovered. — 
PhilUpt.    The  Dublin  Gazette  was  first  published  in  an  official  form  about  1767. 

GENERAL  ASSEMBLY  of  thb  CHURCH  ov  SCOTLAND.  The  first  General 
Assembly  of  the  Church  was  held  Deo.  20,  1560.  The  General  Assembly  con- 
stitutes the  highest  ecclesiastical  court  in  the  kingdom ;  it  meets  annually  in 
Edinburgh  in  May,  and  sits  about  ten  days.  It  consists  of  a  grand  commissioner, 
appointed  by  the  sovereign,  and  delegates  from  presbyteries,  royal  boroughs,  and 
universities,  some  being  laymen.  To  this  court  all  app!eals  from  the  inferior  eccle- 
siastical courts  lie,  and  its  decision  is  finsl.    See  Church  of  Scotland, 

GENERAU3.  This  rank  has  been  given  to  commanders  from  vexy  remote  times. 
Matthew  de  Montmorency  was  the  first  officer  honoured  with  the  title  of  general  of 
the  French  armies,  a-d.  1203. — ffenault.  It  is  observed  by  M.  Balzac  that  cardinal 
Richelieu  first  coined  the  word  Oeneralimmo,  upon  his  taking  the  supreme  command 
of  the  French  armies  in  Italy,  in  1629.    See  Commandert4n-Chief. 

GENEVA.  Part  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne,  about  a-D.  800.  The  Republic  was 
founded  in  1512.    After  a  variety  of  changes  it  became  subject  to  Savoy,  but  threw 


GEN  288  GEO 

off  that  yoke  in  1526.  It  became  allied  to  the  Swiss  Cantons  in  1584.  Memorable 
insurrection  here,  Feb.  1781 :  about  1000  Geneyese,  in  consequence  of  it,  applied,  in 
17829  to  earl  Temple,  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  for  permission  to  settle  in  thai 
country :  the  Irish  parliament  yoted  50,000^.  to  defray  the  expense  of  their  journey, 
and  to  purchase  them  lands  near  Waterford.  Many  of  the  fugitiTes  came  to  Ireland 
in  July,  1783,  but  they  soon  after  abandoned  it;  at  this  period  many  Ctonevan 
familiee  settled  in  England.  Another  revolution,  July  1794.  Incorporated  with 
France  in  1798.    Geneva  was  admitted  into  the  Swiss  Confederation,  Dec.  SO,  1813. 

GEKOA.  Its  andent  inhabitants  were  the  Ligures,  who  submitted  to  the  Romans,  115 
B.O.  It  underwent  the  revolutions  of  the  Roman  empire  till  a.d.  950.  The  Genoese 
revolted  against  their  count,  chose  a  doge*  and  became  an  aristocratic  republic,  lOSO 
to  1034.  Several  revolutions  occurred  up  to  1528,  when  the  celebrated  Andrew 
Bona  rescued  his  country  from  the  dominion  of  foreign  powers.  Bombarded  by  the 
French  in  1684,  and  by  the  British  in  1688  and  1745.  <}enoa  was  taken  by  the 
Imperialists,  Deo.  8, 1746 ;  but  their  oppression  of  the  people  was  such,  that  the  latter 
suddenly  rose,  and  expelled  their  conquerors,  who  again  besieged  the  city  the  next 
year,  Aug.  17,  without  effect.  The  celebrated  bank  failed,  1750.  The  city  sustained 
a  siege  by  a  British  fleet  and  Austrian  army,  until  literally  starved,  and  was  evacuated 
by  capitulation,  May  1800 ;  but  it  was  surrendered  to  the  French  soon  after  their 
victory  at  Marengo.  The  Ligurian  republic  was  founded  upon  that  of  Genoa,  in  1801, 
and  the  doge  solemnly  invested,  Aug.  10,  1802.  Genoa  was  annexed  to  the  French 
empire,  May  25, 1805.  It  surrendered  to  the  combined  English  and  Sicilian  army, 
April  18,  1814 ;  and  was  transferred  to  the  king  of  Sardinia  in  1816.  The  city  was 
seized  by  insurgents,  who,  after  a  murderous  struggle,  drove  out  the  ganrieon  and 
proclaimed  a  republic,  April  1850 :  in  the  end  the  insurgents  surrendered  to  genenl 
Marmora  in  the  same  month  and  year. 

GENS-D'ARMES,  or  GENDARMES.  These  were  anciently  the  French  kingfs  horae- 
guards  only,  but  afterwards  the  companies  of  the  king's  gardet-du-corpt,  the  muaque- 
teers,  and  light-horse,  were  reckoned  among  them.  There  was  also  a  company  of 
gentlemen  (whose  number  was  about  250),  bearing  this  name.  Scots  canards  wers 
about  the  person  of  the  kings  of  France  from  the  time  of  St.  Louis,  who  reigned  in 
1226.  They  were  organised  as  a  royal  corps  by  Charles  VII.  about  1441.  The 
younger  sons  of  Scottish  nobles  were  usually  the  captains  of  this  guard.  The 
gendarmerie  took  precedence  of  all  other  French  cavalry. 

GENTLEMEN.  The  Ghiuls  observing  that,  during  the  empire  of  the  Romans,  the  Semtarii 
and  QentUea  had  the  best  appofntments  of  all  the  soldiers,  applied  to  them  the  terms 
icuyen  and  gentiUhommet,  This  distinction  of  gentlemen  was  much  in  use  in  Elngland, 
and  was  given  to  the  well  descended,  about  A.D.  lAZ^i,— Sidney,  A  gentleman  is  a 
man  raiswl  above  the  vulgar  by  his  character  or  post — Skaikip&Mre, 

GENTLEMEN-AT-ARMS,  CORPS  of.  This  corps  (formerly  styled  the  Band  of  Gentle- 
men Pensioners)  is  the  oldest  corps  in  England,  with  the  exception  of  the  Teomen  of 
the  Guard.  It  was  instituted  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1509,  and  was  originally  composed 
entirely  of  gentlemen  of  noble  blood,  whom  he  named  his  pensioners  or  spean. 
William  IV.  commanded  that  this  corps  should  be  called  his  Majesty's  Honour- 
able  Corps  of  Gentlemen-at-Arms,  March  17, 1834. — CapUiin  Curling, 

GEOGRAPHY.  The  first  correct  record  we  have  of  geographical  knowledge  is  from 
Homer.  He  describes  the  shield  of  Achilles  as  representing  the  earth,  surrounded 
by  the  sea.  He  accurately  describes  the  countries  of  Greece,  islands  of  the  Archi- 
pelago, and  site  of  Troy. — Iliad,  The  priests  taught  that  the  temple  of  Apollo  at 
Delphos  was  the  centre  of  the  world.  Anaximander  of  Miletus  was  the  inventor 
of  geographical  maps,  about  568  ao.  Hipparchus  attempted  to  reduce  geography  to 
a  mathematical  basis,  about  135  b.o.  It  was  first  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Moots  of 
Barbary  and  Spain,  about  a.d.  1201. — Lenglei,  The  invention  of  the  mariner*8  com- 
pass is  the  important  connecting  link  between  ancient  and  modem  geography.  The 
modem  maps  and  charts  were  introduced  into  England  by  Bartholomew  Columbua  to 
illustrate  his  brother's  theory  respecting  a  western  continent,  a.d.  1489. — ^The  royal 
Geographical  Society  was  established  in  1830. 

GEOLOGY.  The  science  of  the  earth  has  been  the  subject  of  philosophical  specoIatioDS 
from  the  time  of  Homer ;  and  is  said  to  have  been  cultivated  in  China  many  ages 
before  the  Christian  era.  It  occupied  the  attention  of  Pliny,  Avioenna^  and  the 
Arabian  writers.    In  1574  Mercati  wrote  concerning  the  fossils  in  the  pope's  museum. 


OEO  289  QEO 

Ceflalpino.  Majoli.  and  others  (1597);  Steno  (1669),  Scilla  (1670),  Quirini  (1676), 
Plot  and  Lister  (1678),  Leibnitz  (1680),  recorded  obser^ationi,  and  put  forth  theories 
on  the  various  changes  in  the  crust  of  the  earth.  Hooke  (1668),  in  his  work  on 
Earthquakes,  said  that  fossils,  "as  monuments  of  nature,  were  more  certain 
tokens  of  antiquity  than  coins  or  medals,  and,  though  difficulty  it  would  not  be 
impossible  to  raite  a  dtnmology  out  of  them,'*  Burnet's  "Theory  of  the  Earth" 
appeared  in  1690,  Whiston's  in  1696,  and  Buffon's  in  1749.  Buffon's  views  were 
censured  by  the  Sorbonne  in  1751,  and  recanted  in  consequence.  The  principle  he 
renounced  was  that  the  present  condition  of  the  earth  is  due  to  secondary  causes,  and 
that  these  same  causes  will  produce  further  changes.  His  more  eminent  fellow- 
labourers  and  successors  were  Gesner  (175^),  Michell  (1760),  Raspe  (1762-73),  Pallas 
and  SausEure  (1798-1800). — Werner  (1775)  ascribed  all  rooks  to  an  aqueous  origin, 
and  even  denied  the  existence  of  volcanoes  in  primitive  geological  times ;  and  had 
many  followers,  Kirwan,  De  Luc,  ko, — Button  (1788),  supported  by  Playfair  (1801), 
warmly  opposed  Werner's  views,  and  asserted  that  the  principal  changes  in  the  earth's 
crust  are  due  to  the  agency  of  fire.  The  rival  parties  were  hence  termed  Neptunists 
and  Yulcanists. — In  1790  William  Smith,  the  father  of  British  geology,  published  his 
"  Tabular  View  of  British  Strata."— In  1807  the  Qeological  Society  of  London  was 
established,  which  by  collectioff  a  great  mass  of  new  data  greatly  tended  to  check  the 
disposition  to  theorise,  and  led  to  the  introduction  of  views  midway  between  those 
of  Werner  and  Button.  To  its  Transactions  and  Journal  we  must  refer  for  the 
future  history  of  Qeology.— In  1803  the  Royal  Institution  possessed  the  best  geolo- 
gical collection  in  London,  collected  by  B.  Davy,  C.  Batchett,  and  others;  and 
sir  John  St.  Aubyn,  »ir  Abraham  Hume,  and  the  right  hon.  C.  F.  Qreville  proposed 
to  establish  a  school  of  mines  there,  but  failed. — In  1885,  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Benry) 
De  la  Peche  suggested  the  establishment  of  the  present  museum  of  Geology  in 
Jermyn-street.  The  building  was  erected  by  Mr.  Pennethome,  and  opened  in  1851. 
Attached  to  the  museum  are  the  Mining  Records  office,  a  lecture  theatre,  laboratories, 
Ac.  Sir  B.  De  la  Beche,  the  first  director,  died  April  13, 1855,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Sir  K  I.  Murehison.  A  similar  institution  was  established  at  Calcutta,  in  1840,  by 
the  E.  L  Company. — The  English  standard  works  on  geology  at  the  present  time 
are  those  of  Lyell,  Phillips,  De  la  Beche,  Murehison,  Mantell,  and  Ansted. — The 
strata  composing  the  earth's  crust  may  be  divided  into  two  great  classes :  1st,  those 
due  to  the  agency  of  water;  2ndly,  to  the  action  of  fire ;  which  may  be  subdivided  as 
follows:— 

Aqueons  fbrmationfl,  stratified,  rarsly  crys-  f  Sedimentary  or  FoasiliforouB  rocks, 
talline. I  Metamorphic  or  Unfossili/erous. 

Igneoos  formatiaiis,  unstmtiAed.  ciystanine  .  (  Jj^^  ^  ^^utL 
Fossiliferous,  or  Sedimentary,  rocks  sre  divided  into  three  great  series,- 


The  PaleoEoic  (most  ancient  tonna  of  lifeX  or 

Primary. 
The  Mesozoie  (middle  life  period)^  or  Secondary. 


The  NeoEoic  or  CainoEoic  (more  recent  forms 
of  life),  or  Tertiary. 


TABULAR  VIEW  OV  r08SILI7KR0UB  8TBATA. 

NEOZOIC: 
I.  Foot-Tebtiabt: 

A.  Pott'FUoeeM  : 

1.  Recent:  Peat  with  human  remaint, 

Ac — Deltas  of  rivers. 

2.  Pott- Pliocene:  Ancient  beach  of  Brigh- 

ton ;  Bluib  of  MisainippL 


II.  Tebtiabt  OB  Cadtozoio  Bkbibb: 

B.  PUoceiu: 

8.  Jffteer  Pliocene,  or  Pleistocene :  Mam- 
malian Beds.  Drift  Deposits,  Norwich 
Crag,  Aofltralian  Breccias.  [Ble- 
phant$f  Bearif  ftc.] 

4.  Older  Pliocene  :  Red  and  Coralline  Crag 
(Suffolk,  Antwerp,  Normandy). 

C.  5.  Miocene:  no  British;   part  of  Bour- 

deaux  beds ;  Virginia  sands  [M auto- 
don,  Gigantic  Blk,  Salamander, 
Ac] 

D.  0,  7.  S.  Eoeen€  Group :  Lower  and  Middle : 

Freshwater  and  Marine  Beds ;  Barton 


Clays;  Bracklesham  Sands ;  London, 
Plastic  and  Thanet  Clays.  [Palm«, 
Birde,  Ac] 


in.  BaooirDABT  OB  Mksozoio  Skbibb: 

B.  914.  Cntaamu  Oroup :  Maeatrlcht  beds. 
—Chalk  with  Flints,  Chalk  without 
Flints,  Chalk  Marl,  Upper  Green 
Sand,  Gaolt,  Lower  Qreen  Band. 
[Fiih,  Mollutkt.  Ac] 
15.  Weatden  Group :  Weald  Clay.  HastingB 
Sand.  [Iguanodon,  Hjflaoeaurut, 
Ac] 

[16-23.    JCBABBfC] 

F.    (MUie Group:    lfl-18.    Upper:   Purbeck 
Beds,  Portland  Stone  and  Sand,  Kim- 
meridge  Clay. 
19,  20.    Middle:  Calcareous  Grit,  Coral 

Rag,  Oxford  Clay,  Kelloway  Rock. 
21,  22.   Lower:  Combrash,   Forest  Mar- 
ble,    Biudford    day,   Great    Odito. 
Stoneafield  Slate,  Fuller's  Earth,  In- 

U 


GEO 


200 


QER 


Q£OLOGT,  continued. 

ferlor    Oolite.         [lehtkfOiauruB, 

Plesiosauruif  Pterodactyl.] 
G.    2S.  Lias:    Lias   Clay   aud    Marl  Btone. 

[Squisetuniy     Amphibia^    laby- 

rintkodon.] 
H.    TriiumU  Orvup :   24.    Upper :  Yariegated 

Marl.    Sd.    Middle   or   Muachclkalk 

(wanting  in  England).  {AmtnonittM. 

Coralt,  yothosaurut,  Hautilus) 
26.  Lower :    Variegated    Sandstone    oi 

Lancaahire  and  Gheshire. 

IV.  PuM AJir  OR  Falmoxoio  Sutns : 

I.  27.  Pemuan  Oroup,  or  Maffnesian  Lime- 
atone,  Marl  Blatei^  Ked  Sandstone 
and  Shale.  IFirt,  Fiihti,  Av^ 
phibia.} 


K  88,  SO.  OarboniftreuB  Group,  Upper  and 
Lower:  Coal  Meaaures,  MtUstone 
Grit,  Mountain  Limestone.  IFemt, 
CalamiteSt  CoaL] 

L.    SO,  81.  J>evcmiam,  Onup,  Upper  and  I^n 
Tilestonea,    Comatones    and 
Quartsoee  Congrlomerates. 

M.  82;  83.  Silurian  Group,  Upper  and  Lower: 
Ludlow  Shaloa,  Aymestiy  Umeeton^ 
Wenlock  Limestone,  Wenloek  Sbale, 
Garadoc  Sandstone^  Llandeilo  Flags. 

N.  84,  85.  Cdmbrian  Group,  Upper  and 
Lower :  Bala  Limestone.  Featiniog 
Slates,  Bangor  Slates  and  Grits,  Wick- 
low  Rock.  IFernt,  Sigillmritk, 
Btiffmaria,  CalamiUs, 
Crjfptogamia.Ji 


QEOMETRT.  Its  origin  is  aBcribed  to  the  Egyptians ;  the  annual  inundations  of  the 
Kile  having  given  rise  to  it  by  carrying  away  the  landmarks,  and  the  boundaiiea  of 
farms.  Thales  introduced  geometry  into  Greece  about  600  B.a  Euclid's  Elements 
were  compiled  about  280  B.O.  The  doctrine  of.  curves  originally  attracted  the 
attention  of  geometricians  from  the  conic  sections,  which  were  introduced  by  Plato 
about  890  B.O.  The  conchoid  curve  was  invented  by  Nicomedes,  220  B.O.  The  scienoe 
of  geometry  was  taught  in  Europe  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Books  on  geometry 
and  astronomy  were  destroyed  in  England,  as  infected  with  magic,  7  Edw.  YL 
1552.— i9<oip. 

GEORGE.    A  gold  coin  current  at  6«.  Sd.  in  the  reign  of  Hen.  YUL^Leake, 

GEORGES'  CONSPIRACT,  nr  Fbakoe.  The  memorable  oonspiiacy  in  France :  general 
Moreau,  general  Pichegru,  Georges  Cadoudal,  who  was  commonly  known  by  the  name 
of  Gorges,  and  others,  aireated  at  Paris,  charged  with  a  conspiracy  against  the  life  of 
Bonaparte,  and  for  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.,  FeU  28, 1804.  The  oonqnratora 
were  tried,  June  9,  when  seventeen  were  sentenced  to  ,  death,  and  many  to  imprison- 
ment. Moreau  was  suffered  to  leave  France,  and  was  escorted  firom  the  Temple  to 
embark  for  America,  June  22.    In  1818  he  was  killed  before  Dresden,  wkiek 


GEORGIA,  IN  North  America,  was  settled  by  gen.  Oglethorpe  in  1782.  Separating 
from  the  Congress  of  America,  it  surrendered  to  the  British,  December  1778 ;  and  its 
possession  was  of  vast  importance  to  the  royalists  in  the  then  war.  Count  d'Estaing 
joined  the  American  general  Lincoln,  and  made  a  desperate  attack  on  Georgia^ 
which  failed,  and  the  IVench  fleet  returned  home  :  the  oolong  was  given  up  by  the 
British  in  1783.  See  Ameriock. — Georgia,  in  the  Pacific,  was  visited  by  captain  Cook, 
in  1775. — Geoigia,  in  Asia,  so  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  ita  women,  was  ceded  to 
Russia  by  its  last  reigning  prince  in  1800. 

GEORGIUM  SIDUS,  Ths  Planet.  Discovered  by  Herschel,  and  so  named  by  him  in 
honour  of  George  III.  ICarch  18,  1781.  This  planet  is  sometimes  called  from  its 
discoverer,  **  The  Herschel,"  and  by  foreign  astronomers  it  is  called  Uranus.  Its 
distance  from  us  is  ascertained  to  be  1800  millions  of  miles.  Pursuing  his  disooverisa 
respecting  this  planet,  Herschel  ascertained  it  to  be  sorrounded,  like  Saturn,  with 
rings,  and  to  have  six  satellites. 

GERMANIC  CONFEDERATION.  Napoleon  had  determined  that  the  Qormao,  or  Holy 
Roman  Empire,  as  it  was  called,  should  no  longer  exist ;  but  that,  instead  tiiereot  a 
confederation  of  states  should  be  formed ;  and  this  arrangement  was  adopted  in  1815 
by  the  allied  sovereigns.  Germany  to  be  thenceforth  governed  by  a  diet,  oonaiBting 
of  seventeen  voices,  and  in  case  any  alteration  were  requisite  in  the  constitution,  thsy 
were  then  to  take  a  new  division,  and  the  general  assembly  then  to  be  formed  to 
contain  sixty-five  votes,  divided  according  to  the  relative  oonsequenoe  of  the  statea. 

GERMANY.  Oermania  and  AUmoMia,  Anciently  divided  into  several  independent 
states.  The  Germans  withstood  the  attempts  of  the  Romans  to  subdue  them ;  and 
although  that  people  conquered  some  parts  of  the  country,  they  were  expelled  before 
the^  close  of  ike  Srd  century.  In  the  5th  century  the  might  of  the  Huns  and  other 
nations  prevailed  over  the  greater  portion  of  Germany;  it  was  not*  however,  totally 
reduced  until  Charlemagne  made  himself  master  of  the  whole.  This  great  prinee 
took  the  title  of  emperor,  entailing  the  dignity  upon  his  family ;  but  after  his  race 
became  extinct,  in  911,  the  empire  went  to  the  Germansyand  the  rank  was  afterwards 


OER 


291 


OER 


made  elective.  The  house  of  Austria  enjoyed  the  diBtinction  almost  uninterruptedly 
from  1438  (when  one  of  its  prinoee  was  raised  to  the  imperial  throne)  until  1804.  In 
that  year  Francis  II.  resigned  the  honour  and  office  of  emperor  of  Germany,  and 
became  emperor  of  Avstria  only;  the  latter  title  being  hereditary.    See  Auitria, 


Charlemagne  crowned  emperor  of  the 
West  at  Borne       ....  a.d.    800 

He  adds  a  second  head  to  the  eagle,  to 
donote  that  the  empires  of  Rome  and 
G«rDianT  ara  united  in  him    .        .    .    SOS 

Louis  (U  JMonnairc)  separatee  Germany 
from  France 814 

Charles  III.  was  the  ilxst  soTereign  who 
added  *'  in  the  yaar  oi  our  Lord  "  to 
his  reign 879 

The  Ottman  princes  assert  their  inde* 
pendenoob  and  Conrad  reigns  .    912 

[The  Sectoral  character  .assumed  about 
this  time.    Bee  jrtaCort.] 

Beign  of  Henry  I.  [Idngl  aumamed  Uie 
Fowler;    he  ▼anqui&es   the    Hun% 
Danes,  Vandals,  and  Bohemians .        .    919 
Otho  I.  extends  his  dominions,  and  le 

crowned  emperor  bv  the  pope     .  96S 

Hemv  IIL  conquers  tVihemia,  wasting  it 

with  fire  and  sword  .    .  1018 

Peter  the  Hermit  leads  Uie  Cniaaders 
through  Germany,  where  they  mae- 

eacra  the  Jews 1095 

Henry  lY.   excommunicated  by  pope 

Pascal  IL  ahout 1106 

Disputes  relating  to  eccleeiastical  inyas- 

titures  with  the  pope    ....  11S2 
Tlie  Guelph  and  Gnibeline  feuds  begin  .  1140 
Coond  III.  leads  a  lane  army  to  the 
holy  wara»  where  it  is  destroyed  by 
the  izeachezy  of  the  Greeks    .       .    .  1147 
Teutonic  order  of  knighthood  .1190 

Reign  of  Bodolph,  count  of  Hapsburg, 

chosen  by  the  electora      .       .        .    .  1278 
The  fiunoos  edict,  called  the  Golden  Bull, 

b^  Charlee  lY. 1856 

Bignmond,  king  of  Bohemia,  elecCed 
emperor.  He  betrays  John  Huss  and 
Jerome  of  Prague,  who  are  burned 

aliTe(Beeii»A«mia) 1414 

Bigismond  being  driven  from  the  throne, 
Albert  II.,  dttks  of  Austria,  succeeds. 
[In  his  fiunily  the  crown  resides  for 

three  centuries.} 1488 

The  Prsgmatic  Sanction  («0Meft  tff)  .  .  1489 
The  empire  divided  into  drdee  .  .  1512 
Erm  of  the  Reformation  (Luther)  .  .  1517 
AbdicaUon  of  Charles  V.  .1556 

War  of  the  two  parties,  the  Byangelic 
union  under  Frederick,  elector  pala- 
tine, and  the  Catholic  league  under  the 

duke  of  Bavaria 1618 

Battle  of  Prague^  which  loet  the  elector 

palatine  the  crown 1620 

Treaty  of  Westphidie  ....  1648 
John  Sobioski,  icing  of  Poland,  defeats 
the  Turks  in  many  battles,  and  obliges 
them  to  raise  the  siege  of  Vienna  .  1688 
The  peace  of  Carlowits  ....  1699 
Order  of  St.  Rupert  institnted  .  .  1701 
Order  of  the  Noble  Passion  .    .  1704 

Female  order  of  Death's  Head  .  1709 

Order  of  the  Chase  iustituted  .  .  .  1719 
The  Pnematic  Sanction  (vMeh  <m)  .  1722 
Order  of  St.  George,  the  defender  of  the 

Immaculate  Conception  .  1729 

The  reign  of  Charles  VI.  is  chiefly  occu- 

eied  with  wars  against  the  Turxs,  and 
1  establishing  the  Pragmatic  Sanction 
in  fitvour  of  the  8u«seesian  of  his 
daughter  Haria^Thereea,  married  to 
the  Duke  of  Lorraine  .  .  1711  to  1742 
Fiends  I.,  duke  of  Lorraine,  marries  the 
beireas   of    Atistrla,    the    celebrated 


Maria  Theresa,  queen  of  Hungary,  and 

is  elected  emperor    .  .a.d.  1746 

Joseph  IL  extends  his  dominions  t^the 
dismemberment  of  Poland  .  .  1772 

Again,  by  the  final  partition  of  that  de- 
voted kingdom 171Mi 

[In  the  ruinous  ware  between  Germany 
and  France,  the  emperor  loses  the 
Netherianda,  all  his  territories  west  of 
the  Rhine,  and  his  estates  in  Italy, 
1798  d  mq.] 

Francis  IL  assnmse  the  title  of  emperor 
of  Austria    .  August  11,  1804 

Dissolution  of  the  German  empire ;  for- 
mation of  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine       ....         July  12,  1806 

Congress  of  Vienna.  .    1814  and  1815 

A  new  federation  of  the  states  to  be 
governed  by  a  diet 1815 

(The  members  of  the  empire  are  now  com- 
monly reckoned  at  seventeen,  each 
having  from  four  votes  to  one  vote,  and 
are  as  follows : 

Austria,  4 ;  Prussia,  4 ;  Bav»ria,  4  ;  Sax- 
ony,  4 ;  Hanover,  4 ;  Wurtemberg,  4 ; 
Baden,  8;  HesseCassel,  8;  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  8  ;  Holstein,  8  ;  Luxem- 
burg, S;  Brunswick.  S;  Nassau,  2; 
Mecklenburg,  1;  Saxe-Weimar,  1; 
Saxe  Coburg  and  Gotha,  1.] 

***  For  late  events,  see  Auiiria,  Pnu$ia, 
and  the  other  etaiee,  HveraUg. 

Death  of  the  ex-empress  Maria-Louisa, 
widow  of  Napoleon  .  Dec.  17,  1847 

The  king  of  Prussia  takes  the  lead  as  an 
agitator,  to  promote  the  reoonsolida- 
tion  of  Uie  German  empire,  by  a  pro- 
clamation Merch  27,  1848 

Provisional  government  at  Prague,  May  S),1848 

The  Hungiuian  diet  appoint  a  pro- 
visional government  under  Koesuth 
and  Batthyani    .  Sept  28.  1848 

Field-marehal  count  Lamberg  killed  at 
BudarPesth  Sept  28, 1848 

Insurrection  in  Vienna,  the  minister  of 
war,  count  Latour.  assassinated,  and 
the  capital,  with  the  arsenal,  &11b  into 
the  lumds  of  the  insurgents .    Oct  6,  1848 

Kossuth  appointed  by  Uie  Hungarians 
president  of  their  revoluUonary  com- 
mittee.   (See  Jhmoary)  .        .  Oct  10.  1848 

Prasburg  entered  by  the  Austrians.  Dea  1 8, 1848 

The  Austrians  defeat  the  Hungarians  at 
Saikszo Dec.  28,  1848 

And  at  Thursowka,     .        .        .  Jan.  2,  1849 

Buda-Pesth  taken  by  the  Austrians  under 
prince  WindischgrtkU  .        .       Jan.  5,  1849 

New  oonsUtuUon  March  4.  1849 

The  Austrian  general  Havnau  bombards 
Brescia,  which  is  carried  vrith  ffreat 
slaughter,  and  the  city  almoet  wholly 
destroyed  ....     March  80.  1849 

Austria  protests  against  the  decisions  of 
the  Frankfort  assembly       .    April  8,  1849 

Defeat  of  the  Imperialists  before  Gran, 
by  the  insurgents  April  17,  1849 

InsurrecUon  at  Dresden   .        .    May  8,  1849 

Dresden  bombarded  .  .    May  7,  1849 

The  king  of  Prussia  recalls  the  Prussian 
memMTS  of  the  Frankfort  naUonal 
assembly     ....       May  14,  1849 

The  Frankfort  assembly  transfers  its 
sittings  to  Btutgard  May  80,  1849 

Battle  lioforeKomom  between  theAustro- 

V  2 


GIB 


294 


QIS 


Patrick  Cotter,  the  celebrated  Irish  giant,  bom  in  1761,  was  eight  feet  seren  inches 
in  height ;  his  hand,  from  the  commencement  of  the  palm  to  the  extremity  of  the 
middle  finger,  measured  twelve  inches,  and  his  shoe  was  seventeen  inches  long :  he 
died  in  September,  1806,  in  his  46th  year.  Big  Sam,  the  porter  of  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  at  Carlton-palaoe,  was  near  eight  feet  higb,  and  performed  as  a  giant  in  tlie 
romance  of  Oymon^  at  the  Opera-house,  while  the  Dniry-lane  company  had  the  use  of 
that  theatre  until  their  own  was  rebuilt  in  1800.  Giants*  bones,  17, 1 8, 20,  and  80  feet 
high,  were  once  reported  to  have  been  found ;  but  there  is  now  no  doubt  that  they 
were  organic  remains  of  colossal  quadrupeds. 

GIBRALTAR.  A  British  fortress,  whose  immense  strength  excites  wonder  and  admirm- 
tion,  and  renders  it  impregnable :  it  is  the  ancient  (&lpe,  which,  with  Abyla  on  the 
opposite  shore  of  Africa,  obtained  the  name  of  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  The  height  of 
the  rook,  according  to  Cuvier,  is  1487  En^liA  feet:  it  was  taken  by  the  Saracens 
under  Tarik,  whence  its  present  name  {Otbel-Tarik,  Mountain  of  Tarik),  in  a.d.  712. 
In  the  year  1462  the  king  of  Castile  took  Gibraltar  from  the  Koors ;  and  the  Bngliah, 
under  sir  Gkorge  Rooke,  the  prince  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  sir  John  Leake,  and  admiral 
Byng,  bravely  won  it,  July  24f  1704.  It  was  surrendered,  after  a  dreadful  cannonade, 
to  the  British,  by  the  governor,  the  marquis  de  Salines ;  and  it  has  since  oontinaed  a 
brilliant  appendage  to  the  British  crown. 


GibzalUr  attacked  by  the  British  on  the 
Slat  July,  and  taken  on  the  24th  ad.  1704 

Beaieged  by  the  Spanish  and  French ; 
they  lose  10,000  men,  and  the  victorioiu 
English  but  400      .  .  Oct  11,  1704 

The  Bpaniarda  agalQ  attack  Gibraltar, 
and  are  repulsed  with  great  loea         .  1720 

They  again  attack  it  with  a  force  of 
20,000  men,  and  lose  5000,  while  the 
loB9  of  the  English  is  only  SOO     .        .  1727 

Memorable  siege  by  the  Spaniards  and 
French,  whoee  prodigious  armaments* 
(the  greatest  ever  brought  against  a 
fortress)  were  wholly  overthrown.  The 
siege  continued  fhim  July  1770,  to  Feb.  1783 

Boyal  battery  destroyed  by  fire    .  Not.  1800 


Engagement  between  the  French  and 
English  fleets  in  the  bay ;  the  Heumibal 
of  74-guns  lost  .  July  fi,  1801 

The  Rojfol  OaHot  and  SL  HtrmmimUo 
Spanish  ships,  each  of  113  guns,  blew 
up,  with  their  orews,  at  night-time.  In 
the  Straits  here,  and  aU  on  board 
perished         ....  July  12,  1801 

A  malignant  dlseaae caoaedagreat  mor- 
tality here,  in 1804 

A  dreaoM  plague  raged  ...  1805 

A  malignant  fever  reused  .  Aug.  1814 

Again,  when  a  proclamation  issued  for 
closing  the  courts  of  justice  and  places 
of  public  worship   .        .       .  Sept.  &,  18S8 

The  aital  epidenuc  ceased  Jan.  IS;  1829 


GILDING.  First  practised  at  Borne,  about  145  B.a  The  capitol  was  the  first  building 
on  wh  ich  this  enrichment  was  bestowed. — P^uiy.  Of  gold  leaf  for  gilding,  the  Romans 
made  but  750  leaves,  four  fingers  square,  out  of  a  whole  ounce. — Pliny;  It  conse- 
quently was  more  like  our  plating. — TnuiUr.  A  single  grain  of  gold  may  now  be 
stretched  out  under  the  hammer  into  a  leaf  that  will  cover  a  house. — ifr,  BaOef. 
Gilding  with  leaf  gold  on  bole  ammonicu:  was  first  introduced  by  Margaritone  in  1873. 
The  art  of  gilding  on  wood,  previously  known,  was  improved  in  1680.  See  BUctroigpe, 

GIN.  The  act  for  laying  an  excise  upon  gin  passed  July  14, 1786.  It  had  been  feand, 
in  the  preceding  year,  that  in  London  onl v  7044  houses  sold  gin  by  retail ;  and  it  wva 
so  oheap  that  the  poor  could  intoxicate  themselves^  and  be  disabled  firom  labour,  for 
one  penny.  The  heavy  excise  of  five  shillings  per  gallon,  and  obliging  all  retailen  to 
take  out  a  Hcenoe,  in  a  great  measure  put  a  stop  to  this  depopula^g  eviL — iSnIwum 
About  1700  of  these  houses  were  suppressed  in  London  in  17 50.  ^Clarhe. 

OISOBS,  BATTLE  of,  in  France,  Oct  10, 1198,  between  the  armies  of  France  and  England, 
in  which  the  former  was  signally  defeated  by  Richard  L,  who  commanded  in  petBon  the 
English  army,  and  whose  parole  for  the  day  was  "  Dieu  et  mon  droit " — **  God  and  my 
right ; "  and  from  this  time  it  has  been  the  motto  to  the  royal  arms  of  England. 

presence  of  king  James  the  First,  dressed  up  In  a  very  fiintasUo  style.  On  his  return  from  1>ndoo. 
a  portrait  was  taken  of  him,  which  is  preserved  in  the  libranr  of  Braien-nose  College,  at  Oxford :  and 
I>r.  Flott  gives  the  following  account  of  him : — '*  John  Middleton,  commonly  called  the  Child  of  Hals^ 
whoee  hand,  from  the  carpus  to  the  end  of  the  middle  ftnger,  was  seventeen  inches  ;  his  palm  eiffht 
inches  and  a-half ;  and  his  height  nine  feet  three  inches,  wanting  but  six  inches  of  the  slse  of  GoliatL** 
*  The  army  amounted  to  40.000  men.  The  duke  of  Crillon  commanded  12,000  of  the  best  troaps  of 
France.  1000  pieces  of  artillery  were  brought  to  bear  against  the  fortress,  besides  which  there  were 
47  sail  of  the  line,  all  three  deckers ;  10  great  floating  batteries,  esteemed  invincible,  carrying  21Sraie: 
innumerable  frigates,  xebeques,  bomb-ketches,  cutters,  and  gun  and  mortar  boats ;  while  cmalTcraft 
fer  disembarking  the  forces  covered  the  bay.  For  weeka  together,  6000  shells  were  daily  thrown  into 
the  town ;  and  on  a  single  occasion,  8000  boirrels  cd  gunpowc&r  were  expended  by  the  enemy.  Tet  in 
one  night  their  floating  batteries  were  destroyed  with  red-hot  balls,  and  their  whole  line  of  wutka 
annihilated  bv  a  sortie  from  the  garrison,  commanded  by  general  Elliot,  Nov.  37, 1781.  The  coemy'tB 
loss  In  munitions  of  war,  on  this  night  alone,  was  estimated  at  upwards  of  2,000, OOOC  sterling.  But 
their  grand  defeat,  by  a  garrison  of  only  7000  Biitisb,  occurred  Sept.  18, 1782. 


QLA  295  QLA 

GLADIATORS.  They  were  originally  malefactora  who  fought  for  their  liTes,  or  captivea 
who  fought  for  freedom.  They  exhibited  at  the  funeral  eeremoniea  of  the  Romans, 
263  B.C.,  probably  following  the  Greek  custom  of  sacrificing  to  the  manes  of  deceased 
warriors  the  prisoners  taken  in  batt1&  Gladiator  fights  afterwards  exhibited  at 
festiTals,  about  215  B.C.  When  Dacia  was  reduced  by  Trajan,  1000  gladiators  fought 
at  Rome  in  celebration  of  his  triumph  for  123  days,  ▲.».  103.  Their  combats  on 
public  theatres  were  suppressed  in  the  East  by  Constantine  the  Greats  aj).  825. 
Finally  suppresMd  by  Theodoric  in  the  year  500. — LengUt. 

OLANDELAQH,  BISHOPRIC  oi*,  nr  Irklahd,  has  been  united  to  the  srchprelaey  of 
Dublin  since  the  year  a.d.  1214.  St.  Keiven  seems  to  have  been  the  founder  of  this 
see;  he  resigned  in  612.  QIandelagh  is  now  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Seven  Churches,  from  the  remains  of  so  many  buildings  contiguous  to  the  cathedraL 

GLASGOW.  Erected  into  a  buiigh  in  a.d.  1180.  Its  charter  was  obtained  from 
James  IL  in  1451,  at  which  period  the  UniTersity  was  founded.  Its  earliest  com- 
merce was  in  salmon,  about  1420.  Made  a  royal  burgh  by  James  VI.  1611.  Town 
wasted  by  a  great  fire,  1652.  Charter  of  William  and  Mary,  1690.  First  Tessel  sailed 
to  America  for  its  still  great  import,  tobacco,  1718.  Great  Shawfield  riot,  1726. 
Theatre  opened,  April  1764.  Power-loom  introduced  here,  1773.  Theatre  burnt, 
1780.  Chamber  of  Commerce  formed,  1783.  Trades'  Hall  built,  1791.  New  college 
buildings  erected,  1811.  Great  popular  commotion,  April  1811,  and  trials  for  treason 
followed,  July,  same  year.  Theatre  again  bumt^  Jan.  1829.  The  Royal  Exchange,  a 
most  sumptuous  edifice,  opened  Sept  8,  1829.  Great  fire,e]ofis  150,0004  Jan.  14, 
1832.  Wellington's  statue  erected,  Oct  8, 1844.  False  alaxin  of  fire  at  the  theatre, 
when  seventy  persons  are  crushed  to  death,  Feb.  17, 1849. 

GLASGOW,  BISHOPRIC  ov.  With  regard  to  the  founder  of  this  see,  few  historians  are 
agreed.  Kennet,  in  his  AntigtUtie§,  says  it  was  founded  by  St  Kentigem,  afia$ 
Mungo,  in  560  ;  while  others  afi&rm  that  Mungo  was  a  holy  man  who  had  a  oell  here, 
and  whose  sanctity  was  held  in  such  yeneration  that  the  church  was  dedicated  to 
him.  Dr.  Heylin,  speaking  of  the  see  of  St  Asaph,  in  Wales,  says  that  thai  see  was 
founded  by  St  Kentigem,  a  So>t,  then  bishop  of  Glasgow,  in  583.  This  prelacy 
became  srchiepisoopal  in  1491,  and  ceased  at  the  Rerolution.  Glasgow  is  now  a 
post-rerolution  bishopric  The  cathedral  was  commenced  in  1121,  and  has  been 
beautified  and  improTed  at  Tarioue  periods  since.    See  Biakopt. 

GLASGOW  LOTTERIEa  Thei^e  were  the  last  lotteries  drawn  in  Britain ;  they  were 
granted  by  licence  of  parliament  to  the  commissioners  for  the  improvement  of  the  city  of 
Glasgow.  The  third  and  final  Glasgow  lottery  was  drawn  in  London,  at  Coopers* 
Hall,  Aug.  28. 1834.    They  were  forbidden  by  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37,  25  July,  1834. 

GLASS.  The  Egyptians  are  said  to  hare  been  taught  the  art  of  making  glass  by 
Hermes.  The  discovery  of  glass  took  place  in  Syria. — Pliny.  Glass-houses  were 
erected  in  Tyre,  where  glass  was  a  staple  manufacture  for  many  ages.  This  article 
is  mentioned  among  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Tiberius ;  and  we  know,  from  the 
ruins  of  Pompeii,  that  windows  were  formed  of  glass  before  a.d.  79.  Italy  had  the 
first  glass  windows,  next  France,  whence  they  came  to  England.  Used  for  windows 
in  private  houses  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  1177,  but  imported. — Andenon,  The 
manufiu:ture  was  established  in  England  at  Crutched-friars,  and  in  the  Savoy,  in 
1557. — Sttfw.  It  was  improved  in  1635,  and  was  brought  to  great  perfection  in  the 
reign  of  William  III.    The  duties  on  glass  were  entirely  remittisd,  1845. 

GLASS-PLATK  For  coach-wmdows,  mirrors,  Ac,  made  at  Lambeth  by  Venetian 
artists,  a.d.  1673. — Salmon.  This  branch  of  the  manufacture  was  improved  by  the 
French,  who  made  veiy  large  plates ;  and  further  improvements  in  it  were  made  in 
Lancashire,  in  1773.  There  are  now  several  large  factories  of  plate-glass  in  England, 
and  most  of  the  principal  shops  of  London  have  plate^lass  windows,  some  windows 
being  single  panes  of  vast  sise. 

GLASS,  PAINTING  oir.  This  was  a  very  early  art  It  was  practised  at  Marseilles  in 
a  b«mtiful  style,  about  ad.  1500.  It  is  ^aid  we  had  the  art  in  England  towards  the 
12th  century.     It  reached  to  a  state  of  great  perfection  about  1530. 

OLASITES  (in  ScoTLAin))  Aim  SAKDEMANIANS  (in  Enoland),  names  given  to  a  small 
body  of  Christians,  whose  tenets  are  set  forth  in  the  "  Testimony  of  the  King  of 
Martyrs  "  published  by  John  Glas,  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  1727,  and 
in  a  work  by  his  son-in-law,  Robert  Sandeman,  entitled  "  Letters  on  Tberon  and 
Aspasio"  (1755).    Churches  were  formed  by  them  on  what  were  considered  the 


GLA  296  QLO 

primitive  models,  in  Scotland  about  1728,  and  in  England  about  1755  and  later,  some 
of  which  BtiU  eziet  They  hold  that  justifying  faith  is  the  gift  of  Qod,  and  not  to  be 
taught  or  acquired  by  man ;  that  it  must  and  will  always  operate  by  love  and  good 
wonis ;  and  also,  that  all  Christ's  commandments  are  to  be  obeyed,  and  none  others 
to  bo  added.  They  observe  the  Lord's  supper,  hold  love-feasts  weekly  (see  Agapas)^ 
and  meetings  for  mutual  exhortations.   They  avoid  eating  blood,  ^.   See  AeU  xv.  ^. 

QLASTONBURT.  The  first  Christian  church  in  Britain  was,  aocording  to  monkish 
history,  erected  here,  about  A..D.  60 ;  and,  according  to  the  like  authority,  this  plaee 
was  the  residence  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea  about  that  time.  A  church  was  built  here 
by  Ina,  about  708.  The  town  and  abbey  burnt,  1184.  An  earthquake  did  great 
damage  in  1276.  Richard  Withing,  the  last  abbot,  who  had  100  monks  and  400 
domestics,  was  hanged  on  Tor-hill  in  his  pontificals,  for  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of 
supremacy  to  Henry  VIII.  1589. 

QLENCOE,  MASSACRE  of.  This  was  the  horrible  massacre  of  the  unofiending  and 
unsuspecting  inhabitants,  the  Macdonalds,  merely  for  not  surrepdering  in  time  to 
king  William's  prodamation.  About  38  men  were  brutally  slain ;  and  women  and 
children,  their  wives  and  ofiBqpring,  were  turned  out  naked  in  a  dark  and  freenng 
night,  and  perished  by  cold  and  hunger.  This  black  deed  was  perpetrated  by  the  eart 
of  Aigyle's  regiment^  May  9, 1691. 

QLOBK  The  globular  form  of  the  earth,  the  five  zones,  some  of  the  principal  cirelas  of 
the  sphere,  the  opacity  of  the  moon,  and  the  true  cause  of  lunar  eclipses,  were  taught^ 
and  an  eclipse  predltted,  by  Tfaales  of  Miletus,  about  640  B.o.  Pythagoras  demon- 
strated, from  the  varying  altitudes  of  the  stars  by  change  of  place,  that  the  earth 
must  be  round ;  that  there  might  be  antipodes  on  the  opposite  part  of  the  globe ; 
that  Venus  was  the  morning  and  evening  star;  that  the  universe  oonaisted  of  twelve 
spheres  —the  sphere  of  the  earth,  the  sphere  of  the  water,  the  sphere  of  the  air,  the 
sphere  of  fire,  the  spheres  of  the  moon,  the  sun,  Venus,  Mercury,  Mars,  Jupiter, 
Saturn,  and  the  sphere  of  the  stars,  about  506  bc.  Aristarehus,  of  Simos,  main- 
tained  that  the  earth  turned  on  its  own  axis,  and  revolved  about  the  sun ;  whioh 
doctrine  was  held  by  his  contemporaries  as  so  absurd,  that  the  philosopher  had 
nearly  lost  his  life  by  his  theory,  280  B.o.  To  determine  the  figure  of  the  earth,  a 
degree  of  latitude  has  been  measured  in  different  parts  of  the  world  by  eminent 
phUoBophers.  For  this  purpose  Bougaer  and  La  Condamine  were  sent  to  Peru  and 
Maupertuis,  and  others  to  Lapland  in  1735.  France  and  Spain  were  measured  by 
Mechain,  Delambre,  Biot,  and  Arago,  between  1792  and  1821.  Measurements  have 
been  also  made  in  India  by  col.  Everest,  and  published  in  1830.  Experiments  have 
been  made  by  pendulums  to  demonstrate  the  rotation  of  the  earth  by  Foucault  in 
1851;  and  to  determine  its  density,  in  1826, 1828,  and  1854,  by  Mr.  Airy,  now 
Astronomer  Royal.    See  Circumnavigaiwt, 

GLOBES,  ARTIFICIAL.  The  moat  remarkable  ones  were  those  of  Gottorp  and  of 
Pembroke-hall,  Cambridge.  The  first  is  a  concave  sphere,  eleven  feet  in  diameter, 
containing  a  table  and  seats  for  twelve  persons,  and  the  inside  representing  the 
visible  sur&oe  of  the  heavens,  the  stars  and  constellations  all  distinguished  aooording 
to  their  respective  magnitudes,  and  being  turned  by  means  of  curious  mechanism, 
their  true  position,  rising  and  setting,  is  shown.  The  outside  is  a  terrestrial  globe. 
This  machine  is  called  the  globe  of  Gottorp,  from  the  original  one  of  that  name, 
which,  at  the  expense  of  Frederick  III.  duke  of  Holstein,  was  erected  at  Gottorp, 
under  the  direction  of  Adam  Olearius,  and  was  planted  after  a  design  found  among 
the  papers  of  the  celebrated  Tycho  Brahe.  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark  presented  It 
to  Peter  the  Great  in  1713;  it  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1757;  but  it  was 
afterwards  reconstructed. — Ooxe,  The  globe  at  Pembroke-hall  was  erected  by  Dr. 
Long ;  it  far  surpasses  the  other,  being  eighteen  feet  in  diameter,  and  thirty  persons 
can  sit  convenienUy  within  it  while  it  is  in  motion.— In  1851,  Mr.  Abrahams  erected 
in  Leicester-square,  for  Mr.  Wyld,  a  globe  60  feet  4  inches  in  diametor,  lit  from  the 
centre  by  day,  and  by  gas  at  night 

GLOBE  THEATRE,  Bankbide,  LoifDON.    See  Shakapear^s  Theatre. 

GLORY.  The  glory  or  nimbus  drawn  by  painters  round  the  heads  of  saints,  angels, 
and  holy  men,  and  the  circle  of  rays  on  images,  were  adopted  from  the  OBwara  and 
their  flatterers,  by  whom  they  were  used  in  the  first  century.  The  doxology  of  the 
prayer  Oioria  Patri  was  ordained  in  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  was  called  doxology 
because  it  began  with  S^o,  doxa,  glory ,  a.d.  382. 


GLO  207  GOD 

OLOUCESTER.  Once  a  Roman  colony,  built  by  Arviragua,  A.D.  47,  in  honour  of 
Claudius  Cseiar,  whose  daughter  he  had  married.  The  abbey,  which  was  founded 
in  700,  was  burnt  in  1102,  and  again  in  1122.  In  the  cathedral  are  the  tombs  of 
Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  and  Edward  IL  This  city  was  incorporated  by 
Henry  III.  ;  it  was  fortified  by  a  strong  wall,  which  was  demolished,  after  the 
Restoration  in  1660,  by  order  of  Charles  IL,  as  a  punishment  for  the  obstinate 
resistance  of  the  city  to  Charles  I.  The  Gloucester  and  Berkeley  canal  was  completed 
in  April  1827. 

GLOUCESTER,  SEE  of.  One  of  the  six  bishoprics  erected  by  Henry  YIII.  in  1541,  and 
formerly  part  of  the  diocese  of  Worcester.  The  cathedral  church  which  belonged  to 
the  abbey  was  dissolved  by  that  king,  and  its  revenues  were  appropriated  to  the  main- 
teoanoe  of  the  see.  In  the  king's  books,  this  bishopric  is  valued  at  315/.  17«.  2d.  per 
anMum,    It  was  united  to  that  of  Bristol  in  1 886. 

GLOVES  were  in  use  in  very  early  times.  In  the  middle  agee,  the  giving  of  a  glove 
was  a  ceremony  of  investiture  in  bestowing  lands  and  dignities;  and  two  bishops 
were  put  in  possession  of  their  sees  by  each  receiving  a  glove,  a.d.  1002.  In  England, 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  the  deprivation  of  gloves  was  a  ceremony  of  degradation. 
The  Glovers*  company  of  London  was  incorporated  in  1556.  Embroiderod  gloves 
were  introduced  into  England  in  1580,  and  are  still  presented  to  judges  at  maiden 


GNOSTICS.  Ancient  heretics,  who  were  famous  firom  the  first  rise  of  Christianity.  The 
tenets  of  this  sect  were  revived  in  Spain,  in  the  fourth  century,  by  the  Priscillianists ; 
but  the  name,  which  was  once  glorious,  at  length  became. infamous.  The  Gnostics 
were  not  so  much  a  particular  sect  of  heretics,  as  a  complication  of  manv  sects ;  and 
were  so  called  because  they  pretended  to  extraordinary  illxmiinations  and  knowledge, 
one  main  branch  of  which  consisted  in  their  pretended  genealogies  or  attributes  of 
the  Deity,  in  which  they  differed  among  themselves. 

GOBELIN-TAPESTRT.  Tapestry  so  called  from  a  noted  house  at  Paris,  in  the  suburb 
of  St.  Marcel,  formerly  possessed  by  famous  wool-dyers,  whereof  the  chief,  called  Giles 
Gobelin,  who  lived  in  tne  reign  of  Francis  L,  is  said  to  have  found  the  secret  of  dyeing 
scarlet,  which  was  from  him  called  the  scarlet  of  the  Gobelins;  the  house  and  river 
that  runs  by  it  also  took  the  same  name.  This  house  was  purchased  by  Louis  XIV. 
for  a  manufactory  of  all  manner  of  curious  works  for  sdorning  the  royal  palaces,  under 
the  direction  of  Mons.  Colbert,  especially  tapestry,  designs  for  which  were  drawn  by 
the  celebrated  Le  Brun,  by  appointment  of  the  king,  a.d.  1666. — Du  Fttsnoy, 

'*GOD  BLESS  YOUl"  We  are  told  that  in  the  time  of  pope  Pelagius  II.  a  phigue 
raged  at  Rome,  of  so  fatal  a  nature,  that  persons  seized  with  it  died  sneezing  and 
gaping;  whence  came  the  custom  of  saying  "  Qod  hUta  you/"  when  a  person  sneezes, 
and  of  Roman  Catholics  making  the  sign  of  the  cross  upon  the  mouth  when  any  one 
gapes,  A.D.  582. — Nauv,  DicL 

GODERICH,  VISCOUNT,  ms  ADMINISTRATION.  Viscount  Goderich  (afterwards 
earl  of  Ripon)  became  first  minister  on  the  death  of  Mr.  Canning,  Aug.  8,  1827.  The 
prindpal  members  of  his  ministry  were :  Duke  of  Portland,  president  of  the  council ; 
lord  Lyndhurst,  lord  chancellor ;  earl  of  Carlisle,  lord  privy  seal ;  viscount  Dudley, 
Mr.  Huskiason,  and  the  marquess  of  Lansdowne,  foreign,  colonial,  and  home  secreta- 
ries; lord  Palmerston,  secretary-at-war ;  Mr.  Wynn,  president  of  the  India  board; 
Hr.  Charles  Grant  (afterwards  lord  Glenelg),  bourd  of  trade ;  Mr.  Herries,  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer;  Mr.  Tiemey,  master  of  the  mint,  Ac.  Aug.  1827.  Terminated 
Jon.  1828. 

GODFATHERS  and  GODMOTHERS.  The  Jews  had  godfathers  in  the  circumcision  of 
their  sons.  In  the  Christian  Church  sponsion  in  baptism  arose  in  the  desire  of 
aasuriog  that  the  child  ^ould  be  of  the  religion  of  Christ.  It  was  first  ordained  to 
be  used,  according  to  some,  by  pope  Alexander;  according  to  others,  by  Sixtus;  and 
others  refer  it  to  Telesphorus,  about  a.d.  130.  In  Roman  Catholic  countries  they 
have  god&thers  and  godmothers  in  the  baptism  of  their  bells. 

OODOLPHIN  ADMINISTRATION.  The  earl  of  Godolphin  became  prime  mmlster  to 
queen  Anne,  May  8, 1702.  He  received  the  treasurer's  staff  two  days  afterwards. 
His  administration  was  as  follows :  Sidney,  lord  (afterwards  earl)  Godolphin,  treasury ; 
Thomas,  earl  of  Pembroke  and  Montgomery,  lord  president;  John  Sheffield,  marquess 
of  Normanby,  afterwards  duke  of  Normanby  and  Buckingham,  privy  seal ;  hon.  Henry 
Boyle,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer;  sir  Charles  Hedges  and  the  earl  of  Nottingham 


GOD  298  OOL 

-  -         -  —  ~        ■   --    ■  —  ■    ■  -  -   _       ,     -  1 . —      —  _  --  _   —  

(the  latter  Buoceeded  by  the  rt  hon.  Uobert  Harley,  created  earl  of  Oxford,  in  1704), 
secretaries  of  state,  fta  His  lordship  continued  lord  high  treasurer  until  Ang.  8, 1710, 
when  he  resigned  the  treasurer's  staff. 

OODWIITS  OATH.  **  Take  care  you  are  not  swearing  Godwin's  oath."  This  caution 
to  a  person  taking  a  voluntary  and  intemperate  oath«  or  making  violent  protestations, 
had  its  rise  in  the  following  circumstance  related  by  the  mouks  :  Godwin,  earl  of  Kent, 
was  tried  for  the  murder  of  prince  Alfred,  brother  of  Edward  the  Conferaor,  and 
pardoned,  but  died  at  the  king's  table  while  protesting,  with  oaths,  his  innocence  of 
the  murder ;  supposed  by  the  historians  of  tfiose  times  to  have  been  choked  with  a 
piece  of  bread,  as  a  judgment  from  Heaven,  having  prayed  it  might  stick  in  his  throat 
if  he  were  guilty  of  the  murder,  a.d.  1053. — OtttK  Hut,  Bng. 

GODWIN  SANDS.  These  are  sand-banks  off  the  east  coast  of  Kent,  and  occupy  a  spaee 
that  was  formerly  a  large  tract  of  ground  belonging  to  Godwin,  earl  of  Kent,  tha 
father  of  king  Harold  II.  This  ground  was  afterwards  given  to  the  monastery  of  8L 
Augustin  at  Canterbury ;  but  the  abbot  neglecting  to  keep  in  repair  the  wall  that 
defended  it  from  the  sea,  the  whole  tract  was  drowned  in  the  year  1100,  leaving  tbsM 
sands,  upon  which  many  ships  have  been  wrecked. — Salmon, 

GOLD.  The  purest  and  most  ductile  of  all  the  metsls,  for  which  reason  it  has,  from  the 
earliest  ages,  been  considered  by  almost  all  nations  as  the  most  valuable.  It  is  too 
soft  to  be  used  pure,  and  to  harden  it,  it  is  alloyed  with' copper  or  silver :  that  need 
in  our  coin  consists  of  twenty-two  carats  of  pure  gold,  and  two  of  copper.  In  the 
early  ages  no  metals  were  used  but  those  found  pure,  as  gold,  silver,  and  copper.  The 
smelting  of  ores  was  a  Comparatively  late  invention,  and  ascribed  both  to  observations 
on  volcanoes  and  to  the  burning  of  forests.  By  17  &  18  Vict.  c.  96  (1854),  gold 
wares  are  allowed  to  be  manufactured  at  a  lower  standard  than  formerly  (wedding 
rings  excepted),  by  18  &  19  Vict,  a  60, 1855. 

GOLD  COIN.  The  first  certain  record  we  have  of  gold  being  coined  in  Eztgland,  is 
A  D.  1257.  The  first  regular  gold  pieces  were  struck  in  the  reign  of  Edward  HL 
1844.  The  English  florin  was  struck  in  1854;  in  which  year,  also,  the  method  of 
assaying  gold  was  established.  The  standard  was  altered  in  1527.  All  the  gold 
money  was  called  in,  and  re-coined,  and  the  firpt  window-tax  imposed  to  defray  the 
expense  and  deficiency  in  the  re-coinage,  7  WilL  III.  1695.  Guineas  were  first  coined 
in  1678;  they  were  reduced  in  currency  from  twenty- two  shillings  to  twenty-one  in 
1717.  Broad-pieces  were  called  in,  and  re-coined  into  guineas  in  1782.  The  gold 
coin  which  was  brought  into  the  Hint  by  proclamation  in  1778-6,  amounted  to  about 
15,568,5982.;  the  expense  of  collecting,  melting,  and  re*coining  i1^  was  754,01 9iL  Act 
for  weighing  gold  coin  passed  June  18,  1774.  See  articles  cSin  snd  Onineat,  ''The 
quantity  of  gold  that  passed  through  the  Mint,  since  the  accession  of  queen  Elizabeth 
to  the  throne,  in  1558,  to  the  beginning  of  1840,  is  3,858,561  pounds  weight,  troy. 
Of  this,  nearly  one-half  was  coined  in  the  reign  of  Geoige  III.~ namely,  1,598,078 

?ounds  weight,  troy.  The  value  of  the  gold  coined  in  the  reign  of  that  sovereign  was 
4,501,5862.  The  total  value  of  the  gold  coin  issued  from  the  Mint,  since  1558,  is 
154,702.8852."— Pro/sMor  Faraday,  The  weight  of  gold  coined  in  Victoriaa  T«ign, 
from  June  1887  to  Jan.  1848,  was  746,452  lb.;  the  value  of  this  amount  coined  was 
29,886,4572.— Gold  coined  in  1858  {Avstralian  gdd),  12,664,1252.;  in  1854,  4,S54,8012L; 
in  1855,  9,245,2642.;  in  1856,  6,476,0602. 

GOLD  FISH.  Long  called  CnnnssB  Gudgeons,  from  the  country  whence  thej  were 
imported.    Brought  to  England  in  1691 ;  but  not  generally  seen  here  until  1728. 

GOLD  MINES.  Gold  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the  earth,  but  is  most  abundant  m 
Africa,  Japan,  and  South  America,  in  which  last  gold  was  discovered  by  the 
Spaniards  m  1492,  from  which  time  to  1731  they  impoxted  into  Europe  6000  millions 
of  pieces  of  eight,  in  register  gold  and  silver,  exclusively  of  what  were  unregistersd. 
In  1780,  a  piece  of  gold  weighing  ninety  marks,  equal  to  sixty  pounds  troy  (the  mark 
being  eight  ounces),  was  found  near  La  Paz.  a  town  of  Peru.  Gold  was  discovefvd  in 
Malacca  in  1731;  in  New  Andalusia  in  1785;  in  Ceylon  in  1800;  and  it  has  been 
found  in  Cornwall,  and  in  the  county  of  Wicklow  in  Ireland.  The  Ural  or  Oml 
mountains  of  Russia  have  produced  gold  in  laige  quantity ;  and  since  1847  gold  has 
been  drawn  in  vast  quantities  annually  from  California,  and  since  1851  frxmi  Australia 
See  California  and  Auatralia,  Hverally, 

GOLD  ROBBERY.  Three  boxes,  hooped  snd  sealed,  confcainiDg  gold  in  ban  snd  coin 
to  the  value  of  between  18,0002.  and  20,0002.  were  sent  from  London,  May  15, 1855L 


QOL  299  GOO 

On  their  urlTftl  in  PariB,  it  wm  found  that  ingots  to  the  Talue  of  12,000^  had  been 
abstracted,  and  shot  substituted,  although  the  boxes  bore  no  marks  *of  Tioleooe. 
Many  persons  were  apprehended  on  suspicion ;  but  the  police  obtained  no  trace  till 
KoT.  1856.  Three  men  named  Pieroe,  Burgess,  and  Tester,  were  tried  and  convicted 
Jan.  13-15,  ISST^  on  the  evidence  of  Edwu^l  Agar,  an  accomplice.  They  had  been 
preparing  for  the  robbery  for  eighteen  months  previous  to  its  perpetration. 

GOLD  WIRE,  LEAF,  Ac.  Gold  wire  was  first  made  in  Italy  about  A.o.  1850.  An 
ounce  of  gold  is  suffieient  to  gild  a  silver  wire  above  1800  miles  in  length  ;  and  such 
is  its  tenacity  that  a  wire  the  one-eighteenth  part  of  an  inch  thick  will  bear  the  weight 
of  500  lb.  without  breaking. — iburcro^  A  single  grain  of  gold  may  be  extended 
into  a  leaf  of  fifty-six  square  inches,  and  gold  leaf  can  be  reduced  to  the  300,000th 
part  of  an  inch,  and  gilding  to  the  ten-millionth  part. — Kelly's  CamhUi. 

GK)IiDEN  BULL.  A  decree  or  letter  of  the  pope,  or  emperor,  of  which  the  bull  is, 
properly  speaking,  the  aeal,  which  has  been  made  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  wax. 
Among  the  incidents  which  mark  the  reign  of  Charles  IV.  emperor  of  the  West^  is 
his  institution  of  the  celebrated  (Golden  Bull,  made  at  the  diet  of  Nuremberg,  A.D. 
1356,  and  which  became  the  fundamental  law  of  the  (German  empire. — RoberUon, 

OOLDBK  CHAIN.  A  favourite  plant  in  England.  It  is  perhaps  more  generally  known 
as  the  LABUBynv,  Cyiittu  labwmum.  It  was  brought  to  these  countries  from  Austria 
and  Hungary  before  a.d.  1576.  The  Gold  Plant,  or  Aucuba  japanica,  was  brought  to 
England  from  Japan  and  China  about  1783. 

GOLDEN  FLEECE.  Jason,  the  Argonaut^  sailed  with  his  companions  from  lolchos  to 
Colchis,  to  avenge  the  death  of  his  kinsman  Phryxus,  and  to  recover  his  treasures, 
which  the  perfidious  ^etes^  king  of  Colchis,  had  seized,  after  murdering  their  owner. 
The  ship  in  which  Phryxus  had  sailed  to  Colchis  was  adorned  with  the  figure  of  a 
nun  on  the  poop,  which  gave  occasion  to  the  poets  to  pretend  that  the  journey  of 
Jason  was  for  the  recovery  of  the  golden  fleece,  1263  p.o.  Some  suppose  that  the 
poetic  account  represented  a  true  history  under  allegorical  figures. 

GOLDEN  FLEECE,  ORDER  or  thk.  Philip  the  Good,  duke  of  Burgundy  in  a.d.  1429, 
instituted  a  military  order  by  this  name ;  the  king  of  Spain  became  grand  master  of 
the  order,  as  duke  of  Burgundy  ,*  the  number  of  knights  was  thirty-one.  It  wss  said 
to  have  been  instituted  on  account  of  the  immense  profit  the  duke  made  by  wooL 
The  first  solemnities  were  performed  at  Bui^s,  at  this  duke's  marriage  with  Isabel  of 
Portugal.  The  knights  wore  a  scarlet  cloak  lined  with  ermine,  with  a  collar  opened, 
and  the  duke*s  cipher,  in  the  form  of  a  B,  to  signify  Burgundy,  together  with  flints 
striking  fire^  with  the  motto  "  ArUe  ferit,  quam  fiamma  mioal."  At  the  end  of  the 
collar  hung  a  golden  fleece,  with  this  device,  "  Pretiwn  non  vile  laborum.*'  The  order 
afterwards  beicame  common  to  all  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Austria,  as  being 
descended  from  Maiy,  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold,  last  duke  of  Burgundy. 

GOLDEN  NUMBER  The  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  or  number  which  shows  the  years 
of  the  moon's  cycle ;  its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Meton,  of  Athens,  about  432  B.a — 
PHny.  To  find  the  golden  number  or  year  of  the  lunar  cycle,  add  one  to  the  date 
and  diYide  by  nineteen,  then  the  quotient  is  the  number  of  cycles  since  Christ,  and 
the  remainder  is  the  golden  number. 

GOLDSMITHS*  COMPANY  or  LONDON.  Incorporated  16  Rich.  H.  1892.  The  mark 
or  date  of  the  Gk)ldsmiths'  company  wherewith  to  stamp  standard  silver  and  gold 
wares  is  made  by  letters  fW>m  A  to  U,  and  commenced  in  1796;  so  that  the  year 
1850  is  M ;  the  year  1851  is  N ;  the  year  1852  is  O ;  the  year  1853  is  P ;  and  so  on, 
changing  the  letter  every  year.  The  old  hall  was  taken  down  in  1829,  and  the  present 
magnificent  edifice  was  opened  in  1835.    See  Atsaff, 

GOOD  FRIDAY.  From  the  earliest  records  of  Christianity,  this  day  has  been  held  as 
a  solemn  fast,  in  remembrance  of  the  crucifixion  of  Our  Saviour  on  Friday,  April  3, 
A.IX  33.  Its  appellation  of  good  appears  to  be  peculiar  to  the  Church  of  England : 
our  Saxon  forefikthers  denominated  it  Long  Friday^  on  account  of  the  great  length  of 
the  offices  observed  and  fastings  enjoined  on  this  day. 

GK)OJERAT,  BATTLE  or,  nr  India.  Lord,  afterwards  visct.  Qough,  with  25,000  men 
and  100  guns,  attacked  the  enemy,  numbering  60,000  men  with  59  guns.  The  Sikh 
chief  was  strongly  posted  between  two  river  courses,  which  protected  his  flanks,  and 
yet  allowed  him  good  manosuvring  space  to  retire  either  on  the  east  or  west  side  of 
the  town  of  Qoojerat^  which  afforded  shelter  and  protection  to  his  rear.    The  fight 


a  00  800  GOS 

bogftn  at  aeven  in  the  morning.  The  result  of  great  gallantry  on  the  part  of  the 
Britiflb  army  was,  that  by  four  o'clock  the  enemy  had  been  driven  from  ereiy  post, 
and  was  in  general  retreat,  which  the  field  artillery  and  cavalry  converted  into  a  total 
rout  and  flight.  They  were  pursued  with  great  slaughter  for  about  fifteen  miles,  and 
next  morning  an  adequate  force  took  up  the  direct  pursuit.  Some  of  the  enemy's 
guns,  and  the  whole  of  their  ammunition  and  camp  equipage,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  British.  Shero-Singh  escaped  with  only  8000  men.  Goojerat  was  taken,  and  also 
Jailum  and  Rhotas.  The  loss  on  the  British  side  was  100  killed  and  900  wounded. 
Feb.  21,  1849. 

QOOSE  AT  MICHAELMAS.  This  custom  has  been  thus  accounted  for,  and  though  th« 
fact  has  been  contradicted,  it  is  yet  pertinadoualy,  but  erroneoualy,  maintained. 
Queen  Elizabeth,  on  her  way  to  Tilbury  Fort  on  the  29th  September,  1588,  dined  at 
the  ancient  seat  of  sir  Neville  Umfrey vUle,  near  that  place ;  and  among  the  dishes 
which  the  knight  had  provided  for  her  entertainment  were  two  geese.  The  queen 
ate  heartily,  and  asking  for  a  bumper  of  burgundy,  drank  "Destruction  to  the 
Spanish  Armada  1  *'  At  the  moment  that  she  retamed  the  tankard  to  the  knigh^ 
news  arrived  that  the  Spanish  fleet  had  been  destroyed  by  a  storm.  She  immediately 
took  another  bumper,  and  was  so  much  pleased  with  the  event,  that  every  year  after 
on  that  day  she  h^  a  goose  served  up.  The  court  made  it  a  custom,  snd  the  people 
the  fiishion  ever  since. — "  The  custom  is  of  much  older  date,  and  is  equally  observed 
on  the  continent  as  in  England." — Clavit  Calendaria, 

OORDIAN  KNOT.  The  knot  made  of  the  thongs  that  served  as  harness  to  the  waggon 
of  Gordins,  a  husbandman,  who  was  afterwards  king  of  Phrygia.  Whosoerer  looeed 
this  knot,  the  ends  of  which  were  not  diBOoverable,  the  oracle  declared  should  be 
emperor  of  Persia.  Alexander  the  Great  cut  away  the  knot  with  his  sword  ontil  he 
found  the  ends  of  it,  and  thus,  in  a  military  sense  at  least,  this  "  conqueror  of  the 
world  *'  interpreted  the  oracle,  830  b.o. 

GORDON'S  <'  NO  POPERT  "  MOE  Occasioned  by  the  seal  of  lord  Geoige  Gordon.  It 
oonsisted  of  40,000  persons,  who  assembled  in  St  George's  Fields,  under  the  name  of 
the  Protestant  Association,  to  carry  up  a  petition  to  parliament  for  the  repeal  of  the 
act  which  granted  certain  indulgences  to  the  Roman  Catholics.  The  mob  onoe  raised 
could  not  be  dispersed,  but  proceeded  to  the  most  daring  outrsges,  pillaging,  burning, 
and  pulling  down  the  chapels  and  houses  of  the  Roman  Catholics  first,  but  afterwards 
of  several  other  persons;  breaking  open  prisons,  setting  the  prisoners  free;  erren 
attempting  the  Bank  of  England ;  and  in  a  word  totally  overcoming  the  civil  power 
for  nearly  six  days.  At  length,  b^  the  aid  of  armed  associations  of  the  oitisens,  the 
horse  and  foot  guards,  and  the  mihtia  of  several  counties,  then  embodied  and  marohed 
to  London,  the  riot  was  quelled.  It  commenced  June  2 ;  on  the  Srd,  the  Roman 
Catholic  chapels  and  numerous  mansions  were  destroyed,  the  Bank  attempted,  and 
gaols  opened, — among  these  were  the  King's  Bench,  Newgate,  Fleet,  and  Bridew^ 
prisons ;  on  the  6th,  thirty-six  fires  were  seen  biasing  at  one  time.  In  the  end,  210 
of  the  rioters  were  killed,  and  248  wounded,  of  whom  75  died  afterwards  in  the 
hospitals.  Many  were  tried,  convicted,  and  executed.  Lord  Geoige  was  tried  the 
year  after  for  high  treason,  but  acquitted.     June  2  to  7,  1780.— ilimMaZ  Register, 

QOREE.  Near  Cape  Verd,  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  Planted  by  the  Dutch,  a.d.  1617.  It 
was  taken  by  the  English  admiral  Holmes  in  1663 ;  and  was  ceded  to  France  by  the 
treaty  of  Nimeguen  in  1678.  Goree  was  again  taken  by  the  British  in  1758,  1779, 
1800,  and  1804.  Governor  Wall,  formerly  governor  of  this  island,  was  ha^ed  in 
London,  Jan.  28,  1802,  for  the  murder  of  sergeant  Armstrong,  committed  by  him 
while  in  command  at  Goree  in  1782. 

GORET,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  king's  troops  and  the  Irish  rebels,  in  which  the 
former,  after  a  desperate  engagement,  were  defeated  with  considerable  loss.  !%• 
king's  forces  losing  several  pieces  of  artillery,  retreated  to  Gorey,  and  afterwards  to 
Arklow,  abandoning  both  towns,  tho  insurgents  being  nearly  20,000  strong,  while  the 
troops  opposed  to  t^&em  were  comparatively  of  small  amount :  fought  June  4, 1798w 

GORGET.  The  ancient  breast-plate,  or  gorget,  was  very  laige,  and  extended  to  the  body 
and  limbs  of  the  warrior  or  knight  ss  armour;  but  its  size  and  weight  varied  at 
different  periods.  The  present  modem  diminutive  breast-plate  was  in  use  at  the 
period  of  the  Restoration,  1660,  or  shortly  after.     See  AtiMwr. 

GOSPELS,  Thb.  St  Mark  wrote  his  gospel  a.d.  44 ;  St  Matthew  in  the  same  year ;  8t 
Luke  in  55 ;  and  St  John  in  96-7.— ^ii<^.    John  wrote  his  gospel  at  Ephesoa,  two 


QOS  801  OKA 

years  after  he  was  thrown  into  a  cauldron  of  burning  oi),  from  which  he  was  taken 
out  unhurt^  and  banished  to  the  isle  of  Fktmos. — Idtm,  Dr.  Robert  Bray  waa  one  of 
the  authors  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Qospel  in  Foreign  Countries, 
incorporated  in  1701.  A  body  termed  "Bray's  Associates"  still  existed;  its  object 
being  to  assist  in  forming  and  supporting  clerical  parochial  libraries. 

OOSPELLERa  The  name  of  Gospellers  was  given  to  the  followers  of  Wickliffe,  who 
first  attempted  the  reformation  of  the  Chareh  from  the  errors  of  Popery.  It  was 
affixed  to  them  by  the  Ronum  Catholics  in  derision,  on  account  of  their  professing  to 
follow  and  preach  only  the  Gkwpel,  a.d.  1377.— iB/t^  Bwmet,  Wickliffe  opposed 
the  authority  of  the  pope,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops,  and  the  temporalities  of  the 
Church,  and  is  called  the  father  of  the  Reformation. —  WalUciM. 

QOTHSl  a  warlike  nation  that  inhabited  the  space  between  the  Caspian,  Pontusj, 
Euxine,  and  Baltio  seas.  They  attacked  the  Roman  empire,  a.d.  251.  They  were 
defeated  by  Claudius,  and  820,000  shun,  a.d.  269.  After  the  destruction  of  the  Roman 
empire  by  the  Heruli,  the  Ostrogoths,  under  Theodoric,  became  masters  of  the 
greater  purt  of  Italy,  where  they  retained  their  dominion  till  ▲.d.  553,  when  they  were 
finally  conquered  by  Karses,  Justinian's  general.  The  VisigothB  settled  in  Spain,  and 
founded  a  kingdom,  which  continued  until  the  country  was  subdued  by  the  Saracens. 

GRACE  AT  MEAT.  The  table  was  considered  by  the  ancient  Greeks  as  the  altar  of 
friendship,  and  held  sacred  upon  that  account.  They  would  not  partake  of  any  meat 
until  they  had  first  offered  part  of  it,  as  the  first  fruits,  to  their  gods.  The  short 
prayer  said  before,  and  by  some  after,  meat»  in  all  Christian  countries  from  the  earliest 
times,  is  m  conformity  with  Christ's  example,  Jtkn  tl  11,  Sic—Lenglct. 

ORACE,  THB  TITLE  ov.  It  was  first  assumed  by  Henry  IV.  of  England,  on  his  acces- 
sion, in  1399.  The  title  of  Exedknt  Grace  was  assumed  by  Henry  VI.  about  1425. 
Until  the  time  of  James  1. 1 603,  the  king  was  addressed  by  that  title,  and  afterwards 
by  the  title  of  Majesty  only.  ''  Tour  Grace  *'  is  the  manner  of  addressing  an  arch- 
bishop and  a  duke  in  this  realm,  and  means  the  same  as  '*  Tour  Goodnesii/'  "  Tour 
Clemency,"  &c. — Bacon, 

GRAFTON'S,  DUKE  of,  ADMINISTRATION.  Augustus  Henry,  duke  of  Grafton, 
first  lord  of  the  treasury ;  Frederick,  lord  North,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer ; 
earl  Gower,  lord  president ;  earl  of  Chatham,  lord  privy  seal ;  earl  of  Shelbume  and 
▼iscount  Weymouth,  secretaries  of  state;  sir  Edward  Hawke,  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty ;  marquess  of  Qranby,  master-general  of  the  ordnance;  lords  Sandwich  and 
Le  Despencer,  joint  postmasters-general ;  lord  Hertford,  duke  of  Ancaster,  Thomas 
Townshend,  &o.  Lord  Camden,  lord  chancellor.  Dec.  1767.  Terminated  by  lord 
North  becoming  prime  minister.    See  Lord  North's  AdministrtUion, 

GRAHAM*S  DIKE,  in  Scotlakd.  A  wall  built  in  a.d.  209  by  Severus  Septimus,  the 
Roman  emperor,  or,  as  others  say,  by  Antoninus  Pius.  It  reached  from  the  Frith  of 
Forth  to  the  Clyde.  The  eminent  historian  Buchanan  relates  tJiat  there  were  con- 
siderable remains  of  this  wall  in  his  time;  and  some  Testiges  of  it  are  to  be  seen  even 
to  this  day. — Mortimer, 

GRAMMARIANS,  or  CRITICS.  Anciently,  the  most  eminent  men  in  literature  were 
denominated  grammarians.  A  society  of  grammarians  was  formed  at  Rome  so  early 
as  276  B.C. — Blair.  Apollodorus  of  Athens,  Varro,  Cicero,  Messala,  Julius  Ciesar, 
Nicias,  ^lius  Donatus,  Remmius,  Palemon,  Tyrannion  of  Pontua,  Athenseus,  and  other 
disUngniihed  men,  were  of  this  class. — Cobbett  declared  Mr.  Canning  to  bare  been 
the  only  purely  grammatical  orator  of  his  time ;  and  Dr.  Parr,  speaking  of  a  speech 
of  Mr.  Pitt's,  said,  "  We  threw  our  whole  grammatical  mind  upon  it,  and  could  not 
discover  one  error." 

GRAMPIAN  HILLS,  BATTLE  or.  This  is  a  celebrated  engagement  between  the 
Scots  and  Picts,  the  former  under  Galgacus,  and  the  latter  under  Agricola,  fought 
A.i>.  79.  These  hills  take  their  name  from  a  single  hill,  the  Mons  Grampius  of 
Tacitus,  where  Galgacus  waited  the  approach  of  Agricola,  and  where  the  battle  was 
fought  BO  fatal  to  the  brave  Caledonians. 

QRAMPOUND,  BRIBERT  at.  Memorable  case  of  bribery  and  other  corrupt  practices 
in  this  borough,  when  several  persons  were  convicted,  and  among  them  was  sir 
Manaaseh  Lopez,  who  was  sentenced  by  the  court  of  king^s  bench  to  a  fine  of  10,000/. 
and  two  years'  imprisonment.  The  borough  was  disfranchised  by  the  house  of 
commons.  Not.  15, 1S19,— Ann, Reg. 


QRA  802  ORE 

GRANARIES.  The  Romana  formed  granaries  iu  aeaaona  of  plenty,  to  aeeure  food  for 
the  poorer  citizena;  and  all  who  wanted  it  were  provided  with  com  from  theie 
reeervoirs,  in  neceeaitoua  times,  at  the  coat  of  the  public  treaaory.  There  were  three 
hundred  and  tweoty-aoTen  granariea  in  Rome. — Univ.  HitL  Twelye  new  granariee 
were  built  at  Bridewell  to  hold  6000  quarters  of  com,  and  two  atorehouaea  for  aea- 
coal  to  hold  4000  loads,  thereby  to  prevent  the  sudden  deamess  of  these  artidea  by 
the  great  increase  of  inhabitants,  7  Jamea  1. 1610. — Stow, 

GRAND  ALLIANCE.  Signed  at  Vienna  between  England,  the  emperor,  and  the  States- 
General  ;  to  which  Spain  and  the  duke  of  Savoy  afterwards  acceded.  May  12, 1689. 

GRAND  JUNCTION  CANAL.  This  canal  joins  several  others  in  the  centre  of  ih« 
country,  which  thence  form  a  communication  between  the  rivers  Thames,  Severn, 
Mersey,  and  Trent,  and,  consequently,  an  inland  navigation  to  the  four  principal  sea- 
ports, London,  Liverpool,  Bristol,  and  Hull.  The  canal  oommenoes  at  Brannaton,  on 
the  west  borders  of  Northamptonahire,  and  enters  the  Thamea  near  London,  1790. 

GRAND  PENSIONARY.  A  title  held  by  chief  stete  functionaries  in  Holland,  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  In  the  constitution  given  by  France  to  the  Batavian  repabUc, 
previously  to  the  erection  of  that  state  into  a  kingdom,  the  title  of  Grand  Pensionary 
was  revived,  and  given  to  the  head  of  the  government,  April  29, 1805.  The  eminent 
atateaman,  Rutger  Jan  Schimmelpennick,  previously  Batavian  ambassador  to  LondoOy 
waa  made  the  Grand  Penaionary.  The  republic  became  a  kingdom  under  Louia,  the 
brother  of  Napoleon,  the  next  year.  The  office  of  Grand  Penaionary  waa  aubaequeatlj 
restored.    See  Holland. 

GR  ANICUS,  BATTLE  of.  In  which  Alexander  the  Great  signally  defeated  the  Persiana. 
The  Macedonian  troops  crossed  the  Granicus  in  the  fiioe  of  the  Persian  army,  althoqgh 
the  former  did  not  exceed  30,000  foot  and  5000  horse,  while  the  Persian  army 
amounted  to  600,000  foot  and  20,000  horse.— Viulm.  Yet  the  victors  loat  in  thia 
great  batUe  but  fifty-five  foot  soldiers  and  sixty  horse.  Saidis  capitulated,  Mil«tua 
and  Halioamaaaus  were  taken  by  atorm,  and  numerona  other  great  towna  submitted 
to  the  conqueror,  834  B.a — Boituei, 

GRAPES.  The  fruit  of  the  vine.  Previously  to  the  reign  of  Edward  YL  grapes  were 
brought  to  England  in  laige  quantities  from  Flanders  where  they  were  first  cultivated* 
about  1276.  The  vine  was  introduced  into  England  in  1552;  and  was  first  planted 
at  Bloxhall,  in  Sufiblk,  in  that  year,  and  in  other  placea  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
London  soon  after.  In  the  gaixlens  of  Hampton-court  palace  ia  a  celebrated  vinei, 
allowed  to  surpass  any  in  Europe;  it  is  72  feet  by  20,  and  nas  in  one  season  produced 
2272  bunches  of  grapes,  weighing  18  cwt. ;  the  stem  is  18  inches  in  giiih ;  it  was 
planted  in  1769. — Leigh, 

GRATES.  The  hearths  of  the  early  Britons  were  fixed  in  the  centre  of  their  halla.  Tha 
fire-place  originally  was  perhapa  nothing  more  than  a  lai^  stone  depressed  below  the 
level  of  the  ground  to  receive  the  ashea.  There  were  arched  heartha  among  the 
Anglo-Saxons ;  and  chafing  dishes  were  most  in  use  until  the  general  introduction  of 
chimneys  about  a.d.  1200.    See  Chimneyi, 

GRAVITATION.  This,  as  a  supposed  innate  power,  was  noticed  by  the  Greeks,  and 
also  by  Seneca,  who  speaks  of  the  moon  attracting  the  waters,  about  ▲.!>.  88.  Kepler 
enlarged  upon  it,  about  a.d.  1615 ;  and  Hook  published  Gravitation  as  a  aystem.  Tha 
prindplee  of  gravity  were  demonstrated  by  GJalileo  at  Florence  about  1688;  but  tha 
great  law  on  this  subject  waa  laid  down  by  Newton  about  1687. 

GREAT  BRITAIN,  or  BRITISH  EMPIRE.  England,  Wales,  Scotiand,  and  Ireland. 
See  Britain^  England,  Itc 

GREAT  BRITAIN  Stkam  Ship.  This  stupendous  iron  steam  vessel,  commanded  hw 
captain  Hosken,  formerly  a  naval  officer,  sailed  from  the  Mersey  river,  Ltverpo(^ 
bound  for  New  York,  in  the  forenoon  of  Sept.  22, 1846.  She  carried  a  large  cargo  of 
goods  and  185  passengers,  the  greatest  number  that  had  ever  sailed  to  America  by 
steam.  The  same  evening,  having  had  the  wind  quite  in  her  favour  all  day,  and 
having  made  rapid  progress,  the  passengers  were  suddenly  alarmed  by  a  ooncussio&t 
aa  if  tiie  vessel  had  atruck  upon  a  rock,  and  soon  discoverod  that  she  waa  aground  in 
Dundmm  bay,  in  Ireland.  They  were  landed  at  that  place  in  safety,  but  all  attempta 
to  get  the  Oreat  JBritpin  off  at  the  time  were  ineffectuaL  She  lay  stranded  in  Dondrum 
bay  until  Aug.  27,  1847|  when  Messrs.  I.  Bmnel,  jun.,  and  Bremner,  the  engineen^ 
succeeded  in  getting  her  ofi;  she  having  sustained  little  damage  fb>m  the  ahock,  or 
the  waves  rolling  over  her  for  nearly  a  year. 


QRE 


808 


QRE 


GREAT  EASTERN  and  WESTERN.    See  Sieam  NavigcUian. 

GREAT  SEAL  ov  ENGLAND.  The  first  seal  used  by  Edward  the  Confevor,  was 
called  the  broad  seal,  and  affixed  to  grants  of  the  crown,  ▲.D.  1048. — Baket^u  Ckrfm, 
The  most  ancient  seal  with  arms  on  it  is  that  of  Richard  I.  The  great  seal  of  England' 
was  stolen  from  the  house  of  lord  chancellor  Thurlow,  in  great  Ormond>street,  into 
which  some  thieves  broke,  and  carried  it,  with  other  property,  away,  March  24, 1784, 
a  day  before  the  dissolution  of  parliament  \  it  was  never  recovered.  A  new  seal  was 
brought  into  use  on  the  union  with  Lreland,  Jan.  1, 1801.  A  new  seal  for  Ireland  vras 
brought  into  use^  and  the  old  one  defaced,  Jan.  21, 1832. 

GRi£GIA,  MAGNA.  That  part  of  Italy  in  which  ^e  Greeks  pknted  colonies ;  but  the 
boundaries  of  Magna  Grscia  are  very  uncertain.  Some  iay  that  it  comprehended  all 
the  southern  parts  of  Italy :  and  others  suppose  that  Magna  Grsscia  comprehended 
only  Campania  and  Lucaniai  To  theee  was  added  Sicily,  which  oountry  was  likewise 
peopled  by  Greek  colonist& — Lempriert*    MUford. 

GBEECR  The  first  inhabitants  of  this  justly-celebrated  oountry  of  the  ancient  world 
were  the  progeny  of  Javan,  fourth  son  of  Japheth.  Greece  wss  so  called  from  a  very 
ancient  king  named  GrsBcus ;  and  another  king  named  Hellen  gave  his  subjects  the 
appellation  of  Hellenists.  Homer  calls  the  inhabitants,  indifferently,  Myrmidons, 
Hellenists,  and  Achaians.  Greece  anciently  consisted  of  the  peninstila  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, Grseoe  outside  of  the  Peloponnesus,  Thessaly.  and  the  islands.  The  limits  of 
modem  Greece  are  much  more  confined.  Greece  became  subject  to  the  Turkish 
empire  in  the  15  th  century,  and  has  but  reoently  again  become  a  separate  state.  The 
treaty  of  London,  on  behalf  of  Greece,  between  England,  France,  and  Russia,  was 
signed  in  Oct  1827;  count  Capo  d'Istria*  was  declared  president  in  Jan.  1828 ;  and 
the  Porte  acknowledged  the  independence  of  Greece  in  April  1830.  It  was  afterwards 
erected  into  a  kingdom,  of  which  Otho  L  of  Bavaria  was  made  king. 


B.O. 


2042 

•  • 

1666 

1790 


8le7<m  founded  {BuaAiut) 

Uranua  srriTes  in  Oraeoe  iLengld)     .    . 

BeToUofibeTitanB        .... 

WaroftheOiaats 

Kingdom  of  Aigos  bogun  (AuAiut) 
lUign  of  OgygM  in  Busotia  (idem)      .    . 
SacrifioM  to  the  gods  first  introduced  in 

Oreece  hy  Phoroneas  ....  1773 
According  to  tome  authora*  Bloyon  wss 

now  bcoun  CXai^) 1778 

Deluge  of  OifTgee  (wfcte^  Mc)   .  .  17G4 

A  cok>nj  of  Arcadians  emigrate  to  Italy 

under  OBnotma :   the   country   first 

called    (Bnotria,   alUnrwards    Magna 

eraeia(Suidriut) 1710 

Chrcnology  of  the  ArandeUan  marbles 

commences  (AimMm)  ....  168S 
Gecrope  comes  into  Attica  (idesi)  .  .  16A0 
The  Areopegus  iustituted  .  .  .  1506 
Deluge  of  Deucalion  (AinMiw)  .  .  .  1508 
Beign  of  Hellen  (Mlcm)    .  .1469 

X*anathen8Qan  games  institated .        .    .  1496 
Cadmne,  with  the  Phoenician  lettered 

settles  in  B«Dotia 149S 

Lelez,  first  king  of  Tiaoonia,  aftorwards 

called  SparU 1490 

AnrinJ  or  Danaus  with  the  first  ship 

ever  seen  in  Oreeoo  .... 
He  introduces  the  use  of  pumps  .  . 
He  gets  possession  of  Aigos.    His  fifty 

dMghterB(see.FZa«i6fla«x)  . 
Fint  Olympic  games  oelelnated  at  EUs, 

by  the  Idai  Saet^  ( AmMm)  .       .    . 
Iron  discovered  by  the  Idai  DaetjfU 
Corinth  rebuilt^  snd  so  named  .       .    . 
Geres  arrives  in  Oreeoe,  and  teaches  the 

art  of  making  bread     .... 
The  Isthmian  gomes  instituted  .       .    . 
Mycenss  created  out  of  Argos . 
Argonantic  expedition  (wUdk  ««)      .    . 
The  Fjrthlaa  games  by  Adrsstus    . 


1486 
1486 

1476 

1468 
1406 
1884 

1883 
1826 
1818 
1263 
1208 


1S25 


1218 
1218 
1198 
1198 


1184 
1181 
1124 
1044 


916 


War  of  the  seven  Greek  captains      B.a 
The   Amazonian  war ;    theee  martial 

females  penetrate  into  Greece 
Rape  of  Helen  by  Theseus .        .        .    . 
Rape  of  Helen  by  Paris  .... 
Commencement  of  the  Troian  war    .    . 
Trcnr  taken  and  destroyea  on  the  night 

of  the  7th  of  the  month  Thargellon 

(27  May,  or  11th  June) 
.£neas  sets  sail,  winters  in  Thrace^  and 

arrives  in  Italy 

Migration  of  the  £olian  colonies^  who 

build  Smyrna,  Ac 

Settlement  of  the  lonlaas  flx>m  Greece 

in  Asia  Minor 

The  first  laws  of  navigation  originate 

with  the  Rhodians       .... 
Homer  fiourishes  about  this  time  (Anmr 

ddianMarblM) 907 

Olympic  games  revived  at  Elis       .        .    K84 
The  first  Messenian  war  .    .    743 

The  Messonian  war 686 

The  capture  of  Ira 670 

The  Messonians  emigrate  to  Blcilyp  and 

give  their  own  name  MtattM  to  2ancle 

(now  cidled  Messina)    .... 
Sea-fight,  the  first  on  record,  between 

the  Corinthians  and  the  inhabitants 

ofCorcyra 

Byzantium  built  by  the  Archives  . 
Sybaris  in  Magna  Gnecia  destroyed: 

100,000  Crotonians  under  Milo  defeat 

800,000  Sybarlans 

Ssrdis  taken  and  bumt^  which  occaskms 

the  Persian  invasion    .... 
Thrace  and  Macedonia  conquered     .    . 
Battle  of  Marathon  (wAicA  me) 
Xerxes  invades  Greece,  but  is 

at  Thermopyhe  by  Leonidas 
Battle  of  Salamis  (which  »ee)  . 
Mardonius  defested  at  Flatsea 


checked 


668 


664 
668 


608 

604 
496 
490 

480 
480 
479 


*  This  distinguiBhed  statesman  was  shortly  afterwards  murdered  by  the  brother  and  son  of  Mavro- 
michaeUH,  a  Mainote  chieC  whom  he  had  imprisoned.  The  wretched  assassins  were  sentenced  to  be 
immured  within  close  brick  walls,  built  around  them  up  to  their  chins,  and  to  be  supplied  with  food  in 
tbis  liagering  torture  until  they  died. 


ORE 


804 


GHB 


GREECE,  cmtinued. 

Battle  of  Eurymedon  .  B.a    470 

Tbe  third  Meosenian  war  .  ...  465 
Athens   begins  to  tyrannise  over  the 

other  states  of  Greece  ....  450 
Peloponnesus  OTerrun  by  Pericles  .  .  466 
The  first  Sacred  war  .448 

Herodotus  reads  his  history  in  the  Coun> 

cil  at  Athens 445 

The  sea-fiffht  at  Cnidus  .        .       .        .    8M 

Battle  of  Mantinea S€S 

Sacred  war  ended  by  Phll!p»  who  takes 

all  the  cities  of  the  Phoceans  .    848 

Battle  of  Chnronea(wAMA«v)  .  .  .  338 
Alexander,  the   son  of  Philip,  enters 

Oreeoe ;  subdues  the  Athenians^  and 

destroys  Uie  city  of  Thebes .  '  .  .336 
Commencement  of  the  Macedonian  or 

Orecian  Monarchy 881 

Alexander  goes  to  Susa,  and  sits  on  the 

throne  of  Darius 880 

«•■•••• 

Alarle  invades  Greece.                       a.d.    395 
The   empire    under   Nlcephorus   com- 
menced   811 

Greece  mastered  by  the  Latins .        .    .  1204 

Re-conquered 1261 

Invaded  by  the  Tivks  .        .    .  1350 

Its  final  overthrow.   See  Battem  Empire  1458 


[This  country,  so  long  illustrious  for  the 
military  exploits,  the  learning,  and 
arts  of  its  people,  became  of  late  years 
the  scene  of  desperate  conflicts  with 
the  Turks,  in  oraer  to  regain  its  inde- 
pendence, and  the  ooimoils  of  the  great 
powers  of  Europe  were  friendly  to  tha 
design.] 


1770 


Great  struggle  for  independence        .    . 

The  (trst  decided  movement,  in  these 
latter  times,  by  the  Servians 

The  Servians  defeat  the  Turks  at 
Nyssa       ....         ^J?^  % 

100,000  Turks,  under  Chourschid  Pasha, 
overrun  the  country,  committing  the 
most  dreadful  excesses 

Murder  of  Czemi  George    . 

Insurrection  in  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 
in  which  the  Greeks  join 

Proclamation  of  Prince  Alexander  to 
shake  off  the  Turkish  yoke       March, 

The  Greek  patriarch  put  to  death  at 
Constantinople     .  .  April  83, 

10,000  Christians  perish  in  Cyprus  al- 
though not  engaged  in  the  revolt  .    . 

Massacre  of  the  inhabitants  of  Bucharest; 
even  women  and  children  not  spared. 

Independence  of  Greece  formally  pro- 
claimed    ....        Jan.  27, 

Siege  of  Corinth      ....  Feb. 

Bombardment  of  Scio  ;  its  capture ; 
most  horrible  massacre  recoroied  in 
modem  history*  .       April  SS,  1822 

Victories  of  the  Greeks  at  Larissa, 
ThermopyUe^  and  Salonlca  .     July  8,  1822 

National  Confljees  at  Aigos       April  10,  1828 

Victories  of  Marco  Botsaris    .        June,  1823 

Lord  Byron  lands  in  Greece,  to  devoto 
himself  to  its  cause.  August,  1828 


1800 
1807 


1813 
1817 

1821 

1821 

1821 

1821 

1881 

1822 
1822 


Lamented  death  of  lord  Byron,  at  Mis- 
soloofl^         ....  April  19,  1824 

Signal  defeat  of  the  Capitan  Pacha,  at 
Samoa       ....    August  16, 

The  Provisional  Government  of  Oreeoe 
instituted      ....    Oct  12, 

Landing  of  Ibrahim  Pacha  between 
Coron  and  Modon    .  Feb.  96, 

The  Greek  fleet  defeats  that  of  the 
Caftan  Pacha  June  % 

The  provisional  Government  of  Greece 
determines  to  invite  the  protection  of 
England   ....         July  84. 

Si^  of  Missolonghi ;  the  besieging 
Turks  are  defeated  in  a  formiiuible 
attack  upon  it  August  1, 

The  Greeks  dispeise  the  Ottoman  fleet, 

Jan.  28, 

Ibrahim  Pacha  takes  Missolonghi  by 
assault April  28^ 

The  Greeks  land  near  Salonlca ;  battle 
with  Omer  Pacha    .  .  Juno  1, 

Ibrahim  Pacha  signally  defeated  by  the 
Mainotes  August  8  sjid  9, 

Reschid  Pacha  takes  Athens  .  Aw.  15^ 

Treaty  of  London  between  Great  Bntain. 
Russia,  and  France^  on  behalf  of 
Greece,  signed  July  6, 

BatUe  of  Navarino  (wHek  m);  tbe 
Turkish  fleet  destroyed  .         Oct.  20, 

Count  Capo  d'Istria  arrives  as  president 
of  Greece       ....    Jan.  18, 

Attack  on  Osrabusa,  hv  sir  Thomas 
Staines,  in  the  /m  fngate,  to  check 
the  piracies      .  Jan.  31, 

The  Psnhellenion  or  Grand  Gooncil  of 
State  established  .  Feb.  S, 

National  bank  founded  Feb.  14, 

Greece  divided  Into  departments^  via. 
Argolis,  Achaia,  Blis,  Upper  Messenia, 
Lower  Messenia,  Laoonia,  and  Arcadia; 
and  the  islands  formed  also  into  de- 
partmento     ....  April  26; 

The  Greeks  are  defeated  in  an  attack  on 
Anatolia   ....         May  23, 

Convention  of  the  viceroy  of  Egypt  with 
sir  Edward  Codringtoo,  for  the  evacua- 
tion of  tbe  Morea,  and  delivery  of  the 
Greek  capUvea  Aug.  6w 

Patras,  Navarino,  and  Modon  snrreoder 
to  the  Fkvnch  ....  Oct  6^ 

Final  evacuati<m  of  the  Morea  by  the 
Turks Oct.  30, 

Missolonghi  surrenders  .May  17, 1829 

Greek  National  Assembly  oommenoes 
ito  sittings  at  Argos  .    July  33, 

The  Porto  acknowledges  the  indepen- 
dence of  Greece  April  fift. 

Prince  Leopold  finally  dodinea  the  sove- 
reignty   May  21, 

Count  Capo  d'Istria,  preiddent  of  Greece, 
assassinated  by  the  brother  and  son 
of  Mavromichaelis,  a  Malnoto  chleC 
whom  he  had  Imprisoned       .  Oct  9, 

The  assassins  put  to  death  (see  artido 
Burvina  Alive)  .    Oct.  99, 

Otho  I.  elected  king  of  Greece    Jan.  25^ 

Oolocotroui's  conspuacy .        .    Oct  27, 

A  bloodless  revolution  at  Athens,  to  en- 
foroe   ministerial  responriWIity  ukd 


1824 
1884 
1825 
18S 


182S 


1S2S 

1898 

1888 

18f« 

1896 
1826 


1827 
1827 
1698 


1828 

1888 
1838 


1898 
1828 


1898 
1898 


1898 


1899 
1830 
1830 


1831 

1881 
1833 
1833 


"  The  slaughter  lasted  10  days :  40,000  of  both  sexes  fUling  victims  to  the  sword,  or  to  the  firs, 
which  raged  until  every  house,  save  those  of  the  foreign  consuls,  was  burned  to  the  ground.  7000 
Greeks,  virho  had  fled  to  the  mountains,  were  induced  to  surrender  by  a  promise  of  amnesty,  suannteed 
bv  the  consuls  of  England,  France,  and  Austria ;  yet  even  th^  were,  every  man  of  them,  butchered  I 
The  only  exception  made  during  the  massacre  was  in  favour  of  the  young  and  more  beautiftal  wnnen 
and  boys,  80,000  of  whom  were  reserved  for  the  marketa.  When  &»o,  until  now  so  great  an  ofatoct  of 
admiration  to  travellers,  was  entirely  consumed,  the  Turks  fired  the  villages,  hemminff  in  on  all  sides 
the  innocent  inhabitanta,  moetlv  women  and  children,  to  perish  amid  the  flames  of  theb'  dwellingi^  cr 
to  fall  beneath  the  swords  and  dsggers  of  the  aoldlen,  as  they  attempted  to  escape. 


ORE 


805 


GRE 


1844 


1849 


1850 
1850 


umbnun  to  France,  whote  minUiM'  ia 
rocalled  from  London ;  but  the  dUpnte 
between  France  and  Bnfland  ia  ac- 
commodated by  Bngland  oonaenting 
to  substitute  for  the  convention  at 
Athene,  that  signed  in  London  June  21, 

[Bee  Atkmi.  Maeedtm,  Sparta,  Thrace, 
and  other  states  of  Greece.] 

Insurrections  against  the  Porte  in  Thes- 
aaly  and  Epirus,  fkvoured  by  the  Greelc 
court  .  Jan.,  Feb.,  and  Mar. 

Rupture  between  Greece  and  Turk^, 

March  S8, 

After  many  remonstrances^  the  English 
and  French  governments  send  troops, 
which  arrive  at  the  Pineus;  change 
of  ministry  ensuee»  and  the  king  pro- 
mises to  observe  a  strict  neutrality, 

May  25,  26, 

Bee  Turkej^, 

GREECE. 

the  present  king  (1857). 


1854 
1854 


GREECE,  anUinMed. 

national  representation,  is  consum* 

mated       ....       Bept  14,  1843 
The  king  accepts  the  new  constitution, 

March  10, 
Admiral  Parker,  in  command  of  the 

British  Mediterranean  fleets  anchors  Athens,  that  signed  in  London  June  21.  1850 

in  Basika  Bay  .  .         Oct.  28, 

He  blockades  the  harbour  of  the  Plneu& 

the  Greek  government  having  reflised 

his  demand  for  the  payment  of  moneys 

due  to  British  subjects,  and  refused 

to  surrender  this  islands  of  Saplenza 

and  Oabrera  ....    Jan.  18, 
France  interposes  her  good  offices,  and 

the  blockade  is  discontinued,  March  1, 
NegotiiMions  between  boron  Gros  and 

Mr.  Wyse,  the  British  minister,  ter- 
minate, and  the  blockade  of  Athens  is 

renewed        ....  April  25,  1850 
A  settlement  of  the  Greek  question  con-  May  25.  26.  1854 

eluded  in  London    .  April  19.  1850 

An  arrangement  made  at  Athens  gives 

KING  OF 

18S2.  Otho  T.,  prince  of  Bavaria,  bom  June  1, 
1815 ;  under  a  regency  two  years ; 

GREEK  CHURCH.  A  difference  arose  in  the  eighth  century  between  the  eastern  and 
western  Churchea^  which  in  the  course  of  two  centuries  and  a  half  terminated  in  a 
separation.  This  church  is  called  Orttk  in  contradistinction  from  the  latter,  or  Itoman 
Church.  The  Greek  Church  claims  priority  as  using  the  language  in  which  the  Qospel 
was  first  promulgated :  many  of  its  forms  and  ceremonies  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  Roman  Catholics;  but  it  disowns  the  supremacy  of  the  pope.  It  is  the  established 
religion  of  Russia. 

GREEK  FIRE.  A  composition  of  combustible  matter  invented  by  one  Callinicua,  an 
ingenious  engineer  of  Heliopolis,  in  Syria,  in  the  seventh  century,  in  order  to  destroy 
the  Saracens*  ships,  which  was  effected  by  the  general  of  the  emperor  Pogonat's  flee^ 
and  80,000  men  were  killed.  The  property  of  this  fire  was  to  bum  briskest  in  water, 
to  diffuse  itself  on  all  sides,  according  to  the  impression  given  it.  Nothing  but  oil,  or 
a  mixture  of  vinegar,  urine,  and  sand,  could  quench  it.  It  was  blown  out  of  long  tubes 
of  copper,  and  shot  out  of  cross-bows,  and  other  spring  instruments.  The  invention 
was  kept  a  secret  for  many  years  by  Uie  court  of  Constantinople ;  but  is  now  lost 

GREEK  LANGUAaR  It  was  first  studied  in  Europe  about  a.d.  1450— in  France,  14T8. 
William  Grocyn,  or  Grokeyn,  a  learned  English  professor  of  this  language,  travelled 
to  acquire  its  true  pronunciation,  and  introduced  it  at  Oxford,  where  he  had  the 
honour  to  teach  Erasmus,  1490. — WoocCt  A  then.  Oxan.  England  has  produced  many 
eminent  Greek  scholars,  of  whom  may  be  mentioned  professor  Person,  who  died  in 
1808 ;  Dr.  Parr,  who  died  in  1825;  and  Dr.  C.  Bumey,  who  died  1817. 

GREEN-BAG  INQUIRY.  This  inquiry  arose  out  of  the  famous  Green  Bag,  full  of 
documents  of  alleged  seditions,  laid  before  Parliament  by  lord  Sidmouth,  Feb.  2, 1817. 
Secret  committees  presented  their  reports,  Feb.  19 ;  and  bills  were  brought  in  on  the 
21st  of  the  same  month,  to  suspena  the  Hahea»  Corpus  act,  and  prevent  seditious 
meetings,  at  the  time  very  general  throughout  the  kingdom. 

GREEN  CLOTH,  BOARD  of.  In  the  department  of  the  lord-steward  of  the  household. 
The  state  of  the  household  of  the  sovereign  is  entirely  committed  to  the  discretion  of 
the  lord-steward.  Attached  to  this  boai^  was  a  court,  one  of  the  most  ancient  in 
England,  which  had  jurisdiction  of  all  offences  committed  in  the  king's  palaces,  and 
verge  of  the  court  It  is  oilled  the  Green  Cloth,  from  the  table  whereat  they  sat 
being  covered  with  a  green  cloth ;  and  without  a  warrant  fix>m  this  court,  none  of  the 
king's  servants  can  be  arrested  for  debt. 

GREENLAND.  Discovered  by  some  Norwegians  from  Iceland  about  A.D.  980,  and  thus 
named  on  account  of  its  superior  verdure  compared  with  the  latter  country.  Ik  was 
visited  by  Frobisher,  in  1576.  The  first  ship  from  England  to  Greenland  was  sent  for 
the  whale-fisheiy  by  the  Muscovy  company,  2  James  L  1604.  In  a  vovage  performed 
in  1630,  eight  men  were  left  behind  by  accident,  and  suffered  iucredible  hardships  till 
the  following  year,  when  the  company's  »hips  brought  them  home. — TindaL  The 
Greenland  Fishing  Company  was  incorporated  in  1693. 

X 


ORE  306  GRE 

GREENOCK,  Scotland.  The  origin  of  this  town  is  well  authenticated.  Prior  to  1697, 
it  was  an  inconsiderable  fishing  station,  but  during  that  year  the  Scottish  Indian  and 
African  Company  resolved  to  erect  salt-works  in  the  Frith,  and  hence  arose  the 
attention  of  sir  John  Shaw,  its  superior,  to  the  maritime  advantages  of  its  situation. 
It  was  erected  into  a  burgh  of  barony  in  1757.    The  fisheries  here  are  important 

GREEN  PARK.  Forms  a  part  of  the  ground  inclosed  by  Henry  VIII. ;  and  is  united 
to  St.  James*  and  Hyde  parks  by  the  road  named  Constitution-hill.  On  the  north 
side  was  a  reservoir  of  the  Chelsea  water-works,  which  was  filled  up  in  1856. 

GREENWICH  HOSPITAL.  One  of  the  noblest  structures  of  the  kind  in  the  world. 
It  stands  upon  the  spot  where  formerly  stood  the  royal  palace  of  several  of  our 
monarchs.  The  palace  was  erected  by  Humphrey,  duke  of  Gloucester;  was  enlarged 
by  Henry  YIL,  and  completed  by  Henry  VIII. ;  and  in  its  chambers  queen  Mary 
and  queen  Elizabeth  were  bom,  and  Eldward  YL  died.  Charles  II.  intended  to 
build  a  new  palace  here  on  a  very  grand  scale,  and  accordingly  erected  one  wing  of 
this  grand  edifice,  but  died  before  any  other  part  of  the  design  was  finished.  In  this 
state  it  remained  till  Mary  and  William  III.  formed  the  plan  of  making  the  palace 
useful  to  the  kingdom,  and  the  hospital  was  instituted  in  1694.  The  forfeited  estate 
of  the  attainted  earl  of  Derwentwater  was  bestowed  upon  it,  in  1716.  Sixpence  per 
month  was  first  contributed  by  every  seaman,  and  the  payment  was  advanced  to  one 
shilling,  from  June  1797.  This  hospital  lodges  about  8000  old  and  disabled  seamen 
(2710  in  1853),  and  possesses  a  revenue  exceeding  70,000^  per  annum.  A  charter  was 
granted  to  it  in  Dec.  1775.  The  chapel,  the  great  dining-hall,  and  a  large  portion  of 
the  buildings  appropriated  to  the  pensioners,  were  destroyed  by  fire,  Jan.  2,  1779. 
The  chapel  was  rebuilt  in  1789. — Greenwich  fair  was  discontinued  April  1857. 

GREENWICH  OBSERYATORT.  Built  at  the  solicitation  of  sir  Jonas  Moore  and  air 
Christopher  Wren,  by  Charles  II.,  on  the  summit  of  Flamstoad-hill,  so  called  from 
the  great  astronomer  of  that  name,  who  was  the  first  astronomer-royal  here.  The 
English  began  to  compute  the  longitude  from  the  meridian  of  this  place,  1675 ;  some 
make  the  date  1679.  This  observatory  contains  a  transept  circle  by  Troughton ;  a 
transit  instrument  of  eight  feet  by  Bird ;  two  mural  quadrants  of  eight  feet,  and 
Bradley's  senith  sector.  The  telescopes  are  forty  and  sixty  inch  achromatics,  and  a 
six-feet  reflector;  and  among  other  fine  instruments  and  objects  is  a  famous  camera 
obscura.  In  1852,  the  electric  teleg^ph  signal  ball  and  illuminated  clock  in  the 
Strand  were  completed  and  put  in  connection  with  those  at  Gk^enwich  observatory. 

ASTRONOMERS  ROTAL. 
John  TlaiDstoad 1675 


Dr.  Bnidloy 1742 

Dr.  N.  BliM 1768 

Dr.  NeTtt  Maakolyne 1765 


John  Pond 1811 

Geort^  Bidden  Airy IftU 

(The  present  ABtronomer  Royal,  1857.) 


GREGORIAN  CALENDAR.  The  calendar,  so  called,  was  ordained  to  be  adopted  by 
pope  Gregory  XIIL,  from  whom  it  derives  its  name,  having  been  reformed  under 
him,  A.D.  1582.  It  was  introduced  into  the  Roman  Catholic  states  of  Europe  in  that 
year;  into  most  other  states,  1699  to  1710.  England,  Denmark,  and  Sweden  had 
rejected  this  calendar:  but  England  adopted  it  (by  act  of  parliament)  Sept  14  (SrdV, 
1752.  To  the  time  of  Gregory,  the  deficiency  in  the  Julian  calendar  had  amounted  to 
ten  days ;  and  in  the  year  1752  it  had  amounted  to  eleven  days.    See  Calendar. 


GRENADA.    Conquered  by  the  Moors,  a.d.  715 ;  it  was  the  last  kingdom 

by  them,  and  was  not  annexed  to  the  crown  of  Castile  until  1491.  Siee  Abemeerragef. 
^-New  Grenada,  was  first  visited  by  Columbus,  who  was  followed  by  various  Spanish 
adventurers,  who  conquered  it  in  1586. — Grenada,  in  the  West  Indies,  was  discovered 
by  Columbus  in  1498,  and  was  settled  by  the  French,  1650.  It  was  taken  from  them 
by  the  English  in  1762,  and  was  ceded  to  England  in  1763.  The  French  pooseased 
themselves  of  it  again  in  1779;  but  it  was  restored  to  the  English  at  the  peace  of 
1788.  In  1795  the  French  landed  some  troops  and  caused  an  insurrection  in  this 
island,  which  was  not  finally  quelled  till  June,  1796. 

GRENADES.  A  powerful  missile  of  war,  so  named,  from  Oranado,  Spanish,  or  from 
Pommm  graifuUwn,  It  is  a  small  hollow  globe,  or  ball  of  iron,  about  two  inebea  in 
diameter,  which  being  filled  with  fine  powder  and  set  on  fire  by  a  fusee  at  a  tou^- 
hole,  the  case  flies  into  shatters,  to  the  damage  of  all  who  stand  near.  This  ahell  was 
invented  in  1594. — ffarrit. 


GRE  S07  ORO 

GRENADISR&  The  Qrenadier  corps  was  a  company  armed  with  a  pouch  of  hand- 
grenadesy  established  in  France  in  1667;  and  in  England  in  1685. — BrowH. 

GBENVILLE  ADMINISTRATION.  Rt.  hon.  George  Grenville,  first  lord  of  the 
treasury  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer ;  earl  Qranville  (succeeded  by  the  duke  of 
Bedford),  lord  president ;  duke  of  Marlborough,  priyy  seal ;  earls  of  Halifsx  and 
Sandwich,  secretaries  of  state;  earl  Gower,  lord  chamberlain ;  lord  Egmont,  admiralty; 
marquess  of  Granby,  ordnance;  lord  Holland  (late  Mr.  Fox),  paymaster;  rt.  hon. 
Welbore  Ellis,  secretary-at-war ;  Tisoount  Barrington,  treasurer  of  the  navy ;  lord 
Hillsborough,  first  lord  of  trade ;  duke  of  Rutland,  lords  North,  Trevor,  Hyde,  fte. 
Lord  Henley  (afterwards  earl  of  Northington),  lord  chancellor.  May  et  teq.,  1768. 
Terminated  by  the  Rockingham  Administration,  vfhiek  tee, 

ORENVILLE'S,  LORD,  ADMINISTRATION.    See  '*AU  the  TaleiUt.'* 

GRESH AM  COLLEGE.  Founded  andendowed  by  sir  Thomas  Gresham,  in  1575.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  Royal  Exchange,  and  left  a  portion  of  his  property  in  trust  to  the 
city  and  the  Mercers'  Company  to  endow  this  college  for,  among  other  uses,  lectures 
in  divinity,  astronomy,  music,  and  geometry,  and  readers  in  dvil  law,  physic,  and 
rhetoric,  and  to  promote  general  instruction ;  he  died  1 579.  The  lectures  commenced 
in  Gresham's  house  near  Broad-street,  June  1597 ;  where  the  Royal  Society  first  met 
in  1645,  and  continued  till  1710.  The  buildings  were  pulled  down  in  1768,  and  the 
Excise  Office  erected  on  the  site.  The  leotures  were  then  read  in  a  room  over  the 
Royal  Exchange  for  many  yean ;  on  the  rebuilding  of  the  present  Exchange,  the 
Greaham  Committee  erected  the  present  building  in  Basinghall-street,  which  was 
designed  by  G.  Smith,  and  opened  for  lectures,  Nov.  2, 1843.    It  cost  above  7000/. 

OBETNA-GREEN  MARRIAGES.  The  famous  parish  of  Graitney  is  the  nearest  and 
most  easily  accessible  point  in  Scotland  from  the  sister  kingdom ;  and  in  its  neigh- 
bourhood fugitive  marriages  were  contracted.  The  trade  was  founded  by  a  tobacconist, 
named  John  Paisley,  who  lived  to  a  great  age,  and  died  so  late  as  the  year  1814.  The 
common  phrase,  Gretna-Green,  arose  from  his  first  residence,  which  was  at  Megg^s 
Hill,  on  the  common  or  green  betwixt  Graitney  and  Springfield,  to  the  last  of  which 
Tillages  he  removed  in  1782.  A  man  named  Elliott  was  lately  the  principal  officiating 
priests  The  ceremony  was  brief  and  simple.  The  parson  (a  tobacconist  or  blacksmith) 
asked  the  anxious  lovers  whence  they  came,  and  what  parish  they  belonged  to,  in 
order  to  register  their  answers ;  they  were  next  asked  if  they  were  willing  to  receive 
each  other  for  better,  for  worse,  &c  This  being  ascertained,  and  a  wedding'ring 
passed  between  them,  they  were  declared  to  be  married  persons.  The  fees  paid  to 
the  panon  are  said  to  have  been  sometimes  very  handsome — so  much  as  a  hundred 
pounds  having  been  occasionally  paid  him  for  his  five  minutes*  work.  The  Gkneral 
Assembly,  in  1826,  attempted  to  suppress  this  system ;  but  without  effect — A  Bill 
was  passed  in  1856  to  make  these  marriages  illegal  after  that  year. 

GREY'S,  EARL,  ADMINISTRATION.  Earl  Grey,  first  lord  of  the  treasury;  viscount 
Althorp,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer ;  marquess  of  Lansdowne,  president  of  the 
council ;  earl  of  Durham,  privy  seal ;  viscounts  Melbourne,  Palmerston,  and  Goderich, 
home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries;  sir  James  Graham, admiralty;  lord  Auckland 
and  Mr.  Charles  Grant  (afterwards  lord  Glenelg),  boards  of  trade  and  control ;  lord 
Holland,  duchy  of  Lancaster;  lord  John  Russell,  paymaster  of  the  forces;  duke  of 
Richmond,  earl  of  Carlble,  Mr.  Wynne,  &c.  Lord  Brougham,  lord  chancellor. 
Nov.  18S0.    This  ministry,  which  carried  the  Reform  bill,  terminated  July  1834. 

ORIST  MILLS.  They  were  invented  in  Ireland,  and  their  origin  is  thus  related; 
Ciemond,  the  fairest  woman  of  her  time,  and  concubine  of  Cormock  M'Kart,  monarch 
of  Ireland,  was  compelled  by  the  queen,  her  rival,  to  grind  nine  measures  of  com  in 
a  hand-mill.  But  the  monarch,  in  commiseration  of  that  hard  treatment  of  her, 
invented  the  grist-mill,  ▲.D.  214. — Hist,  of  Ireland. 

GROATS.  This  name  has  been  proverbial  for  a  small  coin. — Shaktpeare.  It  is  from  the 
Dutch  fffwUf  and  is  a  coin  of  the  value  of  fourpence. — Ray,  Groats  were  the  largest 
silver  currency  in  England  until  after  1351,  and  were  coined  in  almost  all  reigns. 
The  modem  fourpence  is  the  diminutive  groat.  Of  these  there  were  coined,  in  1836, 
to  the  value  of  70,8842 ;  in  1837,  16,0382. ;  and  large  amounts  since. 

GROCERS.  The  business  of  grocer  is  one  of  the  oldest  trades  in  England.  The  word 
anciently  meant  **ingro8sers  or  monopolisers,"  as  appears  by  a  statute,  87  Edw.  III. 
1874.  The  Grocers'  Company  is  one  of  the  twelve  chief  companies  of  the  city  of 
London,  and  was  incorporated  in  1429. 

X  2 


QRO  808  QUI 

OROCHOW,  BATTLE  or.  Near  Pi»g»,  a  saborb  of  Warsaw,  between  the  Polea  aod 
Ruanani.  After  an  obstinate  contest,  eontintiing  the  whole  of  one  dt^,  and  great 
part  of  the  next,  the  Poles  remained  masten  of  the  field  of  battle.  The  RosBiaDS 
shortly  after  retreated,  having  been  foiled  in  their  attempt  to  take  Warsaw.  They 
are  said  to  have  lost  7000  men,  and  the  Poles  2000,  Feb.  20, 1831. 

QROQ.  The  sea  term  for  rum  and  water,  arose  from  admiral  Vernon,  who  was  called 
Old  Orog,  having  first  introdaced  it  on  board  ship,  about  a-d.  1748.  This  brave 
admiral  did  great  service  in  the  West  Indies,  by  taking  Porto  Bello,  Chagre,  &a,  but 
by  his  disagreement  with  the  commander  of  the  land  forces,  the  expedition  against 
Carthagena  fiuled.  He  commanded  in  the  Downs  in  1745,  and  next  year  was  dimnissad 
the  service  by  his  majesty's  command,  for  writing  two  pamphlets,  by  which  letters 
of  the  secretary  of  state  &a  were  made  known.    He  died  in  1 757. 

QUABALOUPE.  Discovered  b^  Columbus,  a.d.  1493.  It  was  colonised  by  the  Vnnth 
in  1635.  Taken  by  the  English  in  1759,  and  restored  in  1768.  Again  taken  by  the 
English  in  1779, 1794,  and  1810.  The  allies,  in  order  to  allure  the  Swedes  into  the 
late  coalition  against  France,  gave  them  this  island.  It  was  however  by  the  oonaent 
of  Sweden,  restored  to  France,  at  the  peace  in  1814. 

QUAKO,  OB  HITAKO.  The  Peruvian  term  for  manure.  The  excrement  of  sea-birda 
that  nestle  in  prodigious  swarms  aloog  the  Peruvian  shores.  Thii  substance  is  found 
chiefly  on  certain  small  islands,  called  the  Loboe,  lying  off  the  coasts  of  Peru  and 
Bolivia.  Humboldt  was  the  first,  or  one  of  the  first,  by  whom  it  was  brought  to 
Europe,  on  ascertaining  its  value  in  agriculture,  and  it  has  recently  been  introdnoed 
into  England. — M*Ouuoeh,  The  importatiuns  into  the  United  ^ngdom  appear  to 
have  commenced  in  1842.  As  many  as  283,000  tons  of  guano  were  imported  in  1845, 
of  which  207,679  tons  were  from  the  western  coast  of  Africa.  In  the  subaeqaent 
years,  the  importations  have  been  equally  large.  They  amounted  to  243,016  tons  in 
1851 ;  of  these  latter,  6522  tons  came  from  Western  AustraluL 

GUARDS.  The  custom  of  having  guards  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  by  Saul,  1093 
B.C. — Eutehiu*,  Guards  about  the  persons  of  European  kings  is  an  early  institution. 
Body  guards  were  appointed  to  attend  the  kings  of  England,  2  Hen.  VII.  1485. 
Horse  Guards  were  raised  4  Edw.  VI.  1550.  The  three  regiments,  the  1st,  Snd,  and 
3fd  Foot  Gkiards,  were  raised  a.d.  1660,  and  the  command  of  them  given  to  colonel 
Russell,  general  Monk,  and  lord  Linlithgow.  The  second  regiment,  or  Coldstream, 
was  the  first  raised.  See  CoUUtream,  The  Horse  Grenadier  Guards^  first  troop, 
raised  in  1693,  was  commanded  by  general  Cholmondeley ;  the  second  troop  was 
raised  in  1702,  and  was  commanded  by  lord  Forbes :  this  corps  was  reduced  in  17S3, 
the  ofEicers  retiring  on  fuU  pay.    See  Bone  OuartU  and  Teomen  of  the  OuanL 

GUATEMALA.  A  republic  in  Central  America  declarsd  independent  March  21, 1847. 
President  (1857)  General  Carrera,  elected  1851.    Population  970,450. 

GUELPHS  AND  GHIBELINa  These  were  party  names,  and  are  said  to  have  been 
derived  from  Hiewelf  and  Hiegibelin,  the  names  of  towns.  The  designations  began 
in  Italy,  a.d.  1189,  and  distinguished  the  contending  parties  during  the  civil  wan  in 
Italy  and  Germany;  the  Guelphs  were  for  the  pope;  the  Ghlbelins  for  the  emperor. 
Guelph  is  the  name  of  the  present  royal  family  of  England.  See  Bmnewidk,  The 
Guelphic  order  of  knighthood  was  instituted  for  the  kingdom  of  Hanover,  by  the 
prince  regent,  afterwards  Gea  I V.  in  1816. 

GUILDHALL,  Londoh.  This  edifice  was  built  a.d.  1411.  It  was  bo  damaged  by  the 
great  fire  of  1666,  that  its  re-erection  became  necessary,  an  undertaking  whidi  was 
completed  in  1669,  no  part  of  the  ancient  building  remaining,  except  the  interior  of 
the  porch  and  the  walls  of  the  hall.  The  front  was  not  erected  until  1789.  Beneath 
the  west  window  are  the  colossal  figures  of  Gog  and  Magog,  said  to  represent  a  Saxon 
and  an  ancient  Briton.    The  hall  has  contained  7000  persons,  and  is  used  for  city  feasts. 

GUILLOTINE.  The  inventor  of  the  guUIotine  (about  1785)  was  Joseph  Ignatius  Oail> 
lotin,  an  eminent  physician,  diBtinguished  as  a  senator,  and  esteemed  for  his  humanity ; 
his  design  was  to  render  capital  punishment  less  painful  by  decapitation ;  and  he  felt 
greatly  annoyed  at  this  instrument  of  death  b^g  called  by  his  name.  He  was 
imprisoned  during  the  revolutionary  troubles,  and  ran  some  hanrd  of  being  subjected 
to  its  deadly  operation  ;  but  he  (contrary  to  a  prevailing  opinion)  escaped,  and  livad 
to  become  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of  Medicine  at  Paris,  and  died  in  1814, 
greatly  respected. — ^An  instrument  somewhat  similar  may  be  seen  in  an  engimving 
accompanying  the  SymboliccB  Qucuiiones  of  Achilles  Bocchius,  4to,  1555  (see  the  TraveLs 


GUI  809  GUY 

of  Father  Labat  in  Italy);  it  is  there  called  the  Mannaia,  At  Halifax,  England 
(see  HaUfax  and  Madden),  and  in  Scotland,  it  was  likewise  in  use,  and  serred  to 
behead  its  introdacer,  the  regent  Morton. 

GUINEA  SLAVE  TRADE.  Sir  John  Hawkins  is,  unhappily  for  his  memory,  branded 
on  the  page  of  history  as  the  first  Englishman,  after  the  discovery  of  America,  who 
made  a  merchandise  of  the  human  species. — BdL  He  was  assisted  in  his  enterprise 
by  a  number  of  English  gentlemen,  who  subscribed  money  for  the  purpose.  He 
sailed  from  England  with  three  ships;  purchased  negroes,  sold  them  at  Hispaniola, 
and  returned  home  richly  laden  with  hides,  sugar,  ginger,  and  other  merchandise, 
5  Blii.,  1568.  This  Yoyage  led  to  other  similar  enterprises. — Hahluyt.  The  slare 
tnde  was  abolished  by  act  of  parliament,  March  S5, 1807.    See  Slave  Trade, 

GUINEAS.  An  English  gold  coin»  so  named  from  their  having  been  first  coined  of  gold 
brought  from  the  coast  of  Guinea,  a.d.  1673.  They  were  then  valued  at  80t.  and 
were  worth  that  sum  in  1696.  They  were  reduced  in  currency  ttom  22i.  to  21«.  by 
parliament  in  1717.  Broad  pieces  were  coined  into  guineas  in  1732.  The  first 
guineas  bore  the  impression  of  an  elephant,  on  account  of  their  having  been  coined  of 
this  African  gold.  Since  the  first  issue  of  sovereigns^  in  1816,  guineas  have  not  been 
coined. 

QUN-COTTON.  Among  the  discoveries  made  in  the  year  1846,  that  of  gun-cotton,  a 
new  explosive  power,  attracted  the  greatest  interest  throughout  Europe,  as  having 
much  greater  projectile  force  than  gun-powder.  This  discovery  was  made  by  professor 
SchcBubein,  and  being  protected  by  a  patent,  was  consequently  for  a  time  secret.  The 
professor  attended  the  meeting  of  the  British  Association  in  September,  1846;  but 
the  fame  of  his  explosive  was  known  some  time  before  bis  visit  to  this  country.  Gun- 
cotton  is,  to  all  appearance,  common  cotton  wool,  both  as  seen  by  the  naked  eye  and 
under  a  strong  lens,  and  is  purified  cotton  steeped  in  a  mixture  composed  of  equal 
parts  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  afterwards  dried.  Mr.  Grove  and  numerous 
other  persons  made  experiments  on  it  in  England.  Dr.  Boettinger  and  others  also  lay 
claim  to  the  discovery.* 

GUNPOWDER.  The  invention  of  gunpowder  is  generally  ascribed  to  Bertholdus  or 
Michael  Schwarts,  a  Cordelier  monk  of  Goslar,  south  of  Brunswick,  in  Germany, 
about  A.D.  1320.  But  many  writers  maintain  that  it  was  known  much  earlier  in 
various  parts  of  the  world.  Some  say  that  the  Chinese  possessed  the  art  a  number 
of  centuries  beforeu  Its  composition,  moreover,  is  expreesly  mentioned  by  our  own 
fiimouB  Roger  Bacon,  in  his  treatise  De  NuUUate  Magia,  which  was  published  at 
Oxford,  in  1216. 

GUNPOWDER  PLOT.  The  memorable  conspiracy  known  by  this  name,  for  springing  a 
mine  under  the  houses  of  parliament,  and  destroying  the  three  estates  of  the  rralm — 
king,  lords,  and  commons,  there  assembled,  was  disoovered  on  Nov.  5, 1605.  This 
diabolical  scheme  was  projected  by  Robert  Gatesby,  and  many  high  persons  were 
leagued  in  the  enterprise.  Guy  Faux  was  detected  m  the  vaults  under  the  House  of 
Lords  preparing  the  train  for  being  fired  on  the  next  day.  Cateslnr  and  Percy  (of  the 
fiunily  of  NorUiumberland)  were  killed;  sir  Everard  Digby,  Rockwood,  Winter, 
Garnet,  a  Jesuit,  and  others,  died  by  the  hands  of  the  executioner,  as  did  Guy  Faux, 
Jan.  81, 1606.  The  vault  called  Guy  Faux  cellar,  in  which  the  conspirators  lodged 
the  barrels  of  gunpowder,  remained  in  the  late  houses  of  parliament  till  1825,  when 
it  was  converted  into  offices. 

GUT'S  HOSPITAL.  This  celebrated  London  Hospital  is  indebted  for  iU  origin  to 
Thomas  Guy,  an  eminent  and  wealthy  bookseller,  who,  after  having  bestowed 
immense  sums  on  St.  Thomas's,  determined  to  be  the  sole  founder  of  another 
hospitaL  At  the  age  of  seventy-six,  in  1721,  he  commenced  the  erection  of  the 
present  building,  and  lived  to  see  it  nearly  completed.  It  cost  him  18,793/.  in 
addition  to  which  he  left,  to  endow  it,  the  immense  sum  of  219,499/.  A  splendid 
bequest,  amounting  to  200,000/.,  was  made  to  this  hospital  by  Mr.  Hunt,  to  provide 
additional  accommodation  for  100  patients;  his  will  was  proved  Sept.  24, 1829. 

*  The  diet  of  Frankfort  voted,  October  8,  1846,  a  recompense  of  100,000  florins  to  professor  Schoon- 
beln  and  Dr.  Boettinger,  as  the  inventors  of  the  cotton  powder,  provided  the  authorities  of  Hayenoe^ 
after  seeing  It  tried,  pronounced  it  superior  to  gunpowder  as  an  explosive ;  but  its  use,  as  a  suhstltute 
for  gunpowder.  In  gunnery,  is  still  a  matter  of  uncertainty,  as  the  ignition  of  the  cotton  is  not  tinder 
the  same  control.  Of  its  utility,  however,  in  blmsting  and  mining  operations,  not  the  slightest  doubt 
oan  exist    Tlumgh  cheaper  taid  more  powerAU  than  gunpowder,  it  is  still  inferior  to  it  in  many 


GYM 


810 


HAC 


GYKNASIUM.  A  place  among  the  Qreeke  where  all  the  public  exerdaea  were  per- 
formed, and  where  not  only  wreetlere  and  dancers  exhibited,  but  alao  philosophers, 
poets,  and  rhetoricians  repeated  their  compositions.  In  wrestling  and  boxing,  the 
athletes  were  oft-en  naked,  whence  the  word  Qymnasium — yvft^os,  nuduM,  They 
anointed  themselves  with  oil  to  brace  their  limbs,  and  to  render  their  bodies 
slippery,  and  more  difficult  to  be  grasped.  The  first  modem  treatise  on  the  subject 
of  Gymnastics  was  published  in  Germany  in  1798.    London  society  formed,  1826. 

GTMNOSOPHIST^  A  sect  of  philosophers  in  India.  The  OynmosophistaB  lived 
naked,  as  their  name  implies:  for  thirty-seven  years  they  exposed  themselves  in. 
the  open  air,  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  the  inclemency  of  the  seasons,  and  the  eoldness 
of  the  night  They  were  often  seen  in  the  fields,  fixing  their  eyes  full  upon  the 
disc  of  the  sun  from  the  time  of  its  rising  till  the  hour  of  its  setting.  Sometimes 
they  stood  whole  days  upon  one  foot  in  burning  sand.  Alexander  was  astonished 
at  the  sight  of  men  who  seemed  to  despise  bodily  pain,  and  who  inured  themselves 
to  the  greatest  tortures  without  uttering  a  groan,  or  expressing  any  fear.  The 
Brahmins  were  a  branch  of  the  sect  of  the  Gymnosopluste,  834  B.G. — Plimif. 


GYPSIES,  OB  EGYPTIANS.  A  strange  commonwealth  of  wanderers  and  peculiar 
of  people,  who  made  their  appearance  first  in  Germany,  about  a.d.  1517,  bavisg 
quitted  Egypt  when  attacked  by  the  Turks.  They  are  the  descendants  of  a  great 
body  of  Egyptians  who  revolted  from  the  Turkish  yoke,  and  being  defeated,  disperead 
in  small  parties  all  over  the  world,  while  their  supposed  skill  in  the  black  art  gsTe 
them  a  universal  reception  in  that  age  of  credulity  and  superstition.  Although 
expelled  from  France  in  1560,  and  from  most  countries  soon  after,  they  are  yet 
found  in  every  part  of  Europe,  as  well  as  in  Asia  and  Africa.  Having  recovered 
their  footing,  they  have  conUived  to  maintain  it  to  this  day.  In  England  an  set 
was  made  against  their  itinerancy^  in  1580 ;  and  in  the  reign  of  Charles  L  thirteen 
persons  were  executed  at  one  assizes  for  having  associated  with  gipsies  for  about  a 
month,  contrary  to  the  statute.  The  gipsy  settlement  at  Norwood  was  broken  up, 
and  they  were  treated  as  vagrants,  "Maj,  1797.  There  were  in  Spain  alone,  pre- 
viously to  1800,  more  than  120,000  gypsies,  and  many  communities  of  them  yet  exist 
in  England.  Notwithstanding  their  intercourse  with  other  nations,  they  are  still,  like 
the  Jews,  in  their  manners,  customs,  visage,  and  appearanoe,  wholly  unchanged. 


H. 

HABEAS  CORPUS.  The  subjects'  Writ  of  Bight,  passed  for  the  security  and  liberty 
of  individuals,  81  Charles  II.  a  2,  May  27, 1679.*  This  aot  is  next  in  importance  to 
Magna  Ckarta,  for  so  long  as  the  statute  remains  in  force,  no  subject  of  England  can 
be  detained  in  prison  except  in  cases  wherein  the  detention  is  shown  to  be  justified 
by  the  law.  The  Babea$  Oorput  act  can  alone  be  suspended  by  the  authority  of 
parliament,  and  then  for  a  short  time  only,  and  when  the  emergency  is  extreme.  In 
such  a  case,  the  nation  parts  with  a  portion  of  its  libertv  to  secure  its  own  permanent 
welfare,  and  suspected  persons  may  then  be  arrested  vrathout  cause  or  purpose  being 
assigned. — Bladmone. 


Act  raspended  for  six  moutha  during  the 

Bcots^  rebellion     .  .  a.d.  1716 

Suspended  for  six  months  owing  to  the 

.  .  1716 

.  1722 

.  .  1744 

.  1746 

.  .  1779 


aanio  cause 
Suspended  for  twelve  months 
Suspended  for  six  months . 
Suspended  for  one  year  . 
Stispended  for  six  months . 
Aghin  by  Mr.  Pitt,  owing  to  a 

from  the  kingr 17M 

Suspended  in  Ireland,  on  account  of  the 

great  rebellion 1798 


Again,  and  in  England    .       .  Aug.  SS^  1799 

Suspended  on  a  division,  189  against  4% 
mi0orityl47     .  Aprai9,  1801 

Again,  on  account  of  Irish  insurrection.  180t 

AgHin,  owing  to  alleged  secret  meetings 
(Bee  Ortm  Bag).  Feb.  81,  1817 

Bill  to  restore  the  Habttu  Corpus  brought 
into  parliament    .  .    Jan.  88.  1818 

Suspended  in  Ireland,  owing  to  the  in- 
surrection in  that  kingdom     Jaly  S6,  1848 

Restored  there,  the  rebellion  haying 
been  suppressed   .  .  March  1,  1849 


HACKNET  COACHES.  They  are  of  French  origin.  In  France,  a  strong  kind  of  cob-horse 
{haqiunie)  was  let  out  on  hire  for  short  journeys :  these  were  latterly  hamesacd  (to 
accommodate  several  wayfarers  at  once)  to  a  plain  vehicle  called  ewkt-di-haq^nU ; 
hence  the  name.    The  legend  that  traces  their  origin  to  Hackney,  near  London^  is  a 

.  *  ^*^  "ft  *J  ""y  person  be  imprisoned  by  the  order  of  any  court,  or  of  the  queen  henelf,  he  may 
l^T?  f  .  ^  P^  habeas  corpus,  to  bring  him  befoie  the  court  of  queen's  bench  or  common  plMua  who 
shall  detennine  whether  his  committal  be  Jwst. 


HAQ  311  UAL 

▼ulgar  error.  They  were  first  lioenaed  in  1662,  and  subjected  to  regulations,  6  WilL 
ft  Mary,  1694. — Survey  of  London,  The  number  plying  in  London,  fixed  at  1000,  and 
their  fares  raised,  1771.  The  number  increased  in  1799,  and  frequently  since.  Office 
removed  to  Somerset-house,  1782.  Coach-makers  made  subject  to  a  licence,  1785. 
Hackney  chariots  licensed  in  1814.  Lost  and  Found  office  for  the  recovery  of  property 
left  in  hackney  coaches,  established  by  act  55  Qeo.  IlL  1815.  This  office,  formerly 
held  at  Somerset-house,  was  removed  to  the  Exdse^ffice,  Broad- street.  The  numbed 
of  hackney  coaches  ceased  being  limited  after  5th  Jan.  1838,  by  statute  2  Will.  IV. 
1831.  The  cabriolets  are  of  Parisian  origin,  and  were  licensed  1823.  All  public 
vehicles  are  now  regulated  by  the  Acts  16  &  17  Vict  cc.  33, 127  (June  and  Aug.  1853), 
by  which  they  are  placed  unde^  the  control  of  the  Commissionen  of  Police.  See 
CaJbrioitU  and  Omnihtua, 

HAGUE.  Once  called  the  finest  viUagt  in  Europe :  the  place  of  meeting  of  the  States 
General,  and  residence  of  the  former  earls  of  HoUuid,  the  princes  of  Holland,  Ac. 
Here  the  States,  in  1586,  abrogated  the  autiioritv  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  held 
a  conference  in  1610,  upon  the  five  articles  of  the  remonstrants,  which  occasioned 
the  synod  of  Dort.  Treaty  of  the  Hague  entered  into  with  a  view  to,  preserve  the 
equilibrium  of  the  North,  signed  by  England,  France,  and  Holland^  May  21, 1659. 
I)e  Witt  was  torn  in  pieces  here,  Aug.  20,  1762.  The  French  took  possession  of  the 
Hague  in  January,  1795 ;  favoured  by  a  hard  frost,  they  marched  into  Holland,  where 
the  inhabitants  and  troops  declared  in  their  favour,  a  general  revolution  ensued,  and 
the  stadtholder  and  his  family  were  compelled  to  leave  the  country  and  escape  to 
England.  The  Hague  was  evacuated  in  Nov.  1813,  shortly  after  the  battle  of  Leipsio, 
and  the  stadtholder  returned  to  his  dominions  and  arrived  here  in  Dec.  that  year. 

HAILETBURT  COLLEGE.  An  institution  of  the  East  India  Company,  wherein 
students  are  prepared  for  the  company's  service  in  India.  It  was  founded  in  1800. 
By  statute  1  Vict.  July,  1837,  it  is  enacted  "  that  no  person  is  to  be  admitted  to  the 
oolite  as  a  student  whose  age  shall  exceed  twenty-one  years,  nor  any  person  appointed 
or  sent  out  to  India  as  a  writer  in  the  Company's  service  whose  age  shiul  exceed 
23  yean."— By  18  k  19  Vict  c.  53,  the  college  will  be  dosed  Dec.  31, 1857. 

HAINAULT  FOREST,  Essex.  One  of  the  celebrated  forests  of  England.  In  this 
forest  stood  the  ancient  Fairlop  oak  (which  tee),  blown  down  in  February,  1820.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  1800  years  old.  An  act  of  parliament  was  passed,  14  &  15  Vict 
e.  48,  for  disafforesting  Hainault ;  the  deer  to  be  removed,  and  all  persons  having 
foreatal  or  other  rights  to  have  compensation.  It  is  then  to  be  inclosed,  and  roads 
made^  Aug.  1, 1851. 

HAUL  By  the  northern  nations,  and  in  Gaul,  hair  was  much  esteemed,  and  hence  the 
appellation  Oallia  eomata ;  and  cutting  off  the  hair  was  inflicted  as  a  punishment 
among  them.  The  royal  family  of  France  had  it  as  a  particular  mark  and  privilege 
of  the  kings  and  princes  of  the  blood,  to  wear  long  hau*  artfully  dressed  and  curled. 
The  elerictd  tonsure  is  of  apostolic  institution. — Itidorua  Hupaieniit,  Pope  Anicetus 
forbade  the  cleigy  to  wear  long  hair,  a-D.  155.  Long  hair  was  out  of  fashion  during 
the  Protectorate  of  Cromwell,  and  hence  the  term  Round-keadt,  It  was  again  out  of 
fashion  in  1795 ;  and  very  short  hair  was  in  mode  in  1801.  Hair-powder  came  into 
use  in  1590 ;  and  in  1795  a  tax  was  laid  upon  persons  using  it,  which  yielded  at  one 
time  20,000^.  per  annum. 

HALIDON-HILL,  BATTLE  of.  Fought  near  Berwick,  between  the  English  and  Scots, 
in  which  the  latter  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  upwards  of  13,000  slain,  while  a 
comparatively  small  number  of  the  English  suffered,  reign  of  Edward  III.  July  19, 
1333.  After  this  great  and  decisive  victory,  Edward  pl»oed  Edward  Baliol  on  the 
throne  of  Scotland. — Bobertton, 

HALIFAX,  ToRKSBiBB.  The  woollen  manufacture  being  very  great,  and  prodigious 
quantities  of  cloths,  kerseys,  shalloons,  &c.  being  continually  on  the  tenters  and  liable 
to  be  stoleo,  the  town,  at  its  first  incorporation,  was  empowered  to  punish  capitally 
any  criminal  convicted  of  stealing  to  the  value  of  upwards  of  thirteen  pence  halfpenny, 
by  a  peculiar  engine,  which  beheaded  the  offender  in  a  moment  King'  James  L  m 
1620,  took  this  power  away. — See  Maiden, 

HALIFAX,  EARL  of,  Hib  ADMINISTRATION.  The  earl  of  Halifax  became  minister 
in  the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  George  I.  His  ministry  was  composed  of  the  following 
members :  Charles,  earl  of  Hali£uc,  first  lord  of  the  treasury  (succeeded  on  his  death 
by  the  earl  of  Carlisle);  William,  lord  Cowper,  afterwards  earl  Cowper,  lord  Chan- 


HAL  312  HAN 

cellor ;  Dftniel,  earl  of  Nottingham,  lord  preaident ;  Thomas,  marqaeaa  of  Wharton, 
privy  seal;  Edward,  earl  of  Oxford,  admiralty;  James  Stanhope,  after?rard8  earl 
Stanhope,  and  Charles,  vlsooant  Townahend,  secretaries  of  state ;  sir  Richard  Onslow; 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer ;  dukes  of  Montrose  and  Marlborough,  lord  Berkeley, 
rt.  hon.  Robert  Walpole,  Mr.  Pulteney,  &a  1714.  Lord  Halifax  died  the  next  year, 
1715.  He  was  soon  after  succeeded  by  the  rt  hon.  Robert  Walpole,  whose  first 
administration  conmienced  in  this  latter  year. 

HALLELUJAH  and  AMEN.  Hebrew  expressionB  frequently  naed  in  the  Jewish 
hymns :  from  the  Jewish  they  came  into  the  Christian  ChurclL  The  meaning  of  the 
first  is  Praise  the  Lord,  and  of  the  second  So  be  iL  They  were  first  introduced  by 
Ha^^,  the  prophet,  about  584  b.o.  ;  and  their  introduction  from  the  Jewish  into  the 
Christian  Church  is  ascribed  to  St  Jerome,  one  of  the  primitive  Latin  fathers^  mbout 
A.D.  Z90,—Cav^i  HiMt,  Lit, 

HALTS,  BATTLE  of.  The  graat  battle  fought  upon  the  river  Halys  between  the 
Lydians  and  Modes.  It  was  interrupted  by  an  almost  total  eclipse  of  the  sun,  on 
the  28th  of  May,  which  occasioned  a  conclusion  of  the  war  between  the  two  kin^ 
doms. — Blair,  [This  eclipse  had  been  predicted  many  years  before  by  Thales  of 
Miletus,  585  B.O.J 

HAMBURG.  The  company  of  *'  Hambro'  Merchants  "  was  incorporated  in  1296.  Fnnoe 
declared  war  upon  Hambuig  for  its  treachery  in  giving  up  Napper  Tandy  (see  Thmdf), 
Oct  1799.  British  property  sequestrated,  March  1801.  Hamburg  taken  by  the 
French  after  the  battle  of  Jena  in  1806.  Licorporated  with  Fnuice  Jan.  1810. 
Evacuated  by  the  French  on  the  advance  of  the  Russians  into  Qermany  in  1818 ;  and 
restored  to  its  independence  by  the  allied  sovereig^ns.  May  1814.  Awful  fire  here» 
which  destroyed  numerous  churches  and  public  buildings^  and  2000  houses;  it 
continued  for  three  days,  May  4, 1842.  On  Jan.  1, 1855,  more  than  half  the  city 
inundated  by  the  Elbe. 

HAMPTON-COURT  PALACE.    Built  by  cardinal  Wolsey  on  the  site  of  the 

house  of  the  knights-hospitallers.  In  1525,  the  cardinal  presented  it  to 'his  rojal 
master,  Henry  VIII. ;  it  being,  perhaps,  the  most  splendid  offering  ever  made  by  a 
subject  to  a  sovereign.  Here  Edward  VI.  was  bom,  and  his  mother,  Jane  Seymour, 
died ;  and  Mary,  Elizabeth,  Charles,  and  others  of  our  sovereigns,  resided.  Moat  of 
the  old  apartments  were  pulled  down,  and  the  grand  inner  court  built  by  William  III. 
in  1694.  In  this  palace  was  held,  in  1604,  the  celebrated  conference  between  the 
Presbyterians  and  the  members  of  Uie  Established  Church,  which  led  to  a  new  tiBiia> 
lation  of  the  Bible.    See  Cairference, 

HANAPER  OFFICE.  An  office  of  the  court  of  Chancery,  where  writs  reUting  to  the 
business  of  the  subject,  and  their  returns,  were  anciently  kept  in  kanaperio  (in  a 
hamper) ;  and  those  relating  to  the  crown  were  kept  in  parva  baga  (a  little  bag). 
Hence  arose  the  names  Hanaper  and  Petty  Bag  Office,  The  hanaper  was  originally  a 
wicker  basket,  with  a  cover  and  a  lock,  and  made  for  easy  removal  from  place  to  place. 

HANAU,  BATTLE  or.  Between  a  division  of  the  combined  armies  of  Austria  and 
Bavaria,  of  80,000  men,  under  general  Wrede,  and  the  French,  70,000  strong,  under 
Napoleon.  The  French  were  on  their  retreat  from  Leipsic  when  encountered  by  the 
allies  at  Hanau.  The  French  suffered  very  severely,  though  the  allies,  who  displayed 
great  military  skill  and  bravery,  were  compelled  to  retire,  Oct  29, 1813. 

HANDEL'S  COMMEMORATIONa  The^fnf  musical  festival  in  commemoration  of  this 
illustrious  oompoeer  was  held  in  Westminster  Abbey,  May  26,  1784.  It  was  the 
grandest  display  of  the  kind  ever  attempted  in  any  nation,  King  Qeorge  III.  and 
Queen  Charlotte,  and  above  8000  persons  being  present.  The  musical  band  con- 
tained 268  vocal  and  245  instrumental  performers,  and  the  receipts  of  three  soo- 
cessive  days  were  12,746Z.  These  concerts  were  repeated  in  1785, 1786, 1790.  and  1791, 
when  they  ceased  till  the  eeamd  great  commemoration  on  June  24,  26,  and  28,  18S4, 
m  the  presence  of  king  William  IV.  and  queen  Adelaide,  when  there  were  644 
performers.  In  consequence  of  this  commemoration  the  Sacred  Harmonie  Society 
was  formed,  which  meets  at  Exeter  hall.  This  society,  in  conjunction  with  the 
Crystal  Palace  company,  projected  a  grand  performance  of  Handel's  music  in  1859, 
the  centenary  of  his  death.  The  performances  on  June  15,  17,  19,  1857,  at  tha 
iSJ*  •  ®'  ^7^«^^»™»  ^ore  rehearsals.    On  June  17,  ther«  were  2000  vocal  and 

400  mstrumental  performers  in  the  presence  of  the  queen,  prince,  and  11.000 
persons.  ^        >  r        >  » 


HAN 


818 


HAP 


HANDKERCHIEFS,  wronght  and  edged  with  gold,  used  to  be  worn  in  England  by 

gentlemen  in  their  hate,  as  fayours  from  young  ladies,  the  yalne  of  them  being  from 
ve  to  twelve  pence  for  each,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  1558. — Staw*»  Chnm.  Hand- 
kerchiefe  were  of  early  manufacture,  and  are  mentioned  in  our  oldest  worka  Those 
of  the  celebrated  Fsisley  manufacture  were  first  made  in  that  town  in  1748. 

HANOED,  DRAWN,  and  QUARTERED.  The  first  infliction  of  this  barbarous 
punishment  took  place  upon  a  pirate  named  William  Marise,  a  nobleman's  son, 
25  Hen.  IIL  1241.  Five  gentlemen  attached  to  the  duke  of  Qloucester  were 
arraigned  and  condemned  for  treason,  and  at  the  place  of  execution  were  hanged,  cut 
down  alive  instantly,  stripped  naked,  and  their  bodies  marked  for  quartering,  and 
then  pardoned,  25  Hen.  VL  1447.— iStow.  The  punishment  of  death  by  hanging  has 
been  abolished  in  numerous  cases  by  yarious  statutes.  See  Death,  PumahmetU  of. 
Hanging  in  chains  was  abolished  4  WilL  IV.  1884. 

HANGO  BAT.  On  June  5, 1855,  a  boat  commanded  by  lieut.  Qeneste,  left  the  British 
steamer,  {7ottadb,  with  a  flag  of  truce,  to  land  some  Russian  prisoners.  They  were 
fired  on  by  a  body  of  riflemen,  and  fiye  were  killed,  seyend  wounded,  and  the  rest 
made  prisoners.  The  Russian  account,  asserting  the  irregularity  to  have  been  on  the 
side  of  the  English,  has  not  been  substantiated. 

HANOVER.  This  country  had  no  great  rank,  although  a  duchy,  until  George  I.  got 
ponession  of  Zell,  Saxe,  Bremen,  Verden,  and  other  dudiies  and  principalities. 
Hanover  became  the  ninth  electorate,  ▲.D.  1692.  It  was  seized  by  Prussia,  April  3, 
1801 ;  was  occupied  by  the  French,  June  5,  1803;  and  annexed  to  Westphalia, 
Kerch  1, 1810.  Regained  for  England  by  the  crown  prince  of  Sweden,  Nov.  6,  1813, 
and  erected  into  a  kingdom,  Oct.  18.  1814.  The  duke  of  Cambridge  appointed 
Ueatenant-govemor,  in  Nov.  1816.  Visited  by  Geoige  IV.  in  Oct.  1821.  Ernest,  duke 
of  Cumberland,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  June  20, 1837.  In  1848,  he  granted  a  con- 
stitution to  his  subjects  with  electoral  rights,  which  has  just  been  annulled  in  obedience 
to  the  decree  of  the  Federal  diet  of  April  12,  1855. 

DUKES,  ELECTORS.  AND  KINGS  OF  HANOVER. 


16d5.  John,  second  ton  of  prinoe  Christian 
liowifl,  duke  of  Bnanswick-Zell,  be- 
came duke  of  Hanover;  succeeded 
by  his  son. 

1679.  Bmest-Augustiu :  created  elector  of 
Hanover  in  1092. 

[He  married  the  princess  Sophia, 
daughter  of  Fredenck,  elector  pala- 
tine, and  of  ElixabetJb,  the  daughter 
of  James  I.  of  England.] 

1696.  George-Lewis,  son  of  the  preceding ; 
mariied  his  cousin,  the  heiress  of  the 
duke  of  Brunswick-Zell.  Became 
king  of  Great  Britain,  Ang.  1714,  as 
Gbobok  I. 

1727.  George- Augustus,  his  son ;  Georob  II. 
of  En^^and. 

1760.  Geotge-William-Frederick,  his  grand- 
son, Gsoaos  IIL  of  England. 


KIK08  OF  HAVOVER. 

18:4.  George- William-Frederick  (the  preced- 
ing BOvereignX  first  king  of  Hanover, 
Oct.  2. 

1820.  Geoige- Augustus-Frederick,  his  son  ; 
Gkobob  IV.  of  England. 

18?0.  William-Honry,  his  brother;  Wiluam 
IV.  of  England. 

[Hanover  separated  from  the  crown  of 
Great  Britain.] 

Ernest- Augustus,  brother  to  William 
IV.  of  Ebgland,  on  whose  demise  he 
succeedea  (as  a  distinct  inheritance) 
to  the  throne  of  Hanover. 

George  V.  (Frederick)  son  of  Emeat : 
ascended  the  throne  on  the  death  of 
his  father,  Nov.  18.  The  present 
(1867)  king  of  Hanover. 


1837. 


1851. 


HANOVERIAN  SUCCESSION.    See  Acoeman. 

HANSE  TOWNS.  A  commercial  union  called  the  Hanseatic  league,  was  formed  bj  a 
number  of  port  towns  in  Germany,  in  support  of  each  other  against  the  piracies  of 
the  Swedes  and  Danes :  this  association  began  in  1164,  and  the  league  was  signed  in 
1241.  At  first  it  consisted  only  of  towns  situate  on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  but 
its  strength  and  repntaiion  increasing,  there  was  scarce  any  trading  city  in  Europe 
but  desired  to  be  admitted  into  it,  and  in  process  of  time  it  consisted  of  sixty ^six 
cities.  They  grew  so  form]dfU>le  as  to  proclaim  war  against  Waldemar,  king  of 
Denmark,  about  the  year  1848,  and  against  Erick  in  1428,  with  forty  ships,  and  12,000 
regular  troops  besides  seamen.  This  gave  umbn^e  to  several  princes,  who  ordered 
the  merchants  of  their  respective  kingdoms  to  withdraw  their  effects,  and  so  broke 
up  the  strength  of  the  association.  In  1630,  the  only  towns  of  note  of  this  once 
powerful  league  retaining  the  name,  were  Lubeck,  Hambux^,  and  Bremen. 

HAFSBURQ,  HOUSE  of.  One  of  the  most  illustrious  Deumlies  in  Europe.  Hapsbui^ 
was  an  ancient  castle  of  Switzerland,  on  a  lofty  eminence  near  Schintznach.  This 
castle  was  the  cradle  of  the  house  of  Austria,  whose  ancestors  may  be  traced  back  to 


HAV  816  HEA 

HAVRE-DE-GRACE.  This  place  waa  defended  for  the  Huguenota  by  the  Eng^liah,  in 
1562.  It  was  Buoceasfully  attacked  for  three  days  from  July  6  to  9,  1759«  Agun 
bombarded  in  1794  and  1795,  and  by  sir  Richard  Strachan,  May  25»  1798.  Declared  to 
be  in  a  state  of  blockade,  Sept.  6,  1808.  The  attempts  of  the  British  to  bum  the 
shipping  here  fSailed,  Aug.  7, 1804. 

HAWKERS  AND  PEDLARS.  First  licensed  to  sell  their  commodities  in  1697.  They 
were  anciently  esteemed  fraudulent  persons  who  went  from  place  to  place  to  sell  or 
buy  any  commodity  in  a  clandestine  or  unfsir  and  unlicensed  manner ;  bat  now  they 
are  those  who  Bell  about  the  streets  by  yirtae  of  a  license  from  commissionera  who 
are  appointed  for  that  purpose. 

HATHARKETy  London.  The  hay-market  in  this  street  was  opened  1664,  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  ILStow,  The  Hay  market-theatre  was  originally  opened  in  1702. 
The  bottle-conjuror's  dupery  of  the  public  occurred  at  this  theatre,  Jan.  16,  174& 
See  Bottle  Cfonjurw,  Mr.  Foote's  paten t»  1747.  The  theatre  purchased  by  the  late 
Mr.  Colman  of  Mr.  Foote,  for  a  life  annuity,  Jan.  1, 1777. — Rebuilt  1767;  again  by 
Mr.  Nash,  the  present  structure,  in  1821. — ^A  fatal  accident  occurred  in  endeaTourii^ 
to  gain  admission,  Feb.  3, 1794 ;  sixteen  persons  were  trodden  to  death,  and  numbers 
bruised  and  wounded,  many  of  whom  afterwards  died.  See  2%eatrei,  The  late 
market  here  for  hay  was  removed  to  Cumberland-market,  Jan.  1, 1881. 

HAYTI,  OB  Haiti.  The  Indian  name  of  St.  Domingo.  Discovered  by  Columbus  in 
1492.  Before  the  Spaniards  finally  conquered  it,  they  are  said  to  have  destroyed  in 
battle  or  cold  blood  8,000,000  of  its  inhabitants,  including  women  and  dkildxen. 
It  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards  till  1630,  when  the  Filibusters  and  French 
Buccaneers  seized  and  held  great  part  of  it  till  1697,  when  the  French  government 
took  possession  of  the  whole  colony.  The  negroes  revolted  against  France,  Aug.  2S, 
1791,  and  msssacred  nearly  all  the  whites  in  1798.  The  French  directory  recognised 
Toussaiut  I'Ouverture  as  general-in-chief  in  1704.  Tousssint  established  an  inde- 
pendent republic  in  St.  Domingo,  July  22,  1801.  He  surrendered  to  the  Fk«n^ 
May  7,  1802,  and  was  conducted  to  France,  where  he  died  in  1808.  A  new  insurrec^ 
tion  having  broke  out  under  the  command  of  Dessalines,  the  French  quitted  the 
island  in  Nov.  1808.  Dessalines  made  a  proclamation  for  the  massacre  of  all  the 
whites,  March  29, 1804.  See  St.  Domingo,  Dessalines  was  crowned  emperor  by  the 
title  of  Jacques  I.  Oct.  8, 1804.  He  was  assassinated  Oct.  17, 1806,  when  the  iale 
divided.  Henry  Christophe,  a  man  of  colour,  became  president  in  Feb.  1807,  and 
crowned  emperor  by  the  title  of  Henry  I.  in  March,  1811 ;  while  Pethion  ruled 
president  at  Port-au>Prince.  Numerous  black  nobility  and  prelates  were  created  sai 
year.  Pethion  died,  and  Boyer  was  elected  in  his  room,  in  May,  1818. — Christophe 
committed  suicide  in  Oct.  1820.  Independence  declared  at  St.  Domingo  in  Dec. 
1821.  Decree  of  the  king  of  France  confirming  it,  April  1 825.  Hayti  was  proclaimed 
an  empire  under  its  late  president  Solouque,  who  took  the  title  of  Faustin  L  Ang. 
26,  1849;  crowned  April  18,  1852.  His  son  came  to  England  for  education  in  Dec 
1858,  and  assumed  the  name  of  DalvaL  The  peaoe  of  the  island  has  since  been 
frequently  disturbed.  Faustin  attacking  the  republic  of  St.  Domingo  was  repulaed 
Feb.  1, 1856.    His  own  subjects  threaten  revolt 

HEAD  ACT.  The  most  iniquitous  and  merciless  statute  ever  passed  by  a  parliament — 
Scvily,  It  was  enacted  in  Ireland  by  the  Junto  of  the  Pale,  at  the  town  of  Trim, 
the  earl  of  Desmond  being  lord  deputy,  5  Edw.  IV.  1465 ;  and  under  it  indis- 
criminate murder  of  the  native  Irish  was  committed,  and  the  murderers  pardoned. 
For  the  nature  and  objects  of  this  act,  see  note  to  article  Ireland,  a.d.  1465. 

HEALTH,  GENERAL  BOARD  of.  The  Public  Health  act,  for  the  promotion  of  the 
pubho  health,  was  passed  11  ft  12  Vict  (c.  68),  Aug.  81, 1848.  It  directs  the  appoint- 
™K^1  •  '"^  boards  throughout  England  for  the  purposes  of  the  act  This  statute. 
wmch  u  minute  in  its  provisions,  and  already  salutary  in  ita  operation,  has  been 
loiiowed  by  other  acts  of  equally  sanitary  regulation,  whereof  one  is  the  Lodging 
iir  1? ^*5?^  P***^^  "^  •^'^^y*  1S51.  This  board  was  reconstructed  in  Aug.  1854,  and 
W  p  n  ^^  V^^okA  at  its  head  with  a  sakry  of  2000^ ;  succeeded  by  the  rt  hon« 
'•  ^®^P«r.  Aug.  1855.    The  expenses  for  the  year  18567  were  12,325i. 

place  or  wSk^-^S^X  TkX.    An  oppressive  and  unpopular  tax  upon  every  fire- 

200  0001 T^  ^^  England  imposed  by  Charles  II.  in  1662,  when  it  produoed  about 

afte'rwa^-  J^'    1*  "^^  abolished  by  William  and  Mary  at  the  Revolution.    It  wma 

«^^wa«  unposed  again,  and  agam  abolished.    This  tax  was  levied  in  Iielaad,  but 


HEB  Sir  HEL 

it  has  been  abolished,  with  a  number  of  other  imposts^  since  the  termination  of  the 
late  war. 

HEBRIBESi  NEW.  Discoyered  by  the  nayigator  Quiros,  who,  under  the  imprfssion 
that  they  were  a  part  of  a  southern  continent,  called  them  Tierra  Auitralia  tUl 
Eapiriiu  Sanio,  A-D.  1606.  Bougainville  visited  them  in  1768,  and  found  tliat  the 
land  was  not  connected,  but  composed  of  islands,  which  he  called  the  great  Cydades. 
Cook,  in  1774,  ascertained  the  extent  and  situation  of  the  whole  group,  and  gave 
them  the  name  they  now  bear. 

HECATOMB^  a  sacrifice  among  the  ancients  of  a  hundred  oxen,  more  particularly 
observed  by  the  Lacedssmonians  when  they  poBSCSsed  a  huudred  capital  cities. 
In  the  course  of  time  this  sacrifice  was  reduced  to  twenty-three  oxen ;  and  in  the 
end,  to  lessen  the  expense,  goats  and  lambs  were  substituted  for  oxen. — Potter, 

HECLA,  MOUNT.  Its  first  eruption  is  recorded  as  having  occurred  a.d.  1004.  About 
twenty-two  eruptions  have  taken  place,  according  to  Olasson  and  Paulson.  The  most 
dreadful  and  multiplied  convulsions  of  this  great  volcanic  mountain  occurred  in  1766, 
since  when  a  visit  to  the  top  in  summer  is  not  attended  with  great  difficulty.  For 
particulars  of  this  eruption,  see  Icdand.  The  mount  was  in  a  violent  eruption  in 
April  1846.  Three  new  craters  were  formed,  from  which  pillarB  of  fire  rose  io  the 
height  of  14,000  English  feet.  The  lava  formed  several  hills,  and  pieces  of  pumice 
stone  and  scorin  of  2  cwt.  were  thrown  to  a  distance  of  a  league  and  a  half;  the  ice 
and  snow  which  had  covered  the  mountain  for  centuries  were  wholly  melted  into 
prodigious  floods. 

HBGIRA,  ERA  of  tbk.  Dates  from  the  flight  of  Mahomet  from  Mecca  to  Medina, 
which  event  took  place  in  the  night  of  Thursday,  the  15th  July,  a.d.  622.  The  era 
commences  on  the  following  day,  viz.  the  16th  July.  Many  chronologists  have 
computed  this  era  from  the  15th  July.  But  Cantemir  has  given  examples  proving 
that,  in  most  ancient  times,  the  16th  was  the  first  day  of  the  era;  and  there  it  now 
no  doubt  it  is  so.    See  Mahomctanism  and  Medina, 

HEIDELBERG,  and  HEIDELBERG  TUN.  Heidelberg,  in  Germany,  was  formerly 
the  capital  of  the  Palatinate ;  the  protestant  electoral  house  becomiug  extinct  in  1693, 
a  bloody  war  ensued,  in  which  the  famous  castle  was  ruined,  and  the  elector  removed 
his  residence  to  Mannheim.  Here  was  the  celebrated  Heidelberg  Tun,  constructed 
in  1343^  when  it  contained  twenty-one  pipes  of  wine.  Another  was  made  in  1664, 
which  held  600  hogsheads.  This  was  emptied  and  knocked  to  pieces  by  the  French 
in  1688 ;  but  a  new  and  a  larger  one  was  afterwards  fabricated,  which  held  800  hogs- 
beads,  and  was  formerly  kept  full  of  the  beat  Rhenish  wine ;  and  the  electors  have 
given  many  entertainments  on  its  platform ;  but  this  convivial  monument  of  ancient 
hospitality  is  now  mouldering  in  a  damp  vault,  quite  empty. 

HEIGHTS  OT  ROMAINVILLE,  BATTLE  of.  On  the  heights  of  Romainville  and 
Belleville,  the  French  army  out  of  Paris,  under  Joseph  Bonaparte,  Marmont,  and 
Mortier,  was  defeated  by  the  allied  army,  which  entered  Paris  the  next  day,  and  thus 
was  completed  the  memorable  and  glorious  campaign  of  this  year,  and  the  overthrow 
of  Bonaparte's  power  in  Europe  and  rule  in  France,  March  30, 1814. 

HELDER  POINT,  in  Holland.  The  fort  and  the  whole  of  the  Dutch  fleet  lying  in  tlie 
Texel,  surrendered  to  the  British  forces  under  the  duke  of  York,  and  sir  Ralph 
Abercromby,  for  the  service  of  the  prince  of  Orange.  In  the  action,  540  British  were 
killed,  Aug.  30, 1799.  The  place  was,  however,  relinquished,  after  a  short  possession, 
in  October  following.    See  Bergen, 

HELEN,  RAPE  of,  the  cause  of  the  Trojan  war,  which  lasted  1204—1184  b.o. 

HELIGOLAND.  This  island  formerly  belonged  to  the  Danes,  from  whom  it  was  taken 
by  the  British,  Sept.  5, 1807,  and  formed  a  d^pdt  for  British  merchandise  intended  for 
the  Continent  during  the  war.  Confirmed  to  England  by  the  treaty  of  Kiel,  Jan.  14, 
1814,  the  same  treaty  by  which  Norway  was  ceded  to  Sweden.  Though  a  mere  rock, 
it  is  an  important  possession  of  the  British  crown. 

HELIOMETER,  kc.  A  valuable  scientific  instrument  for  measuring  the  stars,  invented  by 
K.  Bouguer,  in  1774.  The  helioscope  (a  peculiar  sort  of  telescope,  prepared  for 
observing  the  sun  so  as  not  to  affect  Uie  eye)  was  invented  by  Christopher  Scheiner 
in  1625.     There  are  now  various  improved  instruments  for  these  purposes. 

HELLESPONT.  A  narrow  arm  of  the  sea,  betwixt  Europe  on  the  west»  Asia  on  the  east, 
the  Propontis,  or  Sea  of  Marmora,  northward,  and  the  ^gean  Sea,  now  the  Archi- 


1 


HEL  318  HER 

pelago,  southward.  The  present  name  is  the  Stnit  of  the  DardaneHesi  The 
Hellespont  took  its  original  name  from  Helle,  daughter  of  Athamas,  king  of  Thebes, 
who  was  drowned  here.  It  is  celebrated  for  the  loves  of  Hero  and  Lesnder :  Leaoder 
was  drowned  in  a  tempestuous  night  as  he  attempted  to  swim  across  the  Hellespont, 
and  Hero,  in  despair,  threw  herself  into  the  sea,  627  B.a — Sirobo;  BerodotmM. 
See  Xerxet, 

HELL-FIRE  CLX7BS.  These  were  impious  associations  in  London,  which  existed  for 
some  time,  but  were  ultimately  suppressed  by  an  order  in  counciL  There  were  three, 
to  which  upwards  of  forty  persons  of  quality  of  both  sexes  belonged.  They  met  at 
Somerset-house,  at  a  house  in  Westminster,  and  at  another  in  Conduit-street,  Hanover- 
square.  They  assumed  the  names  of  the  patriarchs,  prophets,  and  martyrs,  in  derision ; 
and  ridiculed,  at  their  meetings,  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  the  mysteries  of  the 
Christian  religion,  7  Geo.  1. 1721. — Salmon. 

HELMETS.  They  were  worn,  it  is  said,  by  the  most  savage  tribes.  Among  the  Bomans 
the  helmet  was  provided  with  a  vizor  of  grated  bars,  to  raise  above  the  eyes,  and  a 
bever  to  lower  for  eating ;  the  helmet  of  the  Greeks  was  round,  and  that  of  the 
Romans  square.  Richard  I.  of  England  wore  a  plain  round  helmet ;  and  after  this 
monarch's  reign  most  of  the  English  kings  had  crowns  above  their  helmet.  Alez> 
ander  III.  of  Scotland,  1249,  had  a  flat  helmet,  with  a  square  gratod  viaor,  and  the 
helmet  of  Robert  I.  was  surmounted  by  a  crown,  1806. — UwiUim, 

HELOTS.  The  people  of  Helos,  against  whom  the  Spartans  bore  desperate  resentment 
for  refusing  to  pay  tribute,  883  B.c.  The  Spartans,  not  satisfied  with  the  ruin  of  their 
city,  reduced  the  Helots  to  the  most  debasing  slavery  ;  and  to  completo  their  infuny, 
they  called  all  the  slaves  of  the  state,  and  the  prisoners  of  war,  by  the  degrading 
name  of  BeloUB,  and  further  exposed  them  to  every  species  of  contempt  and  xiidicnie, 
669  B.a  But  in  the  Peloponnesian  war  the  Helots  behaved  with  uncommon  bravery, 
and  were  rewarded  with  their  liberty,  431  B.o.  Tet  this  act  of  justice  did  not  last 
long ;  and  the  sudden  disappearance  of  2000  manumitted  slaves  was  attributed  to 
the  LacedsBmonians. — HemdotvM, 

HEMP  AND  FLAX.  FUx  was  first  planted  in  England,  when  it  was  directed  to  be 
sown  for  fishing-nets,  a.d.  1533.  Bounties  were  paid  to  encourage  ite  cultivatioa 
in  1783;  and  every  exertion  should  be  made  by  the  government  and  legialaturs 
to  accomplish  such  a  national  good.  In  1785  there  were  imported  from  Ruaeia, 
in  British  ships,  17,695  tons  of  hemp  and  flax. — Sir  John  Sindair,  The  annual 
importetion  of  these  articles  now  amounte  to  about  100,000  tons.  More  than 
180,000  lb.  of  rough  hemp  are  used  in  the  cordage  of  a  first-rate  man-of-war, 
including  rigging  and  sails. 

HEPTARCHY.  The  Heptarchy  (or  government  of  seven  kings)  in  England  was  graduaUy 
formed  from  A.D.  455,  when  Hengist  became  the  king  of  Kent,  and  that  kingdom  was 
erected.  The  Heptarchy  terminated  in  a.d.  828,  when  Egbert  reduced  the  other 
kingdoms,  and  became  sole  monarch  of  England.  For  the  several  kingdoms  of  the 
Heptarchy,  see  Britain,  and  Octarchy. 

HERACLID^,  THB.  The  return  of  the  Heraclidn  into  the  Peloponnesus  is  a  famonfi 
epoch  in  chronology  considered  to  constitute  the  beginning  of  profane  history,  all 
the  time  preceding  that  period  being  accounted  fabulous.  This  return  happened 
100  years  after  the  Heiaclidso  were  expelled,  eighty  years  after  the  destruction  of 
Troy,  and  328  years  before  the  first  Olympiad,  1104  B.a — Herodotus, 

HERALDRY,  Signs  and  marks  of  honour  were  made  use  of  in  the  first  agea  of  tlie 
world. — Niabet  The  Phrygians  had  a  sow;  the  Thradans,  Mars;  the  Biomans,  an 
eagle;  the  Goths,  a  bear;  the  Flemings,  a  bull;  the  Suons,  a  horse;  and  the 
ancient  French,  a  lion,  and  afterwards  the  fleur^e-lis,  w^icA  tee.  Heraldry,  as  digested 
into  an  art,  and  subjected  to  rules,  may  be  ascribed,  in  the  first  instance,  to  Charie- 
magne,  about  the  year  800 ;  and  in  the  next  to  Frederick  Barbarossa,  about  the  year 
1152;  it  began  and  grew  with  the  feudal  law.— ^ir  Otorffc  Madbenue,  The  great 
English  works  on  heraldry  are  those  of  Barcham,  or  Barkham,  published  by  Gtnllixn 
(1610),  and  Edmondson  (1780). 

HERALDS*  COLLEGE.  We  trace  ite  institution  to  Edward  IH.  1840.  RichaH  ID. 
endowed  the  college  in  1484 ;  and  Philip  and  Mary  enlarged  its  privileges,  and  con- 
firmed them  by  letters  patent.  Formerly  in  many  ceremonies  the  herald  represented 
the  king's  person,  and  therefore  wore  a  crown,  and  was  always  a  knight  TTiis  college 
has  an  earl  marshal,  3  kings  at  arms  (Garter,  Clarencieaz,  and  Norroy),  6  heralds 


HER  819  HER 

(Richmond,  Lancaster,  Chester,  Windsor,  Somerset,  and  York),  4  pursuivants,  and  2 
extra  heralds.    See  £aH  Manhal, 

HERARA,  BATTLE  ov,  nr  Arraoon.  In  this  battle  Don  Carlos,  of  Spain,  in  his 
struggle  for  his  hereditary  right  to  the  throne  of  that  kingdom,  at  the  h^^  of  12,000 
men,  encountered  and  defeated  general  Buerens,  who  had  not  mueh  above  half  that 
number  of  the  queen  of  Spain's  troops.  Buerens  lost  about  1000  in  killed  and 
wounded,  Aug  24,  1837. 

HERAT,  a  strong  dty,  culled  the  key  of  Afghanistan,  OM>ital  of  a  state  formed  by  Shah 
Hahmoud  in  1818.  Population  in  18S0, 100,000.  The  Persians  were  baffled  in  an 
attempt  to  take  it  in  1838;  but  occupied  it  without  molestation  in  1856,  in 
▼iolation  of  a  treaty  made  March  26,  1855.  In  consequence,  war  ensued  between 
Qreat  Britain  and  Persia.  On  the  peace  in  April,  1857  (see  Pertia),  Herat  was  to  be 
restored :  but  it  still  remains  in  the  hands  of  the  Persians  (July,  1857). 

HETRCTnLANEini.  An  ancient  city  of  Campania,  overwhelmed,  together  with  Pompeii, 
by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  Aug.  24,  a.d.  79.  Herculaneum  was  buried  under  streams 
of  lava,  and  successive  eruptions  laid  it  still  deeper  under  the  surface.  All  traces  of 
them  were  lost  until  a.d.  1711,  from  which  year  to  the  present  time  many  curiosities, 
works  of  art,  and  monuments  and  memorials  of  civilised  life,  have  been  discovered. 
150  volumes  of  MSSL  were  found  in  a  chest,  in  1754 ;  and  many  antiquities  were 

Surchased  by  sir  William  Hamilton,  and  re-purchasad  by  the  trustees  of  the  British 
Luseum,  wh*>re  they  are  deposited;  but  the  principal  antiquities  are  preserved  in  the 
museum  of  Portici. 

HEREFORD,  BISHOPRIC  or.  Formerly  suffragan  to  St  David's ;  but  when  the  country 
was  conquered  by  the  Saxons  it  came  to  the  province  of  Canterbury.  The  cathedral 
was  founded  by  a  nobleman  named  Milfride,  in  honour  of  Ethelbert,  king  of  the  East 
Saxons,  who  wis  treacherously  made  away  with  by  his  intended  mother-in-law,  the 
queen  of  Mercia.    The  see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  768/.  per  annum. 

HERETICS.  Formerly  the  term  heresy  denoted  a  particular  sect :  now  heretics  are  those 
who  propagate  their  private  opinions  in  opposition  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church — 
Bacon.  Tens  of  thousands  of  them  have  suffered  death  by  torture  in  Roman  Catholic 
oountrie& — BuinuL  See  Inquinium.  Simon  Magus  was  the  first  heretic ;  he  came  to 
Rome  A.D.  41.  Thirty  heretics  oame  firom  Germany  to  England  to  propagate  their 
opinions,  and  were  branded  in  the  forehead,  whipped,  and  thrust  naked  into  the 
streets  in  the  depth  of  winter,  where,  none  daring  to  relieve  them,  they  died  of  hunger 
and  cold,  \l60,'--8peed.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIIL,  at  one  period,  to  be  in  possession 
of  Tindal's  Bible  constituted  heresy.  Certain  laws  against  heretics  were  repealed,  25 
Henry  VIIL  1534-5. — The  last  person  executed  for  heresy  in  Britain  was  Thomas 
Aikenhead,  at  Edinburgh,  1696. 

HERITABLE  RIGHTS  and  MOVABLE  RIQHTa  In  the  Scottish  law  denoting  what 
in  England  is  meant  by  real  and  personal  property ;  real  property  in  England  answer- 
ing nearly  to  the  heritable  rights  in  Scotland,  and  perianal  property  to  the  movable 
rights.  Scotch  heritable  jurisdictions  (».e.  feudal  rights)  valued  at  164,232/1.  were 
bought  up  in  1747,  (20  Geo.  II.  c  43)  and  restored  to  the  crown. 

HERMITSb  The  name  first  given  to  those  that  retired  to  desert  places,  to  avoid  perse- 
cution, where  they  gave  themselves  up  to  prayers,  fitting,  and  meditation.  They 
were  also  called  andiorets ;  and  commonly  lodged  in  dark  caves,  where  their  food 
was  such  roots  as  nature  bestowed  freely  without  culture.  From  these  came  the 
monks,  and  almost  all  the  sorts  of  religious  assemblies  that  live  in  monasteries.  In 
the  seventh  persecution  of  the  Christians,  one  Paul,  to  avoid  the  enemies  of  his  faith, 
retired  into  Thebais,  and  became  the  first  example  of  a  monastic  life,  about  a.d.  250. 

HEBO,  BRITISH  MAN-OF-WAR.  The  Hero,  of  74  guns,  lost  in  a  tremendous  storm 
(with  several  other  ships)  off  the  Texel,  when  the  whole  of  her  crew,  amounting  to 
nearly  600  men,  perished,  Dec  24,  1811.  The  English  were  this  year  very  successful 
in  l^eir  various  expeditions  by  sea;  but  the  fleet,  by  staying  too  late  in  the  Baltic,  in 
its  return  suffered  severely.  The  Si,  Oeorge,  of  98  guns*  and  the  Defence,  another  ship 
of  the  line,  and  a  frigate^  with  2000  men  on  board,  perished  in  the  storm. 

HERBING.FISHERT.  This  fishery  was  largely  encouraged  by  the  Scotch  so  early  as  the 
ninth  century.  The  herring  statute  was  passed  in  1357.  The  mode  of  preserving 
herrings  by  pickling  was  discovered  about  1390,  and  gave  rise  to  the  herring-fishery 
as  a  branch  of  commerce. — Anderton.  The  British  Herring-Fishery  company  was 
instituted  Sept.  2, 1750. 


HER  820  HIE 

11ERRINQS»  BATTLE  of  the.  TIub  bftttle,  fought  when  the  English  were  beeuging 
Orleans,  obtained  its  ludicrous,  yet  lasting  name,  from  an  incident  occnning  at  th« 
time :  Uie  due  de  Bourbon,  in  attempting  to  intercept  a  convoy  on  the  road  to  the 
English  camp  before  Orleans,  was  seYex*eIy  beaten;  it  was  a  convoy  of  salt  fiah,  and 
the  action  by  which  this  supply  of  provisions  to  the  besieging  army  was  prevented 
from  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  French,  was  called  the  battle  of  the  herrings  a 
name  it  has  borne  ever  since,  1429. —  Vertot, 

HERSCHEL  TELESCOPB^  tbe.  Sir  W.  Herschers  seven,  ten,  and  twenty-feet  re- 
flectors were  made  about  1779.  He  discovered  the  Qeorgium  Sidus  (wlbiefc  see) 
March  21, 1781,  and  a  volcanic  mountain  in  the  moon,  in  1783;  and  about  this  time 
laid  the  plan  of  his  great  forty-feet  telescope,  which  he  oompleted  in  1789,  when  be 
discovered  two  other  volcanic  mountains,  emitting  fire  from  their  summits.  In  180S, 
he,  by  means  of  his  telescopes,  was  enabled  to  lay  before  the  Royal  Society  a 
catalogue  of  5000  new  nebulae,  nebulous  stars,  planetaiy  nebulas,  and  dusten  of  staxs 
which  he  had  discovered.  The  great  telescope  wss  te^en  down  in  1822,  and  one  of 
20  feet  focal  length  erected  by  sir  J.  Herschel,  who  afterwards  took  it  to  the  Gipe  of 
Qood  Hope  and  with  it  made  his  valuable  observations. 

HESSE,  HOUSE  of.  The  house  is  very  illustrious :  its  various  branches  derive  their 
origin  from  Qerberge,  daughter  of  Charles  of  Lorraine,  uncle  of  Louis  V.  of  FVsnee, 
who  was  descended  from  Louis  the  Courteous.  She  was  married  to  Lambert  IL,  eari 
of  Louvain,  from  whom  the  present  landgraves  of  Hesse-Cassel  (by  Henry  V.  fint  of 
the  family  who  bore  the  title  of  landgrave)  are  descended.  Henry,  sumamed  the 
Infant  of  Brabant,  was  succeeded  by  OUio,  in  1308.  There  is  no  family  in  Qermsny 
more  noble  by  their  alliances  than  this;  and  it  gives  place  to  none  for  Uie  heroes  and 
statesmen  it  has  produced. — BeetUon, 

HESSE-CASSEL.  The  sovereign  bore  the  title  of  landgrave  until  1808,  when  that  of 
elector  was  conferred.  The  country  was  seised  by  the  French  in  1806,  and  the  elector 
continued  in  eule  at  Prague  until  1813,  when  he  was  acknowledged  by  the  allied 
sovereigns,  and  again  received  with  enthusiasm  by  his  subjects.  Hesse-Cassel  lell 
lately  into  a  state  of  dangerous  inquietude,  for  which  see  note.* 

HESSIAN  TROOPS.  Six  thousand  Hessian  troops  arrived  in  England,  in  oonaeqaence 
of  an  invasion  being  expected,  in  1756.  The  sum  of  471,0001.  three  per  cent,  stock, 
was  transferred  to  the  landgrave  of  Hesse,  for  Hessian  auxiliaries  lost  in  the  Ameriesa 
war,  at  80^  per  man,  Nov.  1786.  The  Hessian  soldiers  were  again  brought  to  this 
r^m  at  the  olose  of  tbe  last  oentmry,  and  served  in  Ireland  during  the  memorable 
rebellion  there  in  1798. 

HEXHAM,  BISHOPRIC  of.  The  see  of  Hexham  was  foimded  in  the  infiuicy  of  the 
Saxon  Church ;  it  had  ten  bishops  successively,  but  by  reason  of  the  spoil  snd  rapine 
of  the  Danes,  it  was  discontinued;  the  last  prelate  was  appointed  in  a.d.  810.  Tbe 
Battlb  of  Hexham,  in  which  the  Yorkists  (army  of  Edward  lY.)  obtained  a  complete 
victoiy  over  the  Lancastrians,  the  army  of  Henry  YI.,  was  fought  May  15, 1463. 

HIBERNIA,  The  SHIP.  The  Hibtmia,  captain  Brenn,  bound  from  Liverpool  to  New 
South  Wales,  with  232  persons  on  board,  of  whom  208  were  passengers  going  out  as 
settlers,  destroyed  at  sea  by  fire,  kindled  through  the  negligence  of  the  second  mate, 
in  W.  long.  22"  and  S.  lat.  4^  150  lives  were  lost  through  the  insufBcieney  of  the 
boats  to  contain  more  than  a  third  of  the  people  on  board,  Feb.  5, 1833. 

HIEROGLYPHICS,  (Sacred  engravings).  Picture  writing,  the  expression  of  ideas  by 
representation  of  visible  objects,  used  chiefly  by  the  Egyptians.  Young,  ChampoUion« 
and  others  have  laboured  to  elucidate  hieroglyphics  with  great  effect,  in  the  present 
century.    Hieroglyphic  characters  were  invented  by  Athotes,  2112  B.a — U^£r» 

*  The  elector  of  ffease  had,  in  1860,  remodelled  the  constitution  given  to  his  people  in  1881,  (\if 
which  the  chamber  had  the  exclusive  liffht  of  voting  the  taxeaX  and  did  not  convene  the  diambar 
UDtil  the  usual  time  for  closing  the  sessionhad  arrived,  when  his  demand  for  mon^  Ibr  the  misoing 
year,  1851,  was  laid  before  it.  The  chamber  called,  unanimously,  for  a  regtilsr  budget,  that  it  migfeii 
examine  into,  and  discuss,  its  items.  The  elector,  upon  this,  dissolved  the  chamber,  and  declared  the 
whole  of  his  dominions  in  a  state  of  siogo  and  subject  to  .martial  law.  Sept  7,  1850.  In  the  end.  be 
was  obliged  to  flee  to  Hanover,  and  subsequently  to  Frankfort ;  and  on  Oct  14,  he  formaUv  appHsd  to 
the  Frankfort  diet  for  assistance  to  re-establish  his  authority  in  Hesse.  On  Nov.  d,  foUowing,  an 
▲ustro-Bavarian  force  of  10,000  men  with  20  pieces  of  STtiUeiv,  entered  the  territories  of  Hessn  C^swl, 
under  the  command  of  Prince  Thumund-Taxis,  who  fixed  ms  hesd-quarters  in  Hanau;  and  <m  the 
next  day  a  Prussian  force  entoted  CasseL  The  elector  returned  to  his  capital,  Dec.  27, 1850,  tiM  taxes 
having  been  previously  collected  under  pain  of  imprisonment  The  Austro-Bavariaa  and  Protsian 
troops  afterwards  evacuated  the  electorate. 


Hia  821  HOL 

HIGH  CHURCH  and  LOW  CUUHCU  PARTIES.  Those  were  occasioned  by  the  pi-o- 
aecation  of  Dr.  Sacheverel^  preacher  at  St  Savioai^B,  Southwark,  for  two  aeditious 
aermona,  the  object  of  which  was  to  rouse  the  apprehensioxis  of  the  people  for  the 
safety  of  the  Church,  and  to  excite  hostility  against  the  dissenters.  His  friends  were 
called  High  Church,  and  his  opponents  Low  Church,  or  moderate  men,  8  Anne,  1710. 
The  queen,  who  fayoured  Sacheverel,  presented  him  with  the  valuable  rectory  of  St. 
Andrew's,  Holbom.    He  died  in  1724. 

HIGH  TREASON.  The  highest  offence  known  to  the  law,  and  in  reguUtmg  the  trials 
for  which  was  enacted  the  memorable  statute,  so  favourable  to  British  liberty,  the 
25th  of  Edward  IIL  1652.  By  this  statute  two  living  witnesses  are  required  in  cases 
of  high  treason ;  and  it  arose  in  the  refnsal  of  parliament  to  sanction  the  sentence  of 
death  against  the  duke  of  Somerset :  it  is  that  which  regulates  indictments  for  treason 
at  the  present  day.  By  the  40th  Qeo.  IIL  1800,  it  was  enacted  that  where  there 
was  a  tnal  for  high  treason  in  which  the  overt  act  was  a  direot  attempt  upon  the  life 
*  of  the  sovereign,  such  trial  should  be  conducted  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  case  of 
an  indictment  for  murder.* 

HIGHNESS.  The  title  of  Highneu  was  given  to  Henry  VII. ;  and  this,  and  sometimes 
Tour  OraUy  was  the  manner  of  addressing  Henry  YIIL ;  but  about  the  close  of  the 
reign  of  the  latter-mentioned  king,  the  title  of  **  Highness"  and  "  Tour  Grace  "  were 
absorbed  in  that  of  "  Majesty.'*   Louis  XIIL  of  France  gave  the  title  of  Highness  to  the 

J>rince  of  Orange^  in  1644 ;  this  prince  had  previously  only  the  distinction  of  Excel- 
ency. — ffenauU.    Louis  XIV.  gave  the  princes  of  Orange  the  titie  High  and  Mighty 
liordfl,  1644. — Idem, 

HINDOO  ERA,  or  ERA  ot  tbb  CALITUG.  Began  8101  B.a,  or  756  before  the  Deluge, 
in  2848.  The  Hindoos  count  their  months  by  the  progress  of  the  sun  through  the 
Eodiac.  The  Samoat  era  begins  57  ao. ;  and  the  Saca  era,  a.d.  77.  They  are  all  used 
by  the  Hindoo  nations.    See  Caliyug  Era. 

HISTORY.  Previously  to  the  invention  of  letters  the  records  of  history  are  vague, 
tnditionaij  and  erroneous.  The  chronicles  of  the  Jews,  the  Parian  Chronicle,  the 
histories  of  Herodotus  and  Cteaias,  and  the  poems  of  Homer,  are  the  foundations  of 
early  ancient  history.  Later  ancient  history  is  considered  as  ending  with  the 
deetmetion  of  the  Roman  empire  in  Italy,  a.d.  476 ;  and  modem  history  dates  from 
the  age  of  Charlemagne,  about  a-D.  800.  There  was  not  a  professorship  of  modem 
history  in  either  of  our  universities  until  the  years  1724  and  1786,  when  R^us 
professorships  were  established  by  George  L  and  George  IL 

HOBART  TOWN  OB  HOBARTON.  A  searporty  and  the  capital  of  Van  Diemen's  Land. 
It  stands  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Derwent,  at  the  foot  of  the  Table  Mountain,  and 
vras  established  in  1804,  by  Colonel  Collins,  the  first  lieutenant-governor  of  the 
island,  who  died  here  in  1810.    See  Van  Diemen^t  Land. 

HOCHKIRCHEN,  BATTLE  or.  Between  the  Prassian  army  commanded  by  Frederick  IL, 
and  the  Austrians  commanded  by  count  Daun.  The  kmg  vras  sturprised  in  his  oamp, 
and  defeated  by  the  Imperial  general  In  this  battle  an  illustrious  Scotsman,  field- 
marshal  Keith,  in  the  service  of  Prussia,  was  killed ;  and  such  was  the  respect  which 
his  name  inspired,  that  count  Daun  and  Lacy,  the  Austrian  generals,  shed  tears  on 
beholding  his  corpse,  and  ordered  its  interment  vrith  military  honours,  Oct.  14, 1758. 

HOHENLINDEN,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  Austrian  and  French  armies,  the  latter 
commanded  by  general  Moreau.  The  Imperialists  were  defeated  with  great  loss  in 
this  hard-fought  battle,  their  killed  and  wounded  amounting  to  10,000  men,  and  their 
loss  in  prisoners  to  10,000  more,  Nov.  8,  1800.  The  forces  opposed  were  nearly 
equal  in  numbers. 

HOLLAND.  The  original  inhabitants  of  Holland  were  the  Batavi,  a  branch  of  the  Catti, 
a  people  of  Germany,  who,  being  expelled  their  own  country  on  account  of  sedition, 
established  themselves  in  this  territory. — TacUut.  OaUia  Belgica  (the  Roman  name 
for  the  provinces  now  known  as  the  Nettierlands)  was  attached  to  the  Roman  empire 

*  The  last  penwu  executed  for  high  treaMn  were  William  Cuudell,  alioi  Connell,  and  John  Smith. 
They  were  tried  on  a  special  commianon,  Feb.  6,  1812,  belnff  two  of  fourteen  British  aubiects  taken  in 
the  enemy's  aervice  at  the  ialea  of  France  and  Bourbon.  Mr.  Abbott,  afterwards  lord  Tenterden  and 
chief  Justice,  and  sir  Vicarv  Oibbs,  attorney-general,  conducted  the  proeecution,  and  Mr.  Brougham, 
now  lord  Brmigham,  defended  the  priaonen.  The  defence  was,  that  th^  (the  priaonera)  had  aasimied 
the  French  unubrm  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  their  escape  to  England.  The  two  above-mentioned  were 
hanged  and  beheaded  on  the  looge  of  Horsemonger-luie  gaol  on  March  16, 1812.  All  the  other  convicts 
pardoned  upon  condition  of  serving  in  colonies  beyond  the  seas. 

T 


HOL 


322 


HOL 


until  its  fall ;  and  for  aoTeiml  ages  afterwards  it  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
AustrasiA.  About  the  10th  century,  Holland  and  other  proTinoes  were  gOTmed  by 
their  own  oounts  or  dukes.  The  Ketherlsnds  subsequentij  fell  to  Buigundj,  next  to 
Austria;  and  the  emperor  Charles  Y.  annexed  them  to  Spain.  The  tyranny  of 
Philip  IL,  and  the  barbarities  of  the  duke  of  AItb,  greatW  exasperated  the  peof^  sini 
under  the  conduct  of  William,  prince  of  Orange,  was  nirmed  the  famous  League  of 
Utrecht,  which  proved  the  foundation  of  the  republic  of  the  ScTeo  United  Provinces 
The  other  ten  proTinces  (there  being  seventeen)  returned  under  the  then  dominion 
of  Spain.  The  Netherlands  became  a  kingdom  in  1815;  the  southern  part^  Belgium, 
separated  from  i%,  and  became  a  kingdom  in  1831.    See  Bdffit 


BoTCfreigntv  founded  by  Thienry,  i&nt 

count  of  H<dland  ....  a.o. 
The  county  of  Holland  devolves  to  the 

counts  of  Hainault 

It  fidls  to  the  crown  of  Philip  the  Good, 

dnlce  of  Boxigundy  .... 
100.000  peraons  are  drowned  by  the  aea 

bre^dng  in  at  Dort 

Burgundy  and  its  dependencies  become 

a  circle  of  the  empire  .... 
Thev  fall  to  Spain,  whose  tyranny  and 

religious  persecution  causes  a  revolt  in 


The  revolted  states,  with  William  prince 
of  Orange  at  their  head,  enter  into  a 
treaty  at  Utrecht 

They  elect  William  as  Stadtholder     .    . 

The  Stadtholder  William  is  snssssinatJid 

The  Dutch  East-India  company  founded 

After  a  struggle  of  thirty  years,  the  king 
of  Spain  is  obUged  to  declare  theBata- 
vians  free 

The  republic  wars  against  Spain  in  the 
East,  and  in  America ;  the  Dutch  admi- 
ral, Peter  Hen,  takes  several  Spanish 
gaUeons,  value  20,000,000<.  sterling     . 

Cromwell  declares  war  against  Holland, 
and  many  naval  battfos  are  fought; 
Blake  signally  defeats  Van  Tromp 

William  pnnoe  of  Orange  having  nuuried 
Mary,  daughter  of  James  XL,  is  called 
to  the  British  throne 

The  office  of  Stadtholder  is  made  here- 
ditary in  the  Orange  fiumly 

Em  of  the  Civil  war 

The  French  republican  arm  v  march  into 
Holland;  the  people  dedare  in  their 
fkvour    

The  Stadtholder  expelled   .        Jan.  15, 

He  arrives  in  England  .    Jan.  SI, 

Battle  of  Camporaown,  Duncan  signally 
defeats  the  Dutch     .  Oct.  11, 


868 

1299 
1436 
1446 
1521 

1566 


1579 
1579 
1684 
1602 


1609 


1635 


1658 


1688 

1747 
1787 


1793 
1795 
1795 

1797 


The  Texd  fleet,  of  twelve  ships  of  the 
line,  with  thuteen  Indiamen,  suiren- 
den  to  the  British  admiral  Duncan, 
without  firing  a  gun     .        .   Aug.  28^ 

A  new  constitution  is  given  to  the  Beta- 
vian  republic ;  the  diief  officer  CEL.  J, 
Schimmelpennick)  takes  the  title  of 
Grand  Pensionary    .  April  26, 

Holland  erected  into  a  kingdom,  and 
Louis  Boiu^aite  dedared  king  Junes, 

Louis  abdicates    ....  July  1, 

Holland  united  to  France  JuJ^  9.  1810 

Restored  to  the  house  of  Orange,  and 
Belgium  annexed  to  its  dominiona^ 

Nov.  18» 

The  prince  of  Orange  Is  proclaimed 
sovereign  prince  of  uus  United  Nether- 
lands       Dec  6^ 

He  receives  the  oath  of  aUegianoe  from 
his  subjects  IfarchSO, 

And  takes  the  title  of  king  as  William  L 

March  16. 

The  revolution  in  Belgium  (wlk«c4  aee) 
oommenoed  Aug.  25^ 

The  Belgians  take  the  city  of  Antwetp 
(whiek  tte)      .        .        .        .    Oct  W, 

Belgium  is  separated  horn  Holland,  azid 
Leopold  of  Cobuisr  is  elected  kii^ 

July  12, 

Holland  renews  the  war  against  Bel- 
gium       Aug.  S, 

Gnnlbrenoe  in  London  on  theafidrsof 
Holland  and  the  Netherlanda  tar* 
minates,  see  Afgium  Nov.  15, 

Treaty  between  Holland  and  Belgium, 
swned  in  London .  .  April  1ft, 

Abdication  of  WiUiam  1.  in  favour  of  his 
son Oct.  8, 

Death  of  the  ex-Ung  William  I.  Dec  12; 

Louis  BonMarte,  count  de  SL  Leu,  ax- 
king  of  Holland,  dies  of  apoplexy  at 
Legnoni    ....        July  25,  184« 


1790 


1805 

1806 
1810 


18IS 


181S 
1814 

1816 
1830 
1890 


18S1 
16S1 


18S1 

1830 

1840 
1S44 


DUTCH  8TADTHOLDEB8. 


1579.  William  of  Nassau;  first  stadtholder. 

See  ariieU  "  Princes  of  Orange,"  6«tow. 
1587.  Prince  Maurice,  of  Nassau. 
1625.  Frederick  Heniry,  of  Orange. 
1647.  William  IL  of  Oranga. 
1650.  The  stadtholderat  suppressed,  and  the 

office  administered  by  the  states. 


1672. 


Id 


1702. 


William   III.,   prince  of  Orsnge. 

1689  he  became  king  of  RngJM^ 
The  stadtholderat  again  resumed  by 

the  states  on  the  death  of  William. 
1747.  William  IV.    The  stadtholderat  revived 

in  William  IV..  and  made  hereditary 

in  the  house  of  Orange. 


PRINCES  OF  ORANGE. 


[The  years  of  the  stadtholderat  are  not 
always  in  unison  with  those  of  the 
princes  of  Orange.] 

1502.  Philibert  de  Chalons. 

1530.  lUntf  de  Nassau. 

1644.  William  of  Nassau,  styled  the  Great, 
cousin  to  K6a4.  To  this  illustrious 
prince  the  Republic  of  the  Seven 
United  Provinces  owed  its  founda- 
tion. Elected  stadtholder  in  1579 ; 
killed  by  an  assassin  hired  by  Philip 
II.  of  Spain,  June  30,  1584. 

1584.  Philip- WiUiara,  his  son:  stolen  away 
from  the  University  of  Louvain ;  the 


1618. 


1625. 
1647. 


Dutch  would  never  snflbr  him  to  re- 
side in  their  provinoas  :  died  In  1618. 

Maurice,  the  renowned  general ;  stadt- 
holder in  1587 ;  be  was  a  younger 
son  of  William  by  a  second  marriage. 

Frederick  HeuTy. 

William  II. :  married  Mary,  danghtaroT 
Oharies  I.  of  England,  by  whom  be  had 
a  posthumous  son,  who  sneeseded  as 
1660.  William  III. :  stadthoUer  in  1672.  TUa 
prince  married  Mary,  eldest  dai^tcr 
of  James  II.  of  England,  and  both 
afterwards  ascended  the  Eqgliah 
throne. 


HOL  828  HOL 


HOLLAND,  contiMM€d. 

170S.  WiUiam  lY. 

1711.  William  V. 

1761.  William  VL  ;  retired  on  the  invasion  of 

the  French  in  1796 :  died  In  1806. 
17W.  [Holland  and  Belgium  united  to  the 

French  republicTj 
18(Ml  William-Frederick  succeeded  his  i^ther, 

the  last  Ung,  aa  the  rightful  heir  to 

the  usurped  throne. 
ISOd.  Louis  Bonaparte^  made  king  of  H(4- 


land  by  his  brother  Napoleon,  June  6, 
1806;  abdicated*  July  1,  1810. 
1810.  ^oUand  again  united  to  FranoeJ 
1813.  House  of  Orange  restored.  William- 
Frederick»  prince  of  Orange,  pro- 
claimed I>eo.  6,  181S :  took  the  oath 
of  fidelity  as  sovereign  prince,  March 
SO,  1814,  and  asstunea  the  style  of 
King  of  the  Netherlands,  March  10, 
1815. 


ins.  William  (late  the  prince  of  Orange)  first 
king :  formally  abdicated  in  favour  of 
his  son,  Oct.  7,  1840 ;  died  Dec.  13, 
1848. 

1840.  William  IL ;  bom  Dea  6,  1702 ;  sue- 


KINGS  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS. 

oeeded  on  his  Cither's  abdication : 
died  March  17,  1840. 
1849.  William  III.,  aon   of  the   preceding; 
bom  Feb.   10,  1817.     The   PRisKirr 
(1857)  king. 


HOLLAND,  NEW.    See  Auttralia  and  Auiiralana. 

HOLMFIRTH  FLOOD.  The  Bilburr  reserroir  above  the  village  of  Holmfirth,  a  few 
miles  from  Haddenfield,  in  Torkehire,  suddenly  burst  its  banks,  and  levelled  to  the 
ground  four  mills,  nuiny  ranges  of  houses  and  other  buildings,  destroying  the  lives  of 
more  than  ninety  persons,  and  devastating  property  estimated  at  from  half  a  million 
to  800,0002.,  throwing  upwards  of  seven  thousand  individuals  out  of  work,  Feb.  5, 1852. 

HOLY  ALLIANCE.  The  famous  league,  so  called,  between  the  emperors  of  Russia  and 
Austria,  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  by  which  they  ostensibly  bound  themselves,  among 
other  things,  to  be  governed  by  Christian  principles  in  all  their  political  transactions 
and  future  conduct,  with  a  view  to  perpetuating  the  peaoe  they  had  achieved,  and 
then  enjoyed.    This  alliance  was  ratified  at  Paris,  Sept  26, 1815. 

HOLY  MAID  OF  Kekt.  Elizabeth  Barton,  so  styled,  was  spirited  up  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  party  to  hinder  the  Reformation,  by  pretending  to  inspirations  from  Heaven; 
foretelling  that  the  king  Henry  VIII.  wotUd  die  a  speedy  and  violent  death  if  he 
divorced  Catherine  of  Spain  and  married  Anne  Boleyn  ,*  and  predicting  many  direful 
calamities  to  the  nation.  Barton  and  her  confederates  were  hanged  at  Tyburn, 
24  Hen.  YIIL,  April  20,  IBU.^Bapin. 

HOLY  PLACES  m  PALESTINK  The  possession  of  these  places  has  been  a  source  of 
contention  between  the  Qreek  and  Latin  churches  for  sevml  centuries.  In  the  reign 
of  Francis  L  they  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Latin  monks,  under  the  protection 
of  the  French  government,  by  a  treaty  with  the  then  sultan ;  but  the  Greeks  from 
time  to  time  obtained  firmans  from  the  Porte  invalidating  the  rights  of  the  LatLns, 
who  were  at  last,  in  1757,  expelled  from  some  of  the  sacred  buUdings,  which  were 
committed  to  the  care  of  the  Greeks  by  a  hatti-scheriff,  or  imperial  ordinance.  In 
1808  the  holy  sepulchre  was  partially  destroyed  by  fire,  and  rebuilt  by  the  Greeks, 
who  thereon  claimed  additioxial  privileges,  and  thus  caused  fresh  dissensions.  In  1819 
the  Russian  and  French  governments  interfered  and  sent  envoys  (M.  Dashkoff  and 
K.  Mtfoellus)  to  adjust  the  dispute;  but  an  arrangement  was  prevented  by  the  Greek 
revolution  in  1821.  In  1850  the  subject  was  again  agitated,  and  the  Porte  proposed 
that  a  mixed  commission  should  adjudicate  on  the  rival  claims.  M.  Titoff,  the 
Russian  envoy,  acting  on  behalf  of  the  Greeks,  and  M.  Lavalette,  the  French  envoy, 
on  that  of  the  Latins,  took  up  the  question  very  warmly.  The  result  of  the  commission 
was,  that  a  firman  was  issued  by  the  Porte,  March  9,  1852,  confirming  and  consoli- 
dating the  rights  previously  granted  to  the  Greek  Christians,  and  declaring  that  the 
Latins  had  no  right  to  claim  exclusive  possession  of  certain  holy  places  specified,  but 
permitting  them  to  possess  a  key  of  the  church  at  Bethlehem,  &c.,  as  in  former  times. 
The  French  government  acquiesced  in  this  dedsion,  though  with  much  dissatisfaction; 
but  the  Russian  envoy  still  desired  the  key  to  be  withheld  from  the  Latin  monks. 
Shortly  d%er,  M.  D'OhEeroff  made  a  formal  declaration  of  the  right  of  Russia  to  protect 
the  orthodox  in  virtue  of  the  treaty  of  Kainardji  in  1774,  and  demanded  that  the 
firman  of  March  9,  1852,  should  be  read  at  Jerusalem,  although  it  militated  against 
his  pretensions,  which  was  accordingly  done.  The  dispute  still  continued,  the 
Porte  being  exposed  to  the  charges  of  both  the  Russian  and  French  governments, 
March,  1853.  On  Feb.  28,  Prince  Menschikoff  arrived  at  Constantinople  as  envoy 
extraordinary,  and  in  addition  to  the  claims  respecting  the  holy  places,  made  those 
demands  respecting  the  protection  of  the  Greek  Christians  in  Turkey  which  led  to  the 
war  of  1854-6.    See  Utaso-Tttrhith  War, 

y2 


HOL  324  HOM 

HOLY  HOOD.  The  festival  of  the  Holy  Croao.  This  feut  ia  called  also  Holycross  day. 
It  was  instituted  on  account  of  the  recoyery  of  a  large  piece  of  the  CroM»  by  the 
emperor  Heraolius,  after  it  had  been  taken  away,  on  the  plundering  of  Jeniaalemy 
about  the  year  of  Christ  615,  on  the  14th  Sept — Brandt.  At  Boxley  abbey,  in  Essex, 
was  a  crucifix,  called  the  Rood  of  Qrac9  ;  at  the  dissolution  it  was  broken  in  pieces  as 
an  imposture  by  Hilsey,  bishop  of  Rochester,  at  St.  PauFs  Cross,  London. 

HOLTBOOD  HOUSE  or  PALACE,  EonrBUBOH.  The  palace  or  abbey  of  Holyrood 
was  for  several  centuries  the  residence  of  the  monarchs  of  Scotland.  The  abbey,  of 
which  some  vestiges  remain,  was  founded  by  David  L,  in  the  year  1128,  and  in  the 
burial-place  within  its  walls  are  Interred  several  of  his  successors.  The  palace  is  a 
large  quadrangular  edifice  of  hewn  stone,  with  a  court  within  surrounded  by  piaizaa. 
In  the  north-west  tower  is  the  bed-chamber  which  was  occupied  by  queen  Mairy,  aad 
from  an  adjoining  cabinet  to  which  David  Biszio,  her  fiivourite,  was  dragged  forth 
and  murdered.  The  palace  as  it  now  stands  is  not  of  high  antiquity.  Its  nortl^west 
towers  were  built  by  James  Y.,  but  the  remaining  part  of  the  palace  was  added  during 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  See  Edinburgh.  Qreai  improvements  are  now  being  made  (1 857). 

HOLT  WARS.  The  wars  of  the  Christians  against  the  Infidels.  .  Peter  the  Hermit^  a 
priest  of  the  diocese  of  Amiens,  in  France,  was  the  author  of  these  cruel,  bloody,  and 
unjust  religious  wars.  He  himself  led  the  way  through  Hungary,  at  the  head  of  an 
undisciplined  multitude  of  more  than  300,000  men,  a  comparatively  small  number  of 
whom  survived  to  reach  the  holy  city.  He  roused  up  Europe  to  the  first  cmaade, 
A.D.  1094-5.    See  Crtuadet. 

HOLT  WATER    Said  to  have  been  used  in  churches  as  early  as  ▲.!>.  120.— Ashe, 

HOMELDEN,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  Scots,  headed  by  the  earl  of  Douglas,  and  the 
Percies,  in  which  the  Scots  were  defeated.  In  this  fierce  battle  Douglas  was  taken 
prisoner,  as  were  the  earls  of  Angus,  Murray,  and  Orkney,  and  the  earl  of  fife,  son  of 
the  duke  of  Albany,  and  nephew  of  the  Scottish  king,  with  many  of  the  nobility  and 
gentry  :  fought  in  1403. — Hume. 

HOMER'S  ILIAD  and  ODTSSET.  The  misfortunes  of  Troy  furnish  the  two  moat 
perfect  Epio  *  poems  in  the  world,  written  by  the  greatest  poet  that  has  ever  lived ; 
about  915  B.O.  The  subject  of  the  first  is  the  wrath  of  Achilles;  the  second  rocounta 
the  voyages  and  adventures  of  Ulysses  after  the  destruction  of  Troy.  Among  the 
thousands  of  volumes  burnt  at  Constantinople,  a.d.  477i  were  the  works  of  Homer, 
said  to  have  been  written  in  golden  letters  on  the  great  gut  of  a  dragon,  120  feat  long. 

HOMICIDE.  This  crime  was  tried  at  Athens  by  the  Areopagites,  1507  &G.  He  that 
killed  another  at  any  public  exercise  of  skill,  or  who  killed  another  that  lay  peida« 
to  do  a  person  mischief  of  a  grievous  nature,  was  not  deemed  guilty.  He  who  killed 
a  man  taken  with  another's  wife,  sister,  daughter,  or  concubine,  or  he  that  killed  a 
man  who,  without  just  grounds,  assaulted  another  violently,  was  not  deemed  a 
homicide.  Among  the  Jews,  wilful  murder  was  capital ;  but  for  chance-medley,  the 
offender  should  fly  to  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge,  and  there  continue  till  the  death  of 
*  the  high-priest.  In  the  primitive  Church,  before  the  Christians  had  the  civil  power, 
wilful  homicide  was  punished  with  a  twenty  years*  penance.  Our  laws'  distinguish 
between  justifiable  homicide  and  homicide  in  its  various  degrees  of  guilt,  and  drcom- 
stances  of  provocation  and  wilfulness.    See  Murder. 

HOMILIES.  A  homily  signified  a  sermon  or  discourse  upon  some  head  or  point  of 
religion,  commonly  done  in  a  homely  manner,  for  its  being  more  easily  understood 
by  the  common  people.  At  the  time  of  the  Reformation  in  England  there  wer« 
several  made  and  printed,  and  ordered  to  be  read  in  those  churches  that  vrvro  not 
furnished  with  a  sufficiently  learned  minister  to  compose  proper  discourses  them- 
selves, and  also  as  a  prevention  of  unsound  doctrine  being  taught  in  the  more  remote 
and  less  frequented  coimtry  places.  But  in  the  primitive  Church  it  rather  meant  a 
plain  conference  by  way  of  question  and  answer,  which  was  commonly  done  bj 
the  bishop,  till  the  fifth  century,  when  the  learned  priests  were  allowed  to  preach, 
catechise,  &a,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  bishops  used  to  do.  A  book  of  homiliea 
was  drawn  up  by  archbishop  Cranmer,  1  Edw.  VI.  1647;  and  another  was  prepared 
by  an  order  of  Convocation,  5  Eliz.  1668.— S^ow. 

*  The  epic  poems  of  Homer  and  Vibgil,  the  Oienualemme  of  Tasso.  the  ParadUe  lotl  of  Miltov, 
and  the  Hmriadt  of  Voltairs,  are  the  noblest  that  exist ;  and  Hiltok's  is  oousiderod  to  rank  next  to 
Hombr's.  "  ParadiM  loH  is  not  the  greatest  of  epic  poems,"  obsonree  Dr.  Jobmson,  *'  only  beGaoso  tt 
is  not  the  first"— ITiU^. 


HOM  825  HOR 

HOMCEOPATHT.  A  medical  hypothena  promnlgated  at  the  commencemeDt  of  the 
preseDt  century  by  the  late  Dr.  Hahnemann,  of  Leipaio,  according  to  which  every 
medicine  haa  a  speoifio  power  of  inducing  a  certain  difieased  atate  of  the  syttem;  and 
if  such  medicine  be  given  to  a  person  suffering  under  the  disease  which  it  has  a  ten- 
dency to  induce,  such  disease  disappears,  because  two  similar  diseased  actions  cannot 
simultaneously  subsist  in  the  same  organ. — Brandt,  ^he  Hahnemann  hospital  was 
opened  in  Bloomsbury-aquare,  Sept.  16,  1850. 

HONEY-MOOK.  Among  the  ancients  a  beverage  prepared  with  honey,  such  as  that 
known  as  mead,  and  as  metheglin,  in  England,  was  a  luxurious  drink.  It  was  a 
custom  to  drink  of  diluted  honey  for  thirty  days,  or  a  moon's  age,  after  a  wedding- 
feast,  and  hence  arose  the  term  honey-moon,  of  Teutonic  origin.  Attila,  the  devas- 
tating Hun,  who  ravaged  nearly  all  Europe,  drank,  it  is  said,  so  freely  of  hydromel 
on  his  marriage-day,  that  he  died  in  the  night  of  suffocation,  458  a.d.  His  death  is, 
however,  ascribed  to  another  cause.    See  AUila, 

HOKO-KONG.  An  island  off  the  coast  of  China,  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1842.  lU 
chief  town  is  Victoria,  built  in  1842,  and  erected  into  a  bishopric  in  1849.  Sir  John 
Bowring  is  the  present  governor,  appointed  in  1854. 

"  HONI  SOIT  QUI  HAL  T  PENSE."  It  is  said  that  the  countess  of  Salisbury,  at  a 
ball  at  court,  happening  to  drop  her  garter,  the  king  Edward  IIL  took  it  up,  and 
presented  it  to  her  with  these  words :  '*ffoni  soil  qui  mal  y  jpente,*  "Evil  be  to  him 
who  evil  thinks."  They  afterwards  became  the  motto  of  the  garter ;  but  this  state- 
ment of  the  origin  of  the  motto  is  unsupported  by  sufficient  authority. — The  order 
was  instituted  April  23,  1849. 

HONOUR.  HoDour  was  a  virtue  highly  venerated  by  the  ancients,  particularly  among 
the  Romans,  and  temples  were  ultimately  erected  to  Honour  by  that  people  as  a 
divinity.  The  first  temple  was  built  by  Scipio  Africanus,  about  B.o.  197;  and  others 
were  raised  to  her  wonhip  by  C.  Marius,  about  102  b.o.  These  temples  were  so 
constructed  that  it  was  impossible  to  enter  that  to  Honour  without  going  through 
the  temple  of  Virtue;  and  Marius  ordered  his  edifices  not  to  be  built  too  much 
elevated,  or  too  lofty,  thereby  to  intimate  to  the  worshippers  that  humility  was  the 
true  way  to  honour, 

HOOD.  The  ancient  garment  or  dress  for  the  head,  worn  by  women  uppermost,  and 
made  of  stuffs,  velvet,  muslin,  or  silk.  It  was  worn  by  men  before  the  invention  of 
hats,  and  was  made  of  cloth,  to  button  under  the  chin,  somewhat  like  a  monk's  cowl ; 
and  is  still  retained  among  some  of  the  monastic  orders,  particularly  abroad.  It 
dwindled  to  the  coif,  by  which  our  serjeants-at-law  have  been  distinguished;  and 
the  ancient  hood  of  black  silk,  is  still  worn  at  funerals  by  women,  when  following 
the  hearse  of  a  relative. 

HOPS.  Introduced  from  the  Netherlands  into  England,  a.d.  1524,  and  used  in  brewing; 
but  the  physicians  having  represented  that  they  were  unwholesome,  parliament  was 
petitioned  against  them  as  beiog  a  wicked  weed,  and  their  use  was  prohibited  in 
1528. — Anderton,  At  present  there  are  between  fifty  and  sixty  thousand  acres,  on 
an  average,  under  the  culture  of  hops  in  England.  They  are  grown  chiefly  in  Here- 
fordshire, Kent,  and  Worcestershire.  In  the  year  ending  Jan.  5,  1853,  there  were 
46,157}  acres  under  hops  in  England  and  Wales,  which  paid  447,144/.  duty;  the 
quantity  yielded  was  51,102,494  lbs.  whereof  955,855  lbs.  were  exported. 

HORATII  AND  CURIATII,  thb  Combat  of  the,  669  b.o.  The  Romans  and  the  Albans 
contesting  for  superiority,  agreed  to  choose  three  champions  on^  each  side  to  deter- 
mine to  which  it  belonged ;  and  the  three  Horatii,  Roman  knights,  and  the  three 
Curiatii,  Albons,  being  elected  by  their  respective  countries,  engaged  in  the  celebrated 
combat  which,  by  the  victory  of  the  Horatii,  united  Alba  to  Rome. 

HORN ;  HORNPIPE.  The  horn  is  thought  to  be,  next  to  the  reed,  the  earliest  wind 
instrument,  and  it  has  been  found  among  all  savage  nations  on  the  first  intercourse 
with  them  of  civilised  man.  The  horn  was  first  made  of  that  substance,  and  hence 
the  name;  afterwards  of  brass,  with  keys,  improved  at  various  times.  The  dance 
called  the  hornpipe  is  supposed  to  be  so  named  from  its  having  been  performed  to 
the  Welsh  jM&-coni,  that  is,  hornpipe,  about  a.d.  1300. — Spencer » 

HORNE  TOOKE,  HARDY,  THELWALL,  &o.  The  trial  of*  Messrs.  Hardy,  Tooke, 
Joyce,  Thelwall,  and  others,  on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  caused  a  ereat  sensation  in 
Enghmd.    They  were  taken  into  custody  on  the  20th  May,  1794;  Mr.  Hardy  was  the 


HOR 


826 


HOS 


first  who  was  put  to  the  bar,  Oct  29,  same  year ;  and  after  a  trial  which  laated  eight 
daya,  he  waa  nonomubly  acquitted.  John  Home  Tooke  was  next  tried,  and  was 
acquitted,  Nov.  20;  and  Mr.  Thelwall,  also,  was  acquitted,  Deo.  6;  when  all  the 
other  accused  parties  were  discharged.  Acts  werepassed  to  prohibit  Mr.  Thelwall'a 
political  lectures  in  l795.~See  Oagging  BiUi,  and  I%dwalL 

HORSE.  The  people  of  Thessaly  were  excellent  equestrians,  and  probably  were  the 
first  amoDg  the  Qreeks,  at  least,  who  rode  upon  horses,  and  broke  them  in  for  serrioe 
in  war ;  whence  arose  the  fable  that  Thessaly  was  originally  inhabited  by  centaurm. 
''Solomon  had  40,000  stalls  of  horses  for  his  chariots,  and  12,000  horseman.* — 
1  Kings  iv.  26.  The  power  of  the  hone  is  equal  to  that  of  fiye  or  six  men. — Smeaton^ 
The  Qreeks  and  Romans  had  some  covering  to  secure  their  horses'  hoofs  &om  injury. 
In  the  ninth  century  horses  were  only  shod  in  the  time  of  frost.  The  practice  of 
shoeing  was  introduced  into  England  by  William  I.  1066.  In  England  there  are  two 
millions  of  draught  and  pleasure  horses,  and  one  hundred  thousand  agricoltoral  horsea, 
which  consume  the  produce  of  seyen  millions  of  acres.  The  horse-tax  was  impoaed 
in  1784,  and  was  then  levied  on  all  saddle  and  coach  horses  in  England.  Its  operation 
waa  extended,  and  its  amount  increased  in  1796;  and  again  in  1808.  The  existing 
duty  upon  "horses  for  riding"  only,  in  England,  amounts  to  about  850,000/.  per  year. 
See  Race  ffcraes, 

HORSE  QUAROa  They  were  instituted  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VL  ISBO.^Sahum, 
The  first  troop  of  the  Horse  Grenadier  Guards  was  raised  in  1693,  and  was  oom- 
manded  bygeueral  Cholmondeley;  and  the  second  troop  commanded  by  lord  Forbes^ 
was  raised  in  1702.  There  was  a  reduction  of  the  Horse  and  Qrenadier  Guards ;  and 
Life  Guards,  as  now  established,  were  raised  in  their  room,  May  26, 1788. — PkilUpg, 
The  present  edifice  called  the  Horse  Guards  was  erected  by  Ware  about  1780.  In 
the  front  are  two  small  arches,  where  horse-soldiers,  in  full  uniform,  daily  mount 
guard.    In  a  part  of  the  building  is  the  office  of  the  commander-in-chief. 

HORTICULTURAL  SOCIETIES.  Horticulture,  the  art  of  cultivating  gardens,  is  a  late 
word  in  our  dictionaries,  fr^m  hortui  and  ctUtura,  and  was  first  used  by  Evelyn.  The 
Horticultural  society  in  London  was  founded  in  1804,  and  was  incorporated  April 
17,  1808;  the  Edinburgh  society  in  1809;  and  that  of  Dublin  in  Jan.  1817.  The 
transactions  of  the  London  society  have  attracted  great  attention,  on  account  of  the 
many  valuable  discoveries  it  has  made. 


HOSPITALLERS.    Military  knights  of  the  order  of  St  John,  of  Jerusalem,  who 

under  religious  vows ;  instituted  by  opening  a  hospital  for  the  reception  of  pilgrima 
at  Jerusalem,  in  a.d.  1048.  They  became  a  monastic  order  in  1092;  and  a  military 
order  in  1118.  See  Malta,  It  was  on  the  occasion  of  the  Holy  Wars  that  the  orders 
of  HospitallerB,  the  Templars,  and  the  Teutonic  Knights  were  mstituted.— ^oum/i. 

HOSPITALS  OF  LONDON.  Sevend  of  these  most  valuable  and  merciful  institatiox» 
are  of  ancient  date,  and  richly  endowed.  One  of  the  most  munificent  erections  bT  a 
single  individual  is  that  of  Guy's  Hospital,  Southwark,  a  London  bookseller  of  that 
name  having  built  it  at  the  cost  of  18,793A  and  endowed  it  in  1724,  by  a  bequest  of 
219,4992.  See  Infirmariti,  The  Royal  Dispensary  in  Aldersgate^treet  w«i  Uie  fint 
established,  1770.    The  following  are  the  principal  Hospitals  .— 


Bethlehem  founded.                       .  a.d.  1544 
Charinff-Cron  fimnded  1816 ;  new  hos- 
pital built         1831 

City  of  Loudon  Lying-in  ....  1750 
Consumption  and  diaeasefl  of  chest    .    .  1841 

Dreadnought  ship 1821 

Fover 1803 

J«««  • 1828 

General  Lying-iu 1766 

g«f  • 1721 

uannemann  1850 

HojgitalofSuniery 1827 

J«^-*    •        •'.".•.•.•.:  IW 


King's  College a.d.  18S9 

Look 174« 

London 1739 

Lying-in,  British 1749 

IMng-in,  City-road 1750 

Hiddlesez 1747 

Queen  Charlotte's  Lying-in     .  .  1752 

Small  Pox 1746 

St    Barthidomew's ;  see  BartkoUmttw, 

8t 154« 

St.  Oooige's 1785 

St.  Luke^s 1731 

St  Thomas's 155S 

Univenity  College 1834 

Westminster 1719 


^^fi^oinilf  T.^?'l^?n2f  ™"-    Introduced  into  Roman  Catholic  worship,  and  proatntion 
bS  ^  is^  ri^id  f      K  **P®  ^"^'^'^  IX.  waa  the  first  pontiff  who  decreed  a  beU  to 


HOU 


827 


HUN 


HOUBS.  The  day  began  to  be  divided  into  houn  from  the  year  298  B.O.  when 
«L.  Pkpirius  Cursor  erected  a  sun-dial  in  the  temple  of  Quirinus  at  Rome.  Previously 
to  the  invention  of  watei^clocka  (which  tee),  158  B.C.,  the  time  was  called  at  Rome  by 
public  criers.  The  Chinese  divide  the  day  into  twelve  parts  of  two  hours  each.  The 
Italians  reckon  twenty-four  hours  round,  instead  of  two  divisions  of  twelve  hours 
each,  as  we  do.  In  England,  the  measurement  of  time  was,  in  early  days,  alike 
uncertain  and  difficult :  one  expedient  was  by  wax  candles,  three  inches  burning  an 
hour,  and  six  wax  candles  burning  twenty-four  hours  :  these  candles  were  invented  by 
Alfred,  docks  and  hour-glasses  not  being  then  known  in  England,  a-d.  886. 

HUDSON'S  BAT.  Discovered  by  captain  Henry  Hudson,  when  in  search  of  a  norih- 
weet  passage  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  a.d.  1610 ;  but,  in  fact,  this  part  of  North  America 
may  more  properly  be  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  Frobiiher  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  although  Hudson  ventured  further  north.  The  latter,  passing  the  winter 
in  this  bay  on  his  fourth  voyage,  was,  with  four  others,  thrown  by  his  sailors  into  a 
boati  and  left  to  perish.  The  Hudson*Bav  Company  obtained  chartered  possessiona 
here,  in  1670.    The  forts  were  destroyed  by  the  Fi'ench  in  1686  and  1782. 

HUE  AND  CRY.  The  old  common-law  process  of  pursuing  "with  horn  and  with 
voice,'  from  hundred  to  hundred,  and  county  to  county,  all  robbers  and  felons. 
Formerly,  the  hundred  was  bound  to  make  good  all  loss  occasioned  by  the  robberies 
therein  committed,  unless  the  felon  were  taken ;  but  by  subsequent  laws  it  is  made 
answerable  only  for  damage  committed  by  riotous  assemblies.  The  pursuit  of  a  felon 
was  aided  by  a  description  of  him  in  the  Bue  and  Cry,  a  gazette  established  for  adver- 
tising felons  in  1710. — Athe, 

HUGUENOTS.  This  word  is  of  uncertain  derivation.  Dr.  Johnson  derives  it  from 
£ignot$,  confederates.  It  wss  used  as  a  term  of  reproach,  by  the  French  Catholics, 
to  nickname  their  countrymen  of  the  reformed  Churches,  or  Protestants  of  France, 
and  had  its  rise  in  1560.  The  memorable  massacre  of  the  Huguenots  of  France,  on 
the  festival  of  St  Bartholomew,  took  phice  on  August  24,  1572.  See  Bartholomew,  Si. 

HUMILIATI.  A  congregation  of  religions  in  the  Church  of  Rome,  which  wss  formed 
by  some  Milanese  who  had  been  imprisoned  under  Frederick  1. 1162.  The  order 
of  Humiliati  had  more  than  ninety  monasteries ;  but  it  was  abolished  for  luxury  and 
crueltv  by  pope  Pius  Y.  and  their  houses  were  given  to  the  Dominicans,  Cordeliers, 
and  other  communities  of  religious,  in  1570. 

HUNDREDS.  A  Danish  institution ;  a  hundred  being  a  part  or  division  of  a  shire,  so 
called,  as  is  supposed,  from  its  having  been  composed  of  a  hundred  families,  at  the 
time  the  counties  were  originally  divided  by  king  Alfred,  about  a.d.  897.  The 
htmdred-court  is  a  court-baron  held  for  all  the  inhabitants  of  a  hundred  instead  of  a 
manor. — Law  Dictionary, 

HUNGARY.  The  Pannonia  of  the  ancients,  and  subject  to  the  Romans,  11  B.o.  and 
kept  possession  of  by  them  until,  in  the  fourth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  the 
Vandals  drove  them  out  of  it  About  forty  years  afterwards,  the  Vandals  migrated 
towards  Gaul,  and  their  deserted  settlements  were  occupied  by  the  Goths,  who  in 
the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  were  expelled  by  the  Huns,  a  ferocious  tribe  of 
Scythians,  headed  by  Attila,  whose  dreadful  ravages  obtained  him  the  appellation  of 
"  The  Scourge  of  God.**— In  more  recent  times  the  Hungarians  have  been  much 
intermixed  with  Sclavonic  nations,  as  Bohemians,  Croats,  Russians,  and  Vandals; 
besides  German  settlers,  as  Austrians,  Styrians,  Bavarians,  Franks,  Swabians,  Saxons, 
&0.  Hungary  was  annexed  to  the  empire  of  Germany  under  Charlemagne,  but  it 
became  an  independent  kingdom  in  920. 


Stet^en  reoeivas  the  title  of  JpotttiHe 

King  trom.  the  pops  .  a1]>.    9d7 

The  Poles  ovemin  Hungary  .    .  1061 

Dreadflil  Tvnmm  of  tfae  wtan  under 
the  sons  of  Jenghis  Khan,  throughout 
Hungary,  Bohemia,  and  Ruaeia,  1226  tt  Hq. 
Tictoriea  of  Louis  the  Great  in  Bulgaria, 

Servia,  and  Dalmatia  ....  1S42 
Louia  carries  hia  arma  into  Italy  .  .  1S42 
He  diea,  and  the  hiaUny  of  Hungary 


now  preaenta  a  frightftil  catalogue  of 
crimes a.d.  1382 

Charles  Duiaa  is  murdered ;  Elizabeth, 
queen  of  Loui^  is  drowned ;  and  King* 
Mary,  the  daughter,  marries  Bigia- 
muno,  marqueaa  of  Bnmdenbui'g,  and 
CHuaea  the  rivers  of  Htmgary  to  flow 
with  blood 188« 

The  unhappy  Hungaiiana  call  the  Turka 
to  their  aaaiatance 1^^ 


*  The  Hungarian  people  have  or  had  an  irrecondleable  aversion  to  the  name  of  qium:  and  jonse- 
quentJy  whenever  a  female  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Hungary,  she  reigned  with  the  title  ofj»»i^. 
Thus  in  1382,  when  Mary,  the  daughter  of  Charlea  Duras^  came  to  the  crown,  she  waa  atyled  Kwg  Marjf. 


HUN 


328 


HUN 


HUNGARY,  eonHnued. 

Sultan  Bi^azet  vanquiBhea  Sigismund  in 
battle A.D.  1380 

81fi;i6inund  recovers  fh>in  this  blow,  and 
makes  Wallachia  and  Moldavia  tribu- 
tary to  him   13^ 

He  obtains  the  crown  of  Bohemia,  and 
ia  elected  emperor  of  Germany       .    .  1410 

Albert  of  Aiistna  succeeds  to  the  throne 
of  Hungaiy,  thus  laying  the  foundation 
of  the  subeoquent  power  and  greatness 
of  the  house  of  Austria  .  1437 

It  passes  to  the  king  of  Poland  .        .    .  14S9 

Bolyman  IL,  emperor  of  the  Turks,  in- 
TsdesHuxigary,  and  takes  Buda;  battle 
of  Mohats(wAicAiM)     ....  1626 

Buda  sacked  a  second  time  by  the  Turks, 
and  all  the  inhabitants  put  to  the  swora  1540 

Sdavonia  taken  by  the  Turks  .  1540 

Temeswar  taken  by  them  .        .        .    .  1552 

Transylvania  seized  bv  Solyman    .        .1556 

The  duke  of  Lorraine  loees  30,000  men  in 
a  fruitless  attempt  to  take  Buda  trom 
the  Turks 1684 

He  at  length  carries  Buda  by  storm,  and 
delivers  up  the  Mahometans  to  the 
fViry  of  the  soldiers        ....  1686 

Temeswar  wrested  from  the  Turks  by 
prince  Eugene 1716 

Servia  and  wallachia  ceded  to  Turkey  at 
the  peace  of  Belgrade  ....  17S9 

Temeswar  incorporated  with  the  king- 
dom of  Himgary 1778 

The  Protestants  permitted  to  have 
churches  in  Hungary  ....  1784 

[The  people,  some  time  discontented  with 
their  Austrian  rulers,  at  length  break 
out  into  a  formidable  rebellion.] 

Murder  of  the  military  governor,  count 
Lambeig,  byamob.  Bept  28,  1848 

The  Hungarian  diet  appoint  a  provisional 
government  under  H.  Kossuth, Bept  28,  1848 

Battle  between  the  Himgarians  and  the 
Ban  of  Croatia,  tiie  latter  defeated, 

Sept.  S9,  1848 

Count  Latour,  minister  of  war.  assaa- 
winated  in  an  insurrection  at  Vienna, 

Oct.  6,  1818 

The  Hungarian  diet  denoimce  as  traitoni 
all  persons  who  acknowledge  the 
emperor  of  Aiistria  as  king  of  Him- 
gary   Dea  8,  1848 

The  insurgents  defeated  by  the  Austrians 
at  Ssiksso      ....    Dec.  88,  1848 


They  are  defeated  at  Mohr  by  the  baa      « 
Jellachich.  .        Dec  20.  1848 

Driven  across  the  Wasg  .  Jan.  2,  1849 

Buda-Pesth  taken  .        .  Jan.  5,  1849 

Kossuth  retires  with  his  forces  to 
Debreczin      ....      Jan.  5,  1849 

The  Hungarians  defeat  the  Imperialista 
before  Qrsn  .       April  17,  1S49 

The  Austrians  are  oUiged  to  evacuate 
Peeth April  18,  1849 

March  of  the  Russian  army  through  Oal- 
Uda  to  assist  the  Austr&ns       May  1.  1849 

The  emperors  of  Russia  and  Austria  lutve 
an  interview  at  Warsaw       .    May  2S,  1849 

Battle  between  the  Austro-Ruasian 
troopa  and  the  Hungariana ;  the  latter 
retreat  across  the  ¥^uig  .       June  21,  1849 

Battle  of  Acs  between  the  Hunoariana 
and  Austrians  J^ly^  1849 

The  Hunga^ianB  defeat  the  ban  Jdla^ 
chich         ....        July  14,  1849 

The  Hungarians  are  defeated  by  the 
RuBsiana,  and  OOrgey  retreata  after  a 
three  days' batUe .  .   July  15,  1849 

Battle  before  Komom  between  the 
insurgents  and  the  Austro-Roaaiui 
army July  16,  1849 

The  insuigenta  under  Bern  enter  Mol- 
davia       Julv  28,  1849 

They  are  again  defeated  by  the  Rusmana, 

July  31,  1849 

Utter  defeat  of  the  Hungarian  army 
before  Temeawar  by  general  Haynau, 

Aug.  9,  1849 

[Kossuth  and  Bern  escape  to  theTorkiah 
ftx>ntierB.] 

They  are  placed  under  the  protection  of 
Turkey  at  New  Orsova    .        Aug.  22,  1849 

The  fortress  of  Komom  surrenders  to 
the  Austrians  .  Sept  28,  1849 

[This,  and  the  surrender  of  varioua  other 
places,  dosea  the  war.] 

Batthyanl  tried  at  Peath,  and  ahot ;  and 
many  other  chieft  of  the  inauigenta 
put  to  death     ....  Oct  6,  1849 

Amneaty  of  the  Austrian  emperor  to  the 
Hungarian  inautgenta,  who  return 
home Oct  30,  1849 

Bem  diea  at  Aleppo     .  Dec  10,  1859 

The  country  in  an  unaetUed  state ;  many 

executiona 1853-5 

See  Turkey. 


KINGS  OF  HX7NGARY. 


997.  Stephen,  duke  of  Hungary ;  he  eata- 
blishes  the  Roman  Catholic  religion, 
and  receives  from  the  pope  the  title 
of  Apostolic  King,  still  borne  by  the 
emperor  of  Austria,  aa  king  of 
Himgary. 

1088.  Peter,  the  German :  deposed. 

1041.  Aba  or  Owen. 

1044.  Peter,  again:  again  depoeed,  and  hia 
eyea  put  out 

1047.  Andrew  I. :  deposed. 

1061.  BeU  I. :  killed  by  the  fall  of  a  ruinous 
tower. 

1064.  Balamon,  eon  of  Andrew. 

1075.  Geisa  I.  son  of  BuU. 

1077.  Ladislna  I.  sumamed  the  Pious. 

1095.  Coloman,  son  of  GeLaa. 

1114.  Stephen,  sumamed  Thunder. 

1181.  Bela  11. :  had  his  eyes  put  out 

1141.  Geisa  II. :  succeeded  by  his  son, 

1161.  Stephen  III. :  suooeedecl  by  his  brother. 

1174.  Bela  III. :  succeeded  by  hia  aon, 

1196.  Emerio:  succeeded  by  his  aon. 


1204.  r^lalaa  II. :  roigned  six  mouUm  only : 

succeeded  by 

1205.  Andrew  II.  son  of  Bela  IIL 
1235.  BelalY. 

1270.  Stephen  lY.  his  son. 

1272.  Ladialaa  III. :  klUed. 

1290.  Andrew  III.  sumamed  the  Venetiao, 

son  of  Rodolph  of  Hapabur^g,  emperor 

of  Germany. 
1809.  Charobert,  or  Charlee-Robett. 
1342.  Louis  the  Great ;  elected  king  of  Ftalaixd 

in  1370. 
1382.  Mary,  called  King  Mary,  daughter  of 

Louia  the  Great 
1392.  Mary  and  her  consort  Slgismund:  tha 

latter  became  king  of  Bohemia,  and 

was  elected  emperor  in  1410. 
1437.  Albert,  duke  of  Auatria ;  manied  the 

daughter  of   SIsiamund,   and   ano- 

ceeded  to  the  uirone  of  Hungaiy, 

Bohemia,  and  Germany. 
1440.  ladialaa  lY.  king  of  Polajid,  of  whkh 

kingdom  he  waa  Tiadlalaa  YL 


HUN 


829 


HUS 


HUNGARY,  amtinmed. 

•  1444.  f  Interregnam  ] 

1463.  LadtBlaa  V.  posthumous  Mm  of  Albert^ 
under  the  guardianship  of  the  great 
Huniades:  poisoned. 

1458.  Matthias-Gorvinus.  son  of  Huniades, 
the  late  regent. 

1490.  Lftdislas  VI.  king  of  Bohemia :  the  em- 
peror MaximiGan  laid  claim  to  both 
Kingdoms. 

1516.  liouis  II.  of  Hungary  (I.  of  Bohemia): 
loses  his  life  at  the  battle  of  Mohats, 
ftghtlng  Bgalnst  the  Turkish  emperor 
Solyman  the  Magnificent. 

[In  this  battle  12,000  Hungarians  were 
slain,  200,000  were  carried  away  cap- 
tlTC,  and  the  king,  tailing  firom  his 
hone  into  a  muddy  rivuletk  was 
drowned.] 

/John  Zapolski,  elected  by  the  Hunga- 
rians, and  supported  by  the  sultan 
Solyman,  and 
Ferdinand  I.  king  of  Bohemia,  brother 
to  the  emperor  Charles  v.;  rival  kings. 

Ferdinand  alone  ;  elected  emperor  of 
Oermany  in  1558. 

Maximilian,  son  of  Ferdinand ;  emperor 
in  1654. 

Rodolphus,  son  of  Maximilian ;  emperor 
in  1576. 

Matthias  II.  his  brother;  emperor  in 
1612. 

Ferdinsnd  II.  his  cousin,  emperor. 

Ferdinand  III.  son  of  the  preceding: 
emperor  in  1637. 


1526. 


151L 

156L 

1573. 

1609. 

1619. 
1625. 


164T.  Ferdinand  IV. :  died  in  1654,  three  years 
before  his  (kther. 

1655.  Leopold  I.  son  of  Ferdinand  IIL ; 
emperor  in  1658. 

1687.  Joseph  I.  his  son :  emperor  in  1706. 

1711.  Charles  (Charles  VI.  of  OermanyX  bro- 
ther of  Joseph,  and  nominal  king  of 
Spain  :  succeeded  by  his  daughter, 

1740.  Maria-Theresa,  empress;  surviTed  her 
consort,  Francis  I.  emperor,  firom 
1765  until  1780.    See  Oermany. 

1780.  Joseph  II.  her  son,  emperor  in  1765 : 
succeeded  to  Hungary  on  the  death 
of  his  mother. 

1700.  Leopold  II.  brother  of  Joseph  II.,  em- 
peror :  succeeded  bv  his  son, 

1792.  Fiands  L  ^Francis  II.  as  emperor  of 
Germany) :  in  18  J4  he  became  empe- 
ror of  Autlria  only. 

1835.  Ferdinand  V.  son  of  Francis:  Ferdi- 
nand I.  as  emperor  of  Austria. 

[This  emperor  would  ha^e  been  Ferdl- 
nand  IV.  of  Germany,  but  for  the 
change  of  style  in  1804.] 

1848.  Francis-Joseph,  nephew  of  the  preced- 
ing ;  succeeded  on  the  abdication  of 
his  uncle.  Dec  2, 1848.  The  piuebkmt 
(1857)  King  of  Hungary  and  Bmperor 
of  Austria. 

For  the  last  three  centuries  the  sucoes- 
sion  of  the  kings  of  Hungary  varies 
little  tram  the  succession  of  the  em- 
perors, the  crown  having  continued 
in  the  house  of  Austria. 


On  the  death  of  Charles  VI.  in  1740,  his  daughter  liaria  Theresa,  who  had  married 
into  the  hoose  of  Lorraine,  was  in  danger  of  heing  deprived  of  her  father's  hereditary 
dominions  by  France,  and  also  by  Bavaria ;  but  at  length  overcoming  all  difficulties, 
her  husband  was  elected  emperor,  and  Hungary,  Austria,  and  Bohemia  are  at  this 
time  governed  by  their  descendants.  See  Omnany.  The  crown  of  St.  Stephen  and 
the  royal  insignia  were  found  Sept  8, 1853,  and  conveyed  to  Vienna. 

HUNOERFORD  SUSPENSION-BRIDQE.  Opened  May  1, 1845.  This  is  a  foot-bridge 
over  the  Thames  from  Hungerford'«tatrs  to  the  Belvedere-road,  Lambeth.  It  is  14  feet 
wide,  and  1842  feet  long;  the  length  of  the  central  span,  between  the  two  piers,  is 
676  feet;  and  the  height  of  the  two  towers  is  55  feet  above  the  foootway,  and  84  above 
high  water;  the  piers  are  in  the  Italian  style,  with  the  chains  passing  through  the  attic 
of  each.  The  cost  of  the  masonry  wan  60,000^.;  that  of  the  ironwork  exceeding  700 
tons  in  weight,  17,0001. ;  and  the  cost  of  the  approaches,  13,0002, ;  the  total  amounting 
to  102,245/. ;  architect^  L  K.  Brunei.    This  bridge  is  also  (»lled  Charing-cros9  bridge. 

HUNS.  A  fierce  and  warlike  nation,  occupying  Eastern  Tartaxy  nearly  1200  years ;  they 
were  almost  wholly  exterminated  by  the  Chinese  in  a.d.  93,  and  the  remnants  settled 
on  the  Volga,  and  attacked  the  Roman  allies  on  the  Danube  in  876 ;  but  having  been 
■ubeidiBed  under  Attila,  they  turned  their  arms  towards  G^ermany.  This  latter 
country  and  Scythia  were  conquered  by  them,  about  a.d.  433.  100,000  of  them 
were  slain  on  the  plains  of  Champagne  in  447.  They  were  defeated  by  Charles  the 
Great  in  several  battles  during  eight  years,  and  were  almost  extirpated,  and  soon 
ceased  to  appear  as  a  distinct  nation  after  780.  When  they  settled  in  Pannonia,  they 
gpave  it  the  name  of  Hungary,  iohich  ue  ;  see  also  AUiUi. 

HU8S,  JOHN;  his  MARTYRDOM.  The  clergy  having  instigated  the  pope  to  issue  a 
bull  against  heretics,  Huss,  who  had  been  zealous  to  promote  a  reformation,  was 
dted  to  appear  before  a  council  of  divines  at  Constance  to  give  an  account  of  his 
dootrinesL  To  encourage  him  to  do  so,  the  emperor  Sigismund  sent  him  a  safe 
conduct  and  engaged  for  his  security.  On  the  strength  of  this  pledge  he  presented 
himself  accordingly,  but  was  soon  thrown  into  prison,  and  after  some  months' 
confinement  was  adjudged  to  be  burned  alive.  He  endured  this  dreadfiil  death 
with  magnanimity  and  resignation,  July  6, 1415.  The  same  unhappy  fate  was 
borne  with  the  same  pious  fortitude  and  constancy  of  mind  by  Jerome  of  Praoue, 
the  intimate  companion  of  Huss,  who  came  to  this  council  with  the  generous  design 


HUS  880  HYM 

of  supporting  and  seconding  bis  persecuted  friend;  he,  too,  suffered.  May  30, 1416L 
See  Oranmer,  and  Martyn, 


HUSSARS.  This  species  of  force  originated  in  Poland  and  Hungary;  and  as  they 
more  fitted  for  a  hasty  enterprise  than  a  set  battle,  they  are  supposed  to  bsTe  taken 
their  name  from  the  htuzas  or  shout  they  made  at  their  first  onset.  They  wers 
generally  opposed  to  the  Turkish  horse,  "and  were  oddly  clothed,  having  the  akins 
of  tigers  and  other  wild  beasts  hanging  on  their  backs,  against  bad  weather,  and  wore 
fur  caps,  with  a  cock*8  feather." — Pardon,  Hussars  became  a  British  force  in  the  laat 
century,  but  were  very  differently  attired. 

HUSTINGS,  COUBT  of.  A  very  ancient  court  of  the  city  of  London.  It  is  the  aapmne 
court  of  judicature,  as  the  court  of  common  council  is  of  legislature,  of  that  metropoUa. 
— Allen,  The  court  of  Huatyngi  was  granted  to  the  city  of  London,  to  be  holden  aad 
kept  weekly,  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  ▲.D.  1062. — Bohnn*§  Prwilegia  LcmdmL 
Winchester,  Lincoln,  York,  &&,  were  also  granted  Hustings  courts. 

HUTCHINSONIANa  The  followers  of  the  opinions  of  Mr.  John  Hutchinson,  of  York- 
shire ;  whose  notion  was  that  a  plenum  and  the  air  are  the  principles  of  the  Scripture 
philosophy,  and  whose  scheme  of  reformation  related  to  the  original  language  of  the 
Old  Testament  and  the  true  sense  of  the  Bible. — Eeatheoie,  Mr.  Hutchinson  iiiTentad 
in  1712  a  time-piece  for  finding  the  longitude.    He  died  in  1737. 

HYDE  PARK,  London.  Stretches  from  the  western  extremity  of  the  metropolis  to 
Kensington  gardens,  which  were  formerly  a  part  of  it,  and  oomprises  about  400  acrsa, 
surrounded  by  drives,  with  a  large  winding  sheet  of  water,  called  the  Serpentina 
There  are  seven  entrances,  of  which  that  at  Hyde  Park  comer  was  completed  in  1823 ; 
it  consists  of  a  screen  of  fluted  Ionic  columns,  with  three  archways  for  carriages  and 
two  for  foot  passengers,  united  by  an  open  colonnade ;  all  the  entrances  have 
greatly  improved  within  the  last  few  years.  The  marble  arch  from  Buckingham  _ 
was  set  up  at  Cumberland  g^te,  March  29, 1851.  The  colossal  statue  of  Achilles^ 
from  cannon  taken  in  the  battles  of  Salamanca,  Vittoria,  Toulouse,  and  Waterloo,  and 
inscribed  to  "Arthur,  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  his  brave  companions  in  ann%  by 
their  countiy women,"  was  erected  on  June  18,  1822.  In  this  park  was  erected  the 
Crystal  Palace  for  the  Exhibition  of  1851.  See  Oiytal  Palaee  and  EsdkibUUm  of  1851. 
Disturbances  occurred  here  on  Sundays,  June  25,  and  July  1  and  8, 1855,  in  cooae- 
quenoe  of  a  Sunday  bill  having  been  brought  before  parliament,  by  lord  Robert 
Grosvenor,  which  was  eventually  withdrawn.  Riotous  meetings  were  also  held  hers  on 
Sundays,  Oct  14,  21,  and  28,  in  the  same  year,  on  account  of  the  high  price  of 


HYDROMETER  The  instrument  by  which  is  measured  the  gravity,  density,  and  otber 
properties  of  liquids.  The  oldest  mention  of  the  hydrometer  occurs  in  the  fifth  century, 
and  may  be  found  in  the  letters  of  Synesius  to  Hypatia ;  but  it  is  not  improbable  that 
Archimedes  was  the  inventor  of  it,  though  no  proofe  of  it  are  to  be  found. — Ptiimnnn. 
Hypatia  was  torn  to  pieces,  415  ▲.D.,  and  Archimedes  was  killed  in  212  B.a 

HYDROPATHY.  A  term  applied  to  a  treatment  of  diseases  commonly  called  the  oold 
water  cure.  The  system  was  suggested  in  1828  by  Vincenz  Priessnit^  of  Ormfenbei^ 
in  Austrian  Silesia ;  and  though  he  is  considered  as  its  founder,  the  doctrine  was 
previously  understood  and  maintained  by  the  eminent  Dr.  Sydenham^  before  1689L 
Priessnitz  died  Nov.  26, 1851. — Brtmde, 

HYDROSTATICS  were  probably  first  studied  in  the  Alexandrian  school  about  800  B  a 
The  pressure  of  fluids  was  discovered  by  Archimedes,  about  250  B.a  The  forciag 
pump  and  air  fountain  were  invented  by  Hero,  about  120  KO.  Water-milla  were 
known  about  the  time  of  the  birth  of  Christ.  The  science  was  revived  by  Galileo^ 
about  A.D.  1600.  The  theoiy  of  rivers  was  scientifically  understood  in  1697.  The 
correct  theory  of  fluids  and  oscillation  of  waves,  explained  by  Newton,  in  1714.  A 
scientific  form  was  given  to  hydrodynamics,  by  Bemouilli,  1788. 

HYMEN,  FESTIYAI^  of.  Hymenseus,  an  Athenian  youth  of  extraordinary  beanty,  but 
low  origin,  became  enamoured  of  the  daughter  of  one  of  the  noblest  of  his  ooontry- 
men;  but  as  the  rank  of  his  mistress  removed  him  from  her  presence,  he  followed 
her  wherever  she  went,  disguised  as  a  woman.  In  a  procession  of  matrons  to  Eleasis, 
his  mistress,  among  others,  was  seized  by  a  band  of  pirates,  and  he,  alter  sharing  in 
her  captivity,  succeeded  in  her  rescue,  tiis  marriage  with  the  object  of  his  paasxco 
followed ;  and  Hymen leus  experienced  so  much  felicity  in  his  marriage  statoy  thai  the 
people  of  Athens  instituted  festivals  in  his  honour,  and  solemnly  invoked  him  at  their 


HTM  S81  ICO 

* 

nnptialfl,  belieyixig  that  without  the  aid  of  Hymen  no  union  of  love  could  be  happy  or 
fortunate,  about  1350  B.O. 

Hymns.  Religious  songs  or  odes,  were  at  first  used  by  the  heathens  in  praise  of  their 
lalse  deities,  and  afterwards  introduced  both  into  the  Jewish  and  Christian  Churches. 
8t  Hilary,  the  bishop  of  Aries,  in  France,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  composed 
hymns  to  be  sung  in  Christian  churches,  about  a.d.  481.  The  hymns  of  the  Jews 
were  usually  accompanied  with  trumpets,  drums,  and  cymbals. 


I. 

IAMBIC  VERSE.  lambe,  an  attendant  of  Metanira,  wife  of  Celeus,  king  of  Sparta,  when 
trying  to  exhilarate  Ceres,  while  the  latter  was  travelling  over  Attica  in  quest  of  her 
daughter  Proserpine,  entertained  her  with  jokes,  stories,  and  poetiod  effusions;  and 
from  her  free  and  satirical  verses  have  been  called  lambia. — ApoUodonu,  Iambic 
Teraes  were  first  written,  about  700  B.a  by  Archilochus,  who  had  courted  Neobule, 
the  daughter  of  Lycambes;  but  after  a  promise  of  marriage  the  &ther  preferred 
another  suitor,  richer  than  the  poet ;  whereupon  Archilochus  wrote  so  bitter  a  satire 
on  the  old  man's  avarice,  that  he  hanged  himsel£ — Herodottu, 

ICS.  Qalileo  was  the  first  who  observed  ice  to  be  lighter  than  the  water  which  com- 
posed it»  and  hence  ice  floats :  about  1597.  Ice  produced  in  summer  by  means 
of  chemical  mixtures,  prepared  by  Mr.  Walker,  and  others,  in  1782.'  Leslie  froze 
water  under  the  receiver  of  an  air-pump  by  placing  under  it  a  vessel  fiill  of  oil 
of  vitriol.  One  part  of  sal*ammonia  and  two  of  oonmion  salt,  with  five  of  snow, 
produced  a  degree  of  cold  twelve  degrees  below  the  zero  of  Fahrenheit.  Five 
parts  of  muriate  of  lime  and  four  •f  snow  freeze  mercury ;  and  mercury  can  be 
solidified  by  preparations  of  sulphuric  acid,  bo  as  to  bear  the  stroke  of  a  hammer. 
— See  Cold.  In  1841  there  were  sixteen  companies  in  Boston,  U.S.,  engaged  in 
exporting  ice,  brought  from  Wenham,  Fresh  and  Spy  Ponds,  about  18  miles  from 
that  city.  The  trade  was  begun  by  Mr.  Tudor  in  1806.  156,540  tons  were  sent 
from  Boston  alone  in  1854.  In  New  York,  in  1855,  805,000  tons  were  stored  up,  of 
which  20,000  were  for  exportation. 

ICELAND.  Discovered  by  some  Norwegian  chiefs  who  were  compelled  to  leave  their 
native  country,  a.d.  871 ;  according  to  some  accounts,  it  had  been'  previously  visited 
by  a  Scandinavian  pirate.  It  was  peopled  by  the  Norwegians  in  874.  In  1783,  there 
occurred  here  the  most  tremendous  volcanic  eruption  on  record ;  it  was  accompanied 
by  violent  wind  and  rain,  ^d  a  darkness  of  the  heavens;  and  it  was  feared  that  the 
island  would  fall  to  pieces.  Three  fire<«pouts  broke  out  on  Mount  Skapta,  which,  after 
rising  to  a  considerable  heighth  in  the  air,  formed  a  torrent  of  red-hot  lava  that  flowed 
for  six  weeks,  and  ran  a  distance  of  60  miles  to  the  sea,  in  a  broken  breadth  of  nearly 
12  miles ;  12  rivers  were  dried  up ;  21  villages  totally  overwhelmed  by  Are  or  water ; 
and  84  others  were  materially  injured. 

**  ICH  DIEN,"  I  serve.  The  motto  under  the  plume  of  ostrich  feathers  found  in  the 
helmet  of  the  king  of  Bohemia  after  he  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Cressy,  at  which  he 
served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  French  army.  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  in  veneration  of 
his  father,  Edward  III.,  who  commanded  that  day,  though  the  prince  won  the  battle, 
adopted  this  motto,  which  has  ever  since  been  borne  with  the  feathers,  by  the  heirs  to 
the  crown  of  England ;  but  not  aa  princes  of  Wales,  which  many  have  erroneously 
maintained :  Aug.  26, 1346. 

ICONOCLASTIC  SCHISM.  The  great  controversy  respecting  images  was  begun  by  the 
Iconoclastics  (image-breakers)  about  a.d.  726,  and  occasioned  many  insurrections  in 
the  Eastern  Empire.  Leo  Isauricus  published  two  edicts  for  demolishing  images  in 
churches  in  that  year.  These  edicts  the  emperor  put  in  force  with  great  rigour  in 
786,  when  all  the  images  within  the  empire  were  destroyed,  and  the  monks  persecuted. 
Hie  defenders  of  images  were  again  persecuted  with  dreadful  severity  in  752  and  in 
761 ;  and  in  the  latter  year  Constantine  forbade  his  subjects  becoming  monks.  The 
worship  of  images  was  restored  in  780.  This  schism  was  the  occasion  of  the  second 
council  of  Nice,  782.  Theophilus  banished  all  the  painters  and  statuaries  from  the 
Eastern  Empire  on  account  of  his  hatred  of  images,  832.  The  contests  between  those 
who  detested  and  abhorred  images  and  their  opponents  led  to  the  most  frightful 
scenes^  in  which  thousands  perished. 


IDE  882  IMP 

IDES.  In  the  Roman  Calendar,  the  ides  meant  the  thirteenth  day  of  each  month,  exoept 
in  March,  May,  July,  and  October,  in  which  months  it  was  the  fifteenth  day,  becaoaa 
in  these  four  it  was  six  days  before  the  nones,  and  in  the  other  months  four  days. 
The  Ides  of  March  was  the  day  on  which  Julius  CsBsar  was  aBsasaiuated  in  the  aenate 
house  by  Cases  and  other  conspirators,  ii  b.c. 

IDIOTS.  It  is  shown  by  late  returns,  that  exdusiyely  of  lunatics,  there  are  in  England, 
pauper  idiots,  or  idiots  protected  in  national  institutions,  males,  8872 ;  females,  S89S : 
total,  7266.  In  England  there  is  one  lunatic  or  idiot  in  every  1038  individuals ;  in 
Wales  there  is  one  in  every  807 ;  in  Scotland,  one  in  731 ;  and  in  Ireland,  one  in  812. 
For  laws  relating  to  idiots,  see  Lunacy. 

IDOLS  AKD  IDOLATRY.  The  public  worship  of  idols  was  mtroduoed  by  Ninas,  king  of 
Assyria,  2059  ac. —  Vossifu,  Idols  are  supposed  to  have  originated  m  the  pillar  set 
up  by  Jacob,  at  Bethel,  about  1800  B.o. — Dufreanoy,  Constantine,  emperor  of  Borne, 
ordered  all  the  heathen  temples  to  be  destroyed,  and  all  sacrifices  to  cease,  830  A.n. 
— Ihrfretnoy,  In  Britain,  the  religion  of  the  Druids  gave  way  to  the  more  groaa  and 
barburous  superstitions  of  the  Saxons,  who  had  their  idols,  altars,  and  temples,  and 
they  soon  overspread  the  country  with  them ;  they  had  a  god  for  every  day  in  the 
week.  See  Week,  The  idolatry  of  the  Saxons  yielded  to  Christianity  after  the  coming 
of  St.  Augustin.    See  Chriitianity, 

ILIUM.  A  city  was  built  here  by  Dardanus,  and  called  Dardania,  1480  B.a  Troy 
{which  Me),  another  city,  was  founded  by  Troas,  about  1841  B.a ;  and  Dus,  his 
successor,  called  the  country  Ilium,  This  kingdom  existed  296  years  from  the  reign 
of  Dardanus,  Priam  being  IJie  sixth  and  last  king.  The  Trojan  war  was  undertaken 
by  the  united  states  of  Greece  to  recover  Helen,  whom  Paris,  son  of  Priam,  had 
borne  away  from  her  husband,  Menelaus,  king  of  Sparta,  1204  B.o.  More  than 
100,000  warriors  engaged  in  this  expedition ;  and  the  invaders,  having  wasted  many 
defenceless  towns  and  villages,  laid  siege  to  the  capital,  1198  b.o.  Troy  was  taken 
after  ten  years'  war  by  stratagem,  and  burnt  to  ashes  by  the  conquerors,  who  put  the 
inhabitants  to  the  sword,  or  carried  them  off  as  slaves,  1184  B.a 


ILLUMINATED  BOOKS  and  PAGES.    The  practice  of  adopting  ortiaments, 

and  emblematical  figures,  and  even  portraits,  to  enrich  MS&,  is  of  great  antiquity; 
and  illuminated  pages  are,  many  of  them,  exquisitely  painted.  Varro  wrote  the  lives 
of  700  illustrious  Romans,  which  he  embellished  with  their  likenesses,  about  70  b.c. — 
Plin.  Hitt,  Nal.  Some  beautiful  missals  and  other  works  were  printed  in  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries,  et  teq.;  and  fine  specimens  in  imitation  have  lately  appeared 
from  the  houses  of  eminent  booksellers  in  London.       , 

ILLUMINATI.  These  were  heretics  who  sprang  up  in  Spain,  where  they  were  oalled 
Alumbrados,  about  a.d.  1575;  and  after  their  suppression  in  Spain,  they  appeared  in 
France.  One  of  their  leaders  was  friar  Anthony  Buchet.  The  chief  doctrine  of  this 
sect  was,  that  they  obtained  grace,  and  attained  perfection,  by  their  own  aublime 
manner  of  prayer.  A  secret  society  bearing  this  name  was  founded  by  Dr.  Adam 
Weishaupty  in  May,  1776. 

IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION.    See  ConeepHon. 

IMPEACHMENT.  The  first  impeachment  by  the  commons  house  of  parliament,, 
and  the  first  of  a  lord  chancellor,  was  in  1886.  By  statute  12  &  18  Will,  k' 
Mary,  it  was  enacted,  that  no  pardon  under  the  great  seal  shall  be  pleaded  to  aa 
impeachment  by  the  commons  in  parliament,  1699  and  1700.  Memorable  impeach- 
ment of  Warren  Hastings,  Feb.  18, 1788;  the  trial  lasted  seven  years,  ending  April  25, 
1795,  in  an  acquittal.  Impeachment  of  lord  Melville,  April  29,  and  his  acquittal, 
Jime  12,  1806.  Inquiry  into  the  chaiges  preferred  by  colonel  Wardle  against  the 
duke  of  York,  commenced  Jan.  26,  and  ended  March  20, 1809,  in  his  acquittaL  Trial 
of  Caroline,  queen  of  Geoi^  lY.,  by  bill  of  pains  and  penalties,  before  the  house  of 
lords,  commenced  Aug.  16;  Mr.  Brougham  entered  on  her  majesty's  defence,  Oct.  3; 
and  the  last  debate  on  the  bUl  took  place  Nov.  10, 1820.    See  Qucm  of  Cfeorffc  17, 

IMPERIAL  PARLIAMENT.  By  the  Union  with  Ireland,  the  parliament  of  Great  Britain 
became  Imperial;  and  the  first  Imperial  parliament,  admitting  100  Irish  membeta 
into  the  commons,  and  28  temporal,  and  4  spiritual  peers,  into  the  house  of  lord% 
was  held  at  Westminster,  Jsn.  22, 1801.  The  Imperial  parliament  is  now  oonstiiat«d 
thus:  in  the  Commons,  since  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  {yahich  lee),  in  1832, 


IMP 


838 


IMP 


theraare  469  English;  29  Welsh;  105  Irish;  and  53  Scotch  membera— in  all  656. 
In  the  Lords,  455  members,  of  whom  28  are  temporal,  and  i  spiritual  representative 
peers  of  Ireland;  and  16  representative  peers  of  Scotland.  See  Commom,  Lordi, 
ParUamentt  and  Reform. 

IMPORTS  OF  MERCHANDISE.  The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  amount  of  imports 
into  Great  Britain,  at  different  periods  in  the  last  aod  present  century.  It  shows,  with 
the  statement  of  the  value  of  British  exports  (see  ExporU),  the  progressive  and  vast 
improvement  of  our  commercial  intercourse  with  other  countries : — 

VALUE  OV  DCP0RT8  IITTO  GRSAT  BRITAIir,  FROM  ALL  PARTS  OF  TBI   WORLD. 


In  1710 
1750 
1775 
1800 


.  ie4.753.777 
.  7,2.S9,583 
.  14.815.855 
.  30,570,005 


In  1810  . 
1820 
1830. 
1840 


£41.130.135 
.  86.514,564 
.  46.345,241 
.  62,004,000 


In  1845 
1850 
1851 
1856 


.  £85.281.058 
.  05,252.084 
.  103.570.582 
.  173,654,823 


IMPOSTORS.  The  names  and  pretensions  of  religious,  political,  and  other  impostors 
would  fill  a  volume ;  they  have  been  of  every  country,  of  every  age.  The  following 
are  selected  from  various  authorities,  as  being  among  the  most  extraordinary : — 


Aldebert,  who,  fai  the  eighth  centux^,  pre- 
tended he  had  a  letter  from  the  Redeemer, 
which  fell  from  heaven  at  Jerusalem;  he 
aeduoed  multitudes  to  follow  him  into 
wooda  and  forests,  and  to  live  in  imitation 
of  John  the  Baptist 

Oonsalro  Martin,  a  Spaniard,  pretended  to  be 
the  angel  Michael ;  he  was  burnt  by  the 
inquisition  in  Spain,  in  1360. 

George  David,  son  of  a  waterman  at  Qbent, 
styled  himself  the  nephew  of  Ood,  sent  into 
the  world  to  adopt  children  worthy  of 
heaven :  he  denied  the  resurrection, 
preached  against  marriage,  in  favour  of  a 
community  of  women,  and  taught  that  the 
body  only  could  be  defiled  by  sin :  he  had 
many  fuUowerB ;  died  at  Basle,  1556. 

Demetrius  Oriska  Eutropeia,  a  friar,  pre- 
tended to  be  the  son  or  Basilowitz,  caar  of 
Muscovy,  whom  the  usurper  Boris  had  nut 
to  death  ;  but  he  maintained  that  another 
child  had  been  substituted  in  his  place ;  he 
was  supported  by  the  arms  of  Poland ;  his 
success  astonished  the  Rusnians,  who  in- 
vited him  to  the  throne,  and  delivered  into 
his  hands  Fedor,  the  reigning  czar,  and  all 
his  fiunily,  whom  he  cruelly  put  to  death  : 
his  impc«ition  being  discovered,  he  was  as- 
sassinated in  his  pauu»,  1606.— i)'i4I«m&cr<*i 
RetobUion*  of  Jttutia. 

Sabbata  Levi,  a  Jew  of  Smyrna,  amused  the 
Turks  and  Jevrs  a  long  time  at  Constanti- 
nople and  other  places,  by  personatiBg  Our 
Saviour,  1666. 

IMPOSTORS  EZTRAOBDmART  IN  BRinSH 
HISTORY. 

Two  men  executed,  both  pretending  to  be  the 
Messiah  ;  and  two  women  executed  for  as- 
suming to  be  the  Virgin  Mary  and  Mary 
Magdalen,  5  Hen.  III.  1221 ;  and  1225. 

Elizabeth  Barton,  styled  the  Holy  Maid  of 
Kent,  spirited  up  to  hinder  the  Reiormation, 
by  pretending  to  inspirations  from  heaven, 
foretelling  thftt  the  king  would  have  an 
early  and  violent  death  U  he  divorced  Ca- 
therine of  Spain,  and  married  Anne  Boleyn. 
She  and  her  confederates  were  hanged  at 
Tyburn,  24  Hen.  VIII.  1534.— JZapin. 


In  the  first  year  of  Mary's  rei|irn,  after  her 
marriage  with  Philip  of  Spam,  Elizabeth 
Croft,  a  girl  of  18  years  of  age,  was  secreted 
in  a  wall,  and  with  a  whistle,  made  for  the 
purpose,  uttered  many  seditious  speeches 
against  the  queen  and  the  prince,  and  aLio 

r'ust  the  mass  and  confession,  for  which 
was  sentenced  to  stand  uix>n  a  scaffold 
at  St.  Paul's  Cross,  during  Sermon-time,  and 
miUce  public  confession  of  her  imposture, 
1553  :  she  was  called  the  Spirit  of  the  WalL 
— Baker**  Chronicle. 

WUliam  Hacket,  a  fanatic,  personated  Our 
Saviour,  and  was  executed  for  blasphemy, 
84Eliz.,  1691. 

Valentine  Oreatrakes,  an  Irish  impostor,  who 
pretended  to  cure  all  diraases  oy  stroking 
the  patient ;  his  imposture  deceived  the  cre- 
dulous, and  occasioned  very  warm  disputes 
in  Ireland  in  1665,  and  in  England,  where 
it  fell  into  disrepute,  in  16<}6,  upon  his 
examination  before  the  Royal  Society,  after 
which  wo  hear  no  more  of  him. — Birek'i 
Memovn  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Dr.  Titus  Oates.    See  Coiupiraeia. 

Toung.  a  prisoner  in  Newgate  foives  the 
hands  of  the  earls  of  Marlborough,  SaBsbury, 
and  other  nobility,  to  a  pretended  associ- 
ation for  restoring  Idng  James :  the  lords 
were  imprisoned,  but  the  imposture  beint; 
detected.  Young  was  afterwards  fined  lOOOi. 
and  put  in  the  pillory,  1692. 

Three  French  refiigees  pretend  to  be  pro- 
phets, and  raise  tumults,  6  Anne,  ITOV. — 
Mortimer'i  JnwUi. 

Mary  Tofts  of  Godalming.  by  pretending  she 
brod  rabbits  within  her,  so  imposed  upon 
many  persons  (among  others,  Mr.  St  Anare, 
surgeon  to  the  king,)  that  they  espoused 
her  cause,  1726. 

The  Cock-lane  ghost  imposture  by  William 
Parsons,  his  wife  and  daughter,  1762.  See 
Cock-lane  Qhott. 

Johanna  Southcote,  who  proclaimed  her  con- 
ception of  the  Messiah,  and  bad  a  multitude 
of  followers  ;  she  died  in  Dec.,  1814. 

W.  Thorn.    See  ThomiUe, 

Joseph  Smith.    See  Mormonilei, 


IMPRESSMENT  of  SEA.MEK.  Affirmed  by  sir  M.  Foster  to  be  of  ancient  practice. 
The  statute  2  Rich.  11.  speaks  of  impressment  as  a  matter  well  known,  1378.  The 
first  commission  for  it  was  issued  29  Kdw.  III.  1855.  Pressing,  either  for  the  sea  or 
land  service,  declared  to  be  illegal  by  the  British  parliament,  Dec  1641.  None 
can  be  pressed  into  the  king's  naval  service  above  65,  nor  under  18.  No  apprentices 
nor  landsmen  who  have  not  served  at  sea  for  three  or  two  years.  No  masters  of 
merchants'  ships,  first-mates  of  50  tons,  and  boatswains  and  carpenters  of  100  tons. 


IMP  384  INC 

No  men  employed  by  the  public  boards,  and  none  except  by  an  officer  with  a 
prees  warrant.    Impreoament  was  not  resorted  to  in  the  Roaaian  war  1864-6. 

IMPBISONliSNT  FOB  DEBT.    See  articles,  ArreH,  Debtors,  and  Pararf  ArraL 

IMPROPRIATIONS.  Before  the  suppression  of  the  monasteries  by  Henry  VIII.  at  the 
period  of  the  Reformation,  the  abbots  and  superiors  of  them  had  many  rich  livings  in 
their  possession.  The  great  tithes  they  kept  to  themselves,  allowing  the  small  ones 
to  the  vicar  or  substitute  who  served  in  the  church.  On  the  suppression  of  abbeys, 
their  incomes  from  the  great  tithes  were  distributed  among  his  courtiera  by 
Henry  VIII. ;  and  their  successors,  by  inheritance  or  purchase,  constitute  the  7697 
lay  impropriators  who  have  made,  and  stUl  make,  a  traffic  of  these  benefices. 

INCENDIARIES.  The  punishment  for  arson  was  death  by  the  Saxon  laws  and  Gothic 
constitutions.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  L  incendiaries  were  burnt  to  death.  This 
crime  was  made  high  treason  by  statute  8  Hen.  YI.  1429 :  and  it  was  denied  benefit 
of  cleigy,  21  Hen.  YIIL  1628.  Great  incendiary  fires  commenced  in  and  about 
Kent,  in  August,  1880 ;  and  in  Suffolk  and  other  counties  since.  The  punishment  of 
death  remitted,  except  in  special  oases  (see  Arwn)^  7  &  9  Gea  IV.  1827-9.  These 
acts  amended,  1  Vict  1837;  and  again,  in  relation  to  farming  property,  1844. 

INCENSE.  An  aromatic  and  odorous  gum  that  issues  out  of  a  tree,  called  by  the 
ancients  iku/rifera,  and  the  leaves  whereof  are  like  those  of  a  pea]>tree.  In  the  dog^ 
days  they  make  incisions  in  this  tree,  and  so  extract  the  gum.  Both  the  heathens 
and  the  Jews  offered  incense  in  their  sacrifices:  the  Jewish  priests,  morning  and 
evening,  burnt  incense,  and  upon  the  great  day  of  expiation  the  high-priest  took 
incense  pounded,  and  ready  to  be  put  into  the  censer,  with  a  spoon,  and  threw  it 
upon  the  fire  the  moment  he  entered  the  sanctuary.  Sometimes  the  fitt  of  the  victims 
offered  was  G»lled  by  this  name,  as  1  (7Aron.  v.  40.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
following  the  example  of  the  Jews,  burnt  incense,  made  of  rosin  and  sweet  substances. 

INCOME  TAX  This  is  not,  as  some  suppose,  a  new  impost  In  1612,  parliament 
granted  a  subsidy  of  two-fifteenths  from  the  commons,  and  two-tenths  from  the 
clergy,  to  enable  the  king  to  enter  on  a  war  with  France. — Bapin,  This  tax  waa 
attempted  in  1798  and  1799;  and  again  in  1802;  but  was  abandoned.  In  1803,  it 
was  revived  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent  on  all  incomes  above  1602.  and  lower  rates  on 
smaller  incomes.  In  1806,  it  was  incressed  to  64  per  cent. ;  and  in  1806,  was  raised 
to  10  per  cent,  embracing  the  diridends  at  the  bank.    It  produced — 

In  1804,  at  1«.  in  the  pound  £4,060,000  I  In  1800,  at  2«.  in  the  pound       .    £11,500.000 

In  1805.  at  1«.  Sd.    ditto  .    6,937,600  |  And  aubaequently  ....  lfi;548,(»85 

The  tax  produced  from  lands,  houses,  rentages,  &c.  8,667,9S7/L;  from  funded  and  stock 
properties,  2,886,6062.;  the  profits  and  gains  of  trade,  8,881,0882.;  and  salaries  and 
pensions,  1,174,4661. ;  total,  sixteen  millions  and  a  half.  Repealed  in  March,  18I6L 
Sir  Robert  Peel's  bill,  imposing  the  present  tax  at  a  rate  of  21.  18t.  id,  per  emL  per 
cmn.  to  subsist  for  three  years,  passed  June  22, 1842 ;  it  produced  about  6,S60,000(L 
a-year,  and  enabled  sir  Robert  Peel  to  repeal  about  12,000,0002.  of  indirect  taxes. 
This  tax  was  renewed  for  three  years  more,  in  March  1846.  It  was  sgain  renewf»d  in 
March,  1848,*  for  another  three  years.  Continued  for  one  year  by  the  14th  Vict  c 
12,  passed  June  6, 1861 ;  and  again  for  another  year,  in  1862.  By  16  &  17  Vict  c  S4, 
June  28, 1868,  the  original  tax  was  limited  to  seven  years,  to  be  gradually  reduced 
in  amount ;  but  all  incomes  from  1002.  to  1602.  were  xnade  liable  to  6c{.  in  the  pound 
for  all  that  period.  The  tax  was  also  extended  to  Ireland.  In  consequence  of  the 
breaking  out  of  the  war,  the  rate  was  doubled  (16  &  17  Yict.  c  24,  June  16, 1854), 
and  by  the  budget  of  1866, 2d,  more  added  to  the  tax  on  incomes  above  1601.  and  IJdL 
on  those  between  1002.  and  1602.  May  3, 1866 :  the  former  being  1<.  id,,  the  latter 
1 1 4d.  in  the  pound.    On  April  if  1867,  the  tax  was  reduced  to  6<2.  and  7(1  in  the  pomsd. 


FBODUCS  OF  THB  INOOIIK  TAX. 


1842  .        .   £571,065 

1844    ....    6.191,697 
1846  .   6,S95,S91 


1648  .  .  .£6.347,865 
18i0  .  .  6,388.087 
1862  ....  6.609,637 


1864  .£7,45^01$ 

1866  ....  13,n8,lS5 
1866  .  16.717,165 


INCUMBERED   ESTATES,  iBKLAifa    A  most  important  act  was  enacted  12  ^  13 
Vict  c.  77,  July  28, 1849,  to  enable  any  owner  of  land,  or  of  a  lease  of  land,  for  not 

*  Laiige  meetings  assembled  in  Trafalgar-square,  London,  March  6,  7.  1848  (for  the  oatenaible 
pun^ose  of  opposing  the  Inoome  Tax^  followed  by  rioting,  which  was  soon  quelled. 


IND 


835 


IND 


lesB  than  sixty  yeara  unexpired,  subject  to  incumbrance,  to  apply,  within  three 
years  from  the  passing  of  the  act,  to  commiasionerB  appointed  under  it  to  direct 
a  sale  of  such  property  ;  or  the  incumbrancer  may  apply,  within  the  same  term,  for 
a  like  sale ;  but  where  the  interest  and  annual  payments  in  respect  of  charges  payable 
out  of  the  annual  income  do  not  exceed  half  the  net  annual  income,  the  commis- 
sioners are  not  to  make  an  order  for  the  sale  of  the  property  on  the  application  of  the 
incumbrancer.  The  number  of  estates  sold  up  to  August  9, 1852,  was  777,  producing 
7,353,736/.  The  commissioners  held  their  first  coart  in  Dublin,  Oct.  24, 1849 ;  and 
property  to  an  immense  amount  has  already  chauged  hands  under  the  act  In  1854, 
a  similar  act  was  passed  for  the  West  Indies,  17  &  18  Yict.  c.  117. 

INDEMNITY  BILL.  A  bill  by  which  the  minister  of  the  crown,  or  the  goTemment 
generally,  is  relicTed  from  the  responsibility  of  measures  adopted  in  extreme  and 
urgent  cases  without  the  previous  sanction  of  Parliament.  A  memorable  bill  of  this 
kind  was  passed,  April  19,  1801.  A  memorable  bill  to  indemnify  ministers  against 
their  abuses  of  power,  during  the  suspension  of  the  ffabeat  Oorpui  act,  was  carried 
in  the  Commons  (principal  diviaionsi  190  to  64);  and  in  Uie  Lords  (98  to  27); 
March  10, 1818. 

INDEPENDENTS,  o&  CONQREQATIONALISTS.  They  are  such  as  hold  the  inde- 
pendency of  the  Church,  or  that  each  oongregation  may  govern  itself  in  religious 
matters.  They  say  there  is  no  absolute  occasion  for  synods  or  councils,  whose  reso- 
lutions may  be  taken  to  be  wise  and  prudent  advice,  but  not  as  decisions  to  be  perempt- 
orily obeyed ;  they  affirm  that  one  Church  may  advise  or  reprove  another,  but  has  no 
authority  to  excommunicate  or  censure.  Robert  Brown  preached  these  views  in 
1585,  but  after  32  imprisonments  conformed  to  the  Establuhed  Church.  A  church 
was  formed  in  Landon  in  1593,  when  there  were  20,000  Independents.  They  were 
driven,  by  persecution,  to  Holland,  where  they  formed  several  churches ;  that  at 
L^den,  under  Mr.  Robinson,  often  regarded  as  the  author  of  Independency.  In 
1616  Henry  Jacobs  returned  to  England  and  founded  a  meeting-house.  Cromwell, 
who  was  himself  of  their  views,  obtained  them  toleration,  in  opposition  to  the  Pres- 
byterians. The  Independents  published  an  epitome  of  their  fidth,  drawn  up  at  a  con- 
ference at  the  Savoy,  in  1658 ;  and  the  Congregational  Union  of  England  and  Wales, 
formed  in  1881,  published  their  "  Declaration  of  Faith,  Order,  and  Discipline,"  in 
1833.  In  1851  they  had  3244  chapels  in  England  and  Wales.  See  Worship.  The 
first  Independents  in  Scotland  were  the  Qlasites,  wAtc&  tee. 

INDEX  EXPURQATORIUS.  A  catalogue  of  books  prohibited  by  the  Church  of  Rome, 
first  made  by  the  inquintors,  and  approved  by  the  coundl  of  Trent.  The  index  of 
heretical  booka»  by  which  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  was  forbidden  (with  certain 
exceptions)  to  the  laity,  was  confirmed  by  a  bull  of  pope  Clement  YIIL  in  1595.  It 
enumerated  most  of  the  celebrated  works  of  France,  Spain,  Qermany,  and  England, 
which  are  still  prohibited. — Aahe. 

INDIA,  OB  HINDOSTAN.  Known  to  the  ancients,  many  of  whose  nations,  particularly 
the  Tyrians  and  Egyptians,  carried  on  much  commerce  with  it.  It  was  conquered 
by  Darius  Hystaspes,  who  formed  an  Indian  satrapy  in  512  B.O.,  and  by  Alexander, 
827  B.O.  and  subsequently  the  intercourse  between  India  and  the  Roman  empire  was 
very  great  The  authentic  history  of  Hindostan  is  reckoned  to  commence  with  the 
conquests  of  Mahmud  Qazni,  a.o.  1000. — Retmell, 


Irmption  of  the  Mahometans,*  under 
Mahmud  Oasui  .      ▲.D.  1000 

Patna,  or  Afghan  empire  founded   .        .  1205 

Reign  of  Jenghis  Khan,  one  of  the  most 
bloody  oonqueron  of  the  world; 
14,000,000  of  the  human  race  perteh  by 
hie  swoid,  under  the  pretence  of  es:a- 
bUshiug  the  worship  of  one  god ;  he 
died 1237 

The  Mogul  Tartars,  under  the  conduct  of 
the  celebrated  Timour,  or  Tsmerlaue, 
invade  HindosUn 1398 

Tamerlane  takes  the  city  of  Delhi ;  defeats 
the  Indian  army,  makes  a  conquest  of 
Hindostan,  and  butchers  100,OuO  of  its 
people 1390 

The  pssMige  to  India  discovered  by  Vnsco 
deOama 1497 


Conquest  of  the  country  (»mploted  by 
the  sultan  Baber,  founder  of  the  Mogul 
empire a.d.  1525 

Reign  of  the  illustrious  Acbar,  the  great- 
est prince  of  Hindostan  .        ...  1555 

Reign  of  Auningsebe;  his  dominions 
extending  fh>m  10  to  85  degrees  in 
latitude,  and  nearly  as  much  m  longi- 
tude, and  his  revenue  amounting  to 
82,000,0001.  sterling       ....  1660 

Invasion  of  the  Persian,  Nadir  Shah,  or 
Kouli  Khan 1733 

At  Delhi  he  orders  a  general  massacre, 
and  150,000  persons  perish  .    .  1738 

He  carries  away  treasure  amounting  to 
135,000,000/.  sterUng     ....  1739 

Defeat  of  the  last  imperial  army  by  the 
RohillAS 1749 


IND 


836 


IND 


INDIA,  conlinued. 

[The  Mogul  empire  now  became  merely 
nominal,  distinct  and  independent  oo- 
vereignUes  being  formed  by  numerous 
petty  princes,  llie  emperors  were  of  no 
political  oonsequence  f^m  this  period.  ] 

BRITIEaa   POWKB  IN  INDIA. 

Attempt  made  to  reach  India  by  the 

north-east  and  north-west  passages    .  1528 
Sir  Francis  Drake's  expedition  .    .  1679 

Levant  company  moke  a  land  expedition 

to  India 1589 

First  adventiue  fVom  Emcland  .  .  .  1691 
First  charter  to  the  London  company  of 

merchants 1600 

Second  charter  to  the  E.  India  Ck>mpany  1000 
Factories  established  at  Surat  .  .  .  1612 
Sir  Thomas  Roe,  first  English  amhtismi- 

dor,  arrives 1616 

Bengal  made  a  distinct  agency  .  .  .  1680 
EngUsh  factory  at  Calcutta  .  .  .  1690 
New  company  established  .  .  .  .  1698 
Calcutta  purchased  ....  1608 
The  companies  united  ....  1702 
English  besiege  Pondicheny,  the  seat  of 
tne  French  government,  without  suc- 
cess    1748 

Oeriah  and    other  strongholds  of   Uie 

pirate  Angria  taken.    QeeAnaria        .  1760 
Capture  of  Calcutta  by  San^ah  Dowla. 

BeoOaleutta 1766 

He  imprisons  146  British  sublects,  of 
whom  123  perish  in  one  night.  See 
SJackhoU  ....  May  19,  1756 
Calcutta  retaken  by  Colonel,  afterwards 
lord  Clive.  He  defeats  the  soubab,  at 
Plassey June  20,  1767 

[Color  el  Clive's  force  was  but  3000  men, 
and  the  soubah's  60.000.  By  this  vic- 
tory he  acquired  all  Bengaf,  and  nu- 
merous conquests  followed.] 

Fort  William,  the  strongest  fort  in  India, 

built 1757 

Conquest  of  Patua  .  Nov.  6,  1763 

Great  battle  of  Buxard ;  the  English 
defeat  60,000  Indians,  kill  6000,  and 
take  ISO  pieces  of  cannon ;  their  own 
loss  being  trifling  .  .  Oct  22,  1764 
Lord  Clive  obtains  the  Dewanny  by  an 
imperial  grant,  which  constitutes  the 
company  the  receivers  of  the  revenue 
of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa,  and  gives 
the  British  the  virtual  sovereignty  of 
these  cotm tries  Aug.  12,  1765 

Treaty  with  Nizam  Ali  .  .  Nov.  12,  1766 
Frightful  famine  in  Bengal  .    .  1770 

Warren  Hastings  becomes  governor  of 

Bengal April  13,  1772 

India  Bill    See  India  BUI .       June  16,  1773 
Supreme  court  established      .        .       .  1778 
Accusations  commence  against  Warren 
Hastings ;  he  is  accused  of  taking  a 
bribe  tram  a  concubine  of  Mir  JaflSer, 
see  Hatting*  May  30,  1775 

Lord  Pigot,  governor  of  Madras,  Dea  11, 1776 
Warren  Hastings  accused  of  receiving 

more  bribes  aiid  presents,    March  11.  1776 
Lord  Pigot  is  arrested ;  he  is  taken  to 

prison,  where  he  dies  .        .  April  17,  1777 
Pondicherry  taken  Oct  11,  1778 

The  stror.g  fortress  of  Gwalior  taken  hy 

m^jor  Popham      .        .        .     Aug.  4,  1778 
Hyder  Ali  ovcmms  the  Camatic,  and 

defeats  the  British  .  Sept.  10.  1780 

He  takes  Arcot  .    Oct.  31.  1780 

Lord  Macartney  arrives  as  governor  of 

Madras June  22,  1781 

Hyder  Ali  signally  defeated  by  sir  Eyre 
Coote July  1,  1781 


Again  signally  defeated  .  .  Aug.  27,  1781 
Warren  Hastings  accused  of  taking  more 

bribes.    See  CkwMr  Sept  19,  IfSl 

Hyder  All  is  at  length  dedaively  over- 
thrown .....     Jime  2,  1782 
Death  of  Hyder,  and  aoceasion  of  his  son, 

TippooSaib  Dec.  11,  1782 

Tippoo,  who  had  taken  Cuddalore,  now 
takes  Bednore  .  April  80,  1783 

Mr.  Fox's  Bill 1783 

Mr.  Pitt's  Bill.    Bee  Board  of  Conlroi, 

and  Ban  India  Bill  .  Aug.  13,  1784 

Warren  Hastings  resigns  .  .  Feb.  8,  1785 
Lord  Comwallis's  government  Sept  1786 
Trial  of  Warren  Hastings.    See  ffaMinff$, 

Trial  of  ...  ,  Feb.  18,  1788 
Bangalore  taken.  See  Bangalort^  Mar.  21,  1791 
Definitive  treaty  with  TIpx>oo ;  his  two 

sons  hostages   .  March  19,  1792 

Criminal  courts  erected  ....  179S 
Civil  courts  erected,  and  drcuita  iq>- 

pointed 1793 

Government  of  air  John  Shore,  after- 
wards lord  Teigumouth  Aug.  6,  1793 
Tippoo's  sons  restored              Mareh  29,  1794 
First  diAmte  with  the  Burmese;  ad- 
justed by  general  Erskine    .       .        .  1795 
Government  of  lord  Momingtonj  after- 
wards marquess  WoUeslev       May  17,  1798 
Seringapatam  stormed,  and  Tippoo  Saib 

kiUed May  4,  1709 

Victories  of  the  British ;  the  Camatic 

conquered 1800 

Victories  of  sir  Arthur  Wellesley  .  .  1803 
Victories  of  general  Lake   .  .    .  1808 

Capture  of  Bhurtpore,  and  complete  de- 

ftatofHolkar  .     April  ^  1805 

Marquess  Corowallis  resumes  the  go- 
vernment. .        July  SO,  1805 
The  marquess  dies  .  Oct  5,  1805 
The  Mahmtta  chief,  Sdndiah,  defeated 

by  the  British 1805 

Treaty  of  peace  with  Scindiah,  Nov.  23,  ]8ti5 
Treaty  with  Holkar    .  Dea  S4,  1805 

Lord  Minto,  govemor^neral,  JulySl,  1S07 
Cumoonasurrendeis  .  Nov.  21,  1807 

Act  by  which  the  trade  to  India  was 
thrown  open  ;  that  to  China  remaining 
with  the  company  .   July  31,  1813 

Marquess  of  Hastings  takes  possesston 

of  the  government   .  .  Oct  4,  1818 

War  declared  against  Nepaul  .  Nov.  1,  1814 
Holkar  defeated  by  sir  T.  Hialop,  Dec  21,  1817 
Peace  with  Holkar  .  Jan.  6,  1818 

Marquess  of  Hastings  resigns  Jan.  9,  1823 
Lord  Amherst's  government  .  Aug.  1,  1828 
The  British  take  Rangoon  .  .  Mav  5.  1824 
Lord  Combermere  commands  in  India  .  1834 
General  Campbell  defeats  the  Burmese 

near  Proome  Doc.  25,  1825 

Bhurtpore  stormed  by  lord  Combermere^ 

and  taken  ....  Jan.  3,  1826 
Peace  with  the  Bunnese     .        Feb.  24,  1826 

[They  pay  1,000,0001.  sterling,  and  cede 
a  great  extent  of  territory.] 

Lord  William  Bentinck  arrives  as  goyer- 

nor-genenJ  ....  J[ilv4^  1S28 
Earl  of  Dalhousie  appointed  oommander- 

in-chief  ....  Feb  25,  1829 
Abolition  of  suttees,  or  the  burning  of 

widows.    See  8uttet$  Dee.  7,  1829 

Act  to  regulate  the  trade  to  China  and 

intercourse  with  India  .  Aug.  tt,  1833 
Act  opening  the  trade  to  India,  and  tea 

traae,  Ac,  to  China,  forming  anew 

era  in  British  commerce ,  Aug.  28, 1833 
Ri^ah  of  Cooig  deposed  .  .  April  10,  1884 
The  natives  first  admitted  to  the  magia- 

txaoy.  ...  May  1,  1834 


IND 


8S7 


IND 


INDIA,  eonHnued. 

Lord  William  Bantinek  returns  to  Kng- 
laod  from  India    .        .        .    Jnly  14,  1885 

Lord  Auckland,  governor-general;  he 
leaves  England         .        .        .     Sept.  1835 

The  Newab  Hhunsoodden  put  to  death 
for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Fraser,  British 
rmident         ....      Oct.  8,  18S5 

The  British  occupy  Candahar,  April  81,  1839 

Battle  of  Ghiznee ;  victory  of  sir  John, 
now  lord  Reane.  (See  Oktenee)  July  83,  1839 

Bhah  Soi^ah  restored  to  his  sovereignty, 
and  he  and  the  British  army  enter 
Gabul Aug.  7.  1839 

English  defeat  Dost  Mahomed,    Oct  18,  1840 

Kurrock  Singh,  king  of  Lahore,  dlM  : 
at  his  funeral  his  successor  is  killed 
by  accident  and  Dost  Mahomed,  next 
heir,  surrenders  to  England,    Nov.  6,  1840 

General  rising  sgainst  the  British  at 
Cabul ;  sir  Alexander  Bumes  and 
other  officers  murdered  Nov.  2,  1841 

Lord  Ellenborough  appointed  governor- 
general      ....         Oct.  18,  1841 

Sir  William  Maenaghten  treacherously 
assassinated  ....    Dec.  25,  1841 


The  British,  under  a  convention,  vea- 
ctiate  Cabul,  placing  lady  Sale,  Ac, 
as  hostages  in  the  hands  of  Akhbar 
Khan ;  a  dreadful  massacre  ensues. 

Jan.  6,  1842 
Ohiznee  evacuated  .  .  March  6,  1842 

Sortie  from  Jellalabad        .         April  6.  1842 
Genera]  England  joins  gener.U  Nott  at 

Candahar  ....  May  9.  1842 
Ohisnee  retaken  by  general  Nott,  Sept  6,  1 84  2 
General  Pollock  re-enters  Cabul,  Sept  16,  1 842 
Lady  Sale,  Ac  ,  are  released,  and  arrive 

at  general  Pollock's  camp  Bei^t  21,  1842 
Lord  EUenborough's  proclamation  from 

Simla Oct.  1,  1842 

Gabnl  evacuated   after  destroying  the 

fortifications     .        .  Oct.  12,  1842 

Ameers  of  Scinde  defeated  by  sir  Charles 
Napier ;  Scinde  is  afterwards  annexed 
to  the  British  empire  .  .  Feb.  17,  18 18 
Battles  of  Maharajpoor  and  Punniar;  the 
strong  fort  of  Gwalior,  the  "  Gibraltar 
of  the  East,**  taken  .  Deo.  29,  1843 

Sir  Henry  Hardinge  appointed  govemor- 
gonenu May  2,  1844 


THV  LAT£  WAR  BKTWKKIf  THE  8IKH8  AKD  THB  BRITISH. 


[This  treacherous  and  unprovoked  war 
was  commenced  by  a  sudden  move- 
ment of  the  Sikh  nation.  J 

The  Sikh  troops  cross  the  Butlei  river, 
and  attack  the  British  post  at  Feroze- 

Eore,   which  was  held  by  sir  John 
ittler Dec.  14,  1845 

The  governor-general,  with  a  huge  force, 
after  a  long  and  rapid  march,  reaches 
Moodkee  ....  Dec.  18,  1845 
The  Sikhs,  20,000  strong,  make  au 
attack;  alter  a  hard  contest  they 
retire,  abandoning  their  guns,  Doc.  18,  1845 

[In  this  battle  sir  Robert  Saleis  mnrtallv 
wounded,  and  gen.  McCaskill  killecL 
Bee  Moodhu.] 

Battle  of  Feroseshah  ;  the  British  com- 
manded by  the  governor-general,  sir 
Hugh  Oough,  sir  Harry  Smith,  sir 
John  littler,  aud  major-general  Gil- 
bert; the  enemy  repulsed,  losing  15 
pieces  of  cannon   .  .    Dec.  21,  1845 

The  battle  is  renewed  the  next  day: 
general  Gilbert  storms  the  enemy's 
positions.    See  Ferousftah        Dec.  22,  1845 

The  enemy  recross  the  Sutlej  unmo- 
lested, after  their  late  discomfiture, 

Dec.  27,  1845 

Sir  Harry  Smith,  advancing  up  the 
Sutl^,  receives  a  severe  check,  Jan.  21,  1848 

BatUe  of  Aliwal;  the  Sikhs  defeated. 
QeeJlimilandSutUj     .        .    Jan.  28,  1846 

Great  battle  of  Sobraon  ;  the  enemv  de- 
feated with  immense  loss  in  kiUea  and 
drowned.    SeeAoftraon   .         Feb.  10,  1846 

[The  Sikhs  lost  10,000  men ;  the  British 
2338  in  kiUed  and  wounded.] 

The  citadel  of  Lahore  is  occupied  by  the 
British  under  sir  Hugh  Oough  ;  and 
the  war  terminates  .    Feb.  20,  1846 

Sir  R.  Sale  dies  of  his  wounds  received 
at  Moodkee       .  Feb.  23,  1846 

Treaty  of  Lahore  signed  by  the  Mahara- 
jah and  the  British  .  March  9,  1846 

Tne  governor-general  and  sir  Hugh 
Gough  are  reused  to  the  peerage,  as 
viscount  Hardinge  and  bojxm  Gough, 
and  receive  the  thanks  of  parliament 
and  of  the  East  India  Company, 

March  2,  6,  1846 


Treaty  of  Lahore  signed  .        .  March  9,  1846 

Vizier  Llall  Singh  deposed  .        Jan.  13,  1847 

Earl  (afterwards  marquess  of)  Dalhousie 
appointed  governor-general      Aug.  4.  1847 

Mr.  Vans  Agnew  and  lieut  Anderson 
killed  in  a  ouarrel  with  the  troops  of 
the  dewan  MoolnJ  .  Apru  18,  1848 

Lieut  Edwardea  most  gallantly  engages 
the  army  of  Mooing -^^ch  he  defeats 
after  a  sanguinary  battle  of  nine  hours, 

June  18,  1848 

Gen.  Whish  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Mooltan         ....  Sept  22,  1848 

Shero  Singh  being  entrenched  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Chenab,  with  40,000 
men  ana  28  pieces  of  artillery,  m^jor- 
general  Thackwell  crosses  Uie  nver 
with  thirteen  infantry  r^ments,  with 
cavalry  and  cannon,  and  operates  on 
his  left  flank  .    Nov.  20,  1848 

Lord  Gough  meantime  attacks  the 
enemy^s  advanced  position  ;  the 
British  suffered  groat  slaughter,  but 
finally  defeated  Shere  Singh,  who  is 
driven  out  of  Ramnugger   .    Nov.  22,  1848 

[Various  actions  and  successes  follow  on 
the  movements  of  the  enemy.] 

Battle  of  Chniianwallah  (vhieh  tee\ 

Jan.  13,  1849 

Unconditional  surrender  of  the  citadel 
of  Mooltan,  with  its  whole  garrison, 
by  the  dewan  Mooing.    See  Mooltan^ 

Jan.  22,  1849 

Battle  of  Goojerat,  vhieh  see  .    Feb.  81,  1849 

Sir  Charles  Napier's  appointment  as 
commander-in-chief    .        .    March  7,  1840 

The  whole  8ikh  army  lay  down  their 
arms,  and  surrender  to  the  British 
imconditionally  .        March  14,  1640 

Proclamation  of  the  governor-general 
announcing  the  formal  annexation  of 
the  Pui\)aub  to  the  British  dominions, 

March  29,  1849 

Moolr^  foimd  guilty  of  the  murder  of 
Mr.  Agnew  and  lieut.  Anderson,  after 
a  trial  of  fifteen  days'  duration,  and 
sentenced  to  death  .         Aug.  1849 

Moolr^j's  sentence  commuted  to  trans- 
portation for  life      .        .        .      Sept  1849 

Arrival  of  the  gallant  lord  Gough  at 
Southampton  from  India    .    Feb.  24,  1850 


INQ  340  INQ 

situated  on  mountains  to  be  visited,  a.d.  855.  In  Jerusalem  the  knights  and  brothers 
attended  on  the  sick.  There  were  hospitals  for  the  sick  at  Constantinople^  in  the  11th 
century.  The  oldest  mention  of  physicians  and  sui^geons  established  in  infirmarieag 
occurs  in  1437. — Becknuunn,    See  tfaajntals, 

INQOUR,  a  river  rising  in  the  Caucasus  and  falling  into  the  Black  Sea.  Omar  Pasha, 
marching  to  the  relief  of  Kars,  crossed  this  river  on  Nov.  6, 1855,  with  10.000  men, 
and  attacked  the  Russians  12,000  strong,  encamped  on  the  left  bank,  who  after  a 
struggle  retreated  with  the  loss  of  400  men.  The  Turks  had  68  killed  and  242 
wouuded.     Kars,  however,  was  not  saved. 

"IN  HOC  SIGNO  VINCES."    See  Cross. 

INK.  The  ancient  black  inks  were  composed  of  soot  and  ivory-black,  and  YitruviuB  and 
Pliuy  mention  lamp-black ;  but  they  had  likewise  various  colours,  as  red,  gold,  silver, 
and  purple.  Red  ink  was  made  by  them  of  vermilion  and  various  kinds  of  gam. 
Indian  ink  is  brought  from  China,  and  must  have  been  in  use  by  the  people  of  the 
east  from  the  earliest  ages,  most  of  the  artificial  Chinese  productions  being  of  very 
great  antiquity.  It  is  usually  brought  to  Europe  in  small  quadrangular  cakes,  and  is 
composed  of  a  fine  black  and  animal  glue. — Bedcmann. 

INK,  INVISIBLE  or  SYMPATHETIC.  The  name  given  to  fluids,  which,  wfaea 
written  with,  will  remain  invisible  until  after  a  certain  oi>eration.  Variooa  kinda 
were  known  at  very  early  periods.  Ovid  teaches  young  women  to  deceive  their 
guardians  by  writing  to  their  lovers  with  new  milk,  and  afterwards  making  the 
writing  legible  with  ashes  or  soot  A  receipt  for  preparing  invisible  ink  was  given 
by  Peter  Borel,  in  1653.  Receipts  for  making  it  were  given  by  Le  Mort,  in  1669,  and 
by  others. — Bechnann, 

INKERMANN,  BATTLE  of.  The  Russian  army  (about  40,000)  having  received 
reinforcements,  and  encouraged  by  the  presence  of  the  granddukea  Michael  and 
Nicholas,  attacked  the  British  (8000),  near  the  old  fort  of  lukermann,  before  daybreak, 
Nov.  5, 1854.  The  latter  kept  their  opponents  at  bay  till  the  ariiviU  of  6000  FVench. 
The  Russians  were  then  driven  back,  leaving  behind  9000  killed  and  wounded.  The 
loss  of  the  allies  was  462  killed,  1952  wounded,  and  191  missing.  Sir  Qeorge  Cath> 
cart,  and  generals  Stratif^ways,  Qoldie  and  Torrens  were  among  the  slain.  On  Not. 
15, 1855,  an  explosion  of  about  100,000  lbs.  of  gunpowder  occurred  near  Inkermann 
and  caused  great  loss  of  life. 

INNS  OF  COURT.  London.  Inns  of  court  were  established  at  differsnt  periods,  in 
some  degree  as  colleges  for  teaching  the  law.  The  Temple  (of  which  there  were 
three  societies,  namely,  the  Inner,  the  Middle,  and  the  Outer)  was  originally  founded, 
and  the  Temple  church  built,  by  the  Knights  Templars,  32  Hen.  II.  1185.  The 
Inner  and  Middle  Temple  were  made  ions  of  law  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  about 
1840;  the  Outer  not  until  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  about  1560,— Stov's  Stuvty,  The 
following  inns  were  founded,  viz : — 

Barnard's  Inn,  an  inn  of  Chancery  ▲.d.  1446 
Clement's  Inn,  18  Edw   IV.  ,    .  1478 

Clifford's  IiJU,  20  Edw.  III.      .        .        .1815 

Furnlval's  Inn,  6  FAiz 156S 

Gray's  Inn.  32  Edw.  III.          ...  1357 
Lincoln's  Inn,  4  Edw.  II isiu 

INOCULATION.  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu  introduced  inoculation  from  small-poz 
to  England  from  Turkey.  In  1718  she  had  her  own  son  inoculated  at  Adrianople, 
with  perfect  success;  and  she  was  allowed  to  have  it  tried,  for  the  first  time  in 
England,  on  seven  condemned  criminals,  7  Qeo.  I.  1721.  The  practice  was  preached 
against  by  many  of  the  bishops  and  other  clergy  from  that  period  until  1760.  Dr. 
Mead  practised  inoculation  very  successfully  up  to  1754,  and  Dr.  Dimsdale  of 
London  inoculated  Catharine  II.  empress  of  Russia,  in  1766.  See  Small  Pox.  It  is 
now  prohibited  by  law.  Vaccine  inoculation  was  introduced  by  Dr.  Jenner,  Jan.  21, 
1799 ;  he  had  discovered  its  virtue  in  1796.  and  had  been  making  experiments  daring 
the  intermediate  three  years.     See  SinaU  Pox  and  VaccituUwn, 

INQUISITION  OR  HOLY  OFFICE.  Previous  to  Constantino  (a.d.  806)  heresy  and 
spiritual  offences  were  punished  by  excommunication  only  ;  but  shortly  after  his 
death  capital  punishments  were  added,  and  inquisitors  were  appointed  by  Theodoaiua, 
A.D.  382.  Priscillian  was  put  to  death  about  385.  Justinian  decreed  the  doctrines  of 
the  four  holy  synods  as  the  holy  scriptures  and  their  canons  to  be  olMerved  as  lawi^ 


Lyon's  Inn,  12  Hen.  VIII. 

.  ▲.D.  iseo 

New  Inn.  1  Hen.  VII. 

.     .  14R5 

Seijeants'  Inn,  Fleet-street 

.  Ut9 

Soijeants'  Inn,  Chaucory-lane    . 

.     .  ]«6« 

SUples'  Inn,  4  Hen.  V.    . 

.  1415 

Thavios  Inn.  10  Hen.  VIIL 

.     .  1519 

INS 


S41 


INT 


529;  hence  the  penal  code  against  heretics.  About  800  the  power  of  the  weitem 
bishope  was  enlarged,  and  courts  were  established  for  trying  and  punishing  spiritual 
offenders,  even  with  death.  In  the  12th  century  many  heresies  arose,  and  during 
the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses,  Gregory  IX.  in  1233  established  by  rules  the 
inquisitorial  missions,  sent  out  by  Innocent  III.  some  years  proTiously,  and  committed 
them  into  the  hands  of  the  Dominican&  Pietro  da  Verona,  the  first  Inquisitor  who 
burnt  heretics,  vras  assassinated  by  an  accused  gonfalionere,  April  6,  1252,  and  was 
afterwards  canonised.  Having  fallen  into  disuse  in  Spain  in  the  15th  century, 
the  holy  office  was  reinstituted  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in  1480.  In  1481  nearly 
3000-  persons  were  burnt  in  Andalusia,  and  17,000  suffered  other  penalties.  The 
"  Instructions  "  of  the  new  tribunal  were  promulgated,  Nov.  29,  1484.  New  articles 
were  added  in  1488  and  1498,  and  finally  a  new  series  of  ordinances  in  81  articles 
were  compiled  by  the  inquisitor-general  Valdez,  in  1561.  The  establishment  of  the 
Inquisition  was  resisted  in  Naples  (1546-7),  and  only  introduced  into  other  parts  of 
Italy  with  jealous  limitations  by  the  temporal  power.  Camesecchi  was  executed  at 
Rome,  1567,  and  Galileo  was  compelled  to  abjure  his  opinions  in  1634.  The  tribunsl 
was  abolished  in  Tuscany  and  Lombardy  in  1787.  It  was  never  firmly  established 
and  oiganised  in  France,  and  was  totally  abolished  by  Henry  IV.  by  the  edict  cf 
Nantes,  1598.  When  Louis  XIV.  revoked  that  ediot  (1685)  be  refused  to  introduce 
the  Inquisition ;  but  advised  his  grandson  Philip  V.  to  retain  it  in  Spain.  It  was 
suppressed  in  that  country,  Dec.  4,  1808,  by  Napoleon,  and  again  by  the  Cortes, 
Feb.  12,  1813;  but  was  restored  by  Ferdinand  VII.  arter  bis  restoration  by  an 
ordinance  dated  July  21, 1814,  to  be  again  finally  abolished  by  th*e  Cortes  at  the 
revolution  in  1820.  Llorente  states  that  in  236  years  the  total  amount  in  Spain  of 
persons  put  to  death  by  the  Inquisition  has  been  about  32,000;  291,000  have  been 
subjected  to  other  punishments.  The  last  person  burnt  was  at  Seville,  Nov,  7«  1781, 
being  a  woman  accused  of  making  a  contract  with  the  devil. 

INSANITY.    See  Lunatics. 

OF   05E  TBOUSAND  MALE  PATIENTS,  INSANITT  WAS  SUPPOSED  BY  AN   EMINENT  AUTHORnT 
TO   BE  TRACEABLE  TO  TBE  FOLLOWING  CAUSES  RELATITELT  :-« 


Dronkennoss  .  .110 
Conacquenccfl  of  disease .  100 

Epilepsy  .  .        .78 

AmbitioQ    .        .  .    .    78 

Excessive  Ubour  73 

Bom  idiots .        .  .    .     71 

Misfortunes  .        .09 


Old  Age 60 

Chagrin      .        .        .        .64 

Love 47 

Accidents  .  .  .  .89 
Religions  enthusiasm  .  .  29 
Unnatural  practices  .  .  27 
PoliUcal  events     .        .     .  26 


Poisonous  efSuvia  .  .17 
111  usage  .  .  .  .  12 
Criroe8,reroor8e  and  despair  9 
Pretended  insanity  .  .  5 
Halconrormation    of    the 

skull       ....    4 
Other  and  unknown  causes  88 


INSOLVENCY.  The  first  inaoWent  act  was  passed  in  1649,  but  it  was  of  limited 
operation ;  a  number  of  aots  of  more  extensive  operation  were  passed  at  various 
periods,  and  particularly  in  the  reign  of  Qeorge  III.  The  benefit  of  the  act,  known 
as  the  Great  Insolvent  act,  was  taken  in  England  by  50,733  insolvents,  from  the 
time  of  its  passing  in  1814,  to  March  1827,  a  period  of  thirteen  years.  Since  then 
the  acts  relating  to  insolvency  have  been  several  times  amended.  Persons  not 
traders,  or  being  traders,  whose  debts  are  less  than  300/.  may  petition  the  court  of 
Bankruptcy,  and  propose  compositions,  and  have  pro  tern,  protection  from  all  process 
against  their  persons  and  property,  6  Vict.  c.  116,  12  Aug.  1842.  Act  amended, 
8  Vict.  c.  96,  9  Aug.  1844.     See  BankrupU,  Debtorf, 

INSTITUTE  07  FRANCE.  In  1793  the  Academies  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres, 
and  of  the  Sciences,  were  combined  in  one  body  under  the  above  title. 

INSURANCE  ON  SHIPS  and  MERCHANDISE.  Suetonius  conjectures  that  Claudius 
was  the  first  contriver  of  it,  a.d.  43.  Insurance  was  in  general  use  in  Italy  in  1194, 
and  in  England  in  1560.  Insurance  policies  were  first  used  in  Florence  in  1523.  The 
first  law  relating  to  insurance  was  enacted  in  1601.  Insurance  of  houses  and  goods 
in  London  began  in  1667.  This  was  the  year  following  that  of  the  Qreat  Fire  of 
London.  An  office  was  then  set  up  for  insuring  houses  and  buildings,  principally 
contrived  by  Dr.  Barton,  one  of  the  first  and  most  considerable  builders  of  the  city 
of  London.  The  first  regular  offioe  set  up  in  London  was  the  Hand-in-Havd^  in  1 696. 
A  duty  wfs  first  laid  on  insurances  of  1«.  6rf.  per  hundred  pounds  insured,  in  1782; 
this  duty  wsa  increased  in  1797,  and  has  been  variously  altered  since. 

INSURRECTIONa    See  the  accounts  of  CanapiracUs,  Mauaeret,  RehellioM,  Rioti,  &c 

INTENDMENT  of  CRIMES.  In  cases  of  treason,  wounding,  burglary,  &&  where  the 
intention  is  proved  by  circumstances,  the  offence  was  made  punishable  as  if  put  into 


INT 


342 


INU 


execution,  and  the  designed  crime  completed,  by  statute  7  Geo.  II.  1734.  The 
rigour  of  this  act  was  modified  by  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Kobert)  Pe^*s  rerision  of  tlie 
statutes,  4^10  Geo.  IV.  1828—29. 

INTERDICT,  OB  ECCLESIASTICAL  CENSURE.  This  was  Uttle  practised  tiU  the 
time  of  Gregory  VII.  1073.  Interdicts  were  oflen  executed  in  Italy,  France,  and. 
Germany.  When  a  prince  was  excommunicated,  all  his  subjects  retaining  their 
allegiance  were  excommunicated  also,  and  the  clergy  were  forbidden  to  perform  aay 
part  of  dlTine  seryioe,  or  any  clerical  duties  save  the  baptiam  of  infimts,  and  the 
taking  the  confessions  of  dying  penitents.  In  1170,  pope  Alexander  put  all  England 
under  an  interdict ;  and  when  king  John  was  excommunicated,  in  1208,  the  kingdom 
lay  under  a  papal  interdict  for  six  years.  England  was  put  under  an  interdict  on 
Henry  VIII.  shaking  off  the  pope's  supremacy,  1535.  Pope  Sixtus  V.  published  a 
crusade,  or  holy  war,  against  the  heretic  queen  of  England  (Elisabeth),  and  offered 
plenary  indulgence  to  all  who  should  assist  in  deposing  her,  in  1588,  the  year  of  the 
Spanish  Armada.    See  Excommunication, 

INTEREST  OF  MONEY.  The  word  *'  interest"  was  fint  used  in  an  act  of  Pailiamait  of 
tiie  2lBt  James  I.  1623,  wherein  it  was  made  to  signify  a  lawful  inoreaaa  by  way  of 
compensation  for  the  use  of  money  lenL  The  rate  fixed  by  the  Act  was  SL  for  the 
use  of  100/.  for  a  year;  in  place  of  usury  at  lOL  before  taken.  The  Commonwealth 
lowered  the  rate  to  6/L,  in  1650,  and  by  an  Act  of  the  ISth  of  queen  Anne,  1714,  it 
was  reduced  to  5/.  but  the  restraint  being  found  prejudicial  to  commerce  tho  aeie 
were  repealed  by  17  k  18  Vict,  a  90, 1854. 

INUNDATIONS.  It  would  be  impossible  to  record  in  this  volume  the  numeronn 
catastrophes  which  class  under  this  head :  the  following  are  among  the  most 
remarkable  In  our  own  and  other  countries  :^ 

opened,  and  poured  oxit  water  to  the  belgfal 
of  a  church  steeple,  1680.—  FideFhiL  Dfwu. 

Part  of  Zealand  overflowed.  ISOO  Inhafailaati 
were  drowned,  and  incredible  damage  waa 
done  at  Hambnnr,  1717. 

At  Madrid,  eeyeral  of  the  Spauiah  nobilitr 
and  other  penona  of  distinction  perished^ 
172S.~i>tt  Frtmojf. 

In  Torkahira,  a  dreadfUl  inundation,  called 
Ripon  Flood,  a.d.  1771. 

In  Navarre,  where  2000  peraona  lost  their 
livM  by  the  torrenta  firom  tho  monntaini^ 
Bept  1787. 

An  inundation  of  the  Liffey.  which  did  im- 
mense damage  in  Dublin,  Nov.  12;  1787. 

Again  in  Dublin,  and  parts  a^jaoent,  Dee.  S 
and  8.  1802. 

Lorca,  a  dty  of  llurcda,  in  Spain,  destroyed 
by  the  bunting  of  a  reservoir,  which  inun- 
dated more  than  20  leaguoi.  and  killed  1000 
persons^  besides  oattle,  April  14.  1802. 

At  Pesth,  near  Presbuig,  the  overfow  <ti  the 
Danube,  by  which  24  villagea  and  their  in- 
habitants were  swept  away.  April,  ISll. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Salop,  by  the  CNusting  of  a 
cloud  during  a  storm,  by  which  naany  per- 
sona and  much  atock  perished.  May,  1811. 

Dreadftil  inundation  in  Hungary,  Aoatriak 
and  Poland,  in  the  summer  of  1818. 

By  the  overflow  of  the  Danube,  a  Turkish 
corps  of  2000  men,  on  a  amall  ialaad  near 
Wiadln,  vrere  surprised,  and  met  instant 
death,  Sept.  14, 1818. 

In  Silesia,  0000  inhabitants  periahed.  and  the 
ruin  of  the  Frenoh  army  under  Macdonakl 
was  aooelerated  by  the  floods;  also  in 
Poland  4000  lives  were  supposed  to  have 
been  lost^  same  year. 

At  Strabane,  Ireland,  by  tho  melting  of  th« 
snow  on  ths  surronnding  moontainst  most 
destructive  floods  were  oooasloned,  Jan.  i, 
1816. 

In  Germany,  110  villages  were  laid  under 
water,  and  gi«at  leas  uf  life  and  property 
waa  sustained,  in  March,  1818. 

In  England.  5000  acrea  were  deluged  in  tha 
Fen  countries,  in  Jime,  1819. 

Awflil  inundation  at  Dantsie,  occasioned  by 


An  inundation  of  the  sea  in  linoolaahire  laid 
under  water  many  thousand  acres,  which 
have  not  been  recovered  to  this  time,  A.n. 
245.— Camcbn. 

Another  in  Cheshire,  by  which  6000  persons, 
and  an  innumerable  quantity  of  cattle, 
perished,  863. 

An  inundation  at  Glasgow,  which  drowned 
more  than  400  familiea,  738. — Fordun, 

The  Tweed  overflowed  its  banks,  and  laid 
waste  the  country  for  80  miles  round,  886. 

A  prodigious  inundation  of  the  sA  on  the 
Bngltsn  coasts,  which  demolished  a  number 
of  sea  port  towns,  and  their  inhabitants, 
UU.Sptcd. 

Earl  Godwin's  lands,  exceeding  4000  acres, 
overflowed  by  the  sea»  and  an  immense 
sand-bank  formed  on  the  coast  of  Kent, 
now  known  by  the  name  of  the  Godwin 
Sands,  llQO.—CamtUn. 

Flanders  inundated  by  the  sea,  and  the  town 
and  harbour  of  Ostend  totally  immersed, 
1108.  The  preaent  dty  waa  built  above  a 
league  from  the  channel  where  tht  old  one 
lies  submerged.— ifMimrR  de  Flandrt. 

More  than  300  houses  overwhelmed  at  Win- 
chelsea  by  an  inundation  of  the  sea,  1280. 

At  the  Tezel,  which  first  raised  the  com- 
merce of  Amsterdam,  1400. 

The  sea  broke  in  at  Dort,  and  drowned  72 
villages,  and  100,000  people  (see  DortX 
AprU  17,  1446. 

The  Severn  overflowed  during  ten  days,  and 
carried  away  men,  women,  and  children,  in 
thoir  beds,  and  covered  the  tops  of  many 
mountains;  the  waters  settled  upon  the 
lands,  and  were  called  The  Great  Watera 
for  100  years  after,  1  Richard  III.  1483.— 
HoUinsked.  Again,  4  James  I.  1607,  the 
waters  rose  above  the  tops  of  the  houses, 
and  above  100  persons  perished  in  Somer- 
setshire and  Gloucestershire.— iTunw. 

A  ffeneral  inundation  by  the  failure  of  the 
aikes  in  Holland.  1630 :  the  number  of 
drowned  said  to  have  been  400,000. 

At  Catalonia,  where  50,000  peraona  periahed. 
1617.  I-       *-. 

An  inundation  in  Yorkshire,  when  a  rock 


INU 


348 


ION 


INUl!n>ATIONa,  cfmttmted. 

the  ViBtnlA  bnakttv  tlatragb  some  of  its 

dikes,  hf  which  10.000  heed  of  cattle  and 

4000  houses  were  destroyed,  and  numerous 

Hves  lost»  April  9,  1829. 
At  Vienna,  the  dwellings  of  60,000  of  its  inha- 
bitants laid  under  water,  Feb.  18S0, 
10.000  houses  swept  away,  and  about  1000 

persons  perishea,  at  Canton  in  China,  in 

Gonseqnenoe  of  an  inundation,  occasioned 

by  incessant  rains.    Equal  or  gnaJbbr  cala- 
mity was  produced  hy  the  same  cause  in 

other  parts  of  China,  Oct.  1833. 
Awful  inundation  in   France ;   the   Saone 

poured  its  waters  into  the  Rhone,  broke 

Uirough  its  banks,  and  covered  00, 000  acres ; 

Lyons  was   inundated  ;   in  Avignon  100 

bouses  were  swept  away  ;  218  houses  were 

carried  away  at  La  Guillotidre;   and  up- 
wards of  SOO   at  Vaise,    Marseilles,    and 

Nismes ;  the  Saone  had  not  attained  such  a 

height  for  238  years.  Oct  31  to  Nov.  4, 1840. 
Lamentable  InundAtion  at  JBrentford  and  the 

surrounding  country ;  several  lives  lost,  and 

immense  property  destroyed,  Jan.  16^  1841. 

INTASIONS  or  ths  BRITISH  ISLANDS.  The  Romans,  under  Julius  CsBsar,  inyaded 
Britain,  Aug.  26, 65  b.o.  It  was  again  invaded  by  Plautius,  a.d.  4S  ;  by  the  Saxons  in 
417;  and  by  the  Danes  in  787,  882,  851,  866,  979,  and  1012.  From  the  death  of 
Edward  the  Confeasor,  the  following  invasions  have  been  effected  : — 


IHsastrous  inundation  in  the  centre,  west,  and 
Bouth-wwit  of  France ;  numerous  bridges, 
with  the  Orleans  and  Vierson  viaduct, 
swept  away ;  the  latter  had  cost  0^000,000 
of  Danes.  The  damage  done  exceeded 
4,0C0,000(.  steiling.  The  Loire  rose  twenty 
feet  in  one  nighty  Oct  88.  184d. 

Lamentable  catastrophe  at  Holmflrtb,  In 
Yorkshire,  by  the  bursting  of  the  BUberry 
Dam  Beeervuir ;  a  great  number  of  lives 
loet^  and  vast  property  destroyed.  Bee 
JMmflrth  Flood,  Feb.  4,  1858. 

Inundation  of  the  valleys  of  the  Severn  and 
Teme  after  a  violent  tbundttrstorm.  Sept  6, 
1862. 

Inundations  of  the  basins  of  the  Rhine  and 
the  Bhone,  overflowing  the  country  to  a 
great  extent,  Sept.  19,  1852. 

City  of  Hamburg  half-flooded  by  ths  Elbe, 
Jan.  1,  1855. 

Inundations  in  South  of  France,  with  im- 
mense damage  (see  Franet),  Hay  and  June, 
1860. 


Succeasftil,  by  William  the  Conqueror,  of 

Normandy    .  .  SepL  89,  a-D.  1000 

Unsuccessful,  by  the  Irish  ....  1069 
UnsuceesiAiI,  by  the  Scots  .  1071 

Unsuccessful,  by  the  Scots ;  their  king, 

Malcolm,  kUled 1093 

Uxunioceflsful.  Robert  of  Normandy  .1101 
Unsuooessful,  by  the  Scots  .    .  1186 

Unsuooessful,  Maud  ....  1139 
SucoessAiI,  Ireland,  Pits-Stephen  .  .1169 
Unsuooessiul,  Ireland,  Edwiod  Bruce  .  1815 
Successfi^  Isabel,  oueen  of  Edward  II.  1826 
SucoessftU,  duke  of  Lancaster  .  1399 

Unsuccessful,  by  the  Frttich  .    .  1416 

Unsuccessful,  queen  of  Henry  VI. .  .  146'i 
Buocassftil,  earl  of  Warwick  .    .  1470 

Succeasfiil,  Edward  IV 1471 

Unsucoeasfti],  queen  of  Heniy  VI.     .    .  1471 


▲.D. 


Successful,  earl  of  Richmond  . 
Unsuccesshil,  Lambert  Simnel  . 
Unsuccessftil,  Perkln  Warbeck 
Unsucoeasftil,  Italians,  Ireland  . 
UnsuccessAil,  9pani»h  Armada 
Unsuccessful,  Ireland,  Spaniards 
Unsuccessful,  duke  of  Monmouth  . 
Successflil,  William  of  Orange   . 
Unsuccessf^  James  II.  . 
UnsucoessAil,  old  Pretender 
Unsuccessfiil,  Pretender  again 
UnsuceessAil,  young  Pretender . 
Unsuccessful,     Ireumd,     Invasion 

Thurot  See  Tkurot  ....  1760 
Unsuccessful,  Wales,  the  French  .  .  1797 
Unsuccessful,  Ireland ;  the  French  land 

at  Killala,  which  «m      .       .        .       .  1798 


of 


1485 
1487 
1495 
1580 
1688 
1601 
1685 
1688 
1689 
1708 
1715 
1746 


INVINCIBLE,  THS.  A  British  ahip  of  the  line,  of  74  guns,  lost  near  Winterton,  on  the 
ooaat  of  Norfolk,  when  the  captain  (John  Rennie),  with  the  greater  part  of  his  officers, 
and  nearly  the  whole  of  his  crew,  which  amounted  to  upwards  of  four  hundred  men, 
perished,  March  20, 1801.  Several  smaller  ships  and  a  large  number  of  merchant 
Tessels  were  wrecked  in  the  same  storm. 

INVINCIBLE  ARMADA,  ob  SPANISH  ARMADA.    See  Armada. 

INVOCATION  OF  THB  VIRGIN  and  SAINTS.  The  practice  of  the  Romish  Church 
of  invoking  the  intercession  of  saints  with  Qod,  particularly  the  prayers  to  the  Virgin, 
has  been  traced  to  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  about  a.d.  693. — AMhe,  The 
Eastern  Church  begun  <in  the  fifth  century)  by  calling  upon  the  dead,  and  demanding 
their  suffrage  as  present  in  the  divine  offices ;  but  the  Western  Church  carried  it  so 
far  as  frequently  to  canonise  those  they  had  any  regard  for,  though  the  wickedness 
of  their  lives  gave  them  no  title  to  any  such  honour. 

IODINE.  This  most  important  substance  was  discovered  by  M.  de  Courtois,  a  manu- 
facturer of  saltpetre  at  Paris,  in  1812  :  the  discovery  was  pursued  with  great  advan- 
tage by  M.  Clement,  in  1813.  Iodine  is  very  active;  it  is  of  a  violet  hue,  easily 
evaporates,  and  melts  at  220  degrees;  changes  yegetable  blues  to  yellow,  and  a 
seventh-thousandth  part  converts  water  to  a  deep  yellow  colour,  and  starch  into  a 
purple.    Five  volumes  of  oxygen  and  one  of  iodine  form  iodic  acid. 

IONIAN  ISLANDS.  Now  called  the  Republic  of  the  Seven  Islands.  They  were  sub- 
ject to  Venice  until  ceded  by  the  treaty  of  Campo*Formio  to  France,  in  1797.  By  a 
treaty  between  Russia  and  Great  Britun  they  were  placed  under  the  protection  of  the 


ION 


844 


IRE 


latter,  Nov.  6,  1816.  ▲  constitution  was  ratified  by  the  prince  regent  of  England  for 
the  government  of  these  islands  in  1818.  They  are  now  among  the  free  states  of 
Europe ;  Corfu  is  the  principal,  and  the  seat  of  government.    See  Corfu, 

IONIC  ORDER  OF  ARCHITECTURE.  This  order,  which  is  an  improvement  on  tbe 
Doric,  was  founded  by  the  lonians,  about  1350  b.c. —  Vitruvitu  oy  Perratdi,  T1i« 
order  is  ranked  by  modems  as  the  third.  Its  distinguishing  characters  are,  the 
slenderness  and  flutings  of  its  column,  and  the  volutes  of  rams'  horns  that  adorn  the 
capital.     The  Ionic  is  airier  than  the  Doric,  and  at  the  same  time  sufficiently  grare. 

IONIC  SECT  OF  PHILOSOPHERS.  Founded  by  Thales  of  Miletua,  670  B.C.  This  ecct 
distinguished  itself  for  its  deep  and  abstruee  speculations,  under  the  successor!  and 
pupils  of  the  Milesian  philosopher,  Anazimander,  Anaximenes,  Anaxagoraa,  and 
Archelaus,  the  master  of  Socrates.  Its  favourite  tenet  was,  that  water  was  the  origin 
of  all  things.— ^^ocibffa/^. 

IPSUS,  BATTLE  of.  By  which  Seleucus  is  confirmed  in  his  kingdom  by  the  defeat  and 
death  of  Antigonus,  king  of  Asia.  On  the  one  side  were  Antigonus  and  his  son  ;  on 
the  other  Seleucus,  Ptolemy,  Lysimachus,  and  Cassander.  The  former  led  into  the 
field  an  army  of  above  70,000  foot,  and  10.000  horse,  with  75  elephants.  The  latter's 
forces  consisted  of  64,000  infantry,  besides  10,600  horse,  400  elephants,  and  120  armed 
chariots.    Antigonus  and  his  sou  were  defeated,  301  b.c. — Plutarch. 

IRELAND.  It  is  disputed  by  historians  from  what  nation  this  country  was  originally 
peopled.  It  seems,  however,  to  be  satisfactorily  shown  that  the  first  colonists  were 
PboeniciauB.  The  Partholani  landed  in  Ireland  about  2048  bo.  The  descent  of  the 
Damnonii  was  made  about  1463  b.o.  This  was  followed  by  the  descent  of  Heber  and 
Heremon,  Milesinn  princes,  from  Qalicia,  in  Spain,  who  conquered  Ireland,  and  gave 
to  its  throne  a  race  of  171  kings. 


Arrival  of  Heremon  .  B.a  1070 

Reigii  of  the  renowned  01am  Fodla  .    .    768 
A  colony  from  Spain  bring  with  them 
the  PnoBnician  letters,  alwut  500 

[Few  of  the  kings  of  Ireland,  during  a 
thousand  years,  did  more  than  involve 
the  country  in  scenes  of  blood.] 


4B8 
448 

798 


800 


Arrival  of  St.  Patrick  a.d. 

Logary  II.  establishes  Christianitv 
The  Danes  and  Normans,  known  by  the 

name  of  Easterlings,  invade  Ireland  . 
Thoy  erect  solid  odiHces  in  the  country, 

the  common  habitations  of  tbe  natives 

being  made  of  hurdles,  covered  with 

straw  and  rushes,  about 

[The  Easterlinga  build  Dublin  solidly, 
and  other  cities,  about  this  time.] 

The  renowned  Brian  Boiroimhe  is 
crowned  at  Tara 1002 

Battle  of  Clontarf,  which  terminates  the 
power  of  the  Danes      ....  1030 

[In  the  twelfth  century  Ireland  is  divided 
into  five  kingdoms,  viz  :  Ulster,  Lciu- 
ster,  Meath,  Counaught^  and  Muuster. 
besides  a  number  of  petty  principali- 
ties, whose  sovereigns  continually  war 
with  each  other.] 

Adrian  IV.  permitted  Henry  II.  to  in- 
vade Ireland,  on  condition  that  he 
compelled  every  Irish  &mily  to  pay  a 
carolus  to  the  holy  see,  and  held  it  as 
a  fief  of  the  Church 1157 

Dormot  MacMurrough,  king  of  Leinster, 
is  driven  from  his  throne  for  his  op- 


pression, and  takoi  reflige  in  England, 
where  he  takes  an  oath  of  fidelity  to 
Henry  II.  who  promises  to  restore  nim  1168 

Inyaslon  of  the  English  under  Fits- 
Stephen    1169 

Landing  of  Btrongbow  at  Waterford      .1170 

Henry  11.  lands  near  Waterford,  and  re- 
ceives the  submission  of  the  kings 
and  princes  of  the  country,  settles  tbe 
government  upon  a  footing  similar  to 
that  of  England,  and  makes  his  son 
John  lord  of  Ireland  .        .    . 

Ireland  wholly  subdued  .... 

English  laws  and  customs  introduced 
by  king  John 

Charter  of  liberties  granted  to  the  Irish 
bvJi'hn 

And  by  Henry  III 

Invasion  of  Edward  Bruoe,  who  is 
crovt  ned  king 

Ho  is  defeated  at  Armagh,  and  is  be- 
hwded  at  Dundalk,  and  with  him  6200 
Scots  lose  their  lives.    Bee  Arvtaffk 

Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence,  tliird  soit  of 
Edward  III.  marries  Elizabeth  de 
Burgh,  heiress  of  Ulster,  which  had 
not  Tiithorto  submitted  to  the  English 
authority 1361 

Richard  11.  lands  at  Waterford  with  a 
train  of  nohlcs,  4000  men  at  arms,  and 
30,000  archers.  And  gains  the  affection 
of  the  people  by  his  mtmifioence,  and 
confers  the  honour  of  knighthood  ou 
their  chiefs 

Richard  again  lands  in  Ireland 

The  infamous  and  si.nguinary  Head  Act 
passed  at  Trim* 1465 


117S 
IXIO 

1210 

1210 
1216 

1315 


1318 


1394 
1399 


*  This  act  ordained,  "  That  it  be  law  Ail  to  all  manner  of  men  who  f  nd  any  thieves  robbing  by  day 
or  night,  or  going  or  coming  to  rob  or  steal,  or  any  persons  going  or  coming,  having  no  faithful  man  of 
good  name  and  fame  in  their  company  in  English  apparell,  that  it  shall  be  lawftil  to  t:ike  and  kill  tboeep 
and  to  cut  off  their  heads,  without  any  impeachment  of  our  sovereign  loixl  the  king.  And  of  any  haul 
so  cut  off  in  the  county  of  Heath,  that  the  cutter  and  his  ayders  there  to  him,  cause  the  said  head  so 
cut  off  to  be  brought  to  the  portrefie  to  put  it  upon  a  stake  or  spear,  upon  the  castle  of  Trim  ;  and  that 
tbe  said  portreffe  shall  testify  the  bringing  of  the  same  to  him.  And  that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  «id 
briuger  of  the  said  head  to  distrain  and  levy  by  his  own  band  (as  his  rewsrd)  of  every  man  having  one 
ploughland  in  the  barony,  twopence ;  and  of  every  man  hnving  half  a  ploughland,  one  peay ;  and  ot 


IRE 


315 


IRE 


IBELAND,  eoniinuecL 

Apparel  and  surname  act,  oompclling 
the  Irish  to  drees  like  the  Euglisb. 
and  to  adopt  surnames  .  a.d.  1478 

Heniy  VIII.  assumes  the  title  of  ting, 

instead  of  lard  of  Ireland                 .     .  1642 
The  reformed  religion  embraced  by  the 
English  settlers  in  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward VI 1M7 

Ireland  divided  into  shires         .        .    .  156*2 
Printing  in  Irish  characters  introduced 

by  N.  Walsh,  chancellor  of  St.  Patrick's  1571 
7U0  Italians,  beaded  by  Fitzmaurice,  land 
In  Kerrr ;  they  are  treacherously  but- 
chered by  the  earl  of  Ormond  .  .  1580 
The  insurrection  of  Tyrone,  who  inyites 
over  the  Spaniards,  and  settles  them 
in  Kinsale ;  but  they  are  defeated  by 
the  lord  deputy  Mountjoy   .  .  1 601 

This  rebellion  entirely  suppreesed  in  .  1602 
In  consequence  of  repeated  rebellions 
and  forfeitures  of  estates,  511,4(i5  acres  , 
of  land  in  the  proyince  of  Ulster  be- 
come vested  in  the  crown,  and  James  I. 
after  removing  the  Irish  from  their 
hills  and  fastnesses,  divides  the  land 
among  such  of  his  English  and  Scottish 
protestaiit  subjects  as  choose  to  settle 

there,  1609  to 1612 

Maguire's  rebellion 1641 

Ihe  catholics  enter  into  a  conspiracy  to 
ez|iel  the  English,  and  cruelly  mas- 
sacre the  protestant  settlers  In  Ulster, 
to  the  number  of  40,000  persoiu',  com- 
menced on  St.  Ignatius'  day,  Oct.  23,  1641 
Cromwell  and  Ireton  reduce  the  whole 
island  to  obedience  between  1(49  and  1656 

Landingof  James  II 1688 

3000  proteatants  attainted  .        .        .     .  1689 
Ijandiog  of  the  duke  of  Schomberg  near 

Carrickfergus 1689 

Landing  of  king  William  III.  at  Carrick- 
fergus       ....        June  14,  1690 
Battle  of  the  Boyne ;  the  duke  of  Schom- 
berg killed     .  July  1,  1690 
Celebrated   treaty   of  Limerick.      See 

Limerick Oct.  3,  1691 

Linen  manufacture  encouraged  .  1696 

Thurot's  invasion.    See  Thuroi  .        ,    .  1760 
Indulgences  granted  to  the  catholics  by 

pailiaroent 1778 

Ireland  admitted  to  a  free  trade         .     .  1770 
Released  f^om  submission  to  an  English 

council 1782 

The  Oenevese  refugees  are  received  in 

Ireland,  and  have  an  asylum  given 

them  in  the  county  ot  Waterford    .    .  1783 

Order  of  St.  Patrick        ....  1783 

Uerooruble  Irish  rebellion  commerced. 

May  4, 1799,  and  not  finally  suppressed 

until  the  next  year 1799 

Legislative  Union  of  Great  Britain  and 

Ireland Jan.  1,  1801 

Emmet's  insurrection .  July  23,  1803 

The  English  and  Irish  exchequers  con- 
solidated       ....      Jan.  5,  1817 
Visit  to  Ireland  of  Qeorge  IV.     Aug.  12,  1821 
The  currency  assimilate  Jan.  1,  1820 

Boman    catholic    emancipation.     (See 

Ruman  Ca/holict)  .       April  IS,  1829 

Customs  consolidated      .  Jan.  6,  1830 

Poor-laws  introduced  .        .        July  31,  1838 

Great  Repeal  movement;   meeting  at 

Trim.    (See  Reptal)      .         March  19,  1843 


O'Connell's  trial.    (See  TriaU)    Jan.  16,  1844 

Trial  of  O'Connell  and  others  for  politi- 
cal conspiracy;  found  ffuiity.  (See 
TriaU) Fob.  12,  1844 

ApiK>intment  of  new  commissioners  of 
charitable  beqnoiits*        .         Dec.  18,  1844 

Irish  National  Education  Society  incor- 
porated   Sept.  23,  1845 

Failure  of  the  potato  crop  throiighout 
the  32  counties  of  Ireland        .        .     .  1810 

Committal  of  WUliam  Smith  O'Brien  to 
the  custody  of  the  serjeant-at-arms, 
for  contempt  in  not  obeying  aji  order 
of  the  house  of  commons  to  attend  a 
committee     ....  April  30,  1846 

William  Smith  O'Brien  an'I  the  "  Yoxmg 
Ireland"  or  physical  force  party,  secede 
from  the  Repeal  Association   July  29,  1846 

O'Connell  makes  his  last  speech  Ln  the 
house  of  commons        .        .      Feb.  8,  1947 

[Frightful  ravages  from  pestilence  and 
fhmine  occur  in  Ireland  about  this 
time ;  and  grants  from  parliament, 
amounting  in  the  whole  to  10,000,000^ 
sterling,  are  made  to  relieve  thep^ple, 
in  the  session  of  1847.  The  potato* 
blight  spnads  over  two  more  years.] 

Death  of  O'Connell  at  Genoa,  on  his  way 
to  Rome,  in  his  7drd  year :  he  hud  be- 
queathed his  heart  to  Rome    May  16,  1847 
Funeral  of  O'Connell,  whose  remains  are 
interred  at  Glasnevin,  near  Dublin, 

Aug.  5,  1847 
Deputation  f^om  the  Irish  people  (?)  to 
the  French  republic;  conaii-ting  of 
Smith  O'Brien,  Meagher,  O'Gorman, 
&c.  who  present  addresses  to  Lamar- 
tine  and  others,  members  of  the  provi- 
sional government  at  Paris  April  8,  1848 
Great  meeting  of  the  confederated 
*•  Young  Irelanders"  held  in  Dublin, 

April  4,  1P48 
Great  soiree  at  Limerick  to  the  confede- 
rates  April '.'9,  1848 

Arrest  of  Mitchell,  editor  of  the  UniUd 

Jrithtnan        ....     May  13,  1848 
State    trials    commence   in   the   Irish 

queen's  t)ench  .        .  May  15,  1848 

Mitchell  found  guilty  and  sentenced  to 

transportation  for  14  years  .    May  26,  1848 
Arrest  of  Oavan  Dufly,  Martin,  Meagher, 
Doheny,  and  other  confederates,  for 
felonious  writings,  speeches,  i:c. 

July  8,  1848 
Proclamation  against   the  Confederate 
clubs,  which  are  declared  illcgnl, 

July  26,  1848 
The    HabeaM     Corpus     act     suspended 

throughout  Ireland  .  July  26.  1848 

Arrest  of  Smith  O'Brien  at  Thurks ;  be 
is    conveyed    to    Kilmainham    gaol, 

Dublin Aug.  5,  1848 

Arrest  of  Meagher,   O'Donoghue,   and 

other  confederates    .        .        Aug.  12,  1848 
Martin  found  guilty  and  sentenced  to  10 

years'  transportation   .        .   Aug.  14.  1848 
Smith  O'Brien  tried  at  Clonmcl,  and 

sentenced  to  death  .        .        .  Oct.  9,  1848 
Mengher   and    the   other   confederates 

tried  and  sentenced  to  death     Oct.  9,  1848 
The  Irish  court  of  queen's  bench  firivos 
judgment  on  writs  of  error  sued  out 


every  man  having  one  house  and  goods,  value  forty  shillings,  one  peny ;  and  of  every  other  cottier 
having  house  and  smoak,  one  half-peny,"  &c. 

*  The  JhMin  Oazette,  containing  the  appointment  of  the  Commissioners  of  Charitable  Bequests  and 
Donations,  described  and  gave,  for  the  first  time  in  an  official  document,  the  several  titles  of  tne  Roman 
catholic  bishops :  the  state  thus  acknowledging  those  titles.  In  this  document  the  Protestant  and  the 
Roman  catholic  prelates  were  placed  in  their  order,  according  to  their  rank,  without  religious  distinction. 


IRE 


346 


IRE 


IRELAND,  cwtinwd. 

by  the  priaonen  oonTioied  of  high 
treason  at  Clonmel,  and  confirms  the 
Judgment  of  the  court  b«low  Jan.  10. 

O'BrieD,*  Meagher,  McManua,  and 
O'Donogbue,  are  embarked  on  board 
the  Sw^  in  which  Teaeel  they  are 
tranaported  beyond  the  seas,     July  0, 

The  &tal  Oranso  and  Roman  Catholic 
aflkmy  at  DoUy'a  Brae;  teTeral  liyee 
lost July  12. 

The  queoi  embarks  at  Cowes  on  her 
▼isit  to  Ireland  Aug.  1. 

Her  Majesty  holds  her  court  at  Dublin 
castle Aug.  6, 

First  court  under  the  Irish  incumbered 
estates  aet^  held  in  Dublin  (see  /n- 
eiiai6<r0(l  B$tatet)  .  .    Oct  S4, 

A  Roman  catholic  university  originated, 
and luvtt •urns subscribed      .  Mays, 

Death  of  Richard  Lalor  Bheil,  at  Flo- 
rence      May  26, 

Terence  MoHanus  escapes  from  trans- 
portation and  arrives  at  Ban  Fran- 
dsoo^  in  California  .  Jime  6. 

The  Irish  Tenant  League  hold  a  meet- 
ing on  the  site  of  the  battle  of  the 
Boyne  «        .       .        .       .   June  14, 

First  meeting  of  the  "  Catholic  Defbnee 
Association"    .  Oct  17, 

Thomas  Frands  Meagher,  anotiier  po- 


1849 


1849 


1849 
1849 


1849 


1849 
1851 
1851 


1851 


1851 
1861 


litiad  ooDTiet;  escape*  from  Van  Die- 
men's  Lsnd ;    the  aoooont  reaohes 

Dublin Ajnil  IS.  1862 

His  aniTal  at  New  York    .        May  24,  18S2 
Cork  National  Bzhibitioa       .  June  10, 1852 
Irish  Industrial  Bxhibitkm  set  on  foot; 
Mr.  Daijgan,  a  railway  eontnetor,  esa- 
tributes  towards  it  26.0001.      June  24.  1S52 
**  Tenant    Right  **    demonstration    at 
Wanington  dispersed  hj  the  magls- 

tmtes Julys,  1862 

Fleroe  rellglauB  riots  at  Bellhst,  July  14,  1852 
Fktal  electloD  riot  at  Six-mile  Bridge. 

Bee  SuD-mUs  Bridpt  .    July  22,  1852 

Meeting  of  the  Irish  members  of  Ru<- 
liament  to  found  a  "  ReUgiiiua  BquaUty 
Association  **    .        .       .       Bept  10,  1852 
Cork  Industrial  ExhibitkMi  dosed.    Bee 

Cork Bept  f , 

Dublin  BxhiUtlon  opens   .  May  1, 

Queen  fiaits  Irriand  .  Aug.  29, 

Tenant  Right  league  oonltereaoe  Oct.  4, 
DraadAil  railway  aflddeat  near  DnbUn, 

Oct.  5b 

Exhibition  olossd  .       .  Nor.  1, 

Train  wilAilly  upset  after  an  Orange 

demonstration  at  Londonderty.  one 

killed  and  many  hurt.  Bept  15^ 


1852 
1863 
185S 
186S 

186S 
186S 


18S4 


Bee2hi52mt 


KINOB  OF  IRELAND,  t 


BEFORS  CHRIST. 

[So  much  fable  Is  mixed  up  with  the  early 
history  of  this  country,  and  the  dates 
and  the  orthography  or  names  so  vary 
in  every  account,  that  it  is  impossible 
to  do  more  than  compile  from  ao 
oepted  authorities.] 

roOX  THB  MlLKBLkV  00HQDX8T. 

1800.  Heber  aud  Hsrsmon. 

1291.  Heremon,  alone. 

1285.  Muirmhne.  Lub;^hne,  and  Lalghne,  suc- 
ceeded their  lather,  Heremon;  reign- 
ing Jointly ;  the  first  died,  and  the 
ower  two  were  slain  in  battle  by  the 
sons  of  Heber. 

1282.  Br,Orbha,Fearon,andFeargna,sonsof 
Heber,  succeeded  the  sous  of  Here- 
mon: all  slain  in  battle  by  their 
successor. 

1 281 .  Irial.  or  Irial-Faidh ;  slew  and  succeeded 
the  four  sons  of  Heber. 

1271.  Eithrlal;  slain  in  battle  by  his  suc- 
cessor. 

1251.  Goumaol,  <»:  Conreal.  "first  abeolute 
monarch  of  the  Hibernian  raoo;" 
slain  in  battle. 

1221.  Tiflermas;  Introduced  idolatry  into 
Irelaad. 

1171.  EochaidhEadgothac. 

1147.  Cearmna  and  Sobhair,  brothers ;  parti- 
tioned Ireland  into  south  and  north. 

1107.  Flachade-Labhruin :  slain  by  his  suc- 
cessor. 


1083.  Eoehaldh-Mumho :   slain  by  his 


1061. 


Aongus-Olmuchae :  slain  by  his  sae- 
oessor. 

Eadna-Airgtheach,  and 

Botheachta :  both  slain  by  thetr  sne- 
oessors. 

Beadhna :  slain  by  his  own  son 

Hachadh-Fionsgothach :  slain  by  hia 
successor. 

Muinhoamhoin,  or  Muinimone :  died  of 
theplsffue. 

AUdergcrfdh ;  succeeded  his  &ther :  slain 
by  his  Buccflnsor 

Odlamh-Fodhla,  "  the  wisest  and  most 
Tirtuous  prince  that  ever  mounted 
the  Irish  throne. " 

Fionaohta,  his  son. 

Blanoll,  succeeded  his  brother :  died  at 
Tara. 

Geide-Olgothaeh,  also  a  son  of  Odlamh- 
Fodhla  :  slain  by  his  nephew. 

Fiachadh :  slain  by  his  successor. 

Beamgall :  slain  by  hie  successor. 

Oilliol :  slain  by  his  successor. 

Sioma-Baoghauch :  slain  by  his  suc- 
cessor. 

Rothsachta:  burnt 

[Six  succeeding  king*,  among  whom 
was  Nuadiia-FioDn-Fid],  died  Tiolent 
deaths.] 

735.  Fion-Fin,  of  the  line  of  Er,  or  Ir. 

715.  RfMidhna :  *'  invented  banners  to  distin- 


1048. 
1016. 

99L 
986. 

906. 

961. 

084. 


924. 
900 

894. 

877. 
858. 
841. 
825. 

804. 


*  An  amnesty  was  granted  to  O'Brien,  May  3,  1856^  and  he  shortly  after  returned  to  Ireland, 
t  Fftupers  in  Irish  workhouses  in  1849,        020,000.        In  1857,  66,000. 


Notes  in  circulation  „         £8,860,450.  „      '  £7.160,000. 

BuUion  in  Irish  batiks  „         £1,625,000.  .,         £2,492.000. 

t  The  Irish  writers  carry  their  succession  of  kings  very  high,  as  high  as  even  before  the  Flood.  The 
learned  antiquary,  Thomas  Innes.  of  the  Scots'  College  of  Paris,  expressed  his  wonder  that  "the  learucd 
men  of  the  Irish  nation  have  not,  like  those  of  other  nations,  yet  published  the  valuable  ranaine  ct 
their  andeut  histoij  whole  and  entire,  with  Just  translations,  in  order  to  separate  what  is  fkbakmsawl 
only  grounded  on  the  traditions  of  their  poets  and  bards,  fh»m  what  is  certain  history.**  **  O'Flshcrty. 
Keatinff,  Toland,  Kennedy,  and  other  modem  Irish  historians,  have  rendered  all  uncertain  by  dedttctag 
their  history  ftom  the  Deluge,  with  as  much  assurance  as  they  deliver  the  transactions  of  Irelaad  fhMS 
Bt  Patrick's  time."— i«ndcnoN. 


IRE 


847 


IRE 


IRELAND,  continued. 

SJsh  his  troops ; "  tortured  and  out 
to  cmarters  by  his  successor. 

095.  Slmeou  Broac :  suflTored  the  same  fate. 

689.  Duach-Fioon  or  Finn ;  sUin  by  his  suc- 
cessor. 

96L  Muiniadaoh,  and  two  tuooeeding  kings 
died  Tiolently. 

659.  Blorlamh:  "he  had  such  long  hands 
and  arms,  that  when  he  stood  up- 
right bis  Angers  touched  the  ground :" 
■lain  1^  his  successor. 

pDeTsn  nrinoes  suooeeded,  who  all  died 
in  ciTil  wan  or  broils^  or  by  nssassi- 
nation.] 

510.  Aodh-Ruadh :  drowned. 

519.  IHothorba:  died  of  a  malignant  dis- 
temper. 

49&  Coimbaoth:  died  of  the  plague. 

478.  Hachadh-Hongruadh.  queen,  sumamed 
the  Red-ha&ed  Princess;  suooeedod 
her  eousin,  and  "reigned  msgni- 
fioently ;"  slain  by  her  suocessor. 

471.  Beachta-  Righdheaig :  slain  by  his  suo- 
cessor. 

451.  Ugaine  Hor,  or  the  Great :  *  *  had  twenty- 
two  sons  and  three  daughters,  among 
whom  he  partitioned  hLs  kingdom  . 
slain  by  his  brother.      . 

481.  Laoghaire-Lorek :  slain  by  his  brother. 

419.  Cabnthaiok :  slew  his  brother  and  ne- 
phew :  himaelf  slain  by  his  grand- 
nephew. 

[Ten  kings  sncoeeded,  of  whom  three 
only  died  natural  deaths.] 

275.  Feaigus-Forthamhuil :  killed  In  battle. 
288.  Aongus-Tuirimheaoh :  slain  at  Tara. 

[Of  fifteen  succeeding  princes,  eleven 
died  in  battle,  or  were  murdered.] 

66.  Conairs  Mor,  or  the  Oraat :  deprived  of 
his  crown  and  life  by  his  successor. 

36.  Lughaidh-Riebdeaig:  killed  himself  by 
fiUiing  on  his  sword. 

[Two  kings  succeeded,  ci  whom  the 
latter  died  a  d.  4.] 

▲fTBE  OHBIST. 

4.  FearaidhachFioniachtna,  "  a  most  Just 
and  good  prince : "  slain  by  his  suc- 
oessor. 
24.  Flachadh-Fion :  slain  bv  his  suocessor. 
27.  Fiachadb-Fiouohudh,  the  prince  with 
the  white  oows :  "  murdered  by  the 
Irish  plebeians  of  ConnaughL" 
54.  Gairbre-Cinncait :  murdered  in  a  con- 
spiracy. 
09.  Ellm  :  suin  in  battle. 
79.  Tuathal-Teachtm:ir :  slain  by  his  suc- 

ceesor. 
109.  Mai  or  Mail :  slain  by  his  suocessor. 
113.  Feidblimhidh;"anexoeUentJusaciar." 

died  a  natund  death. 
122.  Gathoire   Mor.   or  the   Great:    "had 

thirty  sons.'' 
125.  Conn  Ceadehadhach,  called  th«  hero  of 

the  hundred  battles :  slain. 
145   Conaira :  killed. 
152.  Art-Aonf  hir,  the  Melancholy ;  slain  in 

battle. 
182.  Lughaidh,  sumamed  MacConn :  thrust 
through  the  eye  with  a  spear,  in  a 
conspuocy. 

212.  Fergus,  sumamed  Black-teeth ;  mur- 

dered at  the  instigation  of  liis  suc- 
cessor. 

213.  Cbrmsc-Uirhada,   "a  prince   of  moet 

exoellent  wisdom,  and  kept  the  most 


splendid  court  that  ever  was  in  Ire- 
land : "  choked  by  the  bone  of  a  fish 
at  supper. 

253.  Boohaidh-Gunait :  killed. 

254.  Cah-bre-LifTeaohair :  sUin  in  battle. 
282.  Fiachadh;  succeeded  his  Cather:  slain 

in  battle  by  his  three  neuhews. 
815.  Gairioll  or  GoUa-Uais :  dethzoned,  and 

retired  to  Scotland. 
819.  Muirreadhach-Tireach  :    sLUn  by   his 

suocessor. 

852.  Caolbhach,  slsin  by  his  successor. 

853.  Eochaidh-Moidhmeodhalu :  died  a  na- 

ttiral  death. 
360.  Criomthan :  noisoned  bv  his  own  sister, 

to  obtain  tne  cnjwu  for  her  son. 
375.  Niall,  sumamed  of  the  nine  hostages : 

killed  in  France,  on  the  banks  ofttie 

Lodre. 
896.  Dathy :  killed  by  a  thunderbolt  at  the 

foot  of  the  Alps. 
421.  lAoghalra :  killed  by  a  thnnderboli. 
453.  OiUoUMolt :  slain  in  battle. 
473.  Lughaidh :  killed  also  by  a  thunder* 

bolt. 
493.  Murtough  :  died  naturally. 
515.  Tuathal-Maolgarbh :  assassinated 
528.  Diarmuid :  fell  by  the  sword  of  Hugh 

Dubb. 

550.  Feargus,  in  coi\junction  with  his  brother 

Dtttiiel :  the  «**«"—'  of  Uieir  deaths 
uncertain. 

551.  Eochaidh,     iointly    with    his    unde. 

Randan;  Both  slain. 
554.  Ainmereach:  deprived  of  his  crown  and 
life. 

557.  Baodan :  slain  by  the  two  Cuimins. 

558.  Aodh  or  Hugh :  killed  in  battle. 
587.  Hugh  Blaine :  sssssslnafod. 

591.  Aodh-Uaireodhnach  :  killed  in  battle. 

618.  Maoloobha:  defeated  in  a  dreadfUl 
battle,  in  which  he  was  slain. 

622.  Buibhne-Meabi :  kiUed. 

635.  Daniel :  died  a  natural  death. 

648.  Conall  CUu>n,  Jointly  with  his  brother 
OeaUaoh :  the  first  was  murdered,  the 
other  drowned  in  a  bog. 

661.  Diarmuid  and  Rlathmao :  both  died  of 
the  plague. 

668.  Scaohnasoh :  sssasslTiafed. 

674.  Cionfaola ;  succeeded  his  brother :  mur- 
dered. 

678.  Flonaehta-Fleadha :  murdered. 

685.  Lolngseach :  killed  in  battle. 

693.  Congal  Gionmsghalr,  *'a  cruel  perse- 
cutor of  the  Irish  bhuroh.  without 
meroy  or  distinction : "  sudden  death. 

702   Feargal :  routed  and  slain  in  battle. 

719.  Forgatach:  slain  in  battle. 

720.  Cionaoth  :  defeated,  and  found  dead  on 

the  battle-field. 

724.  Flaithbheartagh :  became  a  monk. 

731.  Aodh,  or  Hugh  Alain  :  killed  in  battle. 

740.  Daniel :  died  on  a  pilgrimage  at  Joppa, 
in  Paleetine. 

782.  Niall-Freaaoch :  became  a  monk. 

786.  Donagh,  or  Donchad : ' '  died  in  his  bed. " 

815.  Aodh,  or  Hugh  :  slain  in  battle. 

887.  Connor,  or  Conchabhar :  "diedof  grieC 
being  unable  to  reoreas  the  misfor- 
tunes of  his  country." 

851.  Niall-Caillie :  drowned  in  the  river 
CaUUe. 

866  Tuxgesius,  the  Norwegian  chief;  pos- 
s^sed  himself  of  the  sovereign  power ; 
"  expelled  the  Irish  historians,  and 
burut  their  books :  *'  made  prisoner 
and  thrown  into  a  lough,  and 
drowned. 

879.  Maol  CeathMn,  or  Malachy  I. 


IRE 


348 


IRE 


IRELAND,  continued, 

897.  Hugh  Fionnliath. 

913.  Flann  Sionna. 

951.  Niall-Ohmdubh  :  '*died  on  the  field  of 
honour." 

964.  DonnA^h,  or  Donough. 

974.  Confpdl :  slain  by  the  Danes  at  Armagh. 

984.  Daniel :  became  a  monk. 
1004.  Maol  Ceachlin  II.  :  resigned  on  the 
election  of  Brian  Boroimho  as  king 
of  Ireland. 
1027.  Brian  Barumy,  or  Boiroimhe;  a  valiant 
and  renowned  prince :  defeated  the 
Danes  in  the  memorable  battle  of 
Clontorf,  on  Good  Friday,  1039 ;  aa- 
saaeinated  in  his  tent  the  same  night, 
while  In  the  attitude  of  prayer. 

[Brian  Boiroimhe  was  30  years  king  of 
Hunster,  and  12  king  of  Ireland.  J 

1089.  Maol  Ceachlin  II.  restored. 

1048.  Donough,  or  Denis  O'Brlan.  third  son 
of  the  preceding. 

1098.  Tirloch,  or  Turlough,  nephew  of  Do- 
nough. 

1110.  Muriortagh,  or  Murtough  :  resigned 
and  became  a  monk. 

1180.  Turlough  (O'Connor)  II.  the  gnat. 

1150.  Murtough  Mac  NeU  Mac  Lachlin:  slain 
in  battle. 

1168.  Roderic,  or  Roger  O'Connor. 

1172.  Henry  II.  king  of  England;  conquered 

the  country,  and  became  lord  of  Ire* 
land. 

[The  Engliflh  monarchs  were  styled 
"  Lords  of  Ireland  "  until  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.,  who  styled  himself 
king;  and  this  title  has  continued 
ever  since.  ] 

OOVERNORS  OF  IRELAND. 

1178.  Hugh  de  Lacy,  lord  of  Meath,  as  lord 
justice. 

1173.  Richard  de  Clare,  earl  of  Pembroke,  as 

lord  warden. 

1177.  Raymond  le  Ores,  elected  by  Ihe  coun> 
cil,  procurator. 

1177.  John,  earl  of  Moreton  (afterwards  king 
JohuX  appointed  lom  of  Ireland  soon 
afterwards. 

1177.  William  Fitzadelm  de  Buigo,  tmdor  the 
title  of  seneschal. 

1185.  The  earl  of  Moreton,  appointed  go- 
vernor. 

1191.  Fetor  Pipard,  appointed  lord  deputy  by 
Richard  I. 

1216.  Qw)ffroy  de  Mari.««is,  appointed  go- 
vernor under  the  title  of  custos,  16 
king  John. 

1808.  Piers  de  Gaveston,  earl  of  Cornwall, 
was  appointed,  by  the  title  of  lord 
lieutenant,  2  Edw.  IL 

LORD  URUTFMANTS. 

1S08.  Piers  de  Qaveston,  earl  of  Cornwall. 

1329.  James,  earl  of  Ormoud. 

1331.  Sir  Anthouy  Lucy. 

1.S61.  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence. 

1869.  dir  William  de  Windsor. 

1380.  Edmund  Mortimer,  earl  of  March. 

1382.  Philip  Courtney,  lord  Birmingham,  GenL 

1384.  Robert  de  Vere,  earl  of  Oxford. 

1394.  King  Richard  II.  in  perron. 

1396.  R^'gcr  Mortimer,  earl  of  March. 

1399.  Kino  Richard  II.  in  person,  again. 

1401.  Thomas,  earl  of  Lancaster. 

1410.  Jolin,  duke  of  Bedford. 

1418.  Edward,  earl  of  March. 

1414.  Sir  John  Talbot. 

1416.  Thomas,  earl  of  Lancaster. 

1427.  Sir  John  de  Grey. 


1428.  Sir  J.  Sutton,  lord  Dudley. 

1432.  Sir  Thomas  Stanley. 

1438.  Lion,  lord  Wells. 

1440.  James,  earl  of  Ormond. 

1446.  John,  earl  of  Shrewsbury. 

1449.  Richard,  duke  of  York. 

1461.  Ctooige,  duke  of  Clarence,  for  life. 

1479.  Richard,  duke  of  York. 

1488.  Gerald,  earl  of  Kildare.  and  in  1496w 

1485.  John  die  la  Pole,  earl  of  Unooln. 

1490.  Jasper,  duke  of  Bedford. 

1496.  Gerald,  earl  of  Kildare,  and  in  1S04. 

1601.  Henry,  duke  of  York.  aft.  Henry  VIII. 

1504.  Gerald,  earl  of  Kildare. 

1520.  Thomas  Howard,  earl  of  Surrey. 

1580.  Henry,  duke  of  Richmond. 

1558.  Thomas,  oarl  of  Sossex. 

1598.  Robert,  earl  of  Essex. 

1599.  Sir  Charles  Blount,  lord  MountjoT. 

1689.  Thomas,  lord  viscount  Wentworth.  earl 

of  Strafford. 
1643.  James,  marqueni  of  Ormond. 
1649.  Oliver  Cromwell. 
1660.  James  Butier,  duke,  marquets,  and  earl 

of  Ormond. 

1669.  John  Roberts,  lord  Roberts. 

1670.  J.  Berkeley,  lord  Berkeley. 
1672.  Arthur  Canel,  eari  of  Eswx. 
1677.  James  Butier,  duke  of  OrmondL 

1685.  Henry  Hyde,  cari  ol  Clarendon. 

1686.  Richaid  Talbot,  earl  of  Tyru>nn«L 

1690.  Henry  Sydney,  lord  Sydney. 
1695.  Henry  (}apel,  lord  Capel. 

1701.  Laurence  Hyde,  earl  of  Rochester. 

1708.  James  Butier,  duke  of  Ormond. 
1707.  Thomas,  earl  of  Pembroke. 

1709.  Thomas,  earl  of  Wharton. 
1711.  James,  duke  of  Ormond,  again. 
1718.  Charles,  duke  of  Shrewsbury. 
1717.  Charles,  duke  of  Bolton. 

1721.  Charles,  duke  of  Grafton. 

17*24.  John,  lord  Carteret. 

1731.  Lionel,  duke  of  Dorset. 

1787.  William,  duke  of  Devonshire. 

1745.  Philip,  earl  of  Chesterfield. 

1747.  WilUam,  earl  of  Harrington. 

1751.  Lionel,  duke  of  Donet,  again. 

1755.  William,  marquess  of  HartJngt<ML 

1757.  John,  dake  of  Bedford. 

1761.  George,  earl  of  Halifax. 

1763.  Hugh,  earl  of  Northumberland. 

1766.  Francis,  earl  of  Hertford. 

1767.  George,  viscount  Towushend,  Oct.  14. 
1772.  Simon,  earl  of  Harcourt,  Nov.  SO. 
1777.  John,  earl  of  Buckinghamshire,  Jan.  25. 
1780.  Fred,  earl  of  Carlisle,  Dec  28. 

1782.  Wm.  Henry,  duke  of  Portland.  April  14. 

1782.  George,  earl  Temple,  Sept.  15. 

1783.  Robert,  earl  of  Nortbington,  June  S. 

1784.  Charles,  duke  of  Rutland,  Feb.  84. 

[The  *duke  died   in  the  government, 
Oct.  24,  1787.] 

1787.  Gtooige,  marquess  of  Buckingham  (lat« 

eari  TempioX  again,  Dec.  16. 
1700.  John,  earl  of  Westmorland,  Jan  5. 
1795.  William,  earl  Fittwilliam,  Jan.  4. 
1706.  John,  earl  Camden,  March  31. 
1798.  Charles,  marqness  Comwallis,  June  10. 
1801.  Philip,  earl  of  Hard wicke,  May  1^5. 

1806.  John,  duke  of  Bedford,  March  18. 

1807.  Charles,  duke  of  Richmond,  April  19. 
1813.  Charles,  earl  Whit  worth,  Aug.  26. 
Ibl7.  Charles,  earl  Talbot.  Oct.  9. 

1821.  Richard,  marquess  Wellesley.  Pee.  S9. 

1828.  Henry,  marquess  of  An^esey,  March  I. 

1829.  Hugh,     duke     of     Northumberiaod, 

March  6. 

1830.  Henry,  marquess  of  Anglesey,  sgain, 

Dec.  23. 


IB£ 


319 


lUU 


IRELAND,  conHnmiL 

1833.  Marqueas  Wellealey,  again.  Bept  26.  1847.  Gcoige  William  Frederick,  earl  of  Cla- 

1334.  Thomaa,  earl  of  Haddington,  Dec.  29.  rcndon.  Hay  26. 

1835.  Henry  Conatantino,  marquesj  of  Kor-  1852.  Archibald  William,    earl  of  Eglinton, 


manby.  April  23. 
1839.  Hugh,  earl  Forteecue,  April  3. 
1841.  Thomaa  Philip,  earl  de  Groy.  Sept.  16. 
1844.  WiUiam,  lord  Heytesbuiy,  July  12. 
1846.  JohnWiUiam,eariofBesborougb,July9. 
[The  earl  died  in  the  government,  May 
16,  1&47.J 


Feb.  28. 

■  1862.  Edward  OFanrille,  earl  of  St.  Germans, 
,  Dec 

1856.  Geonre    William    Frederick,    earl    of 

Carlisle,  March.    The  pslz^kkt  lord 

lieutenant.    (1857.) 


IRON.  It  was  found  on  Mount  Ida  by  the  Doctyles,  owing  to  the  forest  of  the  mount 
haying  been  burnt  by  lightning,  1432  B.C. — Arundelian  Marblea.  The  Greeks 
ascribed  the  discovery  of  iron  to  themselves,  and  referred  glass  to  the  Phoeaiciaus ; 
but  Moeos  ralates  that  iron  was  wrought  by  Tubal-Cain.  Iron  furnaces  among  the 
Romans  were  unprovided  with  bellows,  but  were  placed  on  eminences  with  the  grate 
in  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds.  Swedish  iron  is  very  celebrated,  and 
Dannemora  is  the  greatest  mine  of  Sweden.  British  iron  was  ca^t  by  Ralph  Page 
and  Peter  fiaude,  in  Sussex,  in  1548. — Rymef't  Foedera,  Iron-mills  were  first  used 
for  slitting  iron  into  bars  for  smiths,  by  Godfrey  Bochs,  in  1590.  Tinning  of  iron 
was  first  introduced  from  Bohemia  in  1 681.  Till  1740,  iron  ores  were  smelted  entirely 
with  wood  charcoal,  which  did  not  entirely  give  way  to  coke  till  178$.  The  operation 
termed  puddling,  and  other  very  great  improvements  in  the  manufacture,  were  invented 
by  Mr.  Henry  Cort,  between  1781  and  1826.  From  most  unfortunate  circumstances 
he  did  not  reap  the  due  reward  of  his  ingenuity.  In  1856,  Mr.  Henry  Bessemer 
made  knoivn  his  method  of  manufacturing  iron  and  steel  without  fuel,  the  success  of 
which  is  considered  doubtful. 

IRON   PRODUCED  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


1740    . 
1788 
1796    . 
1802 
1806    . 

.    50  furnaces       .       17,850  tons. 
.    .    77       „         .    .       61,900    „ 

.  121        „               .      124.789    „ 
.    .  168        „         .     .      227,000    „ 

.  227        „               .      250,000    „ 

1820       .    .  200fumaoee  . 
1826    .        .  874 
1840         .     .  402        „ 
1848    .         .  62S        „ 
1852        .     .  655        „ 

400,000  tons. 
.      681.367    „ 
.  1,896,400    „ 
.  1,998,558    „ 
.  2,701,000    „ 

In  1855,  8,217,161  tons  of  pig-iron  were  produced. 

PRICK  OF   IRON   PER  TON. 

1834    . 
18S0 

.  Bar  £6 
.     ..    10 

18    6    ..  Pig  £4      6    0 
12    0         .     „       6    18    0 

1843    .    .  Bar£6      0 
1853        .,,00 

0    . 
0 

.Pig  £2      6    0 
..,816 

IRON-MASK,  THE  MAN  of  the.  ▲  mysterious  prisoner  in  France,  wearing  a  mask, 
and  closely  confined,  under  M.  de  St.  Mars,  at  Pigaerol,  Sainte  Marguerite,  and  after- 
wards at  the  Bastile.  He  was  of  noble  mien,  and  was  treated  with  profound  respect ; 
but  his  keepers  had  orders  to  despatch  him  if  he  uncovered.  M.  de  St.  Mars  himself 
always  placed  the  dishes  on  his  table,  and  stood  in  hii  presence.  Some  conjecture 
him  to  have  been  an  Armenian  patriarch  forcibly  carried  from  Constantinople,  but 
lie  died  ten  years  before  the  mask ;  others  that  he  was  the  count  de  Vermandois,  son 
of  Louis  XIV.,  although  he  was  reported  to  have  perished  in  the  camp  before  Dixmude. 
More  believe  him  to  have  been  the  celebrated  duke  of  Beftufort,  whose  head  is  recorded 
to  have  been  taken  off  before  Candia ;  while  still  more  assert  that  he  was  the  unfor- 
tunate James,  duke  of  Monmouth,  who,  in  the  imagination  of  the  Londoners  at  least, 
was  executed  on  Tower-hill.  But  there  were  two  better  conjectures :  he  was  said  to 
have  been  a  son  of  Anne  of  Austria,  queen  of  Louis  XIII.,  his  father  being  the  cardinal 
Mazarine  (to  whom  that  dowager  queen  was  privately  married)  or  the  duke  of 
Buckingham.  Or  to  have  been  the  twin-brother  of  Louis  XIV.,  whose  birth  was 
concealed  to  prevent  civil  dissensions  in  France,  which  it  might  one  day  haVe  caused.* 
This  persou  died,  after  a  long  imprisonment,  Nov.  19,  1703. 

IRIJN,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  British  auxiliary  legion,  under  general  Evans,  and 
the  CarHat  forces.  On  the  16th  May,  the  legion  marched  from  SL  Sebastian  to  attack 
Irun,  which,  after  a  desperate  resistance,  they  carried  by  assault,  May  17,  1837. 
Qreat  exertions  were  made  by  the  British  officers  to  save  the  lives  of  the  prisoners 
from  the  fury  of  the  soldiers  of  the  legion,  their  minds  having  been  exasperated  by 

*  It  has  been  more  recently  coi\jcetured  that  Fouqiiet,  an  eminent  statesman  in  the  time  of  Louis 
'XTV.  woe  the  Masque  de  Fer;  and  a  count  Matthioli,  secretiiry  of  state  to  Churlcs  III.  duke  of  Mantua, 
is  suppoeed  by  M.  Delort,  In  a  later  publication,  to  have  been  the  victim.  The  riffht  hon.  Acrar  Ellis, 
afterwards  lord  D«>ver,  in  an  interesting  narrative,  eudeavotirs  to  prove  MHtthioIi  to  have  been  the 
mask.  The  mask,  it  seems,  wan  not  made  of  iron ;  it  was  made  or  block  velvet,  strengthened  with 
whalebone,  and  fastened  behind  the  head  with  a  iiadlock. 


TBV 


850 


ITA 


the  frequent  mBsucre  of  such  of  their  comrades  u  had  from  time  to  time  &llen  into 
the  hamdM  of  ibe  CarliatB,    The  town  was  pillaged. 

IRVINGITES,  or  the  followers  of  the  BeT.  Edward  Irving.*  They  call  themaelTea  the 
"  Holy  Catholic  Apostolic  Chnroh.**  They  use  a  lituigy  (framed  in  1842,  and  enlarRed 
1853)i  and  haye  church  officers  named  apostles,  angels,  potyphets,  kc  In  1852,  li^ts 
on  the  magnificent  altar  and  burning  of  incense  during  prayers  were  prescribed.  Tbsir 
Qothic  church  or  cathedral  in  Gordon-square  was  solemnly  opened  Jan.  1, 1854.  It 
is  said  that  all  who  join  the  church  offer  a  tenth  of  their  income  for  its  support  and 
extension.    By  the  census  they  had  30  chapels  in  England  in  1851. 

ISLAMISH    See  Makometamm,  kc 

ISLE  or  FRANCE.    See  Mauniiut. 


ISLES,  BISHOPBIC  of  the.    This  see  contained  not  only  the  iBbudsB  or 

Isles,  but  the  Isle  of  Man,  which  for  nearly  400  years  had  been  a  separate  bishopric. 
The  first  bishop  of  the  Isles  was  Amphibalus,  ▲.D.  360.  The  Isle  of  Ily  was  in  fonoer 
ages  a  place  famous  for  sanctity  and  learning,  and  early  the  seat  of  a  bishop ;  it  was 
denominated  Icolumkill,  from  St.  Columba,  the  companion  of  St.  Patrick,  founding  a 
monastery  here  in  the  sixth  century,  which  was  the  parent  of  above  100  other 
monasteries  in  England  and  Ireland.  Sinoe  the  revolution  (when  this  bishopric  was 
discontinued)  the  Isles  have  been  conjoined  to  Moray  and  Ross,  or  to  Boas  alone.  In 
1847,  however,  Axgyll  and  the  Isles  were  made  to  form  a  seventh  post-revolution  and 
distinct  bishopria    See  Biihopg. 

ISMAIL,  SIEGE  or,  iv  Bbssarabta.  After  a  long  siege  by  the  Russisns,  who  lost 
20,000  men  before  the  place,  the  town  was  ti^en  by  storm,  Deo.  22,  1790 ;  when 
the  Buasian  general,  Suwarrow,  the  most  merciless  warrior  of  modem  times,  pvt  the 
brave  Turkish  garrison,  consisting  of  80,000  men,  to  the  aword.  Not  satisfied  with 
this  vengeance,  he  delivered  up  Ismail  to  the  pillage  of  his  ferocious  soldiery,  and 
ordered  the  massacre  of  6000  women.  By  the  trMtty  of  Paris  in  1856  Ismail  was 
restored  to  Turkey. 

ISBAEL,  KINGDOM  of.    See  Jewi, 

ISSUS,  BATTLE  or.  Alexander's  second  great  battle  with  Darius,  who  lost  100,000 
men,  and  his  queen  and  family  were  o^ttured,  388  11.0. — Plutarch.  The  Persians  lost 
100,000  foot  and  10,000  hone  in  the  field ;  and  the  Macedonians  only  300  foot  and 
150  horse. — Diodorut  SiaUut.  The  Persisn  army,  according  to  Justin,  oonsitfted  of 
400,000  foot  and  100,000  horse ;  and  61,000  of  the  former,  and  10,000  of  the  latter, 
were  left  dead  on  the  spot,  atfd  40,000  were  taken  prisonen. — Jiuiin, 

ISTHMIAN  GAMES.  These  were  combats  among  the  Greeks,  and  received  their  name 
from  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  where  they  were  observed :  instituted  in  honour  of 
Melicerta,  1326  B.a — LengUt,  They  were  r^instituted  in  honour  of  Neptone  by 
Theseus,  snd  their  celebration  was  held  so  aacred  and  inviolable,  that  even  a  puUic 
calamity  could  not  prevent  it,  1269  B.a — Arunddian  MarhUt, 

ITALY.  The  garden  of  Europe,  and  the  nurse  of  arts  as  well  as  arms.  It  received  its 
name  from  lUdui,  a  king  of  the  country,  or  from  'IraX^r,  a  Greek  word,  signifyii^  an 
ox.  The  aborigines  of  Italy  were  the  progeny  of  Meehech,  the  uxth  son  of  Japheth. 
In  process  of  time,  the  Gomerites,  or  Celts,  who  inhabited  the  greatest  part  of  Ganl, 
sent  several  colonies  into  Italy,  while  other  colonists  arrived  from  Greece,  and  the 
country  was  divided  into  three  grand  parts,  viz. : — Cisalpine  Gaul,  the  settlement  of 
the  Celts ;  Italia  Propria,  the  residence  of  the  first  inhabitants ;  and  Magna  GrsBda, 
the  seat  of  the  Grecian  colonists.  The  modem  inhabitants  of  Italy  mav  be  derived 
from  the  Gk>ths  and  Lombards,  who  contributed  so  largely  to  the  overthrow  of  tho 
Roman  empire,  and  who  founded  on  its  ruins  the  kingdoms  of  Italy  and  Lombardy. 


Rome  taken  and  plundered  by  the  Tie!- 
gotha  under  Alaiic.    Bee  Rome  •.  a.d.    410 

The  Huns  ravage  the  Roman  empire 
under  Attila,  *'IAe  Scourge  of  Ood  '^    .    447 


The  Weeten  Roman  empire  fa  destroyed 
by  the  Hernli,  whoae  leader,  Odoeeer, 
erecta  the  kingdom  of  Italy        .  x.n.    4X6 

The  reign  of  Totila,  who  twice  piUagea 


*  Edward  Irving  waa  bom  Aug  16, 1792,  and  was  engased  aa  aaaiatant  to  Cr.  Chalmera,  at  Glasgow, 
in  1810.  In  1822  he  attracted  immenae  crowda  of  moat  d&tmguiabed  peraona  to  hia  aennona  at  the  BoetA 
church,  Hstton-garden.  A  new  church  waa  built  for  him  in  R^^ent'a  square  in  1827.  Boon  after  he 
propounded  new  doctrinea  on  the  human  nature  of  Chrlit ;  and  in  1880  the  "  DtteraDoea  of  Cnknowa 
Tonguea  "  in  hia  oongragation  were  countenanced  by  him.  He  waa  ezpdled  trom  the  Beoteh  chorcb 
March  16,  1888.  Hia  church,  "  reoonatituted  with  the  thieefold  oordof  a  eevenfold  minlatiy." 
removed  to  Newman-street.    He  died  Dec.  8,  1834. 


ITA 


151 


JAC 


55S 


668 
596 
607 
774 

800 


ITALY,  comimued. 

Borne,  and  raduoet  the  iBhabHaniB  to 
■nch  difltren,  that  the  ladles  aad 
people  of  qualtty  are  obUged  to  be^  for 
bread  at  the  doonof  the  Goths,  a.d.  541-562 

Tbe  x)ower  of  the  Goths  destroyed,  and 
their  kinsdom  overthrown  by  the 
generalsof  the  Eastern  empire   . 

Narsee.  goremor  of  Italy,  invites  the 
Lombsids  firom  Germany  into  this 
cofontry 

The  Lombards  overmn  Italv  . 

Venice  first  governed  by  a  doge         .    . 

Charlemagne  invades  Italy     . 

He  repairs  to  Borne,  and  is  orowned 
emperor  of  the  West  ... 

[Oaring  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  the 
pop9  of  Borne,  who  had  hitherto  been 
merely  a  spiritual  minister,  fiuds 
means  to  assume  a  temporal  power, 
not  only  independent  of^  but  superior 
to  all  othersj 

Tape  Damasius  II.  is  the  first  who  causes 
himself  to  be  crowned  with  a  tiara     .  1C53 

Pope  Gregory  VII.,  sumamed  Hilde- 
brand,  pretends  to  univeml  sove- 
reignty, in  which  he  is  assisted  by  the 
countess  Matilda,  mistress  of  the 
greater  part  of  Italy,  who  makes  a  do- 
nation of  an  her  estates  to  the  Church  1076 

Disputes  between  the  popes  and  empe- 
Ton,  relative  to  the  appointment  of 
bishops,  begin  about  1106,  and  agitate 
Italy  and  Germany  during  several 
centuries. 

The  Venetians  obtain  many  victories 
o'ver  the  Bastem  empen>rB  .  .  1125 

Tuscany  becomes  independent  .        .    .  1208 

The  duchies  of  Ferrara,  Hodena,  and 
Beggio,  are  created      ....  1228 

Milan  erected  into  a  duchy  .    .  1277 

The  papal  seat  removed  for  seventy  yean 
to  Aviffnoo,  in  Prance  ....  1808 

The  oarninals  aotagreaiag  in  the  election 


of  a  pope,  they  set  fire  to  the  conclave, 
mnd  separate,  and  the  papal  chair  is 
left  vacant  for  two  years  a.d.  1814 

Louis  Gonzaga  makes  himself  master  of 
Mantua,  with  the  title  of  imperial  vicar  1828 

Luoca  becomes  an  independent  republic  1S70 

Naples  conquered  by  Charles  VIII.         .  1402 

The  re^bllc  of  Venice  loses  all  its  Italian 
provinces  in  a  single  campaign,  as- 
sailed by  Uie  pope,  the  emperor,  moA 
the  kings  of  Spain  and  France    .        .  1509 

Leo  X.  tiaving  exhausted  all  his  finances, 
opens  the  sale  of  indulgenoes  and  ab- 
solutions^ which  soon  replenishes  hia 
treasury 1517 

Parma  and  Placentia  made  a  duchy      .  1515 

Cosmo  de  Medioii  made  grand  duke  of 
Tuscany  by  Pius  V.         ....  1600 

Pope  Gregory  XIIL  reforms  the  calendar. 
^teOiUndar 1582 

Ambassadors  ttom  Japan  to  the  pope. 
See  Jeddo 1610 

The  Corsicans  revolt  flnom  the  Genoeee, 
and  choose  Theodore  for  their  king. 
Bee  Conicu     ......  1786 

Milan  vested  in  the  house  of  Austria  by 
the  treaty  of  Aix  la-Chapelle  .        .    .  1748 

Division  of  the  Venetian  states  by  Fimnoe 
and  Austria 1707 

Italy  overrun,  and  Pius  VI.  deposed  by 
Bonaparte 1708 

The  Italian  republic        ....  1802 

ItAly  formed  into  a  kingdom,  and  Napo- 
leon crowned 1805 

Eugene  Beauhamois  made  viceroy  of 
Italy 1805 

The  Idngdom  ceases  on  the  overthrow 
of  Napoleon 1814 

[The  various  other  events  relating  to 
Italy  will  be  found  under  the  rea^MC- 
tive  heads  of  Geaoo,  Zomterdy,  Mtian, 
NapltMt  Rome,  Sicily,  Tuicanjf,  Fmici, 

Ac.} 


On  the  &11  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  the  power  and  influence  of  France  ceased  in  Italy, 
and  the  aeyeral  states  became  subject,  by  the  determination  of  the  congress  of  Vienna, 
to  their  legitimate  sovereigiis.  Modem  and  late  particulars  of  Italy  will  be  found 
under  the  names  of  its  numerous  divisions. 


J. 

J.    Introduced  into  the  alphabet  by  Giles  Beys,  printer,  of  Paris,  1550. — Du  Fremtoy, 

JACOBINS.  The  name  given  to  one  of  the  principal  parties  in  the  Freneh  revolution. 
The  Jacobin  club  originated  from  a  small  and  secxet  association  of  about  forty 
gentlemen  and  men  of  letters,  who  had  united  to  disseminate  political  and  other 
opinions ;  the  members  were  called  Jacobins  from  their  meeting  in  the  hall  of  the 
Jacobin  fiiars  at  Paris.  The  dub  became  numerous  and  popular,  and  fraternal 
societies  were  instituted  in  all  the  principal  towns  of  the  kingdom. — Bwrke.  From 
its  institution,  one  principal  object  j7as,  to  discuss  such  political  questions  as  seemed 
likely  to  be  agitated  in  the  national  assembly,  in  order  that  the  members  might  act 
in  concert.  They  are  represented  as  having  been  detormined  enemies  of  monarchy, 
aristocracy,  and  the  Christian  religion,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  grand  spring  of 
the  revolution.  They  were  suppressed,  Oct.  1 8, 1 794. — The  religious  sect  called  Jacobins 
are  those  of  both  sexes  who  follow  the  rules  of  St.  Dominic.    See  Dominicam, 

JACOBITES.  A  sect  among  the  eastern  Christians,  so  called  from  Jacob  Baradaaus,  a 
Syrian.  See  Futyehians,  In  England  the  partisans  of  James  II.  and  his  descendants 
were  so  named  after  his  expulsion  in  1688. 

JACOBUS.  A  gold  coin  of  the  former  value  of  twenty-five  shillings,  so  called  from  king 
James  I.  of  England,  in  whose  reign  it  was  struck. — L'£drange. 


JES 


354 


JES 


taken  by  the  Uraelites,  1048  b.o.  ;  and  by  Nebuchadnessar,  587  B.a  Based  to  tha 
ground  by  Titus,  a.d.  70,  after  one  of  the  moat  remarkable  aiagea  in  hictoiy.  Mora 
than  1,100,000  of  the  Jews  perished  on  this  oocasion.  A  oity  was  built  on  the  ruina 
of  the  former  by  Julius  Severua  inthe  time  of  the  emperor  Adrian,  A.D.  136.  The 
walls  were  rebuilt  by  the  empress  Eudoxia  in  437.  Jerusalem  waa  taken  by  the 
Persians  in  614 ;  by  the  Saraoena  in  636 ;  and  by  the  Cruaaders,  when  70,000  infidela 
were  put  to  the  sword,  1099.  A  new  kingdom  was  founded,  which  lasted  88  yean. 
Taken  from  the  ChriBtians  by  Saladin,  in  1187  ;  and  by  the  Turks,  who  drove  away 
the  Saracens,  in  1217  and  1239.  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  French  under  Bonaparte 
in  Feb.  1799.    See  articles  Crvaadet  and  /ewf. 

CHRISTIAN  KINGB  OF  JSRU8ALBX. 


Sibyl,  then  hia  sou  CAldwin  V.  .      a.d.  IISS 

Quy  de  LoBignan 1186 

Henry  of  Champagne 1191 

Amauii  de  Luaiguiui       ....  1197 

Jeanne  de  Bxienno 1209 

Emperor  Frederic  II.      . 


Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  ..to.  1099 

Baldwin  1 1100 

Baldwin  II 1118 

FulkofAiijou 1131 

Baldwin  U! 1144 

Amaari 1168 

Baldwin  lY.     .  .     «.  .1174 

JESTER.  In  some  ancient  works  a  jester  is  described  as  "a  w^tty  and  jocose  person, 
kept  by  princes  to  inform  them  oi  their  faults,  and  those  of  Obher  men  under  th« 
disguise  of  a  waggish  story."  Several  of  our  ancient  kings  kept  jesters,  and  parti- 
eularly  the  Tudors.  Rayhere,  the  founder  of  St  Bartholomew  s  monastery,  Anafeixi- 
Frian,  was  a  court  jester.  There  was  a  jester  at  court  in  the  reign  of  Jamea  L  bat 
we  hear  of  no  licensed  jester  afterwards. 

JESUITS.  The  oilier  was  founded  by  Ignatius  Loyola  (who  was  canonised),  a  page  to 
Ferdinand  V.  of  Spain,  and  8ub<«equently  an  officer  in  his  army.  Loyola  having  been 
wounded  at  the  siege  of  Pampeluna^  in  both  legs,  a.d.  1521,  devoted  himself  to 
theology  while  imder  cure,  and  renounced  the  military  for  the  ecclesiastical  pro- 
fession. His  first  devout  exercise  was  to  dedicate  his  life  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  as 
her  knight ;  he  next  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  and  on  his  return  laid  the 
foundation  for  his  new  order  in  France.  He  presented  the  institutes  of  it^  in  1539,  to 
pope  Paul  III.  who  made  many  objections  to  them ;  but  Ignatius  adding  to  the  three 
vows  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience,  a  fourth  of  implicit  aubmission  to  the  holy 
see,  the  institution  was  confirmed  by  a  bull,  Sept.  27,  iBlO,  by  which  their  namber 
was  not  to  exceed  60.  That  clog,  however,  was  taken  off  by  another  bull,  March  14, 
1548 ;  and  popes  Julius  III.  Pius  V.  and  Gregory  XIII.  granted  them  aueh  great 
privileges  as  rendered  them  powerful  and  numerous.  But  though  F^mnfois  Xavier, 
and  other  missionaries,  the  first  brothers  of  the  order,  carried  it  to  the  extremitiea  of 
the  habitable  globe,  it  met  with  great  opposition  in  Europe,  partioidarly  at  F^ia. 
The  Sorbonne  issued  a  decree  in  1554,  by  which  they  condemned  the  institutioii,  aa 
being  calculated  rather  for  the  ruin  than  the  edification  of  the  faithfuL  Brea  in 
RomSah  countries,  the  intrigues  and  seditious  writings  of  this  order  have  oocaaioiied 
it  to  be  discountenanced.  The  Jesuits  were  ezpeUed  England  by  proclamation, 
2  Jas.  1. 1604 ;  and  Venice,  1606.  They  were  put  dovm  in  France  by  an  edict  firam 
the  king,  and  their  revenues  confiscated,  1764 ;  and  were  banished  Spain,  1767. 
Suppressed  by  pope  Clement  XIV.  in  1778.  Restored  by  Pins  VII.  in  1814  ;  and 
since  tolerated  in  other  states ;  and  even  where  not  tolerated,  the  body  poeseei  a 
secret  and  extensive  existence. 

JESUITS' BARK  Cortex  PeruviaMi9,  Called  by  the  Spaniards  Fever-wood ;  discOTeied, 
it  is  said,  by  a  Jesuit,  about  1585.  Its  virtues  were  not  generally  known  till  1 638, 
when  it  cured  of  fever  the  lady  of  the  viceroy  at  Peru.  The  Jesuits  gave  it  to  the 
sick,  and  hence  its  name.  It  was  sold  at  one  period  for  its  weight  in  silver.  It  waa 
introduced  into  France  in  1649  ;  and  is  said  to  have  cured  Louts  XIV.  of  fever  when 
he  was  diuiphin.  It  came  into  general  use  in  1680.  Sir  Hans  Sloane  introdnoed  it 
here  about  1700.    See  QtMfitne. 

JESUS  CHRIST,  the  Saviour  of  the  World.  Bom  on  Monday,  Dec  25,  ▲.]!.  40O4,  in 
the  year  of  Rome  752  ;  but  this  event  should  be  dated  four  years  before  the  com- 
mencement of  the  common  era.  See  Nativiiy,  The  following  dates  are  given  by 
ecclesiastical  writers.  Christ's  baptism  by  John,  and  his  first  ministry,  a.i>.  80.  He 
celebrated  the  last  passover,  and  instituted  the  sacrament  in  its  room,  on  Thursd^, 
April  2.  He  was  crucified  on  Friday,  April  8,  at  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  He 
arose  April  5;  aeoended  to  heaven  from  Mount  Olivet,  on  Thursday,  May   14 


JEW 


855 


JEW 


following ;  and  the  Holy  Spirit  deacended  on  hiB  disciples  on  Sundaj,  the  day  of 
Pentecost,  May  24,  A.11.  33. 

JEWELLERY.  Worn  by  most  of  the  early  nations,  particularly  by  the  Roman  ladies. 
So  prodigious  was  the  extravagance  of  the  Roman  ladies,  that  Pliny  the  elder  says, 
he  saw  Lollia  Paulina  (the  most  beautiful  woman  of  her  time,  and  wife  of  Caius  Casar 
and  afterwards  of  Caligula)  wearing  ornaments  which  were  valued  at  322,916/. 
sterling.  Jewels  were  worn  in  France  by  Agnes  Sorel,  in  1434.  The  manufacture 
was  extensively  encouraged  in  England  in  1685.    See  article  Dru». 

JEWISH  ERA.  The  JewB  usually  employed  the  era  of  the  Seleucids  until  the  fifteenth 
century,  when  a  new  mode  of  computing  was  adopted  by  them.  Some  insist  strongly 
on  the  antiquity  of  their  present  era,  but  it  is  generally  believed  not  to  be  more 
ancient  than  the  century  above-named.  They  date  from  the  creation,  which  they 
consider  to  have  been  8760  years  and  three  months  before  the  commencement  of  our 
era.    To  reduce  Jewish  times  to  ours,  subtract  3761  years. 

JEWS.  A  people  universally  known  both  in  ancient  and  modem  times.  They  derive 
their  origin  from  Abraham,  with  whom,  according  to  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
Jewish  writers,  Qod  made  a  covenant,  1921  B.c. — Blair;  LtngUt ;  U*her, 


Calltff  Abram ao.  1921 

Inac  born  to  Abraham  ...  1896 

Birth  of  Eaau  andJaoob .  .  1836 

Death  of  Abraham 1822 

JoMph  sold  into  IBgTpt  ....  1729 
The  mala  children  of   the   Israelites 

thrown  into  the  Nile ;  Moses.  .  .  1671 
The  PassoYer  Instituted.    The  Israelites 

go  out  of  Bgypt,  and  orois  the  Bed 

Sea 1491 

The  law  promulgated  firom  Mount  Sinai  1491 

The  tabernacle  set  up 1490 

Joshua  leads  the  Israelites  through  the 

liver  Jordan 1451 

The  first  bondage  (Othniel.  1405)  .  .1413 
The  second  bondage  (Ehud,  1825)  .  .  1S43 
The  third  bondage  (Deborah  and  Barak, 

1285) 1805 

The  fourth  bondage  (Qideon,  1245).        .  1252 

The  fifth  bondage 1S06 

The  sixth  bondage 1157 

Samson  slays  the  Philistines  .    .  1136 

He  pulla  down  the  temple  of  Dagon       .1117 

Samuel  governs 1120 

Saul  made  king 1095 

David  slays  Ooliath 1094 

Death  of  Saul 1055 

David  besieges  and  takes  Jerusalem,  and 

makes  it  his  capital  .    .  1048 

Solomon  lays  the  foundation  of  the  temple  1015 

It  is  dedicated 1004 

Death  of  Solomon,  the  kingdom  divided 

into  Judah  and  Israel  .    .    976 

KiKODOic  or  isaABL, 
Jeroboam  rules  the  ten  tribes  .    976 

Bethel  taken  fh>m  Jeroboam;  600,000 

Israelites  slain 957 

larael  afflicted  with  the  fiunine  predicted 

lyyEliiah 906 

The  Syrians  besiege  Samaria  .    .    901 

El^ah  translated  to  heaven  .  .  .  896 
The  Assyrian  invasion  under  Phul  .  .  770 
Pekah  besieges  Jerusalem  ;    he  alays 

120,000  men,  taking  200,000                .    741 
Samaria  taken  by  the  kin^  of  Assyria; 
the  ten  tribes  are   canned  into  cap- 
tivity, and  a  period  is  put  to  the  king- 
dom of  Israel    721 

KIltOnOM  or  JTOAH. 

Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  takes  Jeru- 
salem, and  pillages  the  temple    .        .    971 

Ab\jah  defeats  the  king  of  Israel ;  60,000 
men  are  slain  in  battle  .    .    957 

Hasael  desolates  Judah  .  .839 

Fekah,  king  of  Israel,  lays  siege  to  Jem- 


741 


salem ;  120,000  of  the  men  of  Judah 
are  slain  in  one  day .        .        .       b  a 

Sennacherib  invades  Judea,  but  the  de- 
stroying nngel  enten  the  camp  of  the 
Assyrians,  and  in  one  night  aestroys 
186.000  of  them 710 

[It  is  oonjocturod  br  oommentatora  tha'i 
this  messenger  of  death  was  the  fiitul 
blast  known  in  Eastern  countries  by 
the  name  of  Samid.^ 

Holofemes  is  killed  at  the  siege  of  60- 
thulia  by  Judith 

In  repairing  the  temples  Bilkiah  ilisoo- 
vera  the  oook  of  the  law,  and  JocJab 
keeps  a  solemn  Passover 

Nebucliadneszar  invades  Judea.       .    . 

He  besieges  Jerusalem    .... 

Nebusaradan  carries  away  many  Jews 
captive 688 

He  again  intwdes  Judea,  and  takoi  Jeru- 
salem after  a  long  siege  .    667 

Jerusalem  fired,  the  temple  burnt,  the 
waUs  razed  to  the  ground,  and  the 
city  reduced  to  aabea  ...    687 


676 


623 
606 
597 


anfOB  AKn  psopektb. 
Sanl  began  to  reign        .  B.O.  1095 


David      „ 
Solomon  „ 


1056 
1015 


Samuel. 
Nathan. 


BO.  Kh^9  9fJiifiak, 

975.  Behoboom 

968.  AbUah 

955.  Asa 

953. 

980. 

929. 

928. 

914.  Jehoahaphat. 
897 

896. 

889.  Jehoram 
885.  Ahaziah 
884.  Athaliah 


Jeroboam  L . 
Nada(>  (964) 


Eiah    ;; 

Zimri 
Omri     . 
Ahab 

»»        • 
Ahasiah   . 

( Jehoram  or 
\    Joram 


:l 


Ah^ah. 

Asaiiah. 
Hanani. 
Jehu. 
» 

Blijah. 

El'ikha. 
Jahazicl. 


Jehu. 


»» 


878. 

857. 
839. 
826. 

810. 

784. 
778, 

772. 

761. 


( Joash  or  Je- 
(     hoahaz 

»» 

Anuudah 


:l 


*t 


(Uzziah 
(     Azaziah 


if 


t» 


Jehoahas. 
.  Jehoash. 
.  Jeroboam  II.  Jonah, 
or)  (Hosea, 

.  Anarchy. 
.  Zechariah 

( Shallum  and 
'  t  Menahem. 
.  Fekahiab. 

A  A  2 


'  (     Amos. 
.  Joel. 


F 


JEW 


356 


JEW 


JEWS»  continued. 


T58.  Jotham.  „ 

742.  Ahas.        .    .        ., 
730 HoahM. 

m.H«.ki.h.  .{f«^j^*''-. 

098.  Miinaueh. 

648.  Amon        .... 

641.  Josiah    .... 

tjehoahax  \ 
(ShaUum)  ( 
andJehoi-t 
akim  .  .  ' 
iJehoiaohin  \ 
(ConUh)  I 
and  Zed»-  (  ' 
kiah.        .  ' 


( Isaiah  and 
'  (     MIcah. 

.  Obadiah. 
>  Nahum. 


Jeremiah. 
Zephaniah. 


610. 


fi99. 


.  Habakkuk 


.  PanleL 


BABTLOVIOR  OAPTIVlTT. 

Daniel  prophesies  at  Babylon    .        B.O.    608 

Shadrach,  M eshach,  and  Abed-Nego,  re- 
ftisinff  to  worship  the  golden  ima^,  are 
cast  mto  a  fiery  fnmaoe,  but  are  de- 
livered by  the  angel     ....    587 

Daniel  declares  the  meaning  of  the  hand- 
writing against  Belnhaszar     .        .    .    538 

He  is  cast  into  the  lions'  den ;  he  pro- 
phesies the  coming  of  the  Messiah      .    538 

Eaekid  prophesies 538 

nrruitiv  fbom  oaptititt. 
Cynifl,  sovereign  of  all  Asia,  publishes 
an  edict  for  the  return  of  the  Jews, 
and  rebuilding  of  the  temple  .    586 

Haggai  and  Zecbariah  prophets        .    .    520 
The  temple  finished  March  10.    515 

Bsra.  the  priest^  ■rrlTee  in  Jerusalem  to 

reform  abuses 456 

Hero  b^n  the  seventy  weeks  of  years 
predicted  by  Daniel,  being  490  years 
Defore  the  cmciflzion  of  the  Redeemer    457 
The  walU  of  Jerusalem  buUt  .    .    445 

Malachi  the  prophet        ....    415 

[The  Scripture  history  of  the  Jews  ends, 
according  to  Eu»Mu$,  in  442 ;  and  fh>m 
this  time,  Joeephus  and  the  Roman 
historians  give  the  best  account  of  the 
Jews.] 


of 


335 


THB  OBBCIAN  UMPTRV. 

Alexander    the   Great    passes    out 
Europe  into  Asia 

He  marches  against  Jerusalem  to  besiege 
it,  but  on  seeing  Jaddua,  the  high- 
rorlest,  dad  in  his  robes,  he  declares  ne 
nad  seen  such  a  flgfure  in  a  vision  in 
Haoedonia,  inviting  him  to  Asia,  and 
promising  to  deliver  the  Persian  em- 

Iiire  Into  his  hands ;  he  now  goes  to 
he  temple,  and  ofTera  sacrifices  to  the 
God  of  tne  Jews 332 

Jerusalem  taken  bv  Ptolemy  Soter  .    .    8*i0 

Ptolemy  Philadelphua  said  to  employ  72 
Jews  to  translate  the  Scriptures . 

AntiochuB  takes  Jerusalem,  pillages  the 
temple,  and  slays  40,000  of  the  inhabi- 
tants  

Government  of  the  Maccabees  begins 

Treaty  with  the  Romans ;  the  first  on 
record  with  the  Je^i^ 

The  Jews  take  Joppoi      .... 

Samaria  besieged  and  taken  .    . 

Judas  Hyrcanus  assumes  the  title  of 
"King  of  the  Jews'*    .... 

Jerusalem  taken  by  the  Roman  legions 
under  I'ompey 63 


284 


170 
166 

161 
150 
109 

107 


itovAM  mraix. 
Antipater  made  intendant  of  Jndea  by 

Julius  Caaar b.c.      49 

Herod,  son  of  Antipater,  marries  Ma- 

rlamne,  daughter  of  the  king .  .  .  42 
Invasion  of  the  Parthians  ...  40 
Herod  implores  the  aid  of  the  senate ; 

they  decree  him  to  be  king  .  .  .  40 
Jerusalem  tiJcen  by  Herod,  and  by  the 

Roman  general  Socius .  .37 

Herod  rebuilds  the  tonple.        .        .    .      18 
JcBua.  the  long-expected   Messiah,  is 
bom  on  Monday,  Dec.  25,  four  yean 
before  the  common  era        ...        5 
Jnua  is  circumcised  .  .  Jan.  1,        4 

The  flight  into  Egypt  .  a.d.        8 

Joseph  and  Mary  return  to  Naaareth 

with  Christ 3 

Pontius  Pilate  is  made  procurator  of 

Judea 96 

John  the  Baptist  begins  to  preach  in  the 

desert  of  Jndea 28 

John  the  Baptist  is  imprisoned  SO 

And  is  beheaded 81 

The  crucifixion  and  resurrection  of  tho 

Redeemer 88 

Claiidius  banishes  Jews  from  Bnrne  .    .      50 
Titus  takes  Jerusalem ;   the  city  and 
temple  are  sacked   and  bumi,  and 
1,100,000  of  the  Jews  perish,  multi- 
tudes destroying  themselves  70 
100,000  Greeks  and  Romans  are  mur- 
dered by  the  Jews  about  Cyrene    .    .    115 
Adrian  rebuilds  Jentsalem.  and  erects  a 

temple  to  Jupiter         ....     ISO 
More  than  580,000  of  the  Jews  are  slain 
by  the  Romany  in  .  185  and    ISO 

[They  are  now  banished  from  Judea  by 
an  edict  of  the  emperor,  and  are  for- 
bidden to  return,  or  even  to  look  back 
upon  their  once  flourishing  and  be- 
loved city,  ou  pain  of  death.  Pram 
this  period,  the  Jews  have  been  scat- 
tered among  all  other  nationa.] 


10T8 
1078 


OKmERAL  B1STOBT. 

Jews  first  nrrive  in  England  .    . 

The  Rabbi  Maimonides  lives  about 

Thinking  to  invoke  the  Divine  mercy,  at 
a  solemnisation  of  the  Passover,  ther 
sacrifice  a  youth,  the  son  of  a  ri<^ 
tradesman  at  Paris,  for  which  the  cri- 
minals are  executed,  and  all  Jews  ban- 
ished France 

The  Jews  maf^sacred  in  London,  on  the 
coronation-day  of  Richard  I.  at  the  in- 
stigation of  the  priests    .        ... 

500  being  besieged  in  York  castle  by  the 
mob,  they  cut  each  other's  throats  to 
avoid  their  fUry 

Jews  of  both  sexes  imprisoned;  their 
eyes  or  teeth  plucked  out.  and  num- 
bers inhumanly  butchered,  by  king 
John 

They  circumcise  and  attempt  to  crucify 
a  child  at  Norwich ;  the  offenders  are 
condemned  in  a  fine  of  20.000  marks  . 

They  crucify  a  child  at  Lincoln,  for  which 
eighteen  are  hanged    .... 

700  Jews  are  slain  in  Londra,  a  Jew 
having  forced  a  Christian  to  pay  him 
more  than  is.  nor  week  as  interest 
upon  a  loan  of  SOf. — Sttm.       .       .    . 

Statute  that  no  Jew  shoxild  ei^oy  a  free- 
hold, passed 

Every  Jew  lending  money  on  interast 
compelled  to  wear  a  plate  on  his  breast 
signifving  that  he  was  a  usurer,  or  to 
quit  the  realm 1^274 


1080 


1080 


1190 


1904 


1285 
19S5 


IS89 


JO  A 


357 


JOU 


J£W£I^  continfud. 


i8ir 


1348 

1492 
1404 


267  Jews  hanged  and  quartered  for  clip- 
ping coiii       A-D.  1277 

Thev  crucify- a  child  at  Northampton^  tor 
which  fifty  are  drawn  at  horsea'  tailB 
and  hanged 1882 

15,060  Jews  are  apprehended  in  cme  day, 
and  are  all  banished  England.— JZapin  1287 

Massacre  of  the  Jews  at  Verdun  by  the 
peasantry ;  600  defend  themselves  in  a 
castle,  where,  for  want  of  weapons, 
they  throw  their  childroi  at  their  ene- 
mies, and  then  destroy  one  another  . 

A  fatal  distemper  raging  in  Europe,  they 
are  suspected  of  luiving  poisoned  the 
springs,  and  numbers  are  massaci^. 
— Lenglet 

Jews  are  banished  fh>m  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal          

They  are  banished  Prance 

After  liaving  been  banished  England  366 
years,  they  are  re-admitted  by  Crom- 
well, in  Tirtue  of  a  treaty  with  Manas- 
seh  Ben  Israel 1068 

Statute  to  compel  them  to  maintain  their 
protestant  children,  enacted  2  Anne  . 

BUI  to  naturalise  the  professors  of  the 
Jewish  religion  in  Ireland  (where  200 
Jews  then  resided)  refiived  the  royid 
assent 

Statute  to  naturalise  them,  passed    .    . 

This  act  repealed  on  the  petition  of  all 
the  cities  in  England    .... 

The  Jews  of  Spain.  Portugal,  and  Avig- 
non are  declared  to  be  citizens  of 
France      

Bitting  of  the  grmt  Sanhedrim  of  Paris, 
convened  by  the  emperor  Niuioleon, 

Jan.  20, 

London  Society  for  promoting  Christi- 
anity among  the  Jews .... 

Alexander  of  Russia  grants  Ixuid  on  the 
Seaof  Aaoph  to  converted  Jews.8ept.l, 

Bill  for  Jewish  emancipation  in  Euglaud, 


1703 


1746 
1763 

1754 


1790 


1807 
1808 
1820 


lost  on  the  second  reading  by  a  mino- 
rity in  the  commons,  228  sgainst  165. 

May  17,  1836 

Moses  Montefiore,  esq.  «)ected  sheriff  of 
Ijoudon ;  and  knighted  by  the  queen, 
being  the  first  Jew  on  whom  that 
honour  hss  been  conferred  .     Nov.  9.  1837 

Ukase  of  the  emperor  of  Russia,  permit- 
ting the  titleof  dtieen  of  the  first  class 
to  be  held  bv  any  Jew  who  renders 
himself  worthy  of  it  .    .  1839 

Owing  to  the  disappearance  of  a  Greek 
priest,  a  persecution  of  the  Jews  began 
at  Damascus.     See  Damascus    Feb  1,  1840 

Act  to  relieve  Jews  elected  to  municipal 
offices  from  taking  oatha  Ac.    9  Vict.  1846 

Baron  Rothschild  returned  to  parliament 
for  the  city  of  London  by  a  miO^rity  of 
6619  votes,  his  opponent,  lord  John 
Manners,  polling  only  3104  .      July  3,  1849 

[The  hon.  member  was  not,  however, 
permitted  by  tlie  house  of  commons  to 
t.ake  his  seat.] 

Alderman  Salomons  elected  member  for 
Greenwich     ....   June  28,  1861 

[Neither  was  the  alderman  (notwith- 
standing various  attempts)  allowed  his 
seat.  J 

The  Jews'  Oath  of  At^j  nration  bill  psssed 
the  bouse  of  commons     .        .  July  8,  1861 

Baron  Rothschild  again  returned  for  the 
city  of  London  at  ( he  general  elections, 
July,  1862;  March,  1857;  and  a^ain 
in July,  1867 

Violent  outbreak  against  the  Jews  in 
Stockholm     ....     Sept.  3,  1862 

The  Jewish  Oath  bill  passed  in  com- 
mons, April  16;  thrown  out  in  the 
lords  ....       April  29.  1868 

Several  times  passed  in  the  commons 
and  thrown  out  in  the  lords :  the  last, 

July  10,  1867 


JOAN  OF  ARC,  OR  MAID  OF  ORLEANS.  The  youog  and  celebrated  heroine  of 
France.  The  English  under  Bedford  closely  beeieging  Orleans,  Joanx>f  Arc  pretended 
she  had  a  dlTine  commission  to  expel  them,  and  Charles  VIL  intrusted  her  with  the 
command  of  the  French  troops.  She  raised  the  siege  and  entered  Orleans  with 
supplies,  April  29, 1429;  and  the  English,  who  were  before  the  place  from  October  12 
preceding,  abandoned  the  enterprise.  May  8  following.  She  captured  several  towns 
in  the  possession  of  the  English,  whom  she  defeated  in  a  battle  near  Patay,  June  10, 
1429.  In  her  Tarious  achievements  no  unfeminine  cruelty  ever  stained  her  conduct. 
She  was  wounded  several  times  herself,  but  never  killed  any  one,  or  shed  any  blood 
with  her  own  hand.  She  was  takeu  at  the  siege  of  Compii^e,  May  25, 1431 ;  and, 
to  the  great  disgrace  of  the  English,  was  burnt  for  a  witch  five  days  afterwards  at 
Rouen,  in  tbe  22nd  (some  say  29tfa)  year  of  her  age.  A  statue  of  Joan  of  Arc, 
chiselled  by  the  late  princess  Marie  of  France,  was  inaugurated  at  Orleans,  Sept  18, 
1851.    See  Patay,  BaitU  of. 

JOHN  DOE  AND  RICHARD  ROE.  Names  well  known  in  the  law,  as  standing  pledges 
for  the  prosecution  of  suits.  In  early  times  real  and  substantial  persons  were 
required  to  pledge  themselves  to  answer  to  the  crown  for  an  amercement  or  fine  set 
upon  the  plaintiff,  for  raising  a  false  accusation,  if  he  brought  an  action  without  cause, 
or  failed  in  it.  And  in  1285,  13  Edw.  L  sheriffs  and  bailiffs  were,  before  they  made 
deliverance  of  the  distress,  to  receive  pledges  for  the  pursuing  the  suit,  and  for  the 
return  of  the  beasts,  if  return  were  awarded.  But  the  whole  coming  to  be  a  matter 
of  form ;  the  fictitious  names  of  Doe  and  Roe  were  used  until,  by  the  Common 
Law  Procedure  Act^  compliance  with  the  form  was  declared  to  be  no  longer  necessary : 
16  ft  16  Vict.  c.  76, 1852. 

JOHN  O^QROArS  HOUSE.  An  ancient  house  formerly  situated  on  Duncan's  Bay 
Head,  remarkable  for  being  the  most  northerly  point  in  Qreat  Britain.  John  of  Groat 
and  his  brothers,  originally  from  Holland,  settled  here  about  1489.    This  house  wa« 


JOH  358  JUD 

of  an  octagon  shape,  being  one  room,  with  eight  windows  and  eight  doors,  to  admit 
eight  members  of  the  fiumly,  the  heads  of  d^erent  branohes  of  it»  to  prevent  their 
quarrels  for  precedence  at  table,  which  on  a  previous  occasion  had  nigh  proved  fiUaL 
Each  came  in,  by  this  oontrivance,  at  his  own  door,  and  sat  at  an  octagon  table,  at 
which,  of  course,  there  was  no  chief  place  or  head. 

JOHNSON'S  CLUB.  A  small  society  of  distmguished  men,  who  in  1764  formed 
themselves  into  a  friendly  club :  Goldsmith,  Reynolds,  Burke,  Qibbon,  Jones,  Gkrrick, 
Bennet  Langton,  and  Topham  Beauderk,  vrith  Johnson  for  president  The  opinion 
formed  by  the  club  of  a  now  work,  was  speedily  known  all  over  London ;  and  was 
sufficient  to  sell  off  a  whole  edition  in  a  day,  or  to  condemn  the  sheets  to  the  trunk- 
maker  and  pastxycook. 

JOURNALS  or  thb  HOUSE  of  COMMONS.  First  ordered  to  be  printed,  and  5000L 
allowed  to  Mr.  Hardinge  for  the  execution  of  the  work,  by  which  means  the  journals 
can  now  be  searched  for  precedents  in  parliamentary  transactions.  Strangers  as  well 
as  members  may  refer  to  them  and  have  extracts  made  from  them,  on  paying  the 
fee%  1752.  The  Journals  of,  the  House  of  Peers  are  also  printed  with  the  same 
object.  The  printing  of  cieti  of  parliament  commenced  with  tne  reign  of  Henry  YIL; 
and  they  have  been  printed  consecutively  from  a.d.  1509. 

JUAN  FERNANDEZ,  ISLAND  of.  Alexander  Selkirk,  a  native  of  Scotland,  was  left 
on  shore  here  by  his  eaptain  for  mutiny,  in  1705.  In  this  solitary  place  he  lived 
more  than  four  years,  till  he  was  discovered  by  captain  Rogers  in  1709.  From  the 
narrative  of  his  proceedings  in  the  island,  Daniel  De  Foe  is  said  to  have  derived  th« 
hints  which  produced  the  celebrated  Adventures  of  EobUuon  Oriuoe, 

JUBILEE  By  Mosaic  institution  the  Jews  celebrated  a  Jubilee  every  fifty  years.  Among 
the  Christians  a  jubilee  every  century  was  instituted  by  pope  Bonifiioe  VIIL  in  the 
year  1300.  It  was  celebrated  every  fifty  years  by  command  of  pope  Clement  VI. ; 
and  was  afterwards  reduced  by  Urbui  Y I.  to  every  thir^-third  year ;  and  Sixtus  Y. 
to  eveiy  twenty-fifth  year,  at  which  period  it  is  now  fixed. 

JUBILEES.  A  memorable  festival,  called  Shakspeare's  Jubilee,  projected  by  the  inimi- 
table Qarriek,  was  celebrated  in  honour  of  our  great  national  poet  and  dramatist  in 
his  native  town,  Stratford-on-Avon,  Sept.  6,  7, 8, 1769.  A  project  was  originated  in  th« 
year  1820  for  the  erection  of  an  edifice  to  the  raemoiy  of  Shakspeare,  in  the  nature 
of  a  museum,  cenotaph,  or  temple,  but  failed.  The  next  attempt  to  honour  Shak- 
speare was  made  with  better  success  in  1835,  and  a  Shakspeare  festival  was  held  at 
Stratford,  April  23, 1836.  In  July  1847,  a  public  subscription  was  opened  for  th« 
purchase  of  the  house  in  which  he  was  bom,  which  was  sold  by  auction  to  the  United 
Stratford  and  London  Committee  for  the  large  sum  of  30002. — Britttm,  The  memo- 
rable Jubilee  in  Elngland.on  account  of  Qeorge  III.  entering  into  the  fiftieth  year  of  hia 
reign,  was  celebrated  Ootober  25, 1809.  The  Jubilee  in  celebration  of  the  genexml 
peace  and  also  of  the  centenary  commemoration  of  the  accession  of  the  family  of 
Brunswick  to  thf  throne  of  these  kingdoms,  August  1, 1814. 

JUDGES^  At  the  Norman  oonquest  the  judges  had  the  style  of  Juttieiarimt  AngUte  : 
these  judses  continued  until  the  erection  of  the  courte  of  King's  Bench  and  Common 
Pleas.  The  last  who  had  the  office  of  JiuUciatnu  AngUa  was  Philip  Basset,  in  1261. 
Bee  tht  uveral  CourU,  Judges  punished  for  bribery,  17  Bdw.  1. 1288,  when  Thomas 
de  Weyland  was  banished  the  land;  and  in  1851,  William  de  Thorp  was  hanged. 
See  Bribery.  John  de  Cavendish  was  beheaded  by  the  Kentish  rebels^  1382. 
Tresylian,  chief  justice^  was  executed  for  fiivouring  despotism,  and  other  jud^s 
were  seized  and  condemned,  1388.  The  prince  of  Wales  committed  by  jod^ 
Oascoigne  for  assaulting  him  on  the  bench,  1412.  (Sir  Thomas  More,  lord  chanoeUor, 
beheaded,  July  6, 1535.  Judges  threatened  vrith  impeachment,  and  Berkeley  taken 
off  the  bench  and  committed  by  the  commons,  1641.  Three  impeached,  1680.  Moat 
of  them  dismissed  for  not  allowing  the  legality  of  a  dispensing  power  in  the  crown, 
3  James  II.  1687.  The  celebrated  judge  Jefferies  committed  by  the  lord  mayor  to 
the  Tower,  where  he  died,  1689.  The  independence  of  the  judges  established  by 
making  their  appointments  patents  for  life,  1761.  Three  additional  judges;,  one  to 
each  law  court,  were  appointed,  1784.  A  new  judge  took  his  seat  as  vice^ancellor. 
May  5,  1813.  In  1830,  by  act  1  Will.  IT.  a  70  (July  23  in  that  year),  an  additional 
judge  was  again  appointed  to  each  court  of  law.  By  act  5  Vict.  c.  5  (5  Oct.  1841), 
two  new  vice-chancellors  were  appointed.  A  third  vice-chancellor  appointed  by  act 
14  Vict.  c.  4,  April  2,  1851.  Two  new  chancery  judges,  styled  lords  justices^ 
constituted  by  14  &  15  Vict.  c.  83  (1851).    See  Lwrds  Juttioes  and  Vioe-Chaneelhr$, 


JUD  859  JUB 

JUDICIAL  COMMITTEE  of  thc  priyt  oouvoil.    See  Privy  CotmcU, 

J&GGERNAUT,  or  "Lord  of  the  World."  The  first  object  of  Hindoo  veneration  is  a 
celebrated  idol  of  an  irregular  pyramidal  black  atone,  with  two  rich  diamonds  to 
represent  eyes ;  the  nose  and  mouth  are  painted  yermilion,  and  the  visage  is  frightful. 
The  number  of  pilgrims  that  visit  the  god  is  stated  at  1,200,000  annually ;  of  these  a 
great  many  never  return,  and  to  the  distance  of  fifty  miles,  the  way  is  strewed  with 
human  bones;  the  temple  of  Juggernaut  has  existed  above  800  year&  The  state 
allowimce  to  the  temple  was  suspended  by  the  Indian  government  in  June  1851. 

JUQURTHAt  TBS  WAR  with.  A  memorable  war  against  the  Numidian  to  reduce  his 
kingdom,  commenced  111  b.c.  and  continued  five  years.  Csecilius  Metellus  was  first 
sent  against  him,  and  defeated  him  in  two  battles ;  and  afterwards  Sylla  and  Marius ; 
the  latter  of  whom  dragged  him  in  chains  to  Rome  to  adorn  his  triumph.  The  name 
and  wars  of  Jugurtha  have  been  immortalised  by  the  pen  of  Salluat. 

JULiIAN  PERIOD.  A  term  of  yean  produced  by  the  multiplication  of  the  lunar 
cycle  19,  solar  cycle  28,  and  Roman  indicUon  15.  It  consists  of  7980  years,  and 
began  4718  years  before  our  era.  It  has  been  employed  in  computing  time  to  avoid 
the  puzzling  ambiguity  attendaitt  on  repkoning  any  period  antecedent  to  our  era,  an 
advantage  which  it  has  in  common  with  the  mundane  eras  used  at  different  times. 
By  Bubtractiog  4713  from  the  Julian  period,  our  year  is  found ;  if  before  Christ,  sub- 
tract tlie  Juli^  period  from  4714.    For  Julian  year^  see  Calendar  and  Year, 

JUIjY.  The  seventh  month  of  the  year,  from  the  Latin  Julitu,  the  surname  of  C. 
CsBsar,  the  dictator  of  Rome,  who  was  bom  in  it  It  was  the  fifth  month  in  the 
Homan  calendar  until  Numa  added  January  and  February  to  the  year,  713  B.O.  Marc 
Antony  first  gave  to  this  month  the  name  of  July.     See  article  Year. 

JUNE.  The  sixth  month,  but  originally  the  fourth  month  of  the  Roman  year.  It  bad 
its  name  /trntiu,  which  some  derive  d  Junone,  and  others,  a  Junicrihus,  this  being  for 
the  young,  as  the  month  of  May  was  for  aged  persons.  Ovid,  in  his  Fastit  introduces 
Juno  as  claiming  this  month.  When  Numa  added  two  months  before  March,  this 
month  became,  as  it  is  now,  the  sixth  of  the  calendar,  713  B.a    See  Year. 

JtXNIUS'S  LETTERS.  Junius  was  the  assumed  name  of  a  concealed  political  writer, 
-who  published  his  LeUen  in  the  Pvhlie  AdvertUer,  in  1769.  They  were  written  in 
a  nervous,  sarcastic,  and  clear  style,  and  produced  a  powerful  impresaion,  and  the 
-volume  is  now  one  of  the  mmt  admired  in  British  literature.  These  letters  have 
been  ascribed  to  Mr.  Burke,  Mr.  William  Qervd  Hamilton,  commonly  called  Single- 
speech  Hamilton,  John  Wilkes,  Mr.  Dunning  (afterwards  lord  Aahburton),  Mr. 
■eijeant  Adair,  the  rev.  J.  Rosenhagen,  John  Roberts,  esq.  Mr.  Charles  Lloyd,  Mr. 
Samel  Dyer,  general  Lee,  the  duke  of  Portland,  Hugh  Boyd,  esq.  and  sir  Philip 
Prancia,  but  the  matter  is  still  hidden  in  obscurity.  "  I  am  the  depositary  of  my 
own  secret,  and  it  shall  perish  with  me."— /unt'itf. 

JUNO,  Tbb  Plankt.  Discovered  by  M.  Harding,  of  Lilienthal,  near  Bremen,  Sept.  1, 
1804.  Its  distance  from  the  sun  is  264  millions  of  miles,  and  it  accomplishefl  its 
revolution  in  four  years  and  128  days,  at  the  rate  of  nearly  42,000  miles  an  hour. 
Its  diameter  is  estimated  by  German  astronomers  at  1424  English  miles. 

JUNONIA.  Festivals  in  honour  of  Juno  celebrated  at  Rome,  and  instituted  431  B.o. 
At  these  festivals  the  young  maids  ran  races,  and  petitioned.  Juno  to  give  them 
husbands ;  at  Rome  an  altar  was  erected  to  her  as  the  goddess  of  marriage,  where 
the  new-married  couple  offered  either  a  white  cow,  geese,  or  ravens,  from  which  they 
took  the  gall  before  they  sacrificed,  and  threw  it  behind  the  altar,  to  intimate  that  in 
that  state  of  life  no  bitterness  of  spirit  should  remain. 

JUPITER    Known  as  a  planet  to  the  Chaldeans,  it  is  said  3000  B.o.    See  Planets, 

JUPITER  AMMON'S  celebrated  temple  in  Libya  was  visited  by  Alexander  B.C.  882. 
Gambyses'  army  sent  against  this  temple  perished  miserably,  B.c.  525. 

JURIES.  Trial  by  jury  was  introduced  into  England  during  the  Saxon  heptarchy, 
mention  being  made  of  six  Welsh  and  six  Anglo-Saxon  freemen  appointed  to  try 
causes  between  the  English  and  Welsh  men  of  property,  and  made  responsible,  with 
their  whole  estates  real  and  personal,  for  false  vei'dicts. — Lambard.  But  by  most 
authorities  their  institution  is  ascribed  to  Alfred.  In  Atagna  Charter  juries  are 
insisted  on  as  the  great  bulwark  of  the  people's  liberty.  When  either  party  is 
an  alien  bom,  the  jury  shall  be  one  half  denizens,  and  the  other  half  aliens^  statute 


JUR  360  KAF 

28  Edvr.  III.  1S68.  By  the  common  law  a  prisoner  upon  indictment  or  appeal  mi^it 
challenge  peremptorily  thirty-five,  being  under  three  juries ;  but  a  lord  of  parliament^ 
and  a  peer  of  the  realm,  who  is  to  be  tried  by  his  peers,  cannot  challenge  any  of  his 
peers.  An  act  for  the  trial  by  jury  in  civil  cases  in  Scotland  was  passed  in  1815. 
An  act  to  consolidate  and  amend  the  laws  relating  to  juries  in  Ireland  was  passed 
4  Will.  IV.  1833.  An  imperial  decree  abolished  trial  by  juiy  throughout  the  Austrian 
empire,  Jan.  15, 1852. 

JURIES,  COERCION  of.  About  the  year  927,  the  plaintiff  and  defendant  used  to  feed 
the  jury  empanelled  in  their  action,  and  hence  arose  the  common  law  of  denying 
sustenance  to  a  juiy  after  the  hearing  of  the  evidence.  A  jury  may  be  detained 
during  the  pleasure  of  the  judge  if  they  cannot  agree  upon  a  verdict;  and  may  be 
confined  without  meat,  drink,  or  candle,  till  they  are  unanimous.  Some  jurors  have 
been  fined  for  having  fruit  in  their  pockets,  when  they  were  withdrawn  to  consider 
of  their  yerdict,  though  they  did  not  eat  iL^Leon.  Dyer,  137.  A  jury  at  Sudbury 
not  being  able  to  agree,  and  having  been  some  time  under  duress,  forcibly  broke 
from  the  court  where  they  were  locked  up,  and  went  home,  Oct.  9,  1791. — PkUUpg, 
In  Scotland,  Guernsey,  Jersey,  and  France,  juries  decide  by  a  majority ;  iu  France^ 
since  1881,  a  majority  of  two-thirds  is  required. 

JUSTICES  OF  THS  PEACE.  These  are  local  magistrates,  invested  with  extensive 
powers  iu  minor  casee^  but  subject  to  supersession  and  punishment  by  the  King's 
Bench  for  an  abuse  of  their  authority.  Justices  of  the  peace  in  every  county  first 
nominated  by  Wiiliam  the  Conqueror,  in  1076. — Siov.  Called  guardians  of  the 
pesoe  till  36  Edw.  III.  1361.  The  form  of  a  commission  of  the  peace  settled  by  the 
judges,  23  Eliz.  1580.— if awikitu. 

JUSTICIARS  In  ancieut  times  the  kings  of  Eogland  used  to  hear  and  determine 
oauses ;  but  it  is  declared  by  law  that  if  the  king  cannot  determine  every  controversy, 
he,  to  ease  himself,  may  divide  the  labour  among  persons,  men  of  vrisdom  and 
fearing  Ood,  and  out  of  such  to  appoint  judges.  The  Saxon  kings  of  England 
appointed  a  judge  after  this  manner,  who  was,  in  fact^  the  king*B  deputy.  After  the 
Korman  Conquest,  the  person  invested  with  that  power  had  the  style  of  Oofntali* 
Ju8tieUEf  or  JusticiarivM  Anglice.  These  judges  continued  until  the  erection  of  the 
Courts  of  King's  Bench  and  the  Common  Pleas.  The  first  justiciars  of  England 
were  Odo,  Bishop  of  Bayeux,  and  William  Fitz-Osbom,  in  1067 ;  and  the  last 
PhiUp  Basset,  in  1261. 

JUSTINIAN  CODE,  wherein  vrss  written  what  may  be  termed  the  statute  law, 

tered.  through  2000  volumes,  reduced  to  fifty,  completed  ▲.D.  529.  To  this  code  of 
laws  Justinian  added  the  Pandects,  the  Institutes,  and  Novels.  These  compilationa 
have  since  been  called,  collectively,  the  body  of  civil  law  {corpus  juris  cipUis).  A  dig«at 
was  made  in  533. — Blair. 

JUVENILE  OFFENDERS.  On  Aug.  10,  1888,  2  Vict  an  act  was  passed  for  insUtn- 
ting  a  prison  for  instructing  and  correcting  juvenile  ofienders,  and  Uie  military  hospi- 
tal at  Parkhurst  in  the  I^e  of  Wight  was  appropriated  for  this  salutary  purpose. 
Auother  act  was  passed  Aug.  10,  1854  (17  &  18  Vict,  c  86,)  for  the  same  object. 

K. 

KAFFRARIA,  and  KAFFIR  WAR,  South  Af&ica.  An  invasion  of  the  Kafiin  or 
Caffres,  in  the  vicinity  of  Qrahamstown,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  took  place  in  Oct.  1831 ; 
the  invaders  fell  upon  the  settlers,  murdered  them,  burnt  their  houses,  destroyed 
their  crops,  and  carried  away  their  cattle ;  this  irruption  was  eventually  suppressed 
by  the  colonial  authorities.  YariDus  slighter  annoyances  to  the  colonists  occurred  up 
to  Dec.  31, 1850,  when  Sir  Harry  Smith,  the  then  governor,  procbimed  martial  law, 
and  ordered  the  inhabitants  to  rise  en  masse  for  the  defence  of  the  frontier :  the 
Kaffirs  had  previously  defeated  our  troops  iu  several  encounters,  and  had  committed 
many  murderous  forays  upon  the  villages.  Disastrous  operations  against  the  Kafi&rs 
in  the  Waterkloeff  followed,  and  col.  Fordyce  and  several  officers  and  men  of  the  74th 
regiment  were  killed,  Nov.  6.  1851.  Capt.  Oldham  and  others  had  just  before  been 
murdered  in  ambuscade  or  killed  in  sundry  encounters. — Wreck  of  the  Birkenhead 
with  reinforcements  from  England  (see  Birkenhead),  Feb.  26, 1852.~Ttie  hostilities 
of  the  Kaffii's  having  assumed  all  the  features  of  regular  warfiire^  the  late  governor 


KAL  S61  KBN 

geoonl  Oathcart^  after  much  forbearance,  attacked  them  with  2000  British  troops  at 
Btfrea,  where  they  numbered  6000  mouated  horsemen,  Dec.  20,  1852.  In  this  action 
cmpL  Faunce  and  38  men  were  killed,  and  two  other  officers  and  15  men  wouuded. 
The  Kaffir  loss  was  so  severe  as  to  compel  them  to  sue  for  peace.  The  conditions 
offered  by  general  Gathcart  were  accepted,  and  peace  was  restored,  March  9, 1853. 

KALAFAT,  on  the  Danube,  opposite  the  fortress  of  Widdin.  Tbis  place  was  fortified  by 
the  Turks  under  Omer  Pacha  when  they  crossed  the  river,  Oct.  28,  1858.  In  Decem- 
ber, Prince  Gortechakoff,  with  the  Russian  army,  determined  to  storm  their  intrench- 
menta.  The  conflict  lasted  from  Dea  31  to  Jan.  9, 1854,  when  the  Rudsians  were 
compelled  to  retire.  Among  these  oonflicts  one  occurred  at  Citate,  Jan.  6.  See 
OilaU.  Kalafat  was  invested  Jan.  28,  and  General  Schildei-a  attacked  it  vigorously 
on  April  19,  vrithout  success,  and  the  blockade  was  raised  April  21. 

KALEIDOSCOPE.  Thii  optical  instrument,  which  combines  mirrors,  and  produces  a 
aymmetrical  reflection  of  beautiful  images,  was  invented  by  Dr.  (now  sir  David) 
Brewster,  of  Edinburgh;  it  was  first  su^ested  in  1814,  and  the  instrument  perfected 
in  1817,  when  it  became  popular.  It  was  intended  to  assidt  jewellers,  gUuu-painters, 
and  other  ornamental  artists,  in  the  formation  of  patterns. 

KALITSCH,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  Saxons,  under  the  French  general  Begnier,  and 
the  Russians  uuder  Winzingerode ;  an  obstinate  engagement,  in  which  the  former 
were  defeated  with  much  loss,  2000  being  slain  on  the  field,  and  some  thousands 
wounded,  February  13,  1813. 

KALUNQA  FORT.  A  fort  m  the  East  Indies,  unsuccessfully  atUcked  by  the  East  India 
Company's  forces,  and  general  Gillespie  killed,  Oct.  31, 1814.  It  was  again  unsuccess- 
fully attacked  on  the  25th  of  November  following;  and  was  evacuated  by  the 
l^epauiese,  on  the  30th  November,  same  year. 

KAMT8CHATKA.  The  peninsula  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia.  It  was  discovered  by 
Horosco,  a  Cossack  chief,  a.d.  1690 ;  and  was  taken  possesaion  of  by  Russia  in  1697 ; 
it  was  not  ascertained  to  be  a  peninsula  until  visited  by  Behring,  in  1728.  Four 
months,  commencing  at  our  midsummer,  may  be  considered  aa  the  spring,  summer, 
and  autumn  here,  the  rest  of  the  year  being  dreary  winter.  The  amiable  capt.  Clarke, 
a  companion  of  Cook's,  died  in  sight  of  Kamtschatka,  Aug.  22, 1779,  and  was  buried  at 
the  town  of  St.  Peter  and  Paul,  in  the  puuinsula. 

KANSAS.  A  new  state  in  the  American  Union,  by  an  act  of  congress  May  80, 1854, 
left  open  to  slavery,  in  opposition  to  the  MiBsouri  Compromise  (see  slavery  in 
America),  In  Jan.  1855,  the  population  was  8501.  During  the  greater  part  of  1855 
this  state  was  a  scene  of  anarchy  and  bloodshed  through  the  violence  of  the  slavery 
party  in  their  efforts  to  make  Kansas  a  slave  state.  The  question  is  not  yet  settled  (1857). 

KARS.  A  town  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  renowned  lor  its  defence  by  Gten.  (now  sir  Wm. 
Fenwick)  Williams  with  15,000  men  and  with  three  months'  provisions  and  three  days' 
ammunition  against  the  Russian  general  Mouravieff  with  an  army  of  40,000  infantry  and 
10,000  cavalry.  The  siege  lasted  from  June  18  to  Nov.  25, 1855.  The  sufferings  of 
the  gsrrison  were  very  great  from  cholera  and  want  of  food.  The  Russians  made  a 
grand  nssault  on  Sept.  29,  but  were  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  above  6000  men.  The 
garrison  were  overcome  by  famine  alone.* — Sandwith. 

KEEPER  OF  THE  KINGS  CONSCIENCE.  The  origin  of  this  office,  which  atUches 
to  the  lord  chancellor,  is  unknown.  The  early  chancellors  were  priests,  and  their 
jurisdiction  extended  over  the  kuig's  conHcience;  and  out  of  this  moral  control  of  the 
king^s  mind  grew  up  the  idea  of  an  equity  court  in  contradistinction  to  the  law 
courts.  A  bill  in  chancery  is  a  petition  through  the  lord  chancellor  to  the  king's 
conscience  for  remedy  in  matters  for  which  the  king's  common  law  courta  afford  no 
redress,  llie  keeper  of  the  king's  conscience  therefore,  at  the  present  day,  is  the 
officer  who  presides  in  the  Court  of  Chancery.    See  Lord  High  Chancellor. 

KENILWORTH  CASTLE.  Built  in  1120,  by  Geoffrey  de  Ginton,  whose  grandson  sold 
it  to  Henry  IIL  It  was  greatly  enlarged  and  strongly  fortified  by  Simon  de  Montfort, 
to  whom  Uenry  gave  it  as  a  marriage  portion  with  his  sister  Eleanor;  but  much  of 
the  pile  was  erected  subsequently  by  John  of  Gaunt ;  and  its  remains  now  form  one 

*  On  accepting  general  Williams'  proposal  for  Burrendering,  general  Ifoitravleff  said :  "Oeneral 
WilltamB,  you  have  made  yourself  a  name  in  history  ;  and  posterity  will  stand  amazed  at  the  endur- 
ance, the  courage,  and  the  discipline  which  this  siege  has  called  forth  in  the  remains  of  an  army.  Let 
us  arrange  a  capitulation  that  will  satisfy  the  demands  of  war,  without  outraging  humanity.** 


KEN  862  KEY 

of  the  most  picturesque  objects  in  the  kingdom.  This  celebrated  cattle  waa  oonfetred 
on  her  favourite,  Dudley,  earl  of  Leicester,  by  queen  Elizabeth,  whom  he  aftenvarda 
entertained  within  its  walls  for  seventeen  days*  His  entertainment  of  the  qaeeo 
commenced  July  19, 1575,  and  cost  the  earl  daily  1000^.  then  a  vast  ezpaoditiirBL 

KENIL  WORTH,  DICTUM  of.  After  the  battle  of  Eyesham  and  defeat  and  death  of  Simon 
de  Montfort,  by  prince  Edward  ^afterwards  Edward  L)  1265,  Montforfs  younger  son, 
Simon,  shut  himself  up  in  ^enilworth  castle,  which  sustained  a  siege  for  six  months 
against  the  royal  forces  of  Henry  III.  to  whom  it  at  length  surrendered.  Upon  this 
occa«ion  was  issued  the  '*IHctum  de  KenUworth,**  enacting  that  all  who  took  up 
against  the  king  should  pay  him  the  value  of  their  lands  for  five  years. 

KENNINGTON  COMMON  was  directed  to  be  enclosed  and  laid  out  as  a  public  pli 
ground  by  15  &  16  Vict  c.  29,  June  17,  1852. 

KENSINGTON  PALA.CK  Originally  the  residence  of  lord  chancellor  Finch,  from  whom 
it  was  purchased  by  William  III.  who  made  the  road  through  its  parks.  The  gardens 
were  improved  by  queens  Mary,  Anne,  and  Caroline,  who  died  within  the  walls  of  the 
palace.    George  IL  and  Geoige  prince  of  Denmark  likewise  expired  here. — Leigh.* 

KENT.  The  kingdom  of  Kent,  one  of  the  kingdoms  (the  first)  of  the  Heptarchy,  and 
co-extensive  with  the  shire  of  Kent^  began  under  Hengist,  a.d.  455 ;  it  existed  S70 
years,  and  ended  wiUi  Baldred,  who  lost  both  his  life  and  dominions  to  Egbert,  king 
of  the  West  Saxons,  828.    See  Briiain, 

KENT  EAST  INDIAMAN.  She  was  of  1850  tons  burthen,  and  left  the  Downs  Feb.  19, 
1825,  bound  for  Bombay,  experiencing  bad  weather  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Here  ahe 
encountered  a  dreadful  storm,  by  which  she  was  very  much  shattered,  Feb.  28.  On 
the  next  day  she  accidentally  took  fire,  and  having  to  contend  against  the  twofold 
calamity,  every  soul  on  board  was  in  expectation  of  perishing  either  by  the  tempest 
or  the  flatnes.  In  this  awful  exigency,  the  CambriOf  captain  Cook,  bound  to  Vera  Cmm^ 
providentially  hove  in  sight,  and  through  the  heroism  of  her  commander  neariy  all 
on  board  were  saved,  vis.,  801  officers  and  men  of  the  Slst  regt.,  66  women,  45 
children,  and  139  seamen.    The  KetU  shortly  afterwards  blew  up,  March  1, 1825. 

KENT,  HOLY  MAID  of.  A  country  girl  who  was  used  as  an  instrument  by  tlie 
Catholics  and  the  adherents  of  queen  Catherine  to  excite  the  nation  against  the 
divorce  then  proposed  of  Henry  YIII.  from  his  first  wife,  and  the  apprehended 
separation  of  the  English  Church  from  that  of  Rome.  In  her  delirium  during  a 
nervous  illness,  she  was  persuaded  to  believe  herself  a  prophetess,  when  ahe 
denounced  the  king  and  the  prevailing  heresies,  and  excited  su(ui  a  ferment  among 
the  people  that  she  and  her  accomplices  were  seized,  and  convicted  of  high  treaaon 
and  a  conspiracy  against  the  king,  and  executed,  April  80, 1584. 

KBRTCH,  capital  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Bosporus,  late  a  flourishing  town  on  iha 
straits  of  Yenikale,  Sea  of  Azoff.  It  was  entered  by  the  allies  March  24,  1855;  the 
Russians  retired  after  destroying  stores,  Ac  The  place  was  totally  dismantled  hj 
the  allies,  and  the  inhabitants  removed. 

KETB  REBELLION.  A  revolt  instigated  by  William  Ket,  a  tanner,  of  Norfolk.  Tfaa 
insurgents  amounted  to  20,000  men,  but  they  were  quickly  encountered  and  defeated 
by  the  earl  of  Warwick.  More  than  2000  fell  in  the  action  or  the  pursuit,  and  Ket 
was  taken  and  hanged,  in  August  1549. — Sio«*a  Chr<m. 

K  BW  ROYAL  PALACE.  It  was  successively  occupied  by  the  Capel  family,  Mr.  Molyneoz, 
Frederick  prince  of  Wales,  Thomson  the  poet,  and  Geoige  IIL  Queen  Charlotte  died 
here,  1818.  The  gardens  contain  the  finest  collection  of  plants  in  the  world,  and  are 
decorated  with  ornamental  buildings,  most  of  them  erected  by  air  William  Chambers, 
about  1760.  Here  are  a  temple  of  the  Sun,  a  temple  of  Eolus,  of  Bellona,  of  Solitude, 
of  Arethusa,  and  of  Victory  ,*  the  last  in  commemoration  of  the  victory  of  Minden, 
Aug.  1, 1759.  A  new  palace  was  erected  at  Kew  by  George  IIL  under  the  direction 
of  Mr.  Wyatt,  but  it  was  pulled  down  in  1827. 

KEYS.  The  invention  of  them  is  ascribed  to  Theodore  of  Samos^  by  Pliny,  about  790 
B.C. ;  but  this  is  an  error,  as  keys  are  mentioned  in  the  aiege  of  Troy,  1193  B.C.  Keys 
were  originally  made  of  wood,  and  the  earliest  form  was  a  simple  crook  similar  to  the 
common  picklock  now  in  use.    The  ancient  keys  now  to  be  found  in  the  cabinets  of 

*  In  Aug.  1865,  by  permission  of  the  goremraent,  a  military  band  played  In  Kensingtoii  Gsidena 
on  Sundays,  in  presence  of  aboiit  60.000  persons.  Tlie  practice  was  discontinued  in  1856,  being  objected 
to  by  many  (persons ;  but  bands  were  oniered  to  play  in  other  parks  during  the  week. 


KHB  868  KIL 

the  duioua  are  mostly  of  bronxe.  The  late  Fimneia  Douce,  eaq.,  had  some  of  remark- 
able ahapea^  the  ahaft  termimiting  on  one  aide  by  the  works,  on  the  other  by  a  ring. 
Keys  of  thia  description  were  presented  by  husbands  to  wives,  and  were  return^ 
again  upon  divorce  or  separation. 

KHBfiSON,  an  ancient  Dorian  colony  (deriving  its  name  fh>m  Chersonesns,  a  peninsula), 
came  (about  &o.  120)  under  the  sway  of  the  great  Mithridates  and  his  successors, 
and  afterwards  of  that  of  Rome,  a.d.  80.  It  continued  an  important  place,  and  its 
possession  was  long  a  constant  source  of  dispute  between  the  Russians  and  Greeks. 
It  was  besieged  and  taken  by  Vladimir,  grand-duke  of  Russia,  in  988,  when  he  and 
bis  army  received  Christian  baptism,  and  he  married  the  emperor's  siBter  Anne,  who 
obtained  the  Kherson  as  her  dowrv.  The  eity  was  destroyed  by  the  Lithuanians ; 
and  the  Turks  found  it  deserted  when  they  took  possession  of  the  Crimea  in  1475. 
What  ancient  remains  the  Turks  and  Tartars  had  spared,  the  RusBians  conveyed 
away  for  the  construction  of  SebastopoL  Since  the  foundation  of  Odessa  in  1792, 
Kherson  has  declined.  Potemkin,  the  fisivourite  of  Catherino^  who  died  at  Jassy  in 
1791,  is  buried  here;  John  Howard,  the  English  philanthropist,  died  here  Jan.  20, 
1790,  and  is  buried  ab^ut  three  miles  from  the  town,  where  an  obelisk  has  been 
erected  to  his  memory. 

KIDNEY-BEANS,  or  FRENCH  BEAKS.  They  were  introduced  into  England  about 
jl.d.  1633.  The  kidney-bean  tree^,  Olycine  fruietcens,  was  brought  to  these  countries 
from  South  Carolina^  about  the  year  1724,  though  some  authorities  say  earlier. 

KIEIj^  TREATY  of.  Between  Great  Britain,  Sweden,  and  DenuMrk,  signed  Jan.  14, 
1 814.  By  this  treaty  Norway  was  ceded  to  Sweden.  Previously  the  Norwegians  had 
been  deserted  by  the  king  of  Denmark,  and  had  sent  a  deputation  to  England,  to 
interest  that  country  in  their  favour.  On  the  contrary,  the  Euglish  blockaded  the 
ports  of  Norway,  and  the  Swedes  entered  by  land.  The  Norwegians  fought  some 
brave  actions,  but  they  were  defeated.  The  prince  of  Denmark  qmtted  Norway,  and 
the  diet  elected  the  kiog  of  Sweden  to  be  their  king. 

KILCHLLEN,  BATTLE  of.  Between  a  laige  body  of  the  insurgent  Irish  and  the  British 
forces  commanded  by  general  Dundas;  the  latter  defeated,  May  23, 1798.  General 
I>undas  in  a  subsequent  engagement  with  the  rebels  overthrew  them  near  KilcuUen- 
bridge,  when  800  were  slain,  and  several  hundreds  wounded  and  taken  prisoners. 

KILDARE.  The  celebrated  Curragh  here  was  once  a  forest  of  oaks ;  and  here  was  the 
fomous  nunnery  of  St.  Bridget,  founded  by  her  in  a.d.  584.  The  insurrection  in 
Kildare,  which  swelled  into  the  great  and  memorable  rebellion,  commenced  in  Kildare, 
May  28, 1798.  On  the  night  of  that  day,  lieut.  Gilford  of  Dublin,  and  a  number  of 
other  gentlemen  of  respectability,  were  murdered  by  the  insux^ents.  Tliis  rebellion 
•was  not  finally  quelled  until  the  following  year. 

KILiDARE,  BISHOPRIC  of.  One  of  the  earliest  episcopal  foundations  in  Ireland,  of 
which  StConleetfa,  who  died  a.d.  519,  was  the  first  prelate.  The  first  Protestant 
bishop  was  Thomas  Lancaster,  in  1550.  In  this  diocese  was  an  old  small  building 
called  the  fire-house,  where,  it  is  supposed,  the  nuns  of  St.  Bridget  kept  the  in- 
extinguishable fire.  The  see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books,  by  an  extent  returned, 
80  Hen.  Vllt,  at  692.  lit.  id.  Irish,  per  year.  Kildare  was  united  to  Dublin  on  the 
decease  of  Dr.  Lindsay,  the  last  prelate  (conformably  with  the  Church  Temporalities 
act),  in  1846.    See  Dublin. 

KILFENORA,  BISHOPRIC  OF.  It  is  supposed  that  St  Fachnan  was  its  founder.  In 
the  ancient  distribution  of  the  bishoprics  of  Ireland,  made  by  cardinal  Paparo,  in  1152, 
it  was  rendeivd  a  suffragan  see  to  Cashel,  but  on  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  it  was 
annexed  to  Tuam,  and  was  afterwiurds  united  to  Killaloe.    See  KUUUoe, 

KILKENNY,  STATUTES  of.  These  famous  statutes  enacted,  among  other  things, 
"  that  the  alliaunce  of  the  Eaglieh  by  marriage  with  any  Irish,  the  nurture  of  infantes, 
and  goasipred  with  the  Irish,  be  deemed  high  treason."  And  again,  "if  anie  man  of 
•pf^glifth  race  use  an  Irish  name,  Irish  apparell,  or  anie  other  guise  or  fashion  of  the 
Irish,  his  lands  shall  be  seised,  and  his  body  imprisoned,  till  he  shall  conform  to 
English  modes  and  customs.'*    40  Edw.  III.  1364.    See  Penal  law, 

KILL  ALA  Its  invasion  by  a  French  force  landing  from  three  frigates,  under  general 
Humbert,  Aug.  22,  1 798.  The  invaders  were  joined  by  the  Irish  insurgents,  and  the 
battles  of  Castlebar,  Golooney,  and  Ballynamuck,  followed,  but  the  French  were 
ultimately  snbdued,  Sept.  8,  same  year.  At  the  battle  of  Killala  the  insurgents  were 
d«fej:ted  with  great  slaughter  by  the  royalist  forces,  Sept.  28, 1798. 


KIL  864  KIN 

KILLALA,  SEE  op.  An  early  episcopal  foundation,  of  which  St^  Muredach  was  the 
first  bishop,  and  was  consecrated  by  St  Patrick.  The  author  of  the  tripartite  life  of 
St.  Patrick,  in  giving  an  account  of  that  saint's  progress  through  Connaught,  in  4%4, 
says,  "  that  he  came  to  a  pleasant  place  where  the  river  Huadas  (Moy)  empties  itself 
into  the  ocean ;  and  on  the  south  banks  of  said  river  he  built  a  noble  church,  called 
KU-Aladh,  of  which  he  made  one  of  his  disciples,  Muredach,  the  first  bishop.**  The 
see  of  Achonry  was  united  to  Killala  in  the  seventeenth  oeutuiy ;  and  both  became 
united  to  Tuam  in  1839.    See  Tuam  and  Bislujpt, 

KILLALOE,  SEE  of.  Supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  St.  Molua^  whose  diaciple, 
St.  Flannan,  sou  to  king  Theodoric  (and  who  was  consecrated  at  Rome  by  pope 
John  IV.  in  639),  was  also  bishop.  The  church  was  esteemed  of  great  sanctity,  and 
was  anciently  resorted  to  in  pilgrimage,  of  which  there  are  many  instances ;  among 
others,  Conor  Mac  Dermod  O'Brien,  king  of  Thomond  and  Desmond,  died  here  in 
pilgrimage,  in  1142.  At  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century  the  see  of  Roecrea  was 
annexed  to  Kilbiloe,  and  that  of  Kilfenora  has  been  held  in  eommemdam  with  it.  By 
the  operation  of  the  Church  Temporalitiea  act^  Clonfert  and  Kilmaoduach  were  united 
to  this  joint  see,  in  1836.    See  Bithojtt. 

KILLIECRANKIE,  BATTLE  of,  in  Sootland.  Between  the  forces  of  William  XXL  of 
Eugland,  and  the  adherents  of  James  II. ;  the  former  commanded  by  general  Mackay, 
and  the  latter  by  Graham  of  Claverhouse,  viscouut  Dundee,  a  distinguished  partisan 
officer  who  signally  defeated  Mackay,  but  fell  in  the  moment  of  victory :  fought  at 
the  defile  or  pass  of  Killiecrankie,  July  17, 1689. 

KILMACDUACH,  BISHOPRIC  of.  This  see  was  held  in  wmmendam  with  donfett, 
from  1602.  St.  Coleman,  its  first  bishop,  flourished  early  in  the  seventh  century,  and 
being  fond  of  an  ascetic  life,  lived  in  a  wilderness  in  the  south  part  of  Connaught. 
seven  years  previous  to  his  being  made  bishop  of  this  see.  The  see  was  valued,  29 
Eliz.  1586,  at  13/.  6«.  ScL  per  annum.    It  is  now  united  to  Killaloe,  vAicA  see. 

KILMAINHAM  HOSPITAL,  Dublin.  The  asylum  of  aged  and  disabled  soldien  in 
Ireland,  and  one  of  the  noblest  iustitutions  of  the  kind  in  Qreat  Britain.  It  owes  iia 
foundation  to  Arthur,  earl  of  Qrauard,  then  marshal-general  of  the  army  in  IrelaDd, 
1675;  and  the  duke  of  Ormoud  perfected  the  plan,  in  1679.  Kilmainham  ia  an 
ancient  town,  and  was  the  seat  of  government  before  the  castle  of  Dublin  was 
appropriated  to  that  purpose. 

KILMALLOCK.  An  abbey  was  founded  here  by  St  Mochoallog,  about  the  year  645, 
and  au  abbey  of  Dominicans  was  built  in  the  thirteenth  century. — Sir  Jamut  HW*. 
A  charter  was  granted  to  Kilmallock  by  Edward  VI.  and  another  by  Elixabetb.  in 
1584.  The  town  ^as  invested  by  the  Irish  forces  in  1698,  but  the  siege  was  laised  by 
the  duke  of  Ormond.     There  was  much  contest  here  in  1641  and  1642. 

KILMORE,  BISHOPRIC  of.  The  name  signifies  a  great  church.  Kilmore  is  an 
ancient  town,  whose  bishops  wei-e  sometimes  called  Brefinienses  from  Bre&ey,  and 
sometimes  Tribumenses,  bishops  of  Triburna,  from  a  village  of  that  name ;  but  in 
1454,  the  bishop  of  Triburna,  by  assent  of  pope  Nicholas  V.,  erected  the  pariah 
church  of  St.  Fedlemid,  as  a  more  commodious  situation,  into  a  csthedraL  FloreDee 
O'Connacty,  the  first  bishop,  died  in  1231.  Valued,  15  Jas.  I.  with  Ardagh,  at  lOOi. 
per  annum.  The  joint  see  of  Elphin  and  Ardagh  was  uuited  to  it  in  1841.  See  BiikoftL 

KIN  BURN.  A  fort,  on  a  tongue  of  land  at  the  confluence  of  the  rivetB  Bug  and 
Dnieper,  was  taken  by  the  English  aud  French,  Oct  17th,  1855.  It  contained  ^ 
garrison  of  1500  men  and  21  cannon.  Three  floating  French  batteries,  said  to  be  the 
invention  of  the  emperor,  were  very  effective.  On  the  18th  the  Russians  bUw  up 
Oczakoff,  a  fort  opposite  Kiubum. 

KINDRED,  Table  ok,  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  was  set  forth  in  1563. 

KING.  The  Latin  Hex,  the  Scythian  J2n«,  the  Spanish  Hey,  and  French  Hoi,  all  coma 
from  the  Hebrew  Moach,  chief,  or  head.  Nimrod  was  the  first  founder  of  a  kingdoiu 
2245  B.C. — Du  Prttnoy,  Misraim  built  cities  in  Egypt,  and  was  the  first  who  assumed 
the  title  of  king  in  that  divudon  of  the  earth.  Saul  was  the  first  king  of  Israel. 
1095  B.C.  Most  of  the  Qrecian  states  were  governed  by  kings;  aud  kings  were  tLe 
first  rulers  in  Rome. 

KINQ  OF  ENGLAND.  The  style  "  King  of  England  *'was  first  used  by  Egbert,  ▲.!>.  8S8 ; 
but  the  title  JUx  gentia  Anphrum,  king  of  the  English  nation,  existed  during  ibe 
Heptarchy.    See  Britain,    The  plural  phraseology,  we,  us,  our,  was  first  adopted 


KIN 


865 


KIN 


among  our  English  kingt  by  king  John,  in  1207.  The  title  of  "  king  of  Ireland,"  was 
not  assumed  by  British  sovereigns  until  1542,  when  Henry  VIII.  changed  lord  of 
Ireland  into  king.  The  style  "  Great  Britain  **  was  adopted  at  the  union  of  England 
and  Scotland,  6  Anne,  1707;  and  of  the  "United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  "*  at  the  union  of  these  countries,  Jan.  1,  1801,  when  the  royal  style  and  title 
waa  appointed  to  run  thus : — "  Oeorgitu  Tertiutf  Dei  Oratid,  BrUanntarum  Rex,  Fidei 
Dtftnwrl*  „  George  the  Third,  by  the  Grace  of  God,  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  King,  Defender  of  the  Faith." 

KINO  OF  FRANCE.  This  title  was  first  given  to  Pharamond,  a.d.  420 ;  it  was  first 
aaanmed  by  the  sovereigns  of  England,  and  the  French  arms  quartered,  February 
1S40,  when  Edward  III.  took  the  title  in  right  of  his  mother,  the  sister  of  Charles, 
the  last  king,  who  died  without  issue;  and  the  right  to  this  title  was  vindicated 
subsequently  by  conquest.  Neither  the  style  nor  the  arms  were  formally  relinquished 
until  January  1, 1801,  when  the  alteration  mentioned  in  the  preceding  article  took 
place,  up  to  which  time  the  English  monarchs  had  the  style  of  "king  of  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  Ireland." 

KING  OF  THE  FRENCH.  Decreed  by  the  National  Assembly  that  the  title  of  "king 
of  France  '*  should  be  changed  in  the  person  of  Louis  XVL  to  that  of  "  king  of  the 
French,"  Oct.  16, 1789.  The  royal  title  was  abolished  in  1792;  but  restored  in  the 
Bourbon  family,  in  1814.  Louis* Philippe  I.,  the  late  sovereign,  was  invited  to  the 
monarchy  under  the  style  of  the  "  king  of  the  French,"  Aug.  9,  1880.    See  Frwioe, 

KINO  OF  HUNGARY.  The  averseness  of  the  Hungarian  people  to  the  term  ^ucen  has 
led  to  the  custom  among  them,  that,  whenever  a  female  succeeds  to  the  throne,  she 
shall  be  called  Icing,  Thus  it  will  be  seen  in  the  annals  of  Hungary,  that  the  daught<>r 
of  Louia  L  reigned  as  king  Mary,  in  1383.     See  Hungary. 

KINO  OF  THE  ROMANS.  The  emperors  of  Germany,  in  order  that  their  eldest  sons 
might  be  chosen  their  successors,  in  their  own  life-time  politically  obtained  them  the 
title  of  "  king  of  the  Romans,"  this  people  being  comprehended  m  that  sovereignty. 
The  first  emperor  so  elected  was  Henry  lY.  in  1055.  Richard,  brother  of  Henry  III. 
of  England,  was  induced  to  go  to  (Germany,  where  he  disbursed  vast  sums  under  the 
promise  of  being  elected  next  emperor;  be  obtained  the  title  of  '*king  of  the 
Romans,"  but  failed  in  succeeding  to  the  Imperial  crown.  The  style  **king  of 
Rome "  was  revived  by  Napoleon  L  who  conferred  it  on  bis  son,  upon  his  birth,  in 
April  1811 ;  but  the  title  ceased  at  his  fall,  April  5,  1814.     See  Bonaparte, 

KING-AT-ARMS.  There  are  three  for  England, — Garter,  Clarencieux,  and  Norrby; 
and  Lyon  king-at-arms  for  Scotland,  and  Ulster  for  Ireland.  These  offices  are  very 
ancient:  Clarencieux  is  so  named  from  Lionel,  third  son  of  Edward  III.,  the 
sovereign  who  founded  the  order  of  the  Garter.  See  Oarter,  Lionel  having  by  his 
wife  the  honour  of  Clare,  was  mode  duke  of  Clarence ;  which  dukedom  afterwards 
escheating  to  Edward  lY.,  he  made  this  earl  king-at-arms.  Ulster  was  substituted, 
it  is  said,  in  lieu  of  Ireland  king-at-arms,  by  Ekiward  YL,  1552;  but  the  monarch 
himself  named  it  as  a  new  institution. 

KING'S  BENCH,  COURT  or.  Obtained  ito  name  from  the  king  sometimes  sitting 
here  on  a  high  bench,  and  the  judges  to  whom  the  judicature  belongs  in  his  absence, 
en  a  low  bench  at  his  feet  This  court  in  ancient  times  was  called  Curia  Domini 
Jtegia  ;  and  in  the  reign  of  king  Edward  I.  a  statute  passed  by  which  it  was  enacted 
that  the  judges  should  attend  the  king,  and  follow  him,  so  that  he  might  have  at  all 
times  near  him,  men  learned  in  the  laws,  to  dispense  justice.  "  The  judges  used  to  ride 
to  Westminster  Hall  on  mules ;  sir  John  Whyddon,  in  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth, 
first  introduced  horses ;  but  of  late  years  they  go  in  coaches." — Beatson, 

CHIEF  JUSTICES  OP  THE  KINO'S  BENCH  IN  ENGLAND. 
Frtnn  t\4  reiffn  qf  King  Henry  VIII. 


1520.  John  Fits  James. 

1539.  Sir  Edward  Montagu,  knt 

1M0.  Sir  Richard  Lvstar.  knt. 

Sir  Roger  Cbolmely,  knt. 

Sir  Thomas  Bromley,  sen.,  knt. 
1664.  Sir  William  Portman.  knt. 
1656.  Shr  Edward  Saunders,  knt. 

Robert  Catlyn. 

Sir  Chrifltoper  Wniv,  knt. 

Sir  John  Popham,  knt. 

Sir  TboouM  Fleming,  knt. 


1552. 
1553. 


1559. 
1573. 
1591. 
1807. 


1613.  Sir  Edward  Coke,  knt 
1616.  Sir  Henry  Montague,  knt. 
1620.  Sir  James  Ley,  knt. 
1624.  Sir  Ranulph  Crewe,  knt 
1626.  Sir  Nicholas  Hyde,  knt. 
1631.  Sir  Thomas  Richardson,  knt. 
1635.  Sir  John  Bramstone,  knt 
1643.  Sir  Robert  Heath,  knt 
1648.  Henry  RoUe. 
H<55.  John  Glyn. 
1659.  Sir  Richard  Newdigate,  knt 


KIN  866  KIN 


KINO'S  BBNCH,  COURT  ov,  continued. 


1725.  Sir  Robert  Raymond,  aflenrarda  lord 

Raymond. 
1783.  Sir  Philip  Torke.  aOerwmida  loid  Hud- 

wicke  and  lonl  chancellor. 
1737.  Sir  WiUiam  Lee,  knt  and  bait. 
1754.  Sir  Dudley  Ryder,  knt 
1756.  William  Murray,  lord  Mannfield,  alUr> 

wards  earl  of  If  amfield. 
1788.  Lloyd.  lord  Kenyon.    June  9. 
Sir  Oeoiige  Jefferies,  bart,  aflerwarda  '  1802.  Sir  Rdward  Law.     April  13 :  enated 
lord  Jefferiea  and  lord  chancellor.        •  lord  EUenboroufh. 

1685.  Sb-  Edward  Herbert,  kut.  ,  1818.  Sir  Charles  Abbot.    Nov.  i :  afterwards 

1687.  Sir  Robert  Wriffht,  knt.  j  lord  Tenterden. 

1689.  Sir  John  Holt,  knt  i  188i.  Sir  Thomas  Denman.    Nov.  7 :  eraated 


1650   Robert  Nicholas. 
1660.  Sir  Robert  Foster,  knt. 
1663.  Sir  Robert  Hyde,  knt 
1665.  Sir  John  Kelynflr.  kut 
1671.  Sir  Matthew  Hale,  knt 
1676.  Sir  Richard  Raynsford,  knt 
1678.  Sir  William  Scroflfgs,  knt 
1681.  Sir  Frauds  Pemberton,  knt 
168S.  Sir  Edmund  Saunders,  knt. 


lord  Denman :  rssignod. 
1850.  John,  lord  GampbclL    March  5.    Tba 

Sreaent  (1857)  Lord  Chief  Justice  ot 
Ingland. 


1709.  Sir  Thomas  Parker,  afterwards  lord 

Parker  and  earl  of  Macclesfield  and 

lord  chancellor. 
1718.  Sir  John  Pratt,  knt 

The  name  of  thifl  court  has  been  altered  to  that  of  Qaeen^s  Bench,  since  the 

of  Victoria,  in  June  1837,  as  is  the  case  with  all  institutions  in  immediate  connexion 

with,  or  dependent  upon,  the  sovereign,  when  a  queen-regnant  is  on  the  throne. 

CHIEF  JUSTICES  OF  THE  KING'S  BENCH  IN  IRELAND. 

From  th€  Revolution. 

160a  Sir  Richard  Reynell.    Dec  6.  1784.  John  Scott :  April  29 :  afterward  eari 

1696.  Sir  Richard  Pyne.    June  7.  i  ofClonmel. 

1709.  Alan  Brodrick.    Dea  24.  1798.  Arthur   Wolfe;   June  18:   afterwards 

1711.  Sir  Richard  Cox.    July  5.  '  lord  Rilwarden. 

1714.  William  Whitahed.    Oct  14.  '  1803.  William  Downes;  Sept  19: 

1727.  John  Rogeraon.    April  8.  I  lord  Downes. 

1741.  Thomas  Marlay.    Deo.  29.  1 182?.  Charles  Kendal  Bushe     Feb.  14. 

1751.  St  Georae  Caulfield.    Aug.  ST.  '  1841.  Edward  Pennefiather.    Nov.  10. 

1760.  Warden  Flood.    July  81.  1846.  Francis  Blackbuxne.    Jan.  28. 

1764.  John  Gore ;  Aug.  24 :  afterwards  earl    1852.  Thomas  Lefroy.    March.    The  pi 

Annaly.  |  (1857)  Chief  Justice  of  the   King^a 

I  (Queen's)  Bench  in  Inland. 

KING'S  BENCH  PRISON.  One  of  the  chief  prisons  of  London  for  the  confinement  of 
debtors;  the  present  edifice  was  built  in  1781,  and  contains  about  230  rooms;  and 
besides  this  accommodation,  the  debtors  were  allowed  to  purchase  the  Ubertiei^  to 
enable  them  to  have  houses  or  lodgings  without  the  walis,  or  to  purchase  dav-mle^ 
to  go  out  of  the  prison  under  certain  regulations.  The  rules  included  the  whola  of 
St.  Qeorge's  Fields,  one  side  of  Blackman-street,  and  part  of  High-Street  This  priTilege, 
however,  has  been  disoontinued.  The  prison,  which  was  built  in  1761,  was  burnt 
down  bj  the  London  rioters,  June  8, 1780.    See  Chrdon'i  No-popeiy  Mob, 

KING'S  COLLEGEa  That  of  Aberdeen,  founded  in  1500.  King^s  College,  Osmbridge, 
the  pride  of  that  uniyersity,  was  founded  by  Henxy  VI.  in  1441.  King's  Gollei^ 
Halifax,  chartered  in  May  1802.  King's  College,  London,  incorporated  Aug.  14, 1829, 
and  opened  Oct.  8, 1831,  with  an  address  from  the  bishop  of  London.  Its  object  is 
to  secure  to  the  rising  generation  in  the  metropolis  and  its  vicinity  the  benefits  of  aa 
economical,  scientific,  and  religious  course  of  instruction,  according  to  the  doctrines 
of  the  Church  of  England.    See  Cambridge  and  Oxford, 

KING'S  COUNSEL.  The  first  king's  counsel  under  the  degree  of  seijeant^  waa  air 
Francis  Bacon,  made  so  Jumorit  eauadf  without  patent  or  fee,  in  1604,  when  Jamea  I. 
bestowed  upon  him  knighthood  and  a  pension.  The  first  king's  counsial  of  the  modem 
order  was  sir  Francis  North,  afterwards  lord-keeper  to  Charles  IL  in  1663, 

KING'S  COUNTY,  Ireland.  This  county  was  so  named  from  Philip,  king  of  Spnio, 
the  husband  of  queen  ICary  of  England,  in  1555. — Bfum*t  Annale. 

KING'S  EVIL.  Supposed  to  be  cured  by  the  touch  of  the  kings  of  England.  The  first 
who  touched  for  it  was  Edward  the  Confess6r  in  1058.  This  vulgar  credulity  had  in 
the  age  of  Charles  IL  arisen  to  such  a  height,  that,  in  fourteen  yean,  92,107  persons 
were  touched  ;  and,  according  to  Wiseman,  the  king's  physician,  they  were  naarly  all 
cured  !  Queen  Anne  officially  announced  in  the  London  Oautte,  March  12,  1712,  her 
royal  intention  to  touch  publicly  for  the  cure  of  the  evil :  the  coatom  waa  disoouniged, 
and  dropped  by  G^rge  1. 1714. 

KING'S  SPEECH.  The  first  royal  speech  from  the  throne  waa  delivered  by  Henry  I. 
in  1107.    A  late  celebrated  writer,  after  remarking  with  hia  aoeustomed  hanhnaaa 


KIK  367  RN£ 

upon  Mr.  Canning,  who  had  just  then  (April,  1827)  become  chief  of  a  new  admiuis- 
iration,  said — **  Canning  being  now  minister,  of  one  thing,  and  one  thing  only,  we  are 
oertain ;  we  shall  have  no  more  grammatical  blunders  in  king  s  speeches ;  these  things 
will  still  be  written  in  the  same  meagre  way,  in  point  of  matter,  as  before ;  but  we 
aball  have  them  in  a  perspicuous  and  pure  style." — Cobbett. 

KINODOMS.  The  origin  of  kingdoms  may  be  referred  to  Belus,  supposed  to  have  been 
the  NImrod  of  Holy  Writ ;  he  was  the  founder  of  the  Baby  Ionian  monarchy,  2245  b.c. 
— £^«Aer.  Meqds,  or  Kisraim,  makes  his  son  Atholas,  sumamed  the  first  Mercury,  king 
of  Upper  Kgypt ;  and  another  son,  Tosothrus,  he  establishes  at  Memphis^  2188  B.a — 
Blair.    Ninus  founds  the  Assyrian  monarchy,  2059  B.a — LengUi, 

KINGSTON,  DUCHESS  of,  TRIAL  of  thk.  The  most  celebrated  trial  of  a  peeress 
upon  record  ,*  she  was  arraigned  before  the  Lords  in  Westminster-hall,  on  a  charge  of 
bigamy,  having  married  Captain  Hervey,  afterwards  earl  of  Bristol,  and  during  his 
lifetime,  Evelyn  Pierrepoint,  duke  of  Kingston;  she  was  found  guilty,  but,  on  her 
pleading  the  privilege  of  peerage,  the  usual  punishment  of  burning  in  the  hand  waa 
remitted,  and  she  was  discharged  on  paying  the  fees  of  office,  April  15,  1776. 

KINGSTON,  Jamaica.  Founded  in  1698,  after  the  great  earthquake,  which  destroyed 
Port  fioyal,  since  when  it  has  continued  to  increase  in  size  and  opulence ;  constituted 
a  city,  1802.  An  awful  fire  here  ravi^ed  a  vast  portion  of  the  town,  and  consumed 
500,0001.  of  property,  Feb.  8, 1782.    For  various  occurrences  see  Jamaica. 

KINGSTON,  SxTBBBT.  A  national  oouncil  was  held  here  A.D.  838,  at  which  Egbert,  the 
firet  king  of  all  England,  and  his  son  Athelwolf,  were  present ;  and  several  of  the  Saxon 
monarchs  were  crowned  here.  This  town  sent  members  to  parliament  in  the  reign  of 
Kdward  II.  A  new  town,  called  New  Kingston,  contiguously  situated,  has  been  in 
course  of  erection,  and  many  buildings  completed,  since  1889. 

KINGSTOWN,  Dublin.  The  fine  harbour  here  was  commenced  in  June  1817.  The 
place  was  originally  called  Dunleary,  but  the  name  waa  changed  in  compliment  to 
Geox^e  lY.  Here  George  IV.  embarked  for  England  at  the  close  of  his  visit  to 
Ireland,  Sept.  8, 1821.  The  opposite  harbour  of  Howth  was  commenced  in  Sept  1807. 
The  Kingstown  railway  from  Dublin  was  opened  Dea  17>  1834. 

KISSING.  Kissing  the  hands  of  great  men  was  a  Grecian  custom.  Kissing  was  a  mode 
of  salutation  among  the  Jews,  as  we  may  collect  from  Judas  approaching  his  Master 
vrith  a  kiss ;  it  was  also  customary  in  Rome.  The  kiss  of  charity  is  commanded  in 
the  Scriptures,  and  was  observed  by  the  early  Christians.  Kissing  the  pope's  foot 
took  its  rise  from  the  custom  of  kneeling  to  sovereigns,  and  began  with  Adrian  I. 
or  Leo  III.  at  the  close  of  the  eighth  century.  From  kneeling  to  sovereigns  came 
also  the  ceremony  of  a  vassal  kneeling  to  his  lord  in  homage,  first  practised  a.d.  709. 

KIT-CAT  CLUB.  A  society  which  consisted  of  about  thirty  noblemen  and  gentlemen 
of  distinguished  abilities,  instituted  in  1703,  to  promote  the  proteetant  succession  in 
the  house  of  Hanover,  which  they  effected  by  spirited  publications  as  well  as  other 
measurea  Addison,  Steele,  and  Dr.  Garth  were  members,  and  made  several  epigrams 
upon  tho  toasts  of  the  dub.  The  club  took  its  name  from  one  Christopher  Kat,  a 
pastry-cook,  who  lived  near  the  tavern  where  they  met,  in  King-street,  Westminster, 
and  who  served  them  with  pastry. — Bowjfer^i  Life  of  Qitm  Akm. 

KNBBLING.  See  Kiuing,  The  knee  was  ordered  to  be  bent  at  the  name  of  Jesus, 
ahout  the  year  1275,  either  by  the  order  of  pope  Gregory  X.  or  Innocent  V.  This 
custom  is  observed  not  only  in  divine  worship,  but  on  &dl  occasions,  in  Roman  Catholic 
countries,  where  the  host,  in  passing  througn  the  streets,  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy 
to  the  chambers  of  the  sick,  has  adoration  paid  to  it  in  a  kneeling  posture  by  the 
people.    They  also  kneel  at  the  vesper  bell. — Aihe, 

KNIGHT.  The  origin  of  this  title  as  a  military  honour  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the 
■iege  of  Troy,  but  this  solely  depends  upon  a  passage  or  two  in  Homer.  With 
certainty  we  may  trace  the  distinction  to  the  Romanp,  who  after  their  union  with  the 
Sabiaes  created  three  centuries  of  knights,  about  750  B.C.— Ztvy. 

KNIGHT  ERRANTRY.  Took  its  rise  in  the  combaU  of  the  Celtic  nations,  particularly 
the  judicial  combats^  and  much  prevailed  in  Spain,  France,  and  Germany.  Tilts  and 
tournaments  commenced  with  the  return  of  the  crusaders  from  the  Holy  wars,  and  for 
about  300  years  they  were  the  chief  amusements  of  courts,  and  the  successful  combatants 
acquired  knighthood,  and  the  favour  of  the  ladies.  The  novel  of  Don  Quixote  was 
written  and  published  by  Cervantes,  to  satirise  kuight  errantry,  in  1605. 


KNI 


868 


KNI 


KNIGHTHOOD.  Was  conferred  in  England  by  the  priest  Ht  the  altar,  after  eonfenon 
and  consecration  of  the  sword,  during  the  Saxon  Heptarchy.  The  first  knight  nude 
by  the  sovereign  with  the  sword  of  state  was  Athelstan,  on  whom  Alfred  bestowed 
this  new  dignity,  a.d.  900. — Spelman,  The  custom  of  ecclesiastics  confernng  th« 
honour  of  knighthood  was  suppressed  in  a  synod  held  at  Westminster  in  11(K).~ 
A8kmole*9  '/nstUtUet,  All  persona  having  ton  pounds  yearly  income  were  obliged  to  be 
knighted,  or  pay  a  fine,  S8  Hen.  III.  1254. — Salmon. 

KNIGHTHOOD  in  EUROPE.  As  a  system,  under  the  denomination  of  cbiralrj. 
knighthood  is  to  be  dated  from  the  eleventh  oentury.  On  the  decline  of  the  empire 
of  Charlemngne,  all  Europe  being  reduced  to  a  state  of  anarchy,  the  proprietor  of  eve^ 
manor  became  a  petty  sovereign ;  his  mansion  was  fortified  by  a  moat,  and  defended  hj 
a  guard,  and  called  a  castle.  Excursions  were  made  by  one  petty  lord  agaiost  another, 
and  the  women  and  treasure  were  carried  off  by  the  conqueror.  At  length  the  ownen 
of  rich  fiefs  aMOciated  to  repress  the9e  marauders,  and  to  make  property  seeare,  sod 
to  protect  the  ladies ;  binding  themnelves  to  these  duties  by  a  solemn  vow,  and  the 
sanction  of  a  religious  ceremony.  The  first  knights  being  men  of  the  highest  nok 
and  largost  posseisions,  admission  into  the  order  was  deemed  a  great  honour. 

MILITARY,  RELIGIOUS,  AND  HONORARY  ORDERS  OP  KNIGHTHOOD. 


Alcantara,  institutod  .  a.d.  1160 

Alexander  Nevakoi,  Ruwia  .    .  1700 

Amaranta,  Sweden 1045 

Angelic  Knighta,  Greece     .  .    .     i^O 

Annunciada,  ManttM       ....  1618 

Annunciation,  Pavoy 1S5-5 

A  via,  Portugal 1147 

Bannereta,   England,   1.^60.      Renewed. 

See  BannfretJi 1485 

Bath,  England,  1890.    Renewed.     See 

Bath 1725 

Bear,  Switserland 1213 

Black  Eagle,  Prussia,  instituted  by  Fre- 
derick I 1701 

Blood  of  Christ,  Mantiw     .  .     .1608 

Brotherly  Love,  instituted      .  .  1708 

Burgiindian  Cross 1535 

Calatrava,  Castile,  instituted  by  Snncho 

III .  1156 

Catherine,  Russia 1698 

Chano,  instituted  by  the  duke  of  Wur- 

temburg 1719 

Christ.  Livonia 1203 

Christ.  Portugal 1819 

Christian  Charity,  France  ....  1690 
Cincinnatus,  America  ....  1783 
Conception  of  the  Virgin    .  .    .1619 

Concord,  Prussia,  Instituted  by  Christian 
Ernest,  elector  of  Brandonbuig  .        .  1660 

Crescent,  Naples 1448 

Crown  Royal.  France                               .    h02 
Daneburgh,    Denmark,    instituted    by 
Waldemar  II.,  1219 ;  revived  by  Chris- 
tian V 1671 

Death's  Head,   Female  Order,  by  the 
widow  Louisa  Elizabeth  of  Baxe  Mera- 

buiigh 1709 

Dove  of  Castile 1.371J 

Dragon,  Hungary US9 

Elephant,  Denmark,  by  Christian  I.  .  1478 
Garter  (vAtcA  Me),  England  .        .   IS.M) 

Oenerositv,  Brandenburg  .  .  .  .  1685 
Golden  Fleece,  instituted  at  Bruges  by 

Philip,  Bumaroed  the  Good  .  .  1429 

Golden  Lion,  Hesse  Cassel ....  1785 
Golden  Shield  and  Thistle  .  IS/O 

Golden  Spur,  by  Pius  IV 1559 

auelphlc.  Hanover 1816 

Hoiy  Ghost.  France,  1468.     Revived      .  IS-W 

Ho  y  Ghost,  Rome UW 

Holy  Trinity         .         .  1211 

Januarlug,  Naples 1738 

l^?r*^S™-  ^  ^*"«  ....  1048 
•Jesus,  France      .        .  1305 

''^JV.^'hrist,  Rome,  Instituted  by  John 

1415.     Reformed  by  Paul  V.   .  1610 


Ia  Chlsa,  Venice  .  .      a.i>.  140A 

Legion  of  Honour.  France,  instituted  by 
Napoleon  Bonaparte    .        .       .       •  1^ 

Lily  of  Arragon 1*« 

Lily  of  Navarrw W« 

Loretto,  Lady  of IMT 

Malta.    See  JIfalfa 1^ 

Martyrs,  Palestine I'l' 

Maria-Theresa,  Order  of  Ladies.  Spain  .  17M 
Merit,  instituted  by  the  landgrave  of 

Hesse-Cassel 17U 

Merit.  Prussia I"** 

Oak  of  Navarre,  Spain  .    .   7S 

Passion  of  Jesus  Ctirist,  France  •  138S 

Pius,  founded  by  Pius  IV 1^ 

Red  Eagle.  Prussia 17^ 

Redemption,  instituted      .       ...  121S 

Rosary,  Spain 11*5 

Round  Table.  England.    See  KitipkU  of 

the  Round  Table ^^ 

St.  Andrew,  Russia  (tradition  ascribes 

to  this  saint  the  introduction  of  Cbris- 

tianity  into  Muscovy)  .... 

St.    Andrew,    Scotland,  809;  renewed 

1452 ;  and  •Af^n  by  James  VL 
St  Anthony,  Hainault    .        .       .       • 
St.  Catherine,  Palestine  ... 

8t.  Catherine,  Russia       .        .       .      • 

St.  Denis,  France 

St.  George.  Austria "70 

St.  George,  Defender  of  the  Immaeulata 
Conception,  Bavaria                .       .    ■ 
St.  Geonre,  England ;  instituted  by  Ed- 
ward III.     See  Garter  ,        .       .       • 
St.  George ;  tutelary  saint  of  Genoa,  by 
Frederick  III 


isn 

lies 


179 


XXll.. 


the  duke  of 


U» 
17« 
1318 
1»0 

14tT 

WW 

1310 

ICM 

_  UM 

Ft  Jo'hno7Aoc.n.     ' 1^ 

St.  John  of  Jerusalem      .        .        .       •  l*** 

St  JohnofMalU "5 

St.  John  of  Rhodes ]^. 

St.  J ulien  of  Alcantara  •    •  '^'^ 

St  lAzarus,  and  St  Mauriee,  by  Emanuel 

Philibert  duke  of  Savoy 
St  Louis,  Franco         ... 
St  Mark,  Venice.  830;  renewed 
St  Mary  the  Glorious. 
St  Mary  de  Merced,  Spain 


St  George,  Rome 

St  George,  Russia 

St  George,  Spain 

St.  Goorge,  Venice 

St  Hubert  Germany,  by 

Juliers  and  Cleves 
St  Jamea,  Holland    . 
St  James,  Portugal 
St  James,  Spain . 
St  Jerome,  Germany 


ld93 
IMS 
ISS3 
1SI« 


KNI  369  KNO 


KNIGHTHOOD  in  EUROPE,  c<mtinned. 

8t  Michael,  Franoe    .  a.d.  14A9 

St.  Hicbaei,  Germany      .        .  .1618 

St  Patrick.  Ireland 1783 

St.  Paul,  Rome 1540 

BL  Peter,  Rome 1520 

St.  Rupert^  Germany,  by  the  archbishop 
ofSalUburg 1701 


Sword,  Sweden.  1623 ;  rerived  a.d.  1772 

Templan.  See  Ttmplan  .  .  .  .  1118 
Teste  Morte,  Wurtembuiv  .  .  .  165*i 
Teutonic,  1190 ;  renewed  m  PniMia  .    .  1523 

Thistle  of  Bourbon 1370 

Thistle  of  Scotland,  812;  roTived  (see 
TkittU) 1640 


St.  Sepulchre.  Palestine  ...  1092  <  Trinitarians,  Spain 1694 

St   Stephen,  by  Gasimir  de   Medids,  |  Truxillo,  Spain 1227 


ip«nd-duke  of  Tuscany  .  1501 

St.  Thomas  of  Aeon 1370 

Sariour.  Greece        .       •       .     June  1,  1833 

Seraphims,  Sweden 1334 

Ship  and  Crescent.  Pruioe  .  1209 

Sincerity,  instituted  by  the  elector  of 

Sazonv 1690 

SlaTes  of  Virtue^  Germany  .  1662 
Sword,  Cyprus 1196 


United  Ladies  for  the  honour  of  the 
Cross,  in  Germany        ....  1660 

Virgin  Mary 1233 

Vir^n  of  Mount  Carmel,  Franco  .  .1607 
Warfare  of  Christy  Poland  ....  1705 
Warfare  of  Christ,  Russia  .  .  IS'^5 
Winir  of  St  Michael,  Portugal  .  .  .  1165 
Wladlmir,  Russia 1682 


KNIGHTS,  FEMALE.  The  title  of  knight,  which  was  given  to  men  of  superior  worth, 
ability,  and  fortune^  in  former  times,  was  sometimes  given  to  women  also.  As  an 
instance  (the  first  we  read  of),  it  was  conferred  on  the  women  who  preserved  the  citj 
of  Tortosa  from  fidling  into  the  hands  of  the  Moors  in  1149,  by  their  stout  resistance 
to  the  vigorous  attack  of  the  besiegers,  by  which  means  the  Moors  were  forced  to  raise 
the  siege.  Large  immunities  and  favours  were  granted  to  them  and  their  descendants 
for  their  heroism  on  this  occasion. 

KNIGHTS  OF  OLTN  and  KERRY,  in  Ireland.  The  heads  of  two  ancient  families 
in  Ireland*  named  Fitigerald,  to  whom  are  still  permitted  the  distinctions  bestowed 
on  their  ancestors  by  the  ancient  sovereigns  of  their  country ;  these  titles  are  of 
remote  date.  The  late  knight  of  Kerry,  the  rt.  hon.  Maurice  Fit^erald,  was  a  lord 
of  the  treasury  in  1827. 

KNIQHTS  OF  THE  ROUND  TABLE.  Instituted  by  king  Arthur  abont  A.D.  528.— 
Aa$er't  Life  of  Alfred,  This  ancient  order  was  revived  by  Edward  III.  at  Windsor, 
upon  New  Tear's  day,  1344.  The  king,  with  a  view  to  the  recovery  of  France,  which 
descended  to  him  in  right  of  his  mother,  became  anxious  to  draw  the  best  soldiers 
of  Europe  into  his  interest,  and  thereupon  projecting  and  setting  up  king  Arthur's 
Bound  Table,  he  proclaimed  a  solemn  tilting,  to  invite  foreigners  of  quality  and 
conrsge  to  the  exercise.  He  published  his  royal  letters  of  protection  for  the  safe 
coming  and  return  of  such  foreigpi  knights  as  had  a  mind  to  venture  their  reputation 
at  those  jousts  and  tournaments. — BeaUon. 

KNIGHTS  OF  TBE  SHIRE,  or  Knights  of  Parliament;  chosen  on  the  king's  writ  by 
the  freeholders  of  every  county.  They  are  said  to  have  been  first  summoned  by 
Simon  de  Montfort.  There  are  writs  extant  as  far  back  as  11  Edward  I.  1283.  The 
knights  are  still  girded  with  a  sword  when  elected,  as  the  writ  prescribes. 

KNIQHTS  TEMPLARS.  A  religious  and  military  order,  instituted  a.d.  1118.  They 
came  to  England  early  in  Stephen's  reign,  and  settled  at  the  Temple  in  London ;  and 
at  other  places  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IL  Ail  the  knights  were  arrested  in  France  in 
one  day,  being  charged  with  great  crimes,  and  possessing  great  riches ;  and  several  of 
them  were  burnt  alive  at  Paris  in  October,  1307.  Those  in  England  were  all  seised 
the  same  year.  Their  order  was  abolished  by  Philip  the  Fair  of  France,  at  the 
council  of  Yienne  in  1312 ;  and  many  thousands  were  subsequently  massacred,  their 
wealth  being  given  to  the  knights  of  Malta.    See  MaUct, 

KNIVES.  Knives  were  first  made  in  England  in  1663,  and  were  the  earliest  branch  of 
domestic  cutlery.  They  were  first  manufactured  by  one  Mathews,  of  Fleet-bridge, 
London,  5th  Eliz.  ISeS.—Chamberlain'a  Present  State  of  England,  edit,  1683.  See 
article  Porks, 

KNOW-NOTHINGS.  A  political  society  which  aroie  in  1853,  in  the  United  States  of 
North  America.  Their  principles  were  embodied  in  the  following  propositions  (at 
New  York,  1855)  :— 


1.  The  Americana  shall  rule  America. 
S.  The  Union  of  these  States. 
8.  No  North,  no  South,  no  East,  no  West^ 
4.  The  United  States  of  America— as  they  are 
—one  and  inseparable. 


5.  No  sectarian  interferences  in  our  legialatioa 

or  the  administration  of  American  law. 

6.  HosUlitj  to  the  assumptions  of  the  Popo, 

tiirough  the  bishops,  Ac,  in  a  republic 
sanotined  by  protestant  blood. 

B  B 


KOH  370  KUN 


KNOW-NOTHINGS,  continued. 

7.  Thorough  reform   in  the  natunUcaiion 

laws. 

8.  Free  and  liberal  educational  Inatitutiona 


for  all  accU  and  daawM^  with  the  Bibla, 
God'a  holy  word,  aa  a  uoivenal  text- 
book. 


They  then  poBseased  several  newspapers  and  had  much  political  influenoe  orer  the  elec- 
tions. They  held  secret  meetings.  A  society  was  formed  in  1855  in  oppontion  to 
the  above,  called  Know-Somethings,  Both  these  bodies  are  said  to  have  been  absorbed 
into  the  two  great  parties  of  Democrats  and  Kepublicans  at  the  presidential  election 
in  Nov.  1 856. 

KOH-I-NOOR.  The  East-India  Diamond,  called,  also,  the  "MounUin  of  ligbt**  See 
Diamonds, 

KOLIN  OB  KOLLIN,  BATTLE  of.  In  this  battle,  the  renowned  Austrian  general 
Daun  gained  a  signal  and  memorable  victory  over  Frederick  the  Great  of  Pmasia, 
June  18,  1757.  The  military  order  of  Maria  Theresa  was  instituted  by  the  empieas 
queen  in  commemoration  of  this  great  victory.  Marshal  Daun,  the  next  year,  obliged 
the  king  of  Prussia  to  raise  the  siege  of  Olmuts,  and  to  retreat  from  Moravia. — AtfUu 

KONIAH,  BATTLE  of.  Fought  on  the  plains  of  Koniah,  formerly  Iconium,  between 
the  army  of  the  sultan  and  that  of  the  pacha  of  Egypt,  in  which,  after  a  dreadful  and 
sanguinary  fight  that  continued  all  the  day,  the  Turkish  army  was  defeated,  and  the 
grand-vizier  himself  wounded  and  taken  prisoner,  Deo.  21,  18«S8. 

KONIQSTEIN  TUN.  This  tun,  one  of  the  most  capacious  in  the  world,  was  built  by 
Frederick  Augustus,  king  of  Poland,  in  1725.  It  was  made  to  hold  233,667  gallons 
of  wine ;  and  on  the  top,  which  was  railed  in,  was  accommodation  for  twenty  pereons 
to  regale  themselves.  The  famous  tun  of  St.  Bernard's  holds  eight  hun<ked  tana. 
See  heiilelberg  Tun. 

KORAN,  OB  ALCORAN  (AL  KURAN)  of  MAHOMET.  Written  about  a.d.  610.  lU 
general  aim  was  to  unite  the  professors  of  idolatry  and  the  Jews  and  Chribttans  in 
the  worship  of  one  Qod  (whose  unity  was  the  chief  point  inculcated),  under  certain 
laws  and  ceremonies,  exacting  obedience  to  Mahomet  as  the  prophet  It  was  written 
in  the  Koreish  Arabic,  and  this  language,which  oertainly  possesses  eveiy  fine  quality, 
was  said  to  be  that  of  paradise.  Mahomet  asserted  that  the  Koran  was  revealed  to 
him  during  a  period  of  twenty-three  years,  by  the  angel  Gabriel.  The  style  of  this 
volume  is  beautiful,  fluent,  and  oondse,  and  where  the  majes^  and  attributes  of  Qod 
are  described,  it  is  sublime  and  magnificent.  Mahomet  admitted  the  divine  missiMi 
both  of  Moses  and  Jesus  Christ. — Dr.  Jortin.  The  leading  article  of  fisith  whioh  this 
impostor  preached,  is  compounded  of  an  eternal  truth,  and  a  neoeesary  ficdoo, 
namely,  that  there  is  only  one  God,  and  that  Mahomet  is  the  apostle  of  God. — Oibbam, 
The  Koran  was  translated  into  Latin  in  1143 ;  and  into  EngliBh  and  other  European 
languages  about  1768  et  uq.  It  ib  a  rhapsody  of  8000  verses,  divided  into  114  sec- 
tions.   See  Mecca  ;  Mahometaniam,  d:e, 

KOSZTA  AFFAIR.  Martin  Koszta,  a  Hungarian  refugee,  when  in  the  United  Statea  in 
1 850,  declared  his  intention  of  becoming  an  American  citizen,  and  went  through  the 
preliminaiy  forms.  In  1858  he  visited  Smyrna,  and  on  June  21,  he  was  seized  by  a 
boat's  crew  from  the  Austrian  brig  Hvztar,  Captain  Ingraham,  of  the  American 
sloop  St.  Louis,  demanded  his  release  by  direction  of  the  American  Minister  at  Con- 
stantinople ;  but  having  heard  that  the  prisoner  was  to  be  clandestinely  transferred 
to  Trieste,  on  July  2  he  demanded  his  surrender  by  a  certain  time  and  pre(«red  to 
attack  the  Austrian.  On  August  1,  the  Austrian  Government  protested  against  theea 
proceedings  in  a  circular  addressed  to  the  European  courts,  but  eventually  a  compro- 
mise was  effected,  and  Koszta  returned  to  the  United  States. 

KOWNO,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  French  and  Russian  armies,  in  which  the  former 
was  defeated  by  the  latter,  with  great  slaughter,  and  the  loss  of  upwards  of  6000 
prisoners  and  21  pieces  of  cannon ;  many  thousands  on  both  sides  being  slain;  foogfat 
Dec.  14, 1812. 

KRASNOI,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  French  army  under  marahal  Davouat»  nrince  of 
Eckmuhl,  and  the  Russian  army  commanded  by  the  celebrated  warrior  and  prince, 
Kutusoff  (who  died  in  1813).  Davoust  was  entirely  overthrown,  and  his  amy 
wholly  dispersed,  leaving  many  thousands  slain  upon  the  field,  Nov.  16,  1812. 

KUNNERSDORF,  OB  CUNNERSDORF,  BATTLE  of.  One  of  the  most  bloody  on 
record,  fought  between  the  Prussian  and  Russian  armies;  the  king  of  Prusfiiay  after  a 


LAB  371  LAa 

grettt  slaughter  of  the  enemy  for  upwards  of  six  hours,  had  gained  manv  advantages, 
and  had  nearly  accomplished  Tiotory,  but  too  eager  in  pursuing  the  retreating 
Uusuaus,  the  latter  mllied,  and  iu  the  end  the  Prussians  were  defeated  with  the  loss 
of  20,000  men,  and  200  pieces  of  cannon,  Aug.  12, 1759. 


L. 

LABUAN.    See  Borneo. 

LABURNUM:  This  shrub,  called  also  the  Gold  Chain  and  CuHsut  Laburnum,  was 
brought  to  thsise  couutries  from  Hungary,  Austria,  &c.  about  a.d.  1578. — Aahe. 

LABYRINTH.  There  were  four  most  famous  in  history :  the  first  was  built  by  Dsedalus, 
in  the  island  of  Crete,  to  secure  the  Minotaur,  about  1210  b.c.  ;  the  second  in  Eggrpt 
in  the  isle  of  Mobtis,  by  Psammeticus,  king  of  that  place,  688  B.C. ;  the  third  at 
Lemnos^  and  remarkable  for  its  sumptuous  piilara ;  and  the  fourth  in  Italy,  erected 
by  Porsenua,  king  of  the  Hetrurise,  about  520  &c. — Pliny.  The  beauty  and  art  of  the 
labyrinth  of  £gypt  were  almost  beyond  belief;  it  had  12  halls  and  3000  chambers, 
with  pillar%  was  encrusted  with  marble,  and  adorned  with  sculpture. — Herodotua, 
The  labyrinth  of  Woodstock  ia  famous  from  its  connection  with  the  story  of  Fair 
Rosamond,  mistress  of  Henry  II.;  see  Rotamond.  There  is  a  curious  Maze  at 
Hampton  Court  that  is  much  visited. 

LACE.  Mention  is  made  of  it  as  being  of  vexy  delicate  texture  in  France  and  Flanders 
in  1320 ;  and  fine  laces  were  much  in  use  for  ruffles  and  frills  for  the  men,  and  head- 
dresses  for  the  women  in  the  fifteenth  oentury.  Lace  was  general  in  the  court 
costume  of  £lizabeth*s  reign.  Dresden,  Valenciennes,  Mechlin,  and  Brussels,  have 
long  been  famous  for  their  fine  lace.  An  ounce  weight  of  Flanders  thread  has  been 
frequently  sold  for  four  pounds  in  London,  and  its  value  when  manufactured  has 
been  increased  to  forty  pounds,  ten  times  the  price  of  standard  gold. 

LACED^MON.    See  Sparta. 

LACTEAL  VEINS.  These  were  disoovered  by  chance  by  Jasper  Asellius  of  Cremona, 
in  opening  a  dog,  1627.  They  were  discovered  in  birds,  fish,  and  other  animals,  by 
Mr.  HewBon  of  London,  about  1770,  and  subsequently  by  other  eminent  professional 
men.    In  the  human  form  the  lacteal  vessels  convey  the  chyle. 

LADIES.  The  masters  and  mistresses  of  manor-houses,  in  former  times,  served  out  to 
the  poor  weekly,  with  their  own  hands,  certain  quantities  of  bread,  and  were  there- 
fore called  Lafords  and  Ltf-dayt — signifying  brtud-yivtrs,  (from  hlaf,  a  loaf)  and  the 
words  were  at  length  shortened  to  Lords  and  Ladies.  Tooke  considers  Lord  to 
signify  kigh-bom.  The  introduction  of  ladies  to  court,  was  first  to  that  of  Louis  XIL 
of  France  in  1499.  As  a  title  of  honour,  the  title  of  lady  properly  belongs  only  to 
the  daughters  of  earls,  and  all  of  higher  rank. 

LADRONB  ISLES.  Discovered  by  Mngellan  in  1520 ;  they  are  eleven  in  number.  He 
first  touched  at  the  island  of  Guam.  Here,  some  of  the  natives  having  stolen  some 
of  his  goods,  and  showing  a  great  disposition  to  theft,  he  named  the  islands  the 
Ladrone*,  or  Islands  of  Thieves,  which  they  are  called  to  this  day. 

LADY-DAY.  This  festival,  the  25th  March,  was  instituted  about  A.D.  350,  according  to 
some  authorities,  and  not  before  the  seventh  century  according  to  others.  On  this 
day,  the  25th  of  March,  the  angel  Gabriel  brought  to  the  Virgin  Mary  the  message 
concerning  her  son  Jesus  :  hence  it  is  called  the  Annunciation,  and  is  celebrated  m 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  as  one  of  its  feasts ;  and  in  the  Reformed  Church  also, 
on  account  of  the  connection  between  the  circumstance  commemorated  and  the 
Incarnation.  In  England,  before  the  alteration  of  the  style,  our  new  year  began  on 
the  25th  of  March ;  and  in  some  ecclesiastical  computations,  that  order  is  still  pre- 
served ;  particularly  in  reckoning  the  number  of  years  from  the  incarnation  of  Our 
Saviour.  In  Scotland,  the  1st  of  January  was  ordered  by  proclamation  (Nov.  27, 
1599)  to  be  the  beginning  of  the  year  there,  instead  of  the  25th  of  March. 

LAQOS-BA Y,  Portugal.  0£r  this  bay  was  fought  the  battle  between  admiral  Boacavren 
and  the  fVenoh  admiral  De  la  Clue,  who  lost  both  legs  in  the  engagement,  and  died 
next  day.  The  Oeutaur  and  Module,  two  capital  ships,  were  taken,  and  two  others 
the  lUdoubtabU  and  Oetav,  run  on  shore  and  burnt :  the  scattered  remains  of  the 
French  fleet  got  into  Cadis ;  August  18, 1759.    See  Naval  BattUt. 

B*B  2 


•LAO  372  LAN 

LAGOS,  IN  THE  BioHT  OP  Bknot.  Thia  place  wa»  gallantly  assaulted  and  taken  by 
tbe  boats  of  a  Btitish  squadron,  under  commodore  Bruce,  Dec  26  and  27, 1861 ;  the 
Penelope,  Bhodhowid,  Sampton,  and  Teazer  were  engaged ;  the  Teazar  grounded  on  a 
sand-bank  within  range  of  a  heavy  battery.  Of  400  British,  16  were  killed  and  71 
wounded  ;  the  force  of  the  enemy  was  estimated  at  between  ten  and  twenty  thouaand. 
Thia  afifair  arose  out  of  breaches  of  a  treaty  for  the  suppression  of  the  alave-trsde. 

LA  HOGUB,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  English  and  Dutch  combined  fleets,  under 
admirals  Russell  and  Rooke,  and  the  French  fleet  commanded  by  Admiral  Toarrilla. 
The  English  attacked  the  French  near  La  Hogue,  gaining  a  splendid  victoiy,  bumins 
thirteen  of  the  enemy's  ships,  destroying  eight  more,  forcing  the  rest  to  fly,  and  thus 
preventing  a  threatened  descent  upon  England,  May  19,  1692. 

LAKES  CHAMPLAIN,  ERIE,  and  ONTARIO.  These  lakes  were  the  scenes  of  many 
actions  between  the  BritiBh  and  Americans  in  the  War  of  Independence,  and  in  the  war 
of  1813-14.  The  latter  were  defeated  by  the  British  in  sevend  engagements ;  among 
others,  the  provincial  squadron  was  defeated  by  lord  Howe,  and  the  American  general 
Arnold  was  defeated  by  general  Carleton,  Oct.  11  and  13, 1776,  and  July  5, 1777. 
The  English  fleet  was  all  captured  or  destroyed  by  the  Americana  after  a  severe  actron, 
Sept.  11, 1813 ;  but  on  Lake  Ontario  the  British  at  this  period  fought  with  sac 


LAMBETH  PALACE.  A  considerable  portion  of  this  palace  was  built  in  the  12Ui 
and  13th  centuries,  by  Hubert  Walter,  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  ch^>el  was 
erected  in  1196. — Northouek.  The  tower  of  the  church  was  erected  about  1875; 
and  other  parts  of  the  edifice  in  the  15th  century.  Dr.  Sudbury,  archbtahop  of 
Canterbury,  was  barbarously  put  to  death  here  by  the  followers  of  Wat  Tyler,  who 
attacked  the  palace,  burnt  all  the  furniture  and  books,  and  destroyed  all  the  registera 
and  public  papers,  June  14,  1881.  Through  the  munificence  and  taste  of  the  late 
Dr.  Howley,  the  domestic  portion  of  the  ptdace  was  greatly  enlarged  ;  a  new  Qothie 
wing  of  considerable  beauty  having  been  constructed  from  designs  by  Mr.  Blore^  at 
an  expense  of  52,000^ — Leigh, 

LAMMAS-DAY.  The  first  of  August,  one  of  our  four  cross  quarter-days  of  the  year,  as 
they  are  now  denominated.  Whitsuntide  was  formerly  the  fint  of  these  quarten, 
Lammas  the  second,  Martinmss  the  third,  end  Candlemas  the  last ;  and  such  parti* 
tion  of  the  year  was  once  equally  common  with  the  present  divisions  of  Lady*<iay, 
Midsummer,  Michaelmas,  and  Christmas.  Some  rents  are  yet  payable  at  each  of 
these  quarterly  days  in  England,  and  very  generally  in  Scotland.  IiammsB  is  ao  named 
because  formerly  upon  that  day  our  ancestors  ofiered  bread  made  of  new  wheat ; 
and  anciently  those  tenants  that  held  lands  of  the  cathedral  church  of  Toik,  were  by 
tenure  to  bring  a  lamb  alive  into  tbe  church  at  high  mass. 

LAMPS.  See  Lanterns  Lamps  are  mentioned  in  sll  the  early  ages;  they  were  in  uae 
in  Egypt,  Oreeco,  and  Rome.  The  earthen  lamp  which  Epictetus  the  philosopher 
had  in  his  study,  sold  after  his  death,  for  3000  drachmas,  a.d.  161.  Lampa  with 
horn  sides  were  the  invention  of  Alfred.  Lamps  were  in  general  use  throng  the 
streets  of  London  up  to  the  close  of  the  18th  century,  as  were  flambeaux,  which  were 
carried  by  link-boys.  London  streets  were  first  lighted  by  oil  lunps  in  1631 ;  and 
with  gas  lamps  in  1814.  The  domestic  lamp  is  now  of  elegant  manufacture;  of  thia 
kind  ia  the  Argand-lamp,  brought  into  general  use  in  England  in  1785,  and  the  Oaroel 
or  Moderator  lamp,  within  the  last  few  years.  Sir  Humphrey  Davy*s  wire-gaose 
safety-lamp  was  perfected  in  1817,  after  various  previous  experiments.  The  invention 
of  it  was  for  giving  light  in  explosive  atmoapheres  :  in  the  working  models  sent  by 
him  to  the  mines  are  748  apertures  to  the  square  inch.    See  Safety  Lamp, 

LANCASTER.  The  castle  was  built  by  Agricola,  a.d.  124.  Ijanooster  was  granted  by 
William  L  or  II.  to  Roger  de  Poitou,  who  erected  a  castle  upon  its  hilL  Lancaster 
was  created  a  county  palatine  by  Edward  III.  in  favour  of  his  son  John  of  Qannt, 
who  had  married  the  daughter  of  Henry  duke  of  Lancaster,  in  1356.  The  court  of 
tbe  Duchy  Chamber  of  Lancaster  was  instituted  in  1356,  and  grew  oat  of  the  grant 
of  Edward  llL-^Qtoyn, 

L  ANC ASTERIAN  SCHOOLS.  On  a  system  of  education  by  means  of  mutual  instraolion 
propagated  by  Joseph  Lancaster  and  Dr.  Bell ;  they  were  not  much  patronised  till 
about  1808,  when  Lancaster's  system  attracted  general  attention,  notwithstanding 
the  prejudices  that  existed  against  the  founder,  who  had  been  labouring  to  introduce 
schools  upon  his  eoonomic  plan  from  1798.    They  became  general  in  1818,  and  Uiere 


LAN  373  LAN 

sre  now  some  hundreds  of  ihein  in  England,  and  in  London  more  than  forty.    They 
were  eztensiTely  instituted  in  Rueaia,  in  1819. 

LAND.  Was  let  generally  in  England  for  1».  per  acre,  36  Hen.  YIIL  1544.  The 
whole  rental  of  the  kingdom  was  about  6,000,000^  in  1600.  It  was  about  14,000.000^. 
in  1688.  In  1798  Mr.  Pitt  proposed  his  Income  Tax  of  10  per  cent,  on  an  estimate  of 
100  millions,  taking  the  rent  of  land  at  50  millions,  the  rent  of  houses  at  10  millions, 
and  the  profits  of  trade  at  40  millions ;  bub  in  this  estimate  were  exempted  much  land, 
and  the  inferior  claas  of  houses.  See  Income  Tax.  The  rental  of  the  United  Kingdom 
has  been  recently  estimated  in  parliament  at  127  millions,  but  authorities  vary.* 

LAND-TAX.  A  species  of  land-tax  was  exacted  in  England  in  the  tenth  century,  which 
produced  82,000/.  in  101^.  See  Danegelt,  A  land-tax  was  levied,  in  one  shape  or 
another,  at  various  periods.  The  tax  under  this  name  was  imposed,  2  Will.  &  Mary, 
1689-90.  There  was  a  tax  of  4«.  in  the  pound  in  1692.  From  the  Revolution  to  the 
year  1800,  the  laud-tax  had  yielded  227,000,000/.  Ministers  were  left  in  a  minority 
in  the  House  of  Commons  on  the  land-tax  bill  of  1 767 ;  it  being  the  first  instance  of 
the  kind  on  a  money  bill  since  the  Revolution.  Mr.  Pitt  introduced  his  plan  for  the 
redemption  of  the  land-tax,  April  2,  1798.  The  tax  in  1810  produced  1,418,837/.; 
it  produced  in  1820  the  sum  of  1,838,400/. ;  in  1830,  it  produced  1,423,618/. ;  in  1840, 
1,298,622/. ;  and  in  1850,  1,360,264/. 

LANDEN,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  allies  and  French,  in  which  William  IIL  of 
England  commanded.  Owing  chiefly  to  the  cowardice  of  the  Dutch  horse,  this 
bloody  battle  ended  in  favour  of  the  French,  who  were  commanded  by  marshal 
Luxembourg,  July  19,  1693.  The  duke  of  Berwick,  illegitimate  son  of  James  11. 
who  was  fighting  on  the  side  of  France,  was  taken  prisoner. 

LANDGRAVE.  This  title  is  from  land,  and  grave  a  count,  a  German  title  of  dominion, 
which  appears  to  have  commenced  in  the  eleventh  century ;  it  became  the  title  of  the 
house  of  Hesse-Cassel  about  the  year  1300 ;  and  the  rank  was  Bubaequdntly  assumed 
by  the  branches  of  Hesse- Homburg,  Hosse-Philipstol,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  by  other 
princes  of  the  empire.    See  Seue, 

LANG8IDE,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  forces  of  the  regent  of  Scotland,  the  earl  of 
Murray,  and  the  army  of  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  in  which  the  latter  suffered  a  complete 
defeat*  May  13,  1568.  Immediately  after  this  last  fatal  battle,  the  unfortunate  Mary 
fled  to  England.  She  crossed  the  Solway  Firth  from  the  abbey  of  Dundradon,  and 
landed  at  Workington,  in  Cumberland,  on  May  16.  Soon  afterwards  she  was 
imprisoned  by  Elizabeth. 

LANOUAGK  Language  must  either  have  been  revealed  originally  from  heaven,  or  it 
ia  the  fruit  of  hunlan  invention.  The  latter  opinion  is  embraced  by  Horace,  Lucretius, 
Cicero,  and  most  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers ;  the  former  opinion  by  the  great 
majority  of  the  Jews  and  Christians,  and  the  profoundest  philosophers  of  France  and 
England.  It  has  been  affirmed  that  Hebrew  was  the  language  spoken  by  Adam ;  but 
others  deny  this^  and  say  that  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and  Arabic  are  only  dialects  of 
the  original,  long  lost  aiid  unknown.  Pftammetious  the  Powerful,  desiring  to  know 
the  most  ancient  people  and  language  on  the  earth,  caused  two  children  to  be  kept 
from  all  knowledge  of  the  use  of  speech,  until  they  were  two  years  old ;  they  were 
then  brought  into  his  presence,  and  they  both  pronounced  the  sound  beecoa,  the  Phos- 
nician  term  for  bread.  He  therefore  gave  the  Phoenician  the  precedence,  in  point  of 
antiquity,  to  all  other  nations,  647  B.a — HerodotM, 

LANGUAGES.    Of  the  Hebrew,  the  Chaldee  and  Syriao  are  dialects.     The  original 

*  The  experiment  tried  by  a  patriotic  and  benevolent  nobleman,  lord  Braybrooke,  in  Essex,  of 
nllottlDg  mnall  portions  of  laud  to  poor  fiimilics,  with  a  view  to  assist  their  iudimtry  and  relieve  parishes 
of  the  burden  of  poor  rates,  was  very  succoaafully  adouted  in  1819 ;  when  the  parish  officers  took  a 
|iieoe  of  land  oomosting  of  twelve  acres,  which  they  divided  into  twenty  equal  parts,  and  sub-let  to  as 
many  poor  villagers  receivinff  parochial  relief,  at  a  rent  of  2«.  a  week  each.  The  selection  was  made  of 
liaupers  of  good  character,  with  the  largest  families ;  and  fifteen  or  sixteen  of  them  were  enabled  in  a 
few  years  to  buUd  cottages  by  their  own  exertions,  aided  by  benevolent  persons  who  had  marked  their 
orderiy  conduct  and  efforts  to  become  independent.  By  the  cidture  of  finiit  and  vtsotables  for  the 
market,  many  of  them  realised  2(M.  a  year ;  most  became  owners  of  cows  and  pig^s.  audC  in  the  end,  all 
of  them  had  comfortable  homes ;  while  their  children,  instead  of  boinjf  abandoned  to  ignorance,  and 
perhaps  crime,  were  morally  benefited  by  the  improved  condition  of  they*  parents.  This  little  colonv, 
whose  locality  was  first  called  Pauper  Garden*,  but  afterwards  New  Villagt,  lost  the  former  name  should 
hurt  the  feelings  of  the  tenants,  or  check  their  spirit  of  independence,  was  planted  on  the  road  nonr  the 
entranoe  of  the  town,  and  it  is  calculated  that  2001.  per  annum  were  saved  to  the  |>arish  by  a  system 
which,  from  such  happy  and  prosperous  results  in  this  instance,  inviten  a  more  extensivo  and  gezieral 
adoption. 


LAN  874  LAT 

European  ones  were  thirteen,  viz. :  Greek,  Latin,  Dutch,  Sclavonian,  qwken  in  the 
east ;  Welsh,  Biscayan,  spoken  in  Spain ;  Irish,  Albanian,  in  the  mountains  of  Epinu ; 
Tartarian,  the  old  lllyrian,  the  Jazygian,  remaining  yet  in  Libumia ;  the  Cbaucin,  in 
the  north  of  Hungary;  and  the  Finnic  in  East  Friesland.  Arabic  is  the  mother 
tongue  of  Afi-ica.  From  the  Latin  sprang  the  Italian,  French, and  Spanish;  and  from 
the  Spanish  the  Portuguese.  The  Turkish  is  a  mixed  dialect  of  the  Tartarian. 
From  the  High  Dutch,  or  Teutonic,  sprang  the  present  German,  the  Danish,  Swedish, 
Norwegian,  English,  Scotch,  fto.  There  are  8664  known  languages  in  the  world.  Of 
these,  937  are  Asiatic ;  587  European ;  276  African ;  and  1624  Americm  languages 
and  dialects. — PvoJumt  Adelu^g. 

LANGUAGES,  PROFESSORS  of.  Regius  professors  of  modem  languages  and  of 
history  were  appointed  to  each  of  the  universities  of  England  (a  department  which 
htkd  been  previously  most  strangely  and  imprudently  overlooked,  although  such 
professors  had  been  long  before  appointed  in  all  other  universities  of  Europe)  by 
George  I.  in  1724 ;  and  George  II.  in  1736.  The  professorships  of  modem  languages 
are  now  general  in  all  our  collegiate  institutions. 

LANTERNS.  In  general  use  from  a  very  early  date.  Those  of  scraped  horn  were 
invt>nted  in  England,  it  is  said,  by  Alfred,  and  it  is  supposed  that  horn  was  used  for 
window-lights  also,  as  glass  was  not  known  in  Alfred's  reign,  a.d.  872-901. — Slvwa 
Chron.  London  was  lighted  by  suspended  lanterns,  with  glass  sides,  a.d.  1415.  The 
pellucid  laminss  of  the  ox  horn  has  served  for  ages  for  the  sides  of  lanterns  instead 
of  glass,  and  for  many  uses  are  preferred.    See  article  Lamps, 

LAOCOON.  This  exquisite  work  of  art,  executed  in  marble,  one  of  the  triumphs  of 
Grecian  sculpture,  was  modelled  by  Agesander,  Athenodorus,  and  PoUdorua,  all  of 
Rhodes,  and  of  great  eminenoe  as  statuaries ;  it  represents  the  death  of  the  Trojan 
hero,  Laocoon,  priest  of  Neptune,  and  his  two  sons,  as  described  by  Virgil,  ^oeis, 
book  II.  It  was  discovered  in  1506  in  the  Sette  Sale  near  Rome,  and  purchased  by 
pope  Julius  II.     It  is  now  in  the  Vatican. 

LAON,  BATTLE  of,  in  France.  Between  the  allies,  chiefly  the  Prussian  army,  and 
the  French.  Tbis  battle,  or  rather  succession  of  actions,  was  fought  under  the  walls 
of  the  town,  and  ended,  after  a  sanguinary  and  obstinate  contest,  in  the  defeat  of  the 
latter  with  great  loss,  March  9, 1814. 

LA  PEROUSE*S  VOYAGE.  It  was  commenced  in  1785,  when  Peronse  sailed  from 
France  for  the  Pacific,  with  the  B<m$»ole  and  Attrolahe  under  his  command.  The  last 
direct  intelligence  received  from  him  was  from  Botany  Bay,  in  March,  1788.  Several 
expeditions  were  subsequently  despatched  in  search  of  Perouse,  but  no  certain  infor- 
mation was  had  until  captain  Dillon,  of  the  East  India  ship  JUMorch^  ascertained  that 
the  French  ships  had  been  cast  away  on  two  different  islands  of  the  New  Hebrides — 
a  fate  authenticated  by  various  articles  of  the  wreck  of  the  vessels,  which  captain 
Dillon  brought  with  him  to  Calcutta,  April  9,  1828,  40  years  afterwards. 

LA  ROTHIERE,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  French,  commanded  by  Napoleon,  and 
the  Prussian  and  Russian  armies,  which  were  defeated  after  a  desperate  engagement^ 
with  the  loss  of  some  thousands  slain,  8000  prisoners,  and  80  pieces  of  cannon,  Feb.  1, 
1 814.    This  was  one  of  the  last  victories  which  Napoleon  achieved. 

LATERAN,  COUNCILS  of  the.  They  were  held  in  the  Basilica  of  the  Lateran  at 
Rome.  Of  these  councils  there  were  five :  by  the  first,  the  right  of  investitures  was 
settled  between  pope  Calixtus  II.  and  the  emperor  Henry  V.  1122;  by  the  seccmd 
council  was  secured  the  temporalities  of  ecclesiastics,  1 1 89 ;  the  third  was  to  denonnoe 
schismatics,  1179;  the  fourth,  on  church  affairs,  attended  by  400  bishops  and  1000 
abbots ;  and  the  fifth  was  the  famous  council  of  Julius  II.  1512. 

LATHE.  An  instrument  or  engine  for  turning  ivory,  wood,  iron,  and  other  substanees, 
BO  as  to  shape  them  to  the  views  of  the  artist,  was  originally  an  instrument  of  rode 
constraction,  invented  by  Talus,  a  grandson  of  D»dalus,  about  1240  B.a  Pliny 
ascribes  the  invention  to  Theodore  of  Samos.  Modem  lathe  engines  frequently  coat 
many  thousands  of  pounds. 

LATIN  LANGUAGE  One  of  the  thu-teen  original  languages  of  Europe,  and  from 
which  sprang  the  Italian,  French,  and  Spanish.  It  U  named  after  the  Utini,  and  the 
Latmi  from  Latmus,  their  king.  A  vast  portion  of  our  most  beautiful  and  expr«aBive 
words  are  derived  from  the  Latin.  It  ceased  to  be  spoken  in  Italy  about  a.d.  581 : 
and  was  first  taught  in  England  by  Adelmus,  brother  of  Ina,  in  the  seventh  century. 


LAT  875  LAV 

Daring  six  or  MYen  hundred  yeMs  the  Latin  tongue  prevailed  in  all  public  proceedings 
from  the  Tweed  to  the  Euphrates,  and  from  the  Danube  to  Mount  Atlafi,  and  has 
been  more  or  less  retained  even  to  Uiis  day.  In  England  it  was  ordered  to  be  dis- 
continued in  conveyancing,  and  in  courti  of  law,  in  1731. 

LATITAT.  The  writ  by  which  persons  are  usually  called  to  the  King's  Bench  court; 
and  it  has  this  name  from  its  being  supposed  tbat  the  defendant  is  lurking,  or  lying 
hid,  and  cannot  be  found  in  the  county  to  be  taken  by  bill,  and  the  writ  is  directed 
to  the  sheriff  to  apprehend  him.  This  process  of  law  is  of  old  and  undefined  date. — 
OmeeL  The  writ  was  abolished  in  England,  in  all  actions  where  it  is  not  intended  to 
hold  the  defendant  to  special  bail,  by  the  Uniformity  of  Process  act,  2  Will.  IV. 
cap.  89,  passed  May  28, 1832. 

IiATITUDR  First  determined  by  Hipparchus  of  Nice,  about  170  B.o.  It  is  the  extent 
of  the  earth,  or  of  the  heavens,  reckoned  from  the  equator  to  either  pole.  Maupertuis, 
in  latitude  66*20,  measured  a  degree  of  latitude,  and  made  it  69*498 ;  he  measured  it 
in  1 787.  S  wanberg,  in  1 803,  made  it  69*292.  At  the  equator,  in  1 744,  four  astronomers 
made  it  68*732;  and  Lambton,  in  latitude  12,  made  it  61*743.  Mudge,  in  England, 
made  it  69*148.  Gassini,  in  France,  in  1718  and  1740,  made  it  69*12 ;  and  Biot,  65*769; 
while  a  recent  measure  in  Spain  makes  it  but  68*63 — less  than  at  the  equator,  and  con- 
tradicts all  others,  proving  the  earth  to  be  a  prolate  spheroid,  which  watt  the  opinion 
of  Cassini,  Bernoulli,  Euler,  and  others,  while  it  has  more  generally  been  regarded  as 
an  oblate  spheroid. 

LATIUM.  Now  the  city  of  Romania ;  built  by  Latinus,  king  of  Janiculum,  who  gave  his 
name  to  the  country,  calling  his  subjects  Latins,  904  B.C.  Laurentum  was  the  capital 
of  the  country  in  the  reign  of  Latiniis,  Lavinium  imder  ^neas,  and  Alba  under 
Ascanius.  The  Latins,  though  ori^nally  known  only  among  their  neighbours,  soon 
rose  in  rank  when  Romulus  had  founded  the  city  of  Rome  in  their  country. 

LATTEfrDAT  SAINTa    See  MoranmiUg. 

LAUREATE.  The  precise  date  of  this  office  cannot  be  traced. — Sdden.  There  existed 
the  king^s  versifier  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  1251,  when  we  have  the  first  record  of 
him,  with  the  annual  stipend  of  100  shillings. —  Watioru  In  Edward  the  IVth's  time, 
the  king's  poet  was  first  so  called,  and  the  laureate  still  continues  to  be  the  title  of 
hia  successors. — Pope.  It  is  said  that  the  office  of  laureate  exists  in  England  alone. 
The  abolition  of  it  was  strenuously  recommended  by  Gibbon.    See  Poet  Laureate, 

LAUREL.  It  was  sacred  to  Apollo,  and  from  the  earliest  times  the  poets  and  generals 
of  armies,  when  victors,  were  crowned  with  laurel.  Apollo  being  the  god  of  poetry, 
led  to  its  use  among  the  poets ;  and  the  Roman  victors  sent  home  their  accounts  of 
successful  enterprises  to  the  senate,  wrapped  up  in  the  leaves  of  this  tree.  Petrarch 
was  crowned  with  laurel,  April  8,  1341.  The  laurel  called  Prunua  lauroeerasm  was 
brought  to  Britain  from  the  Levant,  before  a.d.  1529.  The  Portugal  laurel  was 
brought  from  that  country,  and  is  known  as  the  Prunus  lutitanica,  before  164S.  The 
royal  bay,  Latwut  indica,  was  brought  from  Madeira,  in  1665.  The  Alexandrian 
laurel,  Bmcub  racemoauSf  was  brought  from  Spain  before  1713.  The  glaucous  laurel, 
Launu  aggreffota,  was  brought  hither  from  China,  in  1806. 

Ij  AURENTALIA.  These  were  festivals  celebrated  at  Rome  in  honour  of  Acca  Laurentia. 
They  commenced  about  621  B.O.,  and  were  held  on  the  laat  day  of  April  and  the 
23rd  of  December.  They  in  process  of  time  extended  to  other  places,  and  ultimately 
they  formed  part  of  the  Saturnalia. — Ovid. 

LAURESTINB,  ViAumum  Timu.  The  evergreen  shrub  which  blooms  about  Michaelmas, 
and  holds  its  flowers  and  foliage  through  the  winter.  It  was  brought  to  England  from 
the  south  of  Europe,  before  1596.  There  are  other  varieties  of  this  shrub,  which  is 
now  a  fi&vourite  culture  in  these  countries. 

LAYALETTE'S  ESCAPE.  Count  Lavalette's  escape  from  prison  in  France  affords  a 
striking  instance  and  memorable  record  of  British  humanity  and  courage.  Ue  was 
condemned  at  Paris  for  high  treason,  but  escaped  from  prison  in  the  clothes  of  his 
wife :  their  dresses  being  changed  on  the  eve  of  the  execution,  during  an  interview 
afforded  them  for  a  last  farewell,  Dec.  20,  1815.  In  this  generous  enterprise  three 
Britons  assisted,  sir  Robert  Wilson,  Michael  Bruce,  esq.,  and  captain  J.  H.  Hutchinson, 
who  were  convicted  of  aiding  the  escape,  and  sentenced  to  three  months'  imprisonment 
in  the  French  capital,  April  24,  1816.  These  gentlemen  procured  for  Lavalette  the 
uniform  of  a  general  officer  in  the  British  service ;  he  then  got  into  a  cabriolet  with 


LAV  876  LAY 

air  Kobert  Wilson,  passed  the  barriers  without  being  recognised,  and  arrived  at  Kona, 
where  his  generous  guide  took  leave  of  him.  He  then  took  the  road  to  Munich^ 
where  he  found  an  asylum  among  powerful  friends. 

LA  VENDEE,  WAR  op.  The  French  Royalists  of  La  Vendee  took  to  arms,  and  were 
successful  in  a  number  of  hard-fought  battles  with  the  Republican  armies,  betweea 
July  12,  1793,  and  Jan.  1,  1794,  when  they  experienced  a  severe  reverse.  Numerooa 
other  engagements  were  fought,  with  various  success,  until  this  war  terminated, 
Jan.  10,  1800. 

LAVENDER,  Lavandula  tpica.    Brought  from  the  south  of  Europe,  before  156S. 

LAW  AMENDMENT  SOCIETY,  was  founded  in  184S.  It  holds  meetings  during  the 
session  of  Parliament,  and  publishes  a  journal  and  reports.  Its  present  chainnaa  ia 
Lord  Brougham,  1857. 

LAW'S  BUBBLE.  The  most  ruinous  speculation  of  modem  timea.  The  projector, 
John  Law,  of  Edinburgh,  raised  himself  to  the  dignity  of  oomptroller-genend  of  the 
finances  of  France,  upon  the  strength  of  a  scheme  for  establishing  a  bank,  and  an  East 
India  and  a  Mississippi  company,  by  the  profits  of  which  the  national  debt  of  Frmnoa 
was  to  be  paid  o£  He  first  offered  his  plan  to  Victor  Amadous,  king  of  Sardinia, 
who  told  him  ho  was  not  powerful  enough  to  ruin  himselfl  The  French  ministry 
accepted  it  in  1710;  and  in  1716,  he  opened  a  bank  in  his  own  name,  under  the 
protection  of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  regent  of  France ;  and  most  of  the  people  of 
property  of  every  rank  in  that  kingdom,  seduced  by  the  prospect  of  immense  gain% 
subscribed  for  shares  both  in  the  bank  and  the  companies.  In  1718,  Law*s  was 
declared  a  royal  bank,  and  the  shares  rose  to  upwards  of  twenty-fold  the  original 
value,  BO  that,  in  1719,  they  were  worth  more  than  eighty  times  the  amount  of  all 
the  current  specie  in  France.  But  the  following  year  this  great  fabric  of  false  credit 
fell  to  the  ground,  and  almost  overthrew  the  French  government,  ruining  tens  of 
thousands  of  families.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  same  desperate  game  was  played  bj 
the  South  Sea  Directors  in  England,  in  the  same  fatal  year,  1720. 

LAWS,  ANCIENT.  The  laws  of  Phoroneus,  in  the  kingdom  of  Argos,  1807  B.a,  wers 
the  first  Attic  laws,  reduced  to  a  system  by  Draco,  for  the  Athenians,  623  B.C,  bat 
the  latter  code  was  afterwards  superseded  by  that  of  Solon,  678  B.O.  The  Spartan 
laws  of  Lycurgus  were  made  844  b.c.  ;  they  remained  in  full  force  for  700  yean,  and 
are  calculated  to  raise  our  admiration,  as  well  by  their  singularity,  as  by  the  eflect 
they  had  in  forming  a  race  of  men  totally  different  from  all  others  living  in  civilised 
society.  The  Roman  laws  were  founded  on  those  of  Phoroneus.  The  Gregorian  and 
Hermoginian  codes  were  published  in  a.d.  290.  The  Theodosian  code,  in  435.  The 
Justinian  code,  in  529,  and  the  Digest,  in  538. — Blair.    See  Civil  Law. 

LAWS,  BRITISH  The  British  laws  of  earliest  date  were  translated  into  the  Saxon,  in 
▲.D.  590.  The  Saxon  Laws  of  Ina  were  published  in  709.  Alfred's  code  of  laws, 
which  is  the  foundation  of  the  common  law  of  England,  was  compiled  in  887i  but  in  use 
previously.  Edward  the  Confessor  promulgated  his  laws,  in  1065.  Stephen's  charter 
of  general  liberties,  1186 ;  Henry  II's  confirmation  of  it,  1164  and  1175.  The  mari- 
time laws  of  Richard  I.  1194.  See  article  OUron.  Magna  Charta,  by  king  John,  1215. 
Its  confirmation  by  Henry  IIL  121Q  et  teq.  See  Magfui  Charta,  and  FaruU,  Charier 
of  the.  Celebrated  declaration  made  by  the  lord  chief  justice  of  the  king^a  bench, 
"  That  no  fiction  of  law  shall  ever  so  far  prevail  against  the  real  truth  of  the  £uBk»  as 
to  prevent  the  execution  of  justice,"  May  21,  1784. — Lord  Man^/Uld. 

LAWYERS.  The  pleaders  of  the  bar,  called  barristers,  are  said  to  have  been  fint 
appointed  by  Edward  I.,  or  in  his  reign,  1291.  Serjeants,  the  highest  memben  of 
the  bar,  were  alone  permitted  to  plead  in  the  court  of  Common  Pleas.  The  first  king's 
counsel  under  the  degree  of  seijeant  was  sir  Francis  Bacon,  in  1604.  There  are  about 
1200  barristers  in  England;  and  the  number  of  lawyers  in  England  and  Wales, 
counting  London  and  country  attorneys,  solicitors,  &c.,  is  about  1 4,000.  The  Law 
Association  charity  was  founded  in  1817.  The  Law  Institution  was  formed  in  1825 ; 
and  obtained  a  charter.  Feb.  16.  1827;  the  building,  from  the  designs  of  Vulltamy, 
was  commenced  in  1829.    See  Barristers,  Counsel,  and  the  several  Courto  of  Law. 

LAY  BACH,  CONGRESS  of.  This  congress  was  attended  for  some  time  by  the  80ve> 
reigns  of  Austria.  Russia,  and  Prussia,  and  finally  broke  up  after  having  issued  two 
circulars,  stating  it  to  be  their  resolution  to  occupy  Naples  with  Austrian  troopo^  and 
proscribing  popular  msurrections.  May  6,  1821. 


LAY  877  LEG 

LAYER'S  CONSPIKACV.  Mr.  Layer,  a  barrister,  conBpired  with  a  number  of  other 
persons  to  seize  George  I.,  the  prince  of  Wales,  lord  Cadogan,  and  most  of  the  prin- 
cipal officers  of  state,  to  take  the  Tower  by  surprise,  to  plunder  the  Bonk,  and  finally 
to  bring  in  the  Pretender.    He  was  hanged,  March  17,  1722. 

LEAD.  Is  found  in  Yarioas  countnes,  and  is  abundant  in  yarious  parts  of  Britain,  and  in 
some  places  richly  mixed  with  silver  ore.  The  famous  Clydesdale  mines  were  dis- 
covered in  1513.  The  lead-mines  of  Cumberland  and  Derbyshire  yield  about  15,000 
tons  per  annum.  The  finest  sort  of  black-lead,  that  most  fit  for  pencils,  is  produced 
only  at  Borrowdale,  but  there  in  great  quantities.  Leaden  pipes  for  the  conveyance 
of  water  were  brought  into  use  in  1236. 

LEAGUES,  POLITICAL  and  RELIGIOUa  The  League  of  the  Public  Good  was  one 
between  the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  Brittany,  and  Bourbon,  and  other  princes,  against 
Louis  XI.  of  France,  in  1464.  The  League  of  Cambray  was  entered  into  in  1508. 
The  Holy  League  against  Louis  XIL,  1510.  The  League  of  Smaloald,  1529.  The 
League  of  the  Beggars  (the  Protestants  so  called,  though  Roman  Catholics  joined  the 
league)  to  oppose  the  institution  of  the  Inquisition  in  Flanders,  1560.  The  League, 
so  denominated  by  way  of  eminence,  to  prevent  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  of 
France,  who  was  tben  of  the  reformed  religion,  was  commenced  in  1576.  The  League 
of  Wurtzburg,  1610.  League  against  the  Emperor,  1626.  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant  in  Scotland,  against  the  episcopal  government  of  the  Church,  and  the  regal 
authority,  13  Charles  L,  1638.    Lei^pue  of  Augsburg,  1686. 

LEAP-YEAR,  ob  BISSEXTILE.  The  Leap-year  originated  with  the  astronomers  of 
Julius  Csesar,  45  B.o.  They  fixed  the  solar  year  at  365  days,  6  hoursi  comprising,  as 
they  thought,  the  period  from  one  vernal  equinox  to  another;  the  six  hours  were 
set  aside,  and  at  the  end  of  four  years,  forming  a  day,  the  fourth  year  was  made  to 
consist  of  366  days.  The  day  thus  added  wss  called  intercalary,  and  was  placed  a  day 
before  the  24th  of  February,  the  sixth  of  the  calends,  which  was  reckoned  twice,  hence 
called  biuextiU  or  tvtice  sixth.  This  added  day  with  us  is  Feb.  29th.  See  CcUendar, 
The  difference  between  365  days  6  hours,  and  865  days  5  hours,  48  minutes,  51 
seconds,  and  6  decimals,  which  last  is  the  true  length  of  the  astronomical  year,  in  the 
course  of  years  caused  1700  and  1800  not  to  be  leap-years,  nor  will  1900  be  a  leap- 
year  {vide  act  24  Qeo.  II.  c.  23,  passed  1751) ;  but  the  year  2000  will  be  one.  See 
Julian  Year,  Gregorian  Calendar,  &c. 

LEARNING  and  the  ARTS.  These  were  carried  to  their  height  among  the  Greeks 
during  the  fourth  century  b.c.  ;  and  with  the  Romans  at  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era.  On  the  death  of  Augustus  they  declined,  until  the  refugees  from 
Greece  caused  them  to  revive  in  Italy,  about  a.d.  1250.  LearuiDg  had  been  found  so 
to  obstruct  the  tyranny  of  the  emperors,  that  mathematicians  and  philosophers  were 
by  several  decrees  banished  from  Rome,  a.d.  16,  and  89,  et  uq.  After  the  dark  nges, 
came  Brunetto,  Latini,  and  numerous  enlightened  men ;  and  Leo  X.,  about  1518, 
gave  vast  encouragement  to  literature  and  the  arts.  The  illustrious  Medici  family  (see 
Medici  Family)  greatly  promoted  learning  in  Italy,  about  1550. — Fontana.  And  about 
this  time  literature  began  to  flourish  in  France,  Germany,  and  England.  The  reign 
of  Anne  has  been  called  by  some  our  **  golden,"  by  others  our  "  Augustan  age  "  of 
literature ;  it  produced  many  of  our  greatest  and  most  learned  men. 

LEASE.  This  kind  of  conveyance  was  invented  by  seijeant  Moore,  soon  after  the 
Staiuteof  Uses,  which  law  was  enacted  27  Hen.  VII L,  1535.  A  question  at  law, 
which  had  been  held  doubtful  by  the  lawyers  for  200  years,  was  determined  by  the 
Court  of  King's  Bench,  who  agreed  that  the  words  in  a  lease,  of  and' from  the  date, 
and  from  the  date,  had  the  same  meaning,  Nov.  21, 1777. — Phillips, 

LEATHER.  It  was  very  early  known  in  Egypt  and  Greece,  and  the  thongs  of  manu- 
factured hides  were  used  for  ropes,  harness,  &c.,  by  all  ancient  nations.  The  Gordian 
knot  was  made  of  leather  thongs,  330  B.C.  The  ancients  understood  the  art  of 
tanning  leather,  and  it  was  practised  early  in  England,  and  great  improvements  made 
in  it  up  to  1795.  Leather  is  converted^nto  many  uses :  a  leathern  cannon  was 
proved  at  Edinburgh,  fired  three  times,  and  found  to  answer,  Oct.  23,  1778. — Phillips. 
The  duty  on  leather  produced  annually  in  England,  450,000/^,  and  in  Ireland,  about 
50,000^    It  was  abolished  in  both  countries.  May  29,  1830. 

LECTURES.  Those  on  physic  were  instituted  by  Dr.  Thomas  Linacre,  the  projector  of 
the  College  of  Physicians  (founded  by  Henry  YIII.)  about  l502.^Fieind's  ffisL  of 
J^hysie.    Medical  and  other  lectures  became  general  in  private  theatres,  in  different 


LEB  878  LSI 

parU  of  the  reftim  shortly  after,  and  are  now  held  in  the  theaftrai  <tt  mest  ef  the 
haepitala  and  medical  schoola.  Clinical  lectures  or  diaconraea  made  bj  the  bed-aide 
of  the  patient^  combining  practice  with  the  theory  of  phjaic,  were  eommcneed  about 
the  same  period,  and  haye  materially  adTaooed  this  bnnch  of  human  ksovladge. 
Moral,  divinity,  and  other  lectures  have  since  become  general  in  oollegea,  ^luchca, 
and  pablio  halls.  See  Greaham  ColUge,  BoyUs  LtUmru,  Rujfol  and  Lvmd4m  Imalitmiiamg, 
&C.  Among  the  most  remarkable  political  lectures  were  those  of  the  eelebf«ted 
Thelwall,  which  were  commenced  in  January,  1795.  See  J%dwaiL  The  lectoras  of 
Mr.  Thelwall  continued  to  draw  prodigious  audiences^  till  they  were  iaterdkied  by 
an  act  of  parliament,  passed  avowedly  for  the  purpose. — PhUUpt, 

LEEKS.  The  Welsh  emblem  of  the  leek  is  in  oonseqnenoe  of  a  command  from  Dewi»  or 
David,  after vrarJs  canonised  archblahop  of  St.  David's,  in  the  year  519.  This  prelate 
on  the  day  that  king  Arthur  won  a  great  victory  over  the  Saxons,  ordered  every  ooe 
of  hii  soldiers  to  place  a  leek  in  his  cap,  for  the  sake  of  dLitioction ;  in  metaory  of 
which  the  WeUh  wear  the  leek  on  the  Ist  of  March. 


LEOACIEa  The  bequeats  or  gifts  made  by  a  last  will  and  testament,  vrere  taxed  by 
parliament  in  17^0.  The  impost  was  increased  several  times  subsequently,  parti- 
cularly in  1796,  1805,  and  1808.  The  revenue  derived  from  it  varies  eonaiderably  in 
amount  in  consecutive  years ;  but  it  may  be  said  to  average  about  one  and  a  half  to 
two  millions  annually.    See  Sueceuitm  JJmtjf  AcL 

LEGATE,  COURT  op  the.  This  was  an  ecclesiastical  court  in  England.  It  iras  erected 
by  cardinal  Wolsey,  to  prove  wills  and  other  testamentary  documents,  aad  fur  the 
trial  of  offeuoes  against  the  spiritual  laws,  founded  8  Hen.  VilL  1516i. — Lam  Vict, 
It  wan  discontinued  in  the  same  reign. 

LEGHORN.    X^ronu).    This  city  suffered  dreadfully  by  an  earthquake  in  174L     It 
entered  by  the  French  army  in  the  revolutionary  war,  July  27, 1796,  but  the  ii 
amount  of  British  property  then  there  had  been  previously  removed.     Leghorn 
evacuated  by  tbe  French  in  1799,  and  was  retaken  the  following  year.     U  was 
cessfully  attacked  by  the  British  and  Italian  allied  forces  in  Dee.  1813.  The 
attacked  and  took  this  city  iu  the  late  war,  May  12  and  18, 1849.  A  alight  insorrectioo 
here  was  quelled  Ju'y,  1857. 

LEGION.  The  Legio  was  a  corps  of  soldiers  in  the  Roman  armies,  and  was  first  formed 
by  Romulus,  under  whom  it  consisted  of  8000  foot,  and  800  horse,  about  750  B.C. 
When  Hannibal  was  in  Italy,  216  B.c.,  the  legion  consiisted  of  5000  soldiera;  and 
under  Marius,  in  88  B.C.,  it  was  6200  soldiers,  besides  700  horses.  There  were  ten, 
and  sometimes  ss  many  as  eighteen,  legions  kept  at  Rome.  Augustus  maintained 
a  standing  army  of  twenty-five  legions,  about  5  B.O. ;  and  the  peace  establishment  of 
Adrian  was  thirty  of  these  formidable  brigades.  The  peace  of  Britain  wan  protected 
by  three  legions.  A  legion  wss  divided  into  10  cohorts,  and  eveiy  oohett  into 
6  centuries,  with  a  vezillum,  or  standard,  guarded  by  10  men. 

LEGION  OP  HONOUR.  An  order  in  France,  embracing  all  distincttona  in  the  army,  and 
including  in  its  incorporation  dril  officers,  and  all  such  individuals  as  have  eminently 
distinguished  themselves  for  services  to  the  state,  military  deeds,  and  for  psblic 
virtue;  instituted  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  when  First  Consul,  May  18,  1802.  On 
the  restoration  of  the  Bourbon  family,  Louis  XYIII.  confirmed  this  order,  in  April, 
1814.  Tbe  honour  was  conferred  on  many  British  subjeota  connected  with  the  Paris 
Exhibition  in  1855,  and  on  others  who  diatinguiahed  themselves  in  tbe  i*"^f«" 
war,  1854-6. 

LEIGHLIN,  SEE  ov.  Founded  by  St.  Laserian,  about  a.d.  628.  Burchard,  the  Koc^ 
wegian,  tho  son  of  Garmond,  founded  or  endowed  the  priory  of  St.  Stephen  of  Leighhn. 
Bishop  Doran,  a  worthy  prelate^  appointed  in  1528,  was  murdered  by  his  archdeacon^ 
Maurice  Cavenagh,  who  was  hanged  for  the  crime  on  the  spot  where  he  had  committed 
the  murder.-" ^eotfon.  In  1600  Leigh lin  was  united  to  Ferns;  the  combined  see 
united  to  Ossory,  in  1885.    See  Fenu^  and  Bishopt, 

LEINSTER  One  of  the  four  province!  of  Ireland,  ecolesiaatically  divided  by  pope 
£u|enius  III.,  at  a  national  synod,  beld  at  Kelle,  March  9,  1151-2,  and  in  which  his 
hoUnesa  was  represented  by  cardinal  Paparo.  This  cardinal  at  the  same  time  con- 
stituted the  four  archbii«hoprioa.  Tbe  province  of  Leinster  gave  the  title  of  duke  to 
Schomberg's  son,  in  1690 ;  the  title  became  extinct  in  1719 ;  and  it  was  oonfwred  on 
the  family  of  Fits^rald  in  1766. 

LEIPSIC.    Famous  fur  its  university  and  its  fair.    Here  Qustavus  Adolphus,  ki^g  of 


LEI  879  LEV 

Sweden,  defeated  the  loiperialiats,  Sept.  7,  1631.  TUe  siege  of  Xjeipuc  was  siutained 
in  1637.  Leipeic  was  taken  by  the  Prussian  army,  1756.  In  the  same  year,  the 
Austriana  laid  siege  to  Leipsio  in  vain,  but  they  took  it  two  years  afterwards,  though 
they  did  not  retain  it  long.  In  the  late  wars  it  has  frequently  fallen  into  adverse 
bands.    See  next  cu'ticU. 

LEIPSIC,  BATTLE  op.  One  of  the  greatest^  most  sanguinary,  and  decisive  of  modem 
times,  between  the  French  army,  commanded  by  Napoleon,  on  the  one  side,  and  the 
Austrian,  Russian,  and  Prussian  armies  on  the  other;  the  former  160,000,  aid  the 
latter  240,000  strong.  This  great  battle  was  lost  by  the  French,  chiefly  owing  to 
17  G(erman  battalions,  their  Saxon  allies,  turning  upon  them  in  the  heat  of  the 
engagement  80,000  men  perished  in  the  field,  of  whom  more  than  40,000  were 
French,  who  also  lost  65  pieces  of  artillery,  and  many  standards.  The  victory  of 
the  allies  was  followed  by  the  capture,  next  day,  of  Leipsio,  and  of  the  rear-guard  of 
the  French  army.  The  king  of  Saxony  and  bis  family  were  also  made  prisoners ; 
and  the  emperors  of  Austria  and  Ru«iia,  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  crown  prince  of 
Sweden,  entered  Leipsio  immediately  after  the  battle,  Oct.  16  and  18,  1813. 

LE MURES.  The  manes  of  the  dead.  The  ancients  supposed  that  the  soul,  after  death, 
wandered  all  over  the  world,  and  disturbed  the  peace  of  the  living.  The  good  spirits 
were  called  Larea  familiures,  and  the  eril  spirits,  Lemuret ;  they  terrified  the  good, 
and  haunted  the  wicked,  and  the  Romans  celebrated  festivals  in  their  honour,  called 
L^mumlia,  in  the  month  of  May;  instituted  by  Romulas  about  747  B.o. — Horace. 

XiENT.  The  quadragesimal  £ut  observed  in  the  Roman  Catholic  CUuroh,  from  Ash- 
Wednesday  to  Easter-day,  and  supposed  to  be  of  apostolic  institution.  The  primitive 
Christians  did  not  commence  their  Lent  until  the  Sunday  which  is  now  called  the  first 
Sunday  of  Lent ;  and  the  four  days  beginning  with  Ash-Wednesday  were  added  by 
pope  Felix  III.,  in  the  year  487,  in  order  that  the  number  of  faating  days  should 
amount  to  forty.  Lent  was  first  observed  in  England  by  command  of  Ercombert, 
king  of  Kent,  in  640  or  641. — Baker's  CJiron.  Flesh  was  prohibited  early  during 
Lieut ;  but  Henry  Y III.  permitted  the  use  of  white  meats  by  proclamation  in  1543,  and 
it  continued  in  force  until,  by  proclamations  of  James  I.  in  1619  and  1625,  and  by 
Charles  I.  in  1627  and  1631,  flesh  was  again  wholly  forbidden.    See  Quadragesima. 

L.EPA  ^TO,  BATTLE  of.  The  great  naval  engagement  between  the  combined  fleets  of 
Spain,  Venice,  and  Pius  V.,  and  the  whole  maritime  force  of  the  Turks.  Don  John 
of  Austria  commanded  the  Christian  fleet,  which  consisted  of  206  galleys,  and  30,000 
men,  while  the  Turks  had  250  galleys,  of  which,  after  a  dreadful  conflict,  they  saved 
but  100,  losing  30,000  men  in  killed  and  prisoners;  and  thus  was  prostrated  for  a 
tune  the  naval  power  of  Turkey,  Oct.  7,  1571. —  VoUaire* 

LETTERS.    See  Alphabet,  and  Btlles  Lettres. 

LETTERS  OP  MARQUJB  and  REPRISAL.  These  are  licensas,  first  issued  in  England 
by  Edward  I.,  for  the  seizure  of  the  enemy's  vessels,  and  for  reprisal  and  retaliation 
upon  the  enemy  on  the  sea. — Bymer*s  Poedera.  They  were  first  granted  in  1295. — 
Bakei^s  Chron.  They  were  usually  granted  in  time  of  war  to  private  armed  ships,  and 
did  great  mischief  to  the  commerce  of  belligerent  nations.  They  are  now  dis- 
continued.— See  Privateering. 

LETTRES  DE  CACHET,  were  sealed  letters  from  the  king  of  France  by  virtue  of  which 
those  persons  against  whom  they  were  directed,  were  arbitrarily  thrown  into  prison, 
or  sent  into  exile.  They  were  a  grievoua  abuse  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  One  of 
the  earliest  acts  of  the  National  Assembly  was  to  decree  their  abolition,  Nov.  1, 1789. 

LETTUCE.  Introduced  into  England  from  Flanders,  in  1520.  A  salad  was  a  rare  treat 
in  Henry  the  Ylllth's  reign ;  in  the  earlier  part  of  which,  when  queen  Catherine,  this 
king's  first  consort^  wished  for  a  salad,  she  despatched  a  messenger  for  lettuce  to 
Holland  or  Flanders.     See  article  Qardening. 

LEUCTRA,  BATTLE  of.  One  of  the  most  famoiis  of  ancient  history,  fought  at  the 
village  of  Leuctra,  between  Platasa  and  Thespia,  between  the  Thebans,  under  Epami- 
nondas,  and  the  superior  force  of  Cleombrotus,  kiug  of  Sparta,  the  victory  being  with 
the  former.  In  this  battle,  4000  Spartans,  with  their  king,  were  slain,  and  not  more 
than  800  Thebans;  July  8,  871  B.o.  From  this  day,  the  Spartans  lost  their  pre- 
ponderance in  Greece,  which  they  had  maintained  for  about  500  years,  and  it  passed 
to  the  Thebans. — Plutarch, 

LEVELLERS.  Men  whose  purpose  is  to  destroy  superiority,  and  bring  all  things  to  a 
level  or  equality. — Collier,    There  were  various  associations  of  this  kind.    The  most 


LKV  880  LIB 

eztnordinary  was  that  of  which  Munoer  and  Storck  were  the  chiefa.  These  two 
began  by  palling  down  all  the  images  in  the  churches  which  Luther  had  left  standing ; 
and  then,  finding  an  army  in  their  followers,  they  became  levellen,  and  Huncer 
openly  tanght  that  all  distinctions  of  rank  were  usurpations  on  the  rights  of  mankind. 
At  the  head  of  40,000  men,  he  wrote  to  the  sovereign  princes  of  Germany,  and  to  the 
magistrates  of  cities  to  resign  their  authority;  and  on  his  march  to  enforoa  these 
priuciples  of  equality  and  reformation,  his  followers  ravaged  the  country.  The  land- 
grave of  Hesse  at  length  defeated  him ;  7000  of  the  enthusiasts  fell  in  battle^  and  the 
rest,  with  their  leader,  fled ;  he  was  taken,  and  beheaded  at  Mulhausen,  in  1525. — 
Ncuv,  Diet.  But.  At  the  period  of  the  French  Revolution  some  knots  of  peraoo^ 
styled  levellerB,  appeared  in  England.  An  association  was  formed  against  them  and 
republicans,  by  Mr.  John  Reeves,  Nov.  6,  1792;  and  similar  conservative  assoriatioaa 
spread  for  a  similar  purpose,  with  much  benefit  through  the  kingdom. — PkiiHj^ 

LEYERIAN  HUSEUH.  The  magnificent  collection  of  sir  Ashton  Lever,  exhifatted 
to  the  public  at  Leicester-house,  London.  It  was  offered  to  the  public  by  the  chance 
of  a  guinea  lottery,  in  1785;  but  .only  8000  tickets  out  of  36,000  were  sold ;  and 
this  almost  unparalleled  collection  came  into  the  possession  of  the  holder  of  two 
tickets,  Mr.  Parkinson,  by  whom  it  was  in  the  end  sold  by  auction,  in  lots,  Sept.  3U, 
e$  9tq.  1806. 

LEVITES.  Of  the  tribe  of  I^vi.  One  bom  to  the  priestly  office  among  the  Jews. — 
Ayliffe.  The  third  book  of  the  Old  Testament  is  <»Il6d  LevitiatM,  because  it  ct^ntaina 
the  laws  relating  to  the  priests,  the  Iicvites,  and  sacrifices :  it  is  supposed  to  b« 
written  by  Moses,  about  the  year  of  the  world  2514,  or  before  Our  Saviour  1490. 

LEWES,  BATTLE  of.  Between  Henry  III.,  king  of  England,  and  Montfort,  eari  of 
Leicester,  and  the  rebellious  barons,  fought  May  14,  1264.  In  this  battle  the  royal 
army  was  overthrown,  and  the  king,  hia  brother,  Richard,  king  of  the  Romana,  his 
son  and  prince  Edward,  afterwards  Edward  I.,  were  taken  prisoners.  One  dividon 
of  Montfort's  army,  a  body  of  Londoners,  gave  way  to  the  furious  attack  of  prince 
Edward,  who,  pursuing  the  fugitives  too  far,  caused  the  battle  to  be  lost.  Montfort 
used  his  power  so  despotically  as  to  be  the  cause  of  his  own  destruction.   Sec  Mveakam, 

LEXINGTON,  BATTLE  of.  Thia  battle  claims  distinction,  as  being  the  first  fought 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  of  America,  in  the  war  of  independence. 
The  British  obtained  the  advantage,  and  destroyed  the  stores  of  the  revolted  colonistB, 
but  they  lost  in  the  battle  278  men,  killed  and  wounded,  April  19, 1775.  The  hostilities 
thus  commenced  continued  to  1783.    See  United  Stata. 

LETDEN,  SIEGE  of.  A  memorable  siege  sustained  against  the  armies  of  Spain,  and 
during  which  6000  of  the  inhabitants  died  of  famine  and  pestilence,  A.D.  1574.  In 
commemoration  of  this  long  siege,  a  university  was  founded,  celebrated  fur  its 
colleges  and  medicinal  garden  and  valuable  library,  1575.  In  1699  two-thixds  of  the 
population  perished  by  a  fever,  which,  it  is  said,  was  aggravated  by  the  improper 
treatment  of  professor  De  la  Boe.  The  university  was  aLmost  destroyed  by  a  venal 
laden  with  10,000  lbs.  weight  of  gunpowder  blowing  up,  and  demolishing  a  large  pact 
of  the  town,  and  killing  numbers  of  people,  Jan.  1807. 

LIBEL.  By  the  laws  of  Rome  (those  of  the  XII.  Tables),  libels  which  affected  the  repu- 
tation of  another,  were  made  capital  offences.  In  the  British  law,  whatever  renders 
a  man  ridiculous,  or  lowers  a  man  in  the  opinion  and  esteem  of  the  world,  is  deemed 
a  libel.  '*  The  greater  the  truth,  the  greater  the  libel,"  the  well-known  law  maxim  of 
a  high  authority,  is  now  disputed.  Among  the  most  remarkable  cases  of  libel  were 
viz. :  lord  George  Gordon's  Ubel  on  the  queen  of  France,  for  which  he  was  sentenced 
to  imprisonment  for  five  years,  and  fined  500/.,  Jan.  28,  1788.  Dr.  Witfaer^s  Ub^  on 
Mrs.  Fitzherbert,  July  14, 1789.  The  Timaf  libel  on  the  prince  of  Wales,  aaerwards 
George  IV.,  Feb.  1790.  The  Morning  PosC$  libel  on  lady  Elizabeth  Lambert,  damages 
4000£,  July  9, 1792.  Peltier^s  libel  on  Napol^n  Bonaparte,  in  LAmbiitn^  of  which 
he  WAS  found  guilty,  Feb.  21,  1803.  Act  sgainst  blasphemous  and  seditious  libels, 
punishing  the  offender  by  banishment  for  the  second  offence,  60  Geo.  lU.  1830.* 

*  An  actioD  for  libel  was  brought  In  the  Court  of  King's  Bench  hv  a  bookMUer,  nsmed  StockdaH 
against  Messrs.  Hansard,  the  priuters  to  the  House  of  Commons.  This  action  related  to  an  opinkm 
eziiressed  in  a  parliamentary  Report  of  a  book  published  by  Htockdale.  Lord  Denmau,  in  giving 
{udgment,  said  he  was  not  aware  that  the  authority  of  the  House  of  Commons  could  justify  the  pubb- 
catiou  of  a  libel.— an  opinion  which  led  to  some  proceedings  on  the  port  of  the  Houses  and  to  other 
actions  by  Stockdale ;  and  in  the  sossion  of  1840  (April  14)  a  law  was  passed  giving  summary  protecUon 
to  persons  employed  by  parliameut  bx  the  pubUcatlon  of  its  reports  sad  pai)en. 


LIB  881  LIB 

Lord  Campbell's  act,  6  A;  7  Vict,  c  96  (1843),  greatly  softened  the  striDgency  of  the 
law  of  libel  respecting  newspapers. 

XtlBERTINES.  A  sect  distinguished  by  its  monstrons  doctrines.  Its  heads  were  persons 
named  Qaintin  and  Corin.  They  maintaioed  that  whatever  was  done  by  men  was 
done  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  that  there  was  no  sin  but  to  those  who  thought  so ; 
that  to  lire  without  any  doubt  or  scruple  was  to  return  to  the  state  of  innocency ; 
that  the  soul  died  with  the  body ;  that  heaven  wa^i  a  dream  and  hell  a  phantom ; 
religion  a  mere  state  trick ;  with  many  other  monstrous  opinions^  This  sect  arose  in 
A.D.  1525 ;  and  the  term  libertine  has  been  held  in  a  bad  sense  ever  since. 

LIBBARY.  The  first  public  library  of  which  we  hare  any  certain  account  in  history 
was  founded  at  Athens,  by  Pisistratus,  544  B.C.  The  second  of  any  note  was  founded 
by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  284  B.C.  It  was  partially  destroyed  when  Julius  Ciesar  set 
fire  to  Alexandria,  47  B.G.  400,000  valuable  books  in  MS.  are  said  to  have  been  lost 
by  this  catastrophe. — Blair,  According  to  Plutarch,  the  library  at  Pergamos  con- 
tained 200,000.  It  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Romans  at  the  death  of  Attains  IIL 
(ro.  133),  who  bequeathed  his  kingdom  and  wealth  to  the  Roman  people.  It  was 
added  to  that  of  Alexandria  by  Marc  Antony.  The  first  private  library  was  the 
property  of  Aristotle,  334  B.a — Straho,  The  first  library  at  Rome  was  instituted 
167  B.O.;  it  was  brought  from  Macedonia.  The  library  of  Apelliopn  was  sent  to 
Rome  by  Sylla,  from  Athens,  86  B.O.  This  library  was  enriched  by  the  original 
manuscripts  of  Aristotle's  works.  A  library  was  founded  at  Constantinople  by 
Constantine  the  Great,  about  ▲.d.  335 ;  it  was  destroyed  in  477.  A  second  library 
was  formed  from  the  remains  of  the  first,  at  Alexandria,  by  Ptolemy's  successors, 
consisting  of  700,000  volumes,  which  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  Saracens,  who  heated 
the  water  of  their  baths  for  six  months,  by  burning  books  instead  of  wood,  by 
command  of  Omar,  caliph  of  the  Saracens,  in  642.*  Pope  Gregory  L  ordered  that 
the  library  of  the  Palatine  Apollo  should  be  committed  to  the  flames,  under  the 
notion  of  confining  the  oleigy  to  the  attention  of  the  Scriptures.  The  early  Chinese 
literature  is  said  to  have  STifiTered  a  similar  misfortune  to  that  of  the  west  in  the 
destruction  of  the  Alexandrian  library;  their  emperor,  Che-whang-tee,  ordered  all 
writings  to  be  destroyed,that  everything  might  begin  anew  as  from  his  reign ;  and  hooka 
and  records  were  afterwards  recovered  by  succeeding  emperors  with  great  difficulty. 

LIBRARIES  or  EUROPK  The  first  public  library  in  Ital^  was  founded  at  Florence 
By  Nicholas  Kiccoli,  one  of  the  great  restorers  of  leammg.  At  his  death,  he  left 
bis  library  to  the  public,  ▲.D.  1436.  Cosmo  de'  Medici  enriched  it,  after  the  death  of 
Kiccoli,  with  the  invaluable  Greek,  Hebrew,  Arabic,  Chaldaic,  and  Indian  MSS. 
Among  the  great  libraries  of  Europe  are  the  following : — That  of  the  Vatican,  at 
Borne,  founded  by  pope  Nicholas  V.  in  1446,  and  improved  by  Sixtus  V.,  1588;  it 
contains  150,000  volumes  and  40,000  manuscripts.  The  Imperial  Library  of  Vienna 
founded  by  Frederick  III.  in  1440,  and  by  Maximilian  I.,  1500.  The  Royal  (now 
Imperial)  Library  of  Paris,  by  John  (1350-1868),  and  by  Francis  I.  about  1520;  it 
contains  815,000  volumes  and  84,000  manuscripts.  The  Escurial  at  Madrid,  com- 
menced with  the  foundation  of  that  sumptuous  palace,  by  Philip  II.  in  1567.  The 
Library  of  Florence,  by  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  1560,  of  great  value  in  illustmted  and 
illuminated  works.  The  Libraiy  of  the  University  of  Munich  is  said  to  contain 
400,000  volumes  and  10,000  manuscripts;  and  that  of  Gottingen,  800,000  volumes 
and  6000  manuscripts.  The  Imperial  Library  at  St.  Petersburg  was  founded  in  1714, 
but  consists  principally  of  the  spoils  of  Poland. 

LIBRARIES  19  GREAT  BRITAIN.  Richard  de  Bury,  chancellor  and  high  treasurer 
of  England,  so  early  as  1341,  raised  the  first  private  library  in  Europe.  He  purchased 
thirty  or  forty  volumes  of  the  abbot  of  St  Alban's  for  fifty  pounds*  weight  of  silver. 
Our  national  libraries  are  of  great  number  and  extent ;  the  following  are  among  the 
principal :— The  Bodleian,  at  Oxford,  founded  40  Eliz.  1598;  opened  in  1602:  this 
3  library  contains  nearly  400,000  volumes,  and  upwards  of  30,000  manuscripts.  The 
Cottonian  Library,  founded  by  sir  Robert  Cotton,  about  1600;  appropriated  to  the 

Sublic,  13  Will.  III.  1701;  partly  destroyed  by  fire,  1731;  removed  to  the  British 
[useum,  1753.  The  Royal  Society  in  1667.  The  Radcliffeian,  at  Oxford,  founded 
by  the  will  of  Dr.  Raddifib,  who  lefb  40,000^.  to  the  university,  1714 ;  opened,  1749. 
The  Library  at  Cambridge,  1720,  when  George  I.  gave  5000^  to  purchase  Dr.  Moore's 
collection.    The  fine  library  of  George  III.  presented  to  the  nation  by  George  IV. 

*  This  statement  has  been  dliputed.    Theophilas,  Abp.  of  Alexandria,  is  said  to  have  destroyed 
many  books  when  he  demolished  tne  temple  of  Serapis,  260  years  previously. 


LIB  882  LIF 

in  1823.  The  Library  of  the  Royal  InBtitatioQ,  in  1803 :  a  new  claaaified  oatelogue 
(the  third)  was  publiflhed  in  1857.  That  of  the  London  Institution  (1805),  of  Sion 
College,  &a,  and  the  great  library  of  the  British  Museum,  containing  above  500,000 
volumes  and  100,000  manuscripts,  including  the  Ck>ttonian,  the  Harleian,  and  other 
collections,  which  tee.  The  Library  of  the  Uniyersity  of  Dublin  (1601),  and  the 
Advocates*  Library  in  Edinburgh  (1680),  ore  among  the  most  extensive  and  valaable 
in  these  countries.* 

LIBRARIES,  FREE,  have  been  suoceflsfully  established  daring  the  last  few  yean  mt 
Manchester,  Liverpool,  Salford,  &c.  Many  others  are.  being  formed  under  8  &  9  Viei. 
a  48  (1845),  and  13  k  14  Vict.  c.  65  (1850),  and  18  &  19  Vict  a  20  (1856}t. 

LICENCES.  This  mode  of  levying  money  on  the  subject  was  introduced  in  the  reign 
of  our  first  Richard,  about  the  year  1190;  but  it  was  then  confined  to  such  of  the 
nobility  as  desired  to  enter  the  lists  at  tilts  and  tournaments,  who  were  many  at  this 
time. — Sinclair'M  Hut  of  the  Brit.  Revenue,  Licences  for  public-hoosee  were  fir«t 
gitmted  in  1551.  Qamee  and  gaming-houses  were  licensed  in  London  in  1620.  The 
Uoence  system  for  various  exciseable  articles  was  enforced  in  various  reigns,  from  the 
12th  Charles  IL  1660,  and  has  been  productive  of  much  good.  A  rwnarkahle 
restraining  e£fect  of  licences  was  this  :  that  the  act  which  obliged  lottery  office- 
keepers  to  take  out  licences,  and  pay  502.  for  each,  at  once  reduced  the  number  of 
these  offices  from  400  to  51,  Aug.  m^.—PhUlipB, 

LICHFIELD,  BISHOPRIC  of.  This  bishopric  has  now,  instead  of  its  former  double 
name  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry,  the  name  of  Lichfield  only.  The  see  was  fooaded 
in  A.D.  656.  In  the  time  of  pope  Adrian,  it  had  become  so  Extremely  wealthy,  that 
it  was  constituted  archiepiscopal.  In  1075  the  see  was  removed  to  Chester;  in  1102 
it  was  removed  to  Coventry ;  and  afterwards  back  to  Lichfield,  but  with  much  oppo- 
sition from  the  monks  of  Coventry  (see  Ouveintry).  Dr.  Samuel  Butler,  in  1840,  was 
the  first  bishop  of  Lichfield  only.  This  see  has  given  three  saints  to  the  Romish 
Church;  and  to  the  British  nation  one  lord  chancellor  and  three  lord  treaauren. 
It  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  559/.  18<.  2d.  Lichfield  cathedral  was  first  baOi 
in  656  A.D.  The  present  structure  was  built  by  Roger  de  Clinton,  the  87th  bishop, 
in  1148.^  In  Lichfield  castle,  king  Richard  II.  kept  his  sumptuous  Christoias 
festival,  1397,  when  were  consumed  200  tuns  of  wine,  and  2000  oxen.  A  charter 
was  granted  to  Lichfield,  constituting  it  a  city,  by  Edward  YL  1549. 

LICINIA  LEX.  Forbade  any  person  to  possess  more  than  500  acres  of  land,  or  more 
than  100  head  of  large  cattle,  or  500  of  small,  in  the  Roman  states;  and  another  law 
of  this  name  imposed  a  severe  penalty  on  party  clubs,  or  societies  assembled  for 
election  purposes.  A  third  law,  limiting  the  expenses  of  the  table,  and  the  quantity 
of  animal  food^  but  not  forbidding  fruitsi  was  enacted  110  &c. 

LI  EQ  E.  "  The  parudiee  of  prieatt,  the  purgatory  of  men,  and  the  hell  if  women^  Formerly 
so  called  on  account  of  the  number  of  its  churches  and  convents.  Taken  by  the 
English  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  in  1702;  and  bv  the  French  and  other 
powers,  at  various  times,  up  to  1796,  when  it  wos  annexed  to  France.  Li^ge  was 
incorporated  with  the  Netherlands,  in  1814. 

LIEUTENANTS,  see  Lord  LietOenani. 

LIFE-BOAT.  A  patent  was  granted  to  Mr.  Lukin  for  a  life-boat  in  1785 ;  and  in  1788  a 
reward  was  ofiered  by  a  committee  of  gentlemen  in  South  Shields  for  a  more  perfect 
model,  which  was  obtained  by  Mr.  Henry  Greathead  of  that  town,  in  1789.  It  wss 
first  put  to  sea,  January  80, 1790 ;  and  Mr.  Greathead  received  1200/.  from  parlismeot, 
for  this  great  means  of  saving  life  in  cases  of  shipwreck.  Thirty-one  boats  were  bmlt, 
and  800  lives  saved  up  to  1 804.  Several  contrivances  have  been  since  brought  forward, 
and  in  1850  the  duse  of  Northumberland  offered  a  reward  of  105^.  for  m  life-boat 
fulfilling  certain  conditions.    The  prize  was  obtained  by  Mr.  James  Beeching,  of 

"  lu  1609  the  Stationers'  Company  Rgreed  to  giro  a  copy  of  every  book  published  to  the  Budkiaii 
Library,  Oxford.  By  14  Charles  II.,  c.  33  (1602),  tliree  copies  were  required  to  be  givim  to  c«rt«m 
public  libraries ;  by  8  Anne,  c.  19  (1709X  the  number  was  tncroosed  to  nine;  by  41  Geo.  111.  c  107,  to 
eleven ;  which  was  reduced  to  fire  by  5  ft  6  Will.  IV.  c.  110  (1836). 

t  On  Noy.  6,  1855,  a  proposal  to  ebtablish  a  Free  Library  in  the  dty  of  London  was  negatived,  sad 
in  1857  that  in  Marylobone  was  closed  for  want  of  8upi)ort. 

t  Walter  de  Langton  (bishop  in  1.96)  built  the  chapel  of  Bt.  Mary,  now  taken  into  the  choir,  aiwl 
under  bishop  Hoyworth  (14110)  the  cathedral  was  perfected.  The  building  was  despoiled  at  the  Reform- 
ation, and  was  scandalously  injured  in  the  parliamentary  war  (when  its  monuments,  its  fine  sculptures, 
and  beautifully  painted  windows  were  demolished);  but  it  was  repaired  at  the  raataratioa,  ana  i^aia 
thoroughly  in  17S8. 


LIF  883  LIG 

Yarmouth,  in  1851 ;  but  his  boats  ha^e  not  been  found  completely  efBcacioua.  The 
tubular  life-boat  of  Mr.  H.  Rtohardson  was  patented  Jan.  1852,  in  which  year  a  cruise 
was  made  by  him  from  Liverpool  to  London,  in  his  life-boat,  7%e  Chalkngtr.  A  model 
by  Mr.  R.  Peake  is  now  employed.  The  National  Life-boai  ImtUution  was  founded 
in  1824,  it  has  published  a  journal  called  "The  Life-boat"  since  1852.  In  1856  iU 
funds  were  enlarged  by  a  bequest  of  10,000/.  from  Hamilton  Fits^erald,  Esq.  Since 
its  establishment  its  boats  are  said  to  have  saved  above  10,000  lives. 

LLFE-QUARDS.  The  first  regular  force  employed  by  the  kings  of  England  was  their 
own  personal  guard.  King  Charles  at  the  restoration  established  a  regiment  of  life- 
guards, to  which  he  added  a  regiment  of  hurse  and  two  regiments  of  foot-guards,  and 
a  third  regiment  of  foot-guards  was  raised  at  Coldstream  {which  Bee),  These  corps 
constitute  the  British  household  troops.  Their  formation  was  the  commencement 
of  the  present  regular  army ;  and  such  additions  have  from  time  to  time  been  made 
as  the  occasions  of  the  nation  required. — Cupt,  Curling, 

LIFE-PRESERVER.  The  apparatus  of  captain  Manby,  to  mitigate  the  horrors  of  slip- 
wreck,  is  of  a  construction  equally  simple  and  admirable.  It  effects  a  communication 
with  the  distressed  vessel  by  a  rope,  by  which  it  b  afterwards  easy  to  send  on  boai*d, 
or  from  the  ship,  anything  else.  The  rope  is  thrown  by  a  shot  from  a  mortar,  with 
a  line  attached  to  it.  For  the  night,  a  night -ball  is  provided  with  a  hollow  case  of 
thick  pasteboard,  and  a  fuse  and  quick  match,  and  charged  with  fifty  balls,  and  a 
saflftciency  of  powder  to  inflame  thera.  The  fuze  ia  so  graduated  that  tiie  shell  shall 
explode  at  the  height  of  300  yards.  The  balls  spread  a  brilliant  light  for  nearly  a 
minute,  and  give  a  clear  view  of  every  surrounding  object.  This  apparatus  was 
brought  into  use  in  February,  1808 ;  and  in  the  first  twenty  years  it  had  been  the 
means  of  saving  fifty-eight  vessels,  and  410  of  their  crews  and  passengers.  Captain 
Hanby  died  Nov.  18, 1854,  aged  89. 

LIQHT.  The  law  of  refraction  discovered  by  Snellius,  about  a.d.  1624.  The  motion 
and  velocity  of  light  discovered  by  Reaumur,  and  after  him  by  Caasini,  and  calculated 
by  Roemer  and  Aradley.  Its  velocity  ascertained  to  be  about  190,000,000  of  miles 
in  sixteen  mlnutep,  or  nearly  200,000  miles  in  a  second,  which  is  a  million  of  times 
Bwifter  than  the  velocity  of  a  cannon  ball ;  about  1 667.  The  light  of  the  sun  is  eight 
minutes  and  eight  seconds  in  its  transmission  through  the  space  from  that  orb  to  the 
earth.  The  undulatory  theory  of  light,  its  polarisation,  and  its  chemical  action  have 
all  been  made  known  in  the  present  century  by  the  labours  of  Drs.  Thos.  Young, 
Fresnel,  Malus,  Arago,  Blot,  Brewster,  Wheatstone,  Ritter,  Niepce,  Daguerre,  Talbot,  &a 

LIGHT-HOUSES.  They  were  erected  by  all  the  ancient  commercial  people,  and  called 
Tcr$f  or  pillars,  as  those  of  Hercules,  near  Qibndtar ;  that  of  Pharos  at  Alexandria, 
550  feet  high,  and  visible  forty -two  miles;  the  Pharos  of  Messina;  the  Colossus  of 
Rhodes,  kc  There  are  forty-two  round  the  coasts  of  England,  fifteen  on  the  east 
coast,  thirteen  in  the  English  channel,  and  fourteen  in  the  Irish  channel ;  also  seven- 
teen on  the  Scottish,  and  twenty-six  on  the  Irish  coasts.    See  BeU-Rocky  EddysUme,  &c. 

LIGHTS.  Were  introduced  into  churches  about  the  middle  of  the  first  century,  and 
were  continued  afterwards  in  the  Romish  churches  at  noon-day.  Lamps  were  in  use 
previously  to  candles.    See  Oandlemas, 

LIQHTNINO-CONDUCTORS  were  first  set  up  for  the  protection  of  buildings  by 
Franklin  shortly  after  1752,  when  he  brought  down  electricity  from  a  thunder-cloud. 
The  firet  in  England  was  set  up  at  Payne's  Hill,  by  Dr.  Watson.  In  1766  one  was 
placed  on  the  tower  of  St.  Mark,  at  Venice,  which  has  since  escaped  injury,  although 
frequently  consumed  by  lightning  previously.  A  powder  magazine  at  Qlogau,  in 
Silesia,  waa  saved  by  a  conductor  in  1782 ;  and  from  the  want  of  one  a  quantity  of 
gunpowder  was  ignited  at  Brescia  in  1767,  and  above  3000  persons  perished.  In 
176^  Dr.  Watson  recommended  conductors  to  be  used  in  the  navy,  and  they  were 
employed  for  a  short  time,  but  soon  fell  into  disuse  from  want  of  skill  and  attention. 
Mr.  (now  sir  William)  Snow  Harris  devoted  his  attention  to  the  subject  from  1820  to 
the  present  time,  and  published  his  work  in  1848,  detailing  his  experiments.  In 
1830,  above  thirty  ships  were  fitted  up  with  his  conductors,  which  were  found 
perfectly  efficacious ;  and  in  1842  his  plans  were  adopted,  and  his  conductors  are 
now  manufactured  in  all  the  royal  dockyards.  In  1854,  parliament  granted  5000/.  to 
sir  W.  S.  Harris,  as  a  small  raward  for  his  invaluable  exertions. 

UONT,  BATTLE  op.  Fought  just  previously  to  the  memorable  battle  of  Waterloo, 
between  the  Prussian  army  under  Blucher,  and  the  French  army  commandtd  by 


Lia  384  LIH 

Napoleon,  in  which  the  former  was  defeated.  June  16, 1815.  The  result  of  this  baiUe 
did  not,  however,  prevent  Blucher  arriving  on  the  field  of  Waterloo,  in  the  eveniii^  of 
that  great  engagement,  at  the  most  critical  and  decisive  moment  of  it, 

LIOURIAN  REPUBLIC.  Founded  in  June  1 802,  upon  the  ruin  of  the  republic  of 
Genoa.  The  doge  of  this  new  republic  was  solemnly  invested  at  Genoa,  Aug.  10, 1 802. 
The  Ligurian  republic  was  incorporated  with  France,  it  having  demanded  a  union 
with  the  latter  country,  May  25,  1805.  It  merged  into  the  kingdom  of  Italy, 
and  was  thus  terminated. 

LILAC  TREE.  Syringa.  The  Persian  lilac  tree,  a  native  of  Persia,  was  cultivated  in 
Britain,  about  a.d.  1638.  The  common  lilac  tree  was  cultivated  in  England  by  Mr. 
John  Gerard,  about  1 597.  Several  varieties  of  the  lilac  tree  are  now  grown  in  England. 
See  Flowen  and  Oardening, 

LILT.  The  lily  of  the  Scriptures  is  of  Persian  origin ;  it  also  is  a  native  of  Syria  and 
Italy,  and  some  varieties  of  it  were  brought  to  England  before  1460.  The  Guernsey 
lily  came  from  Japan;  the  Red-coloured  from  South  America;  the  Gigantic  lily, 
DoryarUha  exceUa,  was  brought  from  N.S.  Wales,  in  1800. 

LIMA.  See  America  and  CaUmbia,  In  1534,  Pizarro,  marching  through  Peru,  was 
struck  with  the  beauty  of  the  valley  of  Rimac,  and  there  he  founded  a  city,  and  gave 
it  the  name  of  Oiudad  de  lot  lUyeSf  or  City  of  the  Kings.  This  Spanish  name  it  retains 
in  all  its  legal  deeds,  but  it  is  better  known  as  Lima.  Awful  earthquakes  occurred 
here,  since  solemnly  commemorated  by  annual  festivals,  a.d.  1586, 1630, 1687,  and 
Oct.  28, 1746.    In  the  last  it  was  almost  totally  destroyed,  as  well  as  Gallao,  < 


LIME  OR  LINDEN  TREE,  a  tall  upright  tree  with  fragrant  flowers,  at  one  time  mack 
cultivated  in  this  countrv.  It  is  uncertain  when  it  was  introduced,  bat  one  is 
mentioned  in  1562.  The  lime  trees  in  St.  James's  park  are  said  to  have  been  planted 
at  the  suggestion  of  Evelyn,  who  recommended  multiplying  odoriferous  trees^  in 
his  work,  "Fumifugium"  (1661).  One  of  these  trees  was  planted  in  Switaerland  in 
1410,  and  existed  in  1720,  the  trunk  of  which  was  thirty-six  feet  in  eircumferenccL 

LIMERICK,  Anciently  Lunneach.  About  the  year  550,  St.  Munchin  is  aaid  to  have 
founded  a  bishopric  and  built  a  church  here,  which  latter  was  destroyed  by  the 
Danes,  in  853.  Limerick  obtained  its  charter  in  1195,  when  John  Stafford  was  made 
first  provost;  and  its  first  mayor  was  Adam  Servant,  in  1198.  In  August,  1691, 
Limerick  was  invested  by  the  English  and  Dutch,  and  surrendered  on  most  bonoor- 
able  terms,  Oct.  3,  same  year.  See  Treaty  of  Limerick,  An  awful  explosion  of  218 
barrels  of  gunpowder  greatly  shattered  the  town,  killing  100  persons,  Febi  1,  1694. 
Another  explosion  of  gunpowder  here  killed  many  persons,  Jan.  2,  1837.  Awful  and 
destructive  tempest,  Jan.  6 — 7, 1889. 

LIMERICK,  BISHOP  of.  Said  to  have  been  originally  founded  by  St  Munchin 
about  A.D.  550.  See  Limerick,  Donald  O'Brien,  king  of  Limerick,  founded  the 
cathedral  about  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  English.  The  see  of  Inis-Scattery 
was  united  to  Limerick,  about  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  or  doae  of 
the  twelfth ;  but  according  to  Usher,  its  possessions  were  divided  among  the  seas  of 
Limerick,  Killaloe,  and  Ardfert.  By  an  extent  returned,  5  Charles  I.,  this  prdaey 
was  valued  at  40/.  sterling;  and  Ardfert  (united  to  it),  26  Elix.,  at  12l.13t.4dL 
Ardfert  and  Aghadoe  united  to  Limerick  in  1667. 

LIMERICK,  TREATY  of.  The  celebrated  civil  and  militory  articles  of  Limerick 
(including  the  other  forts  and  places  then  in  possession  of  the  Irish)  were  agreed 
upon  by  the  following  persons :  sir  Charles  Porter,  and  Thomas  Coningsby,  esq., 
lords  justices  of  Ireland,  and  baron  Ginckel,  commander  of  the  English  army,  on  the 
one  part ;  and  Patrick,  earl  of  Lucan,  Piercy,  viscount  Qalmoy,  coTouels  Puroell  and 
Cusack,  sir  Toby  Butler,  colonel  Garret  Dillon,  colonel  Brown,  and  lieutenant- 
generals  D'Usson  and  De  Tesse,  commanders-in-chief  of  the  Irish  army,  on  the  other 
part,  Oct.  3,  1691.  It  was  agreed  that  all  arms,  property,  and  estates  should  be 
restored ;  all  attainders  annulled,  and  all  outlawries  reversed ;  and  that  no  caUi  but 
that  of  allegiance  should  bo  required  of  high  or  low :  the  freedom  of  the  Catholic 
religion  was  secured;  relief  from  pecuniary  claims  incurred  by  hostilities  was 
guaranteed ;  permission  to  leave  the  kingdom  was  extended  to  all  who  desired  it;  and 
a  general  pardon  proclaimed  to  all  then  in  arms. — BumM, 

LIMITED  LIABILITY.  An  act  for  limiting  the  liability  of  joint  stock  companies, 
18  and  19  Yict  o.  133,  was  passed  Aug.  14,  1855. 


LIN  385  LIN 

LINCELLBS,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  aUied  English  and  Dutch  arzniea  aud  the 
French,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeated,  August  18,  1793.  In  this  engagement 
general  Lake  commanded  the  three  battalions  of  Foot  Guards,  who  so  much 
distinguished  themselves.  Colonel  Bosyille,  of  the  Coldstreams,  was  killed.  The 
French  lost  eleven  pieces  of  cannon. 

LINCOLN.  Once  a  Roman  colony,  and  at  the  period  of  the  Conquest  one  of  the 
richest  and  most  populous  cities  in  England.  Louis,  dauphin  of  France,  having 
been  invited  over  by  the  discontented  barons  in  the  last  year  of  king  John*8  reign, 
was  acknowledged  by  them  as  king  of  England  here ;  but  the  nobility  in  general 
were  summoned  by  tJie  earl  of  Pembroke  to  Gloucester  to  crown  Henry  III.,  and  they 
afterwards  marched  against  the  dauphin's  and  barons*  army.  See  next  artieU.  New- 
port-gate is  the  richest  remnant  of  Roman  architecture  left  in  Britain ;  the  oastle 
is  a  venerable  ruin  ;  and  the  ruins  of  religious  houses  were  so  numerous,  that  the 
▼ery  bams,  stables,  &o.,  were  formed  with  arched  doors  and  windows. 

LINCOLN,  BATTLES  of.  Without  Newport-gate  was  fought  upon  Lincoln  plain  the 
memorable  battle  between  the  partisans  of  the  empress  Maud,  commanded  by  the 
earl  of  Gloucester,  and  the  army  of  Stephen,  commanded  by  himself,  in  whi<m  the 
king  was  overthrown  and  taken  prisoner,  Feb.  2, 1141.  Battle  between  the  adherents 
of  the  dauphin  of  France  (see  previoua  artiele)t  and  the  army  of  Henry  III.  of 
England ;  a  most  sanguinary  fight,  which  ended  in  the  defeat  of  Louis,  who  withdrew 
his  pretensions  to  the  English  crown,  and  Henry  was  eetablished  on  the  throng 
May  19, 1217.     This  latter  battle  was  called  the  Fair  of  Lincoln. 

LINCOLN,  BISHOPRIC  and  CATHEDRAL  of.  Anciently  Sidnacester  and  Dorchester 
were  two  distinct  sees;  they  were  united,  and  about  a.d.  1075,  were  removed  to 
Lincoln,  by  bishop  Remigius  de  Feschamp,  who  built  a  cathedral  afterwards  destroyed 
by  fire,  but  rebuilt  by  Alexander,  the  twenty-third  bishop,  and  made  the  beautiful 
pile  it  now  appears  by  Hugh  of  Burgundy,  the  twenty-fifth  bishop.  It  was  dedicated 
to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  All  Saints.  The  immediate  successor  of  Feschamp  (1092) 
was  the  lord  chancellor  Bloet  or  Bluet  (Robert),  whose  fiunily  from  this  time  was  so 
distinguished  in  English  annals.  The  diocese  is  the  largest  in  the  kingdom,  not- 
withstanding that  the  dioceses  of  Ely,  Oxford,  and  Peterborough,  which  were  for^ 
merly  parts  of  it,  are  now  distinct  sees.  Lincoln  was  valued  at  the  dissolution  of 
monasteries  at  2065L  per  annum ;  and  after  many  of  its  manors  had  been  seized 
tipon,  it  was  rated  in  the  king's  books  at  894/.  10s.  Id.  It  has  given  three  saints  to 
the  Church  of  Rome,  and  to  the  civil  state  of  England  six  lord  chancellors.  St. 
Birinus  was  the  first  bishop,  in  625.  The  great  bell  of  the  cathedral,  called  Oreat 
Tom  of  Lincoln,  weighs  9894  lb. 

LINCOLN'S-INN,  London.  Derives  its  name  from  Henry  de  Lacyi  earl  of  Lincoln, 
who  erected  a  mansion  on  this  spot  in  the  reign  of  Edward  L  Converted  from  the 
bishop  of  Chichester's  palace  to  an  inn  of  court,  1310.  The  g^dens  of  Lincoln's-inn 
fields  were  laid  out  by  Inigo  Jones,  about  1620,  and  occupied  the  same  space  as  the 
largest  pyramid  of  Egypt.  Lord  W.  Russell  was  beheaded  in  Lincoln's- Inn  Fields, 
July  21,  1683.  The  square  was  inclosed  with  iron  railings,  in  1737.  The  theatre  in 
Linooln's-Inn  Fields  was  built  in  1695 ;  and  from  it  sprung  the  Theatre  Royal,  Covent 
Garden.    The  New  Buildings  were  opened,  30th  Oct  1845 ;  and  the  square  planted. 

LINEN.  A  &brio  of  very  remote  antiquity.  Pharaoh  arrayed  Joseph  in  vestures  of 
fine  linen. —  Qen.  xli  42.  It  was  first  manufactured  in  England  by  Flemish  weavers, 
under  the  protection  of  Heniy  III.  1253.  Before  this  period  woollen  shirts  were 
generally  worn.  A  company  of  linen-weavers  established  itself  in  London  in  1368 ; 
and  the  art  of  staining  linen  became  known  in  1579.  A  colony  of  iScots  in  the  reign 
of  James  I.,  and  other  Presbyterians  who  fled  from  persecution  in  that  oountty  in 
sacceeding  reigns,  planted  themselves  in  the  north-esat  part  of  Ireland,  and  there 
established  the  linen  manufacture.  It  was  liberally  encouraged  by  the  lord  deputy 
Wentworth  in  1634.  Hemp,  flax,  linen,  thread,  and  yam  from  Ireland,  were  per^ 
mitted  to  be  exported  duty  free,  1696.  This  law  gave  rise  to  the  subsequently 
improved  state  of  the  manufacture  there.  The  Irish  linen  board  was  established  in 
1711 ;  the  Linen-hall,  Dublin,  was  opened,  1728;  the  board  was  abolished  in  1828. 
Dunfermline  in  Fifeshire,  Dundee  in  Angusshire,  and  Barnsley  in  Yorkshire,  are,  in 
Great  Britain,  chief  seats  of  our  Unen  manufacture. 

LINLITHGOW-BRIDGE,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  forces  of  the  earl  of  Angus, 
whose  party  during  the  minority  of  James  V.  held  that  prince  in  their  power,  and 
the  forces  of  the  earl  of  Lennox,  wbo  fought  to  obtain  possession  of  his  person  and 

c  0 


LIN  38«  LIT 

deliver  him  from  their  arbitrary  control.  The  earl  of  Lemioz,  after  reeeiTiog  promiie 
of  quarter,  was  killed  by  sir  James  Hamilton,  1525.  Muy,  queen  of  Soota,  was 
bom  in  the  palace  of  Linlithgow,  James  Y.,  her  &ther,  dying  of  a  broken  hearty  the 
same  year,  1542. 

UNJKMkS  SYSTEM.  The  system  of  botany  of  the  eminent  Linn^,  a  Swede,  or,  as  his 
name  is  Latinised,  Linnnos,  was  commenced  about  1725-80 ;  and  his  fint  great  work 
was  a  dictionary  of  7800  plants  arranged  in  classes,  orders,  and  genera ;  he  daased  tb« 
plants  according  to  the  number  and  situation  of  the  sexual  parts,  and  inade  the  floiwer 
and  fruit  the  test  of  his  various  genera.  The  Linnaan  Society  in  London  was 
instituted  in  1788,  and  was  incorporated  March  26, 1802. 

LIPSTADT,  BATTLE  of.  On  of  the  most  bloody  to  be  found  in  histoiy,  foni^t 
between  the  Swedish  and  Austrian  armies,  in  which  the  king  of  Sweden  and  the 
Austrian  genend  were  both  killed,  the  former  foully,  and  in  the  moment  of  vietorr. 
Kov.  6,  1632.  The  king  Qustavus  Adolphus  II.  had  previously  distinguiahed  himself 
in  several  battles  against  the  Germans.    Called,  also,  Lutzen. 

LISBON.  The  Moors  are  said  to  have  given  the  name  of  Lisboa  to  thia  city  when  they 
conquered  it»  ^.d.  716.  It  was  made  the  capital  of  Portugal  by  Emanuel,  1506.  Lisbon 
was  almost  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  Nov.  1,  1755.  See  EarthguQkes,  It  became 
a  point  of  the  late  war,  and  the  court  fled  to  the  Brazils,  Nov.  1807,  in  which  month 
(the  80th)  Uie  French  army  under  Junot  entered  Lbbon,  and  held  poeacssion  of  it 
until  Uie  battle  of  Yimeira,  in  which  they  were  defeated  by  the  British,  under  sir 
Arthur  Wellesley,  Aug.  21,  1808.  Insurrection  at  Lisbon,  Aug.  21, 1881.  Msiimiiii 
at  Lisbon,  June  9, 1834.    See  Portugal, 

LISLE,  SIE(G^E  of.  Lisle  was  beeieged  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and  the  allies;  and 
though  its  immense  fortifications  were  deemed  impregnable,  it  waa  taken  after  a  three 
months'  siege,  in  1708.  It  was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  1718,  in  con- 
sideration of  the  demolition  of  the  fortifications  of  Dunkirk ;  this  siege  is  reckoned 
one  of  the  most  fiimous  in  modem  history.  In  the  revolutionary  war  Liale  aiiatained 
a  severe  bombardment  from  the  Austrians^  who  were  obliged  to  raise  the  akge, 
Oct.  7, 1792. 

LISMORE.  Of  the  ancient  fame  of  this  once  great  town,  an  olden  writer  of  the  life  of 
St  Carthage  says :  **  Lismore  is  a  famous  and  holy  city,  of  which  nearly  one-half  Is  an 
asylum  where  no  woman  dsre  enter ;  it  is  full  of  cells  and  holy  monasteries,  and 
religious  men  in  great  number  abide  here :  hither  holy  men  flock  from  every  part  of 
Ireland,  and  from  England,  and  Britain,  being  desirous  to  live  in  Chrisi.**  Use 
celebrated  castle  of  Lismore  was  burnt  in  the  Irish  war,  1645 ;  but  was  rebuilt  with 
great  magnificence  by  the  duke  of  Devonshire. 

LISMORE,  BISHOPRIC  of,  iv  Irkland.  St.  Carthsge,  promoted  in  a-D.  686,  was  itn 
first  prelate,  as  well  as  founder,  and  the  first  cathedral  was  then  built  It  was 
repaired  by  Cormao,  son  of  Muretus,  king  of  Munster,  about  1180;  and  the  bishopric 
was  united  to  that  of  Waterford,  about  1868.  No  valuation  is  made  of  Lismore  in  the 
king's  books.   United  to  Waterford  in  1863 ;  and  both  to  Cashel  in  1839.  See 


LISSA,  BATTLE  of,  in  Silbsia.  Closing  a  memorable  campaign,  and  in  which  the 
king  of  Prussia  vanquished  prince  Qiarles  of  Lorraine ;  6000  Austriana  were  alain  in 
this  battle,  Dec.  5,  1767.  Lissa,  in  Poland,  was  laid  in  ruins  by  the  Russian  army  in 
the  campaign  of  1707. 

LITANIES.  They  were  first  used  in  processions  and  other  devotions^  about  a.i>.  4O0l 
Litanies  to  the  Yirgin  Maiy  were  first  introduced  by  pope  Gregory  I.  in  or  about 
595. — Newton  an  the  Prophecten.  The  first  English  litany  was  commsnded  to  be  used 
in  the  Reformed  Churches  by  Henry  YIIL  in  1548.— -Co/Uer*!  Sec  ffidoty. 

LITERARY  PROPERTY.  See  Copyright  The  statute  of  queen  Anne,  1709-10,  secnriDg 
literary  property,  was  confirmed  by  a  memorable  decision  at  the  bar  of  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  the  claiip  of  perpetual  copvright  was  overruled  Feb.  22, 1774.  The  statute 
declared  the  author  to  have  an  exclusive  right  for  14  years,  and  if  at  the  end  of  that 
term  he  were  living,  the  right  to  again  return  to  him  for  the  same  term  of  yeaza. 
Later  acts  extend*!  the  authoi's  right  to  28  years,  and  if  living  at  the  end  of  that 
time,  then  to  the  remainder  of  his  life.  By  the  5th  &  6th  Vict,  c.  45,  passed 
July  1,  1842,  the  right  is  to  endure  for  the  life  of  the  author,  and  for  seven 
years  after  his  death ;  but  if  that  time  expire  earlier  than  42  years,  the  right  is 
still  to  endure  for  42  years,  for  which  term  also  any  work  published  after  the  author*a 


LIT  887  LIV 

death  is  to  continae  the  property  of  the  owners  of  the  manaacript :  this  act,  entitled 
"  An  act  to  amend  the  Law  of  Copyright,"  waa  paaaed  July  1, 1842.  The  Dramatic 
Aatiiora*  Protection  act,  paaaed  June  10,  1838.  The  International  Copyright  bill, 
paaaed  July  81,  1888.  The  Deaigns*  Copyright  act,  6  &  7  Vict  a  65,  peaiwd  Aug. 
22, 1843.  The  Colonlea'  Copyright  act,  10  &  11  Vict  &  95,  passed  July  22,  1847. 
And  the  act  to  amend  the  acts  relating  to  the  Copyright  Deaigna,  18  ft  14  Vict  o. 
104,  Aug.  14,  1850.  Act  to  extend  the  Intematioiukl  Copyright  act,  15  Vict  o.  12, 
paaaed  May  28, 1852. 

LITERARY  SOCIETIES,  &c    See  SocUHes, 

LITERARY  FUND/  ROYAL.  Thia  bencYolent  institution  waa  founded  in  1790,  to 
relieve  authors  and  literary  men  of  all  nations,  who  have  published  works  of  merit, 
and  who  by  age  or  infirmities  are  reduced  to  poverty.  The  founder  of  this  fund,  of 
which  thousands  have  been  recipients,  was  David  Williams,*  the  friend  of  the 
illustrious  Benjamin  Franklin.  It  had  ita  origin  in  thia  way:  Floyer  Sydenham, 
an  eminent  Greek  scholar,  of  Wadham  college,  Oxford,  and  tranalator  of  some  of  the 
works  of  Plato,  having  no  patronage,  was  involved  in  embarrassment,  and  arrested 
and  thrown  into  prison  for  a  trifling  debt  due  for  his  frugal  meals,  and  there,  in 
1788,  died  of  a  broken  heart  in  want  and  misery,  when  nearly  eighty  yeara  of 
age.  The  sympathy  excited  by  his  melancholy  fate  was  so  great  and  general, 
that  it  gave  rise  to  this  excellent  institution,  which  has  aince  been  bountifully 
eupport^;  and  it  haa  aa  bountifully  aided  men  of  genius  and  learning,  or  their 
vridows  and  orphans,  in  distress.  The  society  was  incorporated  in  1818.  In  1855- 
6-7,  various  alterations  were  proposed,  and  negatived. 

LITHIUM,  a  metal,  the  lightest  substance  known,  obtained  from  an  alkaUne  substance 
termed  lUhia,  discovered  by  M.  Arfwedson  in  1818. 

LITHOGRAPHY.  The  invention  of  it  is  ascribed  to  Alois  Sennefelder,  whose  first 
essays  were  executed  about  1796;  and  shortiy  afterwards  the  art  was  announced  in 
Germany,  and  was  known  as  polyautography.  It  became  partially  known  in  England 
in  1801  ei  teq.,  but  its  general  introduction  may  be  referred  to  Mr.  Ackermann,  of 
London,  about  1817.    Sennefelder  died  in  1841.    See  PritUing  in  Ooknin, 

LITHOTOMY.  The  surgical  operation  of  cutting  for  the  stone  was  performed  by  the 
ancients.  The  small  apparatus,  so  called  from  the  few  instruments  used  in  the 
operation,  was  practised  by  Celsus,  about  a.d.  17.  The  operation  called  the  high 
apparatus,  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  De  Franco,  and  it  is  thought  to  be  the 
most  ancient     The  great  apparatus  waa  invented  by  John  de  Romania,  about  1520. 

LITURGY.  In  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  Churches  the  word  lituigy  waa  restrained 
to  signify  the  mass  only.  The  present  Enqlibh  Litubgt  was  first  composed,  and  waa 
approved  and  confirmed  by  parliament,  in  1547-8.  The  offices  for  morning  and 
evening  prayer  were  then  put  into  nearly  the  same  form  in  which  we  now  have  them, 
but  other  paits  were  different  Upon  the  solicitation  of  Calvin  and  others,  the 
liturgy  was  reviewed  and  altered  to  very  nearly  its  present  state,  1551.  It  was  first 
read  in  Ireland,  in  the  Enghah  language,  in  1550,  and  in  Scotland,  where  it  occasioned 
a  tumult,  in  1637.  Again  altered  in  1661.  The  Lituxgy  was  revised  by  Whitehead, 
formerly  chaplain  to  Anna  Boleyn,  and  by  bishops  Parker,  Giindall,  Cox  and 
PUkington,  dean  May,  and  secretary  Smith. — See  Common  Prayer, 

LIVERY  OF  LONDON.  See  Companies  of  London.  The  term  "Livery"  is  derived 
from  the  custom  of  the  retainers  and  followers  of  the  lord  mayor  and  sheriffs  bearing 
habiliments  of  the  form  and  colour  displayed  by  those  functionaries.  It  was  usual 
for  the  wardens  of  companies  to  deliver  a  purse  containing  20«.  to  the  lord  mayor  on 
the  1st  of  Dea  to  obtain  for  individuals,  so  desiring,  sufficient  cloth  to  make  a  suit, 
and  the  privilege  of  wearing  the  livery.  This  circumstance  added  to  the  splendour  of 
the  mayor's  train  when  the  civic  court  went  forth.— il<Ae. 

LIVERPOOL.  This  town,  which  within  the  last  century  has,  by  a  progressive  increase 
in  extent,  population,  and  commercial  importance,  obtained  the  first  rank  after  the 
metropolis^  is  supposed  to  be  noticed  in  Domesday-book  under  the  name  Esmedune, 

•  Mr.  Williams  waa  in  early  life  a  difisentinsr  miniator ;  he  produced,  among  other  fhiits  of  a  com- 
nreheiiBiTe  mind,  several  tTeatises  on  education :  and  was  so  profound  a  jurist,  and  versed  in  polity, 
as  to  have  been  consulted  by  the  early  revolutionary  party  in  France,  aa  to  the  form  of  a  constitution 
for  that  coimtry.  He,  Dr.  Priestley,  sir  James  Mackintosh,  and  other  distinguished  Englishmen,  had 
previottBly  been  declared  French  cltisens  bv  the  Legislative  Assembly.  Mr.  Williams  is  mentioned  to 
fljl  the  accounts  of  the  National  Ckmvention  in  17D2,  a  ieq. 

0  C  2 


LIV 


388 


LIV 


or,  Smaitme,  In  other  andeafc  reoonU  its  Tariooi 
Lfrpwlf  agnihriiig  probablj,  in  the  ancient  dieleet  of  the  ooon^,  the  lower  pool ; 
though  some  haTe  dednced  its  etymology  frcm.  a  pool  frequented  by  an  aquatie  fowl, 
odled  the  **  LiTer,**  or  from  a  aea-weed  of  that  name ;  and  otben^  from  its  having 
belonged  to  a  family  of  the  name  of  Lerer,  whose  antiquity  is  not  sofficietttly  aeta- 
bliahed  to  justify  that  oondosion.  Soon  after  the  Conqaest,  William  granted  thai 
part  of  the  ooonty  ntuated  between  the  riTen  MerMjand  Bibble  to  Roger  of  Poita«n, 
who,  acoording  to  Camden,  built  a  castle  here^  about  the  year  1089.  To  this  dicona- 
•tanoe  is  atfer^Mited  the  origin  of  the  town.  It  was,  howerer,  but  a  small  fishing 
plaoe^  until,  in  1172,  its  fiiTourable  situation,  and  the  convenience  of  its  poet,  attracted 
the  notice  of  Henry  IL,  who  made  it  the  place  of  rendesrousand  embarkation  of  hm 
troops  for  the  conquest  of  Ireland : — 


liverpool  made  a  fkeo  boigfa  by  king 

Hisnry  IIL ▲.!>. 

Mndt  an  independfint  port.  .    . 

Heniy,  dnka  of  Tenraatiwr,  made  It  his 

raaidenoo 

LiTerpod  paved  (XeEoiMl)    .... 
"  The  people  of  Her  Ibjarty'a  decayed 

town  of  LiTorpool  *'  petition  Eliaabeth 

to  bo  relieved  from  a  subekly 
To«m  rated  for  ahip-money  in  only  90£. 

by  Charles  1 1690 

Beeieged  Xty  prinoe  Rapert,  and  snrren- 

deied Jnnead^ 

Made  a  aeparate  parish 

The  Old  dock,  the  first  In  England,  oon- 

stmeted.  and  opened  .... 
Blue-ooat  hospital  foonded  .    . 

The  to«m  opposes  the  Young  Pretender, 

and  raises  sereral  regiments 
Town-hall  commenoed        .       •        .    . 
Infirmary  established      .... 
Seamen's  Hospital  founded  .    . 

A  most  dastruotiTS  fire   .... 
House  of  Industry  founded  .    . 

Theatre  licensed,  1771 ;  opened 
livecpool  equips,  at  the  eommencement 

ct  the  war  against  France,  120  priva' 

teera,  carrying  10S6  guns^  and  8764 

seamen 

King's  dock  constructed . 

[The  Queen's  dock  was  also  constructed 

about  the  same  time.1 
Memorable  stcMrm  raged     .... 
The  Exchange  burnt       .... 
TheTown-hall(since  restored)  destroyed 

by  fire 1795 


1S9 

1335 

1358 
1558 


1571 


1M4 

1096 

1699 
1709 

1745 
1749 
1749 
1752 
1763 
1770 
1772 


1778 
1785 


1789 
1795 


Prince's  duck  opened  .  July  19, 

8t  John's  MartLst-plaoe      .  VMx 

Boyal  Institution  ineorporated 


USl 


Jan.  1, 


exceeded 

Sept.  14, 

Aug.  4, 


The  AthensBum  opened 
Union  Newsroom  erected 
The  Lyceum  erected 
Awftil    fire,    whose 

1,000.00M.  sterling 
Oom  Exchange  opraed    . 
Royal  Exchange  completed 
Statueof  Oeoige  III.  commenced,  Oct  25, 
Fall  of  St  Nicholas' Tower,  which  Idllod 

20  persons  Feb.  11, 

Roval  Institution  founded 
Wellington-rooms  built      .       .       .    . 
Boyal  Institution  opened  by  a  speech 

ftoBo.  Mr.  Rosooe  .  Nor.  2, 

American  Seamen's  Hospital  .    . 


1799 
1800 
1802 

1802 
1808 
1809 
1809 

1810 
1814 
1815 

1818 
1820 


New  Hoose  of  Industry  erected 
Lirer  Theatre  opened . 
Old  dock  doaed 
Foundation  of  the  new 

laid Aog.  12; 

Blackrock  Ughthonae  built,  and  ligfat 

first  abown    ....  Mareh  1, 
Lunatic  Asylum  founded,  1792; 

buildings  erected 
daienoe  dock  oooipleted 
Lirerpool    and    Manchester    Railwmy 

(MA  Mr)  opened     .  Sept  15^ 

Zoological  Gardens  opened 
Great  fire ;  property  valued  at  900,0001. 

destroyed Jan.  1« 

Lock  Hospital  opened     .... 
Waterioo  dock  opened  ... 

Victoria  and  Tnfidgar  docks  opened 

same  time     ....    Sept  8» 
Mechanics'  Institute  opened  .    . 

New  Fishmsrket  opened  Fob.  8; 

Apothecaries'  Company  formed .       .    . 

The  Hall  erected 

Statistical  Society  founded  .    . 

The  Liverpool  steamer  of  461-bQcse  power 

sails  for  New  York  .    Oct  28, 

Awftil  storm  raged  .  Jan.  6; 

Foundation  of  the  Colleglete  Institatioa 

laid  by  lord  Stanley     .       .       .        . 
Foundation  of  St  George's  Hall  and 

Gourtalaid 

Immense  fire,  which  destroyed  pio|)ei'tj 

amounting  to  more  than  half  a  miUioa 

sterling Sept  25, 

Mr.  HusklsBon's  statue  erected  .       Oct 
Procession  of  Orangemen  at  liverpool, 

and  fktal  riot  .   July  14, 

The  queen  Tisits  lirerpool .        .  Oct  9, 
St  Ooorgs's  Hall  opened.  Sept 

Bread  riots  (150,000  persona  oot  of  em- 
ploy through  the  ffost)    .        Feb.  19, 
Free  Libravy  and  Museum  fouxMled  by 

W.  Brown,  M.P.  for  S.  Lancashire, 

April  15, 
The  dock  space  In  1810  was  26  acres  for 

ships  to  the  amount  of  704,000  tons ; 

In  1857,  209  aersa^  tonnage  4,320.000. 


Sept.  183e 


19m 

ISO 

18S 
1S34 

1834 

1830 
1837 
1837 
1SS7 
1838 
1638 

183t 
1839 

1840 

1841 


1842 
lS4r 

1851 
1851 
1854 

1855 


1857 


LIVERPOOL,  EARL  of,  hu  ADMINISTRATION.  Shortly  tuooeeding  the  ^ 

of  Mr.  Peroeval  (May,  1812),  the  earl  of  LiTerpool  beoame  first  mtniBter  of  the  crowa : 
the  members  of  hie  cabinet,  Ac.  were,  lord  Eldon,  lord  chancellor;  earl  of  Harrowby, 
lord  preeident  of  the  council;  earl  of  Westmorland,  lord  priry  seal;  Mr.  Vaonttart, 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer ;  earl  of  Mulgrave,  matter-genend  of  the  ordnance ;  lord 
MelvUle,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty;  viscount  Sidmouth,  yiaeount  Castlereagh,  end 
earl  Bathurst,  home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries;  lord  Palmcrston,  marqaeae 
of  Camden,  earl  of  Clancarty.  earl  of  Buckinghamshire,  fta  This  administratioB 
terminated  m  Apnl,  1827,  when  lord  Liverpool  was  attacked  by  a  fit  of  apoplexy, 
and  Mr.  Canning  succeeded  as  prime  minuter.  Of  course,  in  a  long  period  of  fifteea 
years,  there  had  been  many  changes. 


LIV  889  LOG 

LIVERPOOL  RAILWAY.  The  firat  graod  work  of  this  kind  was  the  LWerpool  and 
If  mncheater  Railway,  about  thirty-one  miles  long,  connecting  these,  two  of  the  most 
important  towns  in  Uie  empire.  The  first  shaft  was  commenced  in  Oct.  1826,  and  the 
excavation  of  the  tunnel^  one  mile  and  a  quarter  long,  Jan.  1827;  and  the  tunnel 
was  completed  in  Sept  1828,  and  was  opened  July  80, 1829.  At  the  opening  of  the 
railroad,  the  duke  of  Wellington  and  a  number  of  other  illustrious  persons  were 
present;  and  Mr.  Huskisson,  who  alighted  during  a  stoppage  of  the  engines,  was 
knocked  down  by  one  of  them,  which  went  oyer  his  tmgh  and  caueed  his  death. 
Sept  15, 1880.  Th^  LiTerpool  and  Birmingham  rulway  was  opened  its  entire  length, 
as  the  Grand  Junction,  July  4,  1887;  and  the  railway  to  London  was  opened  its 
entire  length.  Sept  17, 1838. 

LLANDAFF,  BISHOPRIC  or.  This  is  an  ancient  bishopric,  whose  first  known  prelate 
was  St  Dubritiusy  in  522.  The  church  takes  its  name  from  its  situation,  tern,  in 
Welsh,  signifying  a  church,  and  it  having  been  erected  close  to  the  river  Taf,  or 
Tt^ffk,  in  Glamorganshire. — IhtgdaU,  The  see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at 
154^  14jl  Id  per  cumtun, 

liJjOYJyS,  LosDOV.  The  coffee-house  in  connection  with  the  Royal  Exchange,  and  held 
previously  to  the  late  fire  (see  Exekanffe)  on  the  northern  side  of  that  building. 
Lloyd^s  wss  established  in  1772,  and  is  the  resort  of  eminent  merchants,  under- 
writers»  insurance  brokers,  &c. ;  and  here  ate  effected  insurances  for  all  the  world  on 
ships  and  merchandise.  The  books  kept  here  contain  an  acoount  of  the  arrival  and 
sailing  of  vessels,  and  are  remarkable  for  their  early  intelligence  of  maritime  affidrs. 
In  1808,  the  subscribers  instituted  the  Patriotic  Fund,  which  see. 

LOADSTONE.    See  Compaa. 

LOANS.  Those  for  the  aervice  of  the  orown  of  England  were  generally  borrowed  at 
Antwerp  until  after  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  In  1559,  that  queen  borrowed  200,000/. 
of  the  city  of  Antwerp,  to  enable  her  to  reform  her  own  coin,*  and  Sir  Thomas  Gresham 
and  Uie  city  of  London  joined  in  the  security. — Rapin.  The  amount  of  the  English 
loans,  during  four  late  memorable  periods,  was,  viz. : 

Svren  yean*  war ttom  1760  to  170S  .  £62^100,000 

American  war from  1776  to  1784  .  .    .    76,600,000 

French  rsTolutlonazy  war                      .  from  1793  to  180S  .        .  168,600.000 

War  against  Bonapvte     ....  from  180S  to  1814  .  .    .  200^800,000 

Besides  the  property-tax.  In  1818,  were  raised  two  loans  of  twenty-one  millions  and 
twenty-two  millions ;  and  it  deserves  to  be  recorded  that  a  subscription  loan  to  carry 
on  the  war  against  France  was  filled  up  in  London  in  fifteen  hours  and  twen^ 
minutes,  to  the  amount  of  eighteen  mUliona,  Dec  5, 1796.  See  Loyalty  Loant,  To 
meet  the  expenses  of  the  Russian  war,  sir  G.  C.  Lewis,  the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  in  his  budget  of  April  20, 1855,  proposed  a  loan  of  sixteen  milliona^  which 
was  sgreed  to  and  taken  up  by  Rothschilds  alonet* 

LOCHLEYEN  CASTLE,  Kiitbobs.  Built  on  an  island  in  the  celebrated  lake  of  Loch 
Leven,  in  1257,  and  was  a  royal  residence  when  Alexander  III.  and  his  queen  were 
forcibly  taken  from  it  to  Stirling.  It  was  besieged  by  the  English  in  1801,  and  again 
in  1835.  Patrick  Graham,  first  archbishop  of  St  Andrew's,  wss  imprisoned  and  died 
within  its  walls,  1447.  The  earl  of  Northumberland  was  confined  in  it  in  1569.  It 
is,  however,  ohiefiy  remarkable  as  the  place  of  the  unfortunate  queen  Mary's  impri- 
sonment^ in  1567,  and  of  her  escape,  on  Sunday,  If  ay  2, 1568. 

LOCKS.  Those  of  the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  snd  Romans  were  clumsy  oontrivances. 
Denon  has  engraved  an  Egyptian  lock  of  wood.  Du  Cange  mentions  locks  and 
padlocks  ss  early  as  a.d.  1881.  The  French  are  accounted  the  worst  locksmiths  in 
£urope,  and  the  English  the  best.  Bramah's  celebrated  patent  locks  were  registered 
in  1784.  Locks  have  been  made  at  Wolverhampton  in  suits  of  eight,  ten,  or  more,  of 
exquisite  workmanship,  all  with  different  keys,  so  that  none  of  them  can  open  any 
but  its  own  lock,  yet  a  master  key  will  open  all.    Mr.  Hobbs  the  American,  exhibited 

•  Frmeh  loan,  on  July  9, 1866,  on  account  of  the  war  with  Raflsia.  The  French  legislature  pawed  a 
bill  for  raiaing  by  Umd  760  million  franca  (S0.000,000(.  aterling).  On  the  SOth  the  total  aulMcribed 
amounted  to  8,66^691,086  francs  (about  146,  103,  679I.X  nearly  five  timet  the  amount  required.  About 
600  milliona  came  from  foraign  oountrlea;  2,638,888.460  from  Paris;  from  the  departmental  1,118,708,686. 
The  number  of  mibwrlbera  was  816.864.  No  leaa  than  881.930,166  franca  was  made  up  by  aubscriptiMi 
of  60  francs  and  under.  The  English  oubeoriptSon  of  150,000,000  franca  was  returned,  as  double  the 
amount  requixed  had  been  proffexed.  A  n«nHi*  loan  of  6,000,  OOM.,  on  the  seeurity  of  England  uid  France, 
waa  taken  up  by  Bothachilaiu  August,  1866.  It  was  well  recetved,  and  the  etock  roae  tosamall  premiuin. 


LOG  S90  LOM 

his  own  looks  ia  the  Crystal  Palace  in  1851,  and  astonished  the  pnblie,  bj  hia  skill  in 
picking  others.    See  Keyt, 

LOCUSTS.  .The  visits  of  these  animals  in  Eastern  countries  hare  frequently  saper- 
induced  pestilence  and  death,  and  many  instanoes  are  recorded  of  these  oonsequtsnoes. 
Owing  to  the  putrefaction  of  vast  swarms  in  Egypt  and  Libya,  upwards  of  800,000 
persons  perished,  128  b.o.  The  country  of  Palestine  was  infested  with  such  swsnns 
that  they  darkened  the  air,  and  after  devouring  the  fruits  of  the  earth  they  died,  and 
their  intolerable  stench  caused  a  pestilential  fever,  a.d.  40d.  A  similar  catastrophe 
occurred  in  France  in  837.  A  remarkable  swarm  of  locusts  settled  upon  the  ground 
about  London,  and  consumed  the  vegetables ;  great  numbers  fell  in  tne  streets,  ajid 
were  preserved  by  the  curious ;  they  resembled  graishoppers,  but  were  three  times  the 
size,  and  their  colours  more  variegated,  Aug.  i,  1748.  ^ley  infested  Gennanj  in  1719, 
Poland  in  1750,  and  Warsaw  in  June  1816. 

LODI,  BATTLE  of  the  BRIDGE  of.  One  of  the  great  early  achievements  in  Italy  of 
Bonaparte.  He  commanded  the  French  army,  which  was  opposed  to  the  Austriaas 
commanded  by  general  Beaulieu,  and  obtained  a  brilliant  and  dedsive  victory  after 
a  bloody  engagement  in  which  several  thousands  of  the  Imperialists  perished  on  the 
field,  and  many  thousands  were  made  prisoners,  May  10,  1796.  The  oonqoeror 
pursued  his  advantage  with  wonderful  rapidity,  as  after  this  battle  all  Lombardj  lay 
open  to  his  army,  and  the  republican  flag  floated  in  Milan  a  few  days  afierwaida. 

LOO-LINE,  used  in  navigation,  a.d.  1570;  and  first  mentioned  by  Bourne  in  1577.  The 
log-line  is  divided  into  spaces  of  fifty  feet,  and  the  way  which  the  ship  makes  is 
measured  by  a  half-minute  sand-glass,  which  bears  nearly  the  same  proportion  to  sa 
hour  that  fifty  feet  bear  to  a  mile :  the  line  used  in  the  royal  navy  tft  forty-eight  feel 

LOGARITHMS,  so  useful  in  mathematioB,  are  the  indexes  of  the  ratio  of  nomben  ooe 
to  another.  They  were  invented  by  baron  Merchiston,  an  eminent  Sootdinian  (sir 
John  Napier)  in  1614.  The  method  of  oompuUng  by  means  of  marked  pieoea  of 
ivory  was  discovered  about  the  same  time,  and  henoe  called  Napier's  bcma,  Tha 
invention  was  afterwards  completed  by  Mr.  Briggs,  at  Oxford. 

LOGIERIAN  STSTEM.  A  system  of  musical  education  commenced  by  J.  B.  Logisr  in 
January,  1815,  and  by  him  introduced  into  the  chief  towns  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
the  I^uasian  states,  &c  First  taught  in  Dublin  with  eminent  success  by  Mr.  Lioper 
and  Mr.  E.  C.  Allen,  and  in  London  by  most  of  the  musical  professors. 

LOGWOOD.  A  species  of  wood  of  a  dense  and  firm  texture,  and  deep  strong  red  oolonr  ; 
it  is  the  heart  only  of  the  tree  that  produces  it;  it  was  first  cut  by  the  English  in  the 
bajTB  of  Honduras  and  Campeachy,  in  1662.  Its  use  in  dyeing  shortly  afterwards 
became  general,  and  was  encouraged  by  a  law. — Bwmi  AniuiiU. 

LOLLARDS.  The  name  given  to  the  first  reformers  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  in 
England,  and  a  reproachful  appellation  of  the  followers  of  Wyklifie. — Cftaaecr.  Th» 
original  sect  was  founded  by  Walter  Lollard  in  1815 ;  he  was  burned  for  heresy  at 
Cologne  in  1822.  After  his  death  the  disciples  of  Wyklifie  were  called  Lollaida. 
The  first  martyr  in  England  on  account  of  religious  opinions  was  William  Sawtree, 
the  parish  priest  of  St.  Osith,  London,  Feb.  19,  1401,  reign  of  Henry  lY.  The 
Lollards  were  proscribed  by  the  English  parliament  in  1416;  and  about  1414,  numbers 
of  them,  or  persons  to  whom  the  name  was  given,  were  burnt  alive.* — Moreri;  Cbrtc 

LOMBARD  MERCHANTS.     In  England  they  were  understood  to  be  composed  of 

natives  of  some  one  of  the  four  republics  of  Genoa,  Lucca,  Florence,  or  Venioe. 

A  ndericn  oa  Commeree,  Lombard  usurers  were  sent  to  England  by  pope  Gregory  IX. 
to  lend  money  to  convents,  communities,  and  private  persons,  who  were  not  able  to 
pay  down  the  tenths  which  were  collected  throughout  the  kingdom  with  great  rigour 
that  year,  18  Hen.  IIL  1229.  They  had  offices  in  Lombard-street,  which  gnat 
banking  street  is  called  after  them  to  this  day.  Their  usurious  transactionB  caused 
their  expulsion  firom  the  kingdom  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 

LOM  BARD  Y.     The  Lombards  were  a  detachment  of  Alemanni  ftt>m  the  marches  of 

•  Amni^  otbera.  «lr  John  OMoMtl«,  baron  Oobham.  was  cnxeDy  put  to  death  in  St.  QUas'-ia^the 
"  .  .  IIU  ortmo  WM  hta  adopUon  of  the  teneto  of  the  great  reformer  Wykliflh.  Ho  waa  mlinnv. 
•?!tr*K*  ?*Vl!rii''.U*^l\**  ?^^^l  ^  ^  **»•  bigoted  clergy,  as  a  hereUo  and  tnitor,  who  waa  acti^Uy 
at  ibe  heajl  of  ao.OOOlio\Uida  In  theae  flelda.  About  100  Tnoflbnslve  people  wvn  found  there.  Cobhaa 
9m^\^\ ;  but  WM  Uken  tome  Ume  after  in  Wales.  He  suffered  death  on  tUa  spot ;  being  hung  oa  a 
C-^»*  I-ii  ^^«»«d  round  hU  body,  and,  thua  auapended,  burnt  aUre^  In  14X7.-^-Mf«>.- 


LON 


891 


LON 


Bnndenbui^g,  famous  for  their  brayery.  Thej  were  invited  into  Italy  by  Juatinian 
to  serre  against  the  (lotha.  To  reward  their  services,  the  emperor  gave  them  part 
of  Upper  Pannonia,  a.d.  548.  They  passed  into  Italy,  and  their  chief  was  proclaimed 
king  by  his  army  at  Milan,  in  570.  The  kingdom  of  Lombardy  supported  itself  and 
made  considerable  conquests  till  772,  when  Charlemagne  took  Desiderius,  the  last 
king,  and  annexed  his  territories  to  the  Gkrman  empire. — La  Combe.    See  Milan. 

LONDON.*  The  greatest  and  richest  city  in  the  world.  Some  will  have  it  that  a  city 
existed  on  the  spot  1107  yean  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  354  years  before  the 
foundation  of  Rome.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  Trinobantes,  54  B.C.,  and  long  pre- 
viously the  royal  seat  of  their  kings.  In  a.d.  61,  it  was  known  to  the  Romans  aa 
Lundinium.  Lundinium,  or  Colonia  Auguata,  was  the  chief  residence  of  merchants 
at  that  period,  and  the  great  mart  of  trade  and  commerce,  though  not  dignified  with 
the  name  of  a  colony. — Taeiiiu.  It  is  said,  but  not  truly,  to  have  derived  its  name 
from  Lud,  an  old  British  king,  who  was  buried  near  where  Ludgate  formerly  stood ; 
but  its  name  is  from  Hyn-Din,  the  "town  on  the  lake."    The  present  population 


(1857)  is  estimated  at  2,600,000. 

London  enlarged  by  the  Romans  .  a-D. 
Boadicea,  queen  of  the  Iceui,  reduces  Lon- 
don to  Mhes,  and  puU  70,000  Romans 

and  strangora  to  the  sword  . 
She   is   deleated  by  Suetonius,  80,000 

Britone  are  masaacred,  and  she  takes 

poison       ....... 

London  is  walled  in,  and  a  palace  built . 
800  TeeaelB  are  employed  in  the  port  of 

London  for  the  export  of  com  alone  . 
London  made  a  bishop's  see,  and  BobU- 

tutus  first  bishop 

Theonius,  second  bishop     .        ... 
St.   Melitus  (afterwards   txanalated   to 

Canterbury),  third  bishop   . 
Westminster  Abbey  built  by  Sebert.  See 

Watmintttr  Abbty 

St.  Paul's  built  by  Sebert.  Bee  Si.  PauTi 

A  plague  ravages  London   . 

Oreat  fire,  which  nearly  consumed  the 

city 

London  destroyed  by  the  Danes        .    . 
Alfred  repahv  and  strengthens  London . 

Another  great  fire 

Tower  built  by  William  L 

First  charter  grantod  to  the  city  by  the 

same  king.    See  Umdon  CUizem     .    . 
Another  devastating  fire 
600  houses  thrown  aown  by  a  tempest  . 
Charter  granted  by  Henry  L  . 
Honry  Fitz-Alwhvn,  the  first  mayor, 

serving  twenty-four  years  .    . 

Charter  relating  to  we&s 
Charter  of  king  John ;  mayor  and  oom< 

mon  council  elected  annxially.  i—8tow. 

CharterofHenzTlII 1^83 

Aldermen  appointed  in  the  dty,  with 

important  privil^fes        .       .        .    .  1242 
Watch  in  London,  38  Hen.  III.       .       .  1263 


49 


61 


61 
306 

859 

514 
553 

604 

604 
604 
664 

798 
839 
884 
982 
1078 

1079 
1086 
1090 
1100 

1189 
1196 

1209 


1279 
1285 

1300 
1328 


Tax  called  murage,  to  keep  the  walls  and 
ditches  in  repair  .        .a.d. 

City  divided  into  wards  .... 

Cheapside  stood  outside  the  dty:  the 
houses  built  of  wood  .    . 

Charter  granted  by  Edward  III.     . 

Terrible  pestilence,  in  which  50,000  citl- 
sens  perish} 1348 

William  of  Walworth,  lord  mayor  .        .  1880 

Wat  Tyler's  rebellion.    See  Tfier       .    .  1381 

Aldermen  elected  for  life  .  1394 

City  first  lighted  at  night  by  buxtems    .  1415 

Ouildhall  commenced  1411,  finished       .  1416 

Whittington  thrioclord mayor,  vis.  1397, 
1406,  and 1419 

He  entertains  Henry  Y.  at  Ouildhall,  and 
tlut>ws  into  a  fire  of  spices,  bonds  of 
tliat  monarch  for  moneys  lent  him  to 
the  value  of  60,000t      .        .        .        , 

Jack  Cade's  rebellion.    Bee  Ootde        .    . 

First  dvic  procession  on  the  water ;  sir 
John  Norman  lord  mavor    . 

Falconbridge  attempts  the  dty  .        .    . 

Sweating  sickness  rages  .... 

The  fatal  sweat,  Sudor  Anglicua  .        .     . 

Memorable  Evil  May-day.  See  Evil  May- 
day       ....... 

Streets  first  paved  ( Ftn^r't  Stat.)        .    . 

Forty  taverns  and  public  houses  allowed 
in  the  dty,  and  throe  in  Westminster, 
act  7  Edw.  YI.  (there  are  now  7000)   . 

Royal  Exchange  built.    See  BxclMnge    . 

Thames  water  conveyed  into  the  city  by 
leaden  pipes 

New  buifdmgs  in  London  forbidden  in 
any  places  where  none  had  previously 
been  erected,  to  prevent  the  mcreasing 
size  of  the  dty  § 

Nearly  all  London  yet  built  of  wood 


1419 
1450 

1453 
1471 
1485 
1517 

1517 
1533 


1553 
1566 

1580 


1580 
1600 


*  The  M>les  of  Geofflrey  of  Monmouth,  with  regard  to  the  origin  of  London,  are  unworthy  of  the 
atiesitkm  of  the  antiquarv.  Ttiat  London  was  founded  by  Brute,  a  descendant  of  the  Trojan  iEneas, 
•ad  called  New  Troy,  or  Iroy-novant,  until  the  time  of  Lud,  who  surrounded  it  with  walls,  and  gave  it 
the  name  of  Caer  Lad,  or  Lud's  Town,  ftc.  may  be  considered  as  mere  romance. — Leigh. 

f  Stow  incorrectly  states  this  charter  to  have  been  given  in  1209,  but  it  bears  date  May  19th  In  the 
10th  year  of  king  John's  reign.  John  began  his  reign  in  1199.  This  charter  was  acted  on  at  that  period 
In  various  instances,  as  many  of  the  mayors  were  arterwards  continued  in  thdr  offices  for  severafyears 
together ;  and  the  same  right  was  exerted  in  the  case  of  Mr.  Alderman  Wood,  who  filled  the  Office  of 
lora  mayor  during  two  succeeding  years,  those  of  1816  and  1817. — Leigh. 

X  This  terrible  pestilence  broke  out  in  India,  and  spreading  itself  westward  through  every  country  on 
theglobe,  reached  England.  Its  ravages  in  London  were  so  great,  that  tho  common  cemeteries  were  not 
flufmsient  for  the  interment  of  the  dead ;  and  various  pieces  of  ground  without  the  walls  were  assigned 
for  buzial-plaoes.  Amonost  these  was  the  waste  land  now  forming  the  precincts  of  the  Clurter-house, 
where  upwards  of  50,000  bodies  were  then  deposited.    This  disorder  did  not  subside  till  1357.— /dem. 

I  This  proclamation  or  decree  was  datea  from  Nonesuch,  7th  July,  1580,  and  it  was  forbidden  to 
erect  new  buildings  where  none  had  before  existed  in  the  memory  of  man.  This  extension  of  the 
metropolis  was  deemed  calculated  to  enooursge  the  increase  of  the  plague ;  created  a  trouble  in 
govemizxg  sueh  multitudes ;  a  dearth  of  victuals ;  multiplying  of  be^Kars,  and  inability  to  roUeve 
them ;  an  increase  of  artisans  more  than  could  live  together ;  impoverishing  of  other  cities  for  lack 
of  hihabitanta  The  decree  stated  that  lack  of  air,  lack  of  room  to  walk  and  shooty  fto.  arose  out  of  too 
erowded  a  dty.    A  procUumation  to  the  same  efEact  was  also  issued  by  James  L 


LON 


892 


LON 


LONDON,  continued. 

80,678  penioQS  periah  by  the  plague  ad.  1602 
Gunpowder  plot  (which  aee)     .  .  1605 

New  River  water  brought  to  London     .  1613 
Hackney  coaches  firat  plied.  8ee/fadbi€y 

CoaeheM 16S5 

68, 696  persons  perish  by  the  groat  plague. 

See  Plaffue$ 1665 

Great  fire  of  London.     See  article  Fire*.  1666 
Act  for  a  '  new  model  of  building '  of  the 

city 1666 

Monument  erected,  begun  1071 ;  finished 

1677.  See  Monument  ....  1677 
London  streets  first  lighted  by  lamps  .  1681 
Charter  declared  forfeited,  1682 ;  taken 

away,  1688  ;  but  restored     .  .  1689 

AwfiU   and   devastating  storm,  called 

"the  high  wind" 1703 

Act  for  the  erection  of  fifty  new  churches 

in  and  near  London     ....  1711 
South  Sea  bubble  commenced  1710,  ex- 
ploded 1720.    See  South  Sea  Company .  1720 
Chelsea  water-works  formed  .  .  1722 

"Great  Proet,"  Dec.  26,  1739.  to  Fob.  8,  1740 
New  Mansion  House  completed  .  1763 

The  lord  mayor  committcid  to  the  Tower 

l^  the  House  of  Commons  for  a  breach 

of  privilege 1771 

Lord  George  Gordon's  No-popery  mob. 

See  Oordon'i  Mob 1780 

Memorable  storm  of  rain  and  thunder 

over  London  June  26,  1788 

Thanksgiving  of  Geoige  III.  at  St.  Paul's 

cathedral  ....  April  23,  1789 
London  Missionary  Society  .  .  .  1794 
Hone  patrol  in  London      .  .    .  1805 

Lord  Nelson's  ftineral  .     Jan.  9.  1806 

Riots  on  the  committal  of  air  F.  Burdett 

to  the  Tower    .        .  April  6,  1810 

Civic  banquet  to  the  allied  sovereigns  at 

GuUdhall  ....  June  18,  1814 
Gas-lights  used  in  London,  Aug.  1807 ; 

Pall  Mall  lighted  in  1809 ;  and  the  dty 

generally  lighted 1814 

Queen  Caroline's  funeral .        .  Aug.  14,  1821 
London  University  chartered.    See  Lon- 
don University  .        .  Feb.  11,  1826 
New  Metropolitan  police.        .  Sept.  29,  1829 
Memorable  political  panic,  Nov.  6 ;  and 

no  lord  mayor's  show  .  Nov.  9,  1830 

General  Past  on  account  of  the  cholera 

in  England    ....     Feb.  6,  1832 


The  cholera  officially  announced  to  exist 

in  London  Feb.  14,  18St 

Hungerford  market  opened  July  3,  1893 

Queen's  feast  at  Guildhall  .  .  Nov.  9,  1837 
Oxford  fires  at  the  queen.    See  Oi^ford** 

Attempt ,  drc June  10,  1840 

Francis's  attempt.  See  F^raadj^  Mav  30.  1S42 
Bean's  attempt         .        .  July  3,  184S 

Thames  Tunnel  opened  March  25.  1843 

Royal  Exchange  opened  .  .  Oct.  88,  1814 
Great  Chartist  demonstration  in  London. 

See  ChartuU  .  April  10.  1843 

Re-appearance  of  the  Aslatie  cholera  in 

the  city Oct  3.  1818 

A  pistol  fired  at  the  queen  on  her  return 

from  a  drive  May  19,  1849 

Lord  Mayor's  great  civic  banquet.    See 

Lord  Mayot't.  March  21,  1850 

Pate's  assault  on  the  queen  June  27,  1850 
Death  of  sir  Robert  Peel .  .  July  2.  1850 
Attack  upon  general  Haynau  Sept.  4,  1850 
Duke  of  Welungton  dies  Sept  14 ;  his 

f^eral  at  St  Paul's  (wAicA  Mr)  Nov.  18,  I85t 
Cab  strike  ....  July  27-29.  1853 
Visit  of  king  of  Portugal .  .  Mav  19.  1854 
Attack  of  cholera  .  Aug.  and  Sept  1854 
Meotinff  for  Patriotic  fund  .  Nov.  3,  1854 
Visit  of  Emperor  and  Empress  of  the 

French  ....  April  19,  1855 
The  queen  distributes  Crimean  medala» 

May  18.  1855 
Failure  of  Pftul,  Btrahan,  ft  Co.    (See 

Triala,  1865)     .  June  5,  1855 

Metropolitan   Local    Management   Act 

passed Aug.  14,  1855 

Visit  of  the  kii^  of  Sardinia  Nov.  SO.  1855 
Metropolitan    Board    of   Works,    fint 

meeting         ....    Dec  22,  1855 
Peace  proclaimed  April  29,  1850 
Grand  display  of  illuminations  and  fire- 
works     May  29,  1856 

The  Guards  re-enter  London  July  6,  1850 
Royal  British  Bank  stops  payment  (see 

BrUi$k  Bank)  .     Sept  4.  1856 

Meetings  of  unemployed  operatives  In 

Smitbfield        ....      Feb.  1357 

[See  England:  and  the  oceurrenoes  not 
noticed  here,  under  their  respective 
heads.] 


LONDON,  BISHOPRIC  of.  A  most  ancient  see,  archiepificopal  in  the  time  of  the 
Britons,  founded  about  a.d.  514,  when  Restitutus  was  first  bishop.  Pope  Oregorj 
intended  London  to  continue  archiepiscopal;  but  St  Auguatin,  whom  his  holioeaa  had 
sent  over  to  oonvert  the  Saxons,  was  so  pleaaed  with  his  reception  from  Ethelbert, 
king  of  Kent,  that  he  set  up  his  staff  at  Canterbury,  the  capital  of  Ethelberta 
dominions,  which  continues  the  metropolitan  see  of  England  to  thia  day.  London, 
however,  remained  a  bishopric,  and  haa  yielded  to  the  church  of  Rome  five  saints,  and 
to  the  realm  sixteen  lord  chancellors  and  lord  treasureia;  it  was  valued  in  the  king** 
hooka  at  1119/.  8f.  4(2.  per  annum, 

LONDON  BRIDOE,  OLD.  Some  kind  of  structure  is  said  to  have  existed  A.a  97S. 
A  bridge  was  built  of  wood,  1014,  which  was  partly  burned  in  1136,  and  afterwards 
repaired.  The  late  old  bridge  was  commenced  about  1176,  and  completed  ii.  1209, 
with  houses  on  each  side,  connected  together  by  large  arches  of  timber,  which  CtXMaed 
the  street.  This  bridge  was  the  scene  of  an  awful  catastrophe  in  1212.  A  fire  \ms^ 
pened  at  the  South wark  end,  which  brought  immense  crowds  from  London  tc  see, 
and  to  extinguish  it :  but  the  houses  at  the  north  end  of  the  bridge  caught  fire  like' 
wise,  which  prevented  their  return,  and  the  fire  at  the  south  end  prevented  '^bor 
advancing;  several  vessels  that  approached  to  take  them  off  were  sunk  by  <bv«r- 
crowding,  and  it  is  said  that  upwards  of  8000  persons  lost  ttieir  lives,  either  by  bJeins 
killed,  burnt,  or  drowned.  The  bridge  was  restored  in  1800,  and  again  waSere^hj 
fires  in  1471,  1632,  and  Sept.  1725  :  and  in  1756  all  the  houses  were  pulled 


t 


LON  S9S  LON 

The  waterworks  were  begun  in  1582,  and  caught  fire  and  were  destroyed  in  1774. 
The  toll  was  discontinued  Blaroh  27,  1782. 

LONDON  BRIDGE,  NEW.  The  first  pile  was  driven  200  feet  to  the  west  of  the  old 
bridge,  March  15,  1824 ;  and  the  first  stone  was  laid  by  the  lord  mayor,  aldennan 
Ghuratt,  June  15,  1825.  The  bridge  was  opened  by  William  IV.  and  his  queen,  going 
by  water,  attended  by  a  crowd  of  nobility,  and  amid  great  festivitiesy  Aug.  1,  1831. 
Its  length  is  928  feet,  and  within  the  abutments,  782  feet ;  the  span  of  the  centre 
arch  ia  152  feet,  and  of  the  side  arches  (of  which  there  are  two  on  each  side)  140  and 
130  feet ;  the  width  of  the  carriage-way  is  83}  feet,  and  of  the  abutments  at  the  base, 
73  feet.    The  cost  of  this  great  structure  was  506,0002. 

LONDON  CITIZENS.  Have  been  granted  many  privileges  and  immunities  from  the 
time  of  Wilham  the  Conqueror,  whose  first  charter,  granted  in  a.d.  1070,  Lf  still 
preserved  in  the  oity  archives.  This  charter  is  written  in  beautiful  Saxon  characters, 
on  a  slip  of  parchment  six  inches  long,  and  one  broad,  and  is  in  English  as  follows : — 
"  William  the  king  greeteth  William  the  bishop,  and  Godfrey  the  portreve,  and  all 
the  burgesses  within  London,  friendly.  And  I  acquaint  you,  that  I  will  that  ye  be 
all  there  law-worthy,  as  ye  were  in  king  Edward's  days.  And  I  will  that  every  child 
be  his  father's  heir,  after  his  father's  (Uys.  And  I  will  not  suffer  that  any  man  do 
you  any  wrong.  God  preserve  you."  This  is  the  first  of  nine  charters  granted  to 
London.  The  citizens  have  the  privilege  of  pleading  their  own  cause  in  the  courts  of 
judicature,  without  employing  lawyers  or  counsel,  except  in  pleas  of  the  crown,  by 
Stat  40  Hen.  III.  1257.Stow. 

LONDON  GATES.  The  original  walla  of  London  were  the  work  of  the  Romans. 
Theodosius,  governor  of  Britain,  is  said  to  have  raised  them  a.d.  370 ;  but  they  are 
supposed  to  have  been  built  about  306.  There  were  originally  four  principal  gates ; 
but  in  process  of  time,  as  new  roads  were  made,  the  number  increased ;  and  among 
others  were  the  Pmtorian-way,  Newgate,  Dowgate,  Cripplegate  (so  called  from  lame 
beggars  that  sat  there),  Aldgate,  AJdersgate,  Ludgate,  Bridgegate,  Moorgate,  Bishops- 
gate,  the  Postern  on  Tower-hill,  and  Temple-bar,  rebuilt  1670-2,  the  only  one  of  the 
city  boundaries  now  remaining. 

LONDON  STONE.  A  stone  placed  in  Cannon-street  by  the  Romans,  the  spot  being  then 
the  centre  of  the  city,  15  b.c.  Cheapside  was  at  this  period  in  the  suburbs. — Buim9, 
London  Stone  is  one  of  the  greatest  antiquities  of  the  city,  having  been  known  before 
the  time  of  William  I.  It  formerly  stood  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  way ;  but  the 
time  and  purpose  of  its  erection  are  alike  unknown.  Some  have  supposed  it  to  be 
the  spot  whence  the  Romans  measured  the  distance  of  their  several  stations.  It  was 
against  this  stone  that  Jack  Cade  struck  his  sword,  exclaiming,  "  Now  is  Mortimer 
lord  of  this  city,**  USO.^Zeigh, 

LONDON  UNIVERSITY.    See  UnivertUy,  Lmdtm, 

LONDON  UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE.  The  building,  originally  called  the  London 
University,  was  commenced  April  80,  1827 ;  and  was  opened  by  an  inaugural  lecture 
from  professor  Bell,  Oct.  1,  1828.  Its  plan  of  instruction  includes  a  junior  school, 
to  prepare  pupils  for  the  College ;  and  the  College  course  comprehends  arts,  law, 
medicine,  mathematics,  natural  philosophy,  and  languages.  In  Gordon  Square 
adjacent^  is  Univemty  HaU,  founded  in  1847,  where  divinity  and  moral  philosophy 
form  diitinct  courses.  On  the  application  of  the  London  University  for  a  charter, 
government  resolved  upon  granting  two  charters — one  for  the  establishment  of  a 
University  in  L<mdon  (au  the  article),  and  the  other  for  this  College,  both  ohartem 
being  granted  on  the  same  day,  Nov.  28,  1836 ;  the  latter  founded  on  a  deed  of 
settlement,  dated  Feb.  11,  1826,  of  what  was  then  called  the  London  University, 
which  title  was  formally  renounced. 

LONDONDERRY,  or  DERRY.  Mentioned  in  a.d.  5^6.  An  abbey  here  was  burned 
by  the  Danes,  in  783.  A  charter  was  granted  to  the  London  companies  in  1615. — 
The  town  wss  surprised,  and  sir  George  Powlett,  the  governor,  and  the  entire  garrison 
were  put  to  the  sword  by  rebels,  in  1606.  It  was  besieged  in  1641.  A  grant  was 
made  of  Derry,  with  210,000  acres  of  land,  to  various  companies  in  London,  in  1689, 
when  it  took  its  present  name.  Memorable  siege  of  Derry,  commenced  April  20, 
1689,  was  sustained  against  the  army  of  James  II.,  who  for  a  time  commanded  in 
person.  The  heroic  garrison  and  inhabitants  were,  on  this  memorable  occasion, 
driven  to  the  extremity  of  famine;  but  under  the  direction  of  the  rev.  George 
Walker,  they  defended  the  place  against  the  enemy  until  the  siege  was  raised  by  the 


LON 


894 


LON 


forces  of  the  duke  of  Schomberg.  James's  army,  under  the  French  general  Romb, 
retired  with  the  loss  of  about  9000  men,  after  harbg  practised  almost  unpsnlieled 
cruelties  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the  villages  around. 

LONE  STAR.  A  secret  society  called  the  order  of  the  Lone  Star,  formed  in  Alabama 
and  other  southern  states  of  the  North  American  union,  whose  object  is  dedand  to 
be  the  "  extension  of  the  institutions,  the  power,  the  influence,  and  the  oommeroe  of 
the  United  States  over  the  whole  of  the  western  hemisphere,  and  the  ialandi  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans."  The  first  acquisitions  to  be  made  by  the  order  ue 
Cuba  and  the  Sandwich  Islands.  The  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  this  society 
reached  England  in  August,  1852. 

LONQ  ISLAND,  BATTLE  of,  Ambrioa.  Between  the  British  troops,  under  sir  Williim 
Howe,  and  the  revolted  Americans,  who  suffered  a  severe  defeat,  after  a  well-fooght 
action,  losing  2000  men  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  1000  prisoners.  The  Ankerictai 
were  pursued  by  the  victors  in  their  retreat  to  New  York,  but  were  saved  under  eorer 
of  a  thick  fog  from  further  discomfiture,  Aug.  27, 1776. 

LONOEVITT.  Methuselah  died,  aged  969,  b.o.  2349  {GeiL  v.  27).  In  these  ooontria 
the  instances  of  it  are  remarkable,  though  rare.  (Colour  M*Crain,  of  the  Iile  of  Jon, 
one  of  the  Hebrides,  is  said  to  have  kept  180  Christmases  in  his  own  houee,  and  died 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  being  the  oldest  man  on  anything  approaching  to  autheDtic 
record  for  upwards  of  3000  years. — Greig.  Thomas  Parr,  a  labouring  man  of  Shrop- 
shire, was  brought  to  London  by  the  earl  of  Arundel,  in  1635,  and  coocidered  the 
wonder  of  his  time,  being  then  in  his  153rd  year,  and  in  perfect  health ;  bat  the 
journey  and  change  of  air  and  diet  killed  him,  Nov.  15,  the  same  yesr.  Heoiy 
Jenkins,  of  Yorkshire,  died  in  1670,  and  was  buried  in  Bolton-chureh-yard,  Dec.  fi, 
in  that  year,  aged  169  years. 


OTHER  BZTRAORDnrABT  IH8TAN0I8. 

1650.  James  Bowles,  Killingworth,  cv^ .  152 
1691.  Lady  Eccleston,  Ireland  .    .  143 

1749.  A  man  named  Collier.  Dublin         .  137 
1757.  An  Englishman   named   Eodetion 

(PhiL  TranM.) 144 

James  Shell,  Irish  veoman  .  186 

Colonel  Thomas  Winslow,  Ireland .  146 
John  Mount,  Scotland  .    . 

Francis  Conceist,  Burythorpe 
Mrs  Clun.  Lichfield    .        .        .    . 


1759. 
1766. 
1766. 
1768. 
1772. 
1774.  William  Beeby,  Dungarvon 

[Ho  had  been  an  ensign,  and  served 
at  the  battlee  of  the  Boyne  and 
Aughrim.  — BwHM.'] 


136 
150 
138 
ISO 


1775. 

1775. 

1776. 

1776 

1778. 

1779. 

1780. 

1780. 

1780. 


1782. 
1786. 
1787. 
1792. 
1792. 
1806. 
1806. 


Peter  Gordon,  Auchtcrlees         .  .  131 

Mary  Paton,  Lochwinnoch      .  .  188 

Mr.  Movet,  surgeon,  DumfHes  .  .  139 

Sarah  Brookman,  Glastonbury  .  166 

Thomas  Cockey,  Blechingley     .  .  132 

M  Lawrence,  Orkney     .  .  140 

Robert  Mac  Bride,  Herries         .  .  ISO 

Mr.  William  Ellis,  Liverpool  .  .  130 
Louisa  Truxo,  a  negress,  was  yet 
living  iu  this  year,  at  Tuouman, 

South  America        .  .  .  175 

Evan  Williams.  Carmarthen  .  .  145 

Cardinal  de  Soils.  .        .  .  110 

Mary  Brook,  of  Loek  .  148 

Mr.  Johnson,  of  Birmingham     .  .  120 

Mrs.  Judith  Scott,  Islington  .  .  162 

Mr.  Creeke,  of  Thurlow      .        .  .  125 

Mr.  J.  Tucker,  Ilching-ferry  .  .  131 


1806.  Catherine  Lopea,  of  Jamaica  .  .  1S4 
1806.  Sarah  Andetaon,  a  free  black .      .  UO 

1813.  Mrs.  Meighan,  Donooghmore    .    .  130 

1814.  Mary  Innes,  Isleof  Skye  .  .  UT 
1814.  Mra  Judith  Giawfoid,SpeaiihtowD  151 
1840.  Mrs.   Martha  Borke,  of  Droowre, 

county  of  Kildare,  Aug.  27 .      .133 
1853.  Mra.  Uaiy  Power  (aunt  of  the  late 
right  hon.  Rd.  Lalor  &MX  Umu- 
line  Consent,  Cork,  March  30    .  116 

[When  James  I.  visited  Hereford- 
shire, a  dance  called  the  Moriee 
dance  was  pwformed  in  Us  pre- 
sence by  five  men  and  five  troBien, 
whose  united  ages  amoonted  to 
upwards  of  a  thousand  yean. J 

iXiLMPLU  or  ix>KaxvTrT  twnsBMD  BT 
Dm.  J.  waaaraB,  r.B.a 

Bmrititl 


DUd. 

1666  Kumas  de  Cugna 

1588.  Jane  Britten    . 

1588.  ThomaaCan 

1621.  J.  Toratho 
1652.  Dr.  W.  Meade 


Bengal     .      .»« 

( Everereedi,)  ^ 

\     Somenet ) 

1  St.  Leonaid, )  m 

(    Shoraditeb)  "" 

Olamorganddre  160 

Wara.HerU.    14^ 

1688.  Elizabeth  Torathe  Glamorganshire  I" 

1724.  Peter  Torten 

1741.  J.  Rovin  . 
1741.  Jane  Bovln  . 


lit 


I  Temeswar,  ,  jg 
I     Hungaiy. ) 
Ditto     .      .   .17* 
Ditto.       .      .!« 


1739.  Maigaret Patten  {^.Ji^lS^}  ^ 

LONQITUDE,  determined  by  Hipparchus  at  Nice,  who  fixed  the  first  degree  in  tlie 
Canaries,  162  b.o.  Harrison  made  a  time-keeper,  in  a.d.  1759,  which  in  two  lopff^ 
was  found  to  correct  the  longitude  within  the  limits  required  by  theactof  parliiment^ 
12th  Anne,  1714;  and  in  1763  he  applied  for  the  reward  of  20,0002.  offered  bjtM 
act,  which  he  received.  The  celebrated  Le  Roi  of  Paris,  in  1776,  invented  a  mtdi 
that  keeps  time  better ;  and  the  chronometers  of  Arnold,  Earnshaw,  and  BrJeoet, 
bring  the  longitude  almost  to  the  truth.  Philosophers  have  sought  Uie  longifeiMeio 
▼ain ;  but  Newton  has  said  it  will  be  disooyered  by  a  fool.  Maps  which  reckon 
the  longitude  from  Ferro  require  18°  6'  to  be  added,  and  from  Paris  S'  26"  to  be 


LOO 


895 


LOR 


dedaetedy  to  reconcile  them  to  British  mape.    Act  repealing  the  act  relating  to  the 
diaoovoty  of  the  longitade  at  sea,  9  Geo.  lY.,  July  1828. 

LOOKING-GLASSES.    See  Mirran. 

LOOM-ENGINE.  The  weaver's,  otherwise  called  the  Dutch  loom,  was  brought  into  use 
in  London  from  Holland,  in  or  about  the  year  1676,  since  when  the  general  principle 
of  the  loom  has  been  infinitely  Taried  by  mechanical  ingenuity.  There  were,  in  1825, 
about  250,000  hand-looms  in  Great  Britain,  and  75,000  power-looms,  each  being  equal 
to  three  hand-looms,  making  twenty-two  yards  each  per  day.  We  have  no  means  of 
knowing  the  precise  niimbor  at  present ;  but  the  increase  must  be  prodigious,  and  the 
improToment  in  machinery  must  render  their  efficiency  not  less  so ;  the  cotton  manu- 
factures alone»  exported  in  1850  (exclusively  of  cotton  twist  or  yam),  amounting  to 
21,774,497^  sterling.    The  steam-loom  was  introduced  in  1807. 

LORD.  In  the  Old  and  New  Testan^ent,  Lord  is  a  particular  appellation  for  the  supreme 
majesty  of  Gk>d  and  Christ,  and  in  that  sense  cannot  be  applied  to  any  other  being. 
With  us,  it  is  a  term  of  nobility.  Bee  Lords  and  Baron,  The  etymology  of  this  word 
is  disputed.    See  LadUt,  , 

LORD  CHAMBERLAIN  of  the  HOUSEHOLD.    See  C^mberUUn,  Lord. 

LORD  DANE.  This  was  a  distinction  exacted  by  the  Danes  about  the  time  of  Ethelred  IL 
991.  It  was  in  the  reigns  immediately  subsequent  corrupted  into  Lordan,  and  given 
as  a  name  of  ignominy  to  the  lazy  Danes,  who  lived  on  fhe  sweat  of  the  Englishmen's 
brows ;  though  in  the  days  of  Ciuiute  and  others,  a  private  fellow  quartered  on  your 
house  exacted  the  title  of  Lord  Dane. — Bums. 

LORD  GREAT  CHAMBERLAIN  of  ENGLAND.  The  sixth  great  officer  of  state, 
whose  duties,  among  others,  relate  to  coronations  and  public  solemnities.  The  rank 
appertained  for  many  centuries  to  the  family  of  De  Vere,  earls  of  Oxford,  granted  to 
it  by  Henry  I.  in  1101.  On  the  death  of  John  de  Yere,  the  16th  earl,  Mary,  his  sole 
daughter,  marrying  lovd  Willoughby  de  Eresby,  the  right  was  established  by  a  judg- 
ment of  the  house  of  peers  in  that  nobleman's  family,  2  Charles  I.  1626.  On  the 
death  of  his  descendant,  unmarried,  in  July  1779,  the  house  of  lords  and  twelve 
judges  concurred  that  the  office  devolved  to  lady  Willoughby  de  Eresby,  and  her 
sister  the  lady  Gkorgina  Charlotte  Bertie,  as  heirs  to  their  brother  Robert,  duke  of 
Ancaster,  deceased ;  and  that  they  had  powers  to  appoint  a  deputy  to  act  for  them, 
not  under  the  degree  of  a  knight,  who,  if  his  majesty  approved  of  him,  might  officiate 
accordingly. — BtaUon, 

LORD  HIGH  ADMIRAL  of  ENGLAND.    See  article  Admiral, 

LORD  HIGH  CHANCELLOR  of  ENGLAND.  See  Chancery,  The  Lord  Chancellor 
ranks  after  the  princes  of  the  blood  royal  as  the  first  lay  subject.  Anciently,  the 
office  was  conferred  upon  some  dignified  clergyman.  Arfiutus  or  Herefast,  chaplain 
to  the  king  (William  the  Conqueror)  and  bishop  of  Elmham,  was  lord  chancellor  in 
1067. — Hardy.  The  first  personage  who  was  qualified  by  great  legal  education,  and 
who  decided  causes  upon  his  own  judgement,  was  sir  Thomas  More,  in  1580,  before 
which  time  the  office  was  more  that  of  a  high  state  functionary  than  the  president  of 
a  court  of  justice.  Sir  Christopher  Hatton,  who  was  appointed  lord  chancellor  in 
1587,  waa  very  ignorant,  on  which  account  the  first  reference  was  made  to  a  master 
in  1588.  In  England,  the  great  seal  has  been  frequently  put  in  commission  :  but  it 
was  not  until  1318  that  the  separate  and  co-existent  office  of  Vice-OkanceUor  was 
permanently  held.    See  Keeper,  Lvrd  ;  and  YiU'QkaiyMijTt, 

LORD  HIGH  CHANCELLORS  OF  ENGLAND. 


1516.  Tbonuis  Wolsev,   oazdinal  and  sroh- 

biflhop  of  York. 
1529.  Sir  Thomas  More. 
1632.  Sir  Thomas  Audlev,  keeper. 
153S.  Sir  Thomas  Audlav,  now  chancellor, 

created  lord  Aodley. 
1544.  Thomas*  lord  Wriothesley. 
1547.  WiUiam,  lord  St.  John,  keeper. 
—     Richard,  lord  Rich,  lord  ohanoeUor. 

1651.  Thomas  Goodrich,  bishop  of  Ely,  keeper. 

1652.  The  same ;  now  lord  ehanoellar. 

1653.  Stephen  Gardiner,  bishop  of  Winchester. 
1560.  Nicholas  Heath,  archbishop  of  York. 
166S.  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  keeper. 


Sir  Thomas  Bromley,  lord  chancellor. 
Sir  Christopher  Hatton. 
The  great  seal  in  commission. 
Sir  John  Puckering,  lord  keeper. 
Sir  Thomas  Egerton,  lord  keeper. 
Sir  Thomas  %erton,  now  lord  Biles- 
mere,  lord  chancellor. 

1617.  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  lord  keeper. 

1618.  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  created  lord  Vera- 
lam,  lord  chancellor. 

The  great  seal  in  commission. 
John,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  lord  keeper. 
Sir  Thomas  Coventry,  q/t«nMnIf  lord 
Coventry,  lord  keeper. 


157». 
1587. 
1601. 
1592. 
1590. 
1003. 


10S1. 
1025. 


LOR 


896 


LOR 


LORD  HIGH  CHANCELLORS  of  ENGLAND,  conimuid. 


1640.  Sir  John  FfBcfa,  i^/terward$  lord  Finch. 
1041.  Sir  Edwnrd  Lyttelton,  aJUrwardt  lord 

Lyitdton.  lord  keeper. 
IMS.  The  great  seal  in  the  hands  of  parlia- 

mentaxy  oommiasionen,  or  keepers. 
1646.  Sir  Richard  Lane,  royal  keeper. 
1646.  Again  in  the  hands  of  paniamentazy 

commissioners. 
1649.  In  oommiflsion  for  the  commonwealth. 

1663.  Sir  Edward  Herbert,  king's  lord  keeper. 

1664.  In  oommission  during  the  remainder  of 

the  commonwealUi. 

1660.  Sir  Edward  HydiL  lord  chancellor,  €i/Ur^ 
ward*  created  lord  Hyde  and  esn  of 
Clarendon. 

1667.  Sir  Orlando  Bridgman,  lord  keeper. 

167SL  Anthony  Ashley,  earl  of  Shaftesbury, 
lord  cnanoellor. 

1678.  Sir  Heneage  Finch,  lord  keeper. 

1676.  Heneage,  now  lord  Finch,  lord  chan- 
cellor ;  OifUntardi  earl  of  Nottingham. 

1682.  Sir  Francis  North,  created  lord  Guil- 
ford, lord  keeper. 

1685.  Francis,  lord  Guilford  ;  suooeeded  by 

—  George^  lord  Jeffreys,  lord  chancellor. 

1689.  In  commission. 

1690.  Sir  John  Treror,  kni.  sir  William  Raw- 

linson,  kut.  and  sir  Geoige  Hutchins, 
knt.  commissioners  or  keepers. 

1698.  Sir  John  Somcn^  lord  keeper. 

1697.  Sir  John  Somers,  created  lord  Sonofirs^ 
lord  chancellor. 

1700.  Lord  chief  justice  Holt^  sir  Georse  Treby, 
chief  Justice  0.  P.  and  chief  baron  Ar 
Edward  Ward,  lord  keepers^ 

—  Sir  Nathan  Wright,  lord  keeper. 
1705.  Right  hon.  William  Cowper,  lord  keeper, 

afterwardi  lord  Ck>wper. 
1707.  William,  lord  Gowper,  lord  chancellor. 
1710.  In  commission. 

—  Sir  Simon  Haroourt,  lord  keeper,  created 

lord  HuoourL 
1718.  Simon,  lord  Haroourt^  lord  chancellor. 
1714.  William,  lord  Cowper,  lord  chancellor. 
1718.  In  commission. 

—  Thomss,  lord  Parker,  lord  chancellor ; 

ajttrwardt  earl  of  Macclesfield. 
1725.  In  commission. 

—  Sir  Peter  King,  created  lord  King,  lord 

chancellor. 

17S8.  Hon.  Charles  Talbot,  created  lord  Tal- 
bot, lord  chancellor. 

1737.  Philip  Torke,  lord  Hardwieke,  lord 
chancellor. 

1756.  In  oommission. 

1757.  Sir  Robert    Henley,   aJUrward$    lord 

Henley,  lord  kee^ier. 


1761.  Lord   Henley,   lord   chaneeDar, 

ward4  earl  of  Northington 
1766.  Chariea,  lord  Camden,  lord  cbanoaDor. 
1770.  Hon.  Charles  Yorke,  lord  chaaeeilor. 


[CKatedlord  Hordan ;  died  within  thi 
days,  and  before  the  seals  were  pat  to 
his  patent  ctf  peerage.] 


1771. 


1778. 

1788. 

1788. 
1792. 
1798. 


lotd  Apslay. 


created   lord 


created      lord 


In  eommissioo. 

Hon.    Henry   Bathurst, 

lord  chancellor; 

Bathurst 
Edward  Thurlow,  created  lord  Thnrionv, 

lord  chancellor. 
Alexander,   krd  liooghbaraagli. 

othexv,  ootnmissiooeta. 
Edward,  lord  Thuiiow,  again. 
In  commission. 
Alexander,  lord   Looghborougb, 

chancellor. 
1801.  John,  lord  Eldom.  lord  chanoellor. 

1806.  Hon.    Thomas   Brskine, 

Erskine,  lord  chancellor. 

1807.  John,  lord  Kldon,  again. 
1827.  John   Singleton  Gbpley, 

Lyndhiust,  lord  cnanceOcr. 
1880.  Henry      Brougham, 

Brougham,  lord  chancellor. 
1834.  Lord  Lyndhurst,  again. 
1886.  Sir  Charles  Christopher  Pepys, 

of  the  roUa.  rice  rtianrellor  Shadwell, 

and  Mr.  Justice  Boaan<iueC»  C  P^ 

oommissionam. 
Sir  Charles  Christopher  Pspgn^  creatad 

lord    Cottenham.    krd    ^ta&oeUor. 

Jan.  16. 
Lord   Lyndhurst,   a  third  tinM    lord 

chancellor.    Sept.  8. 
1846.  Lord  Cottenham,  again  lord  dianeeUor. 

July  6. 

[His  lordship,  on  signiiying  his  iatan- 
tion   to  retirs,  June  19,  1850, 
created  eari  of  Cottenham  ] 

1850.  Lord  Langdale,  master  of  the  roOai, 
Launoeiot  ShadweU, 
of  England,  and  air  Robert 
Rolfe,  B.  E.,  oommiariooen  of  this 
great  seaL    June  19. 

—  ffir  Thomas  Wilder  created  lord  IVae^ 

lord  chancellor.    July  15. 
1852.  Sir  Edward  Susden,  created  loed  St. 
Leonarda,  lord  chaoodlor.    Febw  S7. 

—  Lord  Cranworth,  lord  chanodlor. 

28.     The  present  (IBS7)  lord 
oellor  of  England. 


1886. 


184L 


LORD  HIGH  CHANCELLOR  of  IRELAND.    The  earliert  nomination  of  a  lord 

oellor  in  Ireland  was  bj  Richard  I.,  a.d.  1189,  when  Stephen  Ridel  waa  derated  to 
this  rank.  The  office  of  Tice-ohanoellor  waa  known  in  Ireland,  but  not  aa  a  distiDet 
appointment,  in  the  reign  of  Heniy  IIL,  Gefirey  Turrille,  archdeaoon  of  Dubliiiy  being 
BO  named,  1282. 


LORD  HIGH  CHANCELLORS  OF  IRELAND. 
From  the  JUvUuiUm. 


1690,  Dec.  29.    Sir  Charles  Porter. 

1697,  Jan.  12.  Sir  John  Jeflreyson,  Thomaa 
Coote,  and  Nehemiah  DoneUan,  lords 
keepers. 

1697,  March  11.  J.  If  ethnen,  ancestor  of  lord 
Methuen. 

1697,  Dec.  21.  Edward  Bari  of  Heath.  Frands 
earl  of  Longford,  and  Morrongh  via- 
count  RlessiDgton,  lords  keepers. 

1702,  Aug.  86.  Lord  Methuen,  lord  chan- 
cellor, a  second  timei 


1708, 

1707. 
1710, 


1711. 
1714, 
1726. 


Oox,  baxt.;  r»- 


Aug.  6.    Sir  Riehaxd 

signed  in  1707. 
June  11.    Richard 
Nov.  28b    Robert,  earl  of  Kildar^  areh 

bishop  (Hoadley)  of    DubUn, 

Thomas  KeighUey,  lords  kecfiera. 
Jan.  22.    Sir  Conatantine  Fhippa; 

signed  Sept  1714. 
Oct  1.    Alan  Rrodiiok,  q/CmfwvCf  ▼!•- 

count  Middleton ;  resigned  May,  1 71ft. 
June  1.    Richard  West. 


LOR 


897 


LOR 


LORD  HIQH  CHANCELLORS  of  IRELAND,  continued. 


1797,  Dm.  SI.  ThomaaWvndham.a/lerwarete 
lord  Wyndham  of  Pinflaa 

1739,  Sept.  7.  Robert  Jocelyn,  afterward* 
lord  Newport  and  riscount  Jooelya ; 
the  latter  died  Oct.  25, 1766. 

1757,  March  23.  John  Bowes,  d(/t«nMrclilord 
Bowes,  of  Clonlyon ;  died  1767. 

1767,  Not.  84.  James  Hewitt,  o/tflvarcb 
Tiaooont  Lifford ;  died  April  28  1789. 

1789,  June  20.  John,  baron  Fitagibbon, 
«^Urward»  earl  of  Clare;  died  Jan. 
28,1802. 

1802,  Feb.  15.  John,  baron  Redesdale;  re- 
signed Feb.  1806. 

180<lv  Feb.  14.  Right  hon.  Qeotge  Ponsonby ; 
resigned  April,  1807. 

1807,  April  23.  Thomas,  lord  Manners,  pre- 
viously an  Engliah  baron  of  the  ex- 
chequer ;  resigned  Nov.  1827. 

1827,  Nov.  5.    lUght  hon.  sir  Anthon^T  Hart, 


previously  vice-chancellor  of  Bngland; 
resigned  Nov.  1830 ;  died  1831. 

1830,  Dec.  23.  William,  baron  Flunket ;  re- 
signed Nov.  1834. 

1835,  Jan.  13.  Right  hon.  sir  Edward  Borten- 
shaw  8u^en ;  resigned  April,  1835. 

18S5,  April  30.  William,  baron  Plunkot,  a 
second  time ;  resigned  June,  1841. 

1841,  June.      John,    baron   Campbell,    pre-' 
viously  attomey-general  of  Eugland; 
resiffned  Sept  1841. 

1841,  Oct.  Right  hon.  sir  Edward  Bnrten- 
shaw  Bugden,  a  second  time ;  re- 
signed July.  1846. 

1846,  July  16.    Right  hon.  Maziere  Brsdy. 

1852,  March.    Right  hon.  Francis  Blackburn. 

1853,  Jan.    Right  hon.  Madere  Brsdy,  sgain. 

The  present  (1857)  lord  chanoelfor  of 
Ireland. 


LORD  CHANCELLOR  of  SCOTLAND.  In  the  lawi  of  Maloolm  II.,  who  reigned 
A.D.  1004,  thia  officer  is  thus  mentiooed : — "  The  ChancelUr  sal  at  al  tymes  aasut  the 
king  in  giviog  him  couaaall  mair  seoreUy  nor  of  the  rest  of  the  nobility.  The  Chan- 
oelUr  ath  be  ludgit  near  unto  the  kingia  Graoe,  for  keiping  of  hia  bodie,  and  the  aeill, 
and  that  he  may  be  readie,  baith  day  and  nicht,  at  the  kingis  oommand." — Sir  Jamei 
Balfomr.  Evan  was  lord  chancellor  to  Maloolm  III.,  sumamed  Canmore,  in  1067 ;  and 
Jamea,  earl  of  Seafield,  afterwards  Findlater,  was  the  last  lord  chancellor  of  Scotland, 
the  office  having  been  abolished  at  the  union  in  1708. — ScoU, 

LORD  HIGH  CONSTABLE  of  ENGLAND.  The  seyenth  great  officer  of  the  crown, 
and,  with  the  earl  marshal,  formerly  a  judge  of  the  court  of  chivalry,  called,  in  the 
time  of  Henry  IV.,  curia  militarii,  and  subsequently  the  court  of  honour.  It  is  the 
fountain  of  the  marshal  law ;  and  the  power  of  this  officer  was  so  great,  and  such 
improper  use  was  made  of  it,  that  in  the  ISth  Richard  IL  a  statute  passed  for  abridg- 
ing it,  and  also  the  power  of  the  earl  marshal,  which  Me.  The  office  existed  before  the 
Cooquesty  after  which  it  went  by  inheritance  to  the  earls  of  Hereford  and  Essex,  and 
next  in  the  line  of  Stafford.  In  1521  it  became  forfeited  to  the  king  in  the  person  of 
Edward  Stafford,  duke  of  Buckingham,  that  year  attainted  for  high  treason,  and  has 
never  been  since  granted  to  any  person,  otherwise  than  pro  hoc  vice,  and  that  to  attend 
at  a  coronation,  or  trial  by  combat.  The  only  instance  of  a  trial  by  combat  being 
ordered  since  this  office  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  crown,  was  that  commanded  between 
lord  Reay  and  sir  David  Ramsay  in  November,  1631 ;  but  the  king  afterwards  pre- 
vented the  trial.    See  Congtable  of  Scotland,  and  Oombai. 

LORD  HIGH  CONSTABLE  of  SCOTLAND.  The  office  of  lord  high  constable  of 
Scotland  was  instituted  by  king  David  L  about  1147.  The  nobleman  holding  it 
obtained  two  grand  prerogatives,  vis. :  the  first  the  keeping  of  the  king's  sword, 
which  the  king,  at  his  promotion,  delivers  to  him  naked  (and  hence  the  badge  of  the 
lord  high  constable  is  a  naked  sword) ;  and  secondly,  the  absolute  command  of  the 
king's  armies  while  in  the  field,  in  the  absenoe  of  the  king.  The  jurisdiction  of  this 
office  came  at  last  to  be  exercised  only  as  to  crimes  during  the  time  of  parliament* 
which  some  extended  likewise  to  all  general  conventions.  The  office  was  conferred 
heritably  upon  the  noble  family  of  Erroll,  by  king  Robcot  Bruce,  and  with  them  it 
still  remains,  being  expressly  reserved  by  the  treaty  of  Union  in  1707. — Beatton, 

LORD  HIGH  STEWARD  of  ENGLAND.  The  first  great  officer  of  the  crown.  This 
office  was  established  prior  to  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  was  formerly 
annexed  to  the  lordship  of  Hinkley,  belonging  to  the  fiimily  of  Montfort,  earls  of 
Leicester,  who  were,  in  right  thereof,  lord  high  stewards  of  England ;  but  Simon  de 
Montfort,  the  last  earl  of  this  family,  making  a  bad  use  of  the  great  power  this  office 
gave  him,  raised  a  rebellion  against  his  sovereign,  Henxy  III.,  and  was  attainted,  and 
his  estate  forfeited  to  the  king.  That  prince  wisely  judging  the  power  too  vast,  (as 
in  the  hands  of  an  ambitious  subject  it  might  be  made  subservient  to  the  worst  par- 
poses),  in  a  great  measure  abolished  the  office  a.d.  1265.  It  is  therefore  now  revived 
only  pro  hae  vice,  to  officiate  at  a  coronation,  or  the  trial  of  a  peer.  The  first  after- 
wanls  appointed  was  Thomas,  second  son  of  Henry  IV.  The  first  for  the  trial  of  a 
peer  was  Edward,  earl  of  Devon,  on  the  arraignment  of  the  earl  of  Huntingdon,  in 
1 400.    See  Lord  Steward. 


LOR 


898 


LOR 


LORD  KEEPER  of  ENGLAND.  The  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  difiets  only  from 
the  lord  chancellor  in  this  point,  that  the  latter  hath  letten  patent,  wherois  the  lord 
keeper  has  nonet  Richard,  a  chaplain,  was  the  first  keeper  under  Ranulpfa,  in  1116. 
The  lord  keeper  has  the  like  juriBdiction,  and  all  other  adyantagee,  in  theained«gre« 
as  the  lord  high  chancellor  of  England,  5  Eliz.  1562. — CowelL    See  Lord  ChoMedhrt 

LORD  LIEUTENANT.    See  Ireland, 

LORD  LIEUTENANTS  or  COUNTIES.  The  dinaion  of  England  into  coontiai 
(as  well  as  into  hundreds  and  ty things)  is  ascribed  to  Alfred ;  but  there  if  evideooe 
that  some  counties  bore  their  names  and  had  those  diTisiona  150  years  earlier.  Lord 
lieutenants  for  counties  were  instituted  in  England  3  Edw.  YI.,  1549.— JKjfwr'i 
Fadera,  Act  for  the  constitution  of  lord  lieutenants  of  counties  in  Ireland,  pened 
2  Will.  IV.  c.  17,  Aug.  28,  1881. 

LORD  MATOR  of  LONDON.  At  the  time  of  the  defeat  of  Harold  by  Williaffl  L 
(see  ffaitingt),  the  chief  officer  of  London  was  called  port-reeve,  from  Saxon  trardi 
signifying  chief  governor  of  a  harbour.  He  was  afterwards  called  proTott;  bat  in 
Henry  II.'s  reign,  the  Norman  title  of  maire  was  brought  into  use,  and  soon  leodend 
Engluh  by  spelling  it  "  mayor."  First  presented  to  the  barons  of  the  exchequer, 
87  Hen.  IIL,  1251.  The  prefix  of  lord  was  granted  by  Edward  IIL,  with  the  style  of 
Right  Honourable,  in  1354.  Sir  John  Norman  was  the  first  lord  mayor  who  went  by 
water  to  be  sworn  at  Westminster,  1453*4.  Lord  Mayor's  show  was  institated  aune 
year ;  but  the  more  costly  pageants  and  triumphs  of  the  show  were  laid  aeide  m 
1685.*  At  first  the  mayor  was  chosen  for  life,  but  afterwards  for  periods  of  irngohr 
duration  :  now  he  is  chosen  annually,  but  is  eligible  for  re-election.  He  most  be  an 
alderman,  and  must  haye  previously  filled  the  office  of  sheriff.  The  following  m  the 
lord  mayors  of  London  from  the  year  1800 : — 


1800-1 

1801-2 

180S-3 

1803-4 

1804-6 

1806-« 

1806-7 

1807-8 

1808-9 

18'9.10 

1810-11 

1811-12 

181'2-lS 

1813-14 

181415 

1815-16 

181617 

1817-18 

1818-10 

1819-20 

1820-1 

1821-2 

1822-3 

1823-4 

1824-5 

1825-6 

1826-7 

1827-8 

1828-9 


(Nov. 


11 
It 
>• 
it 
t> 
f» 
»f 
>• 
»» 
tt 
•f 
*t 
it 
ft 
II 
tt 
If 
11 
•t 
If 
fi 
ft 
II 
ti 
If 
11 
ft 
II 


9)  Sir  William  Stainee. 
Sir  John  Earner. 
Charies  Price. 
John  Perring. 
Peter  Porchard. 
Sir  James  Shaw. 
Sir  WUlium  Leighton. 
John  Ainaley. 
Sir  Charles  Flower. 
Thomas  Smith. 
Joshua  Jonathan  Smith. 
Sir  Claudius  Stephen  Hunter. 
Geoive  Scholey. 
Sir  William  Domvflle,  hart. 
Samuel  Birch. 
Matthew  Wood. 
Matthew  Wood,  a  second  time. 
Christopher  Smith. 
John  Atkina. 
Gooi^  Brydges. 
John  T.  Thorpe. 
Christopher  Magnay. 
William  Heygate. 
Robert  Waithman. 
John  Oarratt 
William  Venablea. 
Anthony  Browne. 
Matthias  Prime  Lucas. 
William  Thompson. 


182»^ 

(Not. 

1830-1 

II 

1831-2 

tf 

18313 

f» 

1833  4 

II 

1834-6 

ti 

1835-6 

i( 

1836-7 

ti 

1837-8 

II 

1838-9 

II 

1839-40 

tt 

1840-1 

II 

1841-2 

II 

1842-8 

ti 

1843*4 

It 

1844-5 

.i 

1845-6 

II 

1846-7 

II 

1847-8 

If 

1848-9 

It 

1849-50 

tt 

1850-1 

11 

1851-2 

II 

1852-3 

•1 

1863-4 

If 

1854-5 

II 

1855-6 

If 

1856-7 

fi 

9)  John  Crowder. 
Sir  John  Key,  hart  * 
Sir  John  Key,  bail,  agiin.  * 
Sir  Peter  Laaria 
Charles  Farebrother. 
Henry  Winchester. 
Wm.  Taylor  Gopelaod. 
Thomas  Kelly. 
Sir  John  Cowan,  bsit 
Samuel  Wilson. 
Sir  Clhapman  MsnhsQ. 
Thomas  Johnson. 
John  Pirie,  created  a  bsrooet 

April  19. 1842. 
J.  Humpheiy. 
air  W.  Magnay,  bsit 
Michael  Oibfaa 
John  Johnson. 
Sir  Oeoive  OsirolL 
John  K.  Hooper. 
Sir  James  Duke,  M.P. 
Thomas  Famcombe. 
Sir  John  MnsBEi^^*- 
William  Hunter. 
Thonoas  Challis,  M.P. 
Thomas  Sidney. 
Sir  F.  O.  Moon. 
David  Salomona 
Thomas  Quested  Finnic- 


LORD  MATOR  of  DUBLIN.  John  le  Decer  was  appomted  first  proYoet  in  1808.  A 
gilded  sword  granted  to  the  chief  magistrate  to  be  borne  before  him,  by  Henry  Vf^ 
1407.  Thomas  Cusack  appointed  first  mayor,  1409.  The  collar  of  SS.  and  a  foot 
company  granted  by  Charles  II.  to  the  mayors,  1660.  Sir  Daniel  Bellingbtm,  the 
first  mayor  honoured  with  the  title  of  lord,  bj  Charles  XL,  who  granted  5001  pff 


LOR  899  LOR 

aDnam  in  Ilea  of  Hm  company  of  foot,  1665.    A  new  collar  of  SS.  granted  by  William 
IlL  to  the  mayor,  value  10002.,  the  former  having  been  lost  in  Jamee  IL'b  time,  1697. 

LORD  MAYOR  of  YORK.  The  title  of  <oni  to  the  first  eivio  magistrate  is  one  peculiar 
to  London,  Dublin,  and  York.  The  prefix  of  lord  was  given  to  the  mayor  of  York, 
which  city  is  a  county  in  itself,  by  Richard  II.  York  enjoys  lai^ge  privileges,  confirmed 
to  it  by  a  long  succession  of  kings. 

LORD  STEWARD  of  the  KING'S  HOUSEHOLD.  An  officer  of  great  antiquity, 
having  the  sole  direction  of  the  king^s  house  below-stairs  :  he  has  no  formal  grant  of 
his  office,  but  receives  his  charge  from  the  sovereign  in  person,  who,  delivering  to 
him  a  white  wand,  the  symbol  of  his  office,  says,  "  Senetmal  tenez  le  bdton  de  notre 
flMRjon."  This  officer  has  been  called  lord  steward  since  ▲.D.  1540  ;  he  was  previously 
to  the  Slst  of  Henry  VIII.  styled  grand  master  of  the  household.  The  lord  high 
steward  is  an  officer  granted,  for  many  centuries  past,  pro  hae  viee  only,  for  a  coronation, 
or  the  trial  of  a  peer.    See  Lord  High  Sieward  of  England, 

LORDS.  The  now  recognised  nobility  of  England  take  their  creation  from  the  let  of 
William  the  Conqueror,  1066,  when  William  FitE-Osbom,  the  first  peer,  was  made 
earl  of  Hereford ;  Walter  Devereux  made  earl  of  Salisbury ;  Copsi,  earl  of  Northum- 
berland ;  Henry  de  Ferrers  made  earl  of  Derby,  and  Oerbodus  (a  Fleming)  made  earl 
of  Chester.  Twenty-two  other  peers  were  meide  in  this  sovereign's  reign.  Peers  of 
England  are  free  from  all  arrests  for  debts,  as  being  the  king  s  hereditary  counsellors. 
Therefore  a  peer  cannot  be  outlawed  in  any  civil  action,  and  no  attachment  lies 
against  his  person ; .  but  execution  may  be  taken  upon  his  lands  and  goods.  For  the 
same  reason,  they  are  free  from  all  attendance  at  courts  leet  or  sheriff's  turns;  or,  in 
caae  of  a  riot,  from  attending  the  potte  eomiiatuB,    See  Baron;  Earl;  ftc. 

LORDS,  HOUSE  of.  The  peers  of  England  were  summoned  ad  contufendum,  to  consult, 
in  early  reigns,  and  were  summoned  by  writ,  6  &  7  John,  1205.  The  commons  did 
not  form  a  part  of  the  great  council  of  the  nation  until  some  ages  after  the  Conquest. 
— Hwne.  Deputies  from  certain  boroughs  were  returned  to  meet  the  barons  and 
clergy  in  1258. — CMdmifh,  And  writs  are  extant  of  the  date  of  Jan.  23, 1265;  but 
aevenil  historians  maintain,  that  the  first  regular  parliament  of  the  three  estates,  as 
now  constituted,  was  held  22  Edw.  L  1293-4.  The  house  of  lords  includes  the 
spiritual  aa  well  as  temporal  peers  of  Sogland.  The  bishops  are  supposed  to  hold 
certain  ancient  baronies  under  the  king,  in  right  whereof  they  have  seats  in  this  house. 
The  temporal  lords  consist  of  the  several  degrees  of  nobility :  some  sit  by  descent,  as 
do  all  ancient  peers;  some  by  creation,  as  all  new-made  peers ;  and  others  by  election, 
since  the  union  with  Scotland  in  1707,  and  with  Ireland  in  1801. — Scotland  elects  16 
representative  peers,  and  Ireland  4  spiritual  lords  by  rotation  of  sessions,  and  28  tem- 
poral peers  for  life.  The  house  of  lords  now  (1857)  consists  of  3  princes,  20  dukeii, 
23  marquesses,  182  earls,  27  viscounts;  and  214  baronsi,  temporal  peers;  and  80 
spiritual  peers ;  in  all,  449. 

LORDS  JUSTICES  of  thb  COURT  of  APPEAL  m  CHANCERY.  Two  judges  of 
recent  appointment,  to  give  more  efficiency  to  the  administration  of  justice  in  the 
court  of  chancery ;  and  having  rank  next  after  the  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer.  By 
14  ft  15  Vict,  c  83  "  From  Oct.  1, 1851,  the  power  exercised  by  the  lord  chancellor  in 
the  court  of  chancery,  to  be  exercised  by  the  court  of  appeal ;  one  judge  sittins  with 
the  lord  chancellor,  or  the  two  judges  sitting  together,  to  form  a  court  of  appeu;  but 
the  lord  chancellor  sitting  alone  to  have  a  co*oniinaie  jurisdiction.*'  The  rt.  hoif.  J. 
L.  Knight  Bruce  and  lord  Cranworth  (afterwards  lord  chancellor)  were  the  first  lords 
justices;  the  latter  succeeded  by  sir  0.  J.  Turner  1853, — (the  present  justices,  1857). 

LORRAINK  It  took  its  name  from  Lotharius,  son  of  the  emperor  Lotharius,  and  was 
given  to  the  prince  as  an  independent  duchy,  a.d.  851.  The  lingdom  was  eventually 
divided  in  the  tenth  century  into  two  parts.  Lower  Lomine  was  governed  by  its 
dukes,  afterwards  dukes  of  Brabant,  until  Brabant  became  united  with  Burgundy  in 
1429.    Lorraine  was  finally  annexed  to  France  in  1766. 

LORBTTO.  Here  is  the  Caaa  Santa,  or  Holy  House,  in  which  it  is  pretended  the 
Virgin  Mary  lived  at  Nazareth.  According  to  the  legend,  it  was  carried  by  angels 
into  Dalmatia  from  Qalilee  in  1291,  and  next  brought  here.  The  famous  lady  of 
Loretto  stands  upon  an  altar,  holding  the  infant  Jesus  in  her  arms,  and  is  surrounded 
with  gold  lamps,  whose  glare  conceals  her  &ce.  She  is  doUied  with  cloth  of  gold,  set 
off  with  jewels,  with  which  the  little  Jesus,  though  in  a  shirt,  is  covered  also.  Loretto 
was  taken  bv  the  French  in  1796,  and  the  holy  image  carried  to  fiance;  but  it  was 
brought  back  with  pious  pomp,  and  welcomed  with  the  discharge  of  cannon  and  the 


L'OR  400  LUN 

ringing  of  bells,  borne  in  procession  to  the  holy  house  on  a  rich  frame,  resting  on  tha 
shoulders  of  eight  bishops,  Jan.  6,  1803. 

L'ORIENT,  BA.TTLE  of.  Lord  Bridport  aehiered  a  memorable  Ttctorj  off  this  port 
over  the  French  fleet,  June  23, 1795.  The  British  squadron  actually  engaged  con- 
sisted of  ten  ships  of  the  line ;  the  enemy's  force,  of  twelve  ships  of  the  line,  eleven 
frigates,  and  some  smaller  vessels;  after  an  action  of  three  hours  (from  6  p.m.  till  9) 
the  French  got  into  the  port,  leaving  three  sail  of  the  line,  the  Alexander,  Le  For- 
midable, and  Le  Tigre,  in  the  possession  of  the  victors ;  the  loss  of  the  French  was 
severe ;  that  of  the  British  inconsiderable. 

LOTTERY,  STATE.  The  first  mentioned  in  English  history  began  drawing  at  the 
western  door  of  St  Paul's  Cathedral,  Jan.  11,  1569,  and  continued  day  and  night 
until  May  6  following.  It  contained  40,000  '*  lots,*'  at  lOt.  each  lot  The  profiU  were 
for  repairing  the  fortifications  on  the  coast  of  England,  and  the  prises  were  pieoea  of 
plate.  The  first  lottery  mentioned  for  sums  of  money  took  place  in  1630.  Lotteries 
were  established  in  1693,  and  for  more  than  130  years  yielded  a  large  annual  revenue 
to  the  crown.  The  Irish  state  lottery  was  drawn  in  Dublin  in  1780.  All  lotteri«8 
were  suppressed  in  France  by  a  decree  of  the  national  coovention,  Nov.  15,  1793. 
They  were  abolished  in  Oct  1826 ;  and  an  act  was  passed  imposing  a  penalty  of  50/. 
for  advertising  foreign  or  any  lotteries  in  the  British  newspapers,  6  &  7  WiU.  IT. 
Aug.  1886.    See  next  aHicU, 

LOTTERIEa  That  for  the  British  Museum  took  place  in  1753.  Cox's  valuable 
museum,  containing  many  rare  specimens  of  art  and  articles  pf  vertu,  was  disposed 
of  by  lottery,  under  an  act  passed  June  16, 1773.  An  act  passed  for  the  sale  of  the 
buildings  of  the  Adelphi  by  lottety,  June  16,  1773.  Lottery  for  the  Leverian 
Museum,  1784-5.  For  the  Pigot  diamond,  permitted  Jan.  2,  1801 ;  it  afterwards  sold 
at  Christie's  auction  for  9500  guineas.  May  10, 1802.  For  the  collection  of  alderman 
Boydell,  a  great  encourager  of  the  arts,  and  who  had  been  a  popular  lord  mayor  of 
London,  by  act  1804-5.  The  last  lotteries  drawn  in  Qreat  Britain  were  the  Glasgow 
lotteries  in  1834.  See  Olasgow,  An  act  passed  4  &  5  Will.  IV..  1834  dedaced,  (hat 
the  then  pending  Glasgow  lottery  should  be  the  last  permitted  to  be  drawn. 

LOUIS-D*OR.  The  Louis  of  gold,  a  French  coin  of  24  francs,  was  first  struck  by 
Louis  XIII.  in  1640.  The  value  of  this  coin  was  originally  about  twenty  shillings. — 
Spectator,  Its  value  has  fluctuated  with  the  storms  of  revolution  and  the  IneideDts 
of  time,  between  15ji.  4d  and  22&  8ci. — Athe,  The  Louis^'or  was  superseded  by  the 
Napoleon  of  Bonaparte,  of  about  the  same  intrinsic  value. 

LOUISIANA.  Discovered  by  Ferdinand  de  Soto  in  1541.  It  was  traversed  by  AL  de 
Salle  in  1682,  and  settled  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1718.  Ceded  to  Spain' at  the  peace  of 
1763,  when  all  east  of  the  Mississippi  was  given  to  England.  Restored  to  Frauoe  in 
1802 ;  and  sold  by  France  to  the  Americans  in  1803.  Louisiana  became  a  member 
of  the  United  States,  in  1812. 

LOUVRE.  This  renowned  edifice  in  Paris  was  a  royal  residence  in  the  reign  of  Dago- 
bert,  A.D.  628 :  but  Francis  I.  laid  the  foundation  of  what  is  now  called  the  Old 
Louvre,  1522.  Here  Napoleon  deposited  the  finest  collection  of  paintings,  statues, 
and  treasures  of  art  known  in  the  world.  The  chief  of  them  were  brought  from  Italy: 
the  most  of  them  have  since  been  restored  to  the  rightful  possessors.  The  magnifi- 
cent buildings  of  the  New  Louvre,  begun  by  Napoleon  L  and  completed  by  Napoleon 
III.  were  inaugurated  by  the  latter,  in  great  state,  Aug.  14,  1857. 

LOYALTY  LOANS.  There  were  several  of  these  raised  during  the  revolutionary  and 
Bonapartean  wars ;  but  one  instance  so  peculiarly  marked  the  spirit  and  devotion  of 
the  British  people,  that  it  is  referred  to  as  the  Loyalty  loan ;  a  subscription  loan  was 
opened  in  London  on  the  5th  Dec.  1796,  and  in  fifteen  hours  and  twenty  minutes  the 
sum  of  eighteen  millions  sterling  was  subscribed,  thus  demonstrating  the  wealth  and 
patriotism  of  England,  and  hearty  concurrence  of  her  people  in  the  war. 

LUDDITES.  Large  parties  of  men,  under  this  designation,  commenced  their  depredations 
at  Nottingham,  breaking  frames  and  machinery.  Skirmish  with  the  military  there. 
Jan.  29, 1812.  Several  serious  riots  occurred  again  in  1814 1  and  numeroua  bodies  of 
these  people,  chiefly  unemployed  artisans,  conmiitted  great  excesses  in  1816,  d  teq, 

LUNATICSb  See  article  IntanUy,  Statutes  were  enacted  regarding  the  ears  and 
property  of  lunatics,  17  Ed.  IL,  cc.  9, 10, 1324,  et  teq.  By  15  Geo.  II.  c  30, 1742,  the 
marriages  of  lunatics  were  declared  void.  The  numerous  acts  respecting  lunatics  were 
consolidated  and  amended  by  16  &  17  Vict  cc  70,  96,  97,  passed  Aug.  15  &  20, 1853. 


LUN  401  LUX 

LUNATICS,  eotUmued. 

LUNATICS  IN  CHARGE  IN  ENGLAND,  JAN.  1,  1855. 

Private.  Paupsr. 

Hale.     Femala.  Male.     Female.  Total. 

County  Asylams                      .    .      13S           US  6008         7318  13,579 

HoepiCals 895           728  91             94  1.803 

Liceuaed  houses       ....    1448         1350  1034         1279  5,111 

2475  2196  7133  8689  80,493 

In  1851,  thero  were  in  Ireland  nearly  15,000  lunatics  of  all  claaseB;  in  Scotland  in 
1851,  8362  in  charge ;  in  1855,  7403 ;  of  which  only  3328  were  under  the  protection 
of  the  law. 

LUND-HILL,  near  Bamsley,  in  South  Torkahire.  One  of  the  most  destructive  coUiery 
exploeions  on  record  occurred  here,  Feb.  19,  1857>  While  the  miners  were  dining 
in  the  pit  the  inflammable  gas  took  fire  and  exploded.  About  180  miners  perished. 
In  April  and  May  bodies  were  still  being  extricated.  There  was  great  laxity  of 
discipline  in  the  pit. 

LUKEYILLE,  PEACE  of.  Concluded  between  the  French  republic  and  the  emperor 
of  Qermauy,  confirming  the  cessions  made  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  stipulating 
that  the  Rhine,  to  the  Dutch  territories,  should  form  the  boundary  of  France,  and 
recognising  the  independence  of  the  Batavian,  Helvetic,  Ligurian,  and  Cisalpine 
rapublics,  Feb.  9, 1801. 

LUFERCALIA.  A  yearly  festival  observed  at  Rome,  on  Feb.  15,  in  honour  of  Pan,  first 
instituted  by  the  Romans,  according  to  Plutarch ;  but  according  to  Livy,  brought  by 
Evander  into  Italy.  Naked  youths  ran  through  the  streets  with  whips,  lashing  all 
whom  they  encountered,  even  women,  who  received  the  stripes  with  inclination, 
believing  that  they  removed  barrenness  and  eased  the  pains  of  childbirth.  Augustus 
forbade  all  persona  above  the  age  of  fourteen  to  appear  naked  during  this  festivaL 
Cicero,  in  his  PhiUppict,  reproaches  Anthony  for  having  disgraced  the  dignity  of  the 
consulship  by  appearing  naked  on  one  of  these  occasions. —  Varro,  These  feasts  were 
oontLnu<»d  till  a.d.  496,  when  pope  Gelasius  abolished  them,  on  account  of  the  great 
disordeiB  and  indecencies  that  were  committed  in  their  celebration. — Pardon. 

LUSTRUM.  An  expiatory  sacrifice  made  for  the  whole  body  of  the  Roman  people,  at 
the  end  of  every  five  years,  after  the  census  had  been  taken,  572  b.o.  Every  five 
years  were  called  a  Itutrum;  and  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty  years  were  commonly 
expressed  by  two,  three,  or  four  Ittttra. 

LUTHERANISM.  Sprung  up  in  Germany  in  1517,  in  which  year  Leo  X.  published  his 
indulgences  for  money';  and  Iccelius,  a  Dominican  friar,  who  waa  deputed  with  others 
of  his  order  to  collect  in  Saxony,  carried  his  zeal  to  such  a  height  as  to  declare  his 
commission  unbounded ;  that  no  crime  could  be  committed  too  great  to  be  pardoned, 
'and  that,  by  purchasing  indulgences,  not  only  past  sins,  but  those  which  were 
intended,  were  to  be  forgiven.  Against  these  practices  Luther  openly  preached  with 
wonderful  success,  and  thus  began  the  Reformation  in  Germany. 

LUTZEN,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  French  army  commanded  by  Napoleon  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  combined  armies  of  Russia  and  Prussia,  commanded  by  general 
Wittgenstein,  fought  May  2, 1813.  This  sanguinary  battle  opened  the  campaign  of 
that  year ;  and  though  each  of  the  adversaries  claimed  the  victory,  it  was  manifestly 
on  the  side  of  France ;  but  in  this  engagement  marshal  Duroc  was  mortally  wounded. 
The  battles  of  Bautsen  and  Wurtzen  immediately  followed  (May  20  and  26),  both  in 
favour  of  Napoleon,  when  the  allies  were  compelled  to  pass  the  Oder,  and  an  armistice 
waa  agreed  to,  and  afterwards  prolonged ;  but  unfortunately  for  the  French  emperor 
it  did  not  produce  peace. 

LUTZENGEN,  OB  LUTZEN,  BATTLE  of.  This  is  also  called  the  battle  of  UppUadl, 
which  see. 

LUXEMBURG.  Once  considered  the  strongest  fortress  in  the  world.  It  was  taken  and 
pillaged  by  the  French  in  1543 ;  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1544 ;  by  the  French 
in  1684 ;  and  restored  to  Spain  in  1697.  It  was  again  taken  by  the  French  in  1701 ; 
and  afterwards  given  to  the  Dutch  as  a  barrier  town,  and  ceded  to  the  emperor  at 
the  peace  in  1713.  These  are  among  the  chief  occurrences.  Luxemburg  withstood 
several  sieges  in  the  last  century ;  it  surrendered  to  the  French  after  a  long  and 
memorable  siege,  June  7,  1795.    The  garrison,  on  their  capitulation,  took  an  oath 

D  D 


LUX 


402 


LYI 


not  to  serve  against  the  republic  of  France  until  exchanged,  and  were  condiietod  to 
the  right  side  of  the  Rhine  immediately  after. 

LUXURY.  The  inatances  of  extravagance  and  luxury  are  numeroua  in  the  history  of 
almost  all  countries,  ancient  and  modem,  and  many  laws  have  been  enforced  to 
repress  them.  Horace  mentions  fowls  dressed  in  Falemian  wine,  mussels  and  oysters 
from  the  Lucrine  lake  and  Circean  promontory,  and  black  game  from  the  Umbrian 
forests. — Laardner,  Lucullus,  at  Rome,  was  distmguished  for  the  immoderate  expenses 
of  his  meals;  his  halls  were  named  from  the  different  gods;  and  when  Cicero  and 
Pompey  attempted  to  sui^rise  him,  they  were  amased  by  the  coBtliness  of  a  aupper 
which  had  been  prepared  upon  the  word  of  Lucullus,  who  merely  ordered  his 
attendnnts  to  serve  it  in  the  hall  of  Apollo ;  this  feast  for  three  persons  casually  met, 
would  Lave  sufficed  for  three  hundred  nobles  specially  invited.  In  flngland,  luxury 
was  restricted  by  a  law  wherein  the  prelates  and  nobility  were  confined  to  two  oonrves 
every  meal,  and  two  kinds  of  food  in  every  course,  except  on  great  festivals.  The 
law  also  prohibited  all  who  did  not  enjoy  a  free  estate  of  100/.  per  annum  from 
wearing  furs  (see  Fara),  skins,  or  silk ;  and  the  use  of  foreign  oloth  was  confined  to 
the  royal  family  alone;  to  all  others  it  was  prohibited,  ad.  1337.  An  edict  wm 
issued  by  Charles  VI.  of  France,  which  said,  "  Let  no  man  presume  to  treat  with 
more  than  a  soup  and  two  dishes,"  1340. 

LYCEUM.  The  Lyceum  took  its  name  from  its  having  been  originally  a  temple  of 
Apollo  Lyceus;  or  rather,  a  portico,  or  gallery,  built  by  Lyceus,  son  of  Apollo. 
The  Lyceum  was  a  celebrated  spot  near  the  banks  of  the  IIiebus,  in  Attica,  where 
Aristotle  taught  philosophy  ;  ana  as  he  generally  taught  his  pupils  while  he  walked, 
they  were  hence  called  peripatctict,  tpaHers-abcut,  and  his  philosophy  was  called  from 
this  plaoe  the  philosophy  of  the  Lyceum,  342  ao. — Stanley. 


LYDIA.    A  very  ancient  kingdom  under  a  long  dynasty  of  kings,  the  last  of  whom 
CrcesuB,  whose  riches  became  a  proverb :  he  was  conquered  by  Cyrus,  648  B.a     Tho 
coinage  of  mooey  of  gold  and  silver  (together  with  many  other  u^ul  inventions^  and 
the  encouragement  of  commerce)  is  ascribed  to  the  Lydians. 


Argon,  a  deBceodant  of  Hercules,  reigns 

in  hydia.— Herod b.o.  1223 

Tho  kingdom  of  Lydia,  properly  ao  called, 

■  bogina  under  Ardysus  I. — Blair  .  .  797 
A  lyattos  reigns  .....  761 
Meles  commences  his  rule  .    *  .        .    .    747 

Reign  of  Candaules 735 

Gyges,  first  of  the  race  called  Mermnadie, 
puts  Candaules  to  death,  marries  his 
queen,  usurps  the  throne,  and  makes 

great  conquests 718 

Ardysus  II.  reigns;  the  Cimbri  besiege 

Sardis.  the  capital  of  Lydia  .        .        .680 
The  Milesian   war  commenced   under 
Oyges,  is  continued  by  Sadyattes,  who 

reigns 681 

Reiguof  AlyattesII 619 

Battle  upon  the  river  Halys  between  the 
Lydians  and  Medea,  intercepted  by  an 
almost  total  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which 
suporstitiously  occasions  a  conclusion 
of  the  war.— ^M<r    .  May  28,    685 

[This  eclipse  had  been  predicted  many 
yean  before  by  Thales  of  Miletus. — 
Blair.] 


Croesus,  son  of  Alyattea,  succeeds  to  the 
throne,  and  becomes  celebrated  ior  his 
victories  and  conquests        .        .  B.C.    562 

Ephesus  falls  into  his  hands ;  the  loniaiM, 
iEuUans,  and  other  parts  of  Asia  Miaor 
aro  subjected  to  his  dominion         .    .    554 

AH  the  nations  west  of  the  Halys  are 
conquered,  and  that  river  becomes  the 
boundary  of  the  kingdom. — Blair       .    550 

CrtBsu^  dreading  the  power  of  Qyrua, 
whoee  conquests  haa  reached  to  the 
borders  of  Lydia.  crosses  the  Halys  to 
attack  the  Medea,  with  an  anuy  of 
420,000  men,  and  60,000  hone        .    .    548 

He  is  defeated  by  Cyrus,  pursued,  be- 
sieged in  his  capital,  and  taken  .        .    54S 

The  conqueror  orders  Croesus  to  be 
burned  alive,  and  the  pile  is  already 
on  fire,  when  he  oslls  on  the  name  of 
SoUm  m  agony  of  mind,  and  C^roa 
hearing  him  pronounce  it,  spares  his 
life 548 

Lydia,  the  kingdom  of  the  "richest  of 
mankind,"  is  made  a  province  of  the 
Persian  empire      .....    548 


^8op,  the  Phrygian  fabulist,  Alcman,  the  first  Greek  poet  who  wrote  in  a  style  of 
gallantry,  Thales  of  Miletus,  Anazimenes,  Xenopbanes,  Anacreon  of  TeoB,  Heiaclitui 
of  Ephesuft,  &c.,  flourished  in  Lydia.  The  country  remained  subject  to  the  Penian 
empire  until  the  latter  was  conquered  by  Alexander,  about  330  B.G.  It  next  became 
part  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Pcrgamus,  founded  by  Philseterus,  the  eunuch.  Attains 
afterwards  bequeathed  it  to  the  Romans,  and  finally  the  Turks  conquered  it  from  the 
Eastern  empire,  a.d.  1^26,'^PrieitUy. 

LYING-IN  HOSPITALS.  The  first  of  these  valuable  institutions,  of  a  public  and 
general  kind,  was  established  in  Dublin  by  Dr.  Bartholomew  Mosse,  an  eminent 
physician,  who,  notwithstanding  he  had  to  contend  againbt  the  strongest  prejudices, 
avowed  opposition,  and  great  public  clamour,  pushed  bis  benevolent  purpose  to 
success,  and  achieved  a  victory  for  humanity  by  building  the  fine  hospital  in  Dublin, 


LYM  403  MAG 

under  this  name.  The  first  iiiatitation  was  opened  March,  1746;  and  the  present 
h<Mpital  in  December,  1757.  The  British  Lying-in  hospital  was  founded  in  1740 ; 
Queen  Charlotte's  Lying-in  hospital  in  1752 ;  the  General  Lying-in  hospital  in  1766; 
and  besides  these,  are  other  similar  charities  in  London. 


LYMPHATIC  YESSELa  The  slender  pellucid  tubes  carried  into  the  glands  of  the 
mesentery,  receiving  first  a  fine  thin  lymph  from  the  lymphatic  ducts,  which  dilute 
the  chylous  fluid. — C^eyne,  These  vessels  were  found  by  Jaspar  Asellius  in  1622 ; 
he  published  his  dissertations  on  the  subject  in  1627. — iVouv.  Diet.  Discovered  in 
oviparous  animals  by  Dr.  Hewson,  who  disputed  the  honour  of  the  discovery  with 
Dr.  Munro,  1762. 

LYNCH  LAW.  Punishment  inflicted  by  private  individuals  without  the  forms  of  law. 
It  derives  its  name  from  John  Lynch,  a  farmer  who  exercised  it  upon  the  fugitive 
slaves  and  criminals  dwelling  in  the  "dismal  swamp,"  North  Carolina,  when  they 
committed  outrages  upon  persons  and  property  which  the  colonial  law  could  not 
promptly  repress.  This  mode  of  administering  justice  began  about  the  end  of  the 
1 7th  century  and  still  exists  in  the  outlying  provinces  of  the  United  States. 

LYONS.  Founded  by  L.  Plancus,  48  b.o.  The  dtv  was  reduced  to  ashes  in  a  single 
night  by  lightning,  and  was  rebuilt  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  Two  general  councils  were 
held  here  in  the  Idth  and  14  th  centuries.  The  silk  manufiicture  commenced  in  the 
reign  of  Francis  I.,  1616.  Lyons  was  besieged  in  1793  by  the  Convention  army  of 
60,000  men,  and  surrendered  Oct.  7,  when  awiul  scenes  of  blood  and  rapine  followed. 
The  National  Convention  decreed  the  demolition  of  the  city  Oct.  12,  same  year.  It 
capitulated  to  the  Austrians,  March  1814,  and  July  1816.  An  insurrection  among  the 
artisans,  which  led  to  great  popular  excesses  for  many  days,  broke  out,  Nov.  21, 1831. 
Dreadful  riots,  April  16,  1834.  A  dreadful  inundation  occurred  at  Lyons,  Nov.  4, 
1840.    See  luwndaiiont, 

LYRE.  Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  the  Qredan  Mercury,  who,  according  to  Homer,  gave 
it  to  A  polio,  the  first  that  played  upon  it  with  method,  and  accompanied  it  with  poetry. 
The  invention  of  the  primitive  lyre,  with  three  strings  is  due  to  the  first  Egyptian 
Hermes.  Terpander  added  several  strings  to  the  lyre  making  the  number  seven,  673  b.o. 
PhryniSy  a  musician  of  Mltylene^  added  two  more,  making  nine,  438  B.O. 

M. 

MACABONI.  This  name  was  given  to  a  poem  by  Theop.  Folengo,  1617,  and  it  continues 
to  designate  trifling  performances,  ss  bufiboneiy,  puns,  anagrams,  "wit  without  wisdom, 
and  humour  without  sense."  His  poem  was  so  called  from  an  Italian  cake  of  the  same 
name,  pleasant  to  the  taste,  but  without  any  alimentary  virtue.  These  poems  became 
the  reigning  taste  in  Italy  and  France,  where  they  gave  birth  to  Mocanmi  academiei, 
and  reaching  England,  to  Macaroni  cluba^  till,  in  the  end,  everything  ridiculous  in 
dress  and  manners  was  called  "  Macaroni,"  about  ▲.D.  1620. 

MACCABEES,  a  family  of  patriotic  Jews,  who  commenced  their  career  during  the 
persecution  of  Antiochua  Epiphanef,  b.o  167,  when  Mattathias  a  priest  resisted  the 
tyranny  of  the  governor.  His  son  Judas  Maccabaus  defeated  the  Syrians  in  three 
battles,  B.a  166, 166;  but  fell  in  an  ambush,  B.a  161.  His  brother  Jonathan  made 
a  league  with  the  Romans  and  LacedsBmonians,  and  alter  an  able  administration,  was 
treacherously  killed  at  Ptolenuus  by  Tryphon,  b.c.  143.  His  brother  and  successor, 
Simon,  was  also  murdered,  B.a  136.  John  Hyrcanus,  son  of  Simon,  succeeded.  His 
son  Judas,  Mlled  also  Aristobulus,  took  the  title  of  king,  B.C  107.  The  histoiy  of 
the  Maccabees  is  contained  in  five  books  of  that  name,  two  of  which  are  included  in 
our  Apocrypha,  and  are  accounted  canonical  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  but 
not  by  Protestant  communions. 

MACE.  Anciently  used  by  the  cavalry  of  most  nations.  This  weapon  was  originally  a 
club  fixed  in  the  saddle,  and  was  usually  blunt,  and  of  metal.  Maces  were  sJso  early 
ensigns  of  authority  borne  before  officers  of  state,  the  top  being  made  in  the  form  of 
an  open  crown,  and  commonly  of  silver  gilt.  The  lord  chancellor  and  speaker  of  the 
house  of  commons  have  maces  borne  before  them.  Edward  III.  granted  to  London 
the  privilege  of  having  gold  or  silver  maces  carried  before  the  lord  mayor,  sheriffs, 
aldermen,  and  corporation,  1364.  It  was  with  the  mace  usually  carried  before  the 
lord  mayor  on  state  occasions,  that  Walworth,  lord  mayor  of  London,  knocked  the 

dd2 


MAC 


404 


MAC 


rebel  Wat  Tyler  off  his  horde,  a  courtier  afterwardk  despatching  him  with  hia  dagger, 
for  rudely  approaching  Richard  II.,  1381.  Cromwell,  entering  the  house  of  commons 
to  disperBe  its  members  and  dissolve  the  parliament,  ordered  one  of  hia  aoldien 
to  *'  take  away  that  fool's  bauble,  the  mace,"  which  was  done,  and  the  doon  of  the 
house  locked,  April  20,  1653. 

HACEDON,  EMPIRE  of.  The  first  kingdom  was  founded  by  Caranas,  about  8U  b.g. 
It  was  an  inconsiderable  country,  sometimes  under  the  protection  of  Athens,  some- 
times of  Thebes,  and  sometimes  of  Sparta,  until  the  reign  of  Philip,  the  £ith«r  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  who  by  his  wisdom  as  a  politician,  and  exploits  as  a  gaoenl, 
made  it  a  powerful  kingdom,  and  paved  the  way  to  his  son's  greatness.  Macadon  liad 
twenty-one  kings,  from  Caranus  to  Alexander  inclusive.  After  the  conqueror'a  daatb, 
when  his  dominions  were  divided  among  his  generals,  Casaander  seized  Maoedon,  and 
established  a  new  kingdom. 


Reign  of  Caranus  .        .        .B.C.    814 

Reign  of  Perdiccos  1 7'i9 

Reignof  Argieiu  1 67S 

Reign  of  Philip  I WO 

Reign  of  iEropas ;  he  oonquera  the  Illy- 

rians 602 

Reign  of  Amyntas 547 

Reign  of  Alexander  1 497 

Reign  of  Perdiccas  II 451 

Archelaus,    natural   son  of  Ferdicciis, 

niiirdera  the  legitimate  heirs  of  his 

&ther,  and  seizes  the  throne  413 

He  is  murdered  by  a  favourite,  to  whom 

he  promised  his  daughter  in  marriage, 

yet  gave  her  to  another  .        .        .    .    899 

Reigiiof  Amyntaa  II 899 

He  is  driven  from  the  throne  .     .    898 

Recovers  his  throne,  and  puts  Pauaanlas 

to  death 897 

The  Illyriana   enter   Macedonia,  expel 

Amyntas,  and  put  Arureus,  brother  of 

Pau8aniafl,  on  the  throne  .  .  .  392 
Amyutas  again  recovers  his  kingdom    .    390 

Reign  of  Alexander  II 371 

He  is  assassinated 370 

Reign  of  Perdiccas  III 366 

He  is  killed  in  battle       ....    860 
Reign  of  Philip  II..  and  institution  of 

the  Macedonian  Phalanx  .    .    860 

Philip  gains  the  battle  of  Methon  over 

the  Athenians 860 

He  defeats  the  Illyriana  ...    359 

He  takes  Amphlpolis,  and  receives  an 

arrow  in  his  right  eye.  See  Archery  .  858 
He  conquers  Thrace  and  lUyria .  .  .  356 
Birth  of  Alexander  the  Great .  .  .356 
Philip  adds  to  his  conquests  .  .  .  848 
Close  of  the  first  Sacred  war  ...  848 
Illyrioum  overrun  by  the  army  of  Philip  344 
Thrace  made  tributary  to  Macedon  .  843 
Aristotle  appointed  tutor  to  the  young 

prince  Alexanrier 348 

War  against  the  Athenians     ...    341 
Philip  besieges  ByEantium  .    .    341 

Battle  of  Ciueronea;  Philip  conquers. 

Sec  Charonea 838 

Philip  is  assassinated  by  Pauaanias  at 

Egsea,  during  the  celebration  of  games 

in  honour  or  his  daughter's  nuptials  .  336 
Alexander  III.,   sumamed   the  Great, 

succeeds  his  fkthor       ...        .        .886 

He  enters  Greece 335 

The  Greeks  appoint  him  general  of  their 

armies  against  the  Persians  .    335 

The  Thobans  revolt ;  he  levels  Thebes  to 

the  ground  ;  the  house  of  Pindar  is 

alone  left  standing 835 

The  Almighty  favours  Alexander  with  a 

vision,  in  which  the  high  priest  of  the 

Jews  ap()ears  to  him,  exhorting  him 

to  iMss  into  Asia.  8ee/etp«  .  .  834 
He  passes  into  Asia,  and  gains  his  first 

battle  over  Dariiu.    Bee  Graakui  .    .    334 


Sardis  surrendera  to  the  conqueror ;  Ba- 
li carnassus  is  taken,  and  numerous 
cities  in  Asia  Minor  .        .  ac.   iU 

Memnon  ravages  the  Gyclades;  Darius 
takes  the  field  with  460,000  infautiy, 
and  100.000  cavalry S3S 

Battle  of  Ia8U8(i0/^«c)  .       .   8SS 

Alexander,  on  his  way  to  Egypt,  lays 
siege  to  Tyre,  which  is  destroyed  after 
seven  months 8^3 

Damascus  is  taken,  imd  the  vast  trea- 
sures of  Darius  come  into  the  posMS* 
sion  of  the  victor 33! 

Gaza  surrenders 332 

Alexander  enters  Jerusalem ;  and  Egypt 
conquered S3S 

Alexandria  founded S3A 

Great  battle  of  Arbela,  the  third  and  last 
between  Alexander  and  Darius;  the 
Persian  army  totally  defeated.  See 
ArMa 331 

Alexander  proclaimed  master  of  Asia ; 
he  enters  Babylon  in  triumph       .    .   331 

OBEOIAW  OB  ICACBDOKIAK  EXntS. 

Alexander  sits  on  the  throne  of  Dariui^ 

at  Suaa 330 

Porthia  and  Hyrcania  are  overran  by 

Alexander 

Thalestris,  queen  of  the  Amasons,  visits 

him,  attended  by  a  retinue  of  300 

women.    See  Amazons 
He  puts  his  friend  Parmenlo  to  death, 

on  a  chaige  of  conspiracy,  supposed  to 

be  false 3tt 

Alexander  makes  more  conquests  .      •    338 
His  expedition  to  India ;  Porua,  kinf  of 

India,  is  defeated  and  taken ;  and  the 

country  as  far  as  the  Ganges  is  overrun 
Gallisthenes  is  put  to  the  torture  fix 

refusing  to  render  divine  homage  to 

Alexander 3% 

Subjection  of  the  Cosseans .  .    .   SM 

Death  of  Alexander  .       .   32) 

His  conquests  are  divided  among  his 

genenuia 3S3 

Hu  remains  are  trannported  to  Alexsn- 

dria,  and  buried  by  rtolemy 
The  Greeks  defeated  bv  sea  and  land 

near  Cranon  (wAuA  ^er)    .        ... 
Thebes  rebuilt  by  Csasander  . 
Seleucus  recovers  Babylon .       ... 
Cassander  puts  Roxana  and  her  son  to 

death,  uid  usurps  the  throne 
Battle  of  Ipsus  (tohieh  tte)   .        ... 
New  division  of  the  empire     . 


3^ 


329 


Sff 


332 

S« 

315 
815 

811 
901 
301 


II. 


394 


XAOXDOK 

Death  of  Cassander 

Reign  of  Alexander  and  Antipater 
Demetrius    murders    Alexandra',    sud 

seizes  the  crown  of  Macedon  .       •    *   ^ 
Irruption  of  the  Gauls     .        .       .       •    ^ 


MAC 


405 


MAD 


MACEDON,  EMPIRE  of,  eontinued, 

Beignof  AntigoDuaOonatuB      .        B.O.  277 
Pyrrhua  invndes  llacedon,  dereata  Antl- 

gunua,  and  ia  proclaimed  king     .  274 

F^^hua  alain  ;  Antigouua  restored   .    .  1:72 

Antigonua  takes  Athena ....  268 

The  Gaula  again  inTado  Xacedon       .    .  268 

Revolt  of  the  Part  hiana  ....  260 


Reign  of  Demetriua  11.               .        bc.  S4S 

Reign  of  Philip,  his  eon   ....  232 

His  war  against  the  Uhodiana   .        .    .  202 

Philip  is  dufeated  by  the  Roniaus  .        .  198 

He  ia  totally  subdued 196 

The  reign  of  Perseua        .        .        .        .179 

Perseus  defeated  by  the  Romana  •    .    .  171 


Tbe  consul  JEmWins  Paulus  entered  Macedon,  and  pronounced  it  a  Homan  province. 

PerseuB  and  hia  sons  were  made  prisoners,  168  B.c.  and  next  year  walked  in  chains 

b  efore  the  chariot  of  .£miliu8  in  his  triumph  for  the  conquest  of  Macedon.    The 

country  is  finally  conquered  by  the  Turks  under  Amurath  IL  in  a.d.  1429. — Priestley, 

MACHIAYELIAN  PRINCIPLES.  Those  laid  down  by  Nicholas  Machiavel,  of 
Florence,  in  his  Practice  of  Politia,  and  The  Prince,  By  softae  they  are  stigmatised 
as  **  the  most  pernicious  maxims  of  government,  founded  on  the  vilest  policy ; "  and 
by  others  aa  ''sound  doctrines,  notwithstanding  the  prejudice  erroneously  raiud 
against  them."    The  work  appeared  in  1517 ;  and  was  translated  into  English  in  1761. 

MADAQASCAR.  One  of  the  largest  islands  in  the  world,  discovered  by  Lorenzo 
Almeida,  a.d.  1606.  The  French  have  often  attempted  to  settle  on  this  island,  but 
generally  with  little  success.  Their  most  permanent  establishment  was  at  Fort 
Dauphin,  but  it  fell  along  with  Bourbon  and  Mauritius.  The  French  were  defeated 
in  an  attack  on  this  island  Oct.  19,  1865.  In  the  centre  of  the  island  is  said  to  exist 
a  race  of  dwarfs,  with  a  strange  peculiarity  of  form ;  but  this  rests  on  the  unsupported 
statement  of  a  French  traveller  who  was  in  possession  of  a  preserved  pigmy  which  he 
bad  brought  from  Madagascar.  A  paper  deFcribing  the  pigmy  was  presented  to  the 
Royal  Society  by  an  eminent  physician,  in  1809. 

MADEIRA,  an  island  on  the  coast  of  Africa^  so  called  on  account  of  its  woods  :  it  was 
discovered,  it  is  said,  by  Mr.  Macham,  an  English  gentleman,  or  mariner,  who  fled 
from  England  for  an  illicit  amour.  He  was  driven  here  by  a  storm,  and  his  mistress, 
a  French  lady,  dying,  he  made  a  canoe,  and  carried  the  news  of  hia  discovery  to 
Pedro,  king  of  Arragon,  which  occasioned  the  report  that  the  island  was  discovered 
by  a  Portuguese,  a.d.  1845.  But  it  is  maintained  that  the  Portuguese  did  not  visit 
ibis  island  until  1419,  nor  did  they  colonise  it  until  1481.  It  was  taken  possession 
of  by  the  British  in  July,  1801 ;  and  again,  by  Admiral  Hood  and  general  (afterwards 
TiBcount)  Beresford,  Dec  24,  1807,  and  retained  in  trust  for  the  royal  family  of 
Portugal,  which  had  just  then  emigrated  to  the  Brazils.  It  was  subsequently  restored 
to  the  Portuguese  crown. 

MADRAS.  Called  by  the  natives  Chennapatam.  Colonised  by  the  English,  and  Fort 
George  built  by  permission  of  the  king  of  Golconda,  17  James  1. 1620.  Madras  was 
taken  by  the  French  in  1746,  and  was  restored  in  1749,  immediately  after  the  peace 
of  Aix-la^Chapelle.  Madras  is  now  one  (the  second)  of  the  three  presidencies  of  our 
great  Indian  Empire.    For  occurrences  not  mentioned  below,  see  article  India, 


FcHt  St.  Qeorgt  made  a  presidency  a.d.  1654 
Bengal  pUced  under  Madras  .    .  1668 

Calcutta,  whidi «  aa  hitherto  subordinate 
to  Maonui,  ia  now  made  a  presidency. 
Mayor's  court  founded  .       .    . 

Hadnui  taken  by  the  French  . 
Restored  to  the  English  .  .  .  . 
Besieged  by  the  French  .  .  Dec.  12, 
Hyder  marches  to  Madras  .  .  April, 
Sir  John  Liudsav  arrives  .  July, 
He  is  succeeded  by  sir  R.  Hartlond  Bopt. 
Sir  Eyre  Coote  arrives  .  .  Nov.  6, 
He  defeats  Hyder  .  July  1, 

liord  Macartney  arrives  as  governor  of 

Madras June  22, 

The  Madras  government  arrests  general 

8tuart,who  is  forthwith  sent  tuEngland  1783 
Lord  Comwallis  vlsiU  here     .    Dec  12,  1790 
JSir  Charles  Oakley  sucoeeda  gen.  Mea- 
dows as  governor  Aug.  1, 
Aasiaes  ordered  twice  yearly  . 
Ixnd  Momington  (afterwarda  the  Mar- 
quees Wellesley)  visits  here     .      Dec. 
General  Harris  with  the  Madras  army 
enten  Mysore                      .  March  5,  1799 


1701 
1726 
1746 
1749 
1758 
1769 
1770 
1771 
17»0 
1781 

1781 


1792 
1793 

1798 


He  arrives  with  his  forces  at  Seringa- 
patam       ....        M^^^  ^t  1*^^ 

Seringapatam  is  stormed  by  the  British 
under  roajoi>gener&l  Baird,  and  Tippoo 
Baib  killed     ....      May  4,  1799 

Appointment  of  sir  Thomas  Strange 
first  judge  of  Madras  under  tbe  charter 
of  justice  ....         Doc.  26,  1800 

A  fire  consumes  upwards  of  1000  houses 
in  Madras      ....         Feb.  1803 

The  Madras  army  tmder  general  Arthur 
Wellesley  (afterwards  duke  ot  Welling- 
ton) marches  for  Poonah.        .  March,  1803 

General  Wellesley's  victories  follow.  8ee 
JudiOj  &c 1803 

Mutiny  among  the  British  forces  at 
Vellore ;  near  800  sepoys  are  exe- 
cuted       ....        JaxL  31,  1807 

Mutiny  of  the  ^t>ops  at  Madras      .        .  1809 

Arrival  of  lord  Mmto  at  Madras,  who 
publishes  a  general  amnesty,  8ept  29.  1809 

Awftil  hurricane,  by  which  the  ships  at 
anchor  were  driven  into  the  town,  and 
seventy  sail  sunk,  many  of  them  with 
ttteir  crews    ....         May,  1811 


MAD 


406 


MAO 


[For  BubaeqiMiit  eventa  in  eonneetkni 
with  thia  presidency,  see  article 
India.] 


MADRAS,  continued. 

Madius  attacked  by  the  Findarees     .    .  1817 
Appoinbnent  of  the  re^.  Dr.  Corrie,  first 

bishop  of  Madras^  under  act  3  It  4 

Will  IV.  c.  85       .        .        .    Feb.  14,  1885 

MADRID.    Mentioned  in  history  as  a  castle  belonging  to  the  Moon.    It 

A.D.  1109.  It  was  made  the  seat  of  the  Spanish  court  in  1516.  The  EseiiriRl 
built  in  1557  et  teg.  The  old  palace  was  burnt  down  in  1734.  The  French  took 
possession  of  this  city  in  March  1808,  after  the  royal  family  had  retired  into  Fisnoe, 
and  on  May  2,  the  citizens  rose  up  in  arms  to  expel  them,  when  a  dreadful  conflict 
and  carnage  took  place.  Joseph  Bonaparte  entered  Madrid  as  kmg  of  Spain,  July  20, 
1808;  but  soon  retired.  Retaken  by  the  French,  Dec.  2,  same  year;  and  retained 
till  Aug.  12, 181^  when  Madrid  ¥rBS  entered  by  the  British  army.  Ferdinand  YII. 
was  restored,  May  14, 1814.  Madrid  was  the  scene  of  yarious  occurrences  daring  the 
late  civil  war,  for  which  see  Spain, 

MAESTRICHT.  This  city  revolted  from  Spain  1570,  and  was  taken  by  the  prince  of 
Parma  in  1579.  In  1632,  the  prince  of  Orange  reduced  it  after  a  memorable  aiege, 
and  it  was  confirmed  to  the  Dutch  in  1648 ;  Lewis  XIY.  took  it  in  1673;  WUliam 
prince  of  Orange  invested  it  in  vain,  in  1676 ;  but  in  1678  it  was  restond  to  the 
Dutch.  In  1748  it  was  besieged  by  the  French,  who  were  permitted  to  take  poaaea* 
sion  of  the  dty  on  condition  of  its  being  restored  at  the  peace  then  negotiating.  At 
the  commencement  of  1793,  Maestricht  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  the  French, 
but  they  became  masters  of  it  towards  the  end  of  the  following  year.  In  1814,  it  was 
delivered  up  to  the  allied  forces. 

MAGAZINE,  a  miscellaneous  periodical  publication.  There  are  now  magazines  devoted 
to  nearly  eveiy  department  of  knowledge.  The  following  are  the  dates  of  the  first 
publication  of  the  principed  magasines.— See  Reviewt  and  Newtpapart. 


Gentleman's  Magazine    ....  1731 

London  Magazine 1732 

Boots  Magazine 1789 

Royal  Magazine 1759 

Court  Magazine 1760 

Gospel  Magazine 1768 

Lady's  Magazine 1772 

European  Magazine 1788 

Methodist's  Magazine      ....  1784 


ETangelical  Magazine 
Monthly  Magazine  . 
Philosophicsl  Magazine 
Blackwood's  Magaune 
New  Monthly  Magazine 
Fraser'e  Magazine    . 
Metropolitan  Magazine 
Penny  Magazine 
Tait's  Magazine   . 


1799 
179S 
1796 
1817 
1819 
1830 
1831 
188S 
1883 


MAQDALEKS  avd  MAQDALENETTES.  Communities  of  nuns  and  women,  the  latter 
class  consisting  chiefly  of  penitent  courtesans.  The  convent  of  Naples  was  endowed 
by  queen  Sancha»  a.d.  1824.  That  at  Mets  was  instituted  in  1452.  At  Pkris,  1492. 
The  Magdalen  at  Rome  was  endowed  by  pope  Loo  X.,  in  1515 ;  and  Clement  Vill. 
settled  a  revenue  on  the  nuns,  and  further  ordained  that  the  effects  of  all  public 
prostitotes  who  died  without  will  should  fall  to  them,  and  that  those  who  made  wills 
should  not  have  their  bequests  sanctioned  by  the  law  unless  they  bequeathed  a  part 
of  their  effects  to  the  Magdalen  Institutions,  which  part  was  to  be  at  least  ono  fifth, 
1594.  The  Magdalen  Hospital,  London,  was  founded  in  1758,  principally  under  the 
direction  of  Dr.  Dodd.    The  Asylum  in  Dublin  was  opened  in  June,  1766. 

MAGELLAN,  STRAITS  of.  They  were  passed  by  Ferdinand  Magellan  (Fernando  de 
Magelha^ns),  a  Portuguese,  with  a  fleet  of  discovery  fitted  out  bj  the  emperor 
Charles  Y.,  in  1519.  The  first  voyage  round  the  world  was  undertaken  by  this  illos- 
trioua  navigator ;  and  his  vessel  performed  the  enterprise,  althtfugh  the  commander 
perished.  The  Spaniards  had  a  fort  here,  since  called  Gape  Famine,  becuise  the 
garrison  had  all  perished  for  want  of  food. 

MAQI,  OR  WORSHIPPERS  OF  FIRR    The  prime  object  of  the  adoration  of  the 
Persians  was  the  invisible  and  incomprehensible  Qod,  whom,  not  knowing,  they 
worshipped  as  the  principle  of  all  good,  and  they  paid  particular  homage  to  fire,  as 
the  emblem  of  his  power  and  purity.    They  built  no  altars  nor  temples,  as  they 
deemed  it  absurd  to  pretend  to  confine  an  omnipresent  Qod  within  walls;  aeoo^rd* 
ingly  their  sacred  fires  blazed  in  the  open  air,  and  their  offerings  were  made  upon  ftibe 
earth.    The  Magi  were  their  priests,  and  their  skill  in  astronomy  rendered  the  secMs 
of  nature  familiar  to  them,  so  that  the  term  Magi  was  at  length  applied  to  all  learLsi 
men,  till  they  were  finally  confounded  with  the  magicians.    Zoroaster,  king  of  Bact  jtt, 
was  the  reformer  of  the  sect  of  the  Magi :  he  fiounshed  1080  B  a 


MAO  407  MAU 

MAQIC  LANTERN.  Thn  was  the  inyention  of  the  iUustrioiu  Roger  Bmou,  England'B 
great  pbiloaopher,  about  a.d.  1260.  Bacon  first  inveDted  the  convex  magnify ing- 
glaKes  in  1252;  and  he  afterwards,  in  his  many  experiments,  applied  them  to  this 
use.  The  improYoments  on  Bacon's  magic  lantern,  and  the  adi^tation  of  it  to  Tarious 
scientific  purposes,  continue  to  be  made  to  this  day. — Atke, 

HAOKA  CHARTA.  The  great  charter  of  English  liberty  may  be  »aid  to  have  been 
derived  from  Edward  the  Confessor,  continued  by  Henry  I.  and  his  successors, 
Stephen,  Henry  II.,  and  John.  But  the  charter  more  particularly  meant,  was  a  body 
of  laws,  the  great  charter  of  our  rights  granted  by  John  and  signed  at  Runnymede, 
near  Windsor,  June  15, 1215.  The  barons  took  arms  to  enforce  this  sacred  posies* 
fion,  which  was  many  times  confirmed,  and  as  frequently  violated,  by  Henry  III. 
This  last  king's  grand  charter  was  granted  in  the  9th  year  of  his  reign,  1224,  and  was 
assured  by  Edward  I.  It  is  remarked,  that  when  Heniy  III.  granted  it,  he  swore  on 
the  word  and  fiiith  of  a  king,  a  Christian,  and  a  knight  to  observe  it  For  this  grant 
a  fifteenth  of  all  movable  goods  were  given  to  the  king,  whether  they  were  temporals 
or  spirituals ;  yet  sir  Edward  Coke  sayn,  that  even  in  his  days  it  had  been  confirmed 
aboTe  thirty  times.    See  FcrttU,  Charter  of  the. 

HAGNESIA.  This  white  alkaline  earth  need  in  medicine,  of  gently  purgative  properties, 
was  in  use  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  it  was  sold  by  a  Roman 
canon  as  Magnesia  alba.  The  propertiet  of  this  substance  were  fully  developed  by 
Dr.  Black,  about  1755. 

MAGNETISM.  The  attractive  power  of  the  loadstone  or  magnet  was  early  known,  and 
is  referred  to  by  Homer,  Aristotle^  and  Pliny ;  it  was  also  known  to  the  Chinese  and 
Arabians.  Roger  Bacon  is  said  to  have  been  acquainted  with  its  property  of  pointing 
to  the  north  (1294).  The  invention  of  the  mariner's  compass  is  asciibed  to  Flavio 
Gioia,  a  Neapolitan,  about  1300 ;  but  it  was  known  in  Norway  previous  to  1266 ;  and 
is  mentioned  much  earlier  in  a  French  poem,  1150.  Robert  Norman,  of  London,  dis- 
covered the  dip  of  the  needle  about  1576.  Gilbert's  treatise  on  the  magnet  was 
published  in  1600;  and  Halley's  in  1688.  The  variation  of  the  compass  was 
observed  by  Bond,  in  1668;  the  diurnal  variation  by  Graham,  in  1722;  on  which  latter 
Canton  made  4000  observations  previous  to  1756.  Artificial  magnets  were  made  by 
Dr.  G.  Knight,  in  1756.  In  1786  Coulomb  constructed  a  torsion  balance  for  deter- 
mining the  laws  of  attraction  and  repulsion,  which  had  been  also  investigated  by 
Michel,  Euler,  Lsmbert,  Robison,  and  others  (1750 — 1800).  The  magnetic  effects  of 
the  violet  rays  of  light  were  exhibited  by  Morichini,  in  1814.  The  influence  of  heat 
on  the  magnet  has  been  shown  by  the  experiments  of  Barlow  and  Faraday.  The 
deflection  of  the  magnetic  needle  by  the  voltaic  current  was  discoTered  by  CErsted, 
in  1820;  Schweigger  constructed  his  galvanometer  in  1821,  and  in  1825  Nobili  con- 
structed his  astatic  system  of  needles.  In  1881  electricity  was  produced  from  a 
magnet  by  professor  Faraday,  who  has  since  published  his  researches, — on  the  action 
of  the  magnet  on  light,  on  tJie  magnetic  properties  of  flame,  air  and  gases,  (1845)  on 
dia-magnetism  (1845),  on  magne-crystallic  action  (1848),  on  atmospheric  magnetism 
(1850),  and  on  the  magnetic  force,  1851-2.  In  the  present  century  our  knowledge  of 
the  phenomena  of  magnetism  has  been  greatly  increased  by  the  labours  of  Arago, 
Ampere,  Hansteen,  Gauss,  Weber,  Poggendorff,  Sabine,  Lament,  Tyndall,  fto.  kc* 

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY.  In  1881  professor  Faraday  published  his  discovery  of 
magneto-electricity,  and  magneto-electrio  machines  were  constructed  in  Paris  by 
Pixii,  in  1882;  and  by  Saxton  in  London,  in.  1883.  Magneto-electridty  has  been 
recently  applied  to  telegraphic  purposes. 

MAGNOLIA.  The  Magnolia  glauea  was  brought  to  these  countries  from  N.  America  in 
A.D,  1688.  The  laurel-leaved  Magnolia,  Magnolia  grandijkra^  was  brought  from 
N.  America  about  1784.  The  dwarf  Magnolia,  Magnolia  pumifa,  was  brought  from 
China  in  1789.  And  the  following  varieties  also  from  China,  viz.  the  brown  stalked, 
1789;  the  purple,  1790;  and  the  slender,  1804. 

MAHOMETANISM.  See  Koran,  The  creed  of  Mahomet  was  promulgated,  a-d.  604, 
by  Miihomet,  styled  by  some  writers  as  a  renowned  general  and  politician,  and  by 
oUiers  as  a  successful  impostor  and  tyrant    Mahomet  asserted  that  the  Koran  was 

*  In  the  Royal  Institution,  London,  is  a  magnet  by  Logeman,  of  Haarlem,  constructed  on  the 
principles  of  Dr.  EUas,  which  weighs  100  lbs.  and  can  sustain  430  lbs.  Hieckor,  of  Nurerobuiv.  con- 
structed a  msgnet  weighing  38  grains,  capable  of  sustaining  146  times  its  own  weight.  This  was 
exhibited  in  1861  at  the  Royal  Institution. 


MAI  408  MAL 

revealed  to  him  by  the  angel  Gabriel  daring  a  period  of  twenty-three  yean.  He  ii 
aaid  to  have  been  helped  by  a  Jew  and  two  Chnstian?.  Mahomet  died  in  6S1,  of  tha 
eSecta,  it  ia  aaid,  of  a  alow  poison,  giyen  to  him  in  a  piece  of  mutton  three  jetn 
before,  by  a  Jew,  who  took  this  method  to  discover  if  he  waa  a  true  prophet,  ud 
immortal,  as  he  had  declared  himself  to  be. — Prideaux, 

MAID  OF  KENT  (Elizabeth  Barton.)    See  Holy  Maid  of  Knd. 

MAID  OF  ORLEANS  (Joan  of  Ara)    See  Joan  of  Are, 

MAIDA.  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  French  commanded  by  general  Regnier,  ud  tbe 
British  under  major-general  sir  John  Stuart  The  French  were  nearly  doable  tie 
number  of  the  British,  yet  the  latter  gained  a  gloriooa  victory  on  the  "PUini  of 
Maida,**  a  village  in  Calabria,  the  loss  of  the  enemy  being  most  severe,  July  4,  ISOd. 
This  victory  deservedly  placed  sir  John  Stuart  in  the  first  rank  of  BritUh  heroea  He 
is  historically  renowned  as  the  "  Hero  of  the  Plains  of  Maida.** 

MAIDEN.  An  instrument  for  executing  criminals,  in  some  respects  similar  to  a  Itbr 
invention,  the  guillotine,  first  known  at  Halifiiz  in  the  reign  of  ElisabetL  See 
Halifax.  This  instrument  waa  introduced  into  Scotland  by  the  regent  Mortoo,  fur 
the  decapitation  of  his  political  opponents,  but  he  himself  suffered  by  it  on  a  re^ 
doubtful  chaige  of  high  treason,  in  1581.    See  (htiiloinie. 

MAIDS  OF  HONOUB.  Anne  of  Britanny,  daughter  of  Franda  IL  of  that  dukedom,  ud 
queen  of  France,  a  very  beautiful  and  extraordinary  woman,  was  queen  of  Charles 
VIII.  and  Louis  XII.  successively.  Anne,  herself  lovely,  was  the  fint  to  have  yooos 
ladiea  of  quality,  all  of  them  beautiful,  about  her  person,  called  maids  of  boooar. 
The  highest  in  rank  and  fairest,  were  her  maids  of  honour. — PhiL  de  CommtfUL  She 
too,  when  Charles  died,  put  a  corddier  (a  black  knotted  lace)  round  her  coat  of 
arnu,  as  a  token  of  mourning,  which  introduced  a  custom  obaerved  ever  ainoa 

MAIL-COACHES.  They  were  first  set  up  at  Bristol  in  1784;  and  were  extended  to 
other  routes  in.  1 785,  at  the  end  of  which  year  they  became  genend  in  England.  This 
plan  for  the  conveyance  of  letters  was  the  invention  of  Mr.  IVilmer  of  Bath:  the  miili 
had  been  previously  conveyed  by  carts  with  a  single  horse,  or  by  boys  on  bonetacL 
Mail-ooaches  were  exempted  from  tolls  in  1785.  From  the  establishment  of  th«M 
mails  the  prosperity  of  the  poet-office  commenced ;  and  the  revenue,  which  at  first 
was  not  more  than  50002.  a  year,  and  which  after  the  revolution  of  two  oentariea,osif 
produced,  in  1783, 146,0002.  annually,  yielded  thirty  years  afterwards  nearly  1,700,000/. 
The  later  amount  of  the  annual  receipts  of  the  post-office  was  about  2,400,000/.  until 
the  late  reduction  of  the  postage. 

MAIMINQ  AND  WOUNDING.    See  Coventry  Act. 

MAJESTY.  Among  the  Romans,  the  emperor  and  imperial  fSamily  were  '^^^'^'"^J^ 
this  title,  which  was  previously  given  to  their  great  officers  of  state.  Popes  ^^'^j^ 
the  title  of  majesty.  The  emperors  of  Qermany  took  the  title,  and  endeaTOured  to 
keep  it  and  the  enclosed  crown  to  themselves.  It  waa  first  given  to  Louis  XI  ft 
France,  m  1461.— Foiteire.  Upon  Charlea  V.  bemg  chosen  emperor  of  Oennanj  i» 
1519,  the  kings  of  Spain  took  the  style  of  majesty.  Francia  L  of  France^  attw 
interview  with  Henry  VI IL  of  England  on  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  •ddpaiwd 
the  latter  as  Your  Majesty,  1520.  See  Fidd  of  the  Cloth  of  Gotd  James  I.  cottpW 
this  title  with  the  term  "  Sacred,**  and  <*  Most  Excellent  Majesty."    See  7V^ 

MAJORCA  AKO  MINORCA.    For  occurrences  rekting  to  these  islands,  see  Mmir». 

MALAKHOFF,  a  hill  near  Sebastopol  on  which  waa  situated  an  old  tower,  wfaidi  tbe 
Russians  strongly  fortified  during  the  siege  in  1854-5.  The  allied  French  n"! 
English  attacked  it  on  June  17  and  18.  1855,  and  aOer  a  conflict  of  48  boon  v«|* 
repulsed  with  severe  loss;  that  of  the  English  being  175  killed  and  1126  woondad, 
that  of  the  French  3338  killed  and  wounded.  On  Sept.  8,  the  French  again  atteckea 
the  Malakhoff;  at  8  o'clock  the  first  mine  waa  sprung,  and  at  noon  the  FVench  flag 
floated  over  the  conquered  redoubt.— «ee  Sebaatopof,  In  the  Malakhoff  and  ii«W 
were  found  3000  piecea  of  cannon  of  every  calibre,  and  120,000  lbs.  of  gunpowder. 

MALDON,  Essex.  This  town  was  built  28  B.a  Some  suppose  it  to  have  been  the  fij^ 
Roman  colony  in  Britain.  It  was  burnt  by  queen  Boadicea,  and  waa  rebuilt  by  tn» 
Romans  in  the  first  century.    It  was  burnt  by  the  Danes,  and  was  rebuilt  by  iw 


/ 


•MAL 


409 


MAN 


MALPLAQUET,  BATTLE  of.  The  alliee  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and  prince 
Eugene,  against  the  arms  of  France  commanded  by  Marshal  Villars.  The  armies 
eonsisted  on  each  side  of  nearly  120,000  choice  soldiers,  and  the  victory  was  with  the 
allies.  There  was  great  slaughter  on  both  sides,  the  allies  losing  18,000  men,  which 
lo6S  was  but  ill  repaid  by  the  capture  of  Mons ;  fought  Sept.  11,  1709. 

HALT.  Barley  prepared  by  maltmg  for  brewing  and  distillation.  A  duty  was  laid  upon 
this  article  in  1667, 1697,  et  teq.  ;  and  the  statutes  relating  to  it»  and  to  its  prepa- 
ration, are  very  numerous.  Important  acts  for  the  regulation  of  malt  duties  were 
passed  8  Geo.  IV.  1827,  and  11  Geo.  IV.  1880.  Act  rsgulatiog  the  business  of 
maltsters  passed  1  Vict.  July  12,  1837. 

BUBHEUS  or  MALT  MADE  IN  THE  UNITED  KINQDOM  IN  THE  FOLLOWING  TEABS,  TIZ. : — 


1886.  Eaghod 
Scotland 
Irelaud 

1830.  England 
Scotland 
Ireland 

1835.  England 
Scotland 
Ireland 


Butk.  29,672,742 

.     .     8,925,847 

.     2,706.862 


23,428,074 
3,712,064 
2,012,639 

36.078,856 
4.459,552 
2,853,604 


36,205,451 


29,158,6n 


42,892,012 


1840.  England 
Scotland 
Ireland 

1845.  England 
Scotland 
Ireland 

1860.  England 
Scotland 
Ireland 


Buih.  83,376,720 

.    4.374,328 

.    .     1,915,584 

.  80,508,840 

.     .    3,932.364 

.     1,497,736 


39,666,632 


38,107,376 
4,255,480 
1.542.088 


35,938,040 


38,004,944 


MALTA,  KNIOHTS  of.  A  military-religious  order,  called  also  Hospitallers  of  St.  John 
of  Jerusalem,  Knigbts  of  St.  John,  and  Knights  of  Rhodes.  Some  merchants  of 
Melphis,  trading  to  the  Levant,  obtained  leave  of  the  caliph  of  Egypt  to  build  a 
houae  for  those  who  came  on  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and  whom  they  received  with 
seal  and  charity,  A.D.  1048.  They  afterwards  founded  an  hospital  for  the  sick,  from 
whence  they  were  called  Hospitallers.  This  foundation  was  laid  in  a.d.  1104,  in  the 
reign  of  Baldwin,  and  in  1118  they  became  a  military  order,  into  wbich  many  persons 
of  quality  entered,  and  changed  the  name  into  knights.  After  the  Christians  had 
lost  their  interest  in  the  East^  and  Jerusalem  was  taken,  the  knights  retired  to 
Margett,  and  then  to  Acre,  which  they  defended  valiantly  in  1290.  Then  they 
followed  John,  king  of  Cjrprus,  who  gave  them  Limisson  in  his  dominions,  wheret 
they  stayed  till  1810,  in  which  year  thev  took  Rhodes,  under  their  grand  master 
Foulques  de  Vallaret,  and  the  next  year  defended  it  under  the  duke  of  Savoy,  against 
aa  army  of  Saracens.  Since  when,  his  successors  have  used  F.  £.  R.  T.  for  their 
device,  that  is  Fortitndo  tjua  Ehodum  tenuit,  or,  he  kept  Rhodes  by  his  valour.  From 
this  they  were  called  knights  of  Rhodes;  but  Rhodes  being  taken  by  Solyman  in 
1522,  they  retired  into  Candia,  thence  into  Sicily.  Pope  Adrian  VI.  granted  them 
the  city  of  Viterbo  for  their  retreat;  and  in  1580,  the  emperor  Charles  Y.  gave  them 
the  isle  of  Malta.  The  emperor  Paul  of  Russia  declared  himself  grand  master  of  the 
order  in  June,  1799.    See  next  article, 

MALTA.  •  The  memorable  siege  by  the  Turks,  who  were  obliged  to  abandon  the  enter- 
prise after  the  loss  of  30,000  men,  1566.  The  island  was  taken  by  general  Bonaparte 
in  the  outset  of  his  expedition  to  Egypt,  Jane  12, 1798.  He  found  in  it  1200  pieces 
of  cannon,  200,000  lbs.  of  powder,  two  ships  of  the  line,  a  frigate,  four  galleys,  and 
40,000  muskets:  besides  an  immense  treasure  collected  by  superstition:  and  4500 
Turkish  prisoners,  whom  he  set  at  liberty.  Malta  wss  blockaded  by  the  British  from 
the  autumn  of  1798,  and  was  taken  by  major-general  Pigot,  Sept.  6, 1800;  but,  at  the 
peace  of  Amiens,  it  was  stipulated  that  it  should  be  restored  to  the  knights.  The 
jSritish,  however,  retained  possession,  and  the  war  recommenced  between  the  two 
nations  :  but  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  in  1814,  the  island  wss  guaranteed  to  Great  Britain. 

MAMELUKES.  The  name  of  a  dynasty  which  reigned  a  considerable  time  in  Elgypt. 
They  were  originally  Turkish  and  Circassian  slaves,  and  were  established  by  the 
nultan  Saladin  as  a  kind  of  body-guard,  a.d.  1246.  They  advanced  one  of  their  own 
corps  to  the  throne,  and  continued  to  do  so  until  Egypt  became  a  Turkish  province, 
in  1517«  when  the  beys  took  them  into  pay»  and  filled  up  their  ranks  with  rene- 
gades from  various  countries.  On  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Bonaparte,  in  1798,  they 
retreated  into  Nubia.  Assisted  by  the  Aroauts,  they  once  more  wrested  Egypt 
from  the  Turkish  government,  but  in  1811  they  were  decoyed  into  the  power  of  the 
Turkish  pacha,  Mehemet  Ali,  and  slain  at  Cairo  to  the  number  of  about  1600. 

MAN,  BISHOPRIC  op.    Erected  by  pope  Gregory  IV.    It  had,  united  to  its  diocese. 


MAN 


410 


MAN* 


the  Western  Islee  of  Scotland,  which,  when  Man  became  dependent  upon  Eoghind, 
withdrew  their  obedience,  and  had  a  bishop  of  their  own.  The  patronage  of  the 
diocese  was  given,  together  with  the  isliind,  to  the  Stanleys  (see  next  artieU), 
and  it  ultimately  came,  by  an  heir-female,  to  the  duke  of  Athol.  The  duke  nominatea 
the  bishop  to  the  king,  who  sends  him  to  the  archbishop  of  York  for  consecratton. 
This  prelate  is  not  a  lord  of  parliament,  not  holding  from  the  king  himaelf.  The 
bishopric  is  united  to  that  of  Sodor,  a  village  of  Icolmkill,  one  of  Qie  Hebrides  of 
Scotland ;  the  latter  was  formerly  a  bishop's  see,  which  comprehended  all  the  ialands 
together  with  the  isle  of  Man ;  and  the  bishop  of  Man  is  called  bishop  of  Sodor 
and  Man 

MAN,  ISLE  OF.  Conquered  from  the  Scots  in  1314,  by  Montaeute,  earl  of  Sarum, 
to  whom  Edward  III.  gave  the  title  of  king  of  Man.  In  1341  it  was  subjected 
to  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  on  whose  attainder  Henry  lY.  g^ranted  it  in  fee 
to  sir  John  Stanley,  1406 ;  it  was  taken  from. this  family  by  Elizabeth,  and  conferred 
by  the  crown,  in  1608,  on  the  earl  of  Derby,  through  whom  it  fell  by  inheritance  to 
the  duke  of  Athol,  1785.  He  received  70,000^.  from  parliament  for  the  sovereignty 
in  1765;  and  the  nation  was  charged  with  the  further  sum  of  132,9442.  for  the 
purchase  of  his  interest  in  the  revenues  of  the  island,  in  Jan.  1829. 

MANCHESTER.  The  origin  of  Manchester  is  traced  to  a  period  of  remote  antiquity. 
In  the  time  of  the  Druids  it  was  distinguished  as  one  of  the  principal  stations  of  their 
priests,  and  celebrated  for  the  privilege  of  sanctuary  attached  to  its  altar,  which,  in 
the  British  language,  was  called  Afeyne,  signifying  a  stone.  Prior  to  the  Christian  era,  it 
was  one  of  the  principal  seats  of  the  Brigantes,  who  had  a  castle,  or  stronghold,  called 
Maneenion,  or  the  place  of  tents,  near  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Medlock  and 
Irwell,  the  site  of  which,  still  called  the  "  Castle  Field,"  was  by  the  Romania  on 
their  conquest  of  this  part  of  the  island  under  Agricola,  about  the  year  79,  selected 
as  the  station  of  the  Ookors  Prima  Priahruim.,  and,  with  reference  to  its  original 
British  name,  called  by  them  Mamcunivm  ;  hence  its  Saxon  name  Manceautrt,  from 
which  its  modem  appellation  is  derived. — LewUf  Topog.  Diet, 


Tlie  fort  of  Mancenion  taken  from  the 
Britons a.d.    488 

Captured  by  Edvrard  of  Northumbria   .    620 

The  Inhabitants  are  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, about 027 

The  town  wrested  fW>m  the  poMCMion 
of  the  Danes 920 

[Manchester  is  made  a  borough  soon 
after  this  time.] 

The  charter  called  the  Magna  Charta  of 

Manchester   ....    May  14,  ISOl 
The   manufacture  called  "Manchester 

cottons  "  introduced  ...  1352 

Free  Grammar-school  founded        .        .  1516 
The  privilege  of  sanctuary,  of  which  this 
was  one  of  the  eight  plaoes,  removed 

to  Chester,  about 1541 

An  aulnager  stationed  here    .  .  1565 

Sir  Thomas  Fairfax  takes  possession  of 

the  town 1648 

The  walls  and  fortifioations  rosed,  and 

the  gates  removed        ....  1653 
Chetham  College,  or  Blue-coat  hospital 

founded 1663 

Tumult  raised  by  "  SvddalL  the  barber,'* 

who  is  afterwards  hanged    .  .  1715 

Prince  Charles  Edward,  the  Toung  Pre- 
tender, enters  the  town  .        .        .    .  1741 
Makes  it  his  quarters  .   Nov.  28,  1745 

Queen's  Theatre  first  built  .     .  1758 

The  Infirmary  established,  1753,  and  the 

buildinffs  erected 1755 

The  inhabitants  discharged  f^m  their 
obligation  to  grind  their  oom  at  Irk 

miU 1769 

Cotton  goods  first  exported    .  .  1760 

Manchester  navigation  opened  .  .  .  1761 
Ltinatic  asylum  founded .  .  .  .1765 
Agricultural  Society  instituted  .  .  .  1767 
Christian,  king  of  Denmark,  visits  Man- 
chester, and  puts  up  at  the  Bull  Inn  .  1768 
The  Queen's  Theatre  rebuilt  .    .  1775 


Subscription  oonoerts  esfcabliehed  .        .  1777 
The   manufacture  of  muslin  first  at- 
tempted here,  about        .       .        .    .  1780 
The  Literary  and  Phllosophieal  Society 

established 1781 

New  Bailey  bridge  completed    .        .    .  1785 
Sir  Richard  Arkwright's  patent  annulled 
by  the  King's  Bench,  and  hismventioa 

thrown  open 1785 

Queen's  Theatre  burnt  down  .    .  1789 

Andre-erected 1790 

New  Bailey  built 1790 

Assembly  rooms,  Moaley-street,  built    .  1792 
Philological  Society  insUtutad   .        .    .  18QS 
The  archdukes  John  and  Lewis  of  Aus- 
tria visit  Manchester    ....  1805 
Fever  Hospital  erected  ...  1805 

Theatre  Royal  erected     ....  180O 

The  Portico  erected 1800 

Exchange,   and  Commerdal-buUdinga, 

eroctod,  and  opened  .  Jan.  180O 

The  Manenester  and  Salford  water-works 

established 1809 

The  grand  duke  Nicholas,  afterwards 

emperor  of  Rusria,  visits  the  town  .  1817 
Lock  Hospital  established  ....  1819 
Manchester  Reform  Meeting  (tridek  sseX 

its  fatal  termination  .  Aug.  l4  1^19 

New  Brunswick-bridge  built  .  .  .  1890 
Chamber  of  Commerce  established.        .  1930 

Law  Library  founded 18M 

Natural  Histoiy  Society  prqjected .  .  18S1 
New  Quay  Company  founded  .    .  ISA 

Deaf  and  Dumb  School  instituted  .  .  1823 
Royal  Institution  formed  .  .  .  .  ISSS 
The  Floral  and  Hortioultural   Boeiety 

established 1823 

Mechanics'  Institution  founded .  .  .  18S4 
Musical  festival  first  held  .  18S8 

At  the  launch  of  a  vessel  which  keeled 
and  upset,  upwards  ot  200  peraoaa% 
then  on  deck,  were  precipitated  Into 
the  river,  and  61  perished       Feb.  29,  1898 


MAN 


411 


MAN 


MANOUKSTfiR,  eotUimud. 

n  a  tumult  here,  a  factory  was  burnt, 
and  an  immense  quantity  of  machinery 
destroyed       ....      May  8,  1829 
New  Ooooert  room  estabUahed  .        .    .  1829 
The  racoB  esiabliahed      ....  1830 
Manchester     and     Liverpool     railway 
opened  (see  Liverpool)      .       Sept.  15,  1830 

[On  this  occasion  the  right  hon.  William 
Huskisson  lost  his  Ufo.] 


Manchester  constituted  a  parliamentary 
borouffh         ....    June  7, 

Choral  Society  established  .       . 

The  SUtistical  Society,  the  first  formed 
in  England;  it  commences  its  meet- 
ings        Sept.  2, 

Act  for  the  Manchester  and  Leeds  Bail- 
way  passed  ^see  RaUwapt)      .        .    . 

Geological  Society  instituted  . 

Charter  of  incoiporation     .         Oct  28, 

Manchester  Police  Act  .  Aug.  28, 

Great  disorders  in  the  midland  counties 
among  the  artisan  classes;  they  ex- 
tend to  this  town  Aug. 

Great  free-trade  meetings  held  hers^ 
Mg.)    (see  Com  Law$)    .        .   Not.  14, 

Splendid  meeting  held  at  the  Athenaeum 
(see  AthaumnO.  .  Oct  8, 

Great  Anti-oom  Law  meeting,  at  which 


1882 
1883 


1888 

1886 
1838 
1838 
1839 


1842 
1843 
1844 


81,9842.  were  subscribed  in  four  h'>urs, 

Doc.  23,  1845 
The  Queen's  park.  Peel  park,  and  PhUips 

parte  opened  .  Aug.  22,  1846 

Manchester  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric ; 
the  order  in  council  dated  (see  next 
articU)   .        .  .        .     Sept  1.  1847 

Dr.  Prince  Lee  first  bishop,  confirmed  so 

Jan.  11,  1848 
Opening  of  Owen's  Collegiate  Institution, 
to  whose  foundation  the  late  Mr.  John 
Owen  bequeathed  100,000<.   March  10,  1851 
The  Queen's  visit  to  Msnchester,  Oct  10,  1851 
Great  meeting  in  the  Free-trade  hall  to 

greet  M.  Kossuth  .  .  Nov  11,  1851 

The  Guild  of  Literature  entertained  at  a 

banquet  hv  the  citisens  .       Aug.  81,  1852 
Opening  of  Uxe  Manchester  Free  Library, 

Sept  2,  1852 
Great  ¥Vee-trade  banquet  .  .  Nov.  2,  1852 
Manchester  declared  to  be  a  citt,  and 

formally  so  gaaetted     .        .  April  10,  1853 
Great  strike  of  minders  and  piecera, 

Nov.  7.  1855 
ExhlMtion  of  ArtTreasoree*  determined 

.    May  20,  1856 

.  May  5,  1857 

June  29.  SO,  1857 


on 


Opened  by  Prince  Albert 
Visited  by  the  Queen 


MANCHESTER,  BISHOPRIC  of.  An  order  in  council  was  published  in  the  London 
Otaettty  in  October,  1838,  declaring  that  the  sees  of  St.  Asaph  aud  Bangor  ahould 
be  united  on  the  next  Tacanoj  in  either,  and  that  upon  the  occurrence  of  that  event 
the  bishopric  of  Manchester  should  be  immediately  created  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  arohiepiscopal  see  of  York ;  and  that  the  county  of  Lancaster  should  form  the  see 
of  the  new  bishop,  being  for  that  purpose  detached  from  the  diocese  of  Chester.  By 
act  10  Viet,  the  sees  of  St  Asaph  and  Bangor  are  to  exist  undisturbed,  and  that  of 
Manchester  is  to  be  created  notwithstanding  (1846).  Conformably  with  the  latter 
act,  the  rev.  Dr.  Prince  Lee  was  made  bishop  of  Manchester  in  1847,  and  consecrated 
iu  1848;  and  he  is,  of  course,  the  first  bishop  of  this  new  see. 

MANCHESTER  REFORM  MEETINO.  Called  Peterloo.  Memorable  for  its  fatal 
termination.  The  assembly  consisted  of  from  60,000  to  100,000  persons,  men,  women, 
and  children,  all  in  holiday  spirits.  Mr.  Hunt,  who  took  the  chair,  had  spoken  a  few 
words,  when  the  meeting  was  suddenly  assailed  by  a  charge  of  the  Manchester  cavalry, 
assisted  by  a  Cheshire  regiment  of  yeomanry,  and  a  regiment  of  hussars,  the  outlets 
being  occupied  by  other  military  detachments.  The  unarmed  multitude  were  in 
consequence  driyen  one  upon  another,  by  which  nuuiy  were  killed,  while  others  were 
rode  over  by  the  horses,  or  cut  down  by  their  riders.  The  deaths  were  11  men, 
women,  and  children,  and  the  wounded  about  600;  Aug.  16,  1819. — FhiUipt. 

MANES.  The  name  applied  by  the  ancients  to  the  soul  when  separated  from  the  body. 
The  Manes  were  reckoned  among  the  infernal  deities,  and  were  generally  supposed 
to  preside  over  the  burial-places  and  monuments  of  the  dead.  They  were  worshipped 
wiUi  great  solemnity,  particularly  by  the  Romans;  and  the  augurs  always  invoked 
them  when  exercising  their  sacerdotal  offices.  Virgil  introduces  his  hero  as  sacrificing 
to  the  Manes.  Some  say  that  Manes  comes  from  manis,  an  old  Latin  word  which 
signified  good  or  propitious.  The  Romans  always  superscribed  their  epitaphs  with 
D.  M.  dSs  Manwu»i  to  remind  the  sacrilegious  and  profane  not  to  molest  the  tene- 
ments of  the  dead,  which  were  guarded  with  such  sanctity. 

MANHEIM.  First  built  in  a.d.  1606;  and  became  the  court  residence  in  1719;  but 
the  extinction  of  the  palatinate  family  in  1777  caused  the  removal  of  the  court  to 
Munich.  Battle  of  Manheim,  between  the  armies  of  the  allies  and  the  French, 
fought  May  80,  1793.  Manheim  surrendered  to  the  French,  under  command  of 
general  Pichegm,  Sept.  20,  1795.  On  the  25th  of  the  same  month,  the  Austrians 
under  general  Wurmser,  defeated  the  French  near  the  city.  Several  battles  were 
fought  with  various  success  in  the  neighbourhood  during  the  late  wars.    Kotzebue, 

*  The  building  consists  of  a  hall  upwards  of  700  feet  long  and  100  feet  wide,  and  including  a 
transept,  covers  an  area  of  80,000  souare  feet.  It  contains  (1857)  the  most  extraordinary  collection  of 
works  of  art  ever  brought  together  in  this  country. 


MAN  412  MAR 

the  popular  dramatist,  was  assassinated  at  Manheim,  by  a  student  of  Wurtzborg, 
named  Sandt,  April  2,  1819. 

MANICHEANS.  An  ancient  sect,  founded  by  Manes,  which  began  to  infest  the  East, 
about  A.D.  277.  It  spread  into  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Africa,  and  particularly  into 
Persia.  A  rich  widow,  whose  servant  Manes  had  been,  left  him  a  store  of  wealth. 
after  which  he  assumed  the  title  of  apostle,  or  envoy  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  announced 
that  he  was  the  paraclete  or  comforter  that  Christ  had  promised  to  send.  Ha  main- 
tained two  principles,  the  one  good  and  the  other  bad ;  the  first  he  called  light, 
which  did  nothing  but  good,  and  the  second  he  called  darkness,  which  did  nothing 
but  evil.  Several  other  sects  sprung  from  the  Manicheans.  Manes  was  put  to  death 
by  Sapor,  king  of  Persia,  in  290.  His  offence  against  this  prince  was,  his  having  dis- 
missed the  physicians  of  the  court,  pretending  he  could  cure  one  of  the  royal  &mily 
by  his  prayers,  instead  of  which  the  patient  died  in  his  arms. — Nouv.  Diet.  Hiai. 

MANILLA.  Capital  of  the  Philippine  Isles ;  a  great  mart  of  Spanish  commerce.  3000 
persons  perished  here  by  an  earthquake  in  1645.  Manilla  was  taken  by  the  English 
in  1757  ;  and  again  in  Oct.  1762,  by  storm.  The  captors  humanely  suffered  the  aicfa- 
bishop  to  ransom  it  for  about  a  million  sterling;  but  great  part  of  the  ransom  never 
was  paid.  Since  the  establishment  of  a  free  trade  in  the  Spanish  colonies,  which  took 
place  in  1783,  the  usual  Acapulco  ships  and  other  government  traders  have  been  dU- 
continued ;  and  the  commerce  to  the  Manillas  and  other  parts  is  cairied  on  in  private 
bottoms  by  free  companies  of  merchants. — BuUer,  It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  in  Sept.  22, 1852. 

MANSION-HOUSE,  London.  The  residence  of  the  first  magistrate  of  the  first  city  in 
tiie  world.  This  great  pile  of  building  is  situate  at  the  east  end  of  the  Poultry,  on 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Stocks'-market.  It  was  built  by  Dance  the  elder.  Itserectton 
was  commenced  in  1789,  but  not  completed  till  1758;  it  is  of  an  oblong  form^  and 
constructed  of  Portland  stone. 

MANTINEA,  BATTLE  of.  Between  Epaminondas  and  the  Thebans,  and  the  oomlnned 
foroes  of  LacedsBmon,  Achaia,  Elis,  Athens,  and  Arcadia.  The  Theban  general  was 
killed  in  the  engagement,  and  from  that  time  Thebes  lost  its  power  and  consequence 
among  the  Grecian  states,  363  B.a — Straho,  The  emperor  Adrian  built  a  temple  at 
Mantinea  in  honour  of  his  favourite  Alcinous.    The  town  was  also  called  Antigonia. 

MANTUA.  Tirgil  was  bom  at  a  village  near  this  city.  Hence  he  is  often  styled  the 
Mantuan  bard.  In  modem  history,  Mantua  surrendered  to  the  French,  Jan.  7,  1797, 
after  a  siege  of  eight  months ;  and  it  was  attacked  by  the  Austrian  and  Rasaun 
army,  July  30, 1799,  to  which  it  surrendered  after  a  short  siege.  In  1800,  after  the 
battle  of  Marengo,  the  French  again  obtained  possession  of  it ;  but  they  deUrerad  it 
up  to  the  Austrians  in  1814. 

MAPLE-TREE.  This  tree,  Acer  rtihrumt  or  scarlet  maple,  was  brought  to  these  oountries 
from  N.  America,  before  a.d.  1656.  The  Acer  Neyundo,  or  the  ash-leaved  maple,  was 
brought  to  England  before  1688.  The  maple  wood  is  used  for  a  variety  of  puxpoeea^ 
particularly  for  ornament. — Pardon, 

MAPS  AND  CHARTS.    See  CharU  and  Mercator, 

MARATHON,  BATTLE  of.  One  of  the  most  extraordinary  in  ancient  history.  The 
Greeks  were  only  10,000  strong,  and  the  Persians  amounted  to  500,000.  The  fomer 
were  commanded  by  Miltiades,  Aristides,  and  Themistocles,  who  defeated  the  Persians^ 
leaving  200,000  dead  upon  the  field.  Among  the  number  of  the  slain  was  Uippias, 
the  instigator  of  the  war ;  the  remainder  of  the  Persian  army  were  forced  to  re- 
embark  for  Asia,  Sept  28,  490  bo. 

MARBLK  Dipoenus  and  Soy  His,  statuaries  of  Crete,  were  the  first  artists  who  scalptnred 
marble,  and  polished  their  works ;  all  statues  previously  to  their  time  being  of  wood, 
568  B.C. — Pltny.  Marble  afterwards  came  into  use  for  the  statues,  and  the  columns 
and  ornaments  of  fine  buildings,  and  the  edifices  and  monuments  of  Rome  were  coa- 
structed  of,  or  ornamented  with,  fine  marble.  The  ruins  of  Palmyra  prove  that  its 
magnificent  structures,  which  were  chiefiy  of  white  marble,  were  far  more  extensive 
and  splendid  than  those  of  even  Rome  itself.  These  latter  were  discovered  by  some 
English  travellers  from  Aleppo,  A.D.  1678.    See  Palmyra, 

MARCH,  the  first  month  of  the  year,  until  Numa  added  January  and  Februaiy,  713  && 
Romulus,  who  divided  the  year  into  months,  gave  to  this  month  the  name  of  his 
supposed  father.  Mars  ;  though  Ovid  observes,  that  the  people  of  Italy  had  the  month 


MAR  413  MAR 

of  March  before  the  time  of  Romaliu,  but  that  they  placed  it  very  differentl  j  in  the 
calendar.    The  ye^ur  formerly  commenced  on  the  25 tU  day  of  this  month.     See  Year, 

MARCHERS.  Noblemen  who  lived  on  the  marchee  of  Wales  or  Scotland,  boundaries 
formerly  settled  between  England  and  Wales,  and  England  and  Scotland ;  and  who, 
according  to  Camden,  had  their  laws  and  TpoteatoM  vita,  ko.  like  petty  prinoee.  They 
were  abolished  by  statutes  27  Hen.  YIII.  1585,  and  1  Edw.  YI.  1547. 

MARCIONITES.  These  were  heretics,  whose  founder  was  Marcion.  They  differed 
very  little  from  the  Manichees,  except  that  they  worshipped  a  brazen  serpent.  The 
Marcionites  preceded  the  Manichees  or  Manicheana^  and  taught  their  doctrines  about 
140  A.D.— Cave'*  Hist.  Lii. 

MARENGO,  BATTLE  of.  In  this  memorable  engagement  the  French  army  was  com- 
manded by  Bonaparte,  against  the  Austriaos,  and  after  prodigies  of  valour,  his  army 
was  retreating,  when  the  timely  arrival  of  general  Dessaix  (who  was  afterwards 
mortally  wounded  in  this  battle)  turned  the  fortunes  of  the  day.  The  slaughter  on 
both  sides  was  dreadful :  the  Austrians  lost  6000  in  killed.  12,000  in  prisoners,  and 
45  pieces  of  ccumon ;  and  though  the  French  boasted  that  the  loss  on  their  side  did 
not  much  exceed  3000  men,  it  was  afterwards  known  to  be  vastly  more,  June  14. 1800. 
By  a  treaty  between  the  Austrian  general  Melas  and  the  conqueror,  Bonaparte,  signed 
on  the  next  day,  twelve  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Italy  were  put  into  possession 
of  the  latter :  and  he  became,  in  fact,  the  master  of  Italy. 

MARBSCHAL,  OB  MARSHAL.  In  France,  marshals  were  the  ancient  esquires  of  the 
king ;  and  by  their  first  institution  they  had  the  command  of  the  vanguard  to  observe 
the  enemy,  and  to  choose  proper  places  for  its  encampment.  Till  the  time  of 
Francis  I.,  in  A.D.  1515,  there  were  but  two  French  marshals,  who  had  500  livres 
per  annum  in  war,  but  no  stipend  in  time  of  peace.  The  rank  afterwards  became  of 
the  highest  military  importance,  the  number  was  without  limit,  and  the  command 
supreme.  During  the  empire  of  Napoleon,  the  marshals  of  Fituioe  filled  the  world 
with  their  renown.    See  ManhcU,  Field. 

MARIQNAN,  BATTLE  of.  Fought  near  Milan,  in  Italy,  and  one  of  the  mo^t  furious 
engagements  of  modern  times.  In  this  sanguinary  confiict^  which  happened  between 
the  heroic  Swiss  and  the  French  under  Francis  the  First,  upwards  of  twenty  thousand 
men  were  slain ;  the  former,  after  losing  all  their  bravest  troops,  were  compelled  to 
retire,  Sept.  18, 1515. 

MARINE  FORCES.  Marines  were  first  established  with  the  object  of  forming  a  nursery 
to  man  the  fleet  An  order  in  council  dated  16  Oct.  1664,  authorised  1200  soldiers 
to  be  nused  and  formed  into  one  regiment.  In  1684,  the  3rd  regiment  of  the  line 
vras  called  the  Marine  Regiment,  but  the  system  of  having  soldiers  exclusively  for  sea- 
service  was  not  carried  into  effect  until  1698,  when  two  marine  regiments  were 
formed.  More  regiments  were  embodied  in  subsequent  years;  and  in  1741  the  corps 
oonai«ted  of  ten  regiments,  each  1000  strong.  In  1759  they  numbered  18,000  men. 
In  the  latter  years  of  the  French  war  ending  in  1815,  the  establishment  amounted  to 
31,400,  but  there  were  frequently  more  than  3000  supernumeraries.  The  joUies,  as 
they  are  called,  have  distinguished  themselves  on  many  occasions.  The  vote  for  1857 
was  for  16,000  marines,  inclusive  of  1500  artillery. — P.  H,  NicoUu, 

MARINER'S  COMPASS.    See  CompoM  and  Magnetism. 

MARK.  This  coin  originated  among  the  northern  nations,  and  the  name  mark-lubs  is 
still  retained  in  Denmark,  as  money  of  account.  The  mark  was  a  general  continental 
coin,  of  silver. — Adie.  In  England,  the  mark  means  the  sum  of  thirteen  shillings  and 
foorpence;  and  here  the  name  is  also  retained  in  particular  cases  of  fines  being 
adjudged  against  infractors  of  the  law  in  criminal  courts. — Ashe. 

MARLBOROUGH,  STATUTES  of.  These  were  the  celebrated  laws  that  were  enacted 
in  the  castle  of  Marlborough,  in  Wiltshire,  in  the  5l8t  year  of  Henry  III.  1267.  All 
these  laws  still  bear  the  title  of  the  Statutes  of  Marlborough,  and  some  of  them 
continue  to  be  referred  to,  to  this  day;  most  of  them  are,  however,  obsolete,  and  have 
been  so  for  several  hundred  years. — Law  Vict, 

MARONITES,  or  M ARONISTS,  were  Christians  in  the  East,  whose  original  founder  was 
one  Maron  in  the  5th  century ;  they  are  said  to  have  embraced  the  errors  of  the 
Jacobites,  Nestorians,  and  Mouothelites :  in  1180  they  numbered  40,000,  living  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Mount  Libanu%  and,  being  a  brave  people,  they  were  of  great  service 


MAR 


414 


MAR 


to  the  Christian  kingi  of  JeniBalem.    Thej  were  reconciled  to  the  Church  of  Borne 
about  the  12th  century, — Pardon. 


MAROONS.    A  name  given  in  Jamaica  to  runaway  negroes.    When  the 

conquered  from  the  Spaniards  a  number  of  the  negroes  abandoned  by  their  former 
maaters  fled  to  the  hills  and  became  very  tronblesome  to  the  coloniata  A  war  of  eight 
years*  duration  ensued,  when  the  Maroons  capitulated  on  being  permitted  to  retain 
their  free  settlements,  about  1730.  In  1795  they  sgain  took  arms,  but  were  speedily 
put  down  and  transported  to  Nots  Scotia. — Brumde, 

MARQUE,  LETTERS  of.  Instruments  authorising  the  subjects  of  one  princo  to  make 
reprisals  upon,  and  capture  the  ships,  property,  and  subjects  of  another  prince  or 
country.  Some  such  instruments  are  said  to  have  been  first  used  by  the  Venetian 
government.  The  first  letters  of  marque  granted  in  England  were  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  I.,  agaiust  the  Portuguese,  a  d.  1295. — Ryma^i  Pitdtra. 

MARQUESS.  This  dignity,  called  by  the  Saxons  Markin-Reve,  and  by  the  Qennans 
Markgrave,  took  its  original  from  Mark  or  March,  which,  in  the  language  of  the  north- 
ern nations,  is  a  limit  or  bound,  and  their  office  was  to  guard  or  govern  the  froniien 
of  a  province.  It  has  the  next  place  of  honour  to  a  duke,  and  was  introduced  several 
years  after  that  title  had  been  established,  in  England.  The  first  on  whom  it  was 
conferred  was  the  great  favourite  of  king  Richard  IL,  Robert  de  Yere,  earl  of  Ozfoid, 
who  was  created  marquess  of  Dublin,  and  by  him  placed  in  parliament  between  the 
dukes  and  earls,  a.d.  1385.  Alexander  Stuart,  second  son  of  James  III.  of  Scotland, 
was  made  marquess  of  that  kingdom,  as  marquess  of  Ormond,  in  1480. 

MARRIAQE.  The  first  institution  of  this  union  between  man  and  woman  for  life,  with 
certain  ceremonies  of  a  binding  and  solemn  nature,  is  ascribed  to  Cecrope,  king  of 
Athens,  1654  B.o. — The  ceremony  in  most  countries  was  that  of  a  man  leading  hume 
his  bride,  after  a  solemn  contract  with  her  friends.  To  render  this  contract  the  more 
sacred,  it  was  made  the  work  of  the  priest,  instead  of  being  that  of  a  dvil  magistrate, 
adopted  by  several  civilised  natious.  The  celebration  of  marriage  in  ohorchea  waa 
ordained  by  pope  Innocent  III.  about  A.O.  1199.  Marriage  was  forbidden  in  Lent, 
A.D.  864.  It  was  forbidden  to  bishops  in  692,  and  to  priests  in  1015 ;  and  thees  latter 
were  obliged  to  take  the  vow  of  celibacy  in  1073.  Marriages  were  aolemniaed  by 
justices  of  the  peace  under  an  act  of  the  commons  in  Oliver  Cromwell's  admiai«- 
tration,  1653.  A  tax  was  laid  on  marriages,  vis. :  on  the  marriage  of  a  duke  60/.  of  a 
common  person,  2«.  6d.  the  8bh  of  WilL  III.  1695.  Marriages  were  again  taxed  in 
1784.  There  have  been  enacted  various  recent  statutes  relating  to  marriages ;  and 
more  toleration  is  now  given  to  marriages  by  Roman  Catholic  priesta  in  Ireland. 
A  statute  which  passed  4  Will.  lY.  July,  1834,  repeals  all  former  acts  which  prohiUtcd 
marriages  by  Roman  Catholic  priests  in  Scotland,  or  other  ministers  not  belonging  to 
the  Church  of  Scotland.  Act  to  render  the  children  of  certain  marriages  wiU^in 
forbidden  degrees  of  kindred  valid,  6  Will.  lY.  1835.  New  Marriage  Act  for  England 
passed  7  Will.  lY.  1836.  Marringe  Registration  Act,  1  Yict.  1837.  Amendment 
Acts,  4  Yict.  1840,  and  19  k  20  Yict  c  119,  1856. 

NUMBER  or  MABBlAOSa  IN   BNOLAND  AND  WALK. 


1760.  Registered.  .  40,800 

1800.  Ditto     .  .    .  73,228 

1810.  Ditto  .        .  .  84,473 

1815.  Ditto     .  .    .  91.946 

182a  Ditto  .  .  96,883 


1820.  Registered  .  .  98.378 
1830.  Ditto  .  .  102,437 
1840.  Ditto  .  .  .121,083 
1845.  Ditto  .  .  143,743 
1848.  Ditto    .        ..  138,880 


1850.  Registend  .  151,734 

1868.  Ditto    .  .    .  1<I,0S1 

1864.  Ditto  .  1««,849 

1855.  Ditto    .  .     .  151,774 

1856.  Ditto  .150^183 


Of  these  marrisges,  in  1850,  it  is  stated,  in  the  registrar's  returns,  that  47,670  men 
and  70,601  women  could  not  write,  and  that  they  signed  the  marriage  register  with 
their  marks.  In  France^  the  marriages  were  208,893  m  1820^243,674  in  1885— and 
259,177  in  1830.  Aa  respects  Paris,  the  statistics  of  that  city,  which  are  veiy  miaate 
and  curious,  fumiah  the  following  dasses  as  occurring  in  7754  marriagea : — 


Baohelora  sod  maids 
Bachelors  aad  widows 


6456  I  Widowera  and  maida 
868    Widowers  and  widows 


?M 


It  has  frequently  been  attempted  to  legalise  a  marriage  with  a  dectoMtd  wif^%  aider, 
without  success.  A  bill  for  this  purpose  was  read  a  second  time  in  the  commons. 
May  9,  1855 ;  but  afterwards  adjourned  to  the  next  sessiou.  A  bill  to  aoppreas 
irregular  marriages  in  Scotland,  waa  passed  in  1856. 

MAHRIAQB  ACT,  ROYAL.    This  statute  is  a  bill  of  restriction  with  respect  to  the 
marriages  of  the  royal  family  of  England ;  and  was  passed  into  a  law  12  Gea  IIL  1772. 


UAR  415  MAR 

li  became  expedient  becauBe  jtiet  previously  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  the  king's  brother, 
had  married  the  widow  of  the  earl  Waldegnve,  and  the  duke  of  Cumberland,  the 
widow  of  colonel  Horton  and  daughter  of  lord  Irnhom.  In  consequence  of  this  bill, 
none  of  the  descendants  of  Qeoige  IL,  unless  of  foreign  birth,  can  enter  into  the 
matrimonial  state  under  the  age  of  twenty-five,  unless  with  the  consent  of  the  king, 
anl,  at  and  after  that  age,  the  consent  of  parliament  is  necessary  to  render  the 
marriage  valid.  The  marriage  of  the  late  duke  of  Sussex  with  the  lady  Augusta 
Murray,  solemnised  in  1703,  was  pronounced  illegal,  and  the  claims  of  sir  Augustus 
d'Este  declared  invalid,  by  the  House  of  Lords,  July  9,  1844. 

MARRIAQE^  HALF.  Semi-Mairimonium,  Some  writers  censure  those  laws  that  per- 
mitted  concubinage,  and  only  forbade  men  not  to  have  a  wife  and  a  concubine  at  the 
same  time.  But  we  should  consider  that  among  the  Romans  concubinage  was 
a  legitimate  union,  not  alone  tolerated,  but  authorised.  The  concubine  had  the 
name  of  9emi^(mjux,  They  might  have  either  a  wife  or  a  ooncubine,  provided  they 
bad  not  both  together.  Constantino  the  Great  gave  a  check  to  concubinage,  but  did 
not  abolish  it ;  for  it  subsisted  many  years  in  the  Church.  Of  this  we  have  an 
authentic  proof  in  one  of  the  councils  of  Toledo.  This  ancient  custom  of  the  Romans 
was  preserved,  not  only  .among  the  Lombards,  but  by  the  French  when  they  held 
dominion  in  that  countiy.  Cujas  assures  us  that  the  Qasoons  and  other  people 
bordering  on  the  Pyrenean  mountains  had  not  relinquished  this  custom  in  his  time, 
1590.  The  women  bore  the  name  of  "wives  of  the  second  order." — HenauU,  See 
Mcrganatic  Marriaga. 

MARRIAGES,  DOUBLE.  There  are  some  instances  of  a  husband  and  two  wives  (but 
they  are  very  rare)  in  countries  where  polygamy  was  interdicted  by  the  state.*  The 
first  Lacedsmonian  who  had  two  wives  was  Anaxandrides,  the  son  of  Leon,  about 
510  B.a  Dionysius  of  Syracuse  married  two  wives,  viz. :  Doris,  the  daughter  of 
Xenetus,  and  Aristomache,  sister  of  Dion,  898  B.O.  These  instances  would  be  unne- 
cessarily extended ;  but  the  most  remarkable  case  is  that  of  the  count  Qleichen,  a 
Qerman  nobleman,  who  was  permitted,  under  interesting  and  peculiar  cireumatances, 
by  Gregory  IX.  in  a.d.  1237,  to  marry  and  live  with  two  wives.  The  Mormonites 
practise  and  encourage  polygamy. 

MARRIAGES,  FORCED.  The  statute  8  Hen.  YIL  1487,  made  the  principal  and 
abettors  in  marriages  with  heiresses,  &c.  contrary  to  their  will,  equally,  guilty 
as  felons.  By  89  £Iiz.  1596,  such  felons  were  denied  the  benefit  of  clergv. 
This  offence  was  made  puniBhable  by  transportation,  1  Geo.  IV.  1820.  The  remark- 
able case  of  Miss  Wharton,  heiress  of  the  house  of  Wharton,  whom  captain  Campbell 
married  by  force,  occurred  in  William  Ill/s  reign.  Sir  John  Johnston  was  hanged 
for  seizing  the  young  lady,  and  the  marriage  was  annulled  bv  parliament,  1690. 
Rdward  Gibbon  Wakefield  was  tried  at  Lancaster,  and  found  guilty  of  the  felonious 
abduction  of  Miss  Turner,  March  24,  1827  ;  and  his  marriage  with  her  was  dissolved 
by  an  immediate  act  of  parliament,  8  Geo.  lY.  same  year. 

MARRIAGES  BY  SALE.  Among  the  Babyl<>nian8,  at  a  certain  time  every  year,  the 
marriageable  females  were  assembled,  and  disposed  of  to  the  best  bidder,  by  tho 
public  crier.  This  custom  is  said  to  have  originated  with  Atossa,  daughter  of 
Belochus,  about  1438  B.a 

MARSEILLES  is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Phoceans,  about  600  b.o. — 
Univ.  BUt,  Cicero  styled  It  the  Athens  of  Gaul.  It  was  taken  by  Julius  Csesar  after 
a  long  and  terrible  siege ;  and  it  was  sacked  by  the  Saracens,  a^ix  478.  Marseilles 
became  a  republic  in  1214.  It  was  subjected  to  the  counts  of  Provence  in  1251 ;  and 
was  again  united  to  the  crown  of  France  in  1482.  In  1649  the  plague  raged  with 
great  violence  in  Marseilles,  and  with  still  greater  in  1720,  when  it  carried  off  50,000 
of  the  inhabitants. 

MARSEILLAISE  HYMN.  The  words  and  music  of  this  hymn  are  ascribed  to  Rouget  de 
Lille,  a  French  engineer  officer,  who  composed  it  at  the  request  of  marshal  Lucknow, 
in  1791,  to  cheer  the  spirits  of  the  conscripts  of  the  army  then  at  Strasburg.  The 
hymn  derived  its  name  from  the  circumstance  of  some  troops  from  Marseilles 
marching  into  Paris  to  the  tune  at  a  time  when  it  was  little  known  there. — Brandt, 

MARSHALS.  Two  officers  called  marshals  were  appointed  in  the  city  of  London,  in 
order  to  keep  the  streets  clear  of  vagrants,  and  to  send  the  sick,  blind,  and  hune  to 
asylums  and  hospitals  for  relief,  9  Eliz.  \567.^Norihouck.  This  kind  of  duty  was 
afterwards  transferred  to  different  officers  under  various  denominations. 

MARSHALS,  FIELD,  in  thb  British  Abmt.     The  rank  is  of  modern  date,  and  was 


MAR  416  MAR 

preceded  by  that  of  captain-general,  and  that  also  of  commander-in-chief.  Th«  duke 
of  Marlborough  was  captain-genei«l,  1702.  The  first  military  chiefs  bearing  the 
rank  of  marshal  were  those  of  France.  Qeorge  IL  first  conferred  the  rank  upon  John, 
duke  of  Argyle,  and  George,  earl  of  Orkney,  in  1736.    See  MaruchaL 

MARSHALS  of  FRANCE.    The    following  list   of  the   marshals  of  France   in   the 
eventful  time  of  Bonaparte's  wars,  will  assist  the  reader  of  French  history  : — 

Arrighi,  duke  of  Padua.  I  Lefebre,  dake  of  Dantzic. 

Augereau,  duke  of  Castiglione.  I  Macdonald.  duke  of  Tarento. 

Bemadotto,  prince  of  Fonto  Corvo ;  after-    Marmout»  duke  of  Ragiua. 

wards  kinfr  of  Sweden.  |  Maeaona,  priuce  of  EssliDjr  and  duke  of  Bi  volL 

Berthier,  prince  of  NeufchAtel  and  Wagram.    i  Monoey,  duke  of  Conegliaao. 


Bessi^res,  duke  of  latria.  <  Mortier,  duke  of  Treviaa 

DaTouat,  priuce  of  Eckmuhl  and  duke  of ,  Murat,  king  of  Naples. 

Aueratadt. 
Jourdan.  peer  of  France. 
Junot»  duke  of  Abraates. 
Kellennan.  duke  of  Valmy. 
Lannes,  duke  of  Montebello. 


Key.  prince  of  Hoekwa  and  duke  of  Elchingen. 
Oudinot,  duke  of  RefrfOO* 
Boult,  duke  of  Dalmatic 
Buchet,  duke  of  Albufera. 
Victor,  duke  of  Belluno. 


Besides  these,  were  the  following  officers  of  state : — 


Lo  Bnm,  duke  of  Piacenca. 
Maret,  duke  of  Basaana 
Savary,  duke  of  Roviga 

and 
Talleyrand  de  Perlgord,  prince  of  Benevento. 


Cambacdrte,  duke  of  Parma. 
CauIaincourt»  duke  of  Vicenza. 
Champagne,  duke  of  Cadore. 
Duroc,  ouke  of  Friuli. 
Fouchd,  duke  of  Otranto. 

MARSHALSEA  COURT.  The  court  of  Marshalsea  of  the  Queen's  house  was  a  very 
ancient  court,  one  of  high  dignity  and  coeval  with  the  common  law.  Since  the 
decision  of  the  case  of  the  Marshalsea  (see  Lord  Coke's  10  Jiep.  68)  no  business  had 
been  done  in  this  court ;  but  it  was  regularly  opened  and  adjourned  at  the  same  time 
with  the  Palace  court,  created  in  1(565  ;  the  judges  and  other  officers  being  the  same 
as  in  the  Palace  court  See  PaLact  Court.  The  Marshalsea  court  was  altogether 
discontinued,  December  31, 1849. 

MARSTON  MOOR,  BATTLE  of.  This  battle  was  the  beginning  of  the  misforUmes 
and  disgrace  of  the  unfortunate  Charles  I.  of  England.  The  Scots  and  parliamentarian 
army  had  joined,  and  were  besieging  York,  when  prince  Rupert,  joined  by  the 
marquess  of  Newcastle,  determined  to  raise  the  siege.  Both  sides  drew  up  on 
Marston  Moor,  to  the  number  of  fifty  thousand,  and  the  victory  seemed  long 
undecided  between  them.  Rupert,  who  commanded  the  right  wing  of  the  royalists, 
was  opposed  by  Oliver  Cromwell,  who  now  first  came  into  notice,  at  the  head  of  a 
body  of  troops  whom  he  had  taken  care  to  levy  and  discipline.  Cromwell  was 
victorious ;  he  drove  his  opponents  off  the  field,  followed  the  vanquished,  returned  to 
a  second  engagement  and  a  secoud  victory.  The  prince's  whole  train  of  artillery  was 
taken,  and  the  royalists  never  afterwards  recovered  the  blow ;  fought  July  S,  1644. 

MARTELLO  TOWERS,  were  circular  buildings  of  masonry  erected  in  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century,  on  the  coast  of  England,  as  defences  against  invasion. 

MARTINIQUE.  This  and  the  adjacent  isles  of  St.  Luda  and  St.  Vincent,  and  the 
Grenadines,  were  taken  by  the  British  from  the  French  in  February,  1762.  Tboy 
were  restored  to  France  at  the  peace  of  the  following  year.  They  were  again  taken 
March  16,  1794;  were  restored  at  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1802;  and  were  agsin 
captured,  Feb.  23, 1809.  A  revolution  took  place  in  this  island  in  favour  of  Napoleon, 
but  it  was  finally  suppressed  by  the  BritiBh,  June  1, 1815,  and  Martinique  reverted  to 
its  French  masters  at  the  late  general  peace. 

MARTINMAS.  This  day  is  named,  according  to  Dr.  Johnson,  from  Martin  and  isaw, 
the  feast  of  St.  Martin,  bishop  of  Tours,  in  the  fourth  century.  The  festival  is 
observed  on  the  11th  of  November;  and  in  many  parts  of  the  north  of  England,  and 
parts  of  Scotland,  it  continues  to  be  one  of  the  quarter>days  for  receiving  rents. 

MARTYRS.  The  Christian  Church,  Catholic  and  Protestant,  has  abounded  in  martyn, 
and  history  is  filled  with  accounts  of  their  wonderful  constancy  to  their  faith.  I'he 
festivals  of  the  martyrs  are,  many  of  them,  of  very  ancient  date,  and  took  their  rise 
about  the  time  of  Polycarp,  who  suffered  martyrdom  a.d.  168.  England  has  had 
its  Christian  martyrs ;  and  the  accounts  of  those  who  suffered  for  their  adherence  to 
the  Protestant  religion,  would  fill  volumes.  The  following  documents  in  connection 
with  the  fate  of  Cranmer,  Latimer,  and  Ridley,  are  of  meUmcholy  interest.  Thev  ars 
taken  from  a  "  Hook  of  the  JuiiU  Diet,  Dinner,  and  Suppe$',  and  ike  ckarye  thereof^  ftr 


MAR 


417 


MAS 


Crammer,  Latimer,  and  Ridley,**  kept  by  the  batlifb  of  Oxford,  while  they  were  in  the 
custody  of  those  officers,  previously  to  their  being  burnt  alive : — 


IST  OCTOBCB,  1594.— Dnrxrji. 

Broad  and  ale £0 

Oysten 0 


Batter 

Bggs      .       .        .       . 

A  piece  of  freah  aalmoa 
Wine  .... 
Cbeeee  and  pean  . 


0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 


0 
0 
0 
0 
0 


0  10 
0  8 
0    2 


The  three  dinners 


.£0    S    e 


TO  vuniK  LATnam  akd  aidlsv. 
For  S  load  of  wood  faggots  to  bum 

Latimer  and  Ridley       .  .  £0  13    0 

Item,  1  load  of  fiirae  bagota       ..034 
Item,  for  the  carriage  ozukeoe  4  loads    0    2    6 


Item,  a  post £0    14 

Item,  2  chains 0    3    4 

Item,  2  staples 0    0    6 

Item,  4  labourers  .        .        .028 


£16    8 
[They  were  burnt  on  October  the  16th,  1566.] 

OBABOS  rOR  THB  BHlUriNO  OF  TBI  BODT  OF 
CRAHMER. 

For  100  of  wood  faggots  for  the  fire.  £0  6  0 
ForlOOand^of  Airze  .  .  ..034 
For  the  carnage  of  them  .  .008 
For  2  labourers 0    2    8 


£0  12    8 
[He  was  burnt  on  March  the  21st»  in  1566  ] 


HARTTRSy  ERA  of.  This  is  also  called  the  era  of  Diocletian,  and  was  used  by  the 
writers  of  ecclesiastical  history  until  the  Christian  era  was  introduced  in  the  sixth 
century ;  and  it  still  continued  to  be  the  era  of  some  nations,  particularly  the  Abys- 
sinians  and  Copts.  It  commences  from  the  day  upon  which  Diocletian  was  pro- 
claimed emperor,  Aug.  29,  ▲.D.  284 ;  and  the  persecutions  of  the  Christians  in  his 
reign  caused  it  to  be  so  called. 

HASKSb  PoppsBa,  the  wife  of  Kero,  is  said  to  have  invented  the  mask  to  guard  her 
complexion  from  the  sun.  But  theatrical  masks  were  in  use  among  the  Qreeks  and 
Romans.  Horace  attributes  them  to  iEschylus;  yet  Aristotle  says  the  real  inventor 
and  time  of  their  introduction  were  unknown.  Modem  masks,  and  mufitt,  fans,  and 
false  hair  for  the  women,  were  devised  by  the  harlots  of  Italy,  and  brought  to  England 
firom  France  in  1672. — Slow's  Ckron. 

MASQCTERADES.  They  were  in  fashion  in  the  court  of  Edward  III.  1340 ;  and  in  the 
reign  of  Charles,  1660,  masquerades  were  frequent  among  the  citisens.  The  bishops 
preached  agunst  them,  and  made  such  representations  as  occarioned  their  suppression, 
9  Oeo.  L  1723.  [No  less  than  six  masquerades  were  subscribed  for  in  a  month  at 
this  time.]  They  were  revived,  and  carried  to  shameful  excess  by  Connivance  of 
the  government,  and  in  direct  violation  of  the  laws,  and  tickets  of  admission  to 
a  masquerade  at  Ranelagh  were  on  some  occasions  subbcribei  for  at  twenty-five 
guineas  each,  1 776. — Mortimer, 

MASSi  In  the  Romish  Church,  mass  is  the  office  or  prayers  used  at  the  celebration 
of  the  eucharist,  and  is  in  general  believed  to  be  a  representation  of  the  passion  of 
Our  Saviour.  Hence  every  part  of  the  service  is  supposed  to  allude  to  the  particular 
circumstances  of  his  passion  and  death.  The  general  division  of  masses  consists  in 
high  and  low :  the  first  ia  that  sung  by  the  choristers,  and  celebrated  with  the 
assistance  of  a  deacon  and  sub-deaoon ;  low  masses  are  those  in  which  the  prayers 
are  barely  rehearsed  without  singing.  Ma<s  was  firat  celebrated  in  Latin,  about  a.o. 
394.  Its  celebration  was  first  introduced  into  England  in  the  seventh  century. 
Prostration  was  enjoined  at  the  elevation  of  the  host  in  1201. 

MASSACRES.  Ancient  and  modem  history  abound  with  events  which  class  under  this 
h^I ;  and  perhaps  the  most  frightful  and  unprovoked  enormities  of  the  kind  have 
been  perpetrated  by  opposing  Christian  sects,  one  upon  another,  in  vindication  of  the 
Christian  religion  1  The  following  are  among  the  most  remarkable  massacres  recorded 
by  various  authors  : — 


BSrORE  CHRIST. 

Of  all  the  Carthaginians  in  Sicily,  which  took 
place  397  so. 

»)00  Tyrians  crucified,  and  8000  put  to  the 
sword  for  not  surrondexing  Tyre  to  Alex- 
ander, 331  B.C. 

The  Jews  of  Antioch  foil    u]K>n  the  other  > 
inhabitants  and  massacro  100,000  of  them,  i 

for  refofling  to  surrender  their  arms  to  Do-    Again,  under  Sylla,  and  Catiline,  bis  minister 
metriuA  Nicanor,  tyrant  of  Syria,  154  B.C.      i      of  vengeance,  82  and  79  b  a 

A  droadful  slaughter  of  the  Teutones  and  At  Preueste*,  Octavlanus  Ceeaar  ordered  300 
Ambrones,  near  Aix.  by  Marius,  the  Roman  ,  Roman  senators  and  other  persons  uf  dis- 
general,  200,000  being  left  dead  on  the  spot,  !  tinction  to  be  sacrificed  to  the  manes  of 
102  B  c.  I     Julius  CrBsar,  41  B.C. 

E  B 


Tlie  Romans  throughout  Asia,  women  and 
children  not  excepted,  cruelly  massacred 
in  one  day,  by  order  of  Mithridates.  king 
of  Pontus.  88  B.O. 

A  great  number  of  Roman  senators  massacred 
by  Cinna,  Marius,  and  Sertorius.  Many 
patricians  despatch  themselves  to  avoid 
their  horrid  butcheries,  86  B.O. 


MAS 


418 


MAS 


MASSACRES,  wrUinued, 

AFTVB  OHRTR. 

At  the  destniotion  of  Jenualem,  1,100,000  of 
Jews  were  put  to  the  sword,  a.d.  70. 

The  Jews,  heued  hj  one  Andraa,  imt  to  death 
100,000  Qreeka  and  Romana,  in  and  near 
Cyrene,  ▲  d.  116. 

Oaaalniit  a  Roman  g^eral  under  the  emperor 
M.  Aureliua,  put  to  death  400,000  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Beleucia,  a.d.  167. 

▲t  Alexandria,  many  thousands  of  dtixens 
are  massacred,  by  an  order  of  Antoninus 
A.D.  213. 

The  emperor  Probua  put  to  death  700,000  of 
the  inhabitants  upon  his  reduction  of  Oaul, 
A.D.  277. 

Of  eighty  Christian  fkthers,  by  order  of  the 
emperor  Gratian,  at  Nicomedia ;  they  were 
put  into  a  shipk  which  was  set  on  fire,  and 
then  driven  out  to  sea,  a.d.  870. 

Of  Thessalonioa,  when  7000  peraons,  invited 
into  the  circus,  were  put  to  the  sword,  by 
order  of  Theodoelus,  a.d.  300. 

Belisarius  put  to  death  above  80,000  eitiaens 
of  Constantinople  for  a  revolt^  to  which 
they  were  impelled  by  the  tyranny  and 
exactions  of  two  rapadoua  ministers  set 
over  them.  a.d.  652. 

Hasoacre  of  the  Latins  at  Constantinople,  by 
order  of  Andronicijs,  a.d.  1184. 

Of  the  Albigensee  and  WaldenseSt  oommeneed 
at  Toulouse,  a.d.  1200.  Tens  of  thousands 
perished  by  means  of  the  sword  and  gibbet. 

The  Sicilians  maasacro  the  French  throughout 
the  wh<de  island  of  Sicily,  without  distinc- 
tion of  sex  or  age,  on  Biister-day,  the  first 
bell  for  ve^ers  being  the  signal.  This 
horrid  aflhir  is  known  in  history  by  the 
name  of  the  Sicilian  veapen,  a.d.  1282.— 
D%  Fremoif,    See  SieUian  Veipera. 

A  general  massacre  of  the  Jews  at  Verdun, 
by  the  peasants,  who,  tram  a  pretendea 
propheey.  conceived  the  Holv  Luid  was  to 
DO  recovered  from  the  infidels  by  them. 
600  of  these  Jews  took  shelter  in  a  castle, 
and  defended  themselves  to  the  last  ex- 
tremity, when,  for  want  of  weapons,  they 
throw  their  children  at  the  enemy,  and 
then  killed  each  other,  a.d.  1317. 

At  Paris,  of  several  thousand  persons^  at  the 
instance  of  John,  duke  of  Burgundy.  a.d. 
1418. 

Of  the  Swedish  nobility,  at  a  feast,  by  order 
of  Christian  II.,  a.d.  1620. 

Of  70,000  Huguenots,  or  French  Protestants, 
throughout  the  kingdom  of  France,  at- 
tended with  circumstances  of  the  most 
horrid  treachery  and  cruelty.  It  b<^pan  at 
Paris,  in  the  night  of  the  festival  of  St 
Bartholomew,  August  24,  1672,  by  secret 
orders  from  Charles  IX.,  king  of  France,  at 
the  instigation  of  the  queeu  dowager,  Cathe- 
rine do  MedicLs,  his  mother.  It  is  styled  in 
history  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

Of  the  Christians  in  Croatia,  by  the  Turks, 
when  66,000  were  slain,  a.d.  1502. 

Of  Protestants,  at  Thorn,  put  to  death  under 
a  pretended  legal  sentence  of  the  chancellor 
of  Poland,  for  being  oonoemed  in  a  tumult 
occasioned  by  a  Roman  Catholic  procession, 
A.D.  1724.  All  the  Protestant  rovers  in 
Europe  interceded  to  have  this  ui^ust  sen- 
tence revoked,  but  unavaUingly. 


At  Batavia,  12,000  Chine 
by  the  natives,  October  1740,  uxMler  th« 
pretext  of  an  intend<Ki  insurrection. 

At  the  taking  of  Ismael  by  the  RossiaBi^ 
80.000  old  and  young  wera  slain,  December 
1700.    See  Itmad. 

In  St.  Domingo,  where  DessaUnes  made  pro- 
clamation for  the  massacre  of  all  the  whitaSk 


Mar.  29, 1804,  and  many  thouaaods  perished. 
Insurrection  at  Madrid,  and  lussssprn  of  tha 

French,  Mav  2,  1808. 
Massacre  of  the  Mamelukes^  in  the  citadel  of 

Cairo,  March  1,  1811. 
Massacre  at  Nismes,  perpetrated  by  the  C^ 

tholics,  May  1815. 
Massacre  of  vast  numbers  of  the  Inhabitanta 

of  Oaullz,  l^  the  soldiery,  whose  CsrockKU 

disorders  continued  for  some  daj^  March 

6.  1820. 
Destruction  of  the  Janiaaariea  at  Oooataa- 

tinople  (some    say   16^000,  ottmB   tO^OM 

kUledX  June  14, 1821 

MAaBAORXS  IS  BRmSH  BISTOBT. 

Of  300  English  nobles  on  Salisbury  naiB. 
May  1,  A.D.  474. 

Of  the  monks  of  Baagor,  to  the  number  of 
1200,  bv  BthelMd,  king  of  Noithambfia, 
A.D.  680. 

Of  the  Danes  in  the  southecn  ooontxas  of 
England,  in  the  night  of  November  1^  1002. 
and  the  28rd  Bthelred  II.  At  Loodoo  H 
was  most  bloody,  the  churches  being  do 
sanctuary.  Amongst  the  rest  was  Otmildak 
sister  of  Swein,  king  of  Denma^  left  in 
hostage  for  the  performance  of  a  treaty  bat 
newly  concluded.— AiAer'«  ChnmAdk. 

Of  the  Jews,  in  England.  Some  few  jiissa^iig 
into  Westminster  Hall  at  Richard  l.'s  eoro> 
nation,  were  put  to  death  by  the  pMple : 
and  a  raise  akom  beinff  given  that  toe  king 
had  ordered  a  general  masBafto  of  them, 
the  people  in  many  parts  of  England,  from 
an  aversion  to  them,  slow  all  they  met. 
In  York,  600,  who  had  taken  shelter  in  the 
castle,  killed  themaelTeSL  rather  than  fiUl 
into  tne  hands  of  the  multitude,  a.d  118PL 

Of  the  Bristol  oolonist^  at  Cullen's  Wood, 
IreUnd  (see  CulUn'i  WbwO^  a.d.  1200. 

Of  the  English  &ctory  at  Amboyna,  in  order 
to  dlspoesees  its  members  of  the  Spioe  Is- 
lands, A.D.  1628. 

Massacre  of  the  Protestants  in  Ireland,  in 
O'NoiU's  rebelUon,  Oct  23,  1641.  Upwards 
of  30,000  British  were  killed  in  the  com- 
mencement of  this  rebellion  — Sir  WUtiam 
Petty.  In  the  firat  two  or  three  days  of  it, 
forty  or  fifty  thousand  of  the  ProCcatanIs 
were  destroyed. — Lord  Clarendon.  Befbca 
the  rebellion  was  entirely  supftreased, 
164.000  Protestauta  were  mnsnarrml — Sir 
W.  TempU, 

Of  the  unoffending  MacdonaUa  of  Gleneoc; 
May  9, 1601.    See  QUneoe. 

Of  184  men,  women,  and  children,  ehiafly  Pro- 
testants, bumtk  shot»  or  pieroed  to  death  Iqr 
pikes :  perpetrated  by  the  insurgent  Irish, 
at  the  bam  of  ScullaboguOk  Irelanid,  in  ITW- 
— Sir  Xi^ard  Muagrave. 

Of  Europeans,  i^  Meerut  and  Delhi,  by 
mutineers  of  the  native  Indian  army.  May 
10,  11, 12,  1867. 


MASTER  OP  TBI  CEREMONIES.    See  Cerenumiet, 

MASTER  IN  CHANCERY.  Owing  to  the  extreme  ignorance  of  sir  Christopher  Hattoo, 
lord  chancellor  of  England,  the  first  reference  in  a  cause  was  made  to  a  master, 
▲.D.  1688;  and  the  masters  have  been  since  chosen  from  among  the  most  learned  equity 
members  of  the  bar.    The  office  was  abolished  by  15  k  16  Vict  a  80,  June  80, 1852. 


MAS  419  MAY 

MASTSR  OP  THS  QREAT  WARDROBK  The  master  or  keeper  of  the  great  wardrobe 
wu  an  officer  of  great  antiquity  and  digoitj.  His  pri?ilegaa  and  immunities'  were 
conferred  upon  him  by  Henry  YL  and  were  confirmed  to  him  by  his  saccessors ;  and 
king  James  I.  not  only  enhu-ged  them,  but  ordained  that  this  office  should  be  a 
corporation  or  body  politic  for  ever.  He  was  usually  a  personage  of  high  political 
consideration,  and  subordinate  to  him  were  a  comptroller  and  many  other  officers, 
who  were  all  sworn  servants  of  the  king.  The  most  eminent  statesmen  filled  the 
post.  The  ^^reat  wardrobe  establishmeot  was  abolished  by  act  of  parliament  in  1782, 
and  the  duties  were  transferred  to  the  lord  chamberlain. — BecUson, 

MASTER  ov  THB  ROLLS.  An  equity  judge,  so  called  from  his  having  the  custody  of 
all  charters,  patents^  commissions,  deeds,  and  recogniBonces,  which  being  made  into 
rolls  of  parchment,  gave  occasion  for  that  name.  The  repositoiy  of  public  papers, 
called  the  Rolls,  is  situated  in  Chanoeiy  Lane,  and  was  formerly  a  chapel  founded  for 
the  converted  Jews,  but  after  their  having  been  expelled  the  kingdom,  it  was  annexed 
for  ever  to  the  office  of  the  mastership  of  the  rolls.  Here  are  kept  all  the  records 
since  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  king  Richard  III.  1488 ;  all  prior  to  that  period 
being  kept  in  the  Tower  of  London.  The  Master  of  the  Rolls  is  slways  of  the  Privy 
Council :  he  keeps  a  court  at  the  Rolls,  where  he  hears  and  determines  causes,  but 
his  decrees  are  appealable  to  the  Court  of  Chancery.  The  first  master  of  the  rolls 
was  either  John  de  Langton,  appointed  1286,  or  Adam  de  Osgodeby,  appointed 
Oct.  1,  1299. 

MASTERS  OF  THB  ROLLS. 


Sir  Wm.  Grant,  appointed      .    lUy  27,  1801 
Sir  Thofi.  Flumer.  .  Jan.  6,  181S 

Robert  lord  Oiflord  .  .    April  5,  1824 

Sir  J.  8.  Ck>pl^  (aiterwards  lord  Lynd- 

hiUBt)       ....        Sept  14,  1826 
Sir  John  Leach  May  S,  1827 


Sir  C.  C.  Pepys  (afterwards  lord  Gotten- 
ham) Sept  29,  1834 

Rt  hon.  Henry  Blckerateth  (afterwards 
lord  Langdaie)  .        .    Jan.  10,  1836 

Sir  John  Roinilly(the  pbksbkt  Maator, 
1857) March  28,  1851 


MATHEMATICSS.  With  the  ancients  they  meant  all  sorts  of  learning  and  discipline; 
bot  CTen  then,  as  now,  in  a  more  particular  manner,  mathematios  were  restrained  to 
ihoee  arts  that  more  immediately  related  to  numbers  and  quantity.  They  were  first 
taught  to  the  Jews,  and  by  them  to  the  Egyptians,  so  early  as  1950  b.o. 

MATINS.  The  senrice  or  prayers  first  performed  in  the  morning  or  beginning  of  the 
day  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  French  McUins  imply  the  massacre  of  St. 
Bflotholomew,  Aug.  24,  1572.  The  Matint  of  Mo»€(no,  the  massacre  of  prince 
Demetrius,  and  the  Poles  his  adherents,  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  May  27, 1600. 

MAUNDY-THURSDAY.  Derived  by  Spelman  from  tnande,  a  handbasket,  in  which 
^e  king  was  accustomed  to  give  alms  to  the  poor ;  by  others  from  dies  mandati,  the 
day  on  which  Our  Saviour  gave  his  great  matidtUe,  that  we  should  love  one  another. 
The  Thursday  before  Qood  Friday. —  WhetUley,  On  this  day  it  was  the  custom  of  our 
kings,  or  their  almoners,  to  give  alms,  and  feed  and  clothe  as  many  poor  men  as  they 
were  years  old.  It  was  begun  by  Edward  III.  at  a  jubilee  held  by  him  when  he  was 
fifty  years  of  age,  A.D.  1868. — Polyd,  VirgU, 

MAURITIUS.  The  Isle  of  France  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  a.d.  1505 ;  but 
the  Dutch  were  the  first  settlers  in  1598.  They  called  it  after  prince  Maurice,  their 
Btadtholder,  but  on  their  acquisition  of  the  Cape  of  Qood  Hope  they  deserted  it ;  and 
it  continued  unsettled  until  the  French  landed,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  one  of  the 
finest  provinces  in  Fiance,  1715.  This  island  was  taken  by  the  British,  Dec.  2, 
1810,  and  confirmed  to  them  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1814. 

MAUSOLEUM.  Artemisia,  sister  and  wife  of  Mausolus,  married  her  own  brother, 
famous  for  his  personal  beauty.  She  was  so  fond  of  her  husband,  that  at  his  death 
she  drank  in  her  liquor  his  ashes  after  his  body  had  been  burned,  and  erected  to  his 
memory  a  monument,  which,  for  its  grandeur  and  magnificence,  was  called  one  of  the 
seven  wonders  of  the  world.  This  monument  she  called  Mautoleum,  a  name  which 
has  been  given  to  all  monuments  of  unusual  splendour.  She  invited  all  the  literary 
men  of  her  age,  and  proposed  rewards  to  him  who  composed  the  beet  elegiac 
panegyric  upon  her  husband.    The  prize  was  adjudged  to  Theopompus,  857  B.O. 

MAY,  MONTH  ov.  The  fifth  month  of  the  year,  and  the  confine  of  spring  and  summer, 
received  its  name,  say  some,  from  Romulus,  who  gave  it  this  appellation  in  respect  to 
the  senators  and  nobles  of  his  city,  who  were  denominated  majoret ;  though  others 
supposed  it  was  so  called  from  Mala,  the  mother  of  Mercury,  to  whom  thoy  offered 

£  E  2 


MAY  420  MEC 

eacrifices  on  the  first  day  of  it.     Numa  Pompiliua,  by  adding  January  and  February 
to  tne  year,  xnade  this  month  the  fifth,  which  before  waa  the  third,  713  B.a 


MAY-DAY.  The  ancient  Romans  used  to  go  in  procession  to  the  grotto  of  Egeria  on 
May-day.  May-day  has  also  been  immemoriaJly  observed  in  CGigland  as  a  rural 
festival ;  and  high  poles,  denominated  May-poles,  are  in  many  places  profusely 
decorated  with  garlands  wreathed  in  honour  of  the  day.  The  late  benevolent 
Mrs.  Montague  gave  for  many  years,  on  May-day,  an  entertainment  at  her  house  in 
Portman-square,  to  the  chimney-sweepers  of  London.  They  were  regaled  with  roast 
beef  and  plum-pudding,  and  a  dance  succeeded.  Upon  their  departure,  each  guest 
received  a  shilling  from  the  mistress  of  the  feast.* 

MAYNOOTH  COLLEGE,  Ireland.  Founded  by  act  of  parliament,  and  endowed  by 
a  yearly  grant  voted  for  its  support,  and  the  education  of  students  who  are  designed 
for  the  priesthood  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Ireland,  35  Qeo.  IIL  c  21,  1795. 
An  act  for  its  government  waa  passed  in  1800.  It  contains  500  students.  Permanent 
endowment  of  this  college,  at  uie  instance  of  government,  to  which  30,000iL  for  the 
enlargement  of  the  buildings,  and  26,000^  annually,  were  granted  by  parliament^ 
June  1845.  This  endowment  has  occasioned  much  excitement  and  oontroversy  in 
England,  a  motion  being  made  for  its  abolition  every  session. 

MAYOR.  The  office  of  mayor  arose  out  of  the  immunities  granted  to  free  cities  by 
the  emperors,  and  in  some  towns  they  had  considerable  power.  Mayor  of  the  palace 
was  a  high  office  in  France.  In  this  quality  Charles  Martel  ruled  with  despotic  sway, 
A.D.  785  ei  seq.  under  the  last  kings  of  the  Merovingian  dynasty ;  his  father  had  pre- 
viously held  this  office,  and  had  it  made  hereditary  in  his  famiW.  Mayors  are  the 
chief  magistrates  of  corporate  towns,  before  whose  institution  in  England,  towns  were 
generally  governed  by  portreeves.  The  office  of  mayor  may  be  properly  said  to  date 
from  thereign  ofRichtfd  I.    Bee  Lord  Mayor. 

MEAL-TUB  PLOT.  A  forged  conspiracy  against  the  duke  of  Yoric,  afterwards 
James  11.  and  so  called  from  the  place  where  some  pretended  coErespondence  lay 
concealed.  The  plot  was  contrived  by  one  Dangerfield,  who  secreted  a  bundle  of 
seditious  letters  in  the  lodgings  of  colonel  Maunsell,  and  then  gave  information  to 
the  custom-house  officers  to  search  for  smuggled  goods.  After  Dangerfield's  appre- 
hension on  suspicion  of  forging  these  letters,  papers  were  found  concealed  in  a  meal- 
tub  at  the  house  of  a  woman  with  whouk  he  cohabited,  which  contained  the  scheme 
to  be  sworn  to,  accusing  the  most  eminent  persons  in  the  Protestant  interast,  and 
who  were  against  the  duke  of  York's  succession,  of  treason, — particularly  the  carls 
of  Shaftesbury,  Essex,  and  Halifax,  a.d.  1679.  On  Dangerfield  being  whipped 
the  last  time,  as  part  of  his  punishment,  one  of  his  eyes  was  struck  out  by  a 
barrister  named  Robert  Francis,  which  caused  his  death,  for  which  his  assailant  nas 
hanged,  1685. 

MEASURES  AND  WEIGHTS.  They  were  invented  by  Phidon  of  Argos,  869  b.c.~ 
Arund.  Marbles,  They  became  general  in  most  countries  soon  afterwards ;  and  were 
very  early  known  in  England.  Standards  of  weight  and  measures  were  provided  for 
the  whole  kingdom  by  the  sherifis  of  Loudon,  8  Rich.  I.  a.d.  1197.  Standards  were 
again  fixed  in  Eugland,  1257.  They  were  equalised  for  the  United  Kingdom  in  1825. 
Various  acts  have  passed  relating  to  weights  and  measures.  The  new  act,  pruned  in 
Aug.  1834,  took  effect  Jan.  1, 1835. 

MEATH,  BISHOPRIC  of,  Ireland.  There  were  formerly  many  episcopal  sees  in 
Meatb,  as  Clonord,  Duleek,  Kells,  Trim,  Ardbraccan,  Dunshaughlin,  and  fflane, 
besides  others  of  less  note ;  all  which,  except  Duleek  and  Kells,  were  consolidated, 
and  their  common  see  was  fixed  at  Clonard,  before  the  year  1151-2,  at  which  time 
the  divisions  of  the  bishoprics  in  Ireland  was  made  by  John  Paparo,  then  legate 
from  pope  Eugene  III.  to  the  Irish.  The  two  sees  of  Duleek  and  Kella  afterwards 
submitted  to  the  same  fate.  Meath  was  valued  30  Henry  YIIL  at  3732. 12«.  per  annum. 

MECCA.  This  city  is  famous  for  being  the  birth-place  of  Mahomet,  a.d.  571.  The 
temple  is  a  gorgeous  structure,  much  visited  by  pilgrims.  On  one  of  the  neigh- 
bouring hills  is  a  cave,  where  it  is  pretended  Mahomet  usually  retired  to  perform  his 
devotions;  and  where  the  greatest  part  of  the  Koran  was  brought  to  him  by  the 

*  It  is  said,  though  the  atatement  is  much  doubtod,  that  this  entertainment  was  instituted  to 
commemorate  the  circumstanco  of  Mrs.  Hontaguo's  having  onoe  found  a  boy  of  her  own,  or  that  of  a 
relation,  among  the  sooty  tribe.  In  allufiion  to  this  incident,  fierhape  a  story  resembling  the  adi 
turea  of  this  lost  child  in  pathetically  rehitod  by  Montgomery,  in  '*  The  Chimney-Sweeper'e  Boy." 


MEC 


421 


MED 


angel  Qabriel,  ▲.D.  604.    Two  miles  from  the  town  is  the  hill  where  they  say 
Abraham  went  to  offer  up  leaac,  1871  B.O. 

MECHANICS.  The  time  when  the  simple  mechanical  powers  were  first  introduced  is 
■0  uncertain,  and  perhaps  so  little  known,  that  they  have  been  ascribed  to  the 
Grecian  and  other  deities  of  the  heathen  mytholognr — for  instance,  the  axe,  wedge, 
wimble,  Ac.  are  said  to  be  the  invention  of  Dtednus.  We  know  nothing  of  the 
machinery  by  which  the  immense  masses  of  stone  which  are  found  in  some  of  the 
ancient  edifices  were  moved  and  elevated.    See  Steam  Engine, 

Wind-milUi  wer«  in  very  ffeneral  tase  iu 
820 


•  • 


805 


The  flrat  writing  on  mechanics,  was  by 
Aristotle,  about    .        .  .  B.a 

The  Statera  Bomana  iuvented   .        .    . 

The  fundamental  property  of  the  lever 
and  other  instruments  was  demon* 
strated  by  Archimedes 

The  hand-mill,  or  quern,  wss  very  early 
in  use;  the  Romans  found  one  in 
Yorkshire • 

Oattle-mllls,  m/oila  jumaUariae,  were  also 
in  use  by  the  Romans,  and  in  parts  of 
Burope * 

The  water  mill  was  probably  invented 
in  Asia ;  the  first  that  was  described 
was  near  one  of  the  dwellings  of 
Mithridates 

A  water-mill  is  said  to  have  been  erected 
on  the  river  Tiber,  at  Rome 

Floating  mlUs  on  the  Tiber        .       l.d. 

Tidft-miUs  were,  many  of  them,  in  use 
iu  Venice,  about  .....  1078 


70 

50 
686 


tt  • 


the  twelfth  century 
Saw-mills  are  said  to  have  been  in  use 

at  Augsburg A.n.  1882 

Theoiy  of  the  mclined  plane  investigated 

by  Cardan,  about 1540 

Work  on  Statics,  by  Stevinun  .  \bi» 

Theory  of  falling  bodies,  QalUeo         .    .1088 
Theory  of  oscillation,  Huygens  .  1647 

Laws  of  collision,  Wallis,  Wren  .        .    .  1662 
Epicycloidal  form  of  the  teeth  of  wheels, 

Koemer 1675 

Percussion  and  animal  mechanics,  Bo- 

relli ;  he  died 1670 

Application  of  mechanics  to  astronomy,  ■ 
parallelogism  of  forces,  laws  of  motion, 

Ac,  Newton 1679 

Problem  of  the  catenary  with  the  analy- 
sis. Dr.  Gregory 1607 

Spirit  level  (and  many  other  inventions^ 
by  Dr.  Hooke,  from  1660  to         .        .  1702 


HBCHANICS*  INSTITUTIONS.  One  was  founded  by  Dr.  Birkbeck  m  London,  and 
another  in  Qlasgow,  in  1823 ;  and  soon  after  others  arose  in  different  parts  of  the  empire. 

IIEDALS.  There  is  hardly  any  record  of  medals  or  decorations  as  rewards  in  the 
army  or  navy  before  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth.  The  House  of  Commons 
resolved  to  grant  rewards  and  medals  to  the  fleet  whose  officers  (Blake,  Mouck, 
Penn,  and  Lawson)  and  men  gained  the  glorious  victory  over  the  Dutch  fleet,  off 
the  Texel,  in  1658.  In  1692  an  act  was  passed  for  applying  the  tenth  part  of  the 
proceeds  of  prizes  for  medals  and  other  rewards  for  officers,  seamen,  and  marines. 
Subsequent  to  Lord  Howe's  victory,  June  1, 1794,  it  was  thought  expedient  to  insti- 
tute a  naval  medal.  Blake's  medal  of  1653  was  bought  by  his  majesty  William  IV. 
for  150  guineas.  Medals  were  presented  to  persons  distinguished  in  the  war  in  the 
Crimea,  May  18,  1855. 

MBDIA.  In  ancient  times  Media  was  a  province  of  the  Assyrian  empire.  It  revolted 
from  Arbaces,  820  B.a  and  afterwards  became  an  independent  kingdom,  and  con- 
quered Persia ;  but  Cyrus  having  vanquished  Darius  the  Mede,  536  B.o.  Media  was 
from  that  time  united  to  the  Persian  empire,  and  shared  its  fate. — Blair}  PrUtiley. 


Revolt  of  the  Modes. — Blair   .        .  b.o. 

The  country  was  sabjected  to  the  Assy- 
rians.— Idem 

Phraortes  reigns ;  he  conquers  Persia, 
Armenia,  and  other  countries 

Battle  of  Rages;  the  Assyrians  defeat 
the  Modes. — ^uir 

War  with  the  Lydlans ;  the  hostile  ar- 
mies meet ;  but  an  eclipse  of  the  sun 
so  alarms  them,  they  conclude  peace 
without  striking  a  blow 

The  reign  of  Astyagea. — NMr   .        .    . 


820 
766 
647 
6S5 


585 
585 


Gyrus  made  king  of  Persia  .  b.c.    559 

Astyagea  deposed  by  Cyrus  .     .    550 

Croesiis  king  of  Lydia  defeated,  and  his 

throne  seued  by  Cyrus        .  548 

Cyrus  takes  Babylun  ;  puts  Belshaszar 
to  death  ;  and  makes  Astyages  (or 
Darius  the  Mede)  viceroy  .    .    538 

By  the  death  of  Astyages,  Cyras  be- 
comes master  of  all  Persia ;  and  this 
era  is  properly  the  commencement  of 
the  Persian  empire— X^nyfet  .    637 


The  Modes  were  a  brave  people,  but  they  degenerated,  and  introduced  luxury  into 
Persia. 

MEDICI  FAMILY.  The  great  £Eunily  of  Medici,  illustrious  as  the  restorers  of  literature 
and  the  fine  arts  in  Italy,  were  chiefs  or  aignori  of  the  republic  of  Florence  from  1434, 
in  which  year  Cosmo  de  Medici,  who  had  been  banished  from  the  republic,  was 
recalled,  and  made  its  chief,  presiding  over  it  for  thirty  years.  Several  of  the  family 
were  after^f^rds  aignori.  Among  these  was  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  styled  "  the  Magnifi- 
eent,"  and  the  '*  Father  of  Letters."  John  de'  Medici  (pope  Leo  X.)  was  the  son  of 
Lorenza — Ronooe,    See  article  lAaming. 

MEDICINE.    The  art  of  preparing  simples  was  brought  into  Europe  from  the  East, 


MED  422  HBL 

about  A.D.  1150.  In  the  early  stages  of  tbe  practice,  the  preporation  was  prinopallj 
confined  to  ecdesiaBtica  in  Europe  genendlj,  until  the  doae  of  the  fifteenUi  oenturf , 
or  the  beginning  of  the  aixteenth.    See  Phytic,  HotpUaU,  and  Qicadbery. 

MEDINA,  IN  Arabia  Desrbta.  Famous  for  the  tomb  of  Mahomet,  oontained  in  a 
large  mosque,  closed  with  rich  curtains,  and  lighted  by  a  yast  number  of  rich  lamp& 
Medina  was  cidled  the  City  of  the  Prophet,  because  here  Mahomet  was  protected 
when  he  fled  from  Mecca,  July  16,  a  d.  622.  This  flight  gave  rise  to  the  remArkable 
epoch  in  chronology,  called  the  ffegim,  a  word  that,  in  Arabic^  denotes^  to  /«,  or 
quit,  on^t  country  or  friendt, 

MEEANEE,  BATTLE  of,  India.  The  Hyderabad  Ameers,  amounting  to  30,000 
in&ntry,  with  15  guns,  and  5000  cavalry,  posted  in  a  formidable  position  at  Meeance, 
were  attacked  on  17  Feb.  1843,  by  Lieut-Qenend  Sir  Charles  Napier  with  2600  men 
of  all  arms.  This  insignificant  force  fell  so  impetuously  upon  Uie  enemy,  that  tlie 
gathering  masses  of  these  wild  warriors  continuxdiy  advanced  sword  in  hand,  sttriving 
in  all  the  fierceness  of  their  valour  to  break  into  the  opposing  ranks ;  but  they  were 
hurled  down  the  slope  by  hundreds.  At  length  the  Ameers  gave  way,  and  retreated 
in  tolerable  order,  though  harassed  by  a  galling  fire  from  the  victors.  Their  loaa  was 
enormous.  By  a  careful  computation,  it  amounted  to  6000  men.  The  British  had  six 
officers  and  60  rank  and  file  killed ;  14  officers  and  200  men  wounded. — P,  S,  NicvlaM, 

MEISTEBSINGERSy  see  Minnent^en, 

MELBOURNE,  iir  Australia,  capital  of  Victoria  or  Port  Phillip.  See  Vietoria.  It  was 
laid  out  as  a  town  by  orders  of  air  B.  Bourke,  in  April  1887.  The  first  land  sale  took 
place  in  June,  and  speculation  commenced  and  continued  till  it  caused  wideapread 
insolvency  in  1841-2.  Melbourne  has  since  rapidly  increased  in  proaperity.  It  became 
a  municipal  corporation  in  1842,  a  bishopric  in  1847,  and  the  firat  legislative  asaemhly 
of  Victoria  met  there  in  1852.  Qold  was  found  in  great  abundance  about  eighty 
miles  from  Melbourne  in  the  autumn  of  1851,  and  immense  numbers  of  emigrants 
flocked  there  in  consequence,  causing  an  immense  rise  in  the  prices  of  provisioiia  and 
clothing.  The  population,  28,000  in  1851,  was  about  100,000  at  the  end  of  1852.  In 
1853,  the  city  had  very  greatly  improved,  and  abounded  in  public  building%  hand> 
some  shops,  ftc  On  Nov.  80, 1854,  a  monster  meeting  was  held  at  Ballaimt  respecting 
the  collection  of  the  gold  licences,  which  was  followed  by  riots,  during  which  the 
Southern  Cross  flag  was  raised.  Peace  was  not  restored  without  the  interveotion  of 
the  military;  twenty-six  rioters  and  three  soldiers  were  killed,  and  many  wounded.* 

MELBOURNE'S,  VISCOUNT,  ADMINISTRATION.  On  the  retirement  of  eari  Grey. 
lord  Melbourne  became  first  minister  of  the  crown ;  marquess  of  Lansdowne,  lord 
president;  earl  of  Mulgrave,  privy  seal;  viscount  Althorpe,chancellor  of  the  exchequer; 
viscount  Duncannon,  viscount  Palmerston,  and  Mr.  Spring  Rice  (afterwards  lord 
Monteagle),  home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretariea;  lord  Auckland,  admiialty; 
Mr.  Charles  Qrant  (afterwards  lord  Qlenelg),  and  Mr.  C.  P.  Thomson  (afterwazds 
lord  Sydenham),  boards  of  control  and  trade ;  lord  John  Russell,  paymaster  of  the 
forces ;  sir  John  Hobhouse,  Mr.  Ellice,  marquess  of  Conyngham,  Mr.  litUetoo,  &e. 
Lord  Brougham,  lord  chancellor,  July,  1834.  On  the  acoession  of  viscount  Althorpe 
to  the  earldom  of  Spencer,  on  his  fathei^s  decease,  Nov.  same  year,  lord  Melbourne 
waited  on  the  king  to  receive  his  majesty's  commands  as  to  the  appointment  of  a  new 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  when  his  majesty  said  he  considered  the  admimstratiaB 
at  an  end.  Sir  Robert  Peel  succeeded. — Second  ADMnrisTRATiOK.  Lord  Melbourne 
again  first  lord  of  the  treasury ;  marquess  of  Lansdowne,  lord  president ;  viscount 
Duncannon,  privy  seal,  with  the  woods  and  forests;  Mr.  Rice,  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer;  lord  John  Russell,  viscount  Palmerston,  and  lord  Glenelg,  home,  foreign, 
and  colonial  secretaries ;  earl  of  Minto,  admiralty ;  sir  John  Hobhouse  and  Mr.  Poulett 
Thomson,  boards  of  control  and  trade ;  lord  Holland,  duchy  of  Lancaster ;  viaeonut 
Howick,  secretary-at-war;  Mr.  Labcuchere,  sir  Henry  Pfeirnell,  lord  Morpeth,  4c. 
The  chancellorship  in  commission,  April,  1835.  Finally  terminated,  Aug.  30, 1841, 
sir  Robert  Peel  again  coming  into  power.    See  AdminiihxUiont, 

MELODRAMA.  A  species  of  dramatic  entertainment^  which,  if  it  did  not  actually 
originate  with  the  late  Mr.  Holcroft^  was  at  least  introduced  by  him  in  a  manner  so 
popular  and  interesting  as  to  entitle  him  to  the  honour  of  its  production  in  a  refined 
form ;  Mr.  Holcroft's  melodramas  were  first  represented  in  1793. 

*  On  Oct  8, 1854,  the  Victoria  bank,  Ballamt^  was  broken  open,  and  U.SOOI.  in  money,  sad  KM 
ounces  in  ^Id  dost  were  carried  off.  One  of  the  robberi  was  taken  in  Kngland,  seni  book  to 
Melbourne,  and  there  tried  and  hanged. 

f 


MEM  428  HER 

MEMEL.  An  important  eommereial  port  in  Praisia;  was  almoit  totaUy  destroyed  by 
fire  Oct  4, 1854.    The  low  ia  estimated  at  1,100,000/. 

MEMORY.    8eeMnmanict. 

HSNAI  STRAIT.  Suetonius  Paulinus,  when  he  invaded  Anglesey,  transported  his 
troops  across  this  strait  in  flat-bottom^  boats,  while  the  caTalry  swam  over  on 
horseback,  and  attacked  the  Druids  in  their  laist  retreat.  Before  the  Romans  had 
well  landed,  the  Druids  called  their  Totaries  of  both  sexes  around  them ;  and  the 
women  were  asen  with  dishcTelled  locks,  running  wildly  about  with  torches  in  their 
hands,  echoing  the  imprecations  of  their  priests,  whose  followers  made  but  a  Tain 
resistance.  Their  hornd  piaotioe  of  sacrificing  their  captiTes»  and  the  opposition  he 
met  with,  so  incensed  the  Roman  general,  that  he  gave  the  Britons  no  quarter, 
throwing  all  that  escaped  from  the  battle  into  fires  which  they  had  prepared  for  the 
destruction  of  himself  and  his  army,  a.d.  59. — In  crossing  this  strait  a  feny-boat  was 
lost,  and  fifty  persons,  chiefly  Irish,  perished,  Dec.  4,  1785. 

MENAI  CHAIN  SUSPENSION-BRIDQE.    See  TiUmU»r  Bridge. 

MENDICANT  FRIARS.  The  term  was  applied  to  several  orders  of  religious  who 
commenced  alms-bagging  in  the  thirteentn  century,  in  the  pontificate  of  Innocent  III. 
They  were  very  numerous,  spread  over  Europe,  and  embraced  many  communities ; 
but  at  length  were  confined  by  a  general  council,  held  by  Gregory  X.  at  Lyons,  in  1272, 
to  the  following  four  orders — Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Carmelites,  and  Augustines. 
The  Capuchins  and  other  orders  branched  from  theuL    See  Franeitcani,  &c. 

MENSURATION.  The  art  of  measuring  geometrical  superficies  and  solids  is  of  very 
early  date,  but  it  has  been  traced  with  some  degree  of  certainty.  The  various  pro- 
perties of  conic  sections  were  discovered  by  Archimedes,  to  whom  the  chief  advance- 
ment in  mensuration  may  be  attributed.  He  also  determined  the  ratio  of  spheres^ 
spheroids,  Aa  about  218  B.O. 

MERCATOR'S  CHARTS.  The  true  inventor  of  these  charts  is  said  to  have  been  a 
Mr.  Wright,  who  made  several  voyages ;  and  in  his  absence  Meroator  published  the 
charts  in  his  own  name,  1556.— Parooii.  They  are,  however,  now  confidently  ascribed 
to  Mercatoi^s  own  ingenuity.  In  these  charts  the  meridians  and  parallels  of  latitude 
cut  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  are  both  represented  by  straight  lines,  enlai^g 
the  degrees  of  latitude  as  they  recede  from  the  equator. 

MERCHANT.  The  name  given  to  high  commercial  citiJEcns  who  trade  abroad.  The 
merchants  of  London  and  Amsterdam  are  accounted  the  moat  enterprising  and 
richest  in  the  world.  An  attempt  was  made  by  Queen  Anne's  ministrv  to  ezdude 
merchants  from  sitting  in  the  House  of  Commons,  in  1711 ;  but  it  fSadled.  The  Mer- 
chant Adventurers'  society  (see  Adventwrers,  Mtrikamt)  was  established  by  the  duke 
of  Brabant,  in  1296 ;  it  extended  to  England  in  Edward  IIL's  reign ;  and  was  formed 
into  an  English  corporation  in  1564. 

MERCH ANT-TATLORS.  A  rich  company  of  the  city  of  London,  of  which  seven  kings 
have  been  members,  vis.  Richard  IL  and  III.  Edward  IV.  Henry  lY.  V.  VI.  and  YU. 
They  were  called  Merchant-Taylors  firom  the  admission  of  the  last-named  king  into 
their  company,  a.d.  1501 ;  but  they  were  incorporated  in  1466.  The  Merchant- 
Taylors'  school  was  founded  in  1561. — Stow, 

MERCURY.    See  Qmdkii^vrr  and  Calomel. 

MERCY,  ORDER  or,  ux  Fbavob.  This  order  was  established  with  the  object  of  acoom- 
pliihing  the  redemption  of  Christian  captives ;  founded  bv  John  de  Matha  m  1198. — 
Eenavdt.  The  order  was  formed  into  a  regular  society  by  Pftre  Nolasque  (who  wss 
canonised),  A.D.  1218. — Nieenm.  At  the  first  institution,  the  number  of  members  of 
it  was  considerable,  and  included  many  potentates  and  princes. — Idenn. 

MERIDA,  nr  Spain.  This  is  a  strong  town  in  Estremadura,  built  by  the  Romans.  It 
was  taken  by  the  French  in  January,  1811.  Near  this  town,  at  Airoyos  Molinos,  the 
British  army  under  general  (afterwards  lord)  Hill  defeated  the  French  under  general 
Oinrd,  after  a  severe  engagement,  Oct.  28, 1811.  The  British  took  Merida  from  the 
French  in  January,  1812,  after  a  severe  encounter,  general  Hill  leading  the  combined 
force  of  English  and  Spanish  troops. 

MERRY-ANDREW.  The  name  was  first  given  to  a  droll  and  eccentric  physician,  whose 
name  waa  Andrew  Borde,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YIII.  and  who,  on  some 
occtsions^  on  aoooimt  of  his  lacetiouB  manners  and  good  humour,  appeared  at  court, 


MER  424  MET 

1547.  He  used  to  attend  marketa  and  fain,  and  harangue  the  people,  by  whom  bo 
was  called  Merry  Andrew.  The  name  is  now  given  to  a  buffoon,  a  aany,  or  jack- 
puddiog. — VEtira/nge.    Johnson. 

MBRTHYR-TTDVIL.  A  town  of  Wales,  in  Olamoiganshire,  in  which  very  alarming 
riots  commenced  June  3,  1831,  and  continued  for  seToral  days,  in  which  a  number  of 
persons,  chiefly  the  rioters,  were  killed  and  wounded.  They  were  suppressed  by  the 
military  and  magistracy. 

MERTON,  PARLIAMENT  of.  In  the  village  of  Merton,  in  Surrey,  was  a  celebrated 
abbey,  wherein  the  barons  under  Henry  IIL  in  1236,  held  a  parliament,  which  enacted 
the  statutes  called  the  Provisions  of  Merton,  now  the  most  ancient  body  of  laws  next 
after  Magna  Charta. 

MESMERISM.  So  called  from  Frederick  Anthony  Mesmer,  a  German  physician,  of 
Mersburg.  He  first  made  his  doctrine  known  to  the  world  in  1766 ;  contending  by 
a  thesis  on  planetary  influence,  that  the  heavenly  bodies  diffused  through  the  uoiveree 
a  subtle  fluid  which  acts  on  the  nervous  system  of  animated  bein^  Quitting  Yiemia 
fur  Paris,  in  1778,  he  gained  numerous  proselytes  to  his  system  m  France,  where  be 
received  a  subscription  of  840,000  livres.  The  government  at  length  appointed  a 
committee  of  physicians  and  members  of  the  academy  of  sciences  to  investigate  his 
pretensions.  Among  these  were  Franklin  and  Dr.  Bailly,  and  the  result  of  their 
inquiries  appeared  in  an  admirable  paper  drawn  up  by  the  latter,  exposing  the  fatiliiy 
of  animal  magnetism  and  the  quackery  of  Mesmer.  Mesmerism  excited  attention 
again  about  1848,  when  Miss  Harriet  Martineau  announced  her  belief  in  it 

MESSALIANS.  A  sect  whose  principal  religious  error  consisted  in  adhering  to  the 
letter  of  the  Gbspel,  interpreting  the  words  to  justify  and  excuse  their  worst  pro- 
pensities and  vices.  Amongst  other  absurdities  (and  these  abounded  with  thia  sect) 
they  refused  to  work,  quoting  this  passage,  '^  Labour  not  for  the  food  thatperi^eth;" 
about  A.D.  810.— J^arontiM,  AnnaL 

MESSENIA,  now  Mawa-McUra,  a  coxmtry  of  the  Peloponnesus.  This  kingdom  was 
commenced  by  Polioaon,  1499  B.o.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  long  and  sanguinary  wars 
against  Sparta  (see  next  artide),  and  once  contained  a  hundred  cities,  most  of  whose 
names  even  are  now  unknown.  Messenia  was  at  first  governed  bv  kings ;  and  alter 
their  restoration  to  the  Peloponnesus  they  formed  a  republic,  unaer  the  protection, 
first,  of  the  Thebans,  and  afterwards  of  the  Macedonians ;  but  they  never  rose  to  any 
eminence.    Messenia  joined  the  Achasan  league,  216  B.o. 

MESSENIAN  WARS.  The  celebrated  wars  between  LacedsBmon  and  Messenia.  The 
first  began  743  B.O.  and  was  occasioned  by  violence  having  been  offered  to  same 
Spartan  women  who  had  assembled  in  a  temple  of  devotion  common  to  both  nationa ; 
the  king  of  Sparta  being  killed  in  his  efforts  to  defend  the  females.  This  dreadful  war 
raged  for  nineteen  years,  and  at  one  period  made  so  great  a  carnage,  that  the  Spartan 
army  sent  orders  home  for  all  the  unmarried  women  to  prostitute  tiiemselves  to 
recruit  the  population.  In  the  end  Ithome  was  taken,  and  the  Messenxans  became 
slaves  to  the  conquerors.  The  second  war  was  commenced  686  B.O.  to  throw  off  the 
galUng  Spartan  yoke,  and  lasted  fourteen  years,  ending  in  the  defeat  of  the  Messenianff, 
who  fled  to  Sicuy.  The  third  took  place  465  B.a;  it  endured  ten  yean,  when  the 
whole  nation  abandoned  the  Peloponnesus. 

MESSINA,  IN  SioiLT.  So  named  by  the  Messinese,  who  seized  this  city,  then  ealled 
Zancle,  671  B.o.  It  belonged  for  many  ages  to  the  Roman  empire,  but  foil  to  the 
Saracens,  ▲.D.  829. — PriesUey.  In  the  eleventh  century  Roger  the  Norman  took  it  by 
surprise,  and  delivered  it  from  Mahometan  oppression.  Qreat  Mesainian  oonspitacy, 
1282.  The  memorable  revolt  took  place  1672.  Almost  ruined  by  an  earthquake^ 
1693;  and  nearly  depopulated  by  a  plague  in  1743.  In  1780  Messina  suffered  much 
by  an  earthquake ;  and  in  Feb.  and  March,  1783,  was  half  destroyed  by  the  same 
calamity,  since  which  it  has  been  handsomely  rebuilt.  Messina  was  the  head-quarten 
of  the  British  forces  in  Sicily,  prior  to  the  peace  of  1814. 

METALLURQT.  In  the  fourth  chapter  of  Qenesis,  Tubal-Cain  is  mentioned  as  ''an 
instructor  of  every  artificer  in  brass  and  iron."  The  seven  metals  are  mentioned  by 
Moses  and  Homer.  Vii]|il  mentions  the  melting  of  steel  in  fumaoeai  The  Pbceoidans 
had  an  extraordinary  skill  in  working  metals.    See  Iron,  &c. 

METAMORPHISTS.  A  name  given  to  certain  Saoramentarians,  who  in  the  fifteenth 
century  affirmed,  that  Christ's  natural  body  with  which  ho  ascended  into  heaven,  was 


MET  426  MIC 

wholly  deified,  not  conudering  that  the  Deity  and  circumscription  and  diviaibilityi 
are  incompatible. — Pardon. 

METAPHYSICS.  The  science  of  abstract  ressoning,  or  that  which  contemplates  the 
eziBtenoe  of  things  without  relation  to  matter.  The  term,  literally  dvuotiug  "  after 
physics,"  originated  with  Aristotle.  What  may  be  denominated  tiie  modem  meta- 
physics, cannot  be  traced  farther  back  than  the  fifteenth  century, — the  period  when 
an  extraordinarr  impulse  was  given  in  Europe  to  the  human  mind,  and  commonly 
called  the  "  revival  of  leamiug." 

METEMPSYCHOSIS.  A  doctrine  supposing  the  transmigration  of  the  soul  from  one 
body  to  another.  The  first  belief  in  it  is  ascribed  to  the  Egyptians,  who  would  eat 
DO  animal  food,  lest  they  should  devour  the  body  into  which  the  soul  of  a  deceased 
friend  had  passed.  They  had  also  an  idea,  that  so  long  as  the  body  of  the  deceased 
was  kept  entire,  the  soul  would  not  transmigrate ;  wMch  accounts  for  the  extraordi- 
nary pains  they  took  in  embalming  the  dead :  a  doctrine  of  Pythagoras,  528  B.o. 

METHODISTS.    See  Wedeyans. 

METAOPOLITAN  BOARD  of  WORKS.  Established  by  18  &  19  Vict  c.  120.  It 
held  its  first  meeting,  and  elected  Mr.  John  Thwaites  as  chairman,  Dea  22, 1855. 

METROPOLITAN  CATTLE  MARKET,  inaugurated  by  the  lord  mayor  and  corpo- 
ration on  Wednesday,  June  13,  1855,  in  presence  of  prince  Albert.  It  is  situated  in 
Copenhagen  Fields,  an  elevated  site  nortn  of  London,  occupying  an  area  of  about  15 
acres,  larger  by  9  acres  than  Smithfield,  and  capable  of  containing  80,000  sheep, 
6400  bullocks,  1400  calves,  and  900  pigs.  In  the  centre  is  a  circular  building,  let  to 
bankers  and  others  having  business  connected  with  graziers  and  cattle^ents.  Within 
and  around  the  market  are  erected  several  large  taverns.  A  place  is  set  apart  fur 
slaughtering  animals,  with  approved  appliances  for  purposes  of  health,  by  ventilation, 
sewerage,  &a ;  there  is  also  a  place  for  hay-stands.  Sales  commenced  on  Friday, 
June  15th,  1855.     See  SmUhfidd. 

METTRAY.    See  Reformatory  ScKoM. 

MEXICO.  Discovered  in  a.d.  1518.  Conquered  by  the  Spaniards  under  Cortes,  whose 
name  is  infamous  on  account  of  his  cruelties  to  the  vanquished,  a.d.  1521.  The  mint 
of  Mexico  was  begun  in  1585.  This  country  asserted  its  independence,  Aug.  1821. 
Iturbide  made  emperor,  liay  1822.  Mexican  constitution  proclaimed  by  the  president 
Yittoria,  Oct.  1828.  Iturbide  shot,  July  19,  1824.  Treaty  of  commerce  with  Great 
Britain  ratified,  April  1825.  The  expulsion  of  the  Spaniards  decreed,  March  1829. 
Spanbh  expedition  against  Mexico  surrendered,  Sept.  26,  same  year.  Mexican  revo- 
lution ;  the  president  Guerrero  deposed,  Dec.  23,  same  year.  The  independence  of 
Mexico,  previously  recognised  by  the  great  European  powers,  also  recognised  by  the 
emperor  of  Brazil,  June  1830.  Declaration  of  war  against  France,  Nov.  30,  1838. 
This  war  terminated  March  9,  1839.  War  with  the  United  States,  June  4,  1845. 
The  Mexicans  defeated  at  Palo  Alto,  May  8, 1846;  and  subsequently  at  Matamoras. 
Santa  F^  captured,  Aug.  23,  and  Monterey,  Sept.  24, 1846.  Battle  of  Bueno  Vista, 
tiie  Mexicans  defeated  by  general  Taylor  with  great  loss,  after  two  days*  fighting, 
Feb  22,  1847.  The  Americans,  under  general  Scott,  defeat  the  Mexicans,  making 
6000  prisoners,  April  18,  1847.  Various  actions  followed.  Treaty  between  Mexico 
and  the  United  States  ratified.  May  19, 1848.  In  consequence  of  political  convulsions, 
general  Arista,  the  president,  resigned  his  office,  Jan.  6, 1853 ;  and  in  Feb.  following 
general  Santa  Anna  was  invited  to  return  to  his  country,  and  a  revolution  which 
commenced  in  Sept.  1852  was  terminated.  On  March  17,  1853,  Santa  Anna  was 
elected  president  On  the  12th  December  he  assumed  dictatorial  power  with  the 
consent  of  the  Mexicans.  In  Jan.  1855  he  abdicated,  and  general  Carera  was  elected 
prssident.  He  also  abdicated,  and  was  succeeded  by  general  Alvarez,  and  afterwards 
(Dec.  10)  by  general  Comonfort.  The  confiscation  of  the  property  of  the  deigy  was 
decreed  March  31, 1856. 

MEZZOTINTO.  A  peculiar  manner  of  engraving  representing  figures  on  copper,  received 
its  name  from  its  resemblance  to  painting.  The  invention  of  it  is  generally  ascribed 
to  prince  Rupert>  a.d.  1648 ;  but  baron  Heinecken  states  that  colonel  de  Siegen 
engraved  a  large  and  admirable  print  of  Amelia  Elizabeth  of  Hease  in  mezzotinto  in 
1643.— See  Bngravvng, 

MICHAELMAa  The  feast  of  St.  Michael,  the  reputed  guardian  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  under  the  title  of  "  St.  Michael  and  all  AngeU."    St  Michael  is  supposed  by 


MIC  426  MIL 

the  Roman  Catholios  to  be  the  head  of  the  heaTenly  hoet  This  feast  is  eelebraled 
on  the  29th  of  September,  and  the  institation  of  it,  aocordiog  to  Batler,  waa  a.ix  487- 
The  custom  of  haying  goose  on  Michaelmas-day  is  of  much  older  date  than  ihm  time 
of  Elizabeth  in  England,  1588  (see  Oooie  at  MicKadmati)^  and  is  equally  obaored  oa 
the  continent  as  in  England. — Erodes  Clavit  Calendaria, 

MICROMETER.  An  astronomical  instrument  used  to  diseoTer  and  meMurs  aaj  amall 
distance,  and  minuter  objects  in  the  heavens,  such  as  the  ^>parent  diaiiiirfeiH  of  the 
planets,  &c  There  are  many  curious  improvements  that  render  thia  iii8tniiiien.t  'wnry 
exact  and  useful ;  its  invention  is  ascribed  by  some  to  Bf.  Haygen%  ajx  1652;  bat 
our  countryman  Qascoyne's  instrument  is  prior  to  that  tima 

MICROSCOPES.  Invented  nearly  at  the  same  time  in  Italy  and  Holland,  a.d.  1621. 
Those  with  double  glasses  were  made  at  the  period  when  the  law  of  refraetioD  was 
discovered,  about  1024.  The  honour  of  this  invention  is  awarded  to  Drebel  and 
TorricellL  Solar  microscopes  were  invented  by  Dr.  Hooke.  In  England,  great 
improvements  were  made  in  the  microscope  by  Henry  Baker,  F.R^,  about  1762. 
The  Microscopical  Society  of  London  was  eetabUshed  in  1889. 

MIDWIFERY.  Women  were  the  only  practitioners  of  this  art  among  the  Hebrews  and 
Egyptians.  Hippocrates,  who  practised  medicine  in  Qreeoe,  460  B.C.  is  styled  by  aome 
the  father  of  midwifery,  as  well  as  of  physic.*  It  advanoed  under  Celmui»  who 
flourished  A.D.  87,  and  of  Qalen,  who  lived  a.d.  131.  In  England  midwifery  bemme  a 
science  about  the  period  of  the  institution  of  the  College  of  Phyaioians,  10  Hen.  Til. 
1518.  The  celebrated  Dr.  Harvey  personally  engaged  in  the  practice  of  it»  aboot 
1608 ;  and  after  his  example  the  calling  in  of  men  in  all  difficult  caaea  followed. 
Astruc  affirms  that  the  epoch  of  the  employment  of  men-midwives  goea  no  farther 
back  than  the  first  lying-in  of  Madame  de  la  Vallidre,  mistroBs  of  Louia  XIY.,  1663. 
She  sent  for  Julian  Clement,  an  eminent  surgeon,  who  was  eonducted  with  great 
secrecy  to  the  house.  Th'e  same  surgeon  was  employed  in  the  subsequent  lAboura  of 
this  lady,  and  he  being  very  successful,  men-midwivee  afterwards  came  into  npnte, 
the  name  of  accoucheur  being  given  to  them. 

MILAN.  The  capital  of  the  ancient  Uguria,  now  Lombardy,  is  reputed  to  have  been 
built  by  the  Oauls  about  408  B.a  It  submitted  to  the  Romans  222  B.C. ;  was  formed 
into  a  republic  A.D.  1221 ;  and  lastly,  was  governed  by  dukes  from  a.d.  1S95  until 
1505,  when  it  was  conquered  by  Louis  XII.  John  Qaleaszo  was  the  first  who  tocA 
the  title  of  duke  of  Milan,  about  1390.  The  French  were  expelled  from  Hilaii,  br 
Charles  V.  of  Qermany,  about  1525 ;  and  that  emperor  gave  it  to  hii  son  Philip  IL 
Milan  was  given  to  Austria,  upon  Naples  and  Sicily  being  ceded  to  Spain,  1748.  Seised 
by  the  French,  June  30, 1 796.  Retaken  by  the  Austrians  in  1799 ;  but  re|^ined  by  the 
FVench,  May  31,  the  next  year.  This  city  was  made  the  capital  of  the  late  kingdom 
of  Italy,  and  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  crowned  with  the  iron  crown  at  Milan,  May  26, 
1805.  The  celebrated  Milan  decree  of  Napoleon  against  all  continental  intercourse 
with  Englimd,  Dec.  17, 1807.  Insurrection  here  against  the  Austrians;  flight  of  the 
viceroy  and  discomfiture  of  his  troops,  March  18, 1848.  Thia  movement^  conaequent 
upon  the  revolution  in  France,  led  to  a  serious  but  fruitless  popular  struggle: 
Another  revolt  occurred  Feb.  6  H  teq.  1853;  this  was  promptly  suppreaaed  sad 
rigorously  punished.  Milan  was  visited  by  the  emperor  and  empress  of  Aostra 
fax  Nov.  1856. 

MILFORD  HAVEN,  Wales.  Here  the  earl  of  Richmond,  afterwards  Heoxy  VIL 
landed  on  his  enterprise  against  Richard  IIL  whom  he  defeated  at  Boaworth,  14$5. 
The  packets  from  this  port  to  Ireland,  sailing  to  Waterfoid,  were  establiahedin  17S7. 
The  whole  royal  navy  of  England,  it  is  said,  might  ride  in  safety  in  this  haves,  it 
being  one  of  the  most  secure  and  capacioua  asylums  for  shipping  in  idl  Eoropeu 
The  dockyard  was  removed  to  Pembroke,  or  Pater,  in  1814. 

MILITARY  OB  MARTIAL  LAW.  This  is  a  law  built  on  no  settled  principK  ^^ 
entirely  arbitrary,  and,  in  truth,  no  law;  but  sometimes  indulged,  rather  than  aUoved, 
as  law. — Sir  MtUthew  Halt,  Martial  law  was  several  times  proclaimed  in  these  king' 
doms  during  rebellions.  It  was  almost  general  throughout  Ireland  in  179&  Tba 
last  proclamation  of  martial  law  was  in  that  country,  July  26, 1808. 

*  Agnodioe.  an  Athenian  Tiiigin,  diafirulaed  her  sex  to  leazn  medidneu    She  ipraa  tanght  bj  Hkro* 
pholuB,  her  father,  the  art  of  midwirery,  and  when  employed,  always  diaooTervd  her  sex  to  her  |wtkota. 


This  brought  her  into  so  much  practice,  that  the  males  of  her  profeaston,  who  were  now  oat  of  empiair- 
ment,  aooused  ber,  before  the  Areopagus,  of  corruption.  She  oonfeawd  her  sex  to  the  jodlgai^  uA  a 
law  was  made  to  empower  all  free-bom  women  to  lieani  midwifery. 


MIL  427  MIN 

MILITARY  KNIGHTS  of  WINDSOR.    See  Poor  KnigkU  of  Wimdtor. 

MILITIA.  The  Btanding  natioiud  militia  of  theee  realms  is  iraoed  by  most  hictorians  to 
king  Alfred,  who,  by  his  prudent  disoiplioe,  made  all  his  subjects  soldiers,  a.d.  872  to 
901.  The  feudal  military  tenures  became  involyed  in  this  force.  The  first  commission 
of  array  to  raise  a  militia  was  in  1422.  The  order  in  which  the  militia  now  stands 
by  law  was  principally  built  upon  the  statutes  13,  14,  and  16  Charles  II.  1661  to  1663. 
Various  other  enactments  followed  these.  The  supplemental  militia  act  was  passed 
in  1797.  The  Irish  militia  offered  its  services  in  England,  March  28, 1804.  General 
act  reducing  into  one  all  the  laws  relating  to  the  militia,  42  Geo.  IIL  for  England  and 
Scotland,  and  49  Gea  III.  for  Ireland.  The  acts  for  the  interchange  of  the  English 
and  Irish  militia  passed  51  and  54  Geo.  IIL  tt  teq.  Enactment  authorising  courts* 
martial  to  inflict^  if  they  think  fit,  the  punishment  of  imprisonment,  instead  of  flogging, 
was  passed  in  1814.  Acts  to  consolidate  the  laws  relating  to  the  militia  in  England, 
15  k  16  Vict  oc  50,  74,  75  (June  30,  1852«);  16  k  17  Vict  ca  116, 188  (Aug.  20, 
1858).  These  acts  were  smended  in  consequence  of  the  war  with  Russia,  by  17  ft  18 
Vict  e.  13  (May  12, 1854),  and  oc.  105,  106, 107  (Aug.  11, 1854);  the  last  two  provide 
for  the  raising  a  yolanteer  militia  in  Scotland  and  Ireland. 

MILKT  WAY.  Ancient  poets  and  philosophers  speak  of  the  galaxy  as  the  road  by 
which  heroes  went  to  heaven.  The  Greeks  supposed  that  Juno  accidentally  gave  suck 
to  Mercury  when  an  infant,  or  to  the  infant  Hercules,  who,  while  she  slept,  was  laid 
by  her  side ;  but  perceiving  who  ha  was,  she  threw  him  from  her,  and  the  heavens 
were  thus  marked  by  the  wasted  milk.  Democritus  was  the  first  who  taught  that  the 
ma  laeUa  was  occasioned  by  a  confbsed  multitude  of  stars,  about  428  B.O. 

MILLENNIUM  This  doctrine  supposes  that  the  world  woidd  end  at  the  expiration  of 
the  seventh  thousandth  year  from  the  creation ;  and  that  during  the  last  thousand 
years  Christ  and  the  saints  would  reign  upon  earth ;  see  Rev.  ch.  xx.  It  was  very 
generally  inculcated  as  early  as  the  second  and  third  centuries,  by  Papias,  Justin 
Martyr,  and  others. — Bvmet. 

MILLS.  The  earliest  instrument  for  grinding  manna  and  com  vras  the  mortar.  Moses 
forbade  them  to  be  taken  in  pawn,  because  that,  he  says,  would  be  like  taking  a  man's 
life  to  pledge.  The  hand-mUl  was  in  use  amons  the  Britons  previously  to  the  con- 
quest  by  the  Romans.  The  Ronums  introduced  the  water-mill.  See  article  Mechaniet. 
The  first  cotton  mills  ever  put  in  motion  by  water  were  erected  by  sir  Richard  Ark- 
Wright  at  Cromford,  in  the  county  of  Derby. 

HINDEN,  RA.TTLE  of.  Between  the  English,  Hessians,  and  Hanoverians,  on  one  side, 
and  the  French  on  the  other.  The  first  army  was  commanded  b^  prince  Ferdinand 
and  (under  him)  lord  George  Sackville,  who  gained  a  complete  victory,  pursuing  the 
enemy  to  the  very  ramparts  of  Minden,  Aug.  1,  1759.  Lord  Geoi^e  Sackville 
(afterwards  lord  Geoige  Gkrmaine)  commanded  hi  this  battle  the  British  and 
Hanoverian  horse,  and  for  some  disobedience  of  orders  he  was  tried  by  a  court- 
martial  on  his  return  to  England,  and  found  guilty,  and  dismissed  the  service.  He 
was,  however,  restored  to  court  favour  in  lord  Bute's  admimstntion  some  years 
afterwards. 

MINES.  Those  of  Great  Britain  are  very  numerous  and  rich.  Strabo  and  Tacitus 
enumerate  gold  and  silver  as  among  the  products  of  England.  The  earliest  instance 
of  a  claim  to  a  mine  ro^  being  enforced,  occurs  47  Hen.  III.  1262.  It  related  to 
mines  containing  gold,  together  with  copper,  in  Devonshire.  And  in  Edward  L*s 
reign,  according  to  Mr.  Ruding,  the  mines  in  Ireland,  which  produced  silver,  were 
supposed  to  be  BO  rich,  that  the  king  directed  a  writ  for  working  them  to  Robert  de 
Ufford,  lord  jnstioe,  1276.  The  lead  mines  of  Cardiganshire,  from  which  silver  has 
ever  since  been  extracted,  were  discovered  by  sir  Hugh  Middleton  in  the  reign  of 
James  I.    The  British  Mineralogical  Society  was  established  in  1800. 

MINii  RIFLE,  invented  at  Vincennes,  about  1888,  by  M  Mini^  (bom  about  1800). 
From  a  common  soldier  he  has  raised  himself  to  the  rank  of  chef  d'escadron.  His 
rifle  ii  considered  to  surpass  all  made  previous  to  it,  for  accuracy  of  direction  and 
extent  of  range.  It  is  adopted  by  the  French,  and  with  various  modifications  by  the 
Britiah  and  other  armies. 

*  This  militia  act  was  consequent  uixm  the  then  prevailing  oplnicm  of  the  necessity  of  strengthening 
oar  national  defences  aaaiixst  the  possibility  of  French  invasion.  The  act  empowered  her  miv)esty  to 
raise  a  force  not  ezeeedlng  80,00)  men.  of  which  number  50,000  were  to  be  raised  in  1868,  and  80,000  in 
1858 ;  the  quotas  for  each  county  or  riding  to  bo  fixed  by  an  order  in  oouncU. 


MIN  428  MIT 

MINISTER  OF  WAR.    See  War  Minuter. 

MINNESINGERS,  lyric  Qerman  poets,  of  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  who  wrote  to 
cheer  and  entertain  the  knights  and  harona  of  the  time.  In  the  14th  century,  the 
Meistersingera  devoted  tbeinBelvea  to  the  enlivening  the  burgesses  and  citizens. 
Their  songs  have  been  collected  and  published. 

MINORCA.  Tliis  island  and  Majorca  were  called  by  the  Greeks,  Balearidea.  Minorca 
was  captured  by  lieut.-gen.  Stanhope  and  sir  John  Leake  in  Aug.  1708,  and 
was  confirmed  to  the  British  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in  171S.  It  was  retaken  by  the 
Spanish  and  French  in  June  1756.  Admiral  Byng  fell  a  victim  to  the  ezaeneration  of 
the  public  mind,  for  not  relieving  it  with  a  force  greatly  inferior  to  tnat  of  the 
enemy.  See  Byng.  It  was  restored  to  the  British  at  the  peace  in  1763.  Besieged 
by  the  Spaniardi,  and  taken,  Feb.  5.  1782.  It  was  again  captured  by  the  Britiah* 
without  the  loss  of  a  man,  Nov.  15, 1798;  but  was  given  up  at  the  peace  of  1S02. 


MINSTRELS.    They  were  originally  pipers  appointed  by  lords  of  manors  to  diTert 

copyholders  while  at  work.  They  owed  their  origin  to  the  glee-men  or  harpers  of  the 
Saxons,  and  continued  till  about  a.d.  1 560.  John  of  Gaunt  erected  a  oourt  of  mioatrela 
at  Tutbury  in  1380.  So  late  as  the  reign  of  Heniy  YIII.  they  intruded  withoat  cere- 
mony into  all  companies,  even  at  the  houses  of  the  nobility.  In  Elizabeth's  reign  they 
had,  however,  sunk  into  neglect. 

MINT.  Athelstan  first  enacted  regulations  for  the  government  of  the  mint,  aboat  a.D. 
928.  There  were  several  provincial  mints  under  the  control  of  that  of  London. 
Stow  says  the  mint  was  kept  by  Italians,  the  English  being  ignorant  of  the  art  of 
coining,  7  Edw.  L  1278.  The  operators  were  formed  into  a  corporation  by  the  eharter 
of  king  Edw.  III.,  in  which  condition  it  consisted  of  the  warden,  master,  comptroller, 
assay-master,  workers,  coiners,  and  subordinates.  The  first  entry  of  gold  brought  to 
the  mint  for  coinage,  occurs  18  Edw.  IIL  1343.  Tin  was  coined  by  Charles  IL  16^4 ; 
and  gun-metal  and  pewter  by  his  successor,  James.  Between  1806  and  1810»  grants 
amounting  to  262,000/.  were  made  by  parliament  for  the  erection  of  the  present  fine 
structure.  The  new  constitution  of  the  mint,  founded  on  the  report  of  the  hon.  Mr. 
Wellesley  Pole,  took  effect  in  1815.  The  master  is  now  the  chief  officer,  being  Pro- 
fessor Graham,  the  chemist,  who  succeeded  sir  John  F.  Herschel  in  1855. 

MIRRORS.  In  ancient  times  mirrors  were  made  of  metal;  and  from  a  paaaage  in  the 
Mosaic  writings  we  learn  that  the  mirrors  used  by  the  Jewish  women  were  made  of 
brass.  Mirrors  in  silver  were  introduced  by  Praxiteles,  328  b.o.  Mirrors  or  looking^ 
glasses  were  made  at  Venice  a.d.  1300;  ana  in  England,  at  Lambeth,  near  London,  in 
1678.  The  improvements  in  manufacturing  plate-glass,  and  that  of  very  lai^ge  aiae,  has 
cheapened  looking-glasses  very  much.  In  1851,  M.  Petiljean  made  known  a  mode  of 
Bilyering  glass  by  a  solution  of  silver,  thus  avoiding  the  deleterious  use  of  mercoiy. 

MISSIONS,  Among  the  Romanists,  the  religious  orders  of  St  Domiaick,  St.  Francia» 
St.  Augustin,  &C.  had  missions  to  the  Levant  and  to  America.  The  Jesuits  had 
missions  to  China  (vkich  aee),  and  to  most  other  parts  of  the  world.  Among  the 
Protestants,  an  early  undertaking  of  this  kind  was  a  Danish  mission,  planned  by 
Frederick  IV.  in  1706.  But  the  Moravian  Brethren  may  be  said  to  have  led  the  way 
to  the  new  Christian  missions  about  1782.  The  Miraionary  Society  held  their  fint 
meeting,  Nov.  4, 1794.* 

MISSISSIPPI  TRADK  This  trade  was  begun  in  England,  in  Nov.  1716.  The  cele- 
brated Mississippi  scheme  or  bubble  in  France,  which  was  commenced  aboat  the  aame 
period,  exploded  in  1720 ;  at  which  time  the  nominal  capital  is  said  to  have  amounted 
to  100,000,000^  The  ruin  of  tens  of  thousands  of  fiimilies,  dupes  of  this  inquitom 
scheme,  soon  followed  in  both  countries.    See  Laufi  Bubble, 

MISSOURI  COMPROMISE.    See  Slavery  in  Ameriea. 

BCITHRIDATE.  A  physical  preparation  in  the  form  of  an  electuary,  suppoaed  to  he 
the  oldest  compound  known  to  us  at  the  present  day.    It  was  invented  by  Mithri- 

*  Our  minionariM  abroad  have  not  unfrequently  suflerod  griovoua  hardahipa  and  priTationa  Oom- 
mander  Allan  Qardinor,  RN.,  who  left  England  iu  the  Ocean  Queen  in  8ept  1850,  on  the  PaCttoatea 
miaaion,  with  Mr.  Williama,  surgeon,  Mr.  Maidment,  eatechiet,  and  four  others,  died  on  Pietoa TriaDd, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Beagle  Channel,  to  the  aouth  of  Tferra  del  Fuego,  having  been  etarred  to  death,  all 
hia  companions  having  previoualy  pcriahed,  Sept.  6,  1861.  M.  Bchofflor,  a  misatonary  to  Cochin-Cl)iBa» 
was  publicly  executed  at  Bon-Tay  dv  order  of  the  grand  mandarin,  for  preaching  the  raUgkm  at  Oat 
Saviour,  such  preaching  being  prohibited  by  the  law  of  that  country,  May  4, 1841, 


MIT  429  MOH 

dates  IL  the  king  of  Pontas,  about  70  B.a    It  waa  formerly  thought  to  be  a  great 
antidote  against  poison,  but  it  is  now  out  of  date. 

MITHREDATIC  WAR  Caused  by  the  massacre  of  100,000  Romans,  86  B.a  and 
remarkable  for  its  duration,  its  many  battles,  the  devastation  of  human  life  it  occa- 
sioned, and  the  cruelties  of  its  commanders.  Mithridates  havioff  taken  the  consul 
Aquilius,  made  him  ride  on  an  ass  through  a  great  part  of  Asia,  crying  out  as  he 
rode,  *'  I  am  Aquilius,  consul  of  the  Romans."  He  ultimately  despatched  him,  by 
ordering  melted  gold  to  be  poured  down  his  throat,  in  derision  of  his  avarice,  85  &a 

MITRE.  The  cleft  cap  or  mitre  i«  of  very  ancient  use,  having  been  worn  by  the  high- 
priest  among  the  Jews.  Among  the  primitive  Christians,  young  women  who  pro- 
fessed a  state  of  virginity,  and  were  solemnly  consecrated  thereto,  wore  a  purple  or 
golden  mitre.  The  pope  has  four  mitres,  which,  according  to  the  solemnity  to  be 
performed  or  festival  day  it  is  worn  on,  is  more  or  less  magnificent  Anciently  the 
cardinals  wore  mitres;  but  at  the  council  of  Lyons,  in  1215,  they  were  appointed  to 
wear  hats,  which  custom  remains  to  this  day. 

MNEMONICS.  Artificial  memory  had  its  professors  in  the  ancient  world.  The  art  of 
aAPisting  memory,  bv  getting  by  heart,  was  introduced  by  Simonides  the  younger, 
477  B.a — Arund.  Marbles.  In  modem  times,  mnemonics  have  been  elaborately 
treated ;  and  the  Menwria  Technica  of  Dr.  Orey  is  an  esteemed  work  on  the  subject, 
first  published  in  1730.  A  system  of  mnemonics  was  announced  in  Qermauy, 
in  1806-7. 

HOC  KERN,  BATTLE  op.  Between  the  French  army  under  Eagdne  Beauhamaifi,  and 
the  allied  Russian  and  Prussian  army,  which  was  signally  defeated  with  great  loss, 
April  1818.  Another  and  yet  more  desperate,  and  still  more  sanguinary,  battle  was 
fought  here,  Oct  14, 1818,  between  the  French  and  the  alliea  In  this  latter  bloody 
coxi&ict  the  place  was  taken  and  retaken  five  different  times. 

MODELS.  The  first  models  were  figures  of  living  persons,  and  Dibutftden,  the 
Corinthian,  was  the  inventor  of  those  in  clay.  His  daughter,  known  by  the  appel- 
lation of  the  Corinthian  Maid,  being  about  to  be  separated  from  hef  lover,  who 
was  going  on  a  distant  journey,  traced  his  profile  by  his  shadow  on  the  wall ;  her 
father  filled  up  the  outline  with  day,  which  he  afterwards  baked,  and  thus  produced 
a  figure  of  the  object  of  her  affection,  giving  rise  to  an  art  till  then  unknown, 
about  985B.C.* 

MODENA.  Erected  into  a  duchy  in  1451.  The  duke  was  expelled  by  the  French, 
1796,  By  the  treaty  of  Campo  Furmio,  the  Modenese  possessions  were  incorporated 
with  the  Cisalpine  republic,  1797.  The  archduke  Francis  of  Este  was  restored  in 
1814.  Insurrection  here,  Feb.  5,  1881.  The  archduke  escaped;  but  the  Austrian 
troops  soon  afterwards  entered  and  restored  the  deposed  authorities. 

MOGULS.  They  deduce  their  origin  from  Japhet,  son  of  Noah.  His  son,  Turk,  they 
say,  was  the  first  king  or  khan  of  those  nations  afterwards  known  as  Turks,  Tartars, 
and  Moguls.  The  first  conqueror  of  the  Mogul  empire  was  Jenghis  Khan,  a  Tartarian 
prince,  who  died  A.D.  1236.  Timour  Beg  became  Great  Mogul  by  conquest,  1399. 
Khouli  Khan,  the  famous  sophi  of  Persia,  considerably  diminished  the  power  of  the 
Moguls,  carried  away  immense  treasures  from  Delhi,  and  since  that  event,  many  of 
the  nabobs  have  made  themselves  independent.    See  India, 

MOHAMMERAH,  a  Persian  town  near  the  Euphrates,  captured,  after  two  hours' 
cannonading,  by  sir  James  Outram,  during  the  Persian  war,  March  26,  1857. 
News  of  the  peace  arrived  on  the  4  th  of  April,  and  of  the  further  advance  of  our 
victorious  army. 

M0HAT21,  BATTLES  of,  in  Lower  Hunoart.  In  a  great  battle  here,  Louis,  king  of 
Hungary,  was  defeated  by  the  Turks  under  Solyman  II.  with  the  loss  of  22,000  men, 
and  after  the  battle,  suffocated  by  the  fall  of  his  horse  in  a  muddy  brook,  1526. 
Another  battle  was  fought  between  the  Christians  commanded  by  prince  Charles  of 
Lorraine,  and  the  Turks,  who  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  10,000  men,  1687. 

MOHILOW,  BATTLE  of.    Between  the  Russian  army  under  the  celebrated  prince 

"  A  beantiAiI  modol  of  the  now  town  of  Edinbniigh  was  formed  in  wood  before  it  was  begun.  A 
model  waa  made  of  a  bridge  over  the  Neva,  of  uncommon  strength  as  well  as  elegance ;  and  the  moun- 
tains of  Switzerland,  modelled  by  general  PRffer,  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  surprisinff  undertakings 
cTcr  achieved  bv  human  iudustxy.  This  last  was  b^^in  In  1760,  and  was  completed  August  1786. 
M.  Choffin's  model  of  Paris  also  merits  notice  for  its  lal^ur  and  precii«ion. 


MOH  480  MOK 

>ii,  and  the  French  under  "«*"i>«*^  DaTonst^  prince  of  E^mohL  This 
one  of  the  moet  aangninary  and  obstinate  battles  of  the  rampajpi  of  1819;  in  the 
great  war  with  Bonaparte.  The  former  experienced  a  signal  defeat^  and  immense  loaa 
m  killed  and  wounded ;  fongfat  July  23, 1812. 

MOHOCKS.  A  set  of  disorderly  people  who  went  about  London  aliecU  at  night,  and 
took  pleasure  in  wounding  and  disfiguring  the  men,  and  indecently  ezposn^  the 
women.  One  hundred  pounds  offered  by  royal  procUunstion,  for  apprehending  nay 
one  of  them,  10th  Anne,  1711. — Norlhrmeti  HiUiory  of  Lomdom, 

MOLDAYIA.    ^ee  DoMuXnoM  PnnevpdUtitM. 

M€|l(WITZ,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  Prussians  and  the  Imperialista,  the  former  com- 
manded by  Frederick  IIL  who  obtained  a  great  and  memorable  Tictoiy.  The  loan  of 
the  Austrians  in  this  battle  waa  of  immense  amount  in  killed,  wounded,  and  priaoaera. 
Fought  April  10  (March  30),  1741. 

MONACHISM  (from  i»6vos,  aUme).  Catholic  writen  refer  to  the  prof^et  Elijah,  and  Iba 
Nazarenee  mentioned  in  Numbera,  ch.  Yi,as  early  examples.  The  first  Chri^ian  aaoeAi^a 
appear  to  be  derived  from  the  Jewish  sect  of  the  Easenes,  whose  life  was  very  anstare, 
practiBing  celibacy,  &o.  About  the  time  of  Constantino  (a.d.  30<^322)  numbera  of 
these  aacetica  withdrew  into  the  deserts,  and  were  called  hermUi^  aioiiXv,  and 
reU;  of  whom  Paul,  Anthony,  and  Pacbomius  were  moet  celebrated.  Simeon, 
founder  of  the  Stylitie  (or  pillar  saints),  died  a.d.  451.  He  is  said  to  have  lired 
pillar  30  years.  St  Benedict,  the  great  reformer  of  monachism,  publiahed  hia  Rales 
and  established  his  monastery  at  Monte  Casino  about  a.d.  529.  The  OuthnaHns^ 
Cistercians^  &c.,  are  so  many  varieties  of  Benedietinea.    See  AbbqfB. 

MONARCHY.  The  most  ancient  waa  that  of  the  Assyriana,  founded  soon  aller  the 
Deluge.  See  Attyna,  Historians  reckon  four  grand  or  almost  universal  moDazchie% 
— the  Assyrian,  Persian,  Grecian,  and  Roman. 

MONASTERIEa    See  ^6(fy«> 

MONET.  It  is  mentioned  as  a  medium  of  commerce  in  the  28rd  chapter  of  Oanwais^ 
when  Abraham  purchased  a  field  as  a  sepulchre  for  Sarah,  in  the  year  of  the  vorid 
2189.  In  profane  history,  the  coinage  of  money  is  ascribed  to  the  Lydiana.  Mooeta 
was  the  name  given  to  their  silver  by  the  Romans,  it  having  been  coined  in  the 
temple  of  Juno-Moneta,  269  B.O.  Money  was  made  of  different  ores,  and  even  of 
leather  and  other  articles,  both  in  ancient  and  modem  times.  It  waa  made  of  paste- 
board by  the  Hollanders  so  late  as  1574.  Silver  has  increased  more  than  thirty 
times  its  value  since  the  Norman  conquest ;  viz.  a  pound  in  that  age  was  three  times 
the  quantity  that  it  is  at  present,  and  twelve  times  its  value  in  purchasing  any  ootB> 
modity.    See  articles  Com;  Odd;  Silver;  Copper;  Mint,  &c 

MONK.  The  first  is  said  to  have  been  Paul  of  Thebais,  who  fled  into  the  deacita  to 
avoid  the  Decian  persecution  about  A.D.  250.  St.  Anthony  is  supposed  by  other 
authorities  to  have  been  the  first  example  of  a  regular  monastic  life^  a.ix  305,  aoon 
after  which  time  monks  began  to  associate  and  form  themselves  into  orders,  as 
Dominicans,  Frandscane,  ko,  St  Athanasius  introduced  the  monaatic  life  into  Rome 
in  841.    See  Ahbeyz, 

MONMOUTH'S  REBELLION.  James,  duke  of  Monmouth,  a  natnvsl  son  of  Charica  XL 
was  banished  England  for  a  conspiracy  in  1688.  He  invaded  England,  at  Lyme,  Jons 
11,  1685.  He  was  proclaimed  king  at  Taunton  on  the  20th  of  the  same  month. 
Waa  defeated  at  Bridgewater,  July  5;  and  was  beheaded  on  Tower-hill^  July  15, 1685. 
The  county  of  Monmouth,  fh>m  which  he  was  named,  was  made  an  ^"c?*fh  ooun^ 
by  Henry  VlIL  about  1535. 

MONOPHYSITES,  see  Euiychiam. 

MONOPOLIES.  Commercial  monopolies  reached  to  such  a  height  in  England,  tibat 
parliament  petitioned  against  them,  and  they  were  in  consequence  mostly  ab(4isbed 
about  the  dose  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  1602.  They  were  further  auppresaed,  aa  being 
contrary  to  law,  19  James  I.  1622;  and  were  totally  abolished,  and  it  was  decreed 
that  none  should  be  in  future  created,  as  was  previously  the  custom,  by  royal  patent, 
16  Charles  I.  1640.— ^nderson'^  IJiitory  of  Commerce. 

MONSTER,  The.  This  was  a  wretch  named  Renwick  Williams,  who  prowled  nightly 
through  the  streets  of  London,  secretly  armed  with  a  sharp  instrument,  a  doQble> 
edged  knife,  with  which  he  shockingly  wounded  numbers  of  females  whose  more 


HON  431  MON 

reBpeotable  appearance  attracted  his  attention.    He  was  tried  and  convicted  on  a 
variety  of  these  ehaigefl»  Jnlj  8, 1790.    See  Mchodk$. 

MONTAKISTS.  A  sect  founded  by  Montanus,  of  Ardaba,  in  Myaia,  an  extraordinary 
enthosiasty  about  a.d.  171.  He  was  reputed  to  have  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  pro- 
cUimed  himself  the  comforter  promised  by  Christ,  condemned  second  marriages  as 
fornication,  permitted  the  dissolution  of  marriage,  forbade  to  avoid  martyrdom,  and 
ofdered  a  serere  fast  of  three  lents ;  he  hanged  himself  with  Maximilla,  one  of  his 
womeo-scholare,  before  the  dose  of  the  second  oentuzy. — Oav<^i  HiH,  Lit, 

HONTEM.    SeeJStofk 

MONTENEORO.  A  province  of  Boropeaa  Turkey.  In  1852,  a  revolt  broke  oat,  and 
the  Montenegrins  surprised  the  Turkish  fortreiss  SSsabljak,  Nov.  22.  The  province 
was  put  in  a  state  of  blockade,  Dec.  14, 1852,  which  was  raised  April  10, 1853.  After 
several  indecisive  encoimters,  tranqtiillitv  was  restored  by  the  influence  of  the  arms 
and  proposals  of  Omar  Ftoha,  the  general  of  the  Turkish  army,  which  evacuated  the 
proTince,  Feb.  25,  1853.  The  country  is  much  disturbed  through  the  tyrannical 
conduct  of  Daniel,  the  present  prince  (1857). 

MONTE  VIDEO,  South  Amebioa.  Taken  by  storm  by  the  British  forces  under  sir 
Samuel  Auchmuty,  but  with  the  loss  of  nearly  one-third  of  our  brave  troops,  Feb.  8, 
1807.  The  killed  and  wounded  of  the  British  in  this  desperate  engagement  was  very 
considerable.  It  was  evacuated  Jidy  7,  the  aame  year,  in  consequence  of  the  severe 
repulse  the  British  met  with  at  Buenos-Ay  res.    See  Bucnoa-Affrea^  BoUUm  of, 

MONTEREAU,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  allied  army  and  the  French,  the  latter  com- 
manded by  NuK>leon  in  perM>n.  In  this  obstinate  battle  the  allies  were  defeated  with 
great  loss  in  killed  and  wounded,  but  it  was  one  of  the  laat  triumphs  of  the  French 
arms  in  the  great  straggle  to  free  Europe  from  the  thraldrom  of  Bonaparte,  whose 
overthrow  soon  followed,  Feb.  18, 1814. 

MONTIEL,  Battls  ov,  between  Peter  the  Cruel,  king  of  Castile,  and  his  brother  Henry 
of  Transtamare  aided  by  the  French  warrior  Bertram  du  Quesdin,  March  14,  1369. 
Peter  was  totally  defeated,  and  afterwards  slain  by  his  brother  and  others  at  a  meeting 
to  which  he  had  been  drawn  by  Du  Quesclin,  whom  he  had  endeavoured  to  bribe  to 
permit  him  to  escape^ 

MONTREAL,  Cafada.  Surrendered  to  the  English  by  the  French  in  1760.  Taken  by 
the  provincials  in  the  American  war  of  Independence,  Nov.  12, 1775,  and  retaken  by 
the  British,  June  15,  1776.  The  church,  Jesuits'  college,  prison,  and  many  buildings 
Immt  down,  June  6,  1803.  Great  military  affray,  Qe^t  29,  1833.  The  self-styled 
" loyalists"  of  Montreal  assault  the  governor-general,  lord  Elgin;  enter  the  parlia- 
ment-house, drive  out  the  members,  and  set  fire  to  the  building,  April  26, 1849.  A 
destructive  fire  raged  here,  Aug.  28,  1850.  Another  and  more  destructive  fire  raged, 
July  12, 1852,  destroying  1200  houses  and  other  property,  the  loss  estimated  at  a 
million  sterling.  lu  consequence  of  sn  antt-papal  lecture  here  by  Gkvaszi,  June  10, 
1853,  riots  ensued  and  many  lives  were  lost  See  Victoria  Bridge,  The  cathedral 
vras  destroyed  by  fire,  Dec  10, 1856. 

MONUMENT  of  LONDON,  begun  in  A.D.  1671,  and  finished  in  1677.  The  pedestal  is 
forty  feet  high,  and  the  edifice  altogether  202  feet,  that  being  the  distance  of  its  base 
from  the  spot  where  the  fire  which  it  commemorates  commenced.  It  is  the  loftiest 
isolated  column  in  the  world.  Its  erection  cost  about  14,500^  The  staircase  is  of 
black  marble,  consisting  of  345  steps,  by  which  a  balcony  is  reached.  Of  the  four 
original  inscriptions,  three  were  Latin,  and  the  following  in  English  : — 

THIS   PILLAa  WAS  SET   VP  IK   PKRPKTVALL  BSMBMBRAROK  OT    THAT    MOST    DRBADrUL  BURKING 
or  TBia  PB0TE8TAKT  CITYp   BBOUK    AKD    OARRYED    OK    BY    T«    TREACUKRY    AKD    MALfCB    Or 

T<  POPiBH  rAcno,  n  t«  bboikkihg  of  bkptkm,  ik  y*  ybar  or  our  lord  1066,  ik  order 

TO    T*   CARRYrKO    OK    THEIR    HORRID    PLOTT     POR    KZTIRPATIKO    Y<    PROTSSTAKT    RBUGIOK 
AKD  0IJ>  BKGIJ8H  UBERTY,  AKD  T«  IKTROOUaHO  POPBRT  AKD  SLAVERY. 

The  north  inscription  concluded  with— 

SSD  FUBOR  PAPI8TIOU8  QTI  TAM  DtRA  PATRAVIT  KOKDUM  RSflTIKGVrTVB. 

These  legends  were  added  in  1681,  obliterated  by  James  II.,  and  recut  in  the  reign 
of  William  III.    They  produced  Pope's  indignant  lines : — 

"  Where  London's  column,  pointing  at  tho  skies, 
like  a  tall  biUly,  Ufts  the  head,  and  Ues." 

These  lines  were  finally  erased  by  order  of  the  common  council,  Jan.  26,  1831. 


MOO  432  MOR 

Wm.  Green,  a  weaver,  fell  from  this  monument,  June  25, 1750.  A  man  named  Thomas 
Craddock,  a  baker,  precipitated  himself  from  its  summit,  July  7, 1788.  Mr.  Ljom 
Levy,  a  Jewish  diamond  merchant,  of  considerable  respectability,  threw  himself  from 
it,  Jan.  18, 1810 ;  as  did  more  recently,  three  other  persons,  in  consequence  of  which 
a  fence  was  placed  round  the  railings  of  the  gallery. 

MOODKEE,  BATTLE  of,  India.  Between  the  Sikhs  and  the  British,  whose  advanoed 
guard  was  attacked  by  the  Sikh  forces,  but  the  latter  were  repulsed,  and  driven  bsbck 
three  miles,  losing  great  numbers  of  men  and  15  pieces  of  cannon,  Dec.  18, 1845.  Sir 
Robert  Sale  was  mortally  wounded  in  this  battle,  being  then  in  his  65th  year.  La^ly 
Sale  signalised  herself  during  the  two  memorable  retreats  from  Aflfehanistan  Tha 
battle  of  Moodkee  immediately  followed  that  of  Ferof»shsh,  whick  see. 

MOOLTAN,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  British  and  the  Sikhs,  in  which  the  latter  were 
driven  to  the  town  of  Mooltan  with  great  loss,  Nov.  7, 1848.  The  town  was  taikeii 
after  a  protracted  bombardment,  Jan.  2,  1849.  The  citadel  (which  had  held  out, 
notwithstanding  the  vigorous  bombardment)  now  made  an  unconditional  surrender, 
together  with  its  garrison,  Jan.  22,  1849.    See  article  India, 

MOON.  The  full  moon  was  held  favourable  for  any  undertaking  by  the  Spartans^  and 
the  Greeks  generally  looked  upon  full  moons,  or  the  times  of  conjunction  of  the  mua 
or  moon,  as  seasons  most  favourable  to  marriage.  Opacity  of  the  moon,  and  the 
true  causes  of  lunar  eclipses,  taught  by  Thales,  640  B.o.  Posidonius  accounted  for 
the  tides  from  the  motion  of  the  moon,  79  B.a — Diog.  Laeri,  A  map  of  the  mooa 
was  first  taken  at  Dantzic,  a.d.  1647.  Beer  and  M&dler's  beautiful  map  was  pub- 
lished in  1834. 

MOORS.  The  Saiticens  or  Arabs  first  invaded  Spun  a.d.  711. — Unxv,  Hid,  The  S>i^M^ti«T 
beset  by  the  Christians,  called  in  the  assistance  of  the  Moorn,  who  seized  the  domi- 
nions they  came  to  protect,  and  subdued  the  Saracens,  a.d.  1091.  Alphonsus  I.  of 
Navarre  defeated  them  in  many  battles,  1118  et  ttq.  The  Moors  began  the  kingdom 
of  Qranada,  being  their  last  refuge  from  the  power  of  the  Christisns,  1238. 
Alphonsus  XI.  of  Leon  and  Castile  slew  200,000  Moors  in  one  battle ;  for  three 
leagues  around  the  country  was  covered  with  the  dead,  1327.  The  power  of  this  people 
was  overthrown  by  Ferdinand  V.  who  took  Granada,  1492.  Philip  III.  hanishcd 
them  to  the  number  of  900,000,  confiscating  their  property,  1610.^  i^riertley. 

MORAL  PQILOSOPHT.  The  knowledge  of  our  duty  and  felicity,  the  sdenoe  of 
ethics,  or  art  of  being  virtuous  and  happy.  Socrates  is  universally  regarded  as  the 
father  of  moral  philosophy,  about  480  B.O.,  and  Qrotius  in  modem  timesi,  about 
A.D.  1623. 

MORAVIANS,  United  Brethren.  A  sect  which  took  its  rise  in  Moravia,  in,  it  is  said, 
the  fifteenth  century,  which  some  doubt ;  while  the  Brethren  say  that  their  sect  is 
derived  from  the  Greek  Church  in  the  ninth  century.  In  1722  they  formed  a 
settlement  (called  ffermhuitf  the  Watch  of  the  Lord),  on  the  estate  of  Count  Zmxen- 
doi-f.  Their  church  consisted  of  500  persons  in  1727.  They  were  introduced  here 
by  Count  ZiDzendorf  about  1737;  he  died  at  Chelsea  in  June  1760.  In  1851  they 
had  32  chapels  in  England.  In  order  to  the  conversion  of  the  heathen  world,  these 
persevering  brethren  formed  settlements  in  Greenland,  America,  the  Cape,  East  and 
West  Indies,  and  other  climes.  The  Moravians  led  the  way  to  the  Scriptural  mJasioDa 
now  so  general. 

MORGANATIC  MARRIAGES  (from  morgjant  to  shorten  or  restrain)  between  a  man  of 
superior  and  a  woman  of  inferior  rank,  in  which  it  is  stipulated  that  the  latter  and 
her  children  shall  not  enjoy  the  rank,  or  inherit  the  possessions  of  the  former. 
They  are  frequently  contracted  in  Germany  by  royalty  and  the  higher  nobility.  Our 
George  I.  was  thus  married ;  and  later,  the  present  King  of  Denmark  to  the  CousCes 
of  Danner,  Aug.  7, 1850. 

MORGARTEN,  BATTLE  of.  The  most  memorable,  as  well  as  extraordinsiy  and 
glorious  in  the  annals  of  Switzerland;  1300  Swiss  engaged  20,000  Austrians^  com- 
manded by  the  duke  Leopold,  whom  they  completely  defeated.  They  seised  opon 
the  heights  of  Morgarten,  which  overlooked  the  defile  through  which  the  enemy  was 
to  enter  their  territory  from  Zug,  and  thus  achieved  their  victory,  Nov.  16,  1315. 

MORICE  DANCE.  An  ancient  dance  peculiar  to  some  of  the  country  parts  of  Eogland, 
end,  it  is  said,  also  to  Scotland.    See  Longevity. 

MORMONITES  (calling  themselves  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter- dat  saints). 


MOR 


4S8 


MOR 


This  sect  derives  its  origin  from  Joseph  Smith,  called  the  prophet,  who  announced  in 
1823,  at  Palmyra,  New  York,  that  he  had  had  a  vision  of  the  angel  Moroni  In  1827 
he  said  that  he  found  the  book  of  Mormon,  written  on  gold  plates  in  Egyptian 
characters,  which  was  translated  and  published  in  America  in  1830,  in  England  in 
1841.  This  book,  there  is  good  reason  to  believe,  was  written  about  1812,  by  a 
clergyman  named  Solomon  Spaulding,  as  a  religious  romance  in  imitation  of  the 
scripture  style.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  Rigdon  and  Smith,  who  determined  to 
palm  it  off  as  a  new  revelation.  In  1830  they  organised  a  church  at  Rirtland,  Ohio. 
In  1881-2,  they  founded  Zion,  in  Jackson  county,  Missouri.  From  1883  to  1889,  the 
sect  endured  much  persecution,  and,  driven  from  place  to  place,  was  compelled  to 
travel  westwards ;  tiU  in  1840-1  the  city  Nauvoo  was  laid  out  on  the  Mississippi,  where 
a  temple  was  buUt.  In  1844,  Joseph  and  his  brother  Hyrum.  when  in  prison  on  a 
charge  of  treason,  were  shot  by  an  infuriated  mob,  and  Brigham  Toung  was  chosen 
seer.  In  1845,  being  much  harassed  by  their  neighbours,  departure  from  Nauvoo  was 
determined  on,  and  the  Great  Salt  LiJce  was  chosen  '*  for  an  everlasting  abode,"  and 
taken  possession  of,  July  24, 1847.  In  1849,  the  valley  was  surveyed  by  order  of  the 
United  States  government^  and  in  1860,  the  colony  had  attained  to  great  prosperity. 
The  provision^  government  was  abolished  the  same  year,  and  the  Utah  territory 
recognised  as  one  of  the  United  States,  Brigham  Young  being  appointed  the  first 
governor.  The  university  of  Deaer^t  was  also  founded  in  1850.  The  population 
in  1851  was  11,354.  llie  Mormonites  command  payment  of  tithes,  honour  and 
encourage  labour,  permit  polygamy,  and  believe  in  their  leaders  working  miracles. 
Missionaries  are  sent  out  to  all  parts  of  the  globe,  and  the  sect  is  said  to  be  increasing 
in  Europe.  In  August  1855  it  was  stated  ^t  the  crops  at  the  Utah  settlement  were 
almost  utterly  destroyed  by  lociist&  In  1857,  the  United  States  judge  at  Utah 
resigned  from  inability  to  discharge  his  functions,  in  consequence  of  the  violent  and 
treasonable  conduct  of  the  Mormons,  and  their  leader,  Brigham  Young.  The  latter 
are  organising  their  militia,  &c.,  to  meet  a  military  force  lately  sent  against  them  by 
the  United  States  government.  A  conference  of  Mormon  elders,  &c.,  was  held  in 
liondon  on  Septw  1, 1857,  at  which  most  offensive  speeches  were  made  and  songs  sung 
advocating  polygamy,  &c. 

MOROCCO.  Anciently  Mauritania,  From  its  early  possession  by  the  Romans  it  under- 
went various  revolutions.  About  A.D.  1116,  Abdallah,  the  leader  of  a  sect  of 
Mahometans,  founded  a  dynasty  which  ended  in  the  last  sovereign's  defeat  in  Spain. 
Abont  this  period,  1202,  Fez  and  other  provinces  shook  off  their  dependence  ;  but 
the  descendants  of  Mahomet,  about  1650,  subdued  them,  and  formed  the  empire  of 
Morocco.  Hostilities  with  France,  provoked  by  Abd-el-Eader,  the  heroic  and  indo- 
mitable ameer  of  Algiers,  commence  May  1844 ;  Tangier  bombarded,  Aug.  6, 1844 ; 
peace  concluded,  and  the  French  forces  evacuate  Mogador,  Sept.  16, 1844.  Abd-el- 
Kader  surrenders  to  the  duke  of  Nemours,  Dec  22, 1847.    See  Algiert. 

MORTALITY.  See  Bilh  of  Mortality,  For  the  institution  of  parish  registers  of  deaths, 
as  well  as  of  births  and  marriages,  we  are  indebted  to  Cromwell,  earl  of  Essex,  a.d. 
1586.  The  following  list,  compiled  from  late  Bills  of  Mortality  of  London,  shows 
the  average  of  diseases,  &&  in  20,000  deaths  in  that  city : — 


DI8EABI8. 


Absoofls  .... 

79 

Age  and  debility       .    . 

1614 

Apoplexy 

872 

AsthiuA 

778 

Bedridden 

S 

Bfle 

8 

Canoer    .... 

92 

Childbirth.        .        .    . 

266 

Coiuniniption . 

4871 

Contraction  of  the  heart 

1 

Convulsions   . 

2377 

Cow-pox     .        . 

1 

Crowp      .... 

106 

Diabetes    .... 

8 

Diarrhcea 

28 

l>ropay               ... 

818 

I>r(^wy  on  the  brain 

661 

Propsy  on  tho  chest .    . 

51 

Dysentery 

43 

Enlargement  of  the  heart 

17 

Epilepsy. 

83 

Kruptive  diseases     .    . 

24 

Brysipelaa 

18 

Fever 

Fever  (Typhus) 
Fever,  intermittent,  or 
ague       .       .        .    . 
Fistula  .... 

Flux 

Gout       .... 
Haemorrhage  .    . 

Hernia    .... 
Hooping  cough  .        .    . 
Hydroimobia . 
Inflammation  .    . 

Inflam.  of  the  liver 
Insanity    . 
Jatmdice 
Jaw,  locked  .    . 

J&Oa01^9    «  •  •  • 

Miscarriage  .    . 

Mortification  . 
Ossification  of  tho  heart 
Palpitation  of  tho  heart 

Palsy 

Panuysis 

Pleurusy     .        ... 


604 

Rheumatism  . 

38 

97 

8crofVila 

9 

Bmali-pox 

Sore  throaty  or  quinse} 

691 

16 

r       16 

12 

Spasm     .        .        .        • 

51 

9 

Still-bom   .        .        .    . 

872 

37 

Stone      .        .        .        . 

21 

47 

Stoppage  in  stomach 
St.  Vitus's  dauce   . 

13 

41 

1 

604 

Suddenly   .        .        .    . 

102 

1 

Teething 

437 

2062 

Thrush 

.      60 

127 

Tumour. 

17 

214 

Venereal    .        .        .    . 

11 

89 

8 

466 

2 

30S 

Worms    .        .        .        . 
Total  of  diseases 

6 

19,666 

CtSUAt.TIlW. 

9 

Urokcn  limbri. 

12 

16 

Burnt 

44 

81 

Drowned 

147 

187 

Excessive  drinking  .     . 

5 

21 

Executed 

F  9 

1 

MOR  434  MOU 


8  )  Bulfocated      ...        4 
8    -  -  --- 

1 


7 
6 
1 


Suicides  .    .      51 

Total  of  casoalties  .       .  434 


MORTALITY,  continued. 

Found  dead               .    .  14  Killed  by  fighting . 

Fractured       ...  8  Murdered  . 

Frighted    ....  1  Poiaoned 

Frozen    ....  1  Scalded 

Killed  by  falls  and  other  Starved  . 

aoddeuta                .    .  128  Strangled  . 

MORTARS.  A  short  gun  with  an  exiraordioary  large  bore,  and  close  chamber,  used  for 
throwing  bombs.  The  mortar  was  first  made  in  England  in  1543.  The  celebrated 
mortar  left  by  Soult  in  Spain,  was  fixed  in  St  James's  park  in  Augofit  1816^  and  still 
remains  there. 

MORTMAIN  ACT.  Mori  and  main.  When  the  surrey  of  all  the  land  in  England 
was  made  by  William  the  Conqueror,  the  whole  was  found  to  amount  to  62^15 
knights'  fees,  out  of  which  the  Church  was  then  possessed  of  28,015,  to  which  addi- 
tions  were  afterwards  made,  till  the  7th  of  Edward  I.  when  the  statute  of  mortmam 
was  passed,  from  a  fear  that  the  estate  of  the  Church  might  grow  too  bulky.  By  this 
act  it  was  made  unlawful  to  giTe  any  estates  to  the  Church  without  the  king's  leave ; 
and  this  act,  by  a  supplemental  proyision,  was  made  to  reach  all  lay-fratemitiee,  or 
corporations,  in  the  15th  of  Rich.  I.  Mortmain  is  such  a  state  of  possession  as  mskes 
it  unalienable,  whence  it  is  said  to  be  in  a  dead  hand.  Several  statutes  have  been 
passed  on  this  subject ;  and  a  statute  much  referred  to  is  the  10th  Qeo.  II.  1736. 

MOSCOW.  One  of  the  largest  cities  in  Europe.  It  was  founded  in  1156 ;  was  taken  by 
Tamerlane,  1382 ;  and  subsequently  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Tartars,  whose  last 
attack  upon  it  wad  in  1571,  when  they  set  it  on  fire.  This  city  was  entered  by  the 
French,  Sept,  14, 1812,  and  the  Russian  governor,  Rostopchin,  ordered  that  it  should 
be  set  on  fire  in  five  hundred  places  at  once.  In  this  memorable  conflagration,  11,840 
houses  were  burnt  to  the  ground,  besides  palaces  and  churches.  The  French,  thus 
deprived  of  quarters,  evacuated  Moscow,  Oct.  19,  and  it  was  re-entered  by  the  Russians 
Oct.  22,^following.    This  city  has  been  since  rebuilt. 

MOSKWA,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  French  and  Russians.  For  the  particulars  of 
this  memorable  battle,  which  is  also  called  the  Battle  of  Borodino,  see  BorodituK 

MOSQUITO  COAST,  in  CENTRAL  AMERICA.  The  Indiana  inhabiting  this  coast 
have  been  long  under  the  protection  of  the  British,  who  held  Belize  and  a  gn>up 
of  islands  in  the  bay  of  Honduras.  The  jealousy  of  the  United  States  has  long 
existed  on  this  subject.  In  April  1850  the  two  governments  covenanted  not  *'to 
occupy,  or  fortify,  or  colonise,  or  assume,  or  exercise  any  dominion  over  any  part  of 
Central  America."  In  1855  the  United  States  charged  the  British  government  with 
an  infraction  of  the  treaty ;  on  which  the  latter  agreed  to  cede  the  disputed  terri- 
tory to  the  republic  of  Honduras,  with  some  reservation.*  The  American  goyem- 
ment  Ib  not  yet  satisfied.  (1857.) 

MOSS-TROOPERS.  These  were  a  desperate  sort  of  plunderers,  and  lawless  aoldiera, 
secreting  themselves  in  the  mosses  on  the  borders  of  Scotland.  They  were  finally 
extirpated,  a.d.  1609. 

MOST  CHRISTIAN  KING.  The  tide  given  to  Louis  XL  by  pope  Paul  II.  1469.  It 
has  been  justly  remarked,  that  never  was  the  title  or  name  of  Christian  given  to  a 
prince  more  unworthily  bestowed,  or  less  deserved.  Pope  Stephen  II.  had  conferred 
this  title  on  Pepin  in  755,  but  it  did  not  become  the  peculiar  appellation  of  the  kings 
of  France  until  Louis  XL's  reign. — ffenault. 

MOTTOES,  ROTAL.  Dieu  et  man  Droit  was  first  used  by  Richard  I.  a.d.  1193.  The 
Bohemian  crest,  viz.  three  ostrich  feathers,  and  the  motto  Ich  dien,  '*  I  serve,"  wss 
adopted  by  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  at  the  battle  of  Creesy,  the  king  of  Bc^emia 
being  slain  in  the  battle,  1346.  Btmi  toit  qui  mtU  y  pen»e,  was  made  the  motto  of  the 
Garter,  1349-50.  Je  maintiendrai,  **  I  will  maintain,"  was  adopted  by  William  III.  to 
which  he  added,  in  1688,  "The  liberties  of  Enghmd  and  the  Proteatant  religion."  And 
Semper  eadem  was  ordered  by  queen  Anne  to  be  used  as  her  motto.   See  them  Mrcratff  . 

MOUNTS  ^TNA,  HECLA,  and  YESUYIUa    See  Etna,  Redo,  and  Fefuniia,  severally. 

MOUNT  ST.  BERNARD.    See  Bernard,  Mount  SL 

*  St.  Juan  del  Norte  (Oreytown)  waa  held  by  the  British  on  behalf  of  the  Moiquitoes  till  the 
Americaa  adventureri,  under  coL  KInnev,  took  poBBession  of  it  in  Bept.  1866.  Ho  Joined  Walkar ;  sad 
on  Feb.  10, 1866,  their  aawdate  Rivafl,  the  president,  claimed  and  annexed  the  Moeqiiito  territaty  to 
Nicaragua. 


MOU  435  MUR 

MOUNT  CALYART.    See  Calvary,  M<miU, 
MOUNT  OF  OLIVEa    See  O'.wti,  MwknU 

MOURNING  roB  thb  DEAD.  The  practice  of  the  Israelites  was,  neither  to  ?rash  nor 
anoint  themseUes  during  the  time  of  mourning.  The  exhibition  of  grief  for  a  friend 
lasted  for  seyen  days ;  and  upon  extraordinary  occasions  it  lasted  a  month.  The 
Greeks  and  Romans  also  exhibited  their  grief  for  the  dead  by  many  public  abstinences. 
The  ordinary  colour  for  mourning  in  Europe  is  black ;  in  China,  it  is  white ;  in  Turkey, 
▼iolet;  in  Ethiopia,  brown;  and  it  was  white  in  Spain  until  a.d.  1498. — Htrrera^ 
Anne  of  Britanny,  the  queen  of  two  succeBsive  kings  of  France,  mourned  in  black, 
instead  of  the  then  practice  of  wearing  white,  on  the  death  of  her  first  husband, 
Charles  VIII.  April  7, 1498.— ^enan//. 

MOUSQUETAIRES.  or  MUSQUETEERa  Horse-soldiers  under  the  old  French  rigime^ 
raised  by  Louis  XIIL 1 622.  This  corps  was  considered  a  military  school  for  the  French 
nobility.  The  company  was  disbanded  in  1646,  but  restored  in  1657.  A  second 
company  was  created  in  1660,  and  formed  cardinal  Mazarine's  guard. — HenatdU 

MUGGLETONIANS.  A  sect  that  sprang  up  about  the  time  of  the  ciril  wars  of 
Cbarlf>8  I.  and  period  of  the  Protectorate,  so  called  from  one  Lndowic  Muggleton,  a 
tailor.  He  and  his  associate  Reeves  set  up  for  prophets.  They  affirmed  that  God  the 
Father,  leaving  the  government  of  heaven  to  Elias,  came  down  and  suffered  death  in 
a  hunuui  form.     They  pretended  to  an  absolute  power  of  saving  souls,  and  asserted 

.  they  were  the  two  last  witnesses  of  Gk>d  which  should  appear  before  the  end  of  the 
world:  they  made  considerable  nolM  about  1657,  and  their  sect  still  exists. 

MULBERRT-TREE.  The  first  mulberry-treee  planted  in  England  are  now  standing 
In  the  gardens  attached  to  Sion-house.  Shakspeare  planted  a  mulberry-tree  with  his 
own  hands  on  his  ground  at  Stratford-upon-Avon ;  and  Garrick,  Macklin,  and  others 
were  entertained  under  this  mulberry-tree  in  1742.  Shakspeare's  house  was  afterwards 
sold  to  a  clergyman  of  the  name  of  Gastrel,  who  cut  down  the  mulberry-tree  for  fuel ; 
but  a  silversmith  purchased  the  whole  of  it,  which  he  manufactured  into  memorials 
of  the  poet    See  article  FruiU, 

MUM.  A  wholesome  kind  of  malt-liquor,  brewed  chiefly  from  malt  made  from  wheat 
instead  of  barley.  It  is  not  thought  to  be  fit  for  use  till  it  has  been  full  two  years 
in  the  cask.  Mum  is  much  drunk  in  Germany ;  and  Brunswick  is  a  place  of  note 
for  making  it.    It  was  first  made  there  in  1489. 

MUNSTER,  TREATY  of.  The  celebrated  treaty  between  France,  the  Emperor,  and 
Sweden ;  Spain  continuing  the  war  against  the  former  kingdom.  By  this  peace,  the 
principle  of  a  balance  of  power  in  Europe  was  first  recognised.  This  treaty  is  called 
by  man}'  historians  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  but  by  others  the  treaty  of  Munster,  as 
having  been  signed  at  Munster,  Oct.  24, 1648.    See  Wt^iphalia, 

MURDER  The  highest  offence  against  the  law  of  nature.  A  court  of  Ephetse  was 
established  by  Demophoon  for  the  trial  of  murder,  1179  B.C.  The  Persians  did  not 
punish  the  first  offence.  In  England,  during  a  period  of  the  Heptarchy,  murder  was 
puniahed  by  fines  only.  So  late  as  Henry  VIIl.*s  time,  the  crime  was  compounded 
for  in  Wales.  Murderers  were  allowed  benefit  of  clergy  in  1508.  Aggravated  murder, 
or  petit  trea$on,  may  happen  in  three  ways ;  by  a  servant  killing  his  master ;  a  wife 
her  husband ;  and  an  ecclesiastical  person  his  superior,  stat.  25  Edw.  III.  1850.  The 
enactments  relating  to  this  crime  are  very  numerous,  and  its  wilful  commission  has 
been  excepted  from  mercy  by  our  sovereigns  in  every  instance.  The  act  whereby 
the  murderer  should  be  executed  on  the  day  next  but  one  after  his  conviction,  was 
repealed  7  Will  IV.  July,  1886. 

MURDERSy  HORRIBLE,  in  Bbttibh  Hibtobt.  Here  may  be  mentioned  one  or  two 
ca^ee  of  murder  attended  with  circumstances  of  horrid  barbarity  and  wickedness. 
Alfred*  eldest  son  of  Ethelred  II.  and  all  his  train,  by  earl  Godwin,  to  remove  the 
fears  of  Harold,  the  prince  having  a  better  right  to  the  throne,  a.d.  1036.  The 
assassins  ripped  up  Alfred's  belly,  fastened  his  bowels  to  a  post,  and  then  pricked 
him  with  poniards  to  make  him  run  round  it  till  he  died :  but  this  was  almost 
instantaneously. — Speed's  Chnm.  Toati  caused  the  domestics  of  his  brother  Harold  to 
be  murdered,  and  cut  in  pieces,  salted,  and  barrelled,  and  then  sent  as  a  present  to 
their  master,  1058. — Saxon  Chron,* 

*  V%)or  Johnson,  an  officer  on  half-pay  in  Dublin,  entared  his  parlour  and  gore  his  two  sons  (ona  a 
lad  of  ten,  the  other  of  twelve  years  of  age)  each  a  loaded  pistol,  ordering  them  to  Are  at  each  other,  or 

F  F  2 


MU8  486  MU8 

MUSEUM.  Originally  a  quarter  of  the  palaoe  of  Alexandria,  like  the  Prytaneum  of 
Atliena,  where  learned  men  of  extraordinary  merit  were  maintained  by  the  public, 
because  of  their  coDsiderable  aerricee  to  the  commonwealth.  The  foundation  of  tbia 
establishment  ia  attributed  to  Ptolemy  Philadelphua,  who  here  placed  hie  libnryj 
about  284  B.a    See  JBritiih  Museum,  Ac,  and  article  QeUogy, 

MUSIC.  Lucretius  ascribes  its  invention  to  the  whistling  of  the  winds  in  hollow  reeda. 
Franckinus  to  the  various  sounds  produced  by  the  hammers  of  Tubal-Cain.  Oameleon 
Pontique  and  others  to  the  singing  of  birds.  And  Zarlino  to  the  sound  of  water.  It 
is,  however,  agreed  that  music  was  first  reduced  to  rules  by  Jubal,  1800  B.o.  The  flute, 
and  harmony  or  concord  in  musLc,  were  invented  by  Hyagnis,  1506. — Arumd.  MarUa, 
Vocal  choruses  of  men  are  first  mentioned  656  B.a  —  Du  Frctnajf.  Pythagoras 
maintained  that  the  motions  of  the  twelve  spheres  must  produce  delightful  sounds 
inaudible  to  mortal  ears,  which  he  called  ''  the  music  of  the  spheres.**  St.  Cecilia,  a 
Roman  lady,  is  said  to  have  excelled  so  eminently  in  music,  that  an  angel  waa  enticed 
from  the  celestial  regions  by  the  fascinating  charms  of  her  melody ;  and  this  hyper- 
bolical tradition  has  been  deemed  sufficient  authority  to  make  her  the  patroness  of 
music  and  musidana.    She  died  in  the  third  century. 

MUSIC  IN  ENGLAND.  Before  the  Reformation  there  was  but  one  kind  of  moaic  in 
Europe  worth  notice,  namely,  the  sacred  chant,  and  the  descant  bnilt  upon  it^  This 
music  moreover  was  applied  to  one  language  only,  the  Latin. — Aihe.  The  original 
English  mufdc,  from  the  period  of  the  Saxons  to  that  era  in  which  our  countrymen 
imbibed  the  art,  and  copied  the  manner  of  the  Italiana,  was  of  a  character  which 
neither  pleased  the  soul  nor  charmed  the  ear.  But  as  all  the  arts  seem  to  have  been 
the  companions  of  successful  commerce,  our  music  soon  improved,  our  taste  waa 
chastened,  and  sweet  sounds  formed  an  indispensable  part  of  polite  education.  Prior 
to  1600,  the  chief  music  waa  massee  and  madrigals,  but  dramatic  music  waa  much 
cultivated  from  that  time.  About  the  end  of  James  I.'s  reign  a  music  profeasoTship 
was  founded  in  the  University  of  Oxford  by  Dr.  Wm.  Hychin ;  and  the  year  1710  was 
distinguished  by  the  arrival  in  England  of  Qeoive  Frederick  HandeL  Mosart  came  to 
England  in  1768;  Joseph  Haydn  in  1791 ;  and  Carl  Maria  von  Weber  in  1825. 

MUSICAL  NOTEa  The  first  aix  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Qui  Aietin,  a 
Benedictine  monk  of  Areaso,  a.d.  1025. — Blair,  The  notes  at  present  used  were 
perfected  in  1338.  Counterpoint  was  brought  to  perfection  by  Pftlestrina  about  1515. 
Qafiurius  of  Lodi  read  lectures  on  musical  composition  in  the  sixteenth  centary,  and 
they  effected  great  improvement  in  the  science.  The  Italian  style  of  oomposition  was 
introduced  into  these  countries  about  1616. 

MUSICAL  FESTIVALS  in  ENGLAND.  Dr.  Bysse,  chancellor  of  Hereford,  proposed 
to  the  members  of  the  choirs,  a  collection  at  the  cathedral  door  after  morning  service, 
when  forty  guineas  were  collected  and  appropiiated  to  charitable  purposes.  It  was 
then  agreed  to  hold  festivals  at  Herefoni,  Qloucester,  and  Worcester,  in  rotation, 
annually.  Until  the  year  1758,  the  festival  lasted  only  two  days :  it  was  then  extended 
at  Hereford  to  three  evenings ;  and  at  Gloucester,  in  1757,  to  three  mornings,  fi>r  the 
purpose  of  introducing  Handel's  "  Messiah,"  which  was  warmly  received,  and  has 
been  performed  annually  ever  since.  Musical  festivids  on  a  great  scale  are  now 
annually  held  in  England. 

MUSICAL  INSTITUTIONS.  The  Ancient  Academy  of  Muuc  was  instituted  in  1710. 
It  originated  with  numerous  eminent  performers  and  gentlemen  to  promote  the  study 
of  vocal  harmonv.  The  Madrigal  Society  was  established  in  1741,  and  other  musical 
societies  followed.  The  Royal  Society  of  Music  arose  from  the  principal  nobility  and 
gentry  uniting  to  promote  the  performance  of  operas  composed  by  Handel,  1785. 
Royal  Academy  of  Music  established,  1822. 

MUSKETS.  They  were  first  used  at  the  siege  of  Arras  in  1414.  The  Spaniah  historians 
state  that  Spain  was  the  first  power  that  armed  the  foot-eoldier  with  these  weapona. 
They  were  used  at  the  siege  of  Rhegen  in  1521.  Introduced  generally  into  the 
English  army,  and  bows  and  arrows  laid  aside,  12  Heniy  YIIL  152l.-~Cbr<e.  It  waa 
the  duke  of  Alva  who  first  brought  the  musket  into  use  in  the  Low  Countries^  1569. 

else  he  would  run  tlioni  through  with  his  sword  ;  they  fired,  and  shot  each  other  deiul  upon  th«  Bpot 
Their  mother  ccimiug  into  the  room,  on  the  report  of  the  pistols,  the  mim>r  stabbed  her  to  the  hearty 
aud  then  himself,  1720. — Saimon's  Chrcn      A  Milanese  woman,  named  Elixabeth,  enticed  numovas 
childrun  to  her  house,  and  killed  and  salted,  and  afterwards  ate  thorn  (see  AnthropoplkafliX  a.i».  ISld. 
At  Lisbon,  a  woman  was  executed  for  tUo  murder  of  thirty-throe  infants  oommittod  to  her  oarvi  JuIt 


MUS 


437 


MYS 


MUSLIN.  A  fine  cloth,  made  wholly  of  cotton.  According  to  some,  it  is  so  called  na 
not  being  bare,  but  having  a  downy  nap  on  its  surfiice  resembling  moss,  which  the 
French  ^1  mausae.  According  to  others,  it  was  first  brought  from  Mousol,  in  India, 
whence  the  rame.  Muslins  wers  first  worn  in  England  in  1670. — Andenon,  They 
were  manufactured  in  great  perfection  in  England  in  1778. 

MUTE,  STANDING.  A  prisoner  is  said  to  stand  mute  when,  being  arraigned  for  treason 
or  felony,  he  either  makes  no  answer,  or  answers  foreign  to  the  purpose.  Anciently, 
a  mute  was  taken  back  to  prison,  placed  in  a  dark  dungeon,  naked,  on  his  back,  on 
the  bare  ground,  and  a  great  weight  of  iron  placed  upon  his  body ;  in  this  situation 
he  was  M  with  three  morsels  of  bad  bread  one  day,  and  three  draughts  of  stagnant 
water  the  nezt^  and  so  on  alternately  until  he  died.  For  a  yeiy  memorable  instance 
of  this  punishment  in  a.d.  1605,  see  article  Preuing  to  Death,  By  stat.  12  Qeo.  II L 
judgment  is  awarded  against  mutes,  in  the  same  manner  as  if  they  were  convicted,  or 
confessed.  A  man  re&sing  to  pleiMl  was  condemned  and  executed  at  the  Old  Bailey 
on  a  ohai^  of  murder,  1778.  Another  on  a  charge  of  burglaxy,  at  Wells,  1792.  At 
Shrewsbury  a  man  tried  and  convicted  notwithstanding,  Aug.  21, 1801. — Phillipf, 

MUTINIES  IK  THB  Brttibh  Flevt  and  Armt.  The  mutiny  throughout  the  fleet 
at  Portsmouth  for  an  advance  of  wages,  April  15, 1797.  It  subsided  on  a  promise 
from  the  Admiralty,  which,  not  being  quickly  fulfilled,  occasioned  a  second  mutiny 
on  board  the  London  man-of-war,  admiral  Colpoys,  who,  with  his  capta^p,  was  put 
into  confinement  for  ordering  the  marines  to  fire,  whereby  some  lives  were  lost. 
The  mutiny  subsided  ICay  10, 1797f  when  the  act  passed  to  raise  their  wages,  and  tho 
king  pardoned  the  mutineers.  A  more  considerable  one  at  the  Nore,  which  blocked 
np  ihe  trade  of  the  Thames,  subsided  June  10, 1797,  when  the  principal  mutineers 
were  put  in  irons,  and  several  executed.  Mutiny  of  the  Danae  frigate ;  the  crew 
carried  the  ship  into  Brest  harbour,  March  27,  1800.  Mutiny  on  board  admiral 
Mitchell's  fleet  at  Bantry  Bay,  December  1801,  and  January  following :  see  Bantrff  Bay, 
Mutiny  at  Malta,  began  AprQ  4,  1807,  and  ended  on  the  12th,  when  the  mutineers 
blew  themselves  up,  by  setting  fire  to  a  large  magazine,  consisting  of  between  400 
and  500  barrels  of  gunpowder.    See  Madrat  and  India,  1857. 

MUTINY  ACT,  a  statute  for  the  discipline,  regulation,  and  payment  of  the  army,  fta 
was  passed  2  WilL  III.  1689,  and  has  been  renewed  annually  ever  since. 

MUTINT  OP  THS  BOUNTT,  April  28, 1789.    For  particulars  see  Bowniy. 

MTCALE,  BATTLE  or.  Fought  Sept  22,  479  B.o.  between  the  Greeks  and  Persians  ; 
being  the  identical  day  on  which  Mardonius  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Platssa.  The 
Persians  consisted  of  about  100,000  men,  who  had  just  returned  from  an  unsuccessful 
expedition  of  Xerxes  in  Qreeoe.  They  were  completely  defeated,  some  thousands  of 
them  slaughtered,  their  camp  burnt,  and  the  Qreeks  triumphantly  embarked  their 
troops  and  sailed  back  to  Samoa  with  an  immense  booty. 

MTCENjB.  a  division  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Aigives.  It  stood  about  fifty  stadia  from 
Argos,  and  flourished  till  the  invasion  of  the  Heraclidss.  Perseus  removed  from 
Argoa  to  MycensD,  and  began  to  reign,  1318  B.o.  Mycenae  was  destroyed  by  the 
Argivee,  568  B.a 


B.a 


1302 
1296 
1289 


RelffnofEleetryon  . 

Hthenelna,  his  brother,  socoeeds        .    . 

Reign  of  Eurystheua        .... 

[Towards  the  closo  of  his  reign,  he  im- 
poses on  Hercules  seversl  dangerous 
enterprises,  with  a  Tiew  to  get  rid  of 
him ;  but  the  hero  surmounto  all  diffi- 
culties.] 

iEglsthus  assassinates  Atreas    .        .    . 

A^memnon  succeeds  to  the  throne 

He  also  becomes  king  of  Bicyon,  Corinth, 
and  perhaps  of  Argos  ... 

Afipamemnon  chosen  generaliadmo  of  the 
Grecian  forces  going  to  the  Trojan  war  1193 


1201 
1201 

1201 


.^isthus,  in  the  absence  of  Agamemnon, 
fives  in  adultery  with  the  queou  Cly- 
temnestra.  On  the  return  of  the  king 
they  assassinate  him ;  and  .^gisthus 
mounts  the  throne  .        .        .        b.o. 

Orestes,  sou  of  Agamemnon,  puts  his 
mother  and  her  paramour  to  death    . 

Orestes  dies  of  the  bite  of  a  serpent  .    . 

The  Achaians  are  expelled 

Invasion  of  the  HeradidjB,  and  the  con- 
querors divide  the  dominions.        .    . 

MyoenflB  destroyed  by  the  Argives . 

%*  The  occurrences  relating  to  Mycen» 
are  few  and  uninteresting. 


1183 

1176 
llOd 
1106 

1104 
668 


MYSTERIES.  They  originated  in  Egypt»  the  land  of  idolatry,  and  were  an  institution 
of  the  priesthood  to  extend  their  own  influence ;  so  that  all  maxims  in  morality, 
tenets  in  theology,  and  dogmas  in  philosophy,  were  wrapt  up  in  a  veil  of  allegory  and 
mystery.  From  the  Egyptian  mysteries  of  Isis  and  Osiris  sprang  those  of  Bacchus 
and  Ceres  among  the  Qreeks.  The  Eleusinian  mysteries  were  introduced  at  Athens 
by  Eumolpus,  1366  B.O.  The  laws  were— 1.  To  honour  parents ;  2.  To  honour  the 
gods  with  the  fruits  of  the  earth ;  8.  Not  to  treat  brutes  with  cruelty.    Cicero  makes 


MYT  438  NAP 

the  civilisation  of  mankind  one  of  the  beneficial  effects  of  the  Eleuainian  mysteries. 
They  were  abolished  by  the  emperor  Theodosius  a.d.  889. 

MYTHOLOGY.  Fable  usurped  the  place  of  historical  truth  as  soon  as  the  authentie 
tradition  concerning  the  Creation  had  been  lost  or  adulterated ;  and  persons  who  had 
rendered  themselves  renowned  as  kings  or  leaders  in  this  life,  and  whose  achie Yemenis 
had  dazzled  the  benight-ed  understanding  of  men  living  in  a  state  of  nature,  were 
supposed  to  be  more  than  mortal*  and  therefore  after  death  the  multitude  were  easily 
taught  to  reyerence  them  with  divine  honours.  The  Egyptians  and  Babyloniana,  after 
forgetting  the  inyisible  and  true  Gk>d,  worshipped  positive  objects,  as  the  sun  and 
moon ;  and  then  transferred  their  adoration  to  the  operations  of  nature  and  the 
passions  of  their  own  minds,  which  they  embodied  under  symbolical  representations, 
and  ultimately  worshipped  the  symbols  themselves.  Thoth  is  supposed  to  have 
introduced  mythology  among  the  Egyptians,  1521  B.O. ;  and  Cadmus,  the  worship  of 
the  Egyptian  and  Phoenician  deities  among  the  Greeks,  1498  b  c. 


N. 

NAAS,  BATTLE  of,  in  Ireland.  A  desperate  engagement  between  a  body  of  the 
king's  forces,  consisting  of  the  ancient  Britons,  and  the  Armagh  militia.  The  insur- 
gent Irish,  who  had  just  commenced  the  memorable  rebellion  called  the  "  Rebellion 
of  1798,"  were  8000  strong,  and  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  300  killed  and  some 
hundreds  wounded.  May  24, 1798. — Sir  Richard  Mwgravt, 

NABONASSER,  ERA  or.  This  era  received  its  name  from  the  celebrated  prince  of 
Babylon,  under  whose  reign  astronomical  studies  were  much  advanced  in  Chaldsa. 
The  years  are  vague,  containing  865  days  each,  without  intercalation.  The  first  day 
of  the  era  was  Wednesday  (said,  in  mistake,  to  be  Thursday,  in  L*Ari  de  Verifier  la 
Datu)  Feb.  26,  747  b.c.  To  find  the  Julian  year  on  which  the  year  of  Nabonasser 
begins,  subtract  the  year,  if  before  Christ,  from  747  ;  if  after  Christ,  add  to  it  748. 

NAHUM,  FESTIVAL  of.  Nahum,  the  seventh  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets;  the 
festival  is  the  24th  of  December.  The  particular  circumstances  of  his  life*  and  the 
time  of  his  death,  are  altogether  unknown.  Opinions  are  also  divided  as  to  the  period 
in  which  he  delivered  his  prophecy,  about  B.a  718. 

NAMES.  Originally  every  person  had  but  one  name.  Plato  recommended  it  to  parents 
to  give  happy  names  to  their  children ;  and  the  Pythagoreans  taught  that  the  »"«"'^«, 
actions,  and  successes  of  men  were  according  to  their  names,  genius,  and  fittew  The 
popes  change  their  names  at  their  exaltation  to  the  pontificate,  "a  custom  intro- 
duced by  pope  Sergius,  whose  name  till  then  was  Swine-snout,  a.d.  687."— P^tno. 
Onuphrius  refers  it  to  John  XII.  956 ;  aod  gives  as  a  reason,  that  it  was  done  in 
imitation  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  who  were  first  called  Simon  and  SauL  In  Finance  it 
was  usual  to  change  the  name  given  at  baptism,  as  was  done  in  the  case  of  two  sons 
of  Henry  IL  of  France.  They  were  christened  Alexander  and  Hercules ;  but  at  their 
confirmation,  these  names  were  changed  to  Henry  and  Francis.  It  is  usual  for  the 
religious  at  their  entrance  into  monasteries  to  assume  new  names,  to  show  they  are 
about  to  lead  a  new  hfe,  and  have  renounced  all  things.    See  Swrmmict, 

N  AMUR.  Ceded  to  the  house  of  Austria  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht.  It  was  garrisoned  by 
the  Dutch  as  a  hairier  town  of  the  United  Provinces  in  1715.  Namur  was  taken  by 
the  French  in  1746,  but  was  restored  in  1748.  In  1781,  the  emperor  Joseph  expelled 
the  Dutch  garrison.  In  1792,  it  was  again  taken  by  the  French,  who  were  compelled 
to  evacuate  it  the  following  year ;  but  they  regained  poasession  of  it  in  1794.  The 
French,  however,  delivered  it  up  to  the  allies  in  1814.  It  was  a  scene  of  a  severe 
conflict,  in  Juue  1815,  between  the  Prussians  and  the  French  under  Grouchy,  when 
retreating  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 

NANTES,  EDICT  of.  This  was  a  celebrated  edict,  permitting  to  the  ProteetanU  the 
free  exercise  of  their  religion,  published  by  Henry  IV.  of  Fhmoe  in  1598.  The 
impolitic  and  unjust  revocation  of  this  edict  by  Louis  XIY.  was  declared  Oct  24, 
1685,  and  obliged  the  Protestants  to  shelter  themselves  in  England,  Holland,  and 
different  parts  of  Germany,  where  they  established  various  manu&cturea  to  the 
prejudice  of  their  own  country.    See  Pac^iGatiion* 

NAPIER'S  BONEa    See  LogarUhm, 


NAP 


439 


NAT 


NAPLES.  The  oontinental  diviuon  of  ih«  kiogdom  of  the  two  Sicilies.  Naples  was  a 
part  of  the  Roman  territory  at  a  yery  early  period.  In  the  fifth  century  it  became  a 
prey  to  the  Qothe,  and  afterwards  to  the  Lombards ;  and  the  Saracens,  Normans,  and 
French  also  succeesiTely  had  possession  of  this  country.    See  Sicitiet, 


537 


800 


1266 


1282 
1282 
1303 


1886 


1386 


Tbo  Ooths  hAviog  become  maatera  of 
Naples  and  of  Sicily,  are  expelled  by 
Boiiaarius,  general  of  the  eaatem  em- 
pire         ▲.D. 

The  Loiubarda  next  get  poeaeasion  of 
yapIeSk  and  are  dispoaaeMed  by 
Cbartemagne 

Charlea  of  Ai^on,  brother  of  St.  Louia. 
kiiig  of  France,  obtains  the  orown 
from  the  pope  to  the  excluaion  of  the 
rightful  hisir,  Gonradiu,  who  is  be- 
headed, ased  aixteen  yeara . 

The  French  becoming  hated  by  the  Bid- 
liana,  a  mneral  masaacre  of  the  iu- 
vadera  taJcea  place,  one  Frenchman 
only  eacaping.     See  SkiUan  Venen, 

March  30^ 

Peter  of  Arragon  reigna  .... 

The  two  crowua  di^oined  .... 

Charlea  Durazzo,  beicomingking  of  Hun- 
gary, ia  murdered  there  by  order  of 
the  queen  regent,  in  her  presence 

For  thia  murder,  ahe  ia  taken  out  of  her 
carriage^  and  drowned  in  the  river 
Boaeth      

Sicily  again  united  to  Naplea,  and  the 
kiuga  ever  ainco  called  kinga  of  the 
TwoSiciUea 1442 

Taken  from  the  French,  and  annexed  to 
Spain 1604 

The  tjrranny  of  the  Spaniarda  leada  to  an 
inaurrection,  excited  by  Bfaaaniello,  a 
fiaherman,  who  in  fifteen  daya  ndaea 
200,000  men 1647 

Thia  inaurrection  aubeidea,  and  Maaa- 
niello  la  murdered 1647 

Attempt  of  the  duke  of  Guiae  to  poaaeaa 
thecruwn 1647 

The  kingdom  completely  conquered  by 
prince  Eugtoe 1707 

Discovery  of  the  ruina  of  Herculaneum. 
See  HmtUarumm 1711 

Kaplea  ceded  to  the  emperor  by  the 
treaty  of  Radatadt,  1714  ;  Sicily  in     . 

Both  kingdoma  are  recovered  oy  the 
crown  of  Spain 

And  Charlea,  the  son  of  Philip  of  Spain, 
reigna 

Beign  of  Ferdinand  IV 

Hia  flight  on  the  approach  of  the  French 
republicans  Jan.  14, 

Kelaun  appean^  Kaplea  ia  retaken,  and 
the  king  reatored .  .    July  1^ 


1720 

1784 

1785 
1760 

1799 

1799 


1601 


It  ia  again  taken  by  the  French,  April  7, 

Dreadrul  earthquake  felt  throughout 
the  kingdom,  and  thouaanda  penah, 

July  26, 

Treaty  offenalve  and  defenaive  between 
France  and  Naplea  .  .  Oct.  8, 

Ferdinand  ia  again  driven  from  Naples, 
aud  Joseph  Bonaparte  is  crowned 
king Feb.  6, 

Joaeph  abdicatea  for  the  crown  of  Spain, 

June  1. 

The  crown  is  tranafeived  to  Joachim 
M  urat    .        .  July  1, 

A  new  constitution  granted  Sicily     .    . 

Naplea  ia  aurrendcrMi  to  a  Britiah  fleet, 
and  Ferdinand  re-<enteTs      .  June  17, 

Execution  of  Joachim  Murat      Oct.  16, 

Revolutionary  movement  headed  by 
general  F4p6  .    July  16, 

Suppreaaion  of  the  Carbonari     Sept.  16, 

Death  of  Ferdinand  IV.  (reigned  66 
yeara)  and  reign  of  Francia  I. 

Beignof  Ferdinand  II.  Nov.  8, 

Commencement  of  the  dispute  relative  to 
the  aulphur  monopoly  (which  is  after- 
wards amicably  aqjusted)    March  16, 

Palermo  and  the  great  towns  of  Sicily  in 
open  insurrection  agaioat  the  king  of 
Naples :  the  people  proclaim  a  provi- 
sional government,  and  insist  on  hav- 
ing the  coDstitiition  of  1812     Jan.  12, 

A  constitution,  modelled  on  Uie  French 
charter  of  1830,  proclaimed  .    Jan.  29, 

Bombardment  of  Messina  .       April  IS,  1848 

Great  fighting  at  Naples  between  the 
troops  and  national  guard   .    May  16,  1848 

Messina  bombarded  for  five  days  by  the 
Neapolitans,  and  taken   .         Sept.  7,  1848 

Blockade  of  Palermo  .  April  80,  1849 

It  is  entered  by  the  Neapolitans  after 
much  fighting  .        .  May  IS, 

After  remonstrances  with  the  king  on 
hia  tyrannical  government,  the  English 
and  French  ambaattdora  are  with- 
drawn     Oct.  28, 

Attempted  aaaaaaination  of  the  king  by 
Milana      ....        Nov.  28. 

Slight  insurrection  in  Sicily  auppreaaed. 

Doc 

Italian  reftigoes,  under  count  Piaacane, 
landing  in  Calabria,  are  defeated  and 
their  leader  killed    .        .        .  July  2, 


1805 
1806 


1806 

1808 

180S 
1812 

1816 
1816 

1820 
1820 

1826 
1830 


1840 


18 18 
1848 


1849 


1856 
1866 


1856 


1867 


NABVA,  BATTLE  of.  The  celebrated  bottle  in  which  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia  was 
totally  defeated  by  the  renowned  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  then  in  his  nineteenth  year. 
The  army  of  Peter  amounted  to  70,000,  some  Swedish  writers  affirm,  to  100,000  men, 
while  the  Swedes  did  not  much  exceed  20,000.  Fought  Not.  SO,  1700.  In  this 
wonderful  battle,  Charles,  "  the  Madman  of  the  North,"  attacked  the  enemy  in  his 
intrenchments,  and  slew  80,000 ;  the  remainder,  exceeding  that  number,  surrendered. 
The  Tictorions  chief  had  several  horses  shot  under  him,  and  as  he  was  mounting  a 
fresh  one,  he  said,  "  These  people  seem  disposed  to  give  me  exercise." 

KASEBT,  BATTLE  of.  Between  Charles  L  and  the  parliameiit  army  under  Fairfax  and 
Cromwell.  The  main  body  of  the  royal  army  was  commanded  by  lord  Astley ;  prince 
Rupert  led  the  right  wing,  sir  Marmaduke  Langdale  the  left,  and  the  king  himself 
headed  the  body  of  reserve.  The  victory  was  with  the  parliament  forces,  and  waa 
decisive  of  the  fate  of  the  king,  who  was  obliged  to  flee,  losing  all  his  cannon  and 
baggage,  and  fiOOO  of  his  army  as  prisoners,  June  14, 1645. 

NATIONAL  ASSEMBLY  of  FRANCE.  Upon  the  proposition  of  the  abb^  Si^yte,  the 
states  of  France  constituted  themselves  into  the  National  Ascembly,  June  16,  1789. 
On  the  20th,  the  hall  of  this  new  assembly  was  shut  by  order  of  the  kiog ;  upon 


NAT  440  NAT 

which  tho  deputiea  of  the  Tien  Etat  repaired  to  the  JevL  de  Pawme,  or  Tennia-conrt^ 
and  swore  not  to  dissoWe  until  they  had  digested  a  constitution  for  France.  On  the 
22nd  they  met  at  tho  church  at  St.  Louis.  This  assembly  dissolved  itself  Sept.  21, 
1792.  See  next  article. 
NATIONAL  CONVENTION  of  FRANCE.  Constituted  in  the  hall  of  the  TuUeries, 
Sept.  17,  and  formally  opened.  Sept  21»  1792,  when  M.  Or^ire,  at  the  head  of  the 
National  Assembly,  repaired  thither  and  announced  that  that  assembly  had  ceased  its 
functions.  It  was  then  decreed,  **  That  the  citizens  named  by  the  French  people  to 
form  the  National  Convention,  being  met  to  the  number  of  871,  after  having  verified 
their  powers,  declare,  that  the  National  Convention  ia  constttuted."  This  convention 
continued  until  a  new  constitution  was  organised,  and  the  Executive  Directoiy  was 
installed  at  the  little  Luxembourg,  Nov.  1, 1795.    See  Directory, 

NATIONAL  DEBT.    The  first  mention  of  parliamentary  security  for  a  debt  of  the 

nation  occurs  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YI.     The  present  national  debt  commenced  in 

the  reign  of  Will.  III.     It  bad  amounted,  in  the  year  1697,  to  about  five  millions 

sterling,  and  the  debt  was  then  thought  to  be  of  alarming  magnitude. 

lutionaty  war,  it  amount- 
ed to.  .        £671.000,000 
In  1814.  Cicmo  of  the  war  .        .    .  66&,0O0.(iO0 


In  1702.  On  the  aoceseion  of  queen 

Anne,  the  debt  amounted 

to £14,000,000 

In  1714.  Ontbeacoeeaionof  Geo.  I. 

it  amounted  to  .  .  .  54,000,000 
In  1749.  Gko.  II. ;  after  the  Spanish 

war,  it  amounted  to  .  78^000,000 
In  1768.  Ooortpe  ill. :  end  of  the 

Seven     Ycaxa*     war,    it 

amounted  to  .  .  .  130,000,000 
In  1786.  Three  yeamafter  the  Ame- 
rican war,  it  amounted  to  268,000.000 
In  1798.  The  civil  and  foreign  war, 

it  amcwnted  to  .  .  .  462^000,000 
In  1802.  Close  of  the  French  Revo- 


In  1817.  When   the   Bn^lieh  and 

Iriah    Exchequers    were 

oonaoUdated     .  .848,882,477 

In  1880.  Total  amouutof the  ftmded 

and  unfiinded  debt  .  .  840,184.022 
In  1 840.  Total  amount  of  ditto  .  789.578, 720 
In  1845.  Funded  debt  .    .768,789,241 

In  1850.  Funded  debt    .  .  774,022,«S8 

In  1854.  Funded  debt  .    .755,610.226 

Unftinded  .    16,542,000 

In  1856.  Funded  debt  .    .  799,031,088 

Unftmded  .    28,000.200 


The  annual  interest  in  1850  was  2S,862,267/. :  and  the  total  interest,  inoluding 
annuities,  atnounted  to  27,699,740/.  On  Jan.  1,  1851|  the  total  unreedemed  debt 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  was  769,272,5622.  the  charge  on  which  for  interest  and 
management  was  27.620,4492.  And  on  Jan.  1,  1852,  it  was  765,126,582/. :  the  charge 
on  which  was  27,501,7832. 

NATIONAL  GALLERY,  London.  The  foundation  of  this  great  institation  was  the 
purchase,  by  the  British  government,  for  the  public  service,  of  the  Angerstein  col- 
lection of  pictures,  whose  number  did  not  much  exceed  forty.  They  were  purchased 
of  Mr.  Angerstein's  executors,  in  Jan.  1822 ;  and  the  first  exhibition  of  them  took 
place  in  Pall-mall,  in  May  1824.  Sir  G.  Beaumont,  Mr.  Hoi  well  Oarr,  and  many  other 
gentlemen,  as  well  as  the  British  Institution,  contributed  many  fine  pictures ;  and  the 
collection  has  been  augmented  by  numerous  later  gifts,  and  recent  purchaaea.  The 
present  edifice  in  Trafalgar-square  was  designed  by  Mr.  Wilkins,  and  was  completed 
and  opened  in  18S7.  In  1857  a  commission  appointed  to  consider  the  propriety  of 
removing  the  pictures,  reported  in  favour  of  their  remaining  in  their  present  locality. 
(July,  1857.) 

NATIVITY.  There  are  two  festivals,  both  in  the  Roman  and  Greek  Churches,  under 
this  name.  The  first  is  the  Nativity  of  the  Redeemer,  which  is  also  observed  by  the 
Protestants,  generally  on  the  25th  day  of  December,  and  is  of  very  long  standing  in 
the  Church ;  the  other  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  not  observed  by  the  Protestants  at  all. 
Pope  Senrius  I.  about  690,  is  the  firat  who  placed  the  Nativity,  kept  in  memory  of  the 
Blessed  Yir^in,  among  the  festivals  ,*  but  it  was  not  generally  received  in  France  and 
Germany  till  about  1000 ;  and  the  Greeks  and  eastern  Christians  did  not  obsnre  it 
till  some  time  in  the  twelfth  century,  but  they  now  do  it  with  great  solemnity. 

NATURALISATION.  It  is  defined  to  be  "  the  making  a  foreigner  or  alien  a  deniaen  or 
freeman  of  any  kingdom  or  city,  and  so  becoming,  as  it  were,  both  a  subject  and 
a  native  of  a  king  or  country,  that  by  nature  he  did  not  belong  to."  The  fint  act  of 
naturalisation  passed  in  1437 ;  and  various  similar  enactments  were  made  in  most  of 
the  reigns  frbm  that  time,  several  of  them  special  acts  relating  to  individuala  An  act 
for  the  naturalisation  of  the  Jews  passed  in  1753,  but  it  was  repealed  in  the  foUowing 
year,  on  the  petition  of  all  the  cities  in  England.  The  act  for  the  naturalisation  of 
prince  Albert  passed  3  Vict.  Feb,  7, 1840. 

NATURE-PRINTING.  This  process  consists  in  imprsssing  objects,  such  as  plants, 
mosses,  feathers,  &a  into  plates  of  metal,  causing  these  objects,  ss  it  wers^  to  engimve 


NAV 


441 


NAV 


themselves ;  and  afterwards  taking  easts  or  copies  fit  for  printing  from.  Knipbof,  of 
Brfiirt,  between  1728  and  1757,  produced  his  Herbwriwm  vivum  by  pressing  the 
plants  themselves  (previously  inked)  on  paper;  the  impressions  being  afterwards 
coloured  by  hand.  In  1833,  Peter  Kyhl  made  use  of  steel  rollers  and  lead  plates.  In 
1842,  Mr.  Taylor  printed  lace.  In  1847,  Mr.  Twining  printed  ferns,  grasses,  and 
plants ;  and  in  the  same  year  Dr.  Branson  suggested  the  application  of  electrotyping 
to  the  impressions.  In  1849,  professor  Leydolt,  of  Vienna,  obtained,  by  the  able 
assistance  of  Mr.  Andrew  Worring,  impressions  of  agates  and  fossilSb  The  first 
practical  application  of  this  process  is  in  Von  Heufler's  work  on  the  Mosses  of 
Arpasch,  in  Transylvania ;  the  second  (the  frtt  In  this  country)  in  *'  The  Ferns  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,"  edited  by  Dr.  Lindley ;  the  illustrations  to  which  were 
prepared  under  the  snperintendeuoe  of  Mr.  Henry  Bradbury  in  1855- 6. 

NAVAL  BATTLES.  The  Ai^gonautic  expedition  undertaken  by  Jason  is  the  first  upon 
record,  1263  B.O. — Du  Frunoy.  The  first  sea-fight  on  record  is  that  between  the 
Corinthians  and  Crorcyreaos,  664  B.O. — Blair,  The  following  are  among  the  moet 
celebrated  naval  engagements : 


BKfORK  CHRIST. 

FSnt  sea-fight  on  record,  in  which  the 
Corinthians  eonquer  the  Corcyreane  .    664 

The  Athenian  fleet  under  Tbemistocles, 
with  S80  sail,  dcfeaU  the  Peraian. 
oousisting  of  2000,  at  the  straits  of 
Solamis 480 

Again,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Eury- 
roedon :  Clmon,  the  Athenian  admind, 
vanquishes  the  Persian  fleet  and  army 
in  one  day. — Herodottu  .    470 

The  LAcedaemonian  fleet  taken  by  Ald- 
biades,  the  Athenian    ....    410 

The  8partan  general,  Lyaander,  totally 
defeats  the  Athenian  floetunder  Conon ; 
by  this  victory  he  puts  an  end  to  the 
maritime  power  of  Athens  .  .    407 

The  Persians  engage  Conon  to  command 
their  fleet,  wiui  which  he  entirely  van- 
quishes the  Lacedmmonian  fleet,  and 
takes  50  sail  out  of  90   .  .    400 

The  Persian  fleet  conquers  the  Spartan 
at  Cnidos;  Piaander,  the  Athenian 
admiral,  is  killed;  and  the  maritime 
power  of  the  Laoedaemoniana  de- 
stroyed.—  ThucpdideM    ....    894 

The  Roman  fleet,  emploved  in  the  siege 
of  LilybcBum,  burnt  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians   249 

Tlte  Cai-thaginian  fleet  destroyed  by  the 
consul  Lutatius 249 

The  Roman  fleets  vanquished  by  Han- 
nibal, the  Carthaginian  general;  bOO 
galleys  taken,  and  16,000  prisoners; 
second  Punic  war         ....    209 

At  Actium,  between  the  fleets  of  Octa- 
vianus  dosar  and  Mare  Antony.  This 
battle  decides  the  fate  of  the  latter,  300 
of  his  gHlleys  going  over  to  Gssar,  by 
which  ho  is  totally  defeated        .       .      81 

ANVO  Dowirr. 

The  emperor  Claudius  II.  defeats  the 
Goths,  and  sinks  2000  of  their  ships.-' 
Du  Prttnoff 269 

The  fleets  belonging  to  Spain,  Venice, 
and  Pius  V.  defeat  the  Turkish  fleet 
in  the  Gulf  of  Lepanta  The  Christian 
fleet  consisted  of  206  gnUeys  and  30.000 
men.  The  TurlcB,  out  of  260  galleys, 
saved  only  100,  and  lost  80,000  men  in 
killed  and  inisonen.  —  VcUairt.  Bee 
Lepaido        ....        Oct.  7,  1571 

Bay  of  Gibraltar;  Dutch  and  Spaniards. 
This  was  a  bloody  conflict  and  decisive 
victory,  and  settled  for  a  time  the  supe- 
riority of  the  Dutch  April  26,  1607 

VAVAL  KNOAOnCBHTS  VK  BR1TI8B  HISTOaT. 

Alftied,  with  10  galleys,  defeated  300  sail 


897 


1840 


1860 
1871 
1387 
1405 


1416 


1512 


1613 


1645 


of  Danish  pirates  on  the  Dorset  and 
Hampshire  coaat.— Ana's  Uftof  Alfrtd 

Near  Sluys;  Edward  III.  defeated  the 
French  fleet  of  250  sail,  which  were 
all  sunk.  30.000  French  were  killed 
in  this  engagement 

Off  WineheUea;  Edward  IIL  defeated 
the  Spanish  fleet  of  40  laige  ships,  and 
captured  26       .        .        .        Aug.  29, 

The  Ehiglish  and  Flemings;  the  Utter 
signally  defeated  . 

Eorl  of  Arundel  defeats  a  Fleirish  fleet 
of  100  sail,  and  captures  80,  March  24, 

Near  M  ilford  Haven ;  the  English  take 
14,  and  destroy  15  French  ships  . 

Off  Harfleur ;  the  duke  of  Bedford  takes 
or  desUxiys  nearly  500  French  ships, 

Aug.  15, 

In  the  Downs ;  a  Spanish  and  Genoese 
fleet  captured  by  the  earl  of  Warwick .  1450 

Bay  of  Biscay ;  English  and  French,  in- 
decisive      ....     Aug.  10. 

Sir  Edward  Howard  attacks  the  French 
fleet  under  Prior  John,  is  repulsed  and 
killed        ....        April  26, 

Sir  Thomas  Howard,  with  60  ships,  de- 
feats 200  French  off  the  Isle  of  Wight, 

July  19, 

The  fijpanjjl  Armada  driven  from  the 
English  Channel  to  the  road  of  Calais, 
by  a  running  fight,  the  Sjmniards 
losing  15  ships  and  6000  men;  they 
are  again  defeated,  and  obliged  to  bear 
away  for  Scotland  and  Ireland,  when 
their  fleet  is  dispersed  in  a  storm,  and 
they  lose  17  more  ships,  and  5000  more 
men.    See  Armada  .        .        July  19, 

Dover  straits;  between  the  Dutch  ad- 
miral. Van  Tromp,  and  admiral  Blake. 
The  Dutch  surprise  the  English  in  the 
Downs,  80  sail  engaging  40  English, 
six  of  which  are  taken  or  destroyed ; 
and  the  Dutch  admiral  sails  in  tri- 
mnph  through  the  channel,  with  a 
broom  at  his  mast-head,  to  denote 
that  he  had  swept  the  S^Ilsh  frx>m 
the  seas       ....     June  29, 

In  the  Downs;  same  admirals,  and 
nearly  same  loss ;  Sept  28,  Oct  28,  and 

Nov.  29, 

The  En^ish  gain  a  victory  over  the  Dutch 
fleet<»rPortamouth,ta]dngand  destroy- 
ing 11  men-of-war  and  30  merchant- 
men. Van  Tromp  was  the  Dutch,  and 
Blake  the  English  admiral  .    Feb.  10,  1063 

Again,  near  Portland,  between  the 
KngJtsh  and  Dutch;  the  latter  de- 
feated       ....        Feb.  18.  1658 

AgAin,  off  the  North  Foreland.  The 
I>utch  and  y^gUfih   fleets  consisted 


1688 


1652 


1652 


NAV 


442 


NAV 


NAVAL  BATTLES,  continued. 

of  near  100  mcn-of-wiur  each.  Van 
Tromp  co:nmauded  the  Dutch ;  Blake, 
Monk,  and  Doane,  the  English.  Six 
Dutch  ships  were  taken;  11  were 
sunk,  and  the  rest  ran  into  Calais 
road June  2,  1653 

Affaiu,  on  the  coast  of  Holland;  the 
Dutch  lost  30  men-of-war,  and  admiral 
Tromp  was  killed       .  July  31.  1053 

At  Cadiz,  when  two  galleons,  worth 
2,000,000  pieces  of  eight,  were  taken 
by  the  English        .        .  Sept.  1050 

The  Spanish  fleet  vanquished,  and  then 
burnt  in  the  harbour  of  Santa  Cruz, 
by  Blake        ....       April,  1657 

English  and  French ;  130  of  the  Bor- 
deaux fleet  destroyed  by  the  duke  of 
York Dec.  4,  16<U 

The  duke  of  York  (afterwards  James  II.) 
defeats  the  Dutch  fleet  off  Harwich ; 
the  Dutch  admiral  blown  up  with  all 
his  crew ;  18  capital  ships  taken,  14 
destroyed  ....        June  8,  1665 

The  earl  of  Sandwich  took  12  men-of-war 
and  2  India  ships       .        .        Sept.  4,  1665 

A  contest  between  the  Dutch  and  Eng- 
lish fleets  for  victory,  maintained  for 
four  days.  The  English  lose  9,  and 
the  Dutch  15  ships  June  1  to  4,  1666 

Decisive  engagement  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Thames,  when  the  EugUsh  gain  a 
glorious  victory.  The  Dutch  lose  24 
men-of-war,  4  admirals  killed,  and 
4000  officers  and  seamen  July  20,  1666 

The  English  fleet  of  16  sail  defeats  the 
French  of  30,  near  Martinioo        .        .1667 

Twelve  Algerine  shijis  of  war  destroyed 
by  Sir  Edward  Spragg  .  1671 

The  fleets  of  England  and  Fi-anoo  engage 
the  Dutch  in  South  wold-bay ;  an  ob- 
Ftinate  and  bloody  !u:;tion.  The  earl 
of  Sandwich  was  blown  up ;  several 
ships  and  some  thousands  of  men  were 
destroyed ;  and  though  no  decisive 
victory  was  gained,  the  Dutch  fled, 
pursued  by  uio  duke  of  York  (after- 
wards James  II.)  to  their  own  coasts. 
See  Southtpold  Bay     .        .  *      May  28,  1672 

Coast  of  Holland;  by  Prince  Rupert, 
May  28,  June  4,  and  Aug.  11;  d'Etreos 
aud  Ruyter  defeated     ....  1673 

Several  actions  to  the  disadvantage  of 
the  Dutch.  They  agree  to  strike  to  the 
English  colours  in  the  British  seas,  25 
Charles  II 1673 

Off  Tangiers,  battle  between  the  English 
and  Moors,  which  lasted  11  days         .  1670 

Off  Bcachy  Head ;  the  English  and  Dutch 
are  defeated  by  the  French.  Bee  Bfmhy 
Utad       ....  June  30,  1690 

The  English  and  Dutch  combined  fleets 
gaiu  a  signal  victory  over  the  French 
fleet,  near  cape  La  Hogue ;  21  of  their 
lai^st  men-of-war  were  destroyed. 
See  La  Hogue  .      May  19,  1692 

Off  St.  Vincent ;  the  English  and  Dutch 
squadrons,  under  admiral  Booke,  de- 
feated by  the  French       .       June  16,  1693 


Off  Carthagena^  between  admiral  Ben- 
bow  *  and  the  French  fleet,  com- 
manded by  admiral  Du  Caase.   Fought 

Aug.  19.  170i 

The  English  and  Dutch  fleeta,  under  sir 
George  Rooke,  defeat  the  French  fleet 
(having  the  Spanish  galleons  in  con- 
voy) in  the  port  of  Vigo.  They  take  9 
out  of  13  galleons,  laden  chiefly  with 
silver,  anal  6  men-of-war;  the  other 
4  gaUeons,  and  14  men-of-war.  de- 
stroyed.   See  Viffo       .        .    Oct.  12,  1703 

Off  Malaga ;  bloody  engagement  between 
the  French  and  KngUsh,  when  the 
former  entirely  relinquished  the  domi- 
nion of  the  seas  to  Engbind     Aug.  24,  1704 

At  Gibraltar,  when  the  French  lose  6 
men-of-war        .  Nov.  5,  1704 

Off  the  Ldsard,  when  the  English  fleet 
was  defeated  .  Oct.  9,  1707 

In  the  M^literraneon,  admiral  Leake 
took  60  French  vessel^  laden  with 
provisions        ....  May  22,  1708 

The  Spanish  fleet  of  29  sail  totally  de- 
feated by  sir  Ocoige  Byng,  in  the  Faro 
of  Messina  Aug.  11,  1718 

Bloody  battle  off  Toulonj  Matthews  ana 
Lestock  against  the  fleets  of  France 
and  Spain.  Hero  the  bravo  captain 
Cornwall  fell  with  42  men,  including 
officers ;  and  the  victory  was  lost  by  a 
misunderstanding  between  the  BngUah 
admirals.  ^A'a  vat  Jfise.  .  1744 

Off  Cape  Finisterre,  the  French  fleet  of 
38  sail  taken  by  admiral  Anson,  May  3,  1747 

In  the  East  Indies ;  the  French  retired 
to  Foudicherry It47 

Off  Finisterre,  when  admiral  Hawke  took 
7  men-of-war  of  the  French      OcL  14,  1747 

Off  Newfoundland,  when  admiral  Boe- 
cawen  took  2  men-of-war        Jtme  10,  1755 

Off  Cape  Francois ;  7  ships  defeated  by 
3  English    ....        Oct.  21.  1767 

Admiral  Pooock  defeats  the  French  fleet 
in  the  East  Indies,  in  two  actiona,  1758 ; 
and  again 1759 

Admiral  Boscawen  defeats  the  French 
under  De  la  Clue^  off  cape  Lagoa.  See 
Loffos.     Fought  .        Aug.  18,  1759 

Admiral  Hawke  defeats  the  French  fleet» 
commanded  by  Conflans,  in  Quiberuo 
Bay,  and  thus  prevents  a  projected  in- 
vasion of  England.  B)oe  Quiberon  Bay. 
Fought      ....        Nov.  SO,  1759 

Keppel  took  3  French  frigates,  and  a 
fleet  of  merchantmen  Oct.  9,  1762 

On  Lake  Champlain,  where  the  provin- 
cial force  was  totally  destroyed  by 
admiral  Howe     .  OcL  11,  1776 

Off  Ushant;  a  drawn  battle  between 
Keppel  and  d'Orvilllen       .    July  27. 1778 

In  New  England;  the  American  fleet 
totally  destroyed  July  30,  1779 

Near  Cape  St  Vincent;  admiral  Rod- 
ney defeated  a  Spaniah  fleet  under 
admiral  Don  LanganL     See  Rodmey, 

Jan.  16,  1780 


*  In  the  engagement,  the  other  ships  of  admiral  Benbow's  squadron  fklling  astern,  left  this  brave 
commander  alone  to  maintain  the  unequal  battle.  In  this  sitiution  a  chain-shot  shattered  hia  1^  yet 
he  would  not  be  removed  from  the  quarterdeck,  but  continued  fighting  till  the  momhig,  when  the 
French  sheered  off.  He  died  in  October  following,  of  his  wounds,  at  Jamaica,  where,  soon  after  bia 
arrival,  he  received  a  letter  from  the  French  admiral,  of  which  the  following  is  a  literal  tranalatkn  :^ 

^^,                                                                                           "atr(A(veiwi,  August  St  1702. 
'  Sir,— I  had  little  hopes,  on  Monday  last,  but  to  have  supped  in  your  cabin ;  yet  it  pleaaed  God  to 
order  it  otherwise.    I  am  thankful  for  it.    As  for  those  cowardly  captaina  who  deserted  too,  hmg 
them  up.  for  by  O— d  they  deserve  it.  Dw  C*s 


Two  of  those  unworthy  cowards,  captains  Kirby  and  Wade^  were  shot  on  their  arrival  at  Fljmaath, 
having  been  previously  tried  by  a  court-martial. 


NAV 


443 


NAV 


NAVAL  BAITLES,  continued. 

At  St.  Jago ;  Xodb.  Su&da  defeatod  by 
commodore  Johnston  April  16,  1781 

Domfer-bank,  between  adm.  Parker  and 
the  Dutch  adm.  Zoutman :  400  killed 
on  each  side  .  Aug.  5,  1781 

Admiral  Rodney  defeated  the  French 
going  to  attack  Jamaica ;  took  5  shiiia 
of  the  line,  and  sent  the  French  ad- 
miral, coimt  de  Graaae,  prisoner  to 
England.    Bee  Rodney    .         April  12,  1782 

The  Britiah  totally  defeated  the  fleets  of 
France  and  Sp^n,  in  the  bay  of  Gib- 
raltar.   Bee  Gitraltar  Sept.  18,  1782 

Baat  Indies :  a  series  of  actions  between 
sir  Edward  Hughes  and  Suffivin,  via. : 
Feb.  17,  1782,  the  French  had  11  ships 
to  9 ;  April  12,  they  had  18  ships  to  11, 

Set  were  completely  beaten.  Again, 
uly  6,  offTrinconuuee,  they  had  15  to 
12,  and  were  again  beaten  with  the 
loos  of  1000  killed,  Sept.  3, 17tt2.  Again, 

June  zO,  1783 

Lord  Howe  signally  defeated  the  Freneh 
fleet  off  Ushant,  took  6  ships  of  war, 
and  sunk  one  June  1,  1794 

Sir  Edward  Pellew  took  15  tail,  and 
burnt  7,  out  of  a  fleet  of  35  sail  of 
transports  March  8,  1795 

F^uch  fleet  defeated,  and  2  ships  of  war 
taken,  by  admiral  Hotham.    Fought 

March  14,  1795 

Admiral  Comwallia  took  8  transports, 
convoyed  by  3  French  men-of-war. 
Fought  ....    June  7, 1795 

Eleven  Dutch  East  Indiaman  taken  by 
the  Seeplrtf  man-of-war,  and  some 
armed  British  Indiamen  in  company, 

June  19, 1795 

L'OHent;  the  French  fleet  defeated  by 
lord  Bridport,  and  3  ships  of  the  line 
Uken.    See  L'Orieni    .        .    June  26,  1796 

Dutch  fleet  under  admiral  Lucas  in  Sal- 
danha  bay,  surrenders  to  sir  Qeoi^ge 
Keith  Elphinatone.  See  <Saic(afiAa  Jkry, 

Aug.  17,  1796 

Cape  St  Vincent;  the  Spanish  fleet 
defeated  by  sir  J.  Jerria,  and  4  line« 
of-battle  ships  taken.    See  BU  Vincfni, 

Feb.  14,  1797 

Unsuccessful  attempt  aa  Santa  Crua; 
admiral  Nelson  loses  hia  right  arm. 
SeeSaftto(Vui     .  .     July  24,  1797 

Camperdown:  the  Dutch  signally  de- 
feated by  admiral  Dtmcan,  and  9  shiija 
of  the  une  and  2  frigates,  with  the 
admiral  (De  WinterX  taken.  See  Gim- 
pfrdonen Oct.  11,  1797 

Kile :  Toulon  fleet  defeated  by  sir  Hora- 
tio Kelson,  at  Aboukir ;  9  ships  of  the 
lino  taken ;  2  bumt»  2  escai^d.  See 
NUe Auff.  1, 1798 

Off  the  coast  of  Ireland  ;  a  French  fleet 
of  9  sail,  full  of  troops,  as  succours  to 
the  Irish,  engaged  by  sir  John  Borlase 
Warren,  and  5  taken  Oct.  12,  1798 

The  Texel  fleet  of  12  ships  and  IS  India- 
men  surrenders  to  the  British  admiral, 
Mitchell       ....    Aug.  28,  1799 

Copeuhagen  bombarded ;  when  the  Da- 
nish fleet  of  23  sail  is  token  or  de- 
stroyed bv  lord  Nelson.  1600  Danish 
seamen  kiUed.    Bee  Cop€nka{fen. 

April  2,  1801 

Gibraltar  Bay ;  engagement  between  the 
French  and  British  fleets ;  the  Hanni- 
bal otTi  guns  lost  July  6,  1801 

Off  Cadis :  sir  James  Saumares  obtains 
a  victory  over  the  French  and  Spanish 
fleets ;  1  ship  captured.    Fought 

July  12, 1801 

Sir  Robert  Oalder,  with  15  sail,  takes  2 


ships  (both  Spanish)  out  of  20  sail  of 
the  French  and  Spanish  combined 
fleets,  off  Ferrol  .July  22,  1805 

Off  Trafalgar;  memoroblo  battle,  in 
which  lord  Nelson  defeated  the  fleets 
of  France  and  Spain,  and  hi  wliich  the 

CLnthero  receivod his  mortal  wound. 
Trafalgar  .        .     Oct.  21,  1805 

Sir  R.  Strachan,  with  4  sail  of  British, 
captures  4  French  ships  of  the  line,  off 
cape  Ortegal     .  Nov.  4, 1806 

In  the  West  Indies :  the  French  defeated 
by  sir  T.  Duckworth ;  8  sail  of  the  line 
taken,  2  driven  on  shore       .    Feb.  6,  1806 

Sir  J  oho  Borlase  Warren  captures  2 
Frunch  ships  .    March  13,  1806 

Admiral  Duckworth  effects  the  passage 
of  the  Dardanelles.  See  article  Dar- 
danHUi Feb.  19,  1807 

Copeuhagen  fleet  of  18  ships  of  the  line, 
15  frigates,  and  81  other  vessels,  sur- 
renders to  lord  Cathcart  and  admiral 
Gambler.    See  Ooptnhoffen    .    Sept.  7,  1807 

The  Russian  fleet  of  several  sail,  in  the 
Tagus,  surrenders  to  the  British, 

Sept  3,  1808 

Basque  roads:  4  sail  of  the  line  and 
much  shipping  destroyed  by  lord 
Gambler  .  April  12,  1809 

Two  Russian  flotillas  of  numerous  ves- 
sels taken  or  destroyed  by  sir  J.  Sau- 
murez July,  1809 

French  ships  of  the  line  driven  on  shore 
by  lord  CoUingwood  (2  of  them  burnt 
by  the  French  next  day)  .        Oct  25,  1800 

Bay  of  Rosas,  where  heut.  Tailour  by 
(Unction  of  captain  Hallowell  takes 
or  destroys  U  war  and  other  vessels. 
See  Itoaa*  Bay     .  Nov.  1, 1809 

Basseterre :  La  Loire  and  La  Stinf, 
French  frigates,  destroyed  by  sir  A. 
Cochrane    ....        Dec.  18, 1809 

The  Spartan  British  frigate  gallantly 
engages  a  large  French  force  in  the 
bay  of  Naples  May  8,  1810 

Action  between  the  Tribune,  captain 
Reynolds,  and  4  Danish  brigs.   Fought 

May  12,  1810 

Isle  of  Rh^;  17  vessels  taken  or  de- 
stroyed by  the  Armide  and  Cadm%u, 

July  17,  1810 

Twenty-two  vessels  from  Otranto  taken 
by  the  Cerbfna  and  Active        Feb.  22, 1811 

AmaMon  French  frigate  des  royed  off  Cape 
Barfleur  .  Maruh  'Z5, 1811 

SagoneBay:  2  French  store-ships  burnt 
by  captam  Barrie's  ships    .        May  1. 1811 

The  British  sloop.  Little  BtU,  and  Ame- 
rican ship,  Prttident :  their  rencontre. 

May  16,  ISll 

Off  Madagascar ;  3  British  frigates  under 
captain  Schomberg  engage  S  French 
hurarersixed,  with  troops  on  boaid, 
and  capture  2     .        .        .        May  20,  1811 

The  Thamu  and  Ophalue  capture  36 
French  vessels  .       July,  1811 

The  Ifaiad  frigate  attacked  in  presence 
of  Bonaparte  by  7  armed  praams;  they 
were  sallantly  repulsed    .    .  Sept  21, 1811 

French  frigates  Pauline  and  Ponune  cap- 
tured by  the  British  frigates  Alcesttt 
Active,  and  UniU  .        .    Nov.  29.  1811 

Rivoli  of  84  guns,  taken  by  the  VictoriouM 
of  74  ....        Feb.  21,  1812 

L'Orient:  2  French  frigates,  Ac.  de- 
stroyed by  the  AerfAitrnXertamZ,  captain 
Hotham         ....    May  22,  1812 

Ouerrifre  British  ftigat«,  small  class, 
captured  by  the  American  ship  Consti- 
tution (an  unequal  oonquest>    Fought 

X  -1  --»       /•  Aug.  19,  1812 


NAV 


444 


NAV 


NAVAL  BATTLES,  eontinued. 

British  brig  Frdie  captured  by  the 
American  sloop  Wcutp       .        Oct.  18,  1812 

British  frigate  Mcuxdonian  taken  by  the 
American  ship  UnUed  StaJtet,  huige 
cIbm  ....        Oct.  26.  1812 

British  frifi^te  Java  taken  bv  the  Ame- 
ricau  ship   CongtUvtion,   uuve  dass, 

Dea  29.  1812 

British  frigate  ilm^Jto  loses 46  men  killed 
and  06  wounded,  engaging  a  French 
frigate Fob.  7. 1813 

British  sloop  Ptacodc  captured  by  the 
American  ship  Hornet;  she  was  so 
disabled  that  she  sunk  with  part  of 
her  crew    ....        Feb.  26, 1818 

American  frigate  Cht»apeake  taken  by 
the  SkannoH,  captain  Broke.  Se« 
CheMpeahe      ....    June  1,  1813 

Amoican  ships  Growler  and  JEo^e  taken 
by  British  gun-boats .  Jime  3. 1813 

American  sloop  Argut  taken  by  the 
British  sloop  Pelican        .    .  Aug.  14.  1818 

French  frigate  La  TVum;  44  guns,  taken 
by  the  Andromaeke  of  38  guus,  Oct  23, 1813 

French  frigate  Oeret  taken  by  the  British 
ship  7\ipiM  ....        Jan.  6,  1814 

French  fingatos  Alemme  and  Ipkigtnia 
taken  b^  the  Venerable  .        .  Jan.  16,  1814 

French  fngate  Terpsichore  taken  by  the 
Maoe$tie       ....        ¥tt\^  3.  1814 

French  ship  Clorinde  taken  by  the  Dryad 
and  AchateSj  after  an  action  with  the 
Burotai  ....  Feb.  26.  1814 

French  frigate  VBtoiU  captured  by  the 
Hebrui        ....    March  27,  1814 


American  frigate  E$$ex  captured  by  the 
Phoebe  and  Chrmb    .  March  120,  1814 

British  sloop  Avon  sunk  by  the  Ameri- 
can sloop  Wofp    .  Sept.  8, 1814 

Lake  Champlain  :  the  British  aquadroa 
captured  by  the  American,  after  a 
severe  ocoinict  .  .        SepL  11,  1814 

American  ship  Presideni  captured  by 
theAidymton  .    Jan.  16^  1815 

AJ^ers  bombarded  by  Lord  Bxmoutli. 
tiee  Algiers  Aug.  27,1S1« 

Na-varino;  the  British,  French,  and 
Russian  squadrons  defeat  and  anni- 
hilate the  Turkish  navy.  Bee  JToea- 
rino  ....        Oct.  20,  182T 

Action  between  the  British  ships  VoIoqs 
and  HyaeMk  and  29  Chiuase  war- 
Junks,  which  were  defeated      Nor.  8, 18S9 

Bombarament  and  fall  of  Acre.  The 
British  squadron  under  admiral  Stop- 
ford  achieved  this  triumph  with 
trifling  Iocs,  while  the  Egyptians  loet 
2000  killed  and  wouuded,  and  3000 
prisoners.     See  Syria  Nov.  3,  1S40 

Luoe  attacked  and  taken  by  commodore 
Bruce,  with  a  sqiuidroa  oonaistiug  of 
the  Penelope,  Bloodhound, 8ampoon.iid 
TeoMer,  war  steamen.  and  the  Philomd 
brig  of  war       .       .        .    Dec  26.  27. 1851 

[For  naval  actions  in  China,  but  which 
cannot  be  called  regular  battles,  see 
Ckma.] 


NAVAL  COAST  VOLUNTEERS.  The  admiralty  were  empowered  to  nise  a  bodj  of 
seafJEUiDg  men  to  bear  this  name,  not  to  exceed  10.000,  for  the  defence  of  the  ccaat^ 
and  for  actual  Bervice  if  required,  by  16  &  17  Vict,  c  73  (Aug.  15, 1853). 

NAVAL  REVIEWS.  The  Qneen  reviewed  the  fleet  at  Portsmouth  in  March  1854 
before  it  sailed  to  the  Baltic,  at  the  commencement  of  the  Ruaaian  war ;  and  again  at 
Portsmouth,  on  the  conclusion  of  Peace,  in  the  presence  of  the  parliament^  &&,  on 
April  28.  The  fleet  extended  in  an  unbroken  line  of  5  miles,  and  conslated  of 
upwards  of  300  men-of-war,  with  a  tonnage  of  150,000,  carrying  8800  gan%  *Bd 
manned  by  40^000  seamen. 

NAVAL  SALUTE  to  thb  BRITISH  FLAG.  This  mark  of  honour  began  in  Alfi«d*s 
reign,  and  though  sometimes  disputed,  it  may  be  said  to  have  been  continued  ever 
since.  The  Dutch  agreed  to  strike  to  the  English  colours  in  the  British  sean,  in  1673. 
The  honour  of  the  flag-salute  at  sea  was  also  formally  assented  to  by  France  in  1704, 
although  it  had  been  long  previously  exacted  by  England.  See  Flag  and  SaluUt  at  Sm. 

NAVAL  UNIFORMa  The  first  notice  of  the  establishment  of  a  uniform  in  the  British 
naval  service  which  we  have  met  with,  occurs  in  the  JacoiMB  Jammal  of  March  5, 
1748,  under  the  head  of  "  Domestic  News,"  in  these  terms : — "  An  order  is  said  to  be 
issued,  requiring  all  his  majesty's  sea-officers,  from  the  admiral  down  to  the  midship- 
man, to  wear  a  uniformity  of  clothing,  for  which  purpose  pattern  coats  for  dreoa  soiti 
and  frocks  for  each  rank  of  officers  are  lodged  at  the  Navy-offloe,  and  at  the  several 
dock-yards,  for  their  inspection."  This  is  corroborated  by  the  Qautte  of  July  18, 1757, 
when  the  first  alteration  in  the  uniform  took  place,  and  in  which  a  reference  is  niade 
to  the  order  of  1748,  alluded  to  in  the  journal  above  mentioned,  and  which,  in  fisct^is 
the  year  when  a  naval  uniform  was  first  established.  James  I.  had  indeed  granted,  by 
warrant  of  6th  April,  1609,  to  six  of  his  principal  masters  of  the  navy,  "  liverie  ooata 
of  fine  red  doth."^  The  warrant  is  stated  to  have  been  drawn  verbatim  from  one 
signed  by  queen  Elizabeth,  but  which  had  not  been  acted  upon  by  reason  of  her  death. 
'  This  curious  document  is  in  the  British  Museum ;  but  king  James's  limited  rod  livwy 
is  supposed  to  have  been  soon  discontinued.— Quarter/y  Review, 

NAVARINO,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  combined  fleets  of  England,  FVance,  and 
Russia,  under  command  of  Admiral  Codrington,  and  the  Turkish  navy,  in  which  the 
latter  was  almost  wholly  annihilated.  More  than  thirty  ships,  many  of  them  four- 
deckers,  were  blown  up  or  hwmt,  chiefly  by  the  Turks  themselvoB,  to  prevent 


NAV 


445 


NAV 


their  fiiUing  into  the  handB  of  their  enemies,  Oct.  20,  1827.  The  policy  which 
led  to  this  attack  upon  Turkey  was  that  of  Mr.  Canidng^s  adminiitration.  This 
destruction  of  the  Turkish  naval  power  was  oharaaterised,  by  the  duke  of  Wellington, 
as  being  an  **  untoward  e?ent " — a  memorable  phrssa,  applied  to  it  to  this  day. 

NAYIQATION.  It  owes  its  origm  to  the  Phodnicians,  aboat  1500  &o.  The  first  laws  of 
nsTigation  originated  with  the  Rhodians,  916  B.a  The  first  account  we  have  of  any 
considerable  voyage  is  that  of  the  Phcdnicians  sailing  round  Africa,  604  b.o. — BUur. 
On  the  destruction  of  Thebes  bv  Alexander  the  Qreat,  835  B.O.  its  oommeroe  passed  to 
Alexandria,  and  subsequently  the  Romans  became  the  chief  masters  of  commerce.  It 
passed  successively  from  the  Venetians,  Qenoese,  and  Hanse  Towns  to  the  Portuguese 
and  Spaniards;  and  from  these  to  the  English  and  Dutch. 


Logarithmic  taUas  applied  to  navigation 

by  Ountar  ....  x.d.  1620 
Middle  LiUtude  sailing  introduoed.  .  1623 
Mensurationof  a  degree,  Norwood   .    .1631 

Hadley'8  quadrant 1731 

Harriaon's  time-keeper  need              .    .1761 
Nautical  almanac  firat  published   .        .  1767 
Barlow's  theory  of  the  deviation  of  the 
compass 1820 

Bee  Oompau,  Latitude,  LonffUude,  Ac, 


Plane  charts  and  mariner's  compass 
used  about a-d.  1420 

Variation  of  the  compass  discovered  by 
Cdlum^us 1492 

That  the  obliaue  rhomb  lines  are  spirals, 
discovered  by  Nonius  ....  1587 

Pint  treatise  on  narigation  .    .  1545 

The  log  first  mentioned  by  Bourne        .  1577 

Morcator's  chart .       .....  151)9 

Davis's  quadrant,  or  baekstafl^  for  mea- 
suring angles,  about    ....  1600 

NAViaATION,  INLAND.    See  CanaU. 

NAVIGATION  LAWa  The  Uws  of  Oleron  were  decreed,  6  Rich.  1. 1194.  See  Olcrim, 
The  first  navigation  act  was  passed  in  1381.  Another  and  more  extensive  act  was 
passed  in  1541.  Act  relating  to  the  trade  of  the  colonies  passed  in  1646;  and  several 
acts  followed  relating  to  navigation.  The  act  regulating  the  navigation  of  the  river 
Thames  was  passed  in  1786.  Navigation  Aot^  for  the  encouragement  of  British  ships 
and  seamen,  passed  4  Will.  lY.  Aug.  1833;  and  in  the  reign  of  Victoria  numerous 
acts  were  passed,  in  the  whole  or  in  part  repealed  by  the  act ''  to  Amend  the  laws  in 
force  for  the  Encouragement  of  British  Shipping  and  Navigation,"  psased  12  &  13 
Vict  c.  29,  June  26,  1849.  This  last  act  came  into  operation  Jan.  1,  1850.  The 
Steam  Navigation  act  was  passed  14  &  15  Vict  c.  79,  Aug.  7j  1851,  and  came  into 
operation  Jan.  1, 1852. 

KAV7  or  ENGLAND.  The  first  fleet  of  galley^  like  those  of  the  Danes,  was  built  by 
Alfred  A.D.  897.  The  number  of  galleys  had  increased  under  Edgar  to  350,  about 
A.I}.  965.  A  formidable  fleet  was  equipped  by  the  public  contribution  of  every  town 
in  England,  in  the  reign  of  Ethelred  II.  1007  €iBeq,  when  it  rendezvoused  at  Sandwich, 
to  be  ready  to  oppose  the  Danes.  From  this  period  fleets  were  occasionally  furnished 
by  the  maritime  towns,  and  the  Cinque  ports,  and  were  usually  commanded  by  the 
king,  or  an  admiral  under  him :  such  was  the  fleet  of  Edward  III.  at  the  si^ge  of  Calais 
in  1347 ;  it  consisted  of  40  ships,  badly  equipped,  under  no  public  fixed  regulations. 
The  date  of  the  commencement  of  the  Royal  or  British  navy  may  therefore  be  placed 
4  Henry  VIII.  1512,  when  the  first  Navy-office  was  appointed,  with  commissioners  to 
manage  naval  aflEairs,  and  a  number  of  stout  ships  ox  war  began  to  be  permanently 
kept  on  foot  by  the  crown.  In  the  time  of  Heury  VIII.  the  navy  consisted  of  one 
ship  of  1200  tons,  two  of  800  tons,  and  six  or  seven  smaller;  the  largest  was  called 
the  OrtaJt  Harry,  Elizabeth's  fleet  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  in  1588,  con- 
sisted of  only  28  vessels,  none  larger  than  frigates.  James  L  added  10  ships  of  1400 
tons  each,  and  64  guns,  the  largest  then  ever  built — Camden,  In  the  reign  of  Charles 
IL  the  navy  consisted  of  9  first  rates  (equal  to  our  third),  14  second  rates,  and  39 
third  rates.    The  cost  was  200,0002. 

AOOOUNT  OF  THK  FBOaBEBSIVE  INCRBASB  OF  THE  ROTAL  VAVT  OF  ENGLAND,  FROM 
HENBT  YIIL'b  BEION  TO   THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  FRENCH  WAR,  1814. 


Tear. 

SMp*. 

Tou. 

Men  voted. 

Narf  eetimetce. 

Tear. 

Shlpc. 

Tons. 

McnTotttL 

Navy  eetimatco. 

1521 
1578 
1603 
1058 
1688 
1702 

16 

S4 

42 

157 

178 

272 

7,260 

10,606 

17.055 

57.000 

101,892 

159,020 

6,700 

8,.*}46 

21.910 

42.000 

40,000 

no  account, 
no  account 
no  accuuuL 
no  account, 
no  account. 
£1,056,916 

1760 
1793 
1800 
1806 
1814 

412 
498 
767 
869 
901 

321,184 
433.226 

6(58.744 
892,800 
006,000 

70.000 

45,000 

135.000 

143.800 

146,000 

£8,227.143 

5,525.831 

12,422.837 

17.490,047 

18,786,509 

NAV 


446 


NAV 


In  1814,  Great  Britain  had  901  ships,  of  which  177  were  of  the  line;  and  in  18S0,  she 
had  621  ships,  some  of  140  guuB  each,  and  down  to  surveying  vessels  of  two  guns  only. 
Of  these  148  sail  were  employed  on  foreign  and  home  service.  On  Jan.  1,  1841,  the 
total  number  of  ships  of  all  sizes  in  commission  was  183. 

8DIP3  TAKEN  OR  DBSTROTED  BT  THE  NATAL  AND  MARINE  FORCES  OF  GREAT  BRfTAlST 
IN  THE   FRENCH   REYOLUTIONART   WAR,  ENDING   1802. 


Force. 

Freneh. 

Dutch. 

Spaa'ih 

Otbcr  nations. 

TotaL 

Oftholine 

Fiftiea  .... 

Frigates    . 

Sloops,  Ac.  .        .    . 

Grand  Total  . 

45 
2 

133 
161 

S5 

1 
SI 

ss 

n 

0 
20 
65 

3 

0 

7 

16 

83 

S 

191 

364 

341 

89 

80 

25 

541 

NUMBER  OF  SHIPS  TAKEN  OB  DESTROYED  IN  THE  WAR  AGAINST  FRANCE,  ENDING  1814. 


Prenrh. 

'  Spanbh. 

Daniah. 

Roasiaa. 

American. 

T'iCaL 

Ofthelluo 

Fifties  .        ... 

Friflpates    . 

Sloops,  &c.  .        .    . 

Grand  Total  . 

ro 

7 

77 

188 

27 

0 

86 

64 

23 

1 

24 

16 

4 
0 
6 
7 

0 

1 

5 

13 

124 

9 

148 

283 

842 

127 

64 

17 

19 

569 

It  thus  appears  that,  in  two  wara,  extending  over  a  period  of  about  twenty-one  years, 
our  navy  took  or  destroyed  1110  ships  of  the  navies  of  our  enemies. 

KAYT,  ROYAL,  or  EN^GLAND,  in  1850,  consisted  of  839  ff^t7fii<7  and  161  ftann  twsMb/ 
in  April  1854,  of  815  tailing  veateU,  97  tcrew  tUamen,  and  114  paddfe  tteamen.  In 
addition  to  these,  there  were  steam-vessels,  employed  as  packets  under  contract^  and 
capable  of  being  made  available  for  warlike  purposes  in  case  of  emergency. 

BOTAL  NAVT  IN  APRIL,  1855. 


SAXLmO  VJCaSKLS. 

R"te.  Oun$. 

lat 110—120 

2nd 80—104 

8rd 70—78 

4th 50 

5th 30—44 

6th 12—28 

Sloops 2—18 

Brigs,  cutters,  schooners,  iic.    3 — 16 

Troops 4 — 10 

Battery  ships   .        .  14 

Mortar  vessels      ..... 
Tenders,  yachts,  &c.       .        .        . 


Shipt. 
.  0 
.  20 
.  17 
.  29 
.  38 
.  38 
.  53 
.  27 
.  6 
.  4 
.  18 
.  19 


Buir.DiNO,  60—120  guns 


282 
.  10 

292 


STXAXCRn. 

80—181  guns 19 

50-80      „ 12 

2—46      , 45 

Sloops,  5—17  guns 40 

Gtm  vessels,  1 — 8  guns      .        .        .        .51 

Oun  boat^    1—2    , 35 

Store  ships,  1—42 S3 

Tenders,  packets,  ^ 39 


BuiLDiKO.  variotts 


Sailing  TesscLs 
Steam  vessels 


TOTAL. 


56 

310 

S92 

SIO 

60S 


In  July,  1856.  the  royal  navy  consisted  of  271  sailing  vessels  carrying  9594  guns»  and  ViS 
steam  vessels  carrying  6582  gims ;  toother  578  vessels  carrying  16,176  guns  :  also  155  gOB- 
boats,  and  111  vessels  on  harbour  service. 

NAVY  OF  FRANCE.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  history  a  d.  728,  when,  like  that  of 
England  at  an  early  peHod,  it  consisted  of  galleys :  in  this  year  the  French  defeated 
the  Frison  fleet.  It  was  considerably  improved  under  Louis  XIY.  at  the  instance  of 
his  minister  Colbert,  about  1697.  The  French  navy  was,  perhaps,  in  iU  highest 
splendour  about  1781 ;  but  it  became  greatly  reduced  in  the  wars  with  England. 
(See  preeedivg  arttcU.)  In  1854  it  consisted  of  290  ships  (of  which  63  bore  from  120 
to  82  guns,  and  58  frigates,  bearing  from  60  to  40  guns)  and  407  steamers  of  varioos 
sizes':  in  all,  697  vessels. 

NAVY-OFPICB.  A  Navy-office  was  constituted  in  1512 ;  and  a  board  with  twelve  com- 
missioners, subordinate  to  the  Board  of  Admiralty,  was  established  1  Charles  1. 1625. 


NEC  447  NEP 

— Rymer*9  Foedtra,  The  Navy-office  was  organised  in  a  manner  somewhat  similar  to 
the  present  in  1644.  This  office  comprehends  a  varietj  of  officers.  Among  others'is 
the  treasurer  of  the  nayy,  secretary,  comptroller,  &c.    See  Admiraliy. 

NECTABINES.  The  AmygdalU  Penica  is  the  nectarine  tree.  It  originally  came  from 
Persia.  Previously  to  the  introduction  of  the  fruit  here,  in  1562,  presents  of 
nectarines  were  frequently  sent  to  the  court  of  England,  from  the  Netherlands ;  and 
Catherine,  queen  of  Henry  VIII.  distributed  them  as  a  rarity  among  her  friends. 
This  queen  gave  great  encouragement  to  the  oaltivation  of  fruits  in  this  country. 

NEEDLES.  They  make  a  considerable  article  of  commerce,  as  well  as  of  home  trade, 
in  England.  German  and  Hungarian  steel  is  of  most  repute  for  needles.  The  first 
that  were  made  in  England  were  fabricated  in  Cheapside,  London,  in  the  time  of  the 
sanguinary  Mary,  by  a  negro  from  Spain  ;  but,  as  he  would  not  impart  the  secret,  it 
was  lost  at  his  death,  and  not  recovered  again  till  1566,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth ; 
when  Elias  Growse,  a  German,  taught  the  art  to  the  English,  who  have  since  brought 
it  to  the  highest  degree  of  peifection. — Stow. 

NEGRO  TRAD&  See  Slavery.  This  species  of  commerce  in  human  beings  was  first 
undertaken  by  the  Spaniards  a.d.  1508;  and  by  the  English  in  1563;  and  to  the 
dishonour  of  our  country,  notwithstanding  the  progress  of  civilisation,  education,  and 
religion,  and  their  consequent  blessings  and  enlightenment,  this  traffic  continued  up 
to  the  commenoement  of  the  present  century,  1807.  By  a  judgment  in  our  courts,  in 
1772,  it  was  determined  that  negroes  who  were  purchased  abroad,  and  were  brought 
to  £bigland  by  their  masters,  were  free — ^free  the  moment  their  feet  touched  the 
British  soiL  This  judgment,  to  the  honour  of  Mr.  Granville  Sharpe,  was  obtained  by 
bis  carrying  on  the  suit  on  behalf  of  Somerset,  the  black. 

NELSON'S  FUNERAL.  The  illustrious  Nelson  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar, 
Oct  21, 1805,  and  the  Victory  man-of-war  arrived  off  Portsmouth  with  his  remains 
Dec.  4,  same  year.  The  body  lay  in  state  in  the  Painted  Hall,  at  Greenwich,  Jan.  5 ; 
on  the  8th  was  removed  to  the  Admiralty;  and  on  the  next  day  the  funeral  took 
place,  the  most  gprand  and  solemn  that  had  then  ever  taken  place  in  England.  The 
prince  of  Wales  (afterwards  George  IV.),  the  duke  of  Clarence  (afterwards  William 
IV.)  and  other  royal  dukes,  and  almost  all  the  peers  of  England,  and  the  lord  mayor 
and  corporation  of  London,  with  thousands  of  military  and  naval  officers  and 
distinguished  men,  followed  the  funeral  car  to  St  Paul's.  The  military  assembled  on 
this  occasion  amounted  to  near  10,000  regulars,  independent  of  volunteers.  The 
regulars  consisted  chiefly  of  the  regiments  that  had  fought  and  conquered  in  Egypt, 
and  participated  with  the  deceased  hero  in  delivering  that  country  from  the  power  of 
France,  Jan.  9, 1806. 

NEIMJSAN  GAMES.  So  called  from  Nemsea,  where  they  were  celebrated.  They  were 
originally  instituted  by  the  Argives  in  honour  of  Archemorus,  who  died  by  the  bite 
of  a  serpent,  and  Hercules  some  time  after  renewed  them.  They  were  one  of  the 
four  great  and  solenm  games  which  were  observed  in  Greece.  The  Argives,  Corin- 
thians, and  the  inhabitants  of  Cleonse,  generally  presided  by  turns  at  the  celebration, 
in  which  were  exhibited  foot  and  horse  races,  chariot  races,  boxing,  wrestling,  and 
contests  of  every  kind,  both  gynmastical  and  equestrian.  The  conqueror  was  rewarded 
with  a  crown  of  olives,  afterwards  of  green  parsley,  in  memory  of  the  adventure  of 
Archemorus,  whom  his  nurse  laid  down  on  a  sprig  of  that  plant  They  were  cele- 
brated eveiT  third,  or,  according  to  others,  every  fifth  year,  or  more  properly  on  the 
first  and  third  year  of  every  Olympiad,  1226  b.c. — Herodotus, 

NEPAUL.  The  East  India  Company's  war  with  the  state  of  Nepaul  commenced 
Nov.  1, 1814,  and  terminated  April  27,  1815.  A  treaty  of  peace  wss  signed  '^between 
the  parties,  Dec.  2,  1815.  War  renewed  by  an  infraction  of  the  treaty  by  the 
Nepaulese,  Jan.  1816;  and  after  several  contests  tmfavourable  to  the  Nepaulese 
the  former  treaty  was  ratified,  March  15,  1816.  An  extraordinary  embassy  from  the 
king  of  Nepaul  to  the  queen  of  Great  Britain  arrived  in  England,  landing  at  South- 
ampton, May  25,  1850 ;  it  consisted  of  the  Nepaulese  prince,  Jung  Bahadoor,  and  his 
suite,  to  whom  many  honours  were  paid.    It  departed  Aug.  20. 

KEPHALIA.  Feasts  or  sacrifices  of  sobriety,  used  among  the  Greeks,  in  which  they 
offered  mead  instead  of  wine :  the  Athenians  offered  these  sacrifices  to  the  sun  and 
moon,  to  the  nymphs,  to  Aurora,  and  to  Venus ;  and  burnt  all  sorts  of  wood  but 
those  of  the  vine,  fig-tree,  and  mulberry-tree,  because  they  were  esteemed  symbols 
of  drunkenness,  618  B.C. 


NEP  448  NEW 

NEPTUNE,  a  primaiy  planet,  first  obeerred  on  Sept.  28rd,  1846,  hj  Dr.  Qalle  at 
*  in  cousequance  of  the  oaloulations  of  M.  Le  Yerrier  and  Mr.  Adama,  who  had  dis- 
covered from  the  anomalous  movements  of  Uranus,  that  a  distant  planet  must  exist 
nearly  in  Uie  position  where  Neptune  is  situated. 

NESTORIANS.  A  sect  of  Christians,  the  followers  of  Nestorius,  some  time  bishop  of 
Constantinople,  who  is  represented  as  a  heretic  for  maintaining  that  though  the  Virgin 
Mary  was  the  mother  of  Jesus  Christ  as  man,  vet  she  was  not  the  mother  of 
Qod,  for  that  no  human  creature  oould  participate  that  to  another,  which  she  had  not 
herself ;  and  that  Gk>d  was  united  to  Christ  under  one  person,  but  remuned  aa 
distinct  in  nature  and  essence  as  though  he  had  never  been  united  at  alL  He 
was  opposed  by  Eutyches.  See  Satychiant,  Some  Christians  in  the  Levant  go 
under  tois  name ;  they  administer  the  sacrament  with  leavened  bread,  and  in  both 
kinds,  permit  their  priests  to  marry,  and  use  neither  confirmation  nor  auricular 
confession,  &o.     Nestorius  died  a.dI  439.— i>«  Pin, 

NETHERLANDS.  They  were  attached  to  the  Roman  Empire  under  the  name  of 
Belgia,  until  its  decline  in  the  fifth  century.  For  several  ages  this  country  formed 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Austrasia.  In  the  twelfth  century  it  was  governed  by  its  own 
counts  and  earU ;  and  afterwards  fell  to  the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  and  next  to  the 
house  of  Austria.  The  seventeen  provinces  were  united  into  one  state  in  1549.  For 
the  late  history  of  the  Netherlandsy  see  Belgium  and  ffoUand, 

NEUFCHATEL,  a  canton  in  Switzerland,  formerly  a  lordship,  afterwards  a  princtpoltty. 
The  first  known  lord  was  Ulric  de  Fenis  about  1032,  whose  descendants  ruled  till  1373, 
after  which  by  marriages  it  frequently  chaoged  governors.  On  the  death  of  the  last  of 
the  Longuevilles,  the  Duchess  de  Nemoun,  there  were  many  claimants ;  among  them, 
our  William  IIL  He  and  the  allies  however  gave  it  to  FV«deric  L  of  Prussia  with 
the  titie  of  Prince.  In  1806  the  principality  was  ceded  to  France,  and  Napoleon 
bestowed  it  on  his  general  Berthier,  who  enjoyed  till  1815,  when  it  fell  at  the  d&ipoaal 
of  the  allies.  They  restored  the  king  of  Prussia  the  titie  of  prince  with  certain  rights 
and  privileges;  but  constituted  it  a  part  of  the  Swiss  confederation.  In  1848  the 
inhabitants  repudiated  their  allegiance  to  Prussia,  and  proclaimed  Neufch4tel  a  free 
and  independent  member  of  the  Swiss  confederation.  The  king  of  Prussia  protested 
against  this :  and  in  1852  a  protocol  was  signed  between  England,  France,  and  Austria, 
recognising  his  claims.  In  Sept.  1856,  some  of  his  adherents  broke  out  into 
insurrection  against  the  republican  authorities,  who  however  quickly  subdued  and 
imprisoned  them  with  the  intention  of  bringing  them  to  trial.  War  was  threatened 
by  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  mat  energy  and  determination  manifested  by  the  Swiab 
On  the  intervention  of  the  English  and  French  governments,  after  many  delays^  a 
treaty  was  signed  on  June  11, 1857, by  which  the  kingof  Prussia  virtually  renounced 
his  claims  on  receiving  a  pecuniary  compensation.  He  retains  the  title  of  Prince  of 
Neufoh&tel  without  any  political  rights.  The  prisoners  of  Sept.  1856  were  relesaed 
without  triaL 

NEVILUS  CROSS,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  Scots  under  kins  David  Bruce,  and  the 
English  under  Philippe,  consort  of  Edward  III.  The  En^ish  army  waa  raised 
by  Philippe,  and  may  more  properly  be  said  to  have  been  commanded  by  lord 
Percy.  More  than  15,000  (some  accounts  say  20,000)  of  the  Scots  were  slain,  and 
their  king  taken  prisoner,  Oct.  17, 1346. 

^EYIS,  ISLAND  or.  An  English  colony,  first  planted  by  the  English  in  1628w  This 
island  was  taken  by  the  French,  Feb.  14, 1782,  but  was  restored  to  the  Bogliah  at  the 
general  peace  in  the  next  year.  The  capital  of  this  island  (one  of  the  Caribbees)  is 
Charleston.    See  Coloniei, 

NEWARK,  BATTLE  or.  In  which  the  royal  army  under  prince  Rupert  was  defeated 
by  the  army  of  the  parliament,  fou^t  March  21, 1644.  The  diurch  was  erected  by 
Henry  IV.  Here,  in  the  midst  of  troubles,  died  king  John ;  and  here  Charlea  L  after 
his  defeat  at  Naseby,  put  himself  into  the  hands  of  the  Scotch  army,  who  afterwards 
gave  him  up  to  his  enemiee.  Newark  was  first  incorporated  by  Edmird  VL  and  after- 
wards by  Charles  II. 

NEWBURT,  BATTLE  or.  Fought  with  desperate  ratour  on  both  sidea,  between  the 
army  of  Charles  I.  and  that  of  the  parliament,  under  Essex,  and  in  which,  though  the 
success  was  dubious,  it  terminated  with  circumstances  somewhat  fiavoimble  to  the 
cause  of  the  king.  This  battle  Listed  till  midnight;  and  among  the  slain  waa  Lndns 
Cary,  viscount  Falkland,  a  nobleman  deeply  regretted  by  eveiy  lover  of  ingenuity  and 


NEW  449  NEW 

Tirtue  throughout  the  kingdom,  Sept.  20, 1643.    A  aecond  battle,  of  equally  dubious 
result,  was  fought  between  the  royalists  and  parliamentarians,  Oct.  27, 1644. 

NEWCASTLE.  The  first  coal  port  in  the  world.  The  coal-mines  were  disooYered  here 
about  A.D.  1234.  The 'first  charter  which  was  granted  to  the  townsmen  for  digging 
coal  was  by  Henry  III.  in  1289;  but  in  1306  the  use  of  coal  for  fuel  was  prohibited 
in  London,  by  royal  proclamation,  chiefly  because  it  injured  the  sale  of  wood  for  fuel, 
great  quantities  of  which  were  then  growing  about  that  city ;  but  this  interdiction 
did  not  long  continue,  and  we  may  consider  coal  as  having  been  dug  and  exported 
from  this  place  for  more  than  500  years.  Cholera  broke  out  here  Aug.  31,  1858, 
between  which  time  and  Oct.  26, 1538  persons  died.  On  Oct.  6, 1854,  the  town  sufifered 
severely  by  fire  communicated  by  an  explosion  at  Qateehead,  which  tee. 

KEWCASTLETS,  DUKE  of,  ADMINISTRATION.  Of  this  celebrated  administration, 
Thomas  Holies  Pelham,  duke  of  Newcastle,  was  first  lord  of  the  treasury ;  hon.  Henry 
Bilson  Legge,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer ;  earl  of  Holdemesse  and  sir  Thomas  Robinson 
(afterwards  lord  Qrantham),  secretaries  of  state ;  the  latter  succeeded  by  the  right  hon. 
Henry  Fox,  afterwards  lord  Holland;  lord  Anson,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty;  lord 
Grenville,  lord  president ;  lord  Qower  (succeeded  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough),  lord 
privy  seal ;  duke  of  Qrafbon,  earl  of  Halifax,  rt  hon.  George  Qrenville,  &c.  Lord 
Hardwicke,  lord  chancellor.  April  1754.  Terminated,  Nov.  1756,  when  the  duke  of 
Devonshire  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 

NEWCASTLE'S,  DUKE  op,  and  MR  PITT'S  ADMINISTRATION.  Thomas  Holies 
Pelham,  duke  of  Newcastle,  first  lord  of  the  treasury ;  rt.  hon.  William  Pitt  (after- 
wards lord  Chatham),  secretary  of  state  for  the  northern  department,  and  leader  of 
the  house  of  commons ;  lord  Qrenville,  lord  president ;  earl  Temple,  privy  seal ; 
Mr.  Legge,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer ;  earl  of  Holdemesse,  secretary  of  state  for 
the  southern  department;  duke  of  Devonshire,  lord  chamberlain;  duke  of  Rutland, 
lord  steward;  lord  Anson,  admiralty;  duke  of  Marlborough  (succeeded  by  lord 
Ligonier),  ordnance;  rt.  hon.  Henry  Fox,  rt  hon.  George  Qrenville,  viscount 
Harrington,  lord  Halifax,  James  Qrenville,  Ac  Sir  Robert  Henley,  lord  keeper  of 
the  great  seal.    June  1757.    Terminated  by  lord  Bute  coming  into  power,  May  1762. 

NEW  CHURCH.    See  Swedenborgiatu. 

NEW  ENGLAND,  North  America.    See  England,  New. 

NEW  FOREST,  Haxfbhtrk.  This  great  and  celebrated  forest  was  made  ("afibrested  ") 
by  William  the  Conqueror,  a.d.  1085.  Many  populous  towns  and  villages,  and  indeed 
the  whole  country,  for  above  thirty  miles  in  compass,  were  laid  waste  to  make  this 
forest  in  Hampshire  for  the  king's  deer  and  other  game.  No  less  than  thirty-six 
churches  were  destroyed  on  this  occasion.  William  Rufus  was  killed  in  this  forest  by 
an  arrow,  shot  by  Walter  Tyrrel,  that  accidentally  glanced  against  a  tree,  the  site  of 
which  is  now  pointed  out  by  a  triangular  stone,  a.d.  1100.  The  New  Forest  Deer 
Removal  act  was  passed  14  &  15  Vict.  c.  76,  Aug.  7,  1851. 

NEWFOUNDLAND.  Discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot,  whe  called  it  Prima  Vista,  June  24, 
A.D.  1494.  It  was  formally  taken  possession  of  by  sir  Henry  Gilbert,  1583.  In  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  other  nations  had  the  advantage  of  the  English  in  the  fishery. 
There  were  100  fishing  vessels  from  Spain,  50  from  Portugal,  150  from  France,  and 
only  15,  but  of  larger  size,  from  England,  in  1577. — HMuyt.  But  the  English 
fishery  in  some  years  afterwards  had  increased  so  much  that  the  ports  of  Devonshire 
alone  employed  150  ships,  and  sold  their  fish  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy,  1625. 
Nearly  1000  English  families  reaide  here  all  the  year;  and  in  the  fishing  season, 
beginning. in  May  and  ending  in  September,  more  than  15,000  persons  resort  to 
Newfoundland,  which  may  be  esteemed  as  one  of  our  finest  nurseries  for  seamen. 
Newfoundland  has  recently  obtained  the  privilege  of  a  colonial  legislation.  A 
bishopric  was  established  here  in  1889.  Appalling  fire  at  St.  John's,  a  great  portion 
of  the  town  destroyed,  the  loss  estimated  at  1,000,0002.  sterling,  June  9,  1846.  * 

NEWGATE,  London.  This  prison  derives  its  name  from  the  gate  which  once  formed  a 
part  of  it,  and  stood  a  little  beyond  the  Sessions-house  in  the  Old  Bailey.  The  gate 
was  used  as  a  prison  for  persons  of  rank,  as  earlv  as  1218 ;  but  was  rebuilt  about  two 
centuries  afterwards  by  the  executors  of  sir  Richard  Whitting^ton,  whose  statue  with 
a  cat  stood  in  the  niche  till  the  time  of  its  demolition  by  the  great  fire  of  London, 

*  On  Jan.  14,  18r>7,  a  convention  was  concluded  between  the  English  and  French  sovemmenta, 
conflrminff  certain  French  privilegeB  of  fishery  in  exchange  for  othera.  The  English  oolonistfl  are  at 
present  dlaaatisfied  with  this  convention. 

G  a 


NEW  450  NEW 

in  1666.  It  was  then  reconstructed  in  its  late  form ;  but  the  old  prison  beiag  an 
accumulation  of  misery  and  inconvenience,  was  pulled  down  and  rebuUt  between  1778 
and  1780.  During  the  riots,  however,  in  the  latter  year,  the  whole  of  the  interior  was 
destroyed  by  fire,  but  shortly  afterwards  repaired  and  completed.  In  1857  the 
interior  was  pulled  down  to  be  re-erected  on  a  plem  adapted  to  the  reformatory  systezn. 

NEW  GRENADA.    See  Oi-enada, 

NEW  HOLLAND.  The  largest  known  land  that  does  not  bear  the  name  of  a  continent: 
See  A  uatrcUia,  In  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  north  and  west  ooaata 
were  traced  by  the  Dutch ;  and  what  was  deemed,  till  lately,  the  south  extremity, 
was  discovered  by  Tasman  in  1642.  Captain  Cook,  In  1770,  explored  the  east  and 
north-east  from  88*  south,  and  ascertained  its  separation  from  New  Guinea;  and,  in 
1773,  captain  Purneaux,  by  connecting  Tasman's  discoveries  with  Cook's,  completed 
the  circuit  But  the  supposed  south  extremity  which  Tasman  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  was  found  in  1798  to  be  an  island,  separated  from  New 
Holland  by  a  channel  forty  leagues  wide,  named  from  the  discoverer.  Bass's  Strail 
Different  parts  of  the  coast  have  been  called  by  the  names  of  the  discoverera,  ka 
The  eastern  coast,  called  New  South  Wales,  was  taken  possession  of  in  his  mnjeaty's 
name  by  captain  Cook.    See  New  S(mth  Walea. 

NEWMARKET,  England.  One  of  the  most  noted  grounds  for  horee-racing  in  the 
kingdom ;  perhaps  it  may  claim  to  be  the  most  celebrated,  as  well  as  one  of  the  oldest 
It  is  first  mentioned  in  1227 ;  and  probably  derived  its  name  from  the  market  then 
recently  established.  James  I.  erected  a  hunting-seat  here,  called  the  king's  houses 
in  which  Charles  II.  was  taken  as  a  prisoner  in  1647,  when  the  parliament  army  was 
quartered  in  the  neighbouring  village  of  Kennet  This  king,  who  was  fond  of  racing 
built  a  stand-house  here  for  the  ssJte  of  the  diversion,  about  1667,*  and  from  that 
period  races  have  been  annual  to  the  present  time ;  and  many  most  extraordinazy 
races  have  been  run.    See  Races  and  Race-Hones. 

NEW  ORLEANS,  Louisiana.    See  Orleans,  New, 

NEWPORT,  CHARTISTS'  ATTACK  upon.  The  chartists,  collected  from  the  mines 
and  collieries  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Newport  (Monmouthshire),  to  the  number  of 
10,000,  most  of  them  armed  with  guns,  arrived  at  Newport  on  Sunday  night,  Nov.  4, 
1839.  On  Monday  morning  they  divided  themselves  into  two  bodies,  one  of  which, 
under  the  command  of  Mr.  John  Frost,  an  ex-magistrate,  proceeded  down  the  principal 
street  of  Newport;  whilst  the  other,  headed  by  Mr.  Frost's  son,  took  the  direction  of 
Stowe-bill.  They  met  in  front  of  the  Westgate  hotel,  where  the  magistrates  were 
assembled  with  about  30  soldiers  of  the  45th  regiment,  and  several  special  oonstabies. 
The  rioters  commenced  breaking  the  windows  of  the  house,  and  fired  on  the  inmatea» 
by  which  the  mayor,  Mr.  Phillips,  and  several  other  persons  were  wounded.  The 
soldiers  now  made  a  sortie,  and  succeeded  in  dispersing  the  mob,  which  with  its 
leaders  fled  from  the  town,  leaving  about  twenty  rioters  dead,  and  many  others 
dangerously  wounded.  A  detachment  of  the  10th  royal  hussars  having  arrived  from 
Bristol,  the  town  became  tranquil.  Frost  was  apprehended  on  the  following  day, 
together  with  his  printer,  and  other  influential  persons  among  the  chartists.  Frost 
anl  several  others  were  tried  and  convicted  in  Jemuary  following,  and  sentenced  to 
death;  but  this  judgment  was  afterwards  commuted  to  transportation.  An  amnesty 
was  granted  them  in  May  3,  1856,  and  they  returned  to  England  in  Sept.  followiDg. 

NEW  RIVER,  London.  An  artificial  river  for  the  supply  of  London  with  water,  com- 
menced in  1609,  and  finished  in  1613,  when  the  projector,  Hugh  Middleton,  wis 
knighted  by  James  I. — Slrype.  This  river,  which  rises  in  Hertfordshire,  and  which, 
with  its  windings,  is  forty-two  miles  long,  was  brought  to  London  in  1614.  Sir  Hugh 
Middleton,  who  was  a  citizen  of  London,  died  very  poor,  having  been  ruined  by  this 
immense  undertaking.  So  little  was  the  benefit  of  it  understood,  that  for  above 
thirty  years  the  seventy'two  shares  into  which  it  was  divided,  netted  only  5/.  a-pieee. 
Each  of  these  shares  was  sold  originally  for  100/.  Within  the  last  few  yean  thtfj 
were  sold  at  90002.  a  share,  and  some  lately  at  10,0002. 

NEWRY,  Ireland.    Several  castles  were,  it  is  said,  erected  here  before  the  Conquest 

•  Durbig  the  races,  on  March  22, 1083,  Newmarket  was  noArly  dostroyed  by  an  accidental  fixv,  wbkh 
oocssioned  the  hasty  departure  of  the  company  then  assembled,  including  the  king,  the  queai.  the 
duko  of  Tork,  the  nnnl  attendants,  and  many  of  the  nobility;  and  to  this  disaster  histonans  havs 
ascribed  the  failure  of  the  Rye-Uouse  plot,  the  object  of  which  was  said  to  be  the  mumiamtiaa  of  the 
king  and  his  brother  on  the  road  from  Newmarket  to  London,  if  the  Mriod  of  their  ioumej  had  not 
been  thus  anticipated.    Qm  M^Hmm  PUd. 


NEW 


451 


NEW 


In  the  Rebellion  of  1641,  Newry  was  reduced  to  a  niinotu  condition;  it  waa  aurprised 
by  sir  Con.  Magenia,  but  waa  retaken  by  lord  Conway.  After  the  Restoration  the 
town  waa  rebuilt.  It  waa  burnt  by  the  duke  of  Berwick  when  flying  from  Schomberg 
and  the  English  army,  and  the  castle  and  a  few  housea  only  escaped,  1689. 

NEWS.  The  origin  of  this  word  has  been  varioualy  defined.  News  is  a  fresh  account 
of  anything.— -nSuin«y.  It  is  something  not  heard  before. — LEdrange.  News  ia  an 
account  of  the  transactions  of  the  present  times. — A  ddiaon.  The  word  "  news  **  many 
derive  from  the  adjective  m€W  (Gferman,  neitef).  In  former  times  (between  the  years 
1595  and  1730)  it  was  a  prevalent  practice  to  put  over  the  periodical  publications  of 
the  day  the  initial  letters  of  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass,  thus : — 

N 


E— 


-W 


S 

importing  that  these  papers  contained  intelligence  from  the  four  quarters  of  the 
globe ;  from  this  practice  some  consider  the  term  Newspaper  to  be  derived. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES.  See  Auttralia.  The  eastern  coast  of  New  Holland  was 
explored  and  taken  possession  of  by  captain  Cook  in  1770.  At  his  recommendation 
a  convict  colony  was  first  formed  here.  Capt.  A.  Phillip,  the  fint  governor,  arrived 
at  Botany  Bay  with  800  convicts,  Jan.  20,  1788 :  but  he  subsequently  preferred 
Sydney,  about  seven  miles  distant  from  the  head  of  Port  Jackson,  as  a  more  eligible 
situation  for  the  capital.  Sir  Wm.  T.  Denison  is  now  (1857)  governor-general  of 
Australia,  New  South  Wales  being  the  principal  colony.  A  new  constitution  was 
granted  in  1855  (18  k  19  Vict.  c.  54).    See  Sydnejf. 

NEWS-LETTERS.  The  news-writers  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IL  collected  from  the 
coffee-houses  information  which  was  printed  weekly  and  sent  into  the  country.  The 
London  QazetU,  then  the  only  authorised  newspaper,  contained  little  more  than 
proclamations  and  advertisements. 

NEWSPAPERS.  ENGLISH.  The  first  published  in  England,  which  might  truly  be 
considered  as  a  vehicle  of  oevbral  information,  was  established  by  sir  Rioger 
L' Estrange,  in  1663;  it  was  entitled  the  Public  Intelligencer,  and  continued  nearly 
three  years,  when  it  ceased  on  the  appearance  of  the  (kaette.  Some  copies  of  a  pub- 
lication are  in  existence  called  the  Englith  Mercurif*  professing  to  come  out  under 
the  authority  of  queen  Elizabeth,  in  1588.  the  period  of  the  Spanish  Armada.  The 
researches  of  Mr.  T.  Watts,  of  the  British  Museum,  have  proved  these  to  be  forKeries, 
executed  about  1766.  In  the  reign  of  James  I.  1622,  appeared  the  London  Weekly 
Cuwani;  and  in  the  year  1643  (the  period  of  the  civil  war)  were  printed  a  variety  of 
publications,  certainly  in  no  respect  entitled  to  the  name  of  newspapers,  of  which  the 
following  were  the  titles : — 


Sngland't  MemonMe  AecidentM. 

Tke  KingdonC*  Intdligeneer. 

The  Diumal  of  Certain  PoMoga  in  Parliament. 

Tke  Mereuriiu  Atdictu. 

TKe  Scotch  IntdlxQencer. 

Tk$  ParHameHts  SeoiU. 


The  Parliament*s  Seout't  Diteovtry,  or  Cntain 

Information. 
Th€  Mercwriua  (Xvlcttf  or  London**  IntdUgeneer, 
The  Country's  Complaint,  dec. 
The  Weddy  Account. 
Mereuriua  Britannievu. 


A  paper  called  the  London  Gazette  was  published  Aug.  22,  1642.  The  London  Chtette 
of  the  existing  series,  was  published  firut  at  Oxford,  the  court  being  there  on  account 
of  the  plague,  Nov.  7,  1665,  and  afterwards  at  London,  Feb.  5, 1666.  See  Gautte. 
The  printing  of  newspapers  and  pamphlets  was  prohibited,  31  Charles  I.  1680. — 
SalnunCa  Chron.  On  the  abolition  of  the  censorship  of  the  press  in  1695,  the  regular 
newspapers  commenced.    Newspapers  were  first  stamped  in  1713. 


BTATBXENT  OF  THX  NUMBEB  OF  STAlfFS  ISSUED  TO  BRITISH  NEWBPAPSBS,  TIZ.  : — 

In  1843  .    .  56.433,977 

In  1850  .  .  85,741,271 

[In  this  last  year  there 
were  also  issued  supplement 
stamps  at  id.  11,684,423.] 

*  The  full  title  is,  Na  50,  "  Tfte  BnglUh  Mercurii,  published  by  authoritie,  for  the  orevention  of  iUsa 
reports,  imprinted  by  Chjistopher  Barker,  her  hiffhness'a  printer.  No.  50."  It  describes  the  armament 
oallad  the  Sfianiah  Armada,  giving  **  A  joomaU  of  what  passed  sinoe  the  31st  of  this  month,  between 
her  Ifi^estie's  fleet  and  that  of  Bpayne^  transmitted  by  the  Lord  Highe  Admiral,  to  the  Lordes  of 
oouneU." 

OG  2 


In  1758  . 

.  7,411,757 

In  1820  . 

.  24,862,186 

In  1760   . 

.  .  9,404,790 

In  1825   . 

.  .  26,950.698 

In  1774  . 

.  18,800,000 

In  1830  . 

.  80,158,741 

In  1790   . 

.  .  14,036,639 

In  1885 

.  .  82.874.652 

In  1800  . 

.  16.U84.905 

In  1840  . 

.  49,033,384 

In  1810 

.  .  20,172,887 

NEW 


452 


NEW 


In  the  year  ending  Jan.  5,  1851,  there  were  159  London  newspapers,  in  which 
appeared  891,650  advertiaements ;  222  English  provincial  newspapers,  having  875,631 
advertisements.  In  Scotland,  same  year,  110  newspapers,  having  249,141  advertise- 
ments. In  Ireland,  102  newspapers,  having  286,128  advertisements.  The  number  of 
stamps  issued  was.  in  England,  65,741,271  at  one  penny,  and  11,684,428,  supplement 
stamps,  at  one  half-penoy;  in  Scotland,  7,648,045  stamps  at  one  penny,  and  241,264 
at  one  halfpenny;  in  Ireland,  6,302,728  stamps  at  one  penny,  and  48.358  at  one 
halfpenny.  The  reduction  of  newspaper  duty  took  effect  on  Sept  15,  1836,  when  it 
was  reduced  from  fourpence  to  one  penny.  On  1st  Jan.  1837,  the  distinctive  die 
came  into  use. 


KUMBBR   OF  BBGIBTEBBD  KEWBFAFER8  IN  THE  UNITED   KINGDOM  IN  1850,  VIZ. : 

London  newspapers,  daily      .        .       .12 
London  newspapers,  weekly  .    .      58 

English  provincial  newspapers  222 


Irish  newspapers 102 

Scotch  newspapors no 

British  Isles u 


There  were,  in  the  same  year,  as  many  as  160  London  publications,  newspaper  and 
other,  that  contained  advertisements.  See  AdvertiMemtnU,  By  the  act  passed  in 
1855  (18  &  19  Vict  c.  27),  the  stamp  on  newspapers,  as  such,  was  totally  aboli^ed, 
and  will  be  employed  henceforth  only  for  postal  purposes.  Many  new  papen  were 
then  started,  which  were  but  of  short  duration. 

ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  PRESENT  PRINCIPAL  LONDON   NEWBPAPEB8. 


PuUic  Ledger  . 
Morning  (^rcnieU 
Morning  Pott . 
Morning  BenUd . 

Qo9trver 
JBdC$  Meaamgtr 
WeeUjf  2H*pateh. 
Bxaminer 
lAlerary  OaadU  . 
JohnBvU 


.  1769 
.  1770 
.  1772 
.  1781 

.  1792 
.  1796 
.  1801 
.  1808 
.  1817 
.  1820 


DAILY. 

Sun     . 

Morning  AdvertiMr 

Olobc  . 


\7KEKliV 

BdC»  L\fe  in  London  .    . 
Sunday  THma. 

AOoi 

AtluMntun 

Spectalor     ,  ,    , 

JUuttrated  London  Newt, 


1788 
1792 
1803 
1803 


Standard    . 
Daily  Ifew 
Daily  Telegrapk . 
Morning  ttar . 


1820    Uoyd'e  Wttidy  Paper. 

1822    Ne*c»o/au  HForid    . 

1826    Beonomiit  . 

1828  I  Era .... 

1828  I  Leader 

1842  i  Preu 


1827 
1M« 
1855 
18M 

1849 
1843 

1643 
1848 
1850 
18S3 


NEWSPAPERS.  IRISH.  The  first  Insh  newspaper  was  PueU  Occurrence,  published  in 
1700  :  Faulkner' t  Journal  was  established  by  George  Faulkner.  '*  a  man  celebrated  for 
the  goodness  of  his  hearty  and  the  weakness  of  his  head,**  1728.  The  oldest  of  the 
existing  Dublin  newspapers  is  the  Freeman*t  Journal,  founded  by  the  patriot  Dr  Lucas, 
about  the  year  1755.  The  Limerick  Chronicle,  the  oldest  of  the  provincial  prints,  waa 
established  in  1768.  *-      "-^ 

NEWSPAPERS  OP  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.  A  French  writer  asserts  that  oup  newa. 
papers  owe  their  origin  to  one  of  theirs,  the  Journal  dee  Spatfans;  but  that  paper 
did  not  appear  until  1665.  M.  Renaudot  appears  to  have  been  the  first  authoPof 
newspapers  m  Fnince ;  he  had  an  exclusive  privilege  from  Louis  XIII.  to  publish 
them  m  1681.  The  first  newspaper  set  up  in  Germany  was  in  1715.  One  was  pob- 
VSoS^  ^  A""®"^  **^  Philadelphia,  in  1719;  and  the  first  appeared  in  Holland  m 
1782.  America,  whose  population  is  28  millions  and  a  half,  supports  800  news- 
5???i;  S^P  ^t  *^®  publishing  daily),  and  their  annual  circulation  is  stated  at 
64  000,000.  In  Ptais  there  exist'  169  journals,  literary,  scientific,  religioua.  and 
political"— fTMtoiifwter-Bmw,  1880.  -i       "6*  «»,  ■«* 

NEW  STYLE.  Ordered  to  be  used  in  England  in  1751 ;  and  the  next  year  eleven  daji 
were  left  out  of  the  calendar— the  3rd  of  September,  1752,  being  reckoned  as  the  14th 
—so  as  to  make  it  agree  with  the  Gregorian  Calendar,  which  aee;  see  also  article 
CaUndar,  In  a.d.  200,  there  was  no  difference  of  styles :  but  there  had  arisen  a 
difference  of  eleven  days  between  the  old  and  the  new  style,  the  latter  being  so  mudi 
beforehand  with  the  former :  so  that  when  a  person  using  the  old  style  dates  the  lat 
of  May,  those  who  employ  the  new  reckon  the  12th.  From  this  variation  in  the 
computation  of  time,  we  may  easily  account  for  the  difference  of  many  dates  eon- 
cemmg  historical  facts  and  biographical  notices. 

NEWTONBARRY  RIOT.  Ireland.  On  the  occasion  of  a  seizure  of  stock  for  tithes, 
at  this  town  in  Ireland,  a  lamentable  conflict  en«ued  between  the  yeomanry  and  the 
people,  and  thirty-five  persons,  men  and  women,  were  killed  or  wounded.  The 
coroners  inquest  which  sat  on  the  bodies  of  the  dead  was  discharged,  it  having  been 
unable  to  agree  upon  a  verdict,  June  18,  1831.  * 


NEW  453  NEW 

NEW-TEAR'S  DAY.  lU  iDstitution  aa  a  feast,  or  day  of  rejoiciog,  it  the  oldest  upon 
authentic  record  transmitted  down  to  our  times,  and  is  still  observed.  The  feast  waa 
instituted  by  Numa,  and  was  dedicated  to  Janus  (who  presided  over  the  new  year), 
Jan.  1,  713  B  c.  On  this  day,  the  Romans  sacrificed  to  Jauus  a  cake  of  new-tsifced 
meal,  with  salt,  incense,  and  wine ;  and  all  the  mechanics  began  something  of  their 
art  of  trade ;  the  men  of  letters  did  the  same,  as  to  books,  poems,  &c. ;  and  the 
consuls,  though  chosen  before,  took  the  chair  and  entered  upon  their  office  this  day. 
After  the  government  was  in  the  hands  of  the  emperors,  the  consuls  marched  on 
New-year*8  day  to  the  capitol,  attended  by  a  crowd,  all  in  new  clothes,  when  two 
white  bulls  never  yoked  were  sacrificed  to  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  The  1st  of  January 
is  more  observed  as  a  feast^y  in  Scotland  and  France  than  in  England. 

NEW-TEAR'S  OIFTa  Nonius  Marcellus  refers  the  origin  of  New-year^s  gifts  among 
the  Romans  to  Titus  Tatius,  king  of  the  Sabines,  who  having  considered  as  a  good 
omen  a  present  of  some  branches  cut  in  a  wood  consecrated  to  Strenia,  the  goddess 
of  strength,  which  he  received  on  the  first  day  of  the  new  year,  authorised  the 
custom  afterwards,  and  gave  these  gifts  the  name  of  Strenn,  747  B.o.  In  the  reign  of 
Augustus,  the  populace,  gentry,  and  senators  used  to  send  him  New-year's  gifts,  and 
if  he  waa  not  in  town,  they  carried  them  to  the  capitoL 

NEW  YORK.  Settled  by  the  Dutch,  a.d.  1614 ;  but  the  English,  under  colonel  Nichols, 
dispossessed  them  and  the  Swedes,  Aug.  27,  1664.  New  Tork  was  confirmed  to 
England  by  the  peace  of  Breda,  Aug.  24, 1667.  The  city  of  New  Tork  was  one  of  the 
principal  points  of  the  struggle  for  independence  among  the  states  of  America.  It 
surrendered  to  the  British  forces.  Sept  15,  1776,  from  which  time  until  the  arrival 
of  sir  Guy  Carleton  at  New  Tork,  May  5,  1782,  it  suffered  much  from  both  the 
provincial  and  British  armies  in  turn.  An  independent  constitution  was  established, 
April  20,  1777.  The  city  was  evacuated  by  the  British,  Nov.  25,  1783,  afterwards 
called  "  Evacuation-day,"  and  made  one  of  rejoicing  ever  since  on  the  anniversary. 
New  Tork  is  now  one  of  the  most  prosperous  and  flourishing  cities  in  the  world,^  and 
is  acquiring  more  importance  every  year.  Among  numerous  other  public  institutions, 
an  academy  of  the  fine  arts,  and  a  botanical  garden,  wero  established  in  1804.  Awful 
fire  here,  Dea  16,  1835.  See  next  article.  The  Park  Theatre  destroyed  by  fire, 
Dec.  16,  1848.  Serious  riot  (several  lives  lost)  at  the  theatre,  originating  in  a  dispute 
between  Mr.  Macready  (English)  and  Mr.  Forrest  (American)  actors,  May  10,  1849. 
The  Crystal  Palace,  containing  an  exhibition  of  goods  from  all  nations,  was  opened 
July  14,  1853,  in  the  presence  of  the  President  of  the  United  States  and  many  other 
dignitaries.    For  various  annals,  see  United  States, 

NEW  TORK,  GREAT  FIRE  of.  One  of  the  most  destructive  fires  that  have  raged  in 
any  part  of  the  world  for  the  last  hundred  years.  It  occurred  Dec  16, 1835.  The 
number  of  buildings  destroyed,  as  stated  in  an  official  report,  waa  674,  among  which 
were  several  public  edifices,  and  ranges  of  capacious  and  valuable  stores  and  ware- 
houses; about  1000  mercantile  firms  were  dislodged.  The  property  destroyed  was 
valued  at  nearly  20,000,000  of  dollars.  The  fire  burned  over  an  area  of  52  acres, 
comprising  a  densely^built  and  exclusively  mercantile  portion  of  the  city.  Active 
measures  were  adopted  by  congress,  the  banks,  snd  the  merchants,  to  alleviate  the 
effects  of  the  calamity ;  and  during  the  spring  and  summer  of  1836,  the  ground  was 
again  nearly  covered  by  new  and  handsome  erections. 

NEW  ZEALAND,  iw  the  Pacific.  Discovered  by  Tasman  in  1642.  He  traversed  the 
eastern  coast,  and  entered  a  strait,  where,  being  attacked  by  the  natives  soon  after  he 
came  to  anchor,  he  did  not  go  ashore.  From  the  time  of  Tasman,  the  whole  country, 
except  that  part  of  the  coast  which  waa  seen  by  him,  remained  altogether  unknown, 
and  waa  by  many  supposed  to  make  part  of  a  southern  continent,  till  1769-1770,  when 
it  was  circumnavigated  by  captain  Cook.  Captain  Cook,  in  1.773,  planted  several 
spots  of  ground  on  this  island  with  European  garden-seeds;  and  in  1777  he  found 
some  fine  potatoes,  greatly  improved  by  change  of  soil.  New  Zealand  now  has  become 
an  important  colony.  The  right  of  Great  Britain  to  New  Zealand  waa  recognised  at 
the  general  peace  in  1814,  but  no  constituted  authority  was  placed  over  it  until  1838, 
when  a  resident  subordinate  to  the  government  of  New  South  Wales  was  sent  out 
with  limited  powers;  but  it  was  separated  in  April  1841.  A  charter,  founded  upon 
an  act  passed  in  1846,  creating  powers  municipal,  legislative,  and  administrative  there, 
Dec.  29, 1847.  This  charter  waa  not  acted  on,  and  a  legislative  council  waa  opened 
by  the  governor,  sir  George  Grey,  Dec.  20, 1848.  Banks  and  other  public  institutions 
have  also  been  established.    See  Auitraliaf  dec,    A  new  constitution  waa  granted  to 


NEY  454  NIC 

New  Zealand,  June  80, 1852  (16  &  17  Vict  c.  72).  New  Zealand  was  made  a  biabop'i 
see  in  1841,  and  in  1852  it  was  subdivided  to  form  another  called  Christchuich. 
There  was  an  earthquake  here  on  Jan.  23,  1855  :  it  did  not  cause  much  dsmage. 

NET,  MARSHAL,  his  EXECUTION.  Ney  was  the  duke  of  Elehingen,  and  princsof 
the  Moakwa,  and  one  of  the  most  valiant  and  skilful  of  the  marshals  of  France.  After 
the  abdication  of  Napoleon,  5th  April,  1814,  he  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
king,  Louis  XVIIL  On  Napoleon's  return  to  France  from  Elba,  he  mwrched  against 
him ;  but  his  troops  deserting,  he  regarded  the  cause  of  the  Bourbons  as  loat,  and 
opened  the  invader's  way  to  Paris,  March  18,  1815.  Ney  led  the  attack  of  the 
French  at  Waterloo,  where  he  fought  in  the  midst  of  the  slain,  his  clothes  filled  with 
bullet-holes,  and  five  horses  having  been  shot  under  him,  until  nij^ht  and  defeat 
obliged  him  to  flee.  But  though  be  was  included  in  the  decree  of  July  24, 1815, 
which  guaranteed  the  safety  of  all  Frenchmen,  he  was  afterwards  sought  out,  tod 
taken  in  the  castle  of  a  friend  at  Urillac,  whore  he  lay  concealed,  and  brought  to 
trial  before  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  The  12th  article  of  the  capitulation  of  Fuii, 
fixing  a  general  amnesty,  was  quoted  in  his  favour,  yet  he  was  sentenced  to  death, 
and  met  his  fate  with  the  fortitude  of  a  hero,  Aug.  16,  1815. 

NIAGARA,  Amkrica.  At  the  head  of  this  river,  on  its  western  shore,  is  Fort  Erie. 
This  fort  was  abandoned  by  the  British  in  the  war  with  the  United  States,  May  27, 
1818,  but  was  retaken  Dec.  19  following.  Below  Fort  Erie,  about  eighteen  miles,  are 
the  remarkable  falls,  which  are  reckoned  among  the  greatest  natural  curiositiee  in  the 
world.  The  river  is  here  740  yards  wide.  The  half-mile  immediately  above  the 
cataracts  is  a  rapid,  in  which  the  water  falls  58  feet ;  it  is  then  thrown,  with  astoaieh- 
ing  grandeur,  down  a  stupendous  precipice  of  150  feet  perpendicular,  in  three  disdaet 
and  collaferal  sheets ;  and  in  a  rapid  that  extends  to  the  distance  of  nine  miles  below, 
falls  nearly  as  much  more.  The  river  then  flows  in  a  deep  channel  till  it  enten  Like 
Ontario,  at  Fort  Niagara.  A  suspension  bridge  of  a  single  span  of  800  feet  over  the 
Niagara  connects  the  railways  of  Canada  and  New  York.  The  estimated  weight  ii 
1,669,722  lbs.,  which  is  suspended  by  cables  of  iron  wire.  The  bridge  is  elented 
18  feet  on  the  Canadian,  and  28  on  the  American  side. 

NICARAQUA,  a  state  in  Central  America,  which  tee.  At  the  commencement  of  1855  it 
was  greatly  disturbed  by  two  political  parties :  that  of  the  president  Chamorro,  who 
held  Grenada,  the  capital,  and  that  of  the  democratic  chief  Castellon,  who  held  Leoo. 
The  latter  invited  Walker  the  filibuster  to  his  aasi^tance,  who  in  a  short  time  becime 
sole  dictator  of  the  state.*  By  the  united  efforts  of  the  confederated  ststes  the 
filibusters  were  all  expelled  in  May  1857. 

NICENE  CREED.  A  summary  of  the  Christian  faith,  composed  at  Nice  by  the  first 
general  council  held  there  in  the  palace  of  Constantino  the  Qreat.  In  this  celebrated 
council,  which  assembled  a.d.  325,  the  Arians  were  condemned.  It  was  attended  by 
818  bishopa  from  divers  parts,  who  settled  both  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  the 
time  for  observing  Easter.  The  creed  was  altered  a.d.  381,  and  oonfirmed  481,  when 
it  was  decreed  unlawful  to  make  further  additions. 

NICOLAITANES.  This  sect  (mentioned  Jiev.  iL  6,  16)  is  said  to  havs  sprung  from 
Nicolas,  one  of  the  first  seven  deacons.  Nicolas  is  said  to  have  made  a  vow  of 
continence,  and  in  order  to  convince  his  followers  of  his  resolve  to  keep  it,  he  gave 
his  wife  (who  was  remarkable  for  her  beauty)  leave  to  marry  any  other  man  aha 
desired.    Owing  to  this  rash  zeal,  his  followers  afterwards  maintained  the  legality  oi 

*  WilUam  Walker  was  bom  at  Tenessee,  !n  the  United  States,  where  he  became  ewxemrfHj  doeto. 
jawyer,  and  Journalist,  and  aOerwarde  gold-eeeker  in  California,  whence  he  woe  Inritcd  to  Nksiirip* 
by  Castellon,  with  the  promise  of  62,000  acres  of  land,  on  condition  of  biinginff  with  him  s  Una  of 
Mveuturer^  to  sustain  the  revolutionarv  cause.  Walker  accepted  the  terms,  and  on  June  88  UndM  » 
Realejo  with  68  men.  He  increased  his  forces  at  Leon,  and  soon  after  attacked  the  town  of  tt<*^ 
whsre  he  was  repulsed  with  loss.  He  then  Joined  col.  Kinney,  who  had  occupied  and  goTeroed  GiTj 
Town,  Sept.  6.  On  Oct.  18,  Walker  captured  Grenada  by  surprise  when  in  a  defenceless  rtsfcc  ibot 
aiayorga,  one  of  the  ministers,  and  established  a  rule  of  terror.  By  interrention  of  the  AmakMn 
consul  he  made  peace  with  the  general  of  the  state  army,  Corral,  but  shot  him  on  Not.  7,  on  fii*<ling 
nf^.^l^^^^'u'^^  r^^  fugitives  at  Costa  Rica.  Walker  at  fint  was  only  general-in  chi«4  bet  oj 
fJZ^ ^»?"  °  *^  made  president,  desertinij  him,  he  became  sole  dlctato".  On  May  14,  ISSjWj 
S?.«Z  JS!}.!^*t"^f**!f**  ^Z  "*®  President  of  the  United  8tates,  whence  also  he  obtained  r«tafcw^ 
2S!S!f  of  PiJff^i"  r*®"***^"  *>'  Po^r-  Costa  Rica  declared  war  kgainat  him  Feb.  28.  18« ;  the  other 
lJt^i«^?  i^wff  ?S?  S^S.  f°ll«>'^«?  the  example,  and  a  sanjulnaiy  struggle  ensued.  Issting*^ 
mS;  Thi-l5J2^:l^^*^^''******"y  *>"™*  Grenada,  and  removed  the  iSst  of  goreroment  W 
Sis  Ji^.r^R*'*  ff  "^^i^^^  *^  ^°-  M°«  o«*  May  1, 1867.  on  the  intervention  of  »|»t.  Dsji^  of 
t?-ir4K  ^^  ^•°"  Himself,  his  staff,  and  260  men,  were  conveyed  in  that  vessel  toNewOrtosoi, 
where  they  were  received  with  great  enthusiasm.  "ouYcycu  u  wui*  yww»  w 


NIC  455  NIN 

a  community  of  wives,  as  well  as  holding  all  other  things  in  common,  and  aro  accused 
of  denying  the  divinity  of  ChriBt. 

NICOPOLIS,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  allied  Christian  powers  under  Sigismund, 
king  of  Hungary,  afterwards  emperor,  and  the  Turks,  and  celebrated  as  being  the 
first  battle  between  the  Turks  and  Christians;  the  latter  were  defeated,  losing 
twenty  thousand  in  slain,  and  as  many  wounded  and  prisoners :  a.d.  1396. 

NIGER,  EXPEDITION  of,  1841.  Undertaken  with  a  view  to  plant  an  English  colony 
in  the  centre  of  Africa,  and  supported  by  a  government  grant  of  60,000?,  started  in 
the  summer  of  1841,  and  commenced  the  accent  of  the  river,  Aug.  20,  in  that  year. 
The  expedition  consisted  of  the  Alba-t,  Wilberforee,  and  Soudan,  Fever  broke  out 
among  the  crews,  Sept.  2,  when  these  vessels  had  arrived  at  Iddah.  The  confluence 
of  the  Niger  and  the  Chadda  (270  miles  from  the  sea)  was  reached  Sept.  11.  The 
Soudan  then  returned  with  the  sick ;  the  Wilberforce  ascended  the  Chadda,  and  the 
Albert  the  Niger.  But  the  Wilberforce  was  almost  immediately  compelled  to  return, 
and  follow  the  track  of  the  Soudan,  The  Albert  arrived  at  Egga,  on  the  Niger  (320 
mil^B  from  the  sea),  Sept.  28;  but  so  disastrous  had  been  the  progress  of  disease,  that 
orders  were  now  given  for  the  third  vessel  to  return,  which  she  did,  after  the  neces- 
sary delay  for  procuring  firewood,  on  Oct  4.  This  last  vessel  cast  anchor  in  Clarence 
cove,  Fernando  Po,  Oct.  17,  all  same  year.    See  Africck, 

NIGHTINGALE  FUND.  On  Oct.  21,  1854,  Miss  Florence  Nightmgale  left  England 
with  a  staff  of  37  nurses,  and  arrived  at  Scutari  Nov.  5.  Their  services  to  the  army 
were  invaluable.  To  recognise  these  merits  a  meeting  was  held  at  Willis's  Rooms, 
on  Nov.  29,  1855,  to  raise  funds  to  establish  an  institution  for  the  training  of  nurses 
and  other  hospital  attendants.  Madame  Jenny  Lind  Qoldschmidt  sang  at  Exeter 
Hall  on  March  11,  1856,  and  gave  the  proceeds  (1872/.)  to  the  fund.  The  sub- 
scriptions closed  April  24,  1857.  Miss  Nightingale  returned  to  London  Sept.  8, 
1856.    The  Queen  gave  her  a  valuable  jewel. 

NILE,  BATTLE  of  the.  One  of  the  most  glorious  in  British  naval  history,  between 
the  Toulon  and  British  fleets,  the  latter  commanded  by  lord  (then  sir  Horatio) 
Nelson.  This  engagement  took  place  near  Rosetta,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile ;  nine 
of  the  French  line-of-battl&«hips  were  taken,  two  were  burnt,  and  two  escaped, 
Aug.  1,  1798.  The  French  ship  L'Orient,  with  Admiral  Brueys  and  1000  men  on 
botfd,  blew  up,  and  only  70  or  80  escaped.  This  is  sometimes  called  the  battle  of 
Aboiikir ;  it  obtained  the  conqueror  a  peerage,  by  the  title  of  Baron  Nelson  of  the 
Nile.  His  exclamation  upon  commencing  the  battle  was,  "  Victory  or  West- 
minster-abbey !  '* 

KILE,  SOURCE  of  the.  This  great  river  rises  in  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon,  in 
about  ten  degrees  of  N.  lat.  and  in  a  known  course  of  1250  miles  receives  no  tributary 
streams.  The  travels  of  Bruce  were  undertaken  to  discover  the  source  of  the  Nile ; 
he  set  out  from  England  in  June,  1768 ;  on  the  14th  of  Nov.  1770  he  obtained  the 
great  object  of  his  wishes,  and  returned  home  in  1773.  This  river  ovex^ows  regularly 
every  year,  from  the  15th  of  June  to  the  17th  of  September,  when  it  begins  to 
decrease,  having  given  fertility  to  the  land ;  and  it  must  rise  16  cubits  to  insure  that 
fertility.  In  1829,  the  inundation  of  the  Nile  rose  to  26  instead  of  22,  by  which 
30,000  people  were  drowned,  and  immense  property  lost. 

NIMEQUEN,  TREATY  of.  This  was  the  celebrated  treaty  of  peace  between  France 
and  the  United  Provinces,  1678.  Nimeguen  is  distinguished  in  history  for  other 
treaties  of  peace.  The  French  were  successful  against  the  British  under  the  duke  ot 
York,  before  Nimeguen,  Oct.  28,  1794 ;  but  were  defeated  by  the  British,  with  the 
loss  of  500  killed,  Nov.  8,  following. 

NINEVEH.  The  capital  of  the  Assyrian  Empire  (see  At8}fria\  founded  by  Ashur,  who 
called  it  after  himself,  about  2245  B.C.  Ninus  reigned  in  Assyria,  and  called  this  city 
also  after  himself,  Nineveh,  2069  B.C. — Ahbi  Lenglet.  The  recent  discoveiies  of 
Mr.  Layard  and  others  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mosul,  the  supposed  site  of  this 
ancient  capital,  have  in  a  manner  disinterred  and  repeopled  a  city  which  for  centuries 
had  not  only  ceased  to  figure  on  the  page  of  history,  but  whose  very  locality  had  long 
been  blotted  out  from  Uie  map  of  the  earth.  The  forms,  features,  costume,  religion, 
modes  of  warfare,  and  ceremonial  customs  of  its  inhabitants,  stand  before  us  distinct 
as  those  of  a  living  people ;  and  it  is  anticipated  that,  by  help  of  the  sculptures 
and  their  cuneiform  inscriptions,  the  researches  of  the  learned  may  go  far  in  filling  up 
the  vast  blank  in  Assyrian  annals.    Among  the  sculptures  that  enrich  the  British 


NIS  456  KOO 

Miueum  may  be  mentioned  the  winged  bull  and  lion,  and  numerooa  hunting  and 
battle-pieces ;  but  perhaps  the  most  interesting  as  confirmatory  of  the  truth  of  Holy 
Scripture,  is  the  bas-relief  of  the  eagle-headed  human  figure,  presumed  to  be  a  repre* 
sentation  of  the  Assyrian  god  NLsroch  (from  Niar,  an  eagle  or  ha%Dk),  whom  Senna- 
cherib was  in  the  act  of  worshipping  when  he  was  assassinated  by  his  two  sons,  about 
710  B.C.  2  Kings,  xiz.  37.  In  1858  Mr.  Layard  published  on  account  of  his  second 
visit  in  1849-50. 

KISBET,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  English  and  Scotch  armies,  the  latter  greatly  dia- 
proportioned  in  strength  to  the  former,  yet  fought  by  them  with  surpassing  bravery. 
Several  thousand  of  the  Scots  were  slain  upon  the  field  (the  number  is  stated  at 
10,000)  and  in  the  pursuit,  May  7,  1402. 

NITRIC  ACID.  Formerly  called  aqua  foriis,  first  obtained  in  a  separate  state  by  Ray- 
mond Lully,  an  alchemist,  about  a.d.  1287;  but  we  are  indebted  to  Cavendish, 
Priestley,  and  Lavoisier,  for  our  present  knowledge  of  its  properties.  Mr.  Cavendish 
demonstrated  the  nature  of  this  add  in  1785.  Nitrous  acid,  nearly  similar  to  nitric, 
was  discovered  by  Scheele  in  1771.  Nitrous  gas  was  accidentally  discovered  by  Dr. 
Hales.    Nitrous  oxide  gas  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Priestley,  in  1776. 

NOBILITY.  The  origin  of  nobility  is  referred  to  the  Goths,  who,  after  they  had  seized 
a  part  of  Europe,  rewarded  their  heroes  with  titles  of  honour,  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  common  people.  The  right  of  peerage  seems  to  have  been  at  first  terri- 
toriaL  Patents  to  persons  having  no  estate  were  first  granted  by  Philip  the  Pair  of 
France,  A.D.  1095.  (^eoi^ge  Neville,  duke  of  Bedford  (son  of  John,  marqueaa  of 
Montague),  ennobled  in  1470,  was  degraded  from  the  peerage  by  parliament^  on 
account  of  his  utter  want  of  property,  19  Edw.  IV.  1478.  Noblemen's  privil^es  were 
restrained  in  June  1773.    See  Peerage  and  the  various  orders  of  nobility. 

NOBILITY  or  FRANCE.  The  French  nobility  preceded  that  of  England,  and  continued 
through  a  long  line,  and  various  races  of  kings,  until  the  period  of  the  memorable 
Revolution.  The  National  Assembly  decreed  that  hereditary  nobility  could  not  exist 
in  a  free  state ;  that  the  titles  of  dukes,  counts,  marquesses,  knights,  barons,  excel- 
lencies, abbots,  and  others,  be  abolished ;  that  all  citizens  take  their  family  names ; 
liveries,  and  armorial  bearings,  shall  also  be  abolished,  June  18,  1790.  The  records 
of  the  nobility,  600  volumes,  were  burned  at  the  foot  of  the  statue  of  Louis  XIY. 
June  25, 1792.  A  new  nobility  was  created  by  the  emperor  Napoleon,  1808.  The 
hereditairy  peerage  was  abolished  in  that  country,  Dea  27,  1881.    See  /Vxmoe. 

NOBLK  An  ancient  English  coin,  which  was  first  struck  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IIL 
about  13S7.  This  coin  was  stamped  with  a  rose,  and  it  was  thence  called  a  rose 
noble ;  its  value  as  money  of  account  was  6«.  8cf. — Camden,  It  is  supposed  to  have 
been  worth  Qs.  %d.  of  our  now  current  money. — Pardon. 

"NOLUMUS  LEGES  ANGLIJS  MUTARI."  An  attempt  was  made  to  introduce  the 
canon  law,  and  thus  to  legitimatise  children  bom  before  wedlock,  to  the  barons 
assembled  in  the  parliament  at  Met  ton,  by  whom  it  was  rejected,  accompanying 
their  dissent  by  the  memorable  declaration — "  Nolumui  Ugfa  Anglia  mutari," — 
"  The  laws  of  England  we  will  not  to  be  changed,"  a.d.  1236.    See  Merlon. 

NON-CONFORMISTS.*  The  Protestants  in  England  are  divided  into  oonformisU  and 
non-conformists;  or,  as  they  are  commonly  denominated,  churchmen  and  dissentera. 
The  former  are  those  who  conform  to  that  mode  of  worship  and  form  of  church- 
government  which  are  established  and  supported  by  the  state ;  the  latter  are  those 
who  meet  for  divine  worship  in  places  of  their  own.  The  first  place  of  meeting  of 
the  latter,  in  England,  was  established  at  Wandsworth,  near  London,  Nov.  20,  1572. 
The  name  of  non-conformists  was  taken  by  the  Puritans,  after  the  Act  of  Uniformity 
had  passed  Aug.  24,  a.d.  1662,  when  2000  ministers  of  the  established  religion 
resigned,  not  choosing  to  conform  to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles. 

NONES,  in  the  Roman  Calendar,  were  the  fifth  day  of  each  month,  excepting  March, 
May,  July  emd  October,  when  the  nones  fell  on  the  seventh  day. 

NON-JURORS.  Persons  who  supposed  that  our  James  II.  was  unjustly  deposed,  and 
who,  upon  that  account,  refused  to  swear  allegiance  to  the  family  which  succeeded 
him.  Among  this  class  of  persons  were  several  of  the  bishops,  who  were  deprived  in 
1690.  Non-jurors  were  subjected  to  a  double  taxation,  and  were  obliged  to  register 
their  esUtes,  May  1723. 

NOOTKA  SOUND.    Discovered  by  captain  Cook  in  1778.    It  was  setUed  by  the  British 


NOR  457  NOU 

in  1786,  when  a  fow  Britiah  merchanta  in  the  East  Indies  formed  a  settlement  to 
supply  the  Chinese  market  ¥rith  furs;  bat  the  Spaniards,  in  1789,  captured  two 
Euglibh  vessels,  and  took  possession  of  the  settlement.  The  British  ministry  made 
their  demand  of  reparation,  and  the  affair  was  amicably  terminated  by  a  convention, 
and  a  free  commerce  was  confirmed  to  England  in  1790. 

NORFOLK  ISLAND.  A  penal  colony  of  England.  It  was  discovered  in  1774,  by 
captain  Cook,.who  found  it  uninhabited,  except  by  birds.  The  settlement  was  made 
by  a  detachment  from  Port  Jackson  under  governor  Phillip,  in  1788,  in  Sydney  bay, 
on  the  south  side  of  the  island.  This  was  at  one  time  the  severest  penal  colony  of 
Great  Britain.  The  island  was  abandoued  in  1809;  but  re-occupied  as  a  penal 
settlement  in  1825.  The  descendants  of  the  mutineers  of  the  Bounty  were  removed 
to  it  in  June  1856.    See  PitcainCa  Uland, 

NORMANDY.  Anciently  Neustria.  From  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century  this 
country  was  continually  devastated  by  the  Scandinavians,  called  Northmen  or  Nor- 
mans, to  purchase  repose  from  whose  irruptions  Charles  the  Simple  of  France  ceded 
the  duchy  to  their  leader  Rollo,  a.d.  905  to  912,  and  from  its  conquerors  it  received 
its  present  name.  Rollo  was  the  first  duke,  and  hold  it  as  a  fief  of  the  crown  of 
France,  and  several  of  his  successors  after  him,  until  William,  the  seventh  duke, 
conquered  England,  in  1066.  from  which  time  it  became  a  province  of  England,  till  it 
was  lost  in  the  reig^  of  king  John,  1204,  and  re-united  to  the  crown  of  France.  The 
English,  however,  still  keep  possession  of  the  islands  on  the  coast,  of  which  Jersey 
and  Guernsey  are  the  principal. 

NORTH,  LORD,  his  ADMINISTRATION.  During  this  administration  Great  Britain 
lost  her  American  possessions.  Frederick,  lord  North,  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer ;  earl  Gower,  lord  president ;  earl  of  Halifax,  privy  seal ; 
lord  Rochford,  lord  Weymouth  (succeeded  by  lord  Sandwich),  and  lord  Hillsborough 
(colonies),  secretaries  of  state ;  sir  Edward  Hawke,  admiralty ;  marquess  of  Gi-auby, 
ordnance ;  sir  Gilbert  Elliot,  lord  Hertford,  duke  of  Aucaster,  lord  Carteret,  &c. 
Lord  North  came  into  power  Jan.  1770,  and  his  administration  endured  until  March 
30, 1782.  After  his  dismission  from  office,  lord  North  entered  into  a  league  with  the 
Whigs,  which  led  to  the  famous  Coalition  ministry,  which  lasted  only  a  few  months, 
after  which  he  held  no  responsible  station  in  the  state.  He  succeeded  to  the  earldom 
of  Guildford,  two  years  before  his  death,  which  took  place  in  1792.  See  *'  O.'oliiion** 
A  dminigtra  turn, 

NORTH  BRITON  NEWSPAPER.  The  celebrated  paper,  Number  45  (Wilkes  s  number), 
dated  Saturday,  April  23,  1763,  was  publicly  burnt  in  London,  by  order  of  both 
houses  of  parliament,  and  by  the  bauds  of  the  common  hangman,  Dec.  8,  1763. — 
AnnueU  Register,  Wilkes  by  his  newspaper,  The  North  Briton,  rendered  an  antipathy 
to  Scotland  very  prevalent  in  England. — Belicfiambers.  The  copy  of  it  bearing  the 
number  45  contained  a  commentary  on  the  king's  speech,  couched  in  such  caustic 
terms,  that  a  prosecution  was  commenced  against  him.  Having  been  arrested  on  a 
general  warrant,  he  was  brought,  by  a  writ  of  habeaa  corpus,  before  chief-justice  Pratt, 
of  the  common  pleas,  who  declared  the  judgment  of  that  court,  that  general  warrants 
were  illegal,  and  Wilkes  was  consequently  discharged.  But  not  content  with  this 
escape,  he  reprinted  the  obnoxious  number,  which  produced  a  regular  prosecution  to 
conviction.    See  Warrantt,  General, 

NORTHMEN  ob  NORSEMEN.    See  Scandinavia. 

NORTH-WEST  PASSAGE.  The  attempt  to  discover  a  north-west  passage  was  made  by 
a  Portuguese  named  Cortereal,  about  a.d.  1500.  It  was  attempteid  by  the  English,  in 
1558;  and  the  project  was  greatly  encouraged  by  queen  Elizabeth  in  1585,  in  which 
year  a  company  was  associated  in  London,  and  was  called  the  "  Fellowship  for  the 
Discovery  of  the  North- West  Passage."  From  174  5  to  181 8  parliament  offered  20,000/. 
for  this  discovery.  In  1818  the  reward  was  modified  by  proposing  that  5000/.  should 
be  paid  when  either  110°,  120^  or  ISO**  W.  long,  should  be  passed:  one  of  which 
payments  was  made  to  sir  E.  Parry.  For  their  labours  in  the  voyages  enumerated  in 
the  list  below,  Parry,  Franklin,  Ross,  Back,  and  Richardson,  were  knighted.  The 
honour  of  completing  the  north-west  passage  is  due  to  capt.  M'Clure,  who  saUed  in 
the  Invettiffotor  in  company  with  com.  Collinson  in  the  EukrpriH  in  search  of  sir 
John  Franklin,  Jan.  20,  1850.  On  Sept  6  he  discovered  high  land  which  he  named 
Baring's  land ;  on  the  9th,  other  land  which  he  named  after  Prince  Albert;  on  the 
30th  the  ship  was  frozen  in.    Entertaining  a  strong  conviction  that  the  waters  in 


NOR 


458 


NOR 


which  the  Investigaior  then  Uy  communicated  with  Barrow's  atnuts,  be  eet  oat  on 
Oct  21,  with  a  few  men  in  a  sledge,  to  test  his  views.  On  Oct  26  he  reached  Point 
Russell  (73°  31'  N.  lat  114*"  14'  W.  long.),  where  from  an  elevation  of  600  feet  he  saw 
Parry  or  Melville  Sound  beneath  them.  The  strait  connecting  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic 
Oceans  he  named  after  the  Prince  of  Wales.  The  InreMtigaUor  was  the  first  ship 
which  traversed  the  Polar  sea  from  Behring's  straits  to  Baring  island.  IntelUgenoe 
of  this  discovery  was  brought  to  England  by  com.  Inglefield,  and  the  admiralty  chart 
was  published  Oct.  14,  1853.  Capt  M'Clure  returned  to  England}  Sept  1854.  In 
1855,  5000/.  were  paid  to  captain  (now  sir  Robert)  M'Clure,  and  5000/.  were  distri- 
buted among  the  officen  and  crew.    See  Franklin, 


Sir  Hugh  Willoughby's  expedition  to  find 
a  north-east  passage  to  China,  sailed 
from  the  Thames*  .     Hay  20,  1658 

Sir  Martin  Frobiaher's  attempt  to  find  a 

north-weat  passage  to  China  .        .    .  1576 
Captain  Davis's   expedition   to  find  a 
north-west  passage       ....  1585 

Barantz's  expedition 1594 

Weymouth  and  Knight's  .  1602 

Hudson's  Toy  ages ;  the  last  undertaken. 

See  Hwium't  Bay 1610 

Hir  Thomas  Button's  .  .  .1612 
Buffin's.  Bee  Baffln't  Bay  .  .  .  .  1616 
Foxe's  expedition 1631 

[A  number  of  enterprises,  undertaken 
by  various  countrits,  followed.] 


Middloton'a  expedition       .        . 

Moore's  and  Smith's         .... 

Beame's  land  expedition    .  .     . 

Captain  Phippa,  afterwards  lord  Mul- 
grave.  his  expedition    .... 

Captain  Cook,  in  the  Raolution  and  Jh»- 
ewery July, 

Mackenaie's  expedition  .... 

Captain  Duncan's  voyage   .        ... 

The  Diteovfry,  captain  Vancouver,  re- 
turned from  a  voyage  of  survey  and 
discovery  on  the  north-west  coast  of 
America         ....  Sept  24, 

Lieutenant  Kotsebue'a  expedition,  Oct. 

Captain  Buchan's  and  lieutenant  Frank- 
hn'a  expedition  in  the  Dorothea  and 
Trtnt 

Captain  Ross  and  lieutenant  Parry,  in 
the  JaaMla  and  Alexander  .    . 

LieuteuantB  Parry  and  Liddon,  in  the 
Ufcla  and  Oriptr   .        .        .May  4, 

They  return  to  Leith  .        .  Nov.  8, 

Captains  Parry  and  Lyon,  in  the  Fury 
and  Hecla       ....      May  8, 


1742 
1746 
1769 

1773 

1776 
1789 
1790 


1795 
1815 


1818 

1818 

1819 
1820 

1821 


Captain  Parry's  tlurd  expedition  with 
thtHtda Mays.  1824 

Captains  Franklin  and  Lyon,  after  1  av- 
ing  attempted  a  land  expedition,  again 
sail  ftt>m  Liverpool  .    Feh.  16,  18SS 

Captain  Panj,!  again  in  the  Heda,  aaS^ 
ftnm  Deptiord  .  .     March  2S,  1837 

And  returns     ....      Oct.  H,  1837 

Capt.  Boss  t  arrived  at  Hull,  on  his  re- 
turn from  his  Arctic  expedition,  after 
an  absence  of  four  years,  and  when  all 
hope  of  his  return  had  been  nearly 
abandoned  Oct.  1^  18S3 

Capt.  Back  and  his  companions  arrived 
at  Liverpool  fhnn  their  periloos  Arctic 
land  expedition,  after  having  viaied 
the  Great  Fish  River,  and  examined 
its  course  to  the  Polar  Seas .    Sc-pL  8,  1S95 

Capt.  Back  sailed  from  Chatham  in  com- 
mand of  his  Majesty's  ship  Terrttr,  on 
an  exploring  adveliture  to  Wager 
River         ....        June  21,  18S6 

[Capt.  Back,  Dee.  1835,  had  been  a  wanted 
by  the  Geographical  Society,  the  king's 
annual  premium  for  his  polar  disco- 
veriea,  and  enterprise.] 

Sir  John  Franklin  and  captains  Crosier 
and  Fitsjames,  in  the  8hip«  JSr^us 
and  Terror^  leave  England  .    May  34.  1845 

Commanders  Collinson  and  MX^lure,  in 
the  Enterprite  and  Aiiwftpa/or,  sailed 
eastward  in  search  of  sir  John 
Franklin  ....        Jan.  20.  1850 

NoRTH-WKST  PASfiAGX  discovered  by 
M'aure Oct  2«» 


1890 


[M'Clure  returned  to  England  in  Oct. 
1854.  and  Collinson  in  11  ay.  1865.] 

[For  the  other  ex|jeditiou8  in  search  of 
Franklin,  tc,  see  article  FramJtiin.} 


NORTHALLERTON,  BATTLE  of,  or  THE  STANDARD.  Furious  Utile  fought  in 
Torkfthire,  between  the  EngliBh  and  Scotch  armies.  This  engagement  obtained  the 
latter  name  from  a  high  crucifix,  which  was  erected  by  the  English  on  a  waggon,  «od 
was  carried  along  with  the  troops ;  fought  Aug.  22, 1137-8. — Aake,  "  It  was  cslled  the 
battle  of  the  Standard,  from  the  archbishop  of  York  having  brought  forth  a  conse- 
crated standard  on  a  carriage  at  the  moment  when  the  English,  under  the  oommand 
of  the  earls  of  Albemarle  and  Ferrers,  were  Lotly  pressed  by  the  invaders,  headed  by 
king  David.  This  circumstance  so  animated  the  soldiers,  that»  coupled  with  a  aa^- 
position  on  the  part  of  the  enemy  that  their  king  was  slain,  a  retreat  was  attempted, 
and  the  most  sanguinary  slaughter  ensued.** — Hume, 

NORTHAMPTON,  BATTLE  or.  Between  the  duke  of  York  and  Henry  VI.  of  England, 
in  which  the  unfortunate  monarch  was  defeated,  aud  made  prisoner  (the  second  time), 
after  a  sanguinary  fight,  which  took  place  in  the  meadows  below  the  town,  July  19, 

*  The  ffallant  sir  Hugh  Willoughby  took  his  deprturo  from  Ratclifie.  on  his  fatal  voyage  for  dis- 
covering the  uortl  -east  passage  to  China.  He  sailed  with  great  pomp  by  Greenwich,  where  the  coort 
then  resided.  Mutual  honours  were  paid  on  both  sides.  The  council  and  courtiers  appeared  at  the 
windows,  and  tlie  people  covered  the  shores.  The  young  king,  Edward  VI.,  alone  loat  the  noble  and 
novel  sight,  for  he  then  lay  on  his  death-bed ;  so  that  the  principal  object  of  the  fianuie  was  dis- 
appointed. Sir  Hugh  Willoughby  was  unfortunately  entangled  in  the  ice,  and  frozen  to  death  on  the 
coast  of  haiAasid.— Uatluyt. 

t  6ir  £.  Parry  died  J  uly  8,  1855,  aged  65 ;  and  sir  John  Rosa  died  Aug.  30,  1850,  aged  80. 


NOR  459  NOT 

A.D.  1460.  Northampton  was  rayaged  by  the  plague  in  1687.  It  was  seised  and  for- 
tified by  the  parliamentary  forces  in  1642.  The  memorable  fire,  which  almost  totally 
destroyed  the  town,  occurred  Sept.  3,  1675. 

NORTHUMBRI A.  One  of  the  kingdoms  of  the  Heptarchy,  began  a.d.  547,  under  Ella, 
and  ended  under  Erdulf,  in  828.  Besides  Northumberland,  it  contaioed  the  counties 
of  York,  Lancaster,  Durham,  Cumberland,  and  Westmorland,  and  received  its  name 
from  being  situate  north  of  the  Humber.    Sea  Britain, 

NORWAY.  Until  the  ninth  century,  Norway  was  divided  into  petty  principalities,  and 
was  little  known  to  the  rest  of  Europe  except  by  the  piratical  excursions  of  its  natives. 
It  was  converted  to  Christianity  in  a.d.  1000.  The  city  of  Bei^n  was  founded  in 
1069.  The  kingdom  was  united  to  Denmark  in  1378;  and  the  three  kingdoms  of 
Norway,  Denmark,  and  Sweden,  were  united  in  1394.  Pomerania  and  Rugen  were 
annexed  to  Denmark  in  exchange  fur  Norway,  in  1814,  and  on  Nov.  4,  in  that  year, 
Charles  XIII.  was  proclaimed  king  by  the  National  Diet  assembled  at  Christiania. 
The  two  countries  of  Sweden  and  Norway  have  since  then  been  termed  the  Scandina- 
vian Peninsula,  of  which  the  French  marshal  Bomadotte  was  crowned  king  by  the 
title  of  Charles  XIV.  Feb.  5, 1818.    See  Sweden, 

NORWICH.  First  mentioned  in  history  in  the  Saxon  Chronicle  at  the  period  when 
Sweyne,  king  of  Denmark,  destroyed  it  by  fire,  a.d.  1004.  Artisans  from  the  Low 
Countries  established  here  the  manufacture  of  baizes,  arras,  &a  A  great  plague  in 
1348  carried  off  many  thousand  persons;  and  in  1505  Norwich  was  nearly  consumed 
by  fire.  The  cathedral  was  first  erected  in  1088,  by  bishop  Herbert  Losinga;  it  was 
completed  by  bishop  Middleton,  the  30th  prelate,  in  1278.  St.  Andrew's  Hall  was 
erected  in  1415.  The  public  library  was  instituted  in  1784.  The  Norwich  new  canal 
and  harbour  were  opened  June  3, 1831. 

NORWICH,  BISHOPRIC  of.  This  see  was  once  two  distinct  bishoprics— Elmham,  in 
Norfolk,  and  Dunwich,  in  Suffolk.  Felix,  a  Burgundian,  who  first  converted  the  East 
Angles,  founded  a  see,  a.d.  630.  Bifus,  the  third  bishop  in  succession  from  him, 
finding  himself,  from  his  great  age,  unable  to  bear  so  great  a  burden,  got  his  diocese 
divided  into  twa  Both  sees  suffered  extremely  from  the  Danish  invasions,  insomuch 
that  after  the  death  of  St.  Humbert,  they  lay  vacant  for  a  hundred  years.  At  lust 
the  see  of  Elmham  was  revived,  and  Dunwich  was  united  to  it;  but  Herfast,  the 
'22nd  bishop,  removed  the  seat  to  Thetford,  where  it  continued  till  Herbert  Loeinga, 
the  24th  bishop,  removed  it  to  Norwich,  1088.  This  see  has  given  to  the  Church 
of  Rome  two  saints ;  and  to  the  nation  five  lord  chancellors.  It  was  valued  in  the 
king's  books  at  899/.  ISs.  7 id.  per  annum.     See  Bishoprics, 

NOTABLES  of  FRANCE.  An  assembly  of  the  notables  of  France  was  convened  by 
Calonne,  the  minister  of  Louis  XIV.  in  1788.  The  deranged  state  of  the  king's 
finances  induced  him  to  convoke  the  notables,  who  assembled  Nov.  6,  when  Calonne 
opened  his  plan,  but  any  reform  militated  too  much  against  private  interest  to  be 
adopted.  Calonne,  not  being  able  to  do  any  good,  was  dismissed,  and  soon  after 
retired  to  England :  and  Louis,  having  lost  his  confidential  minister,  Mons.  de 
Yergennes,  by  death,  called  Mons.  de  Brienne,  au  ecclesiastic,  to  his  councils.  In  the 
end,  the  States  General  were  called,  and  from  this  assembly  sprang  the  National 
Assembly,  which  see.  The  notables  were  dismissed  by  the  king,  Dec.  12, 1788.— The 
Spanish  notables  assembled  and  met  Napoleon  (conformably  with  a  decree  issued  by 
him  commanding  their  attendance),  at  Bayonne,  liay  25,  1808.     See  Spain, 

NOTARIES  PUBLIC.  They  were  first  appointed  by  the  primitive  fathers  of  the 
Christian  Church,  to  collect  the  acts  or  memoirs  of  the  lives  of  the  martyrs,  in  the 
first  century. — Du  Fresnoy.  This  office  was  afterwards  changed  to  a  commercial 
employment,  to  attest  deeds  and  writings,  so  as  to  establish  their  authenticity  in  any 
other  country.  An  important  statute  to  regulate  notarial  transactions  was  passed 
40  Qeo.  IIL  1800,  and  some  statutes  on  the  same  subject  have  been  enacted  since. 

NOTTINGHAM.  The  celebrated  castle  here  was  defended  by  the  Danes  against  king 
Alfred,  and  his  brother  Ethelred.  It  was  rebuilt  by  William  I.  in  1068  ;  and 
ultimately  it  became  a  fortress  of  prodigious  strength.  Nottingham  was  anciently  of 
great  note,  and  has  gone  through  various  different  scenes,  as  times  happened,  being 
by  the  revengeful  disposition  of  Robert,  earl  of  Ferrers  and  Derby,  burnt  down,  the 
inhabitants  killed,  and  their  goods  divided  among  his  soldiers.  The  riots  at  Notting- 
ham, in  which  the  rioters  broke  frames,  &a,  commenced  Nov.  14,  1811,  and  continued 
to  Jan.  1812.     Great  similar  mischief  was  done  in  April,  1814.    The  Watch  and 


NOV  460  OAK 

Ward  act  waa  enforced  Dec.  2,  1816.    The  oastle,  a  posaeasion  of  the  duke  of 
Newcastle,  waa  burnt  by  the  populace,  Oct.  1831. 

NOVA  SCOTIA.  Called  Acadia  by  the  French.  Settled  in  a.d.  1622,  by  the  ScotA 
under  air  William  Alexander,  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  of  England,  from  whom  it 
received  the  name  of  Nova  Scotia.  Since  its  first  settlement  it  has  more  than  onee 
changed  rulers  and  proprietors,  nor  was  it  confirmed  to  England  till  the  peace  of 
Utrecht,  in  1713.  It  was  taken  in  1745  and  1758;  but  was  again  confirmed  to 
England  in  1760.  Nova  Scotia  was  divided  into  two  piovinoesin  1784;  and  was 
erected  into  a  bishoprio  in  Augtist,  1787.    See  BarvneU, 

NOVEMBER.  This  was  anciently  the  ninth  month  of  the  year  (whence  its  name),  but 
when  Numa  added  the  montha  of  January  and  February,  in  713  B.C.  the  Romans  had 
it  for  the  eleventh,  aa  it  is  now.  The  Roman  senators  (for  whose  mean  servilitiei 
even  Tiberius,  it  is  said,  often  blushed)  wished  to  call  this  month,  in  which  he  was 
born,  by  hia  name,  in  imitation  of  Julius  Csesar,  and  Augustus ;  but  the  emperor 
refused,  saying,  "  What  will  you  do,  conscript  fathera,  if  you  have  tkirUm  Ctesars*' 

NOVI,  BATTLE  of.  In  which  the  French  army  commanded  by  Joubert  was  defeated 
by  the  Russians  under  Suwarrow,  with  immense  lose,  Aug.  15,  1799.  Among  10,000 
of  the  French  slain  was  their  leader,  Joubert,  and  several  other  distinguished  officera. 
A  second  battle  was  fought  here  between  the  Austrian  and  French  armies,  when  th< 
latter  was  signally  defeated,  Jan.  8, 1800. 

NUMANTINE  WAR,  and  SIEQE.  The  celebrated  war  of  Numantia  with  the  Romsns 
was  commenced  solely  on  account  of  the  latter  having  given  refuge  to  the  Sigidiaoa, 
their  own  allies,  who  had  been  defeated  by  the  Romans,  141  b  c. — Livff.  It  continued 
for  14  years ;  and  though  Numantia  was  unprotected  by  walls  or  towers,  it  brsTely 
withstood  the  siege.  The  inhabitants  obtained  some  advantages  over  the  Romsn 
forces,  till  Scipio  Africanus  was  empowered  to  finish  the  war,  and  to  see  the  destruc- 
tion of  Numantia.  He  began  the  siege  with  an  army  of  60,000  men,  and  was  bravely 
opposed  by  the  besieged,  who  were  no  more  than  4000  men  able  to  bear  arms.  Both 
armies  behaved  with  uncommon  valour;  but  the  courage  of  the  Numautines was  soon 
changed  into  despair  and  fury.  Their  provisions  began  to  fail,  and  they  fed  upon 
the  flesh  of  their  horses,  and  aftei  wards  on  that  of  their  dead  companions,  and  at  Isit 
were  obliged  to  draw  lots  to  kill  and  devour  one  another ;  and  at  length  they  set  fire 
to  their  houses,  and  all  destroyed  themselves,  B.O.  133,  so  that  not  even  one  remained 
to  adorn  the  triumph  of  the  conqueror. 

NUNCIO.  A  spiritual  envoy  from  the  pope  of  Rome  to  Catholic  states.  In  early  times 
they  and  legates  ruled  the  courts  of  several  of  the  sovereigns  of  Germany,  France, 
and  even  England.  The  pope  deputed  a  nuncio  to  the  Irish  rebels  in  1645.  Tbe 
arrival  in  London  of  a  nuncio,  and  his  admission  to  an  audience  by  James  IL  1687, 
is  stated  to  have  hastened  the  Revolution. 

NUNNERY.  The  first  founded  is  said  to  have  been  that  to  which  the  sister  of  Si 
Anthony  retired  at  the  close  of  the  third  centuX7.  The  first  founded  in  France,  near 
Poictiers,  by  St.  Marcellina,  sister  to  St  Martin,  a.d.  360. — Du  Fteanoy.  The  first  in 
England  was  at  Folkstone,  in  Kent,  by  Eadbald,  or  Edbald,  king  of  Kent,  630.— 
JhigdcU^s  MvnoMticum  Anglicanum,  See  articlea  ii65eyt  and  M&natAeriu.  The  nuns 
were  expelled  from  their  convents  in  Germany,  in  July  1785.  Tbey  were  driven 
out  of  their  convents  in  France,  in  Jan.  1790.  For  memorable  inft*"*^«»  of  their 
constancy  and  fortitude,  see  articles  Acrt  and  CMingham, 


0. 

OAK.  Styled  the  monarch  of  the  woods ;  and,  among  the  ancients,  an  emblem  of 
strength,  virtue,  constancy,  and  long  life.  This  tree  growa  in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  but  that  produced  in  England  is  found  the  best  calculated  for  ship-bttilding, 
which  makes  it  so  highly  valuable.  The  oak  gives  name  to  a  constellation  in  tbs 
heavens — Robur  Carol i,  the  royal  oak — named  by  Dr.  Halley  in  1676,  in  memory  of 
the  oak  tree  in  which  Charles  II.  saved  himself  from  his  pursuers,  after  the  battle  of 
Worcester.  Some  foreign  oaks  have  been  planted  here.  The  evergreen  oak,  Qtn^c^ 
Ilex,  was  brought  ftrom  the  South  of  Europe  before  a.d.  1581.  The  scarlet  oak, 
Quercus  Coccinea,  was  brought  from  North  America  before  1691.  The  cheanut^leaved 
oak,  Queicua  Prunus,  from  North  America  before  1730.    The  Turkey  oak,  Qiterm 


OAT 


461 


OCE 


BerHt,  from  the  south  of  Europe,  1735.  The  agaric  of  the  oak,  in  pharmacy,  was  first 
known  as  a  styptic  in  1750. 

GATES,  TITUS,  his  PLOT.  Oates  was  at  one  time  chaplain  of  a  ship  of  war.  Being 
diBDiissed  the  service  for  immoral  conduct,  he  became  a  lecturer  in  London  ;  and,  in 
conjunction  with  Dr.  Tongue,  invented  a  pretented  plot  to  assassinate  Charles  II.,  of 
which  several  Roman  Catholics  were  accused,  and  upon  false  testimony  convicted  and 
executed,  a.d.  1678.  Oates  was  afterwards  tried  for  perjury  (in  the  reifni  of  James 
II.),  and  being  found  guilty  he  was  finCil,  put  in  the  pillory,  publicly  whipped  from 
Newgate  to  Tyburn,  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life,  1685;  but  was  pardoned, 
and  a  pension  granted  him,  1689. 

OATHS.  The  administration  of  an  oath  in  judicial  proceedings  was  introduced  by  the 
Saxons  into  England,  a.d.  600. — Rapin.  That  administered  to  a  judge  was  settled 
1344.  Of  supremacy,  first  administered  to  British  subjects,  and  ratified  by  parlia- 
ment, 26  Hen.  YIIL,  1535.  Of  allegiance,  first  framed  and  adminiBtered,  3  James  I., 
1605. — Stow*8  Chrom,  Of  abjuration,  being  an  obligation  to  maintain  the  government 
of  king,  lords,  and  commons,  the  Church  of  England,  and  toleration  of  Protestant 
disAenters,  and  abjuring  all  Roman  Catholic  pretenders  to  the  crown,  13  Will.  III., 
1701.  Oaths  were  taken  on  the  Gtospels  so  early  as  a.d.  528 ;  and  the  words  "  So 
help  me  Ood  and  all  saints,**  concluded  an  oath  until  1550.  Tbe  Test  and  Corpora- 
tion oaths  modified  by  stat.  9  Geo.  IV.  1828.  See  Tests.  Act  abolishing  oaths  in 
the  customs  and  excise  departments,  and  in  certain  other  cases,  and  substituting 
declarations  in  lieu  thereof,  1  ft  2  Will.  IV.,  1831.  AfiKrmation,  instead  of  oath,  by 
separatists,  3  &  4  WilL  IV.,  cap.  82, 1833 ;  and  1  Vict  cap.  5, 1837.   See  Affirmation. 

OBELISKS.  The  first  mentioned  in  history  was  that  of  Rameees,  king  of  Egypt,  about 
1485  BO.  The  Arabians  call  them  Pharaoh's  needles,  and  the  Egyptian  priests  the 
fingers  of  the  sun ;  they  dififered  very  much  as  to  their  costliness,  magnitude,  and 
magnificence.  Several  were  erected  at  Rome  ,*  one  was  erected  by  the  emperor 
Augustus  in  the  Campus  Martins,  on  the  pavement  of  which  was  an  horizontal  dial 
that  marked  the  hour,  about  14  B.o.  In  London  are  three  obelisks  :  the  first  stands 
in  fleet-street,  at  the  top  of  Bridge^street,  and  was  erected  to  the  famous  John 
Wilkes,  lord  mayor  of  London  in  1775 ;  and  immediately  opposite  to  it,  at  the  south 
end  of  Farringdon-etreet,  stands  another,  of  granite,  to  the  memory  of  Robert 
Waithman,  lord  mayor  in  1824,  erected  by  his  friends,  and  completed  in  one  day, 
June  25, 1838.  The  third  obelisk  stands  at  the  south  end  of  the  Blackfriars-road, 
and  marks  the  distance  of  one  mile  from  Fleet-stret. 

OBSERVATORIES.  The  first  is  supposed  to  have  been  on  the  top  of  the  temple  of 
Belus  at  Babylon.  On  the  tomb  of  Osymandyas,  in  Egypt,  was  another,  and  it  con- 
tained  a  golden  circle  200  feet  in  diameter :  that  at  Benares  was  at  least  as  ancient  as 
these.  The  first  in  authentic  history  was  at  Alexandria,  about  300  B.o.  The  first  in 
modem  times  was  at  Cassel,  1 561.  The  Royal  Observatory  at  Qreenwich  was  founded 
by  Charles  II.,  a.d.  1675;  and  from  the  meridian  of  Qreenwich  all  English  astronomers 
make  their  calculations. 


First  modem  meridional  instrument  by 

CopemicoB  ....  a.d.  1540 
First  oMerraUny  at  Caaael  .  .  .  1565 
Tycbo  Bnihe'0,  at  Uranibourg  .  1676 

Astronomical  tower  at  Copenhagen       .  1657 

Royal  (French) 16C7 

Royal  Obeenratoiy  at  Greenwich    .        .  1675 
Oboervatory  at  Nuremberg        .        .    .  1678 


At  Utrecht A.n.  16M> 

Berlin,  erected  under  Leibnitz's  direction  1711 

At  Bologna 1714 

At  Petersburg 1726 

Oxford,  Dr.  RadclUfe  ....  1772 
Dublin,  Dr.  Andrtte$  ».  .  .  178S 
AnoAgh,  Primate  Jtoktb^ .  .1798 
Cambridge  1824 


The  preceding  are  among  the  chief  observatories  in  Europe:  but  there  is  now  scarcely 
any  uniTersity  or  college  where  astronomy  and  the  mathematics  are  taught  or  studied 
that  is  not  furnished  with  an  observatory.  At  Pekin  is  a  samptuous  observatory, 
erected  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago,  though  not  contrived  in  the  manner  of  the 
European  observatories.    See  Greenwich, 

OCEAN  MONARCH,  Emigrant  Ship.  The  Ocean  Monarch  American  emigrant  ship 
left  Liverpool  bound  for  Boston,  Aug.  24, 1848,  having  896  passengers  on  board.  She 
had  not  advanced  far  into  the  Irish  channel,  being  within  six  miles  of  Great  Orms- 
head,  Lancashire,  when  she  took  fire,  and  in  a  few  hours  was  burnt  to  the  water^s  edge. 
The  Brazilian  steam  frigate,  the  Alfonso,  happened  to  be  out  on  a  trial  trip  at  the 
time,  with  the  prince  and  princess  de  Joinville  and  the  duke  and  duchess  d'Aumale 
on  board,  who  witnessed  the  catastrophe,  and  aided  in  rescuing  and  comforting  the 
sufferers  with  exceeding  humanity.  They,  with  the  crews  and  passengers  of  the  Atfcnso 


OCT  462  OLD 

and  the  yacht  Queen  of  the  Ocean,  so  effectually  rendered  their  heroic  aud  unweariad 
Bervices  as  to  save  156  persons  from  their  dreadful  situation,  and  62  others  escaped  by 
various  means.     But  the  rest,  178  in  number,  perished  in  the  flames  or  the  sea. 

OCTARCHY.  The  octarch  was  the  sovereign  who  was  the  chief  or  most  powerful  of 
the  monarch^  of  the  heptarchy,  giving  laws  to  the  others,  and  was  called  Rex  geutii 
Anglorum,  Though  there  were  seven  kingdoms,  yet  the  whole  British  nation  was 
for  the  most  part  subject  to  one  king  alone.  Hengist  was  the  first  octarch,  A.D.  455, 
and  Egbert  the  last,  a.d.  800.  See  Britain.  Some  authors  insist  that  the  English  hep- 
tarchy should  have  been  called  the  octarchy^  and  that  heptarchy  is  not  the  correct  tens. 

OCTOBER  The  eighth  month  in  the  year  of  Romulus,  as  its  name  imports,  and  the 
tenth  in  the  year  of  Numa,  713  ac.  From  this  time  October  has  still  retained  its  fint 
name,  in  spite  of  all  the  different  appellations  which  the  senate  and  Roman  emperon 
would  have  given  it.  The  senate  ordered  it  to  be  called  PaustinfUf  in  honour  of 
Pauxtina,  wife  of  Antoninus  the  emperor ;  Commodus  would  have  had  it  called 
Jnrictui;  and  Domitian  DomitioMu,    October  was  sacred  to  Mars. 

ODESSA,  a  port  on  the  Black  sea,  founded  by  the  empress  Catherine  of  Russia  in  1792, 
after  the  peace  of  Jassy.  In  1817  it  was  made  a  free  port,  since  when  its  prosperity 
has  rapidly  increased.  It  was  partially  bombarded  by  the  British,  April  21, 1854,  in 
consequence  of  the  Russian  batteries  having  fired  on  a  flag  of  truce.  On  May  12,  the 
Englian  frigate  Tiger  stranded  here, and  was. destroyed  by  Russian  artillery.  The 
captain,  Giffard,  and  many  of  his  crew  were  killed,  and  the  rest  made  prisoners. 

ODES.  Odes  are  nearly  as  old  as  the  lyre ;  they  were  at  first  extempore  compoeitioDi, 
accompanying  this  instrument,  and  sung  in  honour  of  the  gods.  Perhaps  the  mott 
beautiful  and  sublime  odes  ever  written,  as  well  as  the  oldest,  are  those  of  the  rojal 
prophet  Isaiah,  on  the  fall  of  Babylon,  composed  about  757  B.C.  The  celebrated  odes 
of  Anacreon  were  composed  about  532  B.O. ;  and  from  his  time  this  species  of  writio; 
became  us\ial.  Anciently  odes  were  divided  into  strophe,  antistrophe,  and  epode. 
This  species  of  writing  is  that  of  our  court  poet&    See  Poeti  Laureate, 

OFFA*S  DYKE.  The  intrenchment  from  the  Wye  to  the  Dee,  made  by  Ofia,  a  Saxon 
king,  to  defend  his  coimtry  from  the  incursions  of  the  Welsh,  a.d.  774. — Antm.  Ofb, 
king  of  Mercia,  caused  a  great  trench  to  be  dug  from  Bristol  to  Basingwark,  in  Flint* 
shire,  as  the  boundary  of  the  Britons  who  harboured  in  Wales;  the  Welsh  endeavoured 
to  destroy  it,  but  were  repulsed  with  great  loss. — Chron,  Brit, 

OGTGES,  DELUGE  of.  The  Deluge  so  called  (from  which  Attica  lay  waste  for  mora 
than  two  hundred  years  afterwards,  and  until  the  arrival  of  Cecrops),  occurred  1764 
B.C.  Many  authorities  suppose  this  to  be  no  other  than  the  univenal  deluge;  but 
according  to  some  writers,  if  it  occurred  at  all,  it  arose  in  the  overflowing  of  ont  of 
the  great  rivers  of  the  country.    See  Deluge,  Univenal. 

OIL.  It  was  used  for  burning  in  lamps  as  early  as  the  epoch  of  Abraham,  about  1921 
B.C.  It  was  the  staple  commodity  of  Attica,  and  a  jar-full  was  the  prise  at  the 
Panathensean  games.  It  was  the  custom  of  the  Jews  to  anoint  with  oil  penons 
appointed  to  high  offices,  as  the  priests  and  kings,  Psalm  czxziii  2 ;  1  Sam.  z.  1 ;  zri. 
13.  The  anointing  with  this  liquid  seems  also  to  have  been  reckoned  a  neoesniy 
ingredient  in  a  festival  dress,  Rvih  iii.  8. — The  fact  that  oil,  if  passed  through  red.bot 
iron  pipes,  will  be  resolved  into  a  combustible  gas,  was  long  known  to  chemists;  and 
after  the  process  of  lighting  by  coal-gas  was  made  apparent,  Messm  Taylor  and 
Martineau  contrived  apparatus  for  producing  oil-gas  on  a  lai^e  scale. 

OLBERS.    The  asteroid  of  this  name  was  discovered  by  M.01ber8,  in  1802.   SeePtai^. 

OLD  BAILEY  SESSIONS-COURT.  This  court  is  held  for  the  trial  of  criminali,  ind 
its  jurisdiction  comprehends  the  county  of  Middlesex,  as  well  as  Uie  city  of  London. 
It  is  held  eight  times  in  the  year  by  the  royal  commission  of  oyer  and  tenatuff.  The 
judges  are,  the  lord  mayor,  those  aldermen  who  have  passed  tbe  chair,  the  recorder, 
and  the  common-seijeant,  who  are  attended  by  both  the  sherifib,  and  one  or  mors 
of  the  national  judges.  The  court-house  was  built  in  1773,  and  waa  enlarged  in  180S- 
During  some  trials  in  the  old  court,  the  lord  mayor,  one  alderman,  two  judges  the 
greater  part  of  the  jury,  and  numbers  of  spectators,  caught  the  gaol  distemper,  and 
died,  May  1750.  Again,  this  disease  was  fatal  to  several  in  1772.  Twenty-eight  penoD> 
were  killed  at  the  execution  of  Mr.  Steele's  murderers,  at  the  Old  Baileyi  fth-  iX 
1807.    See  Central  Criminal  CowL 

OLD  MAN  OF  THS  MOUNTAIN.    The  Old  Man  or  Ancient  of  the  Monntain  iw  lo^S 


OLE  463  OMN 

of  the  AaaaiMiniftaB,  or  Ajssa^ins  (see  Assauim),  a  people  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Tyre,  in  Phaonicia.  He  bore  an  absolute  sway  over  nts  followers,  who  devoted  their 
Uvea  to  his  service  without  hesitation,  and  esteemed  themselves  happy  in  suffering 
what  they  deemed  martyrdom  in  furtherance  of  his  orders. — Aapin. 

OLERON*,  LA.W3  of.  An  ancient  and  celebrated  code  of  laws  relating  to  sea  affairs 
was  framed  by  Richard  I.  of  England,  when  he  was  at  the  island  of  Oleron,  in  France, 
A.D.  1194.  These  laws  were  afterwards  received  by  all  the  nations  of  Earope,  as  the 
basis  of  their  marine  constitutions,  on  account  of  their  wisdom  and  justice  and  con« 
currenoe  in  the  general  welfare. — Mortimer. 

OLIVES.  They  are  named  in  the  earliest  accounts  of  E^ypt  and  Greece ;  and  at  Athens 
their  cultivation  was  taught  by  Ceorops,  1556  B.O.  He  brought  the  olive  from  Sais,  in 
Upper  Egypt,  where  it  was  for  ages  previously  abundant.  The  olive  was  first  planted 
in  Italy  about  562  b.o.  '^  When  thou  beatest  thine  olive-tree,  thou  sholt  not  go  over 
the  boughs  again :  it  shall  be  for  the  stranger,  for  the  fatherless,  and  for  the  widow." 
Dtmt,  zxiv.  20. 

OLIVET,  MOUNT,  or  MOUN^T  or  OLIVES.  It  was  situated  to  the  east  of  the  city 
of  Jerusalem.  "  a  sabbath  day's  journey,"  or  three-quarters  of  a  mile ;  and  parted 
from  it  only  by  the  brook  Kedron,  and  by  the  valley  of  Jehoehaphat.  It  was  upon 
this  mount  that  Solomon  ballt  certain  temples,  and  that  Our  Saviour  ascended  into 
heaven,  in  the  presence  of  his  disciples ;  upon  which  account  the  Christians  had,  and 
still  have  it,  in  great  veneration.  Some  say  that  the  print  of  the  Redeemer's  feet  was 
left  so  perfectly  upon  the  mount,  that  though  the  devotees  constantly  carried  away 
the  eartb,  the  marks  were  as  constantly  repaired. — Pardon, 

OLTENITZA,  BATTLE  of.  A  large  Turkish  force  having  crossed  the  Danube,  under 
Omar  Paaha,  established  themselves  at  Oltenitza  in  despite  of  the  vigorous  attacks  of 
the  Russians,  who  were  repulsed  with  loss,  on  Nov.  2  and  8, 1854.  On  the  4th  a 
more  desperate  attempt  was  made  to  dislodge  the  Turks  by  general  Danneberg,  with 
9000  men.  After  a  spirited  engagement  the  Russians  were  defeated,  with  the  loss  of 
1200  killed  and  wounded.     The  Turks  lost  only  106  men. 

OLYMPIADS.  The  Greeks  computed  time  by  the  celebrated  era  of  the  Olympiads 
which  date  from  the  year  776  b.o.  being  the  year  in  which  Coroehns  was  successful  at 
the  Olympic  games.  This  era  differed  from  all  others  in  being  reckoned  by  periods 
of  four  years  Instead  of  single  years.  Each  period  of  four  years  was  called  an 
Olympiad,  and  in  marking  a  date,  the  year  and  Olympiad  were  both  mentioned.  The 
Becond  Olympiad  began  in  772 ;  the  third,  in  768 ;  the  fourth,  in  764;  the  fifth,  in 
760;  the  10th,  in  740,  A;c. 

OLYMPIC  GAMES.  These  games,  so  famous  among  the  Greeks,  were  instituted  in 
honour  of  Jupiter.  They  were  holden  at  the  beginning  of  every  fifth  year,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Alphens,  near  Olympia,  in  the  Peloponnesus,  now  the  Morea,  to  exercise 
their  youth  in  five  kinds  of  combats.  Those  who  were  conquerors  in  these  games 
were  highly  honoured  by  their  countrymen.  The  prize  contended  for  was  a  crown 
made  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  wild  olive,  appropriated  to  this  use.  The  games  were 
instituted  by  Pelops,  1307  b.o.  They  are  also  ascribed  to  an  ancient  Hercules ;  and 
were  revived  by  Iphytus  among  the  Greeks,  884  B.o. — Dufrttnoy, 

OMENS.  See  Augury.  Amphictyon  was  the  first  who  is  recorded  as  having  drawn 
prognostications  from  omens^  1497  B.a  Alexander  the  Great  is  said  to  have  had 
these  superstitions  ;  and  also  Mithridates  the  Great,  celebrated  for  his  wars  with  the 
Romans,  his  victories,  his  conquest  of  twenty-four  nations,  and  his  misfortunes.  At 
the  birth  of  this  latter,  there  were  seen  for  seventy  days  together,  two  large  comets, 
whose  splendour  eclipsed  that  of  the  noon-day  sun,  occupying  so  vast  a  space  as  the 
fourth  part  of  the  heavens ;  and  this  omen,  we  are  told,  directed  all  the  actions  of 
Mithri^tes  throughout  his  life,  so  much  had  superstition  combined  with  nature  to 
render  him  great,  135  B.a — Justin, 

OMNIBUSES  (from  omnibut,  iot  all)  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  Paris  in  1828.  The 
idea  of  such  conveyances  is  ascribed  to  Pascal  about  1672,  when  similar  ones  were 
started  but  soon  discontinued.  They  were  introduced  by  an  enterprising  coach 
proprietor  named  Shillibeer,  and  first  licensed  at  Somerset-house  in  July  1829.  The 
first  omnibus  started  from  Paddington  to  the  bank  of  England  on  Saturday,  July  4, 
in  that  year.  The  omnibus  is  usually  licensed  to  carry  from  eleven  to  thirteen 
passengers  inside,  and  from  ten  to  eight  outside;   and  is  attended  by  a  footman. 


0.  p.  464  OPO 

called  a  conductor.  Heguktiona  were  made  respecting  omnibuses  by  16  k  17  Viet, 
c.  33,  passed  June  28,  1853.  See  CahrioleU  and  Httckney  Coa/chtt,  The  London 
Omnibus  Companj^  was  established  in  Jan.  1856. 

0.  P.  RIOT  AT  COVENT  GARDEN  THEATRE,  London.  The  memorable  riot,  known 
by  this  name,  occurred  on  the  openint;  of  the  new  theatre,  on  account  of  the  increased 
prices  of  admission,  Sept.  18, 1809.  The  play  was  Jlfac6e<A,  and  from  the  rising  of  the 
curtain  until  its  fall  not  one  word  from  the  stage  was  heard.  The  concurrence  of  all 
parts  of  the  house  in  the  desire  for  reduction,  (many  of  them  persons  known,  and  of 
some  consideration  in  the  city,)  gave  a  furious  and  determined  party  in  the  pit 
courage  to  proceed,  and  great  injury  was  done  in  pit,  boxes,  and  galleries.  For  many 
successive  nights  the  audience,  too  strong  to  be  controlled,  continued  their  demand^ 
and  renewed  their  depredations,  while  the  managers  seemed,  on  their  part^  resolved 
not  to  give  way ;  but  in  the  end  they  yielded.  This  contest,  which  continued  for 
nearly  three  months,  was  terminated  Dec.  10,  same  year. 

OPERA.  Octavio  Rinuccini,  of  Florence,  was  the  inventor  of  operas,  or  of  the  castom 
of  giving  musical  representations  of  comedy,  tragedv,  and  other  dramatic  pieoec 
Emelio  de  Cavalero,  however,  disputed  this  honour  with  him,  a.d.  1590. — Ntmv.  IHeL 
liitt,  Rinuccini's  opera  was  a  musical  pastoral  called  Daphne,  and  his  success  induced 
him  to  write  the  opera  of  Earydice,  which  was  represented  at  the  theatre  of  FIoreDoa, 
1600,  on  the  marriage  of  Mary  de  Medicis  with  Henry  lY.  of  France.  The  music  of 
these  pieces  was  composed  by  Jacobi  Peri.  An  opera  entitled  L*Orfeo,  Favofa  t» 
Musiea,  composed  by  Monteverde,  was  performed  in  1607,  and  is  supposed  to  haTe 
been  the  first  opera  that  was  ever  published.  Among  the  Venetians,  opera  was  the 
chief  glory  of  their  carnival.  About  the  year  1669,  the  abbot  Perrin  obtained  a  grant 
from  Louis  XIV.  to  set  up  an  opera  at  Paris,  where,  in  1672,  was  acted  Pomona. 

OPERAS  IN  ENGLAND.  Sir  William  Davenant  introduced  a  species  of  opera  in 
London,  in  1684.  The  first  regularly  performed  opera  was  at  York  buildings,  in  1692. 
The  first  at  Drury-lane  was  in  1705.  The  operas  of  Handel  were  performed  in  1735, 
and  they  became  general  in  several  of  the  theatres  a  few  years  after.  Among  the 
favourite  performances  of  this  kind  was  Gay*s  Beggars^  Opera,  first  performed  in  1727. 
It  ran  for  Bizty«three  successive  nights,  but  so  offended  the  persons  in  power,  that 
the  lord  chamberlain  refused  a  license  for  the  performance  of  a  second  part  of  it, 
entitled  "  Polly.*'  This  resentment  induced  Gay's  friends  to  come  forward  on  its 
publication  with  so  handsome  a  subscription,  that  his  profits  amounted  to  12001. 
whereas  the  Beggan*  Opera  had  gained  him  only  400/. — Life  of  Gay. 

OPERA-HOUSE,  the  ITALIAN,  or  QUEEN'S  THEATRE.  The  original  building 
is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  constructed  by  sir  John  Yanbnigh,  thooirh 
Mr.  Pennant  attributes  it  to  sir  Christopher  Wren.  It  was  built,  according  to  this 
authority,  in  1704,  and  opened  April  9, 1705;  and  burnt  down,  June  17, 1788.  llie 
foundation  of  the  new  theatre  was  laid  April  3, 1790;  and  the  house  was  opened 
Sept  22,  1791,  on  an  improved  plan,  though  the  exterior  was  not  erected  in  its 
present  style  till  1818,  from  designs  by  Mr.  Nash.  It  is  now  a  handsome  edifice 
cased  with  stucco,  and  adorned  with  an  elegant  colonnade  supported  by  cast-iron 
pillars  of  the  Doric  order.  The  front  is  decorated  with  a  relievo,  ezecated  by 
Mr.  Bubb,  in  1821,  representing  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Music.  The  interior  is 
magnificent,  and  is  nearly  as  liu^e  as  the  theatre  of  La  Scala,  at  MUan.  See  Owmi 
Oarden,  and  Theatret, 

OPERA,  THE  ENGLISH.  This  theatre,  under  the  name  of  the  Lyceum,  was  opened 
June  15,  1816,  with  an  address  spoken  by  Miss  Kelly.  It  was  entirely  destroyed  by 
fire,  Feb.  16,  1830.  The  exterior  of  the  late  Lyceum,  in  consequence  of  the  aituatioii 
of  the  building,  exhibited  no  architectural  beauties,  with  the  exception  of  a  portieo 
of  the  Ionic  order,  added  in  1823 ;  but  the  interior  was  neat.  It  was  about  thirty-five 
feet  in  diameter,  and  the  distance  from  the  orchestra  to  the  front  boxes  was  only 
thirty  feet.  The  new  Engli»h-Opera  house,  or  Lyceum,  was  erected  from  designs  by 
Mr.  S.  Beazley,  and  was  opened  in  July  1884.    See  Theatres, 

OPORTO.  By  nature  one  of  the  most  impregnable  cities  in  Europe ;  the  great  mart  of 
Portuguese  wine  known  as  "  Port."  A  chartered  .company  for  the  regulation  of  the 
Port-wine  trade  was  established  in  a.d.  1756.  See  article  Winea  The  FWnch,  under 
marshal  Soult,  were  surprised  here  by  lord  Wellington,  and  defeated  in  an  action 
fought  May  11,  1809.  The  Miguelites  attacked  Oporto,  and  were  repulsed  by  the 
Pedroites,  with  considerable  loss,  Sept.  19,  1832.     It  has  since  been  the  sosne  of 


Li 


OPT 


465 


ORA 


citII  war.    See  Portugal,    The  Oporto  wine  company  waa  aboliahed  in  1834,  but  re- 
establiahed  by  a  royal  decree,  April  7,  1638. 
OPTICS.    Ab  a  science,  optics  date  their  origin  a  little  prior  to  the  time  of  Alhazen,  an 
Arabian  philosopher,  who  flourished  early  in  the  twelfth  century.    It  has  advanced 
rapidly  since  the  time  of  Halley,  and  is  now  one  of  our  most  flourishing  sciences. 


Bundng lenMB  known  at  AthenB  .  B.a    4S4 

Two  of  the  leading  principles  known  to 
the  Platoniets 800 

Firat  treatiae  on,  by  Euclid,  about.        .    280 

The  magnifying  power  of  conyex  glaaaea 
and  concave  murroia,  and  thepriamatic 
coloura  produced  by  angular  glaaa, 
mentioned  by  Seneca,  about  .       a.i>.      60 

Treatise  on  Optica,  by  Ptolemy  .120 

Greatly  improved  by  Alhazen    .        .    .  1108 

Hinta  for  spectacles  and  teleacopes  given 
by  Roger  Bacon,  about  .  1280 

Spectacles  (aaid  to  have  been)  invented 
by  Salvinus  Armatua,  of  Pisa,  before    1800 

Camera  obacura  said  to  have  been  in- 
vented by  Baptista  Porta    .  .  15«0 

Telescopes  invented  by  Leonard  Diggea, 
about 1671 

Teleacope  made  by  Jansen  (said  also  to 
have  invented  the  microsoopeX  about   1000 

[The  same  instrument  constructed  by 
Galileo,  without  using  the  production 
of  Jansen.] 

Microscope,  according  to  Huygens,  in- 
vented by  Drebbel,  about       .        .    .  1621 

[Jansen  and  Galileo  have  also  been  stated 
to  be  the  inventors.] 

OMsegrainian  reflector    ....  1631 

Law  of  refraction  discovered  by  Snellius, 
about 1624 


Beflectlng  telescope,  James  Gregory,  A.D.  1668 

Newton  ,    .  1666 

Motion  and  velocity  of  light  discovered 

by  R5emer.  and  after  him  by  Caarini 
[Its  velocity  demonstrated  to  be  190  mil- 
lions of  miles  in  sixteen  minutes.] 
Double  refraction  explained  by  Bartko- 

Unus 

Newton's  discoveries       .... 
Telescopes  with  a  single  lens,  by  Tschimo 

hausen,  about 

Polarisation  of  light,  Huvgens,  about    . 
Structure  of  the  eye  explained  by  Petit^ 

about        

Achromatic   telescope  constructed  by 

Mr.  Hall  (but  not  made  public)  in 
Constructed   bv  Dollond,  moat  likely 

without  any  knowledge  of  Hall's    .    . 
Henchel's  great  reflecting    telescope, 

erected  at  Slough 

Dr.  T.  Tomig's  diacoveriea  (undulatoiy 

theory,  Ac) 1800-8 

Camera  lucida  (Dr.  Wollaston)  .  1807 

Malus  (polarisation  of  light  by  reflection)  1808 
Fresnel  (double  refraction,  ^)  .  1817 

Arago  (colours  of  polarised  lights  Ac)  1811-63 
Sir    D.    Brewster,    optical    researches 

(^  Pkotoffraphy) .  .      1814-67 


1667 


1660 
1674 

1600 
1602 

1700 

1783 

1767 

1780 


OPTIC  NERVES.  The  discoverer  of  the  optic  nerves  is  reputed  to  have  been  N.  Yarole, 
a  sui^geon  and  physician  of  Bologna,  about  a.d.  1 588. — rtotw.  Diet. 

ORACLES.  The  most  ancient  oracle  was  that  of  Dodona;  but  the  most  fisanoua  was  the 
oracle  of  Delphi,  1263  B.O.  See  Delphi.  The  heathen  oracles  were  always  delivered 
in  such  dubious  expressions  or  terms,  that  let  what  would  happen  to  the  inquirer,  it 
might  be  accommodated  or  explained  to  mean  the  event  that  came  to  psss. 

ORANGE!.  The  sweet,  or  China  orange,  was  6rst  brought  into  Europe  from  China  by 
;  the  Portuguese,  in  1547 ;  snd  it  is  asserted  that  the  identical  tree,  whence  all  the 
European  orange  trees  of  this  sort  were  produced,  is  still  preserved  at  Lisbon,  in  the 
gardens  of  one  of  its  nobility.  Orange-trees  were  first  brought  to  England,  and 
planted,  with  little  success,  in  1595 ;  they  are  said  to  have  been  planted  at  Beddington 
park,  near  Croydon,  Surrey. 

ORANGE^  HOUSE  of.  This  illustrious  house  is  as  ancient  as  any  in  Europe;  and 
makes  a  most  distinguished  figure  in  history.  Otho  I.,  count  of  Nassau,  receiTed  the 
provinces  of  Guelderland  and  Zutphen  with  his  two  wives,  and  they  conldnued  several 
hundred  years  in  the  family.  Otho  II.  coimt  of  Nassau  Dillembourg,  who  died  in 
1369,  got  a  great  accession  of  territories  in  the  Low  Countries  by  his  wife  Abelals, 
daughter  and  heiress  of  Godfrey,  count  of  Yianden;  and  hia  grandson  Gilbert,  having 
married  Jane,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Philip,  baron  of  Leek  and  Breda,  added  these 
to  his  other  domains  in  1404.  The  title  of  prince  of  Orange  came  first  into  the 
Nassau  family  by  the  marriage  of  Claude  de  Chalons  with  the  coimt  of  Nassau,  in 
1530.  Williiun,  prince  of  Orange,  afterwards  William  III.  of  England,  landed  at  Torbay 
with  sn  army,  Nov.  5,  1688,  and  was  crowned  with  his  queen,  the  princess  Mary, 
daughter  of  James  II.,  April  11, 1689.    See  HoUand. 

ORANGE  RIYER.  Free  state  in  South  Africa.  The  British  government  transferred  (by 
air  George  Clerk),  March  29, 1854,  their  powers  over  this  territory  to  a  provisional 
government.  A  Volksraad,  or  legislative  council  and  governor  (elected  every  four 
years),  have  since  been  appointed. 

ORANGEMEN.  A  battle,  called  the  battle  of  the  Diamond,  was  fought  in  the  county 
of  Armagh,  in  Sept.  1795 ;  and  the  treachery  experienced  by  the  Protestants  on  that 
occaaion  convinced  them  they  would  become  an  easy  prey  to  the  Roman  Catholics, 
from  their  small  numbers,  unless  they  associated  for  their  defence.    In  commemo- 

H  H 


ORA  466  ORD 

ration  of  that  Tictorr  the  first  Orange  lodge  waa  formed  in  the  ooonty  of  Armagh, 
Sept.  21, 1795 ;  but  the  name  of  Onngeman  existed  some  time  before.  They  aaso- 
oiated  to  maintain  the  oonstitation  in  ehuroh  and  state,  as  established  at  the  Revo- 
Intion  by  the  prinoe  of  Orange.  The  first  Orange  lodge  was  formed  in  Dublioy  the 
members  publiuiing  a  deolaration  of  their  prinoiplee,  in  Jan.  1798. 

ORATOR  HBNLET.  An  English  cleigyman  of  some  talents  and  great  eooentricitj, 
obtained  this  name  by  opening  what  he  called  his  *' Oratory  "  in  London,  in  1726. 
He  had  a  kind  of  chapel  in  Newport-market,  where  he  gave  lectures  on  theological 
topics  on  Sundays,  and  other  subjects  on  Wednesdays,  eveiy  week.  Novelty  pi!t>- 
cured  him  a  multitude  of  hearers ;  but  he  was  too  imprudent  to  gain  any  permanent 
advantage  from  his  project  After  having  served  as  a  butt  for  the  satiriciJ  wits,  poets^ 
and  painters  of  his  time,  he  removed  his  oratory  to  Clare-market,  and  sank  into 
comparative  obsouxity  and  contempt  previously  to  his  death,  in  1756. 

ORATORIANS.  These  were  a  regular  order  of  priests  established  in  1564,  and  so  celled 
from  the  oratory  of  St.  Jerome,  at  Rome,  where  they  used  to  offer  up  their  ptmyem 
They  had  a  foundation  in  France,  commenced  by  father  de  Bermle,  afterwards 
oarcunal,  in  1612. — HeModt,  The  oratory,  first  a  closet  for  private  prayer  alons^ 
became  a  place  of  public  worship. — Sir  T,  Elyot. 

ORATORIOS.  An  oratorio  is  a  kind  of  sacred  drama,  the  subject  of  it  being  genenlly 
taken  firom  the  Scriptures,  set  to  music. — Mason,  In  this  respect  it  diffen  from  oar 
modem  concert — Atke.  The  origin  of  oratorios  is  ascribed  to  St  Philip  NerL  Tlao 
first  oratorio  in  London  was  performed  in  Linooln's-inn  theatre,  in  Portugal-street,  in 
1782.  Handel's  oratorio  of  "  Israel  in  Egypt "  was  produced  m  1738 ;  and  tho 
''Messuih"  in  1741;  Haydn's  "Creation"  in  1798;  Mendelssohn's  «'8t  PMa**  in 
1837,  and  «El^ah  *'  in  1846. 

ORCHARDS.  Inclosed  grounds  planted  with  firuit-trees. — Baccn,  Orchards  do  not 
appear  to  have  been  adopted  until  about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  centmy. 
although  they  had,  doubtlessly,  existed  in  Oreat  Britain  for  many  ages  previously, 
as  appendages  to  wealthy  religious  establishments. — Loudon. 

ORDEAL.  The  ordeal  was  known  among  the  Qreeks.  With  us  it  is  a  term  signifying 
the  judiciary  determination  of  accusations  for  criminal  offences  by  fire  and  water. 
It  was  introduced  into  England  with  other  superstitions  taken  from  the  codes  of  tl&e 
Germans.  That  by  fire  was  confined  to  the  upper  classes  of  the  people ;  that  of  water, 
to  bondsmen  and  rustics.  Hence  the  expression  of  going  through  fiie  and  water  to 
serve  another.  Women  accused  of  incontinency  formerly  underwent  the  ordad,  to 
prove  their  innocence.  A  prisoner  who  pleaded  not  guilty,  might  choose  whether  ho 
would  put  himself  for  trial  upon  GN>d  and  his  country,  by  twelve  men,  as  at  this  day, 
or  upon  Ood  only ;  and  then  it  was  called  the  judgment  of  Ood,  presuming  He  would 
deliver  the  innocent  The  accused  were  to  pass  barefooted  and  blindfold  over  nine 
red-hot  ploughshares,  or  were  to  carry  burning  irons  in  their  hands ;  and  accordingly 
as  they  escaped,  they  were  judged  innocent  or  guilty,  acquitted  or  condemned.* 
The  oindeal  waa  used  from  Edward  the  Confessor's  time  to  that  of  Henry  IIL  It 
abolished  by  a  royal  proclamation,  45  Hen.  III.  1261. — Law  Diet, ;  Sfmet's  Fadara. 


ORDNANCE-OFFICE.  In  ancient  times,  before  the  invention  of  guns,  this  office 
supplied  by  officers  under  the  following  names :  the  bowyer ;  the  cross-bowyer  ;  the 
gaieater,  or  purveyor  of  helmets ;  the  armourer ;  and  the  keeper  of  the  tents.  And 
in  this  state  it  continued,  till  Henry  VIII.  placed  it  under  the  management  of  a 
master,  a  lieutenant,  surveyor,  &o.    See  next  article, 

ORDNANCE,  MASTER-GENERAL  of  thb.  An  officer  always  chosen  from  among 
the  first  generals  in  the  service  of  the  sovereign.  We  have  records  of  master-genefala 
from  the  reign  of  Henry  Y  III.  See  preceding  article.  The  appointment  waa  formerly 
for  life,  but  since  the  Restoration  the  master-general  held  office  durante  bene  piadta, 
and  usually  entered  upon  it  with  the  party  to  which  he  was  politically  attached,  and 
retired  with  each  change  of  the  responsible  advisers  of  the  crown.  He  waa  colooel- 
in-chief  of  the  corps  of  artillery  and  the  corps  of  engineers,  and  not  unfk«qnently  a 
cabinet  minister. — Beateon,  The  letters  patent  for  this  office  were  revoked  May  25^ 
1855,  and  its  duties  vested  in  the  minister  of  war,  lord  Panmure. 

*  The  water  ordeal  waa  peHbrmed  in  either  hot  or  cold :  in  cold  water,  the  parties  rumetod  were 
adjudged  iiinocent»  if  their  bodies  were  borne  up  by  the  water,  contrary  to  the  oootm  of  nature ;  in 
hot  water,  they  were  to  put  their  bore  arms  or  legs  into  scalding  water,  which  if  they  were  bro«iihft 
oat  without  hurt,  they  were  taken  to  be  innocent  of  the  crime. 


OBD  467  ORL 

ORDNANCE  SURVET.  The  trigonometrical  Burrej  of  England  was  oommenced  by 
Geo.  Roy  in  1784,  continued  by  Col.  Colby,  and  completed  by  CoL  Jamea  in  1856. 
The  publication  of  the  maps  oommenced  in  1819,  under  the  direction  of  CoL  Mudge, 
and  ia  still  going  on ;  the  southern  part  on  the  scale  of  one  inch  to  the  mile,  Uie 
northern  six  inches  to  the  mile.  The  surrey  of  Ireland  has  been  oompleted  and 
published ;  that  of  Scotland  is  to  be  proceeded  with. 

ORGANS.  The  invention  of  the  organ  is  attributed  to  ArchimedeSi  about  220  b.o.  ;  but 
the  fact  does  not  rest  on  sufficient  authority.  It  is  also  attributed  to  one  Ctesibius. 
a  barber  of  Alexandria,  about  100  B.a  The  organ  was  brought  to  Europe  from  the 
Greek  empire,  and  was  fint  applied  to  religious  devotionB,  in  churches,  In  a-D.  657. — 
Bellarmme,  Organs  were  used  in  the  Western  churches  by  pope  Vitalianus,  in  658. 
— AmmimiuM,  It  is  affirmed  that  the  organ  was  known  in  France  in  the  time  of 
Louis  L  815,  when  one  was  constructed  by  an  Italian  priest.  St  Jerome  mentions 
an  organ  with  twelve  pairs  of  beUows,  which  might  have  been  heard  a  mile  off;  and 
another  at  Jerusalem  which  might  have  been  heard  on  the  Mount  of  Olives.  The 
organ  at  Haarlem  is  one  of  the  largest  in  Europe ;  it  has  60  stops  and  8000  pipes. 
At  Seville  is  one  with  1000  stops  and  5800  pipes.  The  oi^gan  at  Amsterdam  has  a 
set  of  pipes  that  imitate  a  chorus  of  human  voioes. 

ORGANS  IN  ENGLAND.  That  at  York  minster  is  the  lai^gest;  and  the  organ  in  the 
Musio-hall,  Birmingham,  the  next.  In  London,  the  largest  is,  perhaps,  that  of 
Spitalfields  church ;  and  that  in  Christ  Church  is  nearly  ss  extensive.  The  best  is 
the  famous  Temple  organ,  erected  by  competition  of  Schmidt  and  Harris,  two  eminent 
builders;  and  iJter  lonc^protracted  disputes  about  their  merits,  the  question  was 
referred  to  Mr.  Jefferies,  afterwards  chief  justice,  who  decided  in  fiivour  of  Schmidt. 
A  monster  organ  was  erected  in  the  Crystal  Palace  in  June,  1857,  which  at  times 
overpowered  Uie  2400  Tocal  and  instrumental  performers. 

ORIEL  COLLEGE,  Oxford,  Founded  in  1337,  by  Adam  de  Brome,  archdeacon  of 
Stow,  and  almoner  to  king  Edward  IL  This  college  derives  its  name  from  a  tene- 
ment called  FOrieU,  on  the  site  of  which  the  buildings  stand.  Oriel  college,  according 
to  Ashe,  ranks  as  the  fourth  in  point  of  antiquity  in  this  university  ;  we  believe,  how- 
ever, it  is  more  generally,  and  more  correctly,  accounted  the  fifth, 

ORIGENISTS.  A  sect  that  pretended  to  draw  their  opinions  from  the  writings  or 
books  of  Orieen,  concerning  principles.  They  maintained  that  Christ  was  the  son 
of  God  no  other  way  than  by  adoption  and  grace ;  that  souls  were  created  before  the 
bodies ;  that  the  sun,  moon,  stars,  and  the  waters  that  are  under  the  firmament,  had 
all  souls ;  that  the  tonnents  of  the  damned  shall  have  an  end,  and  that  the  fallen 
angels  shall  after  a  time  be  restored  to  their  fint  condition.  These  and  various 
other  errors  infested  the  Church  in  the  4th,  5th,  and  6th  centuries.  They  were  con- 
demned  by  councils,  and  the  reading  of  Origen's  works  forbidden.  An  unbounded 
lore  of  allegory  has  been  the  principal  distinction  of  this  sect — Burhe, 

ORION  Stb4H-Ship.  This  splendid  vessel,  bound  from  Liverpool  to  Glasgow,  struck  on 
a  sunken  rock  northward  of  Portpatriok,  and  within  a  stone's  throw  of  land,  and 
instantly  filled  in  seven  fiithoms  of  water.  By  this  lamentable  catastrophe,  of 
two  hundred  pessengers  that  were  supposed  to  be  on  board  at  the  time,  more  than 
fifty  were  drowned.  The  weather  was  fine,  the  sky  clear,  and  the  sea  quite  calm. 
June  18, 1850.    The  ship  had  been  parted  in  two  by  the  violence  of  the  shock. 

ORKNEY  AND  SHETLAND  ISLES.  These  islands  were  ceded  by  Denmark  to  Scotland 
in  AJ>.  830,  and  were  confirmed  to  James  III.  for  a  sum  of  money,  in  1468.  The 
Oikneys  were  the  andent  Oreades ;  and,  united  with  Shetland,  they  now  form  one  of 
the  Scotch  counties.  The  bishopric  of  Orkney  was  founded  by  St  Servanus  early  in 
the  fifth  oentuiy,  some  affirm  by  St.  Colm.  It  ended  with  the  abolition  of  episoopacy 
in  Scotland,  about  1689.    See  Bitkopa  of  SeoUatUL 

ORLEANS,  SIEGE  op.  By  the  English,  under  John  Talbot,  afterwards  earl  of  Shrews- 
bury,  Oct  12, 1428.  The  city  was  bravely  defended  by  Gauoour,  the  more  so  as  its 
&11  would  have  ruined  the  cause  of  Charles  VI.  king  of  France ;  and  it  was  relieved, 
and  the  siege  raised,  by  the  intrepidity  and  heroism  of  Joan  of  Are,  afterwards  sur- 
named  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  April  29, 1429.  See  Joaii  of  Are,  Siege  of  Orleans,  when 
the  duke  of  Guise  was  killed,  1563. 

ORLEANS,  HOUSE  or.  This  brsnoh  of  the  reyal  family  of  Fnmoe  was  called  to  the 
throne  in  1880.      Loois-Philippe,  son  of  the  celebrated  due  d*Orleans  (who  had 

»h2 


ORL  468  OST 

assumed  the  title  of  EgaliU^  or  Citisen  Equality,  and  had  voted  for  the  death  of  his 
relative,  Louis  XYL  and  who  was  himself  afterwards  beheaded  by  order  of  the  revo- 
lutionary tribunal),  was  chosen  king  under  the  modified  title  of  King  of  the  Freneh, 
on  August  9,  in  that  year.  Louis-Philippe  and  his  family  were  obli^d  to  flee  from 
Fnuace,  Feb.  24,  1848,  in  consequence  of  the  revolution.    See  Framce, 

ORLEANS,  MAID  of,  the  celebrated  Joan  of  Arc.    See  Joan  of  Arc 

ORLEANS,  NEW.  The  capital  of  Louisiana,  built  in  1720,  under  the  regency  of  the 
duke  of  Orleans.  The  French  language  was  formerly  almost  uQivemd  here,  but  the 
English  now  predominates.  In  1788,  seven-eighths  of  the  dty  were  destroyed  by 
fire;  but  it  is  now  rebuilt.  The  British  attacked  New  Orleans  in  December 
1814,  and  were  repulsed  by  the  Americans  under  general  Jackson,  with  great  loss, 
Jan.  7, 1816. 


ORPHAN  HOUSES.    The  emperor  Tnjan  waa  the  first  who  formed  hvge 

ments  for  this  purpose.  Plinv  relates  in  his  panegyric  that  Trajan  had  caused  6y9 
thousand  free-bom  children  to  be  sought  out  and  educated ;  about  a.i>.  105.  Orphan 
houses,  properly  so  called,  are  mentioned  for  the  first  time  in  the  laws  of  the  emperor 
Justinian.  At  the  court  of  Byaantium,  the  office  of  inapector  of  orphans,  orjAamO' 
trophot,  was  so  honourable,  that  it  was  held  by  the  brother  of  the  emperor  Michaul  lY. 
in  the  11th  century. — Bedmann.    See  Foundling  HotpUaJt, 

ORRERY.  The  employment  of  planetary  machines  to  illustrate  and  explain  the  motioos 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  appears  to  have  been  coeval  with  the  construction  of  the 
clepsydm  and  other  horological  automata.  Ptolemy  devised  the  circles  and  ejucycles 
that  distinguish  his  system  about  a.d.  180.  The  planetary  dock  of  Fin^  was  begun 
A.D.  1558.  The  planetarium  of  De  Rheita  was  formed  about  1650.  The  Orrery,  ao 
called,  wos  invented  by  Charles,  earl  of  Orrery ;  but  perhaps  with  more  justice  it  is 
ascribed  to  Mr.  Rowley  of  Lichfield,  whom  his  loidship  patronised,  1670.  This 
Orrery  has  been  greatly  improved  of  late  years. 

ORTHES,  OB  ORTHEZ,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  British  and  Spanish  armies  on 
one  side,  and  the  French  on  the  other,  the  former  commanded  by  the  maiqness 
(afterwards  duke)  of  Wellington,  and  the  latter  by  marshal  Soult  In  this  memormble 
engagement  the  British  gained  a  great  and  decisive  victory,  Feb.  27, 1814.  The 
victory  was  soon  followed  by  the  battle  of  Toulouse,  whidi  see. 

OSSORY,  BISHOPRIC  of,  in  Ibbland.  This  see  was  first  planted  at  Saager,  about 
A.D.  402  (thirty  years  before  the  arrival  of  St.  Patrick),  from  whence  the  biahope  of 
it  were  called  Episcopi  Saiffermtes.  From  Saiger  it  was  translated  to  Aghavoe,  in 
Upper  Ossory,  in  1052.  Felix  O'Dullany,  bishop  of  Ossory,  translated  the  see  to 
Kilkenny,  about  the  end  of  the  reign   of  Henry  II.      The  cathedral  church 


allowed  to  be  the  finest  in  Ireland.    This  bishopric  was  united  to  Ferns  and  Leighlin 
in  1842,  under  the  provisions  of  the  Church  Temporalities'  act,  passed  in  183^ 

OSTEND,  IN  Belqixtm,  is  famous  for  the  long  siege  it  sustained  against  the  Spsniat^ 
from  July  1601  to  Sept.  1604,  when  it  surrendered  by  an  honourable  capitulation. 
On  the  death  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  the  French  seised  Ostend;  but  in  1706,  after 
the  battle  of  Ramilies,  it  was  retaken  by  the  alliea.  It  was  again  taken  by  the  French 
in  1745,  but  restored  in  1748.  In  1756,  the  French  garrisoned  this  town  for  the 
empress-queen  Maria  Theresa.  In  1792,  the  French  once  more  took  Ostend,  which 
they  evacuated  in  1798,  snd  repossessed  in  1794.  The  English  landed  troops  here, 
who  destroyed  the  works  of  the  Bruges  canal ;  but  the  wind  shifting  before  they 
could  re-embark,  they  were  obliged  to  surrender  to  the  French,  May  19, 1798. 

OSTRACISM.  From  the  Greek  word  0<rrpaMop,  an  oyster;  a  mode  of  proscription  at 
Athens,  by  which  those  who  were  either  too  rich  or  had  too  much  authority,  were 
condemned  to  ten  years'  banishment,  (but  without  any  confiscation  of  their  gooda  or 
estote,)  for  fear  they  might  set  up  for  tyrants  over  their  native  country.  Thia  custom 
is  said  to  have  been  firat  introduced  by  the  tyrant  Hippies ;  by  others,  it  is  ascribed 
to  Cleisthenes,  about  510  B.o.  The  people  wrote  the  names  of  those  whom  they  most 
suspected  upon  small  shells ;  these  they  put  into  an  urn  or  box,  and  presented  it  to 
the  senate.  Upon  a  scrutiny,  he  whose  name  was  oftenest  written  was  sentenced  by 
the  council  to  be  banished  ab  arit  etfocii,  6000  votes  were  required.  But  this  law 
at  last  was  abused,  and  they  who  deserved  best  of  the  commonwealth  fell  under  the 

fopular  resentment*  as  Aristides,  noted  for  his  justice,  Miltiades,  for  his  victoris^  ^, 
t  was  abolished  by  ironically  proscribing  Hyperbolas,  a  mean  person. 


OST 


460 


OUZ 


08TR0LENKA,  BATTLE  op.  Between  the  Poles  and  Rusaana,  one  of  the  most 
nngoinaiy  and  desperate  battles  fought  by  the  Poles  for  the  reoovery  of  their  inde- 
pendence, May  26, 1831.  On  both  sides  the  slaughter  was  immense,  but  the  Poles 
remained  masters  of  the  field ;  they»  however,  shortly  afterwards  retreated  to  Praga. 
The  Russians,  in  their  accounts  of  this  battle,  claimed  the  victory. 

OTAHEITE.  Discovered  in  1767,  by  captain  Wallis,  who  called  it  George  the  Third 
Island.  CSaptain  Cook  came  hither  in  1768»  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus;  sailed 
round  the  whole  island  in  a  boat,  and  stayed  three  months :  it  was  visited  twice  after- 
wards by  that  celebrated  navigator.  See  Cook.  Omai,  a  native  of  this  island,  vras 
brought  over  to  England  by  captain  Cook,  and  carried  back  by  him,  in  his  last 
voyaga  In  1799,  king  Pomare  ceded  the  district  of  Matavai  to  some  English  mission- 
aries. Queen  Pomare  was  compelled  to  place  herself  under  the  protection  of  France, 
Sept.  9,  1843.  She  retracted,  and  Otaheite  and  the  neighbouring  islands  were  taken 
possession  of  by  admiral  Dupetit-Thouars  in  the  name  of  the  French  king^  Nov.  1843. 
Seisure  of  Mr.  Pritchard,  the  English  consul,  March  6, 1844. 

OTTERBURN,  BATTLE  or.  Fought  July  31, 1888,  between  the  English  under  the 
earl  of  Northumberland  and  his  two  sons,  and  the  Scots  under  the  heroic  sir  William 
Douglas,  who  was  slain  by  Henry  Percy,  sumamed  Hotspur;  but  the  Soots  obtained 
the  victory,  and  the  two  Peroies  were  made  prisoners.  On  this  battle  the  well-known 
ballad  of  C^evp  Ckcue  k  founded. — Walnngkam^ 

OTTOMAN  EMPIRE.    See  Twrhey. 

OUDE,  a  large  and  rich  province  in  North  India,  formerly  a  vioe-royalty  held  by  the 
vizier  of  the  great  moguL  On  the  dismemberment  of  his  empire  about  1760,  it  wsa 
seized  by  the  vizier  Shuja-ood-Dowlah,  ancestor  of  the  present  royal  fiimily. 


Battl«  of  Bnzar.  where  Sb^ja  and  his 
ally,  Meer  Cowdm,  are  totally  defoated, 
and  the  British  became  virtually 
masters  of  Oude  May  2%  1764 

Reign  of  AjBoph-ood-Dowkth,  who  cedes 
Benares.  &c.  to  the  East  India  Com- 
pany»  who  place  troops  in  Oude    .    1775-81 

[Tne  annual  subsidy  to  the  company  in 
1787,  500,000(.:  in  1794,  760,000^;  in 
1801,  1,362,847/.] 

If  ore  territories  ceded  to  the  Company  .  1801 

Ohajgee-ood-deen  becomes  Hnfr,  with  the 
consent  of  the  British  ....  1819 

Dreadful  misgoTemment  of  Nuaseer<ood- 
deen 1827-37 


At  his  death  the  British  resident,  colonel 
Lowe,  suppresses  promptly  an  insur- 
rection. 

Mahommed  All  goTems  well  .        .      1837-4S 

But  his  son  Unseed  A li  Shah  .    1842-7 

And  grandson,  wajid  Ali  Shah,  exceed 
all  &eir  predecessors  in  profligacy    1847-56 

In  consequence  (by  Tirtue  of  the  treaty 
of  1801}  Oude  is  annexed  to  the  British 
territories  March  10, 1856 

The  queen  of  Oude^A^c.  arriyes  in  London 
to  appeal  .         Aug.  20,  1856 

Indian  mutiny :— ex*king  of  Oude  im- 
prisoned (on  suspicion)      .     June  14,  1857 


OUDENARDE,  BATTLE  OF.  Between  the  English  and  allies  under  the  duke  of  Marl- 
borough and  prince  Eugene,  against  the  French,  who  were  besieging  Oudenarde. 
The  fVench  were  defeated  and  entirely  routed,  with  great  loss.  Marlborough  pushed 
his  victory  so  &r  that  the  French  king  entered  into  a  n^otiation  for  peace,  which 
was,  however,  of  no  effect,  July  11, 1708. 

OULA.RT,  BATTLE  op.  Between  a  body  of  5000  Irish  insurgents,  and  the  king's 
troope,  in  small  number.  In  this  fatal  affiur,  the  North  Cork  militia,  after  great  feats 
of  bravery,  were  cut  to  pieces,  the  lieut.-colonel,  a  sergeant^  and  three  privates  alone 
escaping.  May  27,  1708. — Sir  Richard  Mtugrave, 

OUNCE.  The  sixteenth  part  of  the  pound  avoirdupois,  and  twelfth  of  the  pound  troy. 
The  word  is  from  wncia  ;  and  its  precise  weight  was  fixed  by  Henry  III.  who  decreed 
that  an  EngliBh  oimce  should  be  640  dry  grains  of  wheat ;  that  twelve  of  these  ounces 
should  be  a  pound ;  and  that  eight  poimds  should  be  a  gallon  of  wine,  1233. 

OURIQXJE,  BATTLE  of.  Alfonso,  count  or  duke  of  Portugal,  encounters  five  Saracen 
Idtngs  and  a  prodigious  army  of  Moors  on  the  plains  of  Ourique,  July  26, 1139.  After 
prodigies  of  valour  he  signally  defeats  his  enemies,  and  is  hailed  by  his  soldiers  king 
upon  the  spot.  Lisbon,  the  capital,  is  taken,  and  he  enters  it  at  the  head  of  his 
victorious  army,  and  soon  after  is  crowned  as  the  first  king.  This  was  one  of  the 
greatest  fights  recorded  in  the  eventful  history  of  Portugal ;  it  finally  overthrew  the 
Moorish  dominion  in  that  kingdom. 

OUZEL  OALLET  SOCIETT.  A  popular  and  useful  society  in  Dublin.  In  a.d.  1700 
the  case  of  a  ship  in  the  port  of  Dublin  eicited  great  legal  perplexity ;  and  in  order 
to  lessen  the  consequent  delay  and  expense,  it  was  referred  to  an  arbitration  of 
merchants,  whose  decision  was  prompt  and  highly  approved.    This  led  to  the  foua 


OVA 


470 


OXP 


dation  of  tho  preaent  lociety  for  terminiituig  commorcial  disputes  by  «rbitntioB. 
The  venel  was  named  the  OmmI  OaUey,  and  the  society  adopted  the  name  in  1705. 

OVATION.  An  inferior  triumph  which  the  Romans  allowed  those  genends  of  their  army 
whose  Tiotories  were  not  coD8iderRbl&  He  who  was  thus  rewarded,  entered  the  city 
with  a  myrtle  orown  upon  his  head,  that  tree  being  consecrated  to  Venus ;  wherefore 
when  Marcus  Crassus  was  decreed  the  honour  of  an  ovation ,  he  particularly  desired 
it  as  a  fiivour  of  the  senate  to  be  allowed  a  laurel  crown  instead  of  a  myrtle  one. 
This  triumph  wis  called  ovation,  because  the  general  offered  a  sheep  when  he 
to  the  Capitol,  whereas  in  the  great  triumph  he  offered  a  bull  Publiua 
Tubertus  wss  the  fint  who  waa  decreed  an  ovation,  508  B.a 

OVERLAND  NEW  ROUTE  to  INDIA    See  Waghom't  New  Route  io  India, 

OWHTHEE.  Diwovered  by  captain  Cook  in  1778.  Here  this  illustrioua  seaman  fdl 
a  victim  to  a  sudden  resentment  of  the  natives.  A  boat  having  been  stolen  by  one  of 
the  islanders,  Uie  captain  went  on  shore  to  seiae  the  king,  and  keep  him  as  a  hostage 
till  the  boat  wis  restored.  The  people,  however,  were  not  diiposed  to  submit  to 
insult;  their  resistance  brought  on  hostilitieB,  and  captain  Cook  and  some  of 
companions  were  killed,  Feb.  14, 1779. 

OXFORD.  The  chief  seat  of  leammg  in  England.  Henry  IIL  compelled  by  his  barona, 
summoned  a  parliament  here,  1258. — Dugdaie.  The  first  dear  account  we  have  of 
the  representatives  of  the  people  forming  the  honse  of  commons,  is  in  the  43nd  of 
Henry  IIL  when  it  was  settled  by  the  statutes  of  Oxford,  that  twelve  persons  should 
be  chosen  to  represent  the  commons  in  the  three  parliaments  which,  by  the  nxth 
statute,  were  to  be  held  yearly. — BwrUm't  Anndb.  A  parliamoit  assombled  here, 
1  Charles  L  1625,  in  consequence  of  the  plsgue  then'  raging  in  London ;  and  in  1644, 
Charles  summoned  such  members  of  both  houses  as  were  devoted  to  his  interest  to 
meet  him  at  Oxford ;  these  were  seceders  from  the  parliament  at  Westminster. 

OXFORD  UNIVERSITT.  This  university  is  by  some  suppooed  to  have  been  a  aeminaxy 
for  learning  before  the  time  of  Alfred,  and  that  it  owed  its  revival  snd  conseqnenoe 
to  his  liberal  patronage.  Others  state,  that  though  the  university  is  ascribed  to 
Alfred,  yet  that  no  regular  institution  deserving  the  name  existed  even  at  the  period 
of  the  Norman  conquesl  On  Aug.  81, 1860,  a  commission  was  appointed  to  inquire 
into  its  "  state,  studies,  discipline,  and  revenues,'*  which  reported  April  27, 185S ; 
and  acts  were  passed  in  1855  and  1856  making  many  alterations  in  the  eonstitutioa 
and  government  of  the  university. 


OOLLSGES. 

University.  Said  to  have  been  founded 
by  king  Alfred,  87S ;  founded  by  WU- 
liam,  archdeacon  of  Durham,  about 

A.D.  1232 

BalioL  John  Baliol,  knt.  and  Deborah 
bis  wife ;  he  waa  fiither  to  Baliol,  king 
of  the  Scots 1263 

llerton  College.  Walter  de  Merton, 
bishop  of  Rochester  .    .  1264 

Hertford  College  (dissolved  in  1818,  and 
a  Holford  scholarahip  appointed)     .  1312 

Exeter.  Walter  Btepleton.  bishop  of 
Exeter 1314 

Oriel  CoUege.  King  Edward  II. ;  Adam 
de  Brome,  archdeacon  of  Stowe      .    .  1396 

Queen's  College.    Boboi  de  Eglesfleld, 
clerk,  confessor  to  queen  Philippe,  con- 
sort of  Edward  III 1340 

New  Colleoe.  William  of  Wykeham, 
bishop  of  Winchester ;  fint  called  Bt 
Mary  of  Winchester  .1886 

Lincoln  College.  Richard  Fleming,  1427; 
finished  by  Rotheriiam,  bishop  of  Lin- 
oobi 1479 

AH  Souls'  College,  founded  by  Henry 
Chichely,  archbishop  of  Cftnterbtuy,  1437 

Magdalen.  William  of  Waynflete,  bishop 
ofWinchester 1456 


Braxenose.  William  Smjrth,  bishop  of 
Lincoln,  and  sir  Richard  Sutton  a.d.  1600 

Corpus  ChristL  Richard  Fox,  bishop  of 
Winchester \Sl$ 

Christ  Church.  Oardinsl  Wolser,  16S5 ; 
and  afterwards  by  Heniy  Vlll.      .    .  1592 

Trinity.  Sir  Thomas  P^  on  the  basis 
of  a  previous  insUtution  called  Dur< 
ham  College 1554 

St  John's.  Sir  Thomas  Whyte,  lord 
Mayor  of  London 1555 

Jesus  College.  Dr.  Hugh  Price ;  qaoen 
Elisabeth 1571 

Wadluun.  Nicholas  Wadhsm,  and  Do- 
rothy, his  wife 161S 

Pembroke,  Thomas  Teesdale^,  and  Uchard 
Wtghtwick,  clerk 1691 

Worcester.  Sir  Thomas  Coke  of  Bentley 
in  Worcestershire;  it  was  originally 
called  Gloucester  College   .  .    1714 

HALUL 

St.  Edmund's 1M0 

St.  Mary's 1S8S 

New  Inn  Hall 1992 

St.  Mary  Magdalen          ....  14S7 
St.  Alban's 1547 


OXFORD  ASSIZES,  Thb  Fatal.    When  the  high  sheriff  snd  800  other  persons 
snddenly,  of  on  infection  caught  from  the  prisoners,  20  Elis.  1577.->£tow.    This 
distemper  wss  supposed  to  srise  from  the  stenoh  that  came  £rom  tiie  prisonati^  who 
were  so  much  crowded  within  dose  and  narrow  walls. — CkrotLBriL 


OXF 


471 


PAC 


OXFORD,  BISHOPRIC  op.  This  diocese  constituUd  a  part  of  the  diocese  of  Lincoln 
until  1541,  when  king  Henry  VIIL  erected  this  into  a  bishopric,  and  endowed  it  out 
of  tiie  lands  of  the  dissolved  monasteries  of  Abingdon  and  Osney :  and  the  same 
king  assigned  the  ohurch  of  the  abbey  of  Osney,  for  a  cathedral  to  this  see ;  but  five 
years  afterwards  he  removed  the  seat  of  the  see  to  Oxford.  The  present  cathedral 
of  Oxford  was  anciently  dedicated  to  St.  Frideswide;  but  when  the  see  was  trans- 
lated  thither,  it  was  entitled  Christ  Church,  and  part  of  the  lands  appropriated  by 
cardinal  Wolsey  to  the  maintenance  of  his  college  was  allotted  to  the  dean  and 
chapter ;  but  during  the  reign  of  queen  Elisabeth,  this  see  was  almost  stripped  of 
the  ample  endowments  it  received  from  her  father. 

OXFORD,  EARL  or.  his  ADMINISTRATION.  Robert,  earl  of  Oxford  (previously  ri. 
hon.  Robert  Harley),  treasury ;  sir  Simon  (afterwards  lord)  Harcourt,  lord  keeper; 
John,  duke  of  Normanby  sad  Buckingham,  lord  president ;  John,  bishop  of  Bristol 
(afterwards  of  London),  privy  seal ;  Henry  St.  John,  afterwards  viscount  Bolingbroke, 
and  William,  lord  Dartmouth,  secretaries  of  state;  rt.  hon.  Robert  Benson,  after- 
wards lord  Bingley,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  &a  June  1, 1711.  The  duke  of 
Shrewsbury  succeeded  lord  Oxford,  receiving  the  lord  treasurer's  staff  on  July  80, 
1714,  three  days  before  the  death  of  queen  Anne.  From  the  reign  of  George  L  the 
office  of  lord  treasurer  has  been  executed  by  oommiBsioners. 

OXFORD,  HIS  ASSAULT  oh  the  QUEEN.  A  youth  named  Edward  Oxford,  who  had 
been  a  servant  in  a  public-house,  discharged  two  pistols  at  her  majesty  queen  Victoria 
and  prince  Albert,  as  they  were  proceeding  up  Constitution-hill  in  an  open  phaeton 
from  Buckingham-palace.  He  stood  within  a  few  yards  of  the  carriage ;  but  for- 
tunately neitiber  her  majesty  nor  the  prince  were  injured,  Jane  10, 1840.  Oxford 
was  subsequently  tried  at  the  Old  Bailey  (July  10),  and  being  adjudged  to  be  insane^ 
was  sent  for  confinement  to  Bethlehem^hospitaL 

OXTGEN,  (a  gas,  so  called  from  ^|vf,  sharp,  as  being  a  chief  component  of  acids,)  is  the 
most  abundant  of  all  substances,  constituting  about  one-third  of  the  solid  earth,  and 
forming  by  weight  nine-tenths  of  the  water  and  one-fourth  of  the  atmosphere.  It 
was  first  separated  by  Priestley  in  Aug.  1774,  and  by  Scheele  in  1775.  It  is  the  chief 
supporter  of  animal  me  by  respiration  and  of  combustion.    See  (hime, 

OYER  AND  TERMINER.  A  commiuion  directed  to  the  judges  and  other  personages 
of  the  courte  to  which  it  is  issued,  by  virtue  whereof  they  have  power  to  hear  and 
determiime  treasons,  felonies,  &c. 

O  TES  1  A  corruption  of  the  French  ojftz,  hear  ye  I  The  term  used  by  a  public  crier, 
to  enjoin  silence  and  attention ;  very  ancient^  and  the  date  not  known. 

OZONE,  (from  6(w,  to  yield  an  odour,)  a  name  given  in  1840  by  11  Schonbein  of  Basel 
to  the  odour  in  the  atmosphere  developed  during  the  electric  dischaige.  It  is  con- 
sidered to  be  a  modification  of  the  oxygen,  {which  §€§,)  and  when  oocurring  naturally, 
to  have  an  effect  on  health.  It  is  also  produoed  by  the  action  of  moist  air  on 
phosphorus. 


P. 

PACIFICATION,  EDICTS  or.  The  nsme  usually  given  by  the  French  to  the  edicts  of 
their  kings  in  favour  of  the  Protestants,  with  the  object  of  appeasing  the  commo- 
tions occasioned  by  their  prerious  persecutions. 


First  edict,  published  by  Charles  IX. 
permittiog  the  tnn  ezerdse  of  the  re- 
formed reUgion  near  all  the  cities  and 
towns  in  the  realm    .  .    Jan.  1662 

Edict ;  the  reformed  religion  permitted 
in  the  hooses  of  lords  Justiciaries,  and 
oertain  other  persona     .       .  March,  IMS 

These  edicts  revoked,  and  all  Protestant 
ministers  ordered  to  depart  the  king- 
dom in  16  days 1668 

Edict,  allowing  lords  and  others  to  have 
service  in  their  houses,  and  granting 
publio  service  in  certain  towns       .    .  1670 

[In  August,  1672,  the  same  monarch  au- 
thorised the  massacre  of  St.  B«rtho« 
louew.    Bee  Bartholomew.} 


Edict  of  Pacification  published  by  Henry 

III.  .       .       .       April,  1576 

This  edict  was  revoked  .     Dea  1676 

And  was  renewed  for  six  yean       Oct.  1677 
[Several  edicts  were  pubhshed  against 
the  Protestants  after  the  six  years  ex- 


pired.] 
Edict  of 


ict  of  Henry  IV.  renewing  that  of 

Oct  1677 IWl 

Edict  of  Nantes,  by  Henry  IV.  extend- 
ing the  toletmtion  allowed  to  Protes- 
tants,   ^ee  Edict  qf  Santea       .  April,  1508 
This  last  edict  confirmed  by  Louis  XIII.  1610 

Again,  by  Louis  XIV 1662 

Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  by 
Louis  XIV Oct.  1686 


PAD  472  PAL 

PADLOCKS.    This  epecies  of  lock  wu  ioTonted  by  Bachar  at  Naremberg  in  aj).  1540. 

PAGANISH.  Pagans,  in  the  Scriptures  called  the  heathen,  idolaten^  and  gentilea^  are 
worehippen  of  idols,  not  agreeing  in  any  set  form  or  points  of  belief,  except  in  thai 
of  one  Qod  sapreme,  in  wluch  point  all  traYeUers  assure  ns  they  concur,  and  their 
haying  gods  is  a  demonstrative  proof  of  that  belief  Constantine  ordered  the  Pligan 
temples  to  be  destroyed  throughout  the  Roman  empire,  a.d.  S31 ;  and  Paganism  was 
finally  orerthrown  in  the  reign  of  Theodosius  the  younger,  about  890. — TiUemomL 

PAINTING.  An  art,  according  to  Plato,  of  the  higheat  antiquity  in  E^gypt.  Osymandj-aa 
(see  Egypi)  causes  his  exploits  to  be  represented  in  painting,  2100  Ka — Utktr,  Pandas 
of  Sicyon  was  the  inventor  of  the  encaustiC|  a  method  of  burning  the  colours  into  wood 
or  ivory,  about  360-830  b.o.  The  ancients  considered  Sicyon  we  nurMiy  of  paintem 
Antiphiles,  an  Egyptian,  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  the  grotetque^  332  && 
— Pliny,  The  art  was  introduced  at  Rome  from  Etiiiria,  by  Quintus  Fabius,  who  on 
that  account  was  styled  Pictar,  291  B.o. — Livy,*  The  first  excellent  pictures  were 
brought  from  Corinth  by  Mummius,  146  B.o.  After  the  death  of  Augustas,  not  a 
single  painter  of  eminence  appeared  for  several  ages ;  Ludius,  who  was  Tery  cele- 
brated, is  supposed  to  have  been  the  last,  about  a.d.  14.  Painting  on  canTss  seems  to 
have  been  known  at  Rome  in  a.d.  66.  Bede,  the  Saxon  historian,  who  died  in  735, 
knew  something  of  the  art.  It  revived  about  the  dose  of  the  13th  oentnry,  and 
Giovanni  Cimabue,  of  Florence,  is  awarded  the  honour  of  its  restoration.  It  was  at 
once  encouraged  and  generously  patronised  in  Italy.  John  Van  Byck  of  Brugea,  and 
his  brother  Hubert^  are  regarded  as  the  founders  of  the  Flemish  school  of  painting 
in  oil,  1415. — Du  Fresnoy,  Paulo  Ucoello  was  the  first  who  studied  perspective. 
The  earliest  mention  of  the  art  in  England  is  a.d.  1523,  about  which  time  Uenzy  YUL 
patronised  Holbein,  and  invited  Titian  to  his  oourt. 

PALACE  COURT.  The  court  of  the  queen's  palace  of  Westminster,  created  by  letters- 
patent,  16  Charles  II.  1664.  It  was  held  in  Great  Scotland  Yard,  and  was  a  court  of 
record  for  the  trial  of  all  personal  actions,  whatever  their  amount  might  be,  arisimg 
within  the  limits  of  twelve  miles  round  the  sorereign's  palace,  with  the  exception  <2 
the  city  of  London*    This  court  was  abolished  in  December,  1849. 

PALACE  OF  WESTMINSTER  The  new  houses  of  parliament  now  m  course  of  com- 
pletion are  so  called.  The  first  contract  for  the  embankment  of  the  river  was  takeo 
in  1837.  by  Messrs.  Lee ;  this  embankment,  heed  with  granite,  is  886  feet  in  length, 
and  projects  into  the  river  in  a  line  with  the  inner  side  of  the  third  pier  of  West- 
minster-bridge. Sir  Charles  Barry  is  the  architect  of  the  sumptuous  pile  of  bnildiag 
raising  since  1840.  The  whole  stands  on  a  bed  of  concrete  twelve  feet  thick :  to  the 
east  it  has  a  ftx)nt  of  about  1000  feet,  and  covers  an  area  of  nine  statute  acras.  The 
great  Victoria  tower  at  the  south-west  extremity  is  846  feet  in  height,  and  towers  of 
less  magnitude  crown  other  portions  of  the  building.  The  peers  took  poaaeasaon  of 
their  house,  it  being  made  ready  for  the  purpose,  April  15, 1847;  and  the  eommoii% 
of  their  house,  Nov.  4, 1852.    See  Pcurliament,  and  BeUt. 

PALATINE  AND  PALATINATES.  Palatine  was  a  German  dignity,  l^liam  the  Con- 
queror made  his  nephew,  Hugh  D'Abrincis,  count  palatine  of  Chester,  with  the  title 
of  earl,  1070.  Edward  IlL  created  the  palatine  of  Lancaster,  1376.  See  Lameaaler^ 
Lucky  of.  The  bishoprics  of  Ely  and  Durham  were  also  noade  county  palatines. 
There  is  also  mention  made  of  the  county  palatine  of  Hexham,  in  83  of  Henry  YUL 
c  10,  which  then  belonged  to  the  archbishop  of  York,  but  by  the  14th  of  Elisabeth 
it  was  dissolved,  and  m^de  part  of  the  county  of  Northumberland.  The  p*i^^««*^ 
jurisdiction  of  Durham  was  separated  from  the  diocese,  and  vested  in  the  crown, 
6  Will.  IV.  o.  19,  June  21, 1836.  Lancaster  has  long  been,  and  continues  to  ba,  a 
county  palatine.    See  LancatUr, 

PALATINES  AKD  SUABIANS.  About  7000  of  these  poor  Protestants,  firom  the  banks 
of  the  Rhine,  driven  from  their  habitations  by  the  French,  arrived  in  England,  and 
were  encamped  on  Blaokheath  and  Camberwell  common:  a  brief  was  granted  to 
collect  alms  for  them.    500  fiunilies  went  under  the  protection  of  the  govenmient  ta 

*  Farrhasiua  of  Ephesus  and  Zeuxis  were  oontomporftry  painters.  These  artists  onoe  oontanded  fcr 
pre-ommence  In  their  profossion,  and  when  tboy  exnibited  their  respoctiro  pieces,  the  birds  came  to 
pock  the  grapea  which  Zeuxis  had  painted.  Parrbasius  then  produced  his  piece,  and  Zeuxia  said. 
'*  BemoTO  the  curtain,  that  we  may  see  the  paiutinff.**  The  curtain  itself  was  the  paintuocr*  and 
ZeuxJB  acknowledged  himself  to  be  conquered,  exclaiming,  "  Zeuxis  has  deceived  the  birds ;  bat 
Parrhaains  has  deceived  Zeuxis ! "  Parrhasius  dressed  in  a  purple  robe,  and  wotb  a  crown  of  gold, 
liaUing  himself  king  of  painter^  415  n.Q.^PlMZarek, 


fy 


PAL  478  PAL 

Ireland,  and  settled  chiefly  about  Limerick,  where  parliament  g^ranted  them  24,0002. 
for  their  rapport  3000  were  sent  to  New  York  and  Hudson's  Bay,  but  not  having 
been  reoelTed  kindly,  they  went  to  PennsyWania^  and  being  there  greatly  encouraged 
by  the  Qoakers,  they  invited  over  some  thousands  of  German  and  Swiss  Protestants, 
who  soon  made  this  colony  flourishing,  7  Anne,  1709. — Aiuienon. 

TAIAj,  or  pallium.  In  the  Roman  Church  an  ensign  of  dignity  conferred  by  the 
pope  upon  archbishops.  An  archbishop  of  Canterbury  has  paid  5000  florins  for  a  palL 
By  a  decretal  of  pope  Oregory  XI.  no  archbishop  could  call  a  council,  bless  ^e 
chrism,  consecrate  churches,  ordain  a  clerk,  or  consecrate  a  bishop,  till  he  had  received 
his  pall  from  the  see  of  Rome.  The  pall  was  first  worn  by  an  Irish  archbishop  in 
1151-2,  when  it  was  conferred  at  Kellsby  a  national  synod,  on  March  9,  by  the 
cardinal  priest  Paparo  on  the  four  archbishops  of  Ireland,  Armagh,  Dublin,  Cashel, 
and  Tuam,  and  Qelasius  wss  recognised  as  primate  of  all  Ireland. — Bithop  Mant, 

PALLADIUM.  The  statue  of  Pallas,  concerning  which  ancient  authors  diwigree.  Some 
say  it  fell  from  heaven,  near  the  tent  of  Ilus,  as  he  was  building  Ilium ;  but  on  its 
preservation  depended  the  safety  of  Troy ;  which  the  oracle  of  ApoUo  declared 
should  never  be  taken  so  long  as  the  Palladium  was  found  within  its  walls.  This 
fatality  being  made  known  to  the  Greeks,  they  contrived  to  steal  it  away  during  the 
Trojan  war,  1184  B.O.  though  some  maintain  that  it  was  only  a  statue  of  similar  size 
and  shape,  and  that  the  real  palladium  was  conveyed  from  Troy  to  Italy  by  JBneaa, 
1188  B.O.  and  preserved  by  the  Romans  with  the  greatest  secresy  in  the  iemple  of 
Yestay  and  esteemed  the  destiny  of  Rome. 

PALLAS,  Thb  Planet.  Pallas  was  discovered  by  Olbers,  at  Bremen,  March  29, 1802. 
It  is  distant  from  the  sun  about  263  millions  of  miles,  and  completes  its  revolution 
in  four  years  seven  months  and  one-third  of  a  month.  Schroeter,  a  German  astro- 
nomer, estimated  its  diameter  to  be  2099  miles,  and  consequently  nearly  the  size  of 
our  moon.  It  presents  a  ruddy  aspect,  and  is  surrounded  with  a  nebulosity.  It  is 
distinguished  fit>m  all  the  other  planets  by  the  very  great  inclination  of  its  orbit  to 
the  pUne  of  the  ecliptic,  which  is  no  less  Uian  thirty-four  degrees  thirty-five  minutes. 

PALMER*S  TRIAL.    See  Trials,  1856,  note. 

PALMERSTON  ADMINISTRATION.  The  resignation  of  the  Aberdeen  administration 
was  announced  Feb.  1, 1855,  but  nearly  all  its  members  returned  to  office  soon  after 
under  Lord  Palmerston,  lord  Derby  and  lord  John  Russell  having  each  in  vain 
endeavoured  to  form  an  administration.  On  Feb.  22,  Mr.  Gladstone,  sir  James  Graham, 
and  Mr.  Sidney  Herbert  again  resigned  on  accoimt  of  the  Sebastopol  inquiry.  Lord 
'  John  Russell  resigned  July  18.  Lord  Canning  was  appointed  governor-general  of 
India,  July  4, 1855.  The  following  is  the  original  list  with  the  subsequent  alterations 
(1867) : 


First  lord  of  the  Treasury,  visoount  Pal- 
meTBton. 

Lord  Chancellor,  lord  Cranworth. 

Frssident  of  the  Coancil,  earl  GnuiTllle. 

Lord  Privy  Seal,  duke  of  Argyll ;  now,  earl 
of  Harrowby. 

Home  Secretflurv,  sir  Oeorge  Grey. 

Foreififo,  earl  or  Clarendon. 

Colonial,  rt.  hon.  Sidney  Herbert  (resigned 

Feb.   22);   afterwards,  lord  John  Rufwell 

(Teaignea  July  13) ;  sir  Wdliam  Moleeworth 

(died  Oct  22,  1865) ;  now,  rt.  hon.  Henry 

Labouchere 

War,  lord  Panmiuv. 

Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  rt  hon.  W. 


Gladstone  (resigned  Feb.  22) ;  now,  sir  G. 

Comewall  Lewis. 
First  Lord  of  Admiralty,  sir  James  Graham 

(resigned  Fob.  22) ;  now,  sir  Charles  Wood. 
Bouti  of  Control,  sir  Chiirlea  Wood ;  now,  rt 

hon.  R.  VemoQ  Smith. 
Public  Works,  sir  W.  Molesworth ;  now,  sir 

B.  Hall  (appointed  July  22,  1855)i 
Postmaster-Geueral,  viacouiit  Canning,  (ap- 
pointed governor-general  of  India,  July  4; ; 

now,  duke  of  Argyll. 
Board  of  Trade,  lord  Stanley  of  Alderley. 
Marquess  of  Lansdowne,  without  office. 
Chancellor  of  Duchy  of  I.iancaster,  rt.  hon. 

H.  T.  Baines  (appointed  Nov.  24,  1865). 


PAIiM-StJNDAT.  When  Christ  made  his  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem,  multitudes 
of  the  people  who  were  come  to  the  feast  of  the  Passover,  took  branches  of  the  palm- 
tree,  and  went  forth  to  meet  him,  with  acclamations  and  hosannas,  a.d.  83.  In 
memory  of  this  circumstance  it  is  usual,  in  popish  countries,  to  carry  palms  on  the 
Sunday  before  Easter ;  hence  called  Palm  Sunday.  Conquerors  were  not  onl^  accus- 
tomed to  carry  palm-trees  in  their  hands;  but  the  Romans,  moreover,  m  their 
triumphs,  sometimes  wore  toga  palmata,  in  which  the  figures  of  palm  trees  were 
interwoven. 

PALMYRA,  RUINS  of,  in  the  deserts  of  Syria,  discovered  by  some  English  travellers 
from  Aleppo,  a.d.  1678.    The  ruins  of  Palmyra,  which  are  chiefly  of  white  marble. 


PAM  i74  PAN 

prove  it  to  have  been  more  extensive  and  splendid  than  even  Rome  itaelf.  It 
supposed  to  have  been  the  Tadmor  in  the  wilderness  built  by  Solomon.*  ZeBobia» 
the  queen  of  Palmyra,  resisted  the  Roman  power  in  the  time  of  Auivlian,  who, 
having  made  himself  master  of  the  place,  caused  all  the  inhabitants  to  be  destroyed, 
and  gave  the  pillage  of  the  city  to  the  soldiers.  The  stupendous  rains  of  this  dty 
were  visited,  in  1751,  by  Mr.  Wood,  who  published  an  aooount  of  them  in  1763. 
Mr.  Dawkins  also  visited  Palmyra,  and  Mr.  Bruce,  who,  on  ascending  a  neighbouring 
mount,  was  struck  with  the  most  magnificent  sight  which,  he  believes,  ever  mortal 
saw ;  the  immense  plains  below  were  so  covered  with  the  grandest  buildings  (palaces 
and  temples),  that  they  seemed  to  touch  one  another. 

PAMPELUNA,  IN  Spain.  This  city  vras  taken  by  the  French  on  their  invasion  of  Spain. 
It  was  invested  by  the  British,  between  whom  and  the  French  very  obatinate  eonflicta 
took  place,  July  27  and  29, 181S.  P^mpeluna  surrendered  to  the  British  Oct.  31,  in 
that  year.  The  French  had  thrown  into  it  a  strong  garrison  immediately  after  the 
battle  of  Vittoria,  which  did  not  submit  until  the  day  last  mentioned. 

PAMPHLET.  The  first  appearance  of  pamphlets  amongst  us  is  generally  thought  io 
have  been  in  opposition  to  the  errors  and  corruptions  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  Those 
who  were  first  convinced  of  the  reasonableness  of  the  "  new  learning,"  as  it  waa  then 
called,  propagated  their  opinions  in  small  pieces,  which  were  cheaplv  printed,  and 
(what  was  then  of  great  importance)  easily  concealed.  Political  pamphlets  began  to 
be  written  in  Edw.  YI.'s  time.  They  were  very  numerous  in  the  17th  oentorf. 
See  ItUrod.  to  Harl.  MitetU.  xii.  1808.  Large  collections  are  in  the  libraries  of  the 
British  Museum  and  the  Royal  and  London  Institutiona. 

PANDECTS.  A  digest  of  the  civil  law  made  by  order  of  Justinian,  about  ad.  504. 
These  Pandects  (which  condensed  all  the  then  known  laws)  were  accidentally  dis- 
covered in  the  ruins  of  Amalfi,  a.d.  1187 ;  they  wore  removed  from  Pisa  in  1415 ;  and 
are  now  preserved  in  the  library  of  Medici  at  Florence,  as  the  Pamdetta  Ftarwfima. 

PANOPTICON  OF  SCIENCE  and  ART,  in  Leicester-square,  was  erected  in  1852-3 
by  a  chartered  company ;  Mr.  T.  H.  Lewis  being  the  architect.  It  was  opened  in 
1854  for  lectures,  demonstrations,  musical  performances,  &c.  Ite  electrical  mschina^ 
battery,  &&  were  almost  the  largest  in  Europe.  It  did  not  suooeedy  and  was 
sold  in  1857. 

PANORAMA.  This  ingenious  and  useful  species  of  exhibition  is  the  invention  of  Bobert 
Barker.  Panoramas  are  birdVeye  views  painted  in  distemper  round  the  wall  of  a 
circular  building,  with  a  striking  resemblance  to  reality.  In  1788,  Mr.  Bsricsr 
exhibited  at  Edinbuigh  a  view  of  that  city,  being  the  first  picture  of  the  kind.  H« 
then  commenced  similar  exhibitions  in  London,  having  adopted  the  name  of 
'Panorama,*  to  attract  notice,  and  was  ultimately  enabled  to  build  commodious 
premises  in  Leicester-square  for  that  purpose.    He  died  in  April,  1806. 

PANTHEON  AT  ROME.  A  temple  built  by  Augustus  Caesar,  some  say  by  Agrippa,  hm 
son-in-law,  25  ro.  It  was  in  a  round  form,  having  niches  in  the  wall,  where  th« 
particular  image  or  representation  of  a  particular  god  was  set  up ;  the  gates  were  of 
brass,  the  beams  coverod  with  gilt  brass,  and  the  roof  covered  with  silver  plate.  Pope 
Boniface  III.  dedicated  it  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  all  the  saints,  by  the  name  of 
St.  Mary  de  la  Rotunda.  The  Panthibon  in  London  was  erected  by  subscription, 
and  opened  Jan.  25, 1772.  It  was  formed  into  an  Opera-house,  and  was  burnt  down 
Jan.  10,  1792 :  was  rebuilt  in  1795;  and  made  a  basaar  in  1884. 

PANTOMIMES.  They  were  representations  by  gestures  and  attitudes  among  the 
anoiento.  They  were  introduced  on  the  Roman  stege  by  Pylades  and  Bsthyllns, 
22  B.O. ;  and  were  then  considered  as  the  most  expressive  part  of  stage  performancesL 
— Usher.  Pantomime  dances  were  introduced  about  the  same  time. — idesi.  Beprs- 
sentetion  by  gesture  and  action  only  is  contemporaneous  with  our  stage. 

*  The  remaizia  of  this  sumptuous  dty  being  manifestly  of  Orecian  origin,  cannot  be  supposed  to  be 
those  of  the  dty  of  Solomon.  In  what  manner  or  At  what  period  PolmjTa  rose  to  the  (Umngoislied 
wealth  and  splendour  which  its  ruins  attest^  has  been  nowhere  distinctly  recorded.  The  origin  of  this 
prosperity  may  have  been,  as  some  late  visitors  surmise,  its  becoming  the  emporium  of  the  trade  for 
India,  the  commodities  of  which  were  brought  up  the  Persian  gulf,  and  then  carried  aeross  the  Byrisn 
dosert,  by  way  of  Palmyra.  We  know  that  the  only  brilliant  [lart  of  the  history  of  Palmyia  was 
under  Odeuatus  and  his  qtieen  Zeuobia.  Odenatus  died,  and  Zonobia  assumed  the  title  of  Queen  of 
the  Best,  in  a.d.  «J67.  Aurelian  defeated  her  at  Adessa  and  made  h«r  captive  378.  From  that  timew 
Palmyra  ceased  to  make  a  figure  in  history,  and  under  the  Roman  empire  only  casual  notices  tmUfy 
its  existence.    It  is  now  inhabited  by  only  a  few  Arab  families* 


PAP  475  PAR 

'*  PAPAL  AGGRESSION."  In  a  ooiuistory  holden  in  Rome,  Sept.  30, 1850,  the  pope 
(PiuB  IX)  named  fourteen  new  cardinal!,  of  whom  four  only  were  Italians.  Among 
the  ten  foreigners  raised  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal,  was  Dr.  Wiseman,  Roman  Catholic 
Ticar-apostolio  of  the  London  district,  who  was  at  the  same  time  created  lord  arch- 
bishop of  Westminster.  On  Oct  27,  following;  Dr.  UUathome  war  enthroned  as 
Roman  Catholic  bishop  of  Birmingham  in  St.  Chad's  cathedral  in  that  town.  The  same 
day  a  pastoral  letter  from  Dr.  Wiseman  was  read  in  all  the  Roman  Catholic  chapels 
of  hii  see;  and  on  its  becoming  generally  known  to  the  British  people  that  all 
England  had  been  parcelled  out  similarly  into  Romish  dioceses,  the  strongest  indig- 
nation at  this  assumption  of  the  pope  was  expressed  througliont  the  empire.*  The 
answer  of  the  bishop  of  London  (Dr.  Blomfield)  to  a  memorial  from  the  Protestant 
cleiigy  of  Westminster,  against  the  pope's  creation  of  a  Romish  hierarchy  in  this 
country,  was  followed  by  the  celebrated  letter  from  lord  John  Russell,  then  chief 
minister  of  the  crown  (dated  Not.  4),  to  the  bishop  of  Durham  :  and  immediately 
from  every  quarter  of  England  addresses  poured  in  to  her  majesty,  the  queen,  calling 
upon  her  and  the  government  to  resist  this  monstrous  usurpation.  As  many  as  6700 
addressee,  it  is  said,  had  been  voted  from  nearly  as  many  influential  meetings  up  to 
Dec.  31, 1850.  The  great  agitation  on  this  subject  produced  the  Ecclesiastical  Titles 
bilL    See  £ecUtiatiical  TitUi  BiU,  and  Home,  Modem. 

PAPER  See  Papymg,  Paper  is  said  to  have  been  invented  in  China,  170  b.o.  It  waa 
first  made  of  cotton,  about  a.d.  1000 ;  and  of  rags  in  1319.  White  coarse  paper  was 
made  by  sir  John  Speilman,  a  German,  at  Dartford,  in  England,  88  Eliz.  1590 :  and 
here  the  first  paper-mills  were  erected. — Stow,  Paper  for  writing  and  printing 
manufactured  in  England,  and  an  act  passed  to  encourage  it,  2  Will  IIL  1690 ;  before 
this  time  we  paid  for  these  articles  to  France  and  Holland  100,000t  annually.  The 
IVench  refugees  taught  our  people^  who  had  made  coarse  brown  paper  almost  exclu- 
sively, until  they  came  among  us.  White  paper  was  first  made  by  us  in  1690. — 
Andirmm,  Paper-making  by  a  machine  was  first  suggested  byLouis  Robert^  who  sold 
his  model  to  the  celebrated  M.  Didot,  the  great  printer.  The  latter  brought  it  to 
England,  and  here,  conjointly  with  M.  Fourdrinier,  he  perfected  the  machinery.  M. 
Fourdrinier  obtained  a  patent  for  manu&cturing  paper  of  an  indefinite  length  in  1807; 
it  had  previously  been  made  tediously  by  the  hand.  A  sheet  of  paper  was  made 
13,800  feet  long,  and  four  feet  wide,  at  Whitehall-mills,  Derbyshire,  in  1830.  See 
Pwrehment  Paper, 

PAPER-HANGINGS.  Stamped  paper  for  this  purpose  was  first  made  in  Spain  and 
Holland,  about  ▲.d.  1555.  Made  of  velvet  and  floss,  for  hanging  apartments,  about 
1620.  The  manufacture  of  this  kind  of  paper  rapidly  improved  in  this  country  from 
early  in  the  eighteenth  century;  and  it  has  been  brought  to  such  perfection 
latterly,  that  rich  stained  paper  is  made  at  twelve  shillings  for  one  yard,  and  the 
common  kinds  24  yards  for  one  shilling. 

PAPERrMONET.    See  ^anib. 

PAPYRUS.  The  reed  from  which  was  ip^ae  the  celebrated  paper  of  Egypt  and  India, 
used  for  writings  until  the  discorary  of  parchment  about  190  bo.  Ptolemy  prohi- 
bited the  exportation  of  it  from  E^pt,  lest  Eumenes  of  Pergamus  should  nutke  a 
library  equu  to  that  of  >iexandria.  A  manuscript  of  the  Antifuiliet  of  Jotephut  on 
papyrus  of  inestimable  value  was  among  the  treasures  seized  by  Bonaparte  in  Italy, 
and  sent  to  the  National  Library  at  Paris ;  but  it  was  restored  in  1815. 

PARAFFINE  (from  panm  offinis,  having  little  affinity  with  anything),  a  solid  sub- 
stance, somevhat  like  spermaceti,  produced  by  distillation  of  coal,  and  first  obtained 
by  Reichc-ibach  in  1831.  It  was  procured  from  mineral  oil  by  Mr.  James  Toung 
about  lfU9,  and  is  also  obtained  from  Irish  peat    It  makes  excellent  candles. 

PARAGUAY,  a  province  in  South  America,  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1526 ;  and 
conquered  by  Alvarea  NuAez  in  1535,  and  civilised  by  the  Jesuits,  who  established 
an  exclusive  government,  which  they  held  till  their  expulsion  in  1768.  Paraguay 
r^se  sgainst  the  Spanish  yoke  in  1811.  In  1814  Dr.  Francia  was  elected  dictator, 
imeceeded  on  his  death  in  1840  by  YivaL  From  1814  to  1844  the  country  was 
rigidly  closed  against  foreigners.    The  present  (1857)  president,  C.  A.  Lopez,  was 

*  Among  other  coDMcratfona  that  followed,  and  continued  the  excitement,  was  that  of  Dr.  Briggs, 
CI  eated  Boman  OathoUc  bishop  of  Beverlev,  and  enthroned  in  St.  Oeoi^ge's  chapel  at  York,  Feb.  13, 
1^1.  Dr.  Browne  was  createa  bishop  of  ullfton,  and  Dr.  Buigeaa  bishop  of  Shrewsbury,  both  cone*- 
''crated  in  St  Oeorse'e  cathedral.  Southwark,  July  S7,  1861 ;  and  other  priests  were  similarly  raised 
to  new  Bomsn  Catholio  prelades. 


[ 


PAR 


476 


PAR 


elected  in  1844.    Paraguay  was  reoogniaed  aa  an  independent  atate  by  the  AxgeotiDe 
Confederation  in  1852,  and  by  Qreat  Britain  in  1853. 

PABCHBiENT.  Invented  for  writing  books  by  Eumenes  (some  say  by  Attains),  of  Per> 
gamus,  the  founder  of  the  celebrated  library  at  Pei^mus,  formed  on  the  model  of 
the  Alexandrian,  about  190  B.o.  Parchment-books  from  this  time  became  thoea  most 
used,  and  the  most  valuable  as  well  as  oldest  in  the  world  are  written  on  the  skina 
of  goats.  It  should  be  mentioned  that  the  Persians  and  others  are  aaid  to  h^ve 
written  all  their  records  on  skins  long  before  Eumenes*  time. 

PARCHMENT  PAPER  was  invented  and  patented  m  1857  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Gaine,  CE., 
who  discovered,  that  when  paper  is  exposed  to  a  mixture  of  two  parts  of  oonoentrated 
sulphuric  acid  and  one  part  of  water  for  no  longer  time  than  is  required  to  draw 
it  through  the  fluid,  it  is  immediately  converted  into  a  strong  tough  akin4ike 
materiaL  It  muat  be  instantly  washed  with  water.  Its  great  strength  points  ont 
many  applications  of  this  material,  e,  g,,  maps,  school  and  account  books,  and 
artistic  purposes. 

PARDONS.  Qeneral  pardons  were  proclaimed  at  coronations  :  first  by  Edward  IIL  in 
)  827.  The  king's  power  of  pardoning  is  said  to  be  derived  a  lege  tua  dignitattM  ;  and 
no  other  person  has  power  to  remit  treason  or  felonies,  stat  27  Henry  VIIL  1585. 
In  democracies  there  is  no  power  of  pardoning;  hence  Blackstone  mentions  this 
prerogative  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  advantages  of  monarchy  above  any  other  form 
of  govemmeut.  But  the  king  caunot  pardon  a  nuisance  to  prevent  its  being  abated ; 
or  pardon  where  private  justice  is  concerned. — Blackstone^  A  pardon  cannot  follow 
an  impeachment  of  the  house  of  commons. 

PARIAN  MARBLES.    The  chronology  of  the  Parian  Marbles  was  composed  204  B.a 
The  Parian  Miirbles  were  discovered  in  the  island  of  Pares,  a.d.  1610.    They  W( 
brought  to  England,  and  were  presented  to  the  university  of  Oxford,  by  Tho: 
Howard,  lord  Arundel,  whence  they  are  called  the  Arundeliiui  Marbles,  vkick 


PARIS.  At  the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion,  Paris  was  only  a  miserable  township.  It 
began  to  be  called  the  city  of  the  Parisii,  a.d.  380.  Clovis  fixed  upon  it  as  the  capital 
of  his  states  in  507.  This  city  was  several  times  ravaged  by  the  Normans ;  and  in 
1420  was  taken  by  the  English,  who  held  it  fifteen  years.  More  than  50,000  persons 
died  of  famine  and  plague  in  1438,  when  the  hungpy  wolves  entered  the  eity  and 
committed,  we  are  told,  great  devastation.  The  events  in  connection  with  this 
city  will  be  found  under  their  respective  heads,  or  in  article  Prtmcem 


St.  Denla  founded    .        .  .  h. 

Rebuilt 

Church  of  Notre  Damo  built  . 
Fout  Notre  Dame        .... 
The  Louvro  built  (sec  Louvrt) 

Hotel  deVillo 

The  Boulevards  commenced  . 

Fountain  of  the  Inuocenta 

The  Tuileries  built  (see  TvLiUriu)  . 

The  Pont  Ncuf  begun 

The  Luxembourg,  by  liary  of  Medlcia 

Hospital  of  InvalidB 

Place  Boyole  b^gun     .... 

The  H6tel-Dieu  founded 

The  PaloiB-Boyal  built 


D.    618 

.  1231 

.  1270 

.  1499 

.  1622 

.  1583 

.  153d 

.  1651 

.  1664 

.  1678 

.  1594 

.  1696 

.  1604 

.  1606 

.  1629 


A.D 


The  Val-de-Orace 

The  Observatory         .        . 

Champs  Elys^es  planted 

Arch  of  St  Denis  erected 

Palais  d'Elys^e  Bourbon 

The  Palace  of  the  Deputies 

The  Military  School 

The  Pautheon  ;  St.  G^evi^Te 

Pont  de  Louis  XVI.  finished 

Pont  des  Invalides 1S06 

Fortifications  of  Paris  (for  which 
140,000,000  oi  ftrancB  were  voted)  com- 
menced     ....        Dec.  16^  1840 

Much  improved  by  louia  Napoleon,      1853-ft 

SeelVaiice. 


1645 
1667 
1670 
1672 
1718 
1722 
1761 
1764 
1790 


LATE  GREAT  TREATIES  OF  PARIS. 


Treaty  of  Puis,  between  England, 
Franco,  Spain,  and  Portugal ;  oeasion 
to  Great  Britain  of  Canada  by  France, 
and  Florida  by  Spain       .       Fob.  10. 1768 

Treaty  of  Paris,  between  France  and 
Sardinia;  the  latter  ceding  Savoy,  Ac. 

May  16, 1796 

Peace  of  Paris,  between  France  and 
Sweden,  whereby  Swedish  Pomerania 
and  the  island  of  Rugen  were  given 
up  to  the  Swedes,  who  agreed  to 
adopt  the  French  prohibitory  system 
Bgainst  Great  Britain     .        .    Jan.  6,  1810 

Gapitulation  of  Paris ;  Napoleon  re- 
nounces the  sovereighty  of  France 

April  11, 1814 

Convention  of  Paris,  between   France 


and  tho  allied  powers ;  the  bt/iodaiies 
of  France  to  oe  the  same  as  n^n  the 
Ist  Jan.  1792    .        .  Apt'l  23,  18U 

Peace  of  Paris  ratified  by  France  anu  ^ 
the  Allies  May  iv  181i 

Convention  of  St.  Cloud,  between  mar- 
shal Davoust  and  Wellington  and 
Blucher  for  the  surrender  of  Faris» 

July  8,  184 
[The  Allies  entered  it  on  the  6th.] 

Treaty  of  Paris,  between  Great  Britain, 
Austria,  Russia^  and  Pnis8ia»  styling 
Napoleon  the  prisoner  of  thceepowers 
ana  confiding  his  safeguard  to  England 

Aug.  %  181$ 

Treaty  of  Paris,  establishing  the  bound- 
aries of  France^  and  stipulating  for 


—       "-) 


PAR  477  PAR 


PARIS,  wtUhmed. 

the  oecupation  of  oertain  foitremes  by 
foreign  troops  for  three  yeara  Not.  SO,  1815 
Treaty  of  Parts,  confirming  the  treaties 
of  Chaumont  and  Vienna*  same  day 

Nov.  20,  1816 


Treaty  of.  Fails  to  fUlfll  the  articles  of 
the  Congress  of  Vienna       .    June  10.  1817 

Treaty  of  Paris  between  Russia  and  Tur- 
key, England,  France,  and  Sardinia* 

April,  1866 


Foiiificatioxis  of  Paris,  a  continuous  wall  embradug  both  banks  of  the  Seine,  and 
detached  forts  with  an  tneeinU  of  15\  leagues,  were  commenced  in  Dea  1840,  and 
completed  March  1846,  at  an  expense  exceeding  5,000,0001.  sterling.  For  the  events 
of  the  late  revolution,  see  France, 

pABm  Industrial  ExHiBiriONi-  was  opened  on  May  15, 185 5, by  the  Emperor  and  Empress; 
and  visited  by  Queen  Victoria  and  Prince  Albert  in  August  24  th  following,  being  the 
first  visit  of  an  English  sovereign  to  Paris  since  that  of  the  infant  Henry  YL  in 
1422.    The  exhibition  was  closed  on  Nov.  15, 1855. 

PAKISHES  IN  ENQLAND.  The  boundaries  of  parishes  were  first  fixed  by  Honorius, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  a.d.  636.  They  were  enlai^ged,  and  the  number  of  parishes 
was  consequently  reduced  in  the  fifteenth  century,  when  there  were  10,000.  The 
parishes  of  England  and  Wales  now  amount  to  11,077.  Parish-regiBters  were  com- 
menced A.D.  1536.  By  19  &  20  Vict.  (1856)  new  parishes  may  be  formed  out  of  too 
extensive  ones.    See  RegiMert  and  Benefieea, 

PARK,  MUNOO,  HIS  TRAVELS.  TliU  enterprising  traveller  set  sail  on  his  first  voyage 
to  Africa,  under  the  patronage  of  the  African  Society,  to  trace  the  source  of  the  river 
Niger,  May  22,  1795;  and  returned  Dec.  22,  1797,  after  having  encountered  great 
dangers,  without  his  journey  through  intertropical  regions  having  enabled  him  to 
achieve  the  great  object  of  bis  ambition.  He  again  sailed  from  Portsmouth  on  his 
second  voyage,  Jan.  SO,  1804,  appointed  to  a  new  expedition  by  government ;  but 
never  returned.  The  accounts  of  his  murder  on  the  Niger  were  a  long  time  discre- 
dited; unhappily,  however,  they  were  at  length  too  well  authenticated  by  later 
intelligence.  It  appears  that  Park  and  his  party  were  attacked  by  the  natives  at 
Broussa,  and  all  killed,  with  the  exception  of  one  slave. 

PARKS.  The  Romans  attached  parks  to  their  villas.  Fulvius  Lupinus,  Pompey,  and 
Hortensius,  among  others,  had  large  parks.  In  England,  the  first  great  park  of  which 
particular  mention  is  made,  was  that  of  Woodstock,  formed  by  Henry  I.  1125.  The 
parks  of  London  are  in  a  high  degree  essential  to  the  health  of  its  immense  popula- 
tion. St  James's  park  was  drained  by  Henry  VIII.  1537.  It  was  improved,  planted, 
and  made  a  thoroughfare  for  public  use,  1668.  The  green  park  forms  a  part  of  the 
ground  inclosed  by  Henry  VIII.  In  Hyde  Park,  the  sheet  of  water  called  the 
Serpentine  river,  although  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram,  was  made  between  1780 
and  1733,  by  order  of  queen  Caroline,  consort  of  George  11.  This  queen  once 
inquired  (it  is  said)  of  the  first  Mr.  Pitt  (afterwards  earl  of  Chatham),  how  much  it 
would  cost  to  shut  up  the  parks  as  private  grounds.  He  replied,  "  Three  crowns, 
your  majesty."  She  took  the  hint,  and  the  design  was  never  afterwards  entertained. 
See  Oreen  Park;  Hyde  Park;  St,  Jamt^t  Park;  PegenVa  Park;  Victoria  Park;  and 
BaJtienea  Park, 

PARLIAMENT,  IMPERIAL,  of  GREAT  BRITAIN.  P^liament  derives  its  origin 
from  the  Saxon  general  assemblies,  called  WittmagemoU;  but  their  constitution  totidly 
difiered,  as  well  as  the  title,  which  is  more  modem,  and  is  taken  from  parler  la  metUf 
which  in  the  Norman  law-style  signifies  to  speak  one's  mind.  This  at  once  denotes 
the  essence  of  British  parliaments.  The  name  was  applied  to  the  general  assemblies  of 
the  state  under  Louis  VIL  of  France,  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  but  it 
is  said  not  to  have  appeared  in  our  law  till  its  mention  in  the  statute  of  Westminster  I, 
3  Rdw.  I.  A.D.  1272  :  and  yet  Coke  declared  in  his  Instiiutest  uid  spoke  to  Uie  same 
efirect,.when  speaker  (a.d.  1592),  that  this  name  was  used  even  in  the  time  of  Edward 
the  Confessor,  1041.  The  first  summons  by  writ  on  record  was  directed  to  the 
biediop  of  Salisbury,  7  John,  1205.  The  first  clear  account  we  have  of  the  represen- 
tatives of  the  people  forming  a  house  of  commons,  was  in  the  48rd  Henry  III.  1258, 
when  it  was  settled,  by  the  statutes  of  Oxford,  that  twelve  persons  should  be  chosen 
to  represent  the  commons  in  the  three  parliaments,  which,  by  the  sixth  statute,  were 

*  The  ooDffross  met  firat  on  Feb.  25,  and  last  on  April  16,  1850. 

t  The  btiiiding  Is  a  permanent  one,  constructed  of  white  stone,  and  of  classic  architecture ;  the 
Interior  is  completed  wuh  iron  and  glazed  vaulting.  The  two  annexet  were  for  the  fine  arts  and  raw 
matexials. 


PAR 


478 


PAR 


to  be  held  yearly. — BurUnCi  Annaii,  The  general  representation  by  knigfata»  cttueoe, 
and  burgesses,  took  place  49  Henry  III.  1265. — Dugdali^M  Smmmimtu  to  Pwrliameni, 
edit,  1685.    See  Commons^  Hwue  of;  Lordt,  Hotue  of. 


First  summons  of  barous,  by  John    A.D.  1205 

Parliament  of  Merton  ...  1230 

The  assembly  of  knights  and  bmyrmsei. 
—Burton 1258 

First  assembly  of  the  commons  as  a  con- 
firmed representation.— 2>u0«ta2e     .     .  1265 

First  reffular  parliament,  according  to 
many  historiians,  22  Edw.  I.  .  1294 

The  commons  reoeive  various  distinctions 
and  priyileges 1204 

First  a  deliberatlye  assembly,  they  be- 
come a  legislative  power,  whose 
assent  is  essential  to  constitute  a 
law 

Parliament  of  but  one  session,  of  only 
one  day,  Richard  II.  deposed         .    . 

lawyers  excluded  firom  the  house  of 
commons      ...... 

llembers  were  obliged  to  reside  at  the 
places  they  represented  . 

FrBeholders  only  to  elect  knights  . 

The  Journals  commenced  .       *.    . 

Acts  of  parliament  printed  in  1501,  and 
oonnocutively  from        .... 

Members  protected  ftxtm  arrest.  See 
article  Ptrrara'  Arrut       .        .        .    . 

Francis  Russell,  son  of  the  earl  of  Bed- 
ford, was  the  first  peer's  eldest  son 
who  sat  in  the  house  of  commons 

The  parliament  remarkable  for  the  epoch 
in  which  were  first  formed  the  parties 
of  Court  and  Country    .  June,  1020 

The  Long  ParUamnUt  which  voted  the 
house  of  lords  as  uaelees,  first  assem- 
bled         Nov.  S. 

The  Rump  Parliament ;  it  voted  the  trial 
of  Charles  I Jan. 

A  peer  elected,  and  sat  as  a  member  of 
the  house  of  commons  ...  1049 

A  convention  paiiiament.  See  Conven- 
tion         1060 

Roman  Catholics  excluded  ftt>m  Parlia- 
ment, 80  Charles  II 1678 

The  commons  committed  a  secretary  of 
state  to  the  Tower  Nov.  1678 

The  speaker  of  the  commons  refused  by 
the  king 1679 

A  convention  {larliamenL  See  Convention  1688 

James  11.  convenes  the  Irish  parliament 
at  Dublin,  which  attainta  3000  Pro- 
testants     1689 


1808 

1899 

1404 

1413 
1429 
1609 

1509 

1542 


1549 


1640 
1649 


Act  for  triennial  parliamentSL  See  2W- 
tRnial  Partiammt  .   ▲.d  1694 

The  first  parliament  of  Great  Britain  met 

Oct.  24,  1T07 

The  Triennial  Act  repealed,  and  Septen- 
nial Act  voted.  See  Stptemmiai  PaHia- 
ment May  1*  1713 

The  Journals  ordered  to  be  printed  .        1752 

Privilege  as  to  fteedom  from  arrast  oif 
the  servants  of  memben  relinqaishsd 
by  the  oommous 1770 

The  lord  mayor  of  London  (Oliver)  and 
alderman  Croaby  committed  to  the 
Tower  by  the  conunon%  in  Wilkes's 
aflkir 1770 

Assembly  of  the  first  parliament  of  the 
Uuitecl  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland Feb.  2,  1801 

Committal  of  sir  Francis  Burdett  to  the 
Tower April  0^  1810 

Murder  of  rt.  hon.  Spencer  Perceval, 
by  Bellingham,  in  the  lobby  of  the 
house  of  commons  .    May  II,  1813 

Return  for  Clare  county,  Ireland,  of  Mr. 
O'Connell,  the  first  Roman  Catholic 
commoner  elected  since  the  Be  volutioQ 

July  5,  ltS8 

The  duke  of  Norfolk  took  hia  seat  in  the 
lords,  the  first  Roman  CalhoUe  peer 
under  the  Roman  Catholic  Relief  BiU. 
See  Roman  Oatholiet.  April  28^  1829 

The  reformed  parliament.  See  Rtform 
in  Parliamtni  Aug.  7.  1832 

Both  houaea  of  parliament  destroyed  by 
fire Oct  10, 1834 

New  houses  of  parliament  eommenced. 
See  Palaee  of  WeMtminater     .  .  1840 

The  members  of  the  commons' snd  lords' 
houses  relinquish  theprivUegeof  fruik- 
ing  letters.    See  Franking        Jan.  10^  1840 

Committal  of  Smith  O'Brien  by  the  com- 
mons for  contempt.    See  MUmd. 

Joly  20,  1846 

The  peers  took  posasssion  of  their  bouae^ 
that  portion  of  the  palace  being  ntade 
ready  for  them  April  15, 1847 

The  members  of  the  commona'  house  of 
nariiament  assembled  in  their  new 
house Nov.  4,  185t 

The  two  houaea  began  to  communieate 
by  letter  in 1855 


NOMBER  AND  DUEATION  OF  PABLIAMEins»  FROM  27  EDWARD  L  1299,  TO  20  VICTORIA,  1857. 


Edward  I.  . 
Edward  II. 
Edward  III. 
Richard  II. 
Henry  IV. 
Henry  V. 
Henry  VI 
Edward  IV. 
Richard  III. 
Henry  VII. 
Henry  VIII. 
Edward  VI. 
Mary 


8  parL  in  8  yrs.  reign 


15 

87 

26 

10 

11 

22 

5 

1 

8 

0 

2 


>> 
>» 

*» 


20 
50 
22 
14 

9 
89 
22 

2 
24 
88 

6 

5 


t» 
>t 

•  r 
f» 


Elizabeth 
James  I. 
Charles  I. 
Charles  II. 
Jamea  IL 
William  UI. 
Anne 
George  I. 
Geoige  II. 
George  III. 
George  IV. 
WUUam  IV. 
Victoria 


10  pari  In  46  yxa.  ralgn 

4 
5 
2 
5 
6 
2 
6 
12        .,      60 
8        ,.      10 
8       „        7 
6        ..      90 


24 

» 

•• 

36 

tt 

4 

>t 

18 

•• 

12 

»» 

IS 

t* 

SS 

■• 

tt 


Tho  following  table  exhibitfl  the  duration  of  the  parliamenta  of  England  and  Great 
Britain  since  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  when  long  parliaments  were  fiiai  '"' — ^     -» 
Bee  Triennial  ParliamenU,  S^pten/nial  ParliamaUs,  dfc 


RdRn. 

DnyofMceClBf. 

1 
When  DtsaoNed. 

lelmi. 

DsjrorMstttef. 

Wtea  DlMolvcA 

HSHKY  VIII. 

21  Jan.  .    1510 
4  Feb.    .  1511 
6  Feb.  .    1614 

23  Feb.    .  1510 
4  March    1518  , 
22  Dec    .  1515  ! 

HaniT  Vni. 

16  April  .  1623 
8  Nov.,    1690 
8  June  .  1636 

18  Aug..     1628 

4  April  .  1686 

18  July.    1686 

I 


PAR 


479 


PAR 


PARUAM£^T,  IMPERIAL,  or  GREAT  BRITAIN,  eonUntud. 


BcifB. 

Day  at  MeeChif .       When  DlMolved. 

BilCB. 

DayofMeetinit. 

Whoi  DiMolied. 

HDrBTVIII. 

28  April. 

1539    24  July    . 

1640 

William  III. 

24  Aug.  .    1698 

19  Dec.    .  1700 

16  Jaa. 

1641  ;  29  March 

1644 

26  Feb.    .  1700 

11  Nov. .    1701 

28  Nov.  . 

1645 

81  Jan.    . 

1547 

20  Deo.  .    1701 

7  July    .  1702 

Edward  YL 

4  Nov.    . 

1547 

15  April. 
31  March 

1552 

Akhr  .    .    . 

20  Aug.    .  1702 

6  April.    1706 

IMarch 

1553 

1563 

14  June .    1705 

16  April  .  1708 

Mart  .    .    . 

6  Oct     . 

1653 

6  Dec.  . 

1553 

8  July    .  1708 

21  Dec,  .    1710 

2  April. 

1564 

5  May    . 

1654 

26  Nov.  .    1710 

8  Aug.    .  1713 

12  Nov.    . 

1554 

16  Jan.  . 

1566 

12  Nov.    .  1713 

16  Jan.  .    1715 

21  Oct.   . 

1556 

9  Dec.    . 

1565 

Okobor  L    . 

17  March    in6 

10  March    1721 

20  Jan.     . 

1567 

17  Nov.  . 

1557 

10  May    .  1728 

5  Aug.  .    1727 

Bluubtth  . 

23  Jan.  . 

1668 

8  May    . 

1558 

GroeobII.  . 

28  Nov.  .     1727 

18  April  .  1734 

11  Jan.    . 

1562 

2  Jan.  . 

1567 

18  June   .  1784 

28  April.    1741 

2  April. 
8  May    . 

1671 

29  May    . 

1571 

26  June.    1741 

18  June  .  1747 

1572 

18  March 

1680 

18  Aug.    .  1747 

8  April.    1764 

28  Nov.  . 

1585 

14  Sept.  . 

1686 

81  May  .    1764 

20  March    1761 

29  Oct.     . 

1586 

28  March 

1587 

Orobor  III. 

19  May    .  1761 

11  March    1768 

4  Feb.  . 

1588 

29  March 

1588 

10  May  .    1768 

30  Sept   .  1774 

19  Nov.    . 

1592 

10  April. 

1593 

29  Nov.    .  1774 

ISept.    1780 

24  0cL  . 

1597 

9  Feb.     . 

1598 

81  Oct.  .    1780 

26  March    1784 

7  Oct     . 

1601 

29  Dee.  . 

1601 

18  May    .  1784 

11  June .    1790 

JamrrI.  .    . 

19Maxx:h 

1603 

OFeb.    . 

1611 

10  Aug. .    1790 

20  May    .  1796 

6  April  . 

1614 

7  June. 

1614 

11  July    .  1796 

29  Jan.  .    1802 

30  Jan.  . 

1620 

8  Feb.    . 

1621 

81  Aug.  .    1802 

24  Oct     .  1806 

19  Feb.    . 

1623 

24  March 

1625 

16  Dec.    .  1800 

29  April.    1807 

CUA&LESL    . 

17  May  . 

1626 

12  Aug.    . 

1625 

22  June.    1807 

29  8^    .  1812 

6  Feb.    . 

1626 

16  June . 

1626 

24  Nov.    .  1812 

10  June .    1818 

1 

17  March 

1627 

10  March 

1628 

4  Aug.  .    1818 

29  Feb.    .  1820 

13  April  . 

1640 

8  May  . 

1640 

Obobor  IV.  . 

28  April  .  1820 
14  Nov.  .    1826 

2  June .    1826 

8  Nov.  . 

1640 

20AprU  . 

1653 

24  July    .  1830 

Charlka  II. 

26  April  . 
8  May  . 

1660 

29  Dec.  . 

1660 

26  Oct     .  1880 

22  April.    1881 

1661 

24  Jan.     . 

1678 

WiLUAM  ly. 

14  June.    1831 

3  Dec.    .  1832 

6  March 

1679 

12  July  . 

1679 

29  Jan.    .  1883 

80  Dec.  .    1834 

17  Oct   . 

1670 

18  Jan.    . 

1681 

19  Feb.  .    1886 

17  Ju]^    .  1837 

21MaiQh 

1681 

28  March 

1681 

ViOTOBIA  .     . 

16  Nov.    .  1887 

88  June.    1841 

1  James  II.     . 

12  March 

1686 

28  July    . 

1687 

19  Aug. .    1841 

88  July    .  1847 

1 

22  Jan.    . 

1688 

26  Feb.  . 

1689 

21  Sept   .  1847 

1  July  .     1862 

William  III. 

20  March 

1689    11  Oct     . 

1695 

4  Nov.  .    1862 

21  March    1867 

27  Nov.    . 

1695 

7  July  . 

1698 

SO  April  .  1857 

The  power  and  jurisdiction  of  parliament  are  bo  transcendent  and  absolute,  that  it 
cannot  be  confined,  either  for  causes  or  persons,  within  any  bounds.  It  hath  sove- 
reign  and  uncontrollable  authority  in  nuking  and  repealing  laws.  It  can  regulate  or 
new-model  the  succession  to  the  crown,  as  was  done  in  the  reigns  of  Heniy  YIII.  and 
William  III.  It  can  alter  and  establish  the  religion  of  the  country,  as  was  done  in  the 
reigns  of  Henry  YIII.,  Edward  YL,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth. — Sir  £award  Coke.* 

PARLIA1£ENT,  NEW  HOUSES  of.    See  Palace  of  Westminster  and  PofHafnent, 

PARMA.  Founded  by  the  ancient  Etrurians.  It  was  made  a  duchy  (with  Placentia) 
A.D.  1545.  It  fell  to  Spain  by  Philip  Y.'s  marriage  with  Elizabeth  Fanese,  1714. 
The  duke  of  Parma  was  raised  to  the  throne  of  Tuscany,  with  the  title  of  king  of 
Etruria,  in  Feb.  1801.  Parma  was  afterwards  united  to  France  (with  Placentia  and 
Ouastalla),  and  on  the  fall  of  Napoleon  was  conferred  on  Maria  Louisa,  the  ex-empress 
by  the  treaty  of  Fontainebleau,  April  5, 1814.  Parma  was  alternately  occupied  by 
the  Aujitrians  and  Sardinians  in  the  war  of  1848.  The  latter  retired  from  it  after 
the  battle  of  Novara,  March  23,  1849.  On  March  14  preriously,  the  duke  Charles  II. 
announced  his  abdication  in  favour  of  his  son  Charles  III.  The  latter  was  stabbed 
by  an  assassin,  March  26, 1854,  and  died  the  next  day,  leaving  his  son,  the  present 
duke,  Robert  I.,  a  minor  (bom  July  9,  1848),  whose  mother  immediately  became 
regent. — Battle  of  Parha  :  the  confederates,  England,  France,  and  Spain,  against 
the  emperor;  indecisive,  both  armies  claiming  the  victory,  June  29,  1784.  Qreat 
battle  of  Parma,  in  which  the  French  under  Macdonald  were  defeated  by  Suwarrow, 
with  the  loss  of  10,000  men  and  four  generals,  July  12, 1799. 

PARRICIDE.    There  was  no  law  against  it  in  ancient  Rome,  such  a  crime  not  being 

*  When  the  royal  aesent  is  given  to  a  public  bill,  the  clerk  says,  ''Leroile  veut.**  If  the  bill  be  a 
private  bill,  he  says,  "Soit/ait  comme  il  eU  ditiri,**  If  the  bill  have  Bubeidiee  for  its  object^  he  Miyi. 
**  Im  roi  remercU  K»  loyavx  fftief/,  aceepU  leur  bMvoknce,  et  ausH  I*  veut."  If  the  king  do  not  thhik 
pioper  to  aeeent  to  the  bill,  the  clerk  says,  "ler<n  t^avisera  ;  "  which  is  a  mild  way  of  giving  a  reftua]. 
It  is  singular  that  the  kixig  of  England  should  still  make  use  of  the  French  language  to  dedare  hin 
intentions  to  his  parliament. 


PAR  480  PAT 

supposed  possible.  About  500  years  after  Numa's  reign,  L.  Ostius  having  killed  liia 
fkther,  the  Romans  first  scourged  the  parricide ;  then  sewed  him  up  in  a  leathern 
sack  made  airtight,  with  a  live  dog,  a  cock,  a  viper,  and  an  ape,  and  thus  cast  him 
into  the  sea.  The  old  Egyptians  used  to  run  sharp  reeds  into  every  part  of  the  bodies 
of  parricides ;  and  having  thus  wounded  them,  threw  them  upon  a  heap  of  thorns, 
and  set  fire  to  them.  In  France,  before  the  execution  of  the  crimioa],  the  hand  is 
cut  ofEl  Memorable  execution  of  Miss  Blandy,  at  Oxford,  for  the  murder  of  her  father, 
April  1752. 

PARTHIA.  The  Parthians  were  originally  a  tribe  of  Scythians,  who,  being  exiled,  as 
their  name  implies,  firom  their  own  country,  settled  near  Hyrcania.  ArsMea  laid  the 
foundation  of  an  empire  which  tiltimately  extended  all  over  Asia,  250  B.C. ;  and  at  one 
time  the  Parthians  disputed  the  empire  of  the  world  with  the  Romans,  and  could 
never  be  wholly  subdued  by  that  nation,  who  had  seen  no  other  people  upon  earth 
unoonquered  by  their  arms.  The  last  kmg  was  Artabanus  Y.,  who  being  killed  ▲  j}. 
229,  his  territories  were  annexed  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Persia,  under  Artaxerxea. 

PARTITION  TREATIES.  The  first  treaty  between  England  and  Holland,  for  regulating 
the  Spanish  succession,  was  signed  Oct.  11, 1698;  and  the  second,  (between  France, 
England,  and  Holland,  declaring  the  archduke  Charles  presumptive  heir  of  the 
Spanish  monarchy,  Joseph  Ferdinand  having  died  in  1699),  March  13, 1700.  Tro^j 
for  the  partition  of  Poland :  the  first  was  a  secret  convention  between  Russia  and 
Prussia,  Feb.  17,  1772;  the  second  between  the  same  powers  and  Austria,  Aug.  5, 
same  year;  the  third  was  between  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  Nov.  25, 179^  There 
were  other  similar  treaties  relating  to  Poland,  but  not  under  this  name. 

PASQUINADES.  This  name,  which  is  given  to  humorous  libela,  originated  in  this 
way : — At  the  stall  of  a  cobbler  named  Pasquin,  at  Rome,  a  number  of  idle  penona 
used  to  assemble  to  listen  to  the  pleasant  sallies  of  Pasquin,  and  to  relate  little  anec- 
dotes in  their  turn,  and  indulge  themselves  in  raillery  at  the  expense  of  the  passen-by. 
After  the  cobbWs  death  in  the  sixteenth  century  the  statue  of  a  gladiator  was  found 
near  his  stall,  to  which  the  people  gave  his  name,  and  on  which  the  wite  of  the  time 
affixed  their  lampoons  upon  the  state,  and  their  satirical  effusions  on  their  neigfaboais 
secretly  at  night.  Small  poems  and  writings  of  a  similar  kind,  from  this  obtained 
the  name  of  Pasquinades,  about  a.d.  1583. 

PASSAU,  TREATY  OF.  A  celebrated  treaty  whereby  religious  freedom  was  established, 
and  which  treaty  was  ratified  between  the  emperor  Charles  Y.  and  the  Protestant 
princes  of  Germany,  Aug.  12, 1552.  By  this  pacification  the  Lutherans  were  made  at 
ease  in  regard  to  their  religion. — ffenauU.  In  1662  the  cathedral  and  greatest  part  of 
the  town  were  consumed  by  fire. 

PASSOYER.  A  solemn  festival  of  the  Jews,  instituted  1491  ao.  in  commemoration  of 
their  coming  out  of  Egypt ;  because,  the  night  before  their  departure,  the  destroying 
angel,  who  put  to  death  the  first-bom  of  the  Egyptians,  iKUseaotwr  the  honises  of  the 
Hebrews  without  entering  them ;  they  being  marked  witii  the  blood  of  the  lamb  that 
was  killed  the  evening  before,  and  wluch  for  this  reason  is  called  the  Paschal  Lamb. 
It  was  celebrated  in  tibe  new  Temple,  April  18,  515  B.O. — Usher, 

PATAY,  BATTLE  or.  In  which  the  renowned  and  ill-fated  Joan  of  Arc  (the  maid  of 
Orleans)  was  present,  when  the  earl  of  Richemont  signally  defeated  the  English, 
June  10, 1429.  Talbot  was  taken  prisoner,  and  the  valiant  Fastolfe  was  foreed  to  fly. 
In  consequence  of  this  victory,  Charles  YII.  of  France  entered  Rheims  in  trium^ 
and  vras  crowned  July  17,  same  year,  Joan  of  Arc  assisting  in  the  ceremony  in  rail 
armour,  and  holding  the  sword  of  stete.  She  imagined  herself  inspired.  She  was 
burnt  for  a  sorceress  in  1431.*    Bee  Joan  of  Arc, 

PATENTS.  Licences  and  authorities  granted  by  the  king.  Patente  granted  for  titles  of 
nobility  were  first  made  a.d.  1844,  by  Edw.  III.    They  were  first  granted  for  the 

*  Lo  Clero  relates  the  events  oonnectod  with  this  bottle  in  such  a  manner  as  needs  n^th«r  tnad 
nor  miracle  to  explain  them :  A  yoimg  maid  (la  Pnedle,  or  the  Maid  of  Orleans.)  watts  upon  the  «i«g : 
she  believes  herself  inspired,  and  informs  his  majesty  that  she  has  received  a  heavenly  oommissiaa  to 
deliver  his  city  of  Orleans,  then  besieged  by  the  English,  and  to  see  him  crowned  at  Bhetms ;  these 
were  the  only  two  points  of  her  mission  to  Chinon,  where  Charles  VII.  then  was.  Her  enthusiasm 
animates  the  troops,  the  generals  take  advantage  of  this  impression,  and,  without  engaging  in  any  lash 
measure,  at  the  very  time  she  acts  under  their  direction^  they  appear  to  be  led  byher  *>Kaniple  ;  she 
has  no  command,  and  yet  everything  seems  to  be  conducted  by  her  order.  The  intrepidity  of  this 
amason  or  herdne  being  thus  artftiUy  encouraged,  difiHises  itself  through  the  whole  army,  and  pro- 
duces an  entire  change  in  the  afiairs  of  Charles,  which  begin  to  wear  a  better  aspect*  The  »g»tfWK 
raise  the  siege  of  Orleans  on  the  8th  of  May,  1429 ;  the  other  events  follow. 


PAT  481  PAW 

exclusive  priyilege  of  printing  books,  in  1591,  about  which  time  the  property  and 
right  of  inyentors  in  arts  and  manufactures  were  secured  by  letters-patent.  Tlie  later 
laws  regulating  patents  are  very  numerous.  Among  them  are  5  &  6  WilL  IV.  o.  83, 
1035,  and  15  &  16  Vict.  c.  83  (1852). 

PATENTS,  COMMISSIONERS  of,  were  appointed  by  15  &  16  Vict  c  83  (July  1, 1852). 
They  are  the  lord  chancellor,  the  master  of  the  rolls,  the  attoruey-generals  for  England 
and  Ireland,  the  lord  advocate,  and  the  solicitorgeneralB  for  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland.  Since  1852,  a  journal  has  been  published  under  their  authority,  and  indexes 
of  patents,  firom  March  1617  to  the  present  time.  They  order  to  be  printed  such 
specifications  as  they  think  proper,  which  may  be  consulted  by  the  public  at  their 
Free  Libnury  and  Rnading-Room,  in  Southampton-buildings,  March  5,  1854. 

PATRIARCHS.  Socrates  gives  this  title  to  the  chiefs  of  dioceses.  The  dignity  among 
the  Jews  is  referred  to  the  time  of  Nerva,  a-D.  97.  In  the  Christian  Church  it  was 
first  conferred  on  the  five  grand  sees  of  Rome,  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Autioch, 
and  Jerusalem.  The  Latin  Church  had  no  patriarchs  till  the  6th  century.  The  first 
founders  or  heads  of  religious  orders  are  called  patriarchs. 

PATRIOTIC  FUNDa  One  was  established  July  20, 1803,  by  the  subscribers  to  Lloyd's 
<«  to  animate  the  efforts  of  our  defenders  by  sea  and  laud  "  by  providing  a  fund  for  the 
relief  of  themselves  when  wounded  and  of  their  widows  and  orphans,  and  for  granting 
pecuniary  rewards  and  badges  of  distinction  for  valour  and  merit  On  Aug.  24, 
1809,  424,832/.  had  been  received,  and  331,611^.  expended.  From  1803  to  1826  the 
total  sum  received  was  629,823/.  14<.  Id.  In  Oct  1854,  a  commission  (Prince  Albert 
at  the  head)  was  appointed  to  raise  and  distribute  a  fund  bearing  this  name,  for  the 
relief  of  the  families  of  those  who  might  fall  in  the  Russo-Turkish  war.  Large  sums 
have  been  collected  from  this  country  and  the  colonies,  amounting  to  1,171,270(.  in 
Jnly,  1855;  to  1,296,282/.  on  Nov.  16,  1855;  to  1,460,000/.  in  June,  1857.  The  over- 
plus 200,000/.  is  appropriated  to  founding  an  asylum  for  orphan  girls,  on  Wandsworth 
common,  the  first  stone  of  which  was  laid  by  the  Queen,  July  11, 1857.  The  royal 
family  and  many  of  the  ariatocracy  contributed  drawings,  some  of  which  were  sold  for 
high  prices,  in  May  1855. 

PAUL  JONES,  Pbtvatejeb.  An  American  privateer  commanded  by  Paul  Jones, 
memorable  for  his  daring  and  depredations  on  British  commerce  during  the  war 
with  the  revolted  colonists.  He  landed  and  pillaged  the  house  of  lord  Selkirk,  near 
Kirkcudbright,  and  at  Whitehaven  he  burnt  shipping  in  the  harbour,  April  1778. 
The  Dutch  permitted  Paul  Jones  to  enter  their  ports  with  two  of  the  king's  ships  of 
war  which  he  had  taken,  and  which  the  stadtholder  peremptorily  refused  to  deliver 
up,  1779.    He  was  bom  in  1736  and  died  at  Paris  in  July  1792. 

PAUL'S^  ST.,  CATHEDRAL,  London.    See  jS^  PauTt  OcUhedral. 

PAVEMENT.  The  Carthaginians  are  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  paved  their  towns 
with  stones.  The  Romans,  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  had  pavement  in  many  of  their 
streets;  but  the  Appian  Way  was  a  paved  road,  and  was  constructed  312  B.O.  In 
England  there  were  few  paved  streets  before  Henry  yil.*s  reign.  London  was  first 
paved  about  the  year  1533.  It  was  paved  with  flagstones  between  1815  and  1825. 
Wood  pavement  commenced  in  1839,  and  asphalte  paving  soon  afterwards.  Wood 
paving  has  been  disused  since  1847.    See  Wood  Pavement. 

PA  VIA.  The  ancient  Ttcimtm,  or  Papia.  Its  univenity,  founded  by  Charlemagne,  is 
the  oldest  in  Europe.  Pavia  was  built  by  the  Gkuls,  who  were  driven  out  by  the 
Romans,  and  these  in  their  turn  were  expelled  by  the  Goths.  In  568,  it  was  taken 
by  the  Lombards  and  became  the  capital  of  their  kingdom.  In  the  twelfth  century* 
it  was  erected  into  a  republic,  but  soon  after  came  to  the  duke  of  Milan.  In  1706  it 
fell  to  Austria,  with  whom  it  remained  till  1796,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  French 
and  retained  by  them  until  1814.    It  then  returned  to  Austria. 

PAVIA,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  French  and  Imperialists,  when  the  former  were 
defeated,  and  their  king,  Francis  L,  after  fighting  with  heroic  valour,  and  killing  seven 
men  with  his  own  hand,  was  at  last  obliged  to  surrender  himself  prisoner.  Francis 
wrote  to  his  mother,  Louisa  of  Savoy,  regent  of  the  kingdom  in  his  absence,  the 
melancholy  news  of  his  captivity,  conceived  in  these  dignified  and  expressive  terms : 
Tkmt  ett  perdu,  tnadame,  fors  rhonneur  (all  is  lost,  madam,  except  honour).  Feb.  24, 1525. 

PAWNBROKERS.  The  origin  of  borrowing  money  by  means  of  pledges  deposited  with 
lenders  is  referred,  as  a  regular  trode,  to  Perousa,  in  Italy,  about  a.d.  1458 ;  and  soon 

II 


PEA  482  PEE 

afterwards  in  England.  The  boBinesa  of  pawnbroker!  was  regulated  30  Qeou  IL 
1756.  Licences  were  issued  24  Oeo.  IIL  17S3.  In  London  there  were,  in  1851,  334 
pawnbrokers;  and  in  Engliuid,ezoluaiTel7  of  London,1127;  the  number  still  increaaia^ 

PEACE  BETWEEN  GREAT  BRITAIN  akd  FOREIGN  POWERS.    See  War  and  Treaiiet, 

PEACE  CELEBRATIONS.    See  Fire-works. 

PEACE  CONGRESS.  A  body  so  called,  oonsiating  of  a  number  of  political  and  other 
enthusiasts  of  note,  friends  of  uniyexval  peace,  to  which  yarious  countries  of  Europe 
and  the  cities  of  America  sent  deputies,  held  meetings  to  promote  their  Utopian 
object.  This  oongresa  commenced  its  sittings  at  Paris,  Aug.  22, 1849.  It  met  in 
London,  at  Exeter  Hall,  Oct  80  following.  It  met  at  Frankfort,  in  St.  Pftul's  Church 
tiiere,  Aug.  22,  1850.  Session  at  Birmingham  took  place  Not.  28,  1250.  Commenced 
its  sittings  at  Exeter  Hall,  July  22, 1851.  A  meeting  was  held  in  Mancheeter,  Jan. 
27, 1858,  and  at  Edinburgh,  Oct.  12, 1258.  Mr.  Bright  and  Mr.  Cobden  are  among  the 
most  oonspicuous  members  of  this  society.  A  deputation  from  the  Peace  Society 
consisting  of  Messrs.  J.  Sturge,  PecMe,  and  another  quaker  friend,  stated  their  yiewa  to 
the  emperor  of  Russia  at  St.  Petenbui^,  at  an  interview  granted  them  in  Feb.  1854. 

PEARLS.  The  formation  of  the  pearl  has  embarrassed  both  ancient  and  modem 
naturalists  to  explain.  M.  Reaumur,  in  1717,  alleged  that  pearls  are  formed  like 
other  stones  in  animals.  An  ancient  pearl  was  valued  by  Pliny  at  80,000/.  sterling. 
One  which  was  brought,  in  1574,  to  Philip  II.  of  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg,  was  valued 
at  14,400  ducats,  equal  to  13,996/.  A  pearl  spoken  of  by  Boetius,  named  the  /iteost- 
porcibU,  weighed  thirty  carats,  equal  to  five  pennyweights,  and  was  about  the  aise  of 
a  muscadine  pear.  The  pearl  mentioned  by  Tavernier,  as  being  in  poeaeasioD  of  the 
emperor  of  Persia,  was  purchased  of  an  Arab  in  1638,  and  is  valued  at  a  sum  equal 
to  110,400/. 

PEDESTRIANISM.  Euchidas,  a  citizen  of  Plataa»  went  from  thence  to  Delphi  to  bring 
the  sacred  fire.  This  he  obtained,  and  returned  with  it  the  same  day  before  sunset, 
having  travelled  125  English  miles.  No  sooner  had  he  saluted  his  fellow-citisens, 
and  delivered  the  fire,  than  he  fell  dead  at  their  feet.  After  the  battle  of  Marathon, 
a  soldier  was  sent  from  the  field  to  announce  the  victory  at  Athens.  Exhausted  with 
fatigue,  and  bleeding  from  his  wounds,  he  had  only  time  to  cry  out^  "  Rejoice^  we  are 
conqueron  ! "  and  immediately  expired.  Foster  Powell,  the  celebrated  English 
pedeetrian,  performed  many  astonishing  journeys  on  foot.  Among  these,  was  his 
expedltiou  from  London  to  York  and  back  again,  in  1788,  which  he  completed  in  140 
hours.  One  of  the  most  astonishing  feats  of  pedestrian  ism  performed  in  England 
was  that  of  captain  Barclay,  in  1809.    See  Barda/f  and  WolkiMg, 

PEEL,  SIR  ROBERT,  two  ADMINISTRATIONa* 

7IBST  ▲DMIMIBTRATION.  I  SIOOITD  ADKINISTRATTOV. 

Sir  Robert  Pool,  first  lord  of  the  treasury  I  Sir  Robert,  first  minister ;  duke  of  Wal- 
and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer ;  lord  Lynd-  lington  in  the  cabinet^  without  office :  lord 
hiuvL  lord  chancellor ;  earl  of  Rosslyn.  lord  Lyndiiurst,  lord  chancellor ;  lord  Wham- 
president  :  lord  WhameUffs,  pri^  seal ;  rt.  I  clifie,  lord  president ;  duke  of  fiuckJagbam. 
hoa.  Hoary  Ooulbum,  duke  of  Wellington.  I  lord  privy  seal:  sir  James  Chtaham,  msA  of 
and  earl  of  Aberdeen,  home,  foreign,  and  ,  Abezdeeu,  and  lord  Stanleyp  homo»  foreign, 
colonial  secretaries  of  state ;  earl  de  Oroy,  >  and  colonial  secrotaries  ;  Mr.  Ooulbum,  chan- 
first  lord  of  the  admiralty;  lord  Ellen- 1  oellor  of  the  exchequer ;  earl  of  HaddlnjitoB, 
borough,  and  rt.  hon-  Alexander  Baring,  --- 
boards  of  control  and  trade;  sir  Edwara 
Knatchbull,  paymaster  of  the  forces ;  Mr. 
Henies,  secretery-at-war ;  sir  Gooige  Murray, 
master-general  of  the  ordaanoo,  Ac.  Nov. 
and  Doc.  1834.    Terminated.  April  1835. 


first  lord  of  the  adminlty;  oari  of  _  , 
board  of  trade;  lord  Elfenboroo^i.  India 
board;  sh:  Henry  Hardinge,  sir  Bdward 
Knatchbull,  sir  Gec»ge  Mun^,  A&  Aqg. 
and  Sept.  1841.  Terminated  June,  184A.  by 
sir  Robert's  resignation. 


PEEP-aDAV-BOTS.  They  were  insurgents  in  Ireland,  who  obtained  this  same  from 
their  morning  yisits  to  the  houses  of  their  antagonists  at  break  of  day,  in  seareh  of 
arms.  They  first  appeared  July  4, 1784,  and  for  a  long  period  were  the  terrer  of  the 
country,  from  their  daring  and  numbers. — Sir  R,  Miugrave*    See  article  Drfemdtrt, 

PEERS.  The  first  of  the  present  order  created  in  England  was  William  Fits  Osbom, 
as  earl  of  Hereford,  by  WiUiam  the  Ck)nqueror,  in  1066.    The  first  peer  who  was 

*  Sir  BoboH  Pe^  was  bom  Feb.  5, 1788,  entered  iMU-Uament  to  180Q,  became  under-eocrslaiy  of  the 
ooloxdos  to  1811,  chiof  secretary  for  Ireland  to  1812,  M.P.  for  Oxford  to  1818  (when  he  Ksigsod  hia 
office),  secretary  for  homo  department  to  1822,  resigned  office  and  re-appototed  in  1827,  resigned  asato 

V^  }^'}^^!^^  premier  to  1834  and  1841,  m  otew.    Ho  was  thrown  from  his  hocae  Juno  28V  awldied 

July  2»  1850. 


PEG 


483 


PEN 


created  by  patent  wm  lord  Beaochamp  of  Holt  Cattle,  by  Riohard  IL  in  1387.  In 
Scotland,  Gilchrist  waa  created  earl  of  Angua  by  Malcolm  IIL  1037.  In  Ireland,  sir 
John  de  Coorcy  waa  created  baron  of  Kiniale,  &a  in  1181 ;  the  first  peer  after  the 
obtaining  of  that  kingdom  by  Henry  IL*    The  house  of  lords  consiated  of,  yiz  : — 


At  the  death  of  Charles  II.   .  .  176 

AtthedesthorWiniamllL    .  .  19S 

At  the  death  of  Anae    .  .  209 

AtthedeathofOeoxgvI.         .  .  216 

AtthedeathofCtooiBsIL    .  .  929 


peers. 


At  the  deefch  of  George  III.  .    .889 

At  the  deeth  of  George  IV.   .  .  896 

At  the  death  of  WiUiam  IV.  .    .  456 

In  18th  Victoria,  1855    .  .448 

In  20th  Victoria,  1857       .  .    .  449 


PEGU,  a  provinoe  of  the  Burmese  empira.  Pegpi,  the  capital,  was  taken  by  major  Cotton, 
with  800  men,  in  June  1852,  without  loss ;  and  afterwards  abandoned.  It  was  again 
occupied  by  the  Burmese  and  strongly  fortified,  with  a  garrison  of  4000  men.  It  waa 
re-captured  by  general  Godwin  with  1200  men  and  two  guns,  in  two  hours,  with  the 
loss  of  six  killed  and  thirty-two  wounded.  The  province  was  annexed  to  our  Indian 
posseasioDs  by  proclamation,  Dec.  20, 1852. 

PELAGIANS.  A  sect  founded  by  Pelagius,  a  native  of  Britain.  The  sect  maintsined, 
1.  That  Adam  wsa  by  nature  mortal,  and  whether  he  had  sinned  or  not  would  osr- 
taiidy  baTs  died.  2.  That  the  consequences  of  Adam*s  sin  were  confined  to  his  own 
person.  8.  That  new-bom  infitnts  are  in  the  same  condition  with  Adam  before  the 
fall.  4.  That  the  law  qualified  men  for  the  kingdom  of  heayen,  and  waa  founded 
upon  equal  promiaes  with  the  gospel.  5.  That  the  general  resurrection  of  the  dead 
doea  not  foUow  in  virtue  of  Onr  Saviour's  resurrection,  kc  This  sect  appeared  at 
Rome  400  ▲.D.,  and  at  Carthsge  about  412. 

PELASGI,  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  Greece  and  Italy  ^pear  to  belong  to  the  Indo- 
Qermanic  race.  They  were  in  Greece  about  1900  ao.  and  in  Italy  about  1600  B.a 
They  have  been  termed  Tyrrheni,  Sicani,  or  Siculi,  Apuli,  &c.  From  the  Pels^gi 
came  the  Dorians,  ^oliaos,  and  lonians ;  all  three  being  Hellenea  or  Greeks. 

PELEW  ISLANDS.  Discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  seventeenth  century.  The 
wreck  here  of  the  East  India  Company's  packet,  AnUhpe,  captain  Wilson,  1783. 
The  king,  Abba  Thulle,  allowed  captain  Wilson  to  bring  prince  Le  Boo,  his  son,  to 
England,  where  he  arrived  in  1784,  and  died  soon  after  of  the  small-pox ;  and  the 
East  India  Company  erected  a  monument  over  his  grsTe  in  Rotherhithe  churchyard. 

PELHAM'S  ADMINISTRATION.    See  Brwtd  BoiUm  Adminiitratum. 

PELOPONNESIAN  WAR  The  celebrated  war  which  continued  for  twenty-seven  years 
between  the  Athenians  and  the  people  of  Peloponnesus,  with  their  respective  allies. 
It  is  the  most  fiimous  and  most  interesting  of  all  the  wars  which  happened  between 
the  inhabitanto  of  Greece.  It  began  by  an  attempt  of  the  Boeotians  to  surprise  PlatsBa, 
481  Ra  on  May  7,  and  ended  401  bxj.  by  the  taking  of  Athens  by  the  Laoednmonians. 

PENAL  LAWS,  aff scrnra  ROMAN  CATHOLICS,  enacted  against  Roman  Catholics 
in  these  realms  were  very  severe ;  end  even  up  to  the  period  of  passing  the  Eman- 
cipation Bill  many  of  them  remained  unrepealed.  The  following  account  of  these  laws 
is  perhape  as  interesting  a  record  as  this  volume  presents.  It  comprises  the  chief 
statutes  set  forth  in  Sadljft  History  of  the  Penal  Lowe,  edition  1812.  All  the  laws 
against  Roman  Catholics  were  repealed  by  the  Relief  Bill,  passed  April  13, 1829. 


vaiorrs  OMixnumvo  KAJusiAon. 
If  any  popish  priest  ahsll  eelebrato  matrimony 
batween  any  two  penooa,  knowhur  that 
both  or  either  is  of  the  Protestant  religiaii, 
(unless  previously  married  by  a  Protestant 
elazvyman),  he  shall  sufbr  the  punishment 
of  a  Popish  regular,  [that  is,  transportation ; 
and  if  ha  return,  the  punishment  of  high 
treason.]  First  statute^  6  Anne,  1708. 
Second  statute,  8  Anne,  1710. 

■XCLaBXOW  FROH  PAKLIAMSirr. 

No  peer  of  the  realm  shall  sit  tak  the  house  of 
peen,  nor  person  chosen  as  a  member  of 
the  house  of  commons  shall  sit  as  such, 
unless  he  first  take  the  oath  of  all^iance 
and  supremacy,  and  subscribe  to  the  de- 


claration against  transubstantlation,  the 
aaorifioe  of  the  mass,  idolatry  of  the  Church 
of  Rome,  invocation  of  the  Virgin  Mary  or 
of  the  saints. 
Penalty :  all  the  punishments  of  a  popish  re- 
cusant conyiot,  8  WilL  A  Mary,  1661. 

SLSCTnTl  nUHCHISB. 

No  Catholic  shall  Tote  at  the  election  of  any 
member  to  aerre  in  parliament,  aa  a  kaiffht, 
citizen,  or  burgess.  14  Geo.  L  1737.  Con- 
ditionally reinstated,  1703. 

OORPOBATS  orncBB. 
No  Catholic  shall  be  mayor,  sovereiinit  port- 
reeve, burgomaster,  bailiff,  alderman,  re- 
corder, treasurer,  sheriff;  town-derk,  com- 


*  Peexacre  for  Hfe  only,  with  the  title  of  lord  Wenaleydale,  was  granted  to  baron  sir  James  Pwk^ 
Jan.  10, 18d<L    TUs  was  sueoeasftilly  opposed  by  the  house  of  lords  as  a  breach  of  privilege,  and  on 

Bated  a  peer  In  the  usual  way. 

1X2 


July  2&»  185d,  lofd  Wensleydale  was  created  a  peer  In  the  usual  way. 


PEN 


484 


PEN 


PENAL  LAWS,  AfFSonira  ROMAN  CATHOUCS,  cantinMd, 


mon-cotmcilxnan,  master  or  warden  of  any 
guild,  corporation,  or  fhttemi^  In  any  ci^, 
walled  town,  or  corporation  in  Ireland. — 
Finit  statute,  17  &  18  Chaa.  II.  1667. 
Irish  statute,  21  A  22  Geo.  IIL.  confirming 
the  RngHsh  Test  and  Corporation  Acts. 

THK  AUrr  AVD  KATT. 

Femns  holding  offices^  civil  and  military, 
and  reoeiving  pay,  salary,  fee,  <»:  wages,  to 
take  the  oaths  of  supremacy  and  abjuration, 
and  to  subscribe  to  the  declaration  against 
transubstantiation,  the  maaa,  Ac.  EngUsh 
statute,  25  Chaa.  II.  1675.  A  seTerer  enact- 
ment as  regards  penalties  in  Ireland,  9 
Anne,  1710. 

All  military  offices*  except  master-general  of 
the  ordnance,  commander-in-chie^  and 
genenda,  opened  to  Catholics,  170S. 

SXOLUDBD  PARIBB  TBBTRIBS,  &C, 

By  act  for  preventing  Fapists  having  it  in 
their  power  to  obstruct  the  building  or  re- 
pairing of  churches,  by  out-voting  the  Pro- 
tesumt  parishioners,  12  Geo.  I.  1725. 

ARMS  VORBIDDKK. 

By  act  for  disarming  the  Papists,  requiring 
them  to  deliver  up  to  the  justices  or  civil 
officers  all  their  armour,  arms,  and  ammuni- 
tion, Ac.,  and  authoriiBing  search.  Ac.  by 
day  or  night.  Makers  of  fire-arms  for- 
bidden Catholic  apprentices,  7  Will  III. 
1605.  No  Catholic  to  bo  employed  as  fowler 
for  any  Protestant.  10  Will.  III.  1688. 

Penalty :  fine  and  one  year's  imprisonment 
for  first  offence.  For  the  second,  aU  the 
pains  and  penalties  of  persons  attainted  of 
a  pramMnire, 

Tboso  acts  were  confirmed,  18  Geo.  II.  1739 ; 
they  were  qualified,  33  Geo.  IIL  1793. 

TRIAL  BY  JURY.   Ao. 

Oatholics  not  to  serve  as  grand  jurors,  unless 
a  sufficient  number  of  Protestants  cannot 
be  foimd,  6  A  8  Anne. 

Issues  to  determine  questions  arising  upon 
popery  laws,  to  be  tried  by  known  "rro- 
testauts  only,  6  A  8  Anne,  1708-10. 

No  Catholic  to  serve  on  Juries  in  actions  be- 


tween a  Protestant  and 
II.  1755. 


Catholic.  29  Geo. 


MxoiCAL  pRorrasioira. 
Catholics  (in  Bngland)  pmhibited  flrom  prac- 
tising physic,  or  exercising  the  trade  of 
apothecaries,  5  Jaa.  1. 1606. 

PROPERTY. 

The  Catholics  disabled  fh>m  taking  leases  for 
a  longer  term  than  81  years,  or  at  rents 
less  than  two-thirds  of  the  improved  yearly 
value,  2.  8  Anne,  1703-9. 

He  cannot  dispose  of  his  estate  by  will,  or 
lend  money  upon  the  security  of  land, 
2  Anne,  1708. 

Allowed  to  take  leases  for  a  term  of  999  years, 
18  Quo.  III.  1778.  Permitted  to  take  or  to 
transfer  lands  by  devise,  descent,  purchase, 
or  otherwlBe,  the  same  as  Protestants,  21 
and  22  Geo.  III.  1781. 

posseaBioR  or  a  borke. 
Catholics  prohibited  from  the  keeping  any 
horse  of  a  value  exooeding  62..   statute 
7  Will  HI.  1694. 

CHItDRSK  or  OATBOUOa. 

A  child  conforming  to  the  established  roligion, 
may  force  his  iMirent  to  sturonder  his  estate, 
under  a  fair  allowanoe,  2  Geo.  1. 1716. 


The  eldest  son  may  reduce  bis  Hbo  simple 
estote  to  a  Ufe  estate,  1  Geo.  II.  1727.  A 
younger  brother  may  deprive  the  eldor  of 
the  legal  right  of  primQgenitaz«. — JdoL. 

EDUCATION. 

Oatholics  prohibited  from  keeping  ediootek  or 
procuring  the  education  of  his  child  at 
home,  2  Oeotve  I.  1716.  Prohibited  from 
tending  him  oeyond  seas  for  education, 
6  GeoTl.  1719. 

Oatholics  permitted  to  keep  schools  and  tench. 
82  George  II.  1758.  Admissible  to  Tniiity 
College,  1793. 

OUARDIAXBL 

No  Catholics  to  be  guardians,  or  to  have  the 
custody  or  tuition  of  any  orphan  or  chOd 
under  the  age  of  21  years,  2  Anne,  17«S. 
Permitted  to  be  guardiana,  178S. 

A  Catholic  may  dispose  of  the  custody  of  his 
child  or  children,  by  will,  during  minority, 
to  any  person  otiier  than  a  Oatli<dic  eode- 
siasUc,  30  Geo.  IIL  1790. 

CATBOUO  BOLIDAYS. 

Punishment  for  not  working  upon  Oathobe 
holidays ;  each  offence  2«.  fine  on  labourers ; 
or  in  defikult  the  punishment  of  whipping, 
6  Will.  III.  1694. 

BURYIBa  TBE  X>BAD. 

Punishment  for  burying  the  dead  except  in 
Protestant  churchyards,  or  being  mvsent 
at  the  burying  say  dead  other  than  therein, 
9  WilL  III.  1697. 

PILORIMAaBa,  Ac. 

Who  shall  attend  or  be  present  at  any  |ril- 
grimago  or  meeting  held  at  any  holy  well, 
or  reputed  holy  well :  fine.  10s.  or  ia  d*- 
fiiult,  whipping,  2  Anne,  1703. 

OBOSSE^  PICTURES,   AC 

Magistrates  to  demolish  all  crosses,  pictures, 
and  inscriptions  publicly  set  up  to  promote 
the  piety  of  Catholics,  2  Anne,  1703. 

DIVINE  WORSBIP. 

All  officers  and  soldiers  shall  diligently  fre- 
quent divine  service  and  sermon,  in  the 
places  appointed  for  the  assemblage  of  the 
regiment,  troop^  or  company,  to  which  be 
may  belong. — Artida  of  War. 

[No  exceptions  made  in  fkvour  of  Oatholio 
officers  or  soldiers.] 

BBBRFICEB. 

If  a  Catholic  become  possessed  of  any  right  of 

Krasentation  to  a  benefice,  the  same  shall 
e  ip»o  facto  vested  in  the  crown,  if  he  do 
not  abjure  his  religion,  2  Anne,  1704. 

DONATIOWS  AND  BSQUESTR. 

Statutes  (in  England)  interdicting  donations 
and  bequests  for  superstitious  uses ;  such 
as  towards  the  maintenance  of  a  nrieet  or 
chaplain  to  say  mass,  to  pray  for  the  eouls 
of  the  dead,  or  to  maintain  perpetual  obitSi 
lamps,  Ac.,  to  be  used  at  prayers  for  dead 
persons.  8uch  to  be  vested  in  the  king, 
and  applied  to  Protestant  institutienSk 
1  Edw.  VI.  1547. 

TBE  PAPAL  BEE. 

The  obtaining  from  the  bishop  of  Rome  any 
manner  of  bull,  writing,  or  InstrumenC 
written  or  printed,  containing  any  thing 
or  matter;  or  publishing  or  patting  ta 
use  any  such  instrument;  tha  procttrsxa. 


PEN 


485 


PER 


P£NAL  LAWS,  affeotiko  KOMAN  CATHOLICS,  amtinued. 


abettora,  and  oounaellora  to  the  fact'  shall 
be  adjudged  guilty  of  high  treason,  IS  Elis. 
1670. 

HRNDTCAKT  POOB. 

Any  child  who(witii  the  consent  of  its  pa- 
Tents)  shall  be  found  begging,  the  parson 
and  wardens  of  the  parish  shall  detain,  and 
they  shall  bind  lucn  child  to  a  Protestant 
master  until  the  age  of  21,  or  to  a  Protestant 


tradesman  until  the  age  of  24  years,  2  Geo. 
I.  iri6. 

OONCBaSIOKS. 

Catholics  qualified  to  be  barristers,  solicitors, 
attomeyis  ftc.  And  the  withdrawing  of 
certain  prohibitions  theretofore  existing, 
with  respect  to  marritges  with  Protestants, 
apprentices  to  ihn  law,  schoolmasters,  too. 
22  Geo.  III.  1782. 


PENANCB.  Called  by  the  Jews  Thejouvtha.  Penance,  they  said,  consisted  in  the  Ioto 
of  Ood  attended  with  good  works.  They  made  a  confession  upon  the  day  of  expiation, 
or  some  time  before ;  and  had  stated  degrees  of  penance,  in  proportion  to  the  crimes 
committed.  Penance  waa  introduced  into  the  Romish  Church,  a.d.  157.  In  our 
canon  law,  penance  is  chiefly  adjudged  to  the  sin  of  fornication. 

PENDULUMS  FOB  CLOCKS.  The  pendulum  ia  affirmed  to  hare  been  adapted  by 
GalUeo  the  younger,  about  a.d.  1641.  Christian  Huygens  contested  the  priority  of 
this  discovery :  the  latter  certainly  brought  clocks  with  pendulums  to  perfection, 
1656. — Dufrunoy.  See  Cloda,  Experiments  were  made  to  determine  the  density  of 
the  earth  by  pendulums  by  G.  B.  Airy  (now  astronomer  royal)  and  others,  in  a  mine 
in  Cornwall,  in  1 826  and  1828 ;  and  at  Harton  colliery  in  1 854.  In  1851,  M.  Foucault 
demonstrated  the  rotation  of  the  earth  by  a  pendulum. 

PENITENTS.  There  are  various  orders  of  penitents,  as  Magdalens,  Magdalenettes,  &o. 
The  order  of  Penitents  of  St.  Magdalen  was  founded  at  Marseilles,  about  a.d.  1272. 
The  Penitents  of  the  name  of  Jesus  was  a  congregation  of  religious  in  Spain  who  had 
led  a  licentious  life,  formed  about  1550.  The  penitents  of  Orvieto  were  formed  into 
an  order  of  nuns  about  1662.  There  were  numerous  orders  of  penitents  in  various 
parts  of  Italy,  who  afterwards  changed  the  name. 

PENNSYLVANIA.  Sir  Walter  Baleigh  was  the  first  adventurer  who  planted  a  colony 
on  these  shores,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  Pennsylvania  was  granted  by  Charles  II. 
to  the  duke  of  York,  1664 ;  and  it  was  sold  to  the  Penn  family,  1680-1  et  teq,  Penn- 
sylvaoia  was  afterwards  purchased  from  the  Indians  by  the  celebrated  William  Penn 
(son  of  admiral  Penn),  who  went  out  from  England  with  a  number  of  colonists ;  from 
which  period  the  settlement  gradually  increased.  Mr.  Penn  granted  a  charter 
in  May,  1701,  but  the  emigrants  from  the  Low  Countries  refused  it,  and  separated 
themselves  fh>m  the  province  of  Pennsylvania.  They  afterwards  had  their  own 
■asembly,  in  which  the  governor  of  Pennsylvania  presided.  This  state  adopted 
an  independent  constitution  in  1776,  and  established  the  present  in  1790.  See 
United  SuUa  of  America, 

PENNY.  The  ancient  silver  penny  was  the  first  silver  coin  struck  in  England,  and  the 
only  one  current  among  the  Anglo-Saxons.  The  penny,  until  the  reign  of  Edward  I. 
was  struck  with  a  cross,  so  deeply  indented  that  it  might  be  easily  parted  into  two 
for  halfpence,  and  into  four  for  farthings,  and  hence  these  names.  Penny  and  two- 
penny pieces  of  copper  were  coined  by  Boulton  &  Watt  at  Soho,  Birmingham,  in  1797, 
and  are  to  this  day  accounted  the  finest  of  our  copper  currency.    See  Coin*,  &o. 

PENNY-POST.  First  set  up  in  London  and  its  suburbs  by  a  Mr.  Murray,  upholsterer, 
A.D.  1681.  Mr.  Murray  afterwards  assigned  his  interest  in  the  undertaking  to  Mr. 
Dockwra,  a  merchant,  1683;  but  on  a  trial  at  the  King's  Bench  bar  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  it  was  adjudged  to  belong  to  the  duke  of  York,  as  a  branch  of  the  general 
post,  and  was  thereupon  annexed  to  the  revenue  of  the  crown. — Deiaune,  1690.  This 
institution  was  considerably  improved  in  and  round  London,  July  1794  et  teq,  and 
was  made  a  twopenny-post.  A  penny-post  was  first  set  up  in  Dublin,  1774.  The 
uniform  postage,  which  settled  down  to  a  penny  rate,  came  into  operation,  Jan.  10, 
1840.    See  Pott-Qfice, 

PENTECOST.  It  literally  signifies  the  ordinal  number  called  the  fiftieth ;  and  is  the 
solemn  festival  of  the  Jews,  so  called  because  it  was  celebrated  fifty  days  after  the 
feast  of  the  Passover,  Lev.  xxiii.  15.  It  is  called  the  feast  of  weeks,  Exod,  xxziv.  22, 
because  it  was  kept  seven  weeks  after  the  Passover. 

PERCEVAL'S,  Rt.  hon.  SPENCER,  ADMINISTRATION.  The  administration  of 
Mr.  Perceval  commenced  on  the  dissolution  of  that  of  the  duke  of  Portland,  which  was 
terrainated  by  his  grace's  death,  Oct.  80, 1809.    Mr.  Perceval  owed  his  post  of  prime 


PER  486  PER 

miniBter  in  a  large  degree  to  hu  previous  oonnection  with  the  ailain  of  the  prineeaa  of 
Wales.  See  JkUcale  Jnveatigation,  The  memhers  of  this  ministiy  were :  Mr.  Peroeral, 
first  lord  of  the  treasury,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  and  chancellor  of  the  duchj  of 
Lancaster ;  earl  Camden,  lord  president ;  earl  of  Westmoreland,  lord  priyj  seal ;  ri^t 
hon.  Richard  Ryder,  home,  marquess  Welleeley,  foreign,  and  earl  of  Liverpool,  Golomal 
secretaries;  lord  Mulgrave,  admiralty;  Mr.  Dundas  and  earl  Bathurst,  boards  of 
control  and  trade;  earl  of  Chatham,  ordnance;  riscount  Palmerston,  secretary-at- 
war,  Ac.;  lord  Eldon,  lord  chancellor.  This  ministiy  terminated  with  the  death  of 
Mr.  Perceval,  who  was  assassinated  in  the  lobby  of  the  house  of  oommons^  by  a  man 
named  Bellingham,  May  11, 1812. 

PERFUMERY.  Many  of  the  wares  coming  under  this  name  were  known  to  the  anoienta, 
and  the  Soriptures  abound  with  instances  of  the  use  of  incenses  and  perfumea.  No 
such  trade  ss  a  perfumer  was  known  in  Scotland  in  176S. — Cfreeeh.  A  stamp-tax  was 
laid  on  various  articles  of  perfumery  in  England,  and  the  vendor  was  obliged  to  take 
out  a  license,  in  1786.  At  the  comer  of  Beaufort-buildings,  in  tha  Strand,  resided 
Lilly  the  perfumer,  mentioned  in  the  Spectator, — Leigh, 

PBREKOP,  an  isthmus,  five  miles  broad,  connecting  the  Crimea  with  the  mainland.  It 
was  called  by  the  Tartars  Orkapou,  "gate  of  the  isthmus/'  which  the  RuasiaiM 
chsnged  to  its  present  name,  which  signifies  a  barren  ditch.  The  Tartar  fortress  was 
taken  and  destroyed  by  the  Russian  marshal,  Munich,  in  1736,  by  assault,  although 
it  was  defended  by  1000  Janissaries  and  100,000  Tartars.  It  was  again  atrco^y 
fortified  by  the  khan,  but  was  again  taken  by  the  Russians  in  1771,  who  have  ever 
since  retained  it. 

PERIPATETIC  PHILOSOPHY.  The  philosophy  taught  by  Aristotle,  about  842  b.c. 
Like  Plato,  who  taught  in  a  shady  grove  called  Academia^  Aristotle  chose  a  apot  of  a 
similar  character  at  Athens,  adjaoent  to  the  same  river,  where  there  were  treos  and 
shade ;  this  spot  was  denominated  the  Lyceum ;  and  as  he  usually  walked  while  be 
instructed  his  pupils,  his  philosophy  was  called  Peripatetic.  Much  of  the  philosophy 
of  Aristotle  has  been  disproved  and  laid  aside. — Pardon. 

.PERJURY.  In  some  countries  this  crime  was  punished  with  death.  The  early  Romans 
at  first  punished  it  by  throwing  the  offender  headlong  from  the  Tarpeian  precipiee ; 
but  that  penalty  was  afterwards  altered,  upon  a  supposition  that  the  gods  would 
vindicate  their  own  honour  by  some  remarkable  judgment  upon  the  offender.  The 
Greeks  set  a  mark  of  infiuny  upon  them.  After  the  empire  became  Christian,  and 
any  one  swore  falsely  upon  the  Gospels,  he  was  to  have  his  tongue  out  out.  The 
canons  of  the  primitive  church  enjoined  eleven  years'  penance ;  and  in  aome  states 
the  fiUse  swearer  became  liable  to  the  punishment  he  charged  upon  the  insoeent. 
Perhaps  the  greatest  perjurer  in  modem  times  was  Titus  Oates.  See  Oofer.  A  woman 
named  Alice  Grey  was  convicted  of  many  perjuries  in  1856.  In  England,  perjury  was 
punished  with  the  pillory,  1568.  By  the  Abolition  of  Oaths  bill,  persons  making  a 
false  declaration  ore  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor;  Act  5  &  6  WUL  lY.  c.  60  & 
61.  9  Sept  1835. 

PERONNi;  TREATY  of.  Louis  XI.  of  France,  having  placed  himself  in  the  powsr  of 
the  duke  of  Burgundy,  was  forced  to  sign  a  treaty  at  Peronne,  oonfinning  thoee  of 
Arras  and  Conflans,  with  some  other  stipulations  of  a  restrictive  and  humiliating 
character,  ▲.D.  1468.  Before  this  treaty  Louis  XI.  had  promised  Champsgne  and  Bri^ 
as  appanages  to  his  brother  Charles,  duke  of  Berri,  at  the  same  time  that  he  never 
intended  to  keep  his  word,  apprehending  that  those  provinces,  being  so  near  Burgundy, 
would  prove  a  fresh  source  of  broils  and  disputes. — HenavU, 

PERSECUTIONS,  GENERAL,  of  the  CHRISTIANa  Historians  usually  reckon  ten. 
The  1st,  under  Nero,  who,  having  set  fire  to  Rome,  threw  the  odium  of  the  act  upon 
the  Christisns.  Multitudes  of  them  were,  in  consequence,  massscred.  Some  wete 
wrapped  up  in  the  skins  of  wild  beasts,  and  torn  and  devoured  by  doga;  others 
were  crucined,  and  numbers  burned  alive,  A.D.  64.  The  2nd,  under  Doniitian,  95. 
The  8rd,  in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  100.  The  4th,  under  Adrian,  118.  The  5th, 
under  the  emperor  S^verus,  197.  The  6th,  under  Maximinus,  285.  The  7th,  under 
Decius,  more  bloody  than  any  preceding.  They  were  in  all  places  driven  from  their 
habitations,  plunderad  and  put  to  deaUi  by  torments,  the  rack,  and  fire.  The  8th,  I 
under  Yalenan,  257.  The  9tb,  under  Aurelian,  272.  The  10th,  under  Dio*defcia&. 
In  this  persecution,  which  lasted  ten  years,  houses  filled  vrith  Christiana  were ^  set  on 
fire,  and  droves  of  them  were  bound  together  with  ropee  and  oast  into  the  ee|s,  SOI 
Bee  Mattacrei, 


PER 


487 


PER 


PERSECUTIONS  of  the  JEWa    See  articles  Jew»  and  MaaioertM, 

PERSBCUnONS  OF  THE  PROTESTANTS.  In  Franeonia,  where  a  multitude  of 
Luther's  followers  were  massacred  by  William  de  Furstenberg;  1525. — JDi^retnoy. 
In  England,  when  Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  I^itimer,  and  Ridley, 
prelates,  and  SOO  Protestants,  were  burned  alive,  and  great  numbers  i>eri8hed  in 
prison,  3  Mary,  1556. — Warrur^B  Ecdes.  Hist.  Of  the  Protestants  in  France,  when 
numbers  perished ;  their  assemblies  were  prohibited,  their  places  of  worship  pulled 
down,  and  sentence  to  the  galleys  proclaimed  against  all  who  harboured  them,  1728. 
Executions  of  the  Protestants  at  Thorn,  when  great  numben  were  put  to  death  under 
pretence  of  their  having  been  concerned  in  a  tumult  occasioned  by  a  procession,  1724. 
See  Maa»aert8,  and  BartKohmew,  St, 

PERSIAN  EMPIRE.  The  country  which  gave  name  to  this  celebrated  empire  was 
originally  called  Elam,  and  received  the  appellation  of  Persia  from  Perseus,  the  son 
of  Perseus  and  Andromeda,  who  settled  here,  and  perhaps  established  a  petty  sove- 
reignty. But  long  before  his  time,  it  was  subject  to  independent  princes.  Persia 
was  at  length  included  in  the  first  Assyrian  monarchy;  and  when  Uiat  empire  was 
dismembered  by  Arbaces,  &o.  it  appertained  to  the  kingdom  of  Media.  Persia  was 
partly  conquered  from  the  Qreeks,  and  was  tributary  to  the  Pftrthians  for  nearly  500 
years,  when  Artaxerzes,  a  common  soldier,  became  the  founder  of  the  second  Persian 
monarchy,  a.d.  229. 


Zoroaater,  king  of  Baettiflt,  founder  of 
the  Magi —/weisi .  .  bo.  Sllfi 

ZorcwBter  II..  Persian  phUosopher,  gene- 
rally confounded  with  the  king  of 
BaetrkL—ZanMiM 10S8 


Cyrus,  king  of  Persia      .... 

Lydia  conquered  by  the  Persians      .    . 

Cyrus  becomes  master  of  all  Asia  . 

Gambyses  conqoen  Egypt  (which  mi) 

Darius  made  king  of  Persia 

Revolt  of  the  Babylonians .        .        .    . 

Conquest  of  Ionia;  Miletus  destroyed  . 

Darius  equips  a  fleet  of  800  sail,  with  an 
army  of  800,000  soldiers,  to  inrade  the 
Peloponnesus 

The  trqpps  advance  towards  Athens,  but 
are  met  in  the  plains  of  Marathon,  by 
Miltiades,  at  the  head  of  10,000  Athe- 
nians.   Sise  JfarotAoa  . 

Xerxes  enters  Greece  in  the  spring  of 
this  ysax;  at  the  head  of  iin  immense 
fbrce.    The  battle  of  Tbermopyitt  .    . 

Xerxes  enters  Athens,  after  having  lost 
200,000  of  his  troops^  and  is  defeated 
in  a  naval  enngement  off  Halamis 

Cimon,  son  of  Mutiades,  with  a  fleet  of 
250  vessels,  takes  several  cities  firom 
the  Persians,  and  destroys  their  navy, 
oonsisting  of  840  sail,  near  the  island 
of  Cyprus 

Xerxes  is  murdered  in  his  bed  by  Mith- 
ridates,  the  eunuch      .... 

The  ssssssin  is  put  to  death  In  a  horrible 
manner* . 

Heign  of  Artaxerxes        .       .        .        . 

Srprus  taken  from  the  Persians        .    . 
emoiable  retreat  of  the  Greeks.    See 

article  RttrtaX 

The  sea-fight  near  Ciiidus  .       . 


660 
548 
586 
5S5 
522 
612 
498 


400 


490 


480 


480 


470 

466 

465 
464 

449 

401 
894 


The  Sidonlans  being  besieged  by  the 
Persians,  set  fire  to  their  city  and 
perish  in  the  flames  .  b.c.    851 

Alexander  the  Great  enters  Asia ;  first 
battle  in  Phrygla,  near  the  river  Gxa- 
nious 384 


[For  the  exploits  of  Alexander  in  Pexala, 
see  article  Maetdcn.] 

Murder  of  Darius  by  Bessus,  who  is  tore 
in  pieces  t 881 

Alexander  founds  the  third  or  Grecian 
monarchy 381 

Alexander,  in  a  moment  of  intoxication, 
at  the  instance  of  his  mistress  Thais, 
sets  fire  to  the  palace  of  Persepolis     .    830 

[The  riches  of  this  town,  whose  ruins, 
even  as  they  exist  at  Uiis  day,  are  of 
indescribable  magnificence,  were  so 
inunense  that  20.000  mules  and  5000 
horses  were  laden  with  the  spoila] 

Persia  wss  partly  reconquered  fW>m  the 
Greeks,  and  remained  tributary  to 
Parthia  for  near  five  hundred  years, 

till  about A.D.    S60 

Artaxerxes  I.  of  this  new  empire,  a 
common  soldier,  restores  to  Persia  its 

former  title S29 

Reign  of  Sapor,  conqueror  and  tyrant  .    S88 

He  IB  assasidnated 878 

Hormiadas  reigns 878 

Reign  of  Sapor  II.  (of  70  yearsX  a  cruel 

and  successflil  tyrant  ....  810 
Persia  was  conquered  by  the  Saracens  .  661 
It  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Tamerlane, 

by  the  defeat  of  B^jazet  .  1402 

Reign  of  Tbamaa-KouU-Khan     .        .    .  1788 
He  carried  the  Persian  arms  into  Indta^ 
which  he  ravsged.    See /mf ut     .        .  1TS8 


*  The  criminal  was  enclosed  in  a  box,  except  his  head,  hands,  and  feet,  which  being  oonfined 
through  apertures  left  for  the  purpose,  were  smeared  with  honey ;  in  this  condition  he  wss  exposed 
with  his  face  towards  the  sun,  which  shone  intensely  hot.  The  honey  on  his  extremities  attrsicted 
wra^M  and  other  insects,  which  by  their  stings  inflicted  excruciating  pains,  while  the  maggots  produced 
within  the  box,  ttova  his  excrements,  ate  into  his  flesh,  and  even  to  his  very  entrails ;  and  lest  tbis 
oomplicatiou  of  torture  should  put  an  end  to  his  existenoe  too  quickly,  he  was  dailv  fed  with  nourish- 
ing food.  Mithridates  endured  this  punishment  seventeen  days,  and  when  he  died  his  flesh  was  nearly 
alToonsumed  firom  the  bones.  The  suflerer  very  rarely  refused  to  take  the  sustenance  oiBTered  liim.  on 
ftoeo«mt  of  the  insufferable  drought  induced  by  the  heat  of  the  climate,  and  the  fever  occasioiied  by  the 
torture ;  but  when  he  did,  his  eyes  were  pricked  with  small  bodkins  till  he  complied.— P(atoreA 

t  For  this  murder,  Bessus  wss  taken  and  bound  naked  hand  and  foot,  and  four  trees  having  been 
by  main  force  bent  down  to  the  ground,  and  one  of  the  criminal's  Umbs  tied  to  each  of  them,  the  trees 
nm  they  were  suffered  to  return  to  their  natural  position  flew  back  with  prodigious  violence,  each 
carry ing  with  it  one  of  the  limbs  of  his  body. — Plutarch. 


PER 


488 


PKT 


PERSIAN  EMPIRE,  eofUinued. 

Rupture  with  England  in  oonsoquenoo  of 
the  Feraiana  TOsieg^g  Herat  (which 
aw) :  war  declared    .  .  liov.  1,  1856 

FersiauB  defeated  at  Boshire  .    Dec.  10,  1866 


At  Koosbab  .....  Feb.  8.  1857 
And  at  Mohammorah  March  20,  1857 

Peace  ratified  at  Teheran    .       April  14,  1867 
Herat  glTen  up  by  the  Feniaiu,  Joly,  1857 


SHAHS  OF  FERSIA. 


1502. 
1623. 
1576. 
1677. 
1582. 

1627. 
1641. 
1666. 
1694. 
1722. 
1726. 
1729. 


1782. 


Ismail  or  Ishmael. 

Taroasp  or  Tharaaa  I. 

Ismail  Meerxa. 

Mahommed  Heersa. 

Abbas  I.  the  Great :  died  in  1627  after 
a  reign  of  45  yean. 

ShahSoofe. 

Abbaa  II. 

Solymaa. 

Hussein :  deposed. 

Mahmoud. 

Ashraff,  the  Usurper :  slain  in  batUOb 

Tamasp,  or  Thamas  II.  :  reooTered  the 
throne  of  his  ancestors  ftx>m  the  pre- 
ceding. 

[Thamas-Kouli-Khan  obtained  great 
successes  in  this  and  the  subsequent 
reigns.] 

Abbas  II.,  infiint  son  of  Tamasp,  under 
the  regency  of  Kouli-Khan,  who  after* 
wards  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed 
as  Nadir  Shah. 


1786. 

1747. 
1748. 
1750. 
1753. 
1779. 
1780. 
1781, 
1785. 
1788. 
1789. 


1794. 
1798 
1834. 

1848. 


Nadir  Shah  (the  Victorioos  King) :  as- 
sassinated hy  his  nephew  at  KtMnosaa. 

AdUShah. 

Shah  Bokh. 

^nterr^paum.] 

Kureem  Khan. 

Abool-Fatteli-Khan. 

[Interr^num.] 

Ali-Hoorad-Khan. 

Jaffier^Khan. 

[Interregnum.] 

Looft-Au-Kluui :  betrayed  Into  tbe  bands 
of  his  successor,  who  ordered  his  eyes 
to  bo  plucked  out,  and  afterwards  pot 
him  to  d<»th. 

Aga-Mahnmed-Khan :  assaminatert 

FethAli-Shah. 

Mahommed-Shah,  grandson  of  Fetb ; 
Bucoeeded  by  his  s<m. 

Nasr-ul-Deen.  or  Nausser-ood-deen, 
Sept.  4,  the  present  (1857)  Shah  of 
Persia. 


In  1747f  Ahmed  AbdalU  founded  the  kingdom  of  Candahar.  In  1779,  eompetitora 
for  the  throne  of  Persia  Bprung  up,  and  caused  a  period  of  slaughter  and  desolation 
till  1794,  when  Mahomed  Khan  became  sole  monarch.  The  present  monarch  of 
Persia,  Nasr-ul-Deen,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1848,  is  said  to  be  an  able  prince,  and 
friendly  to  England.  A  desperate  attempt  was  made  to  asaasainate  him,  Ang.  15, 
1852.    For  the  recent  war,  see  cUtove. 

PERTH,  SooTLAin).  This  town  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Agricola,  about  A.D.  70. 
It  was  besieged  by  the  regent  Robert  in  1889.  James  I.  was  murdered  here  at  the 
Black  Friars'  monastery,  by  Robert  Graham  and  the  earl  of  Athol,  for  whidi  their 
bodies  were  torn  with  red-hot  pincers,  burning  crowns  of  iron  pr86se4  down  upon 
their  heads,  and  in  the  end  their  hearts  taken  out  and  thrown  into  a  fire.  Qowrie's 
conspiracy  occurred  Aug.  5,  1600.  Perth  was  taken  by  Cromwell  in  1651 ;  by  the 
earl  of  Mar,  after  the  battle  of  Dumblane,  in  1715.    See  Scotland. 

PERU,  South  Amebioa.  First  visited  in  a.d.  1513,  and  soon  afterwards  conquered  by 
the  Spaniards,  whose  avarice  led  to  the  most  frightful  crimes.  The  easy  conquest  of 
this  country  has  not  its  parallel  in  history.  Pizarro,  in  1530,  and  others,  with  one 
vessel,  112  men,  and  four  horses,  set  out  to  invade  South  America,  which,  however, 
not  succeeding,  he  again,  in  1581,  embarked  with  three  small  vessels,  140  infimtry, 
and  thirty-six  horses;  with  these,  and  two  reinforcements  of  thirty  men  each,  he 
conquered  the  empire  of  Peru,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  that  vast  power  which  the 
Spaniards  enjoyed  in  the  New  World.  Peru  remained  in  subjection  to  the  Spantaids 
(who  murdered  the  Incas  and  all  their  descendants)  without  any  attempt  being  made 
to  throw  off  the  oppressive  yoke  till  1782 ;  but  the  independence  of  the  oountiy  was 
completely  achieved  in  1826.  The  new  Peruvian  constitution  was  signed  by  the 
president  of  the  Republic,  March  21,  1828. 

PERUKE,  OR  Wio.  The  ancients  used  false  hair,  but  the  peruke  in  the  present  mode 
has  been  little  more  than  two  centuries  in  use.  It  was  first  worn  in  France  and  Italy 
about  A.D.  1620 ;  and  was  introduced  into  England  about  1660. — Sttype,  It  was  at 
one  time  worn  almost  universally  by  men  wanting  hair,  whether  rich  or  poor. — Aake, 

PESTH.  This  city  was  repeatedly  taken  and  besieged  in  the  wars  of  Hungary,  par- 
ticularly  in  the  long  contests  with  the  Turks.  The  last  time  that  it  changed  masters, 
was  in  1684,  after  the  raising  of  the  famous  siege  of  Vienna  by  Sobieeki  Buda-Pesth, 
in  the  war  just  closed,  was  taken  by  the  Imperialists,  Jan.  5, 1849.  The  Hnngariaaa 
afberwardfl  defeated  the  Austrians,  who  were  obliged  to  evacuate  it»  April  IS,  same 
year.     For  the  result  of  the  war,  see  Hu/ngary. 

PESTILENCE.    Bq^  Plague, 

PETALISM.    This  was  a  mode  of  deciding  upon  the  guilt  of  citizens  of  Syracuse,  similar 


PET  489  PET 

to  the  Athenian  OBtracifim ;  but  the  name  woa  written  on  a  leaf  instead  of  on  a  shell :  it 
is  said  to  liave  been  in  use  460  RC.  The  leaf  was  generally  that  of  the  olive  tree,  and 
if  the  guilt  of  the  accused  were  thus  established,  the  sentence  was  usually  banishment. 
— Cotgrave.    From  Syracuse  it  went  to  other  states. 

PETARD.  An  instrument  whose  invention  is  ascribed  to  the  Huguenots  in  1579. 
Petards  are  of  metal,  nearly  in  the  shape  of  a  hat.  In  the  siege,  when  a  design  is  to 
blow  up  gates,  or  other  barriers,  these  instruments  are  applied ;  they  are  used  also  in 
countermines  to  break  through  into  the  enemy's  galleries,  and  so  to  disappoint  their 
mines.  Cahors  was  taken  by  Henry  lY.  by  means  of  petards,  and  they  were  first 
used  there  in  IdSO.-^MU.  Diet. 

PETER^PENCE.  Presented  by  Ina  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  to  the  pope  at  Rome,  for 
the  endowment  of  an  English  college  there,  a.d.  725.  So  called  because  sgreed  to  be 
paid  on  the  feast  of  St.  Peter.  The  tax  was  levied  on  all  families  possessed  of  thirty 
pence  yearly  rent  in  land,  out  of  which  they  paid  one  penny.  It  was  confirmed  by 
Ofia,  777,  and  was  afterwards  claimed  by  the  popes,  as  a  tribute  from  England,  and 
regularly  collected,  till  suppressed  by  Henry  VIIL — Camden, 

PETER,  TBI  WILD  60T.  A  savage  creature  found  in  the  forest  of  Hertswold,  electorate 
of  Hanover,  when  Qeoige  I.  and  his  friends  were  hunting.  He  was  found  walking  on 
his  hands  and  feet,  climbing  trees  like  a  squirrel,  and  feeding  on  grass  and  moss, 
Nov.  1725.  At  this  time  he  was  supposed  to  be  thirteen  years  old.  The  king 
caused  him  to  taste  of  all  the  dishes  at  the  royal  table ;  but  he  preferred  wild  pliuats, 
leaves,  and  the  bark  of  trees,  which  he  had  lived  on  from  his  infancy.  No 
efforts  of  the  many  philosophic  persons  about  court  could  entirely  vary  his  savage 
habits,  or  cause  him  to  utter  one  distinct  syllable.  He  died  in  Feb.  1785,  at  the  age 
of  72.  Lord  Monboddo  presented  him  as  an  instance  of  the  hypothesis  that  "  man 
in  a  state  of  nature  \a  a  mere  animaL" 

PETERBOROUGH,  Evolaitd.  Founded  a.d.  633.  It  was  anciently  called  Medes- 
hamstede ;  but  one  of  the  kings  of  Mercia  founding  an  abbey  here,  and  dedicating  it 
to  St.  Peter,  it  obtained  its  present  name.  The  original  monastery  here  was  founded 
in  689.  It  was  formerly  subject  to  an  abbot;  but  King  Henry  YIII.  turned  the 
monastery  into  a  cathedral,  and  made  it  a  bishop's  see. 

PETERBOROUGH,  BISHOPRIC  of.  One  of  the  bishoprics  erected  by  Henry  VIII. 
out  of  the  lands  of  the  dissolved  monasteries,  and  wholly  taken  from  the  diocese  of 
Lincoln.  The  church  was  destroyed  by 'the  Danes;  but  it  was  rebuilt  with  great 
beauty,  and  continued  to  flourish  till  the  Reformation.  The  first  bishop  was  John 
Chamber,  the  last  abbot  of  Peterborough.  The  see  was  valued  in  the  king's  books  at 
4192.  19«.  Wd. 

PETERLOO.    See  MancheaUr  Seform  Meeting. 

PETERSBURG,  ST.  The  new  capital  of  Russia.  Peter  the  Great  first  began  this  city  in 
1703.  He  built  a  small  hut  for  himself,  and  some  wretched  wooden  hovels.  In  1710, 
the  count  Golovkin  built  the  first  house  of  brick ;  and  the  next  year,  the  emperor, 
with  his  own  hand,  laid  the  foundation  of  a  house  of  the  same  material.  From  these 
small  beginnings  rose  the  imperial  city  of  Petersburg ;  and  in  less  than  nine  years 
after  the  wooden  hovels  had  been  erected,  the  seat  of  empire  was  transferred  from 
Moscow  to  this  place.  Here,  in  1736,  a  fire  consumed  2000  houses;  and  in  1780, 
another  fire  consumed  11,000  houses;  this  last  fire  was  occasioned  by  lightniufr. 
Again,  in  June,  1796,  a  large  magazine  of  naval  stores  and  100  vessels  were  destroyed. 
Tbe  winter  palace  was  burnt  to  the  ground,  Dec.  29,  1837.    See  Ruuia, 

PETERSBURG,  ST.,  PEACE  of.  Between  Russia  and  Prussia,  the  former  restoring  all 
her  conquests  to  the  latter,  signed.  May  5,  1762.  Trbatt  of  Pbtebsburo,  for  the 
partition  of  Poland,  (see  article  Partition  Treaties,)  Aug.  5,  1772.  Tbeatt  of  Pktebs- 
BOBO,  for  a  coalition  against  France,  Sept.  8,  1805.  Treaty  of  Alliance,  signed  at 
Stk  Petersburg,  between  Bemadotte,  prince  royal  of  Sweden,  and  the  emperor 
Alexander ;  the  former  agreeing  to  join  in  the  campaign  against  France,  in  return  for 
which  Sweden  was  to  receive  Norway,  March  24, 1812. 

PETERSWALDEN,  CONVENTION  of.  An  important  and  fortunate  convention 
between  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  by  which  a  firm  and  decisive  alliance  between 
those  powers  was  made  against  France,  and  the  course  of  action  against  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  was  planned,  signed  July  8,  1813.  This  convention  and  the  consequent 
alliance  led  to  the  finsU  overthrow  of  Bonaparte  in  the  next  year. 


PET  490  PHA 

PETERWABA.DEIN.    Soe  Salefikamem. 

PETITION  OF  RIGHTS.  See  mghu,  BiU  of. 

PETRAHCH  AND  LAURA.  Two  of  the  most  eminenfe  peraoiu  of  the  fourteenih 
centuiy,  celebrated  for  the  exquisite  and  refined  passion  of  the  former  for  the  latter, 
and  the  great  genius  and  virtue  of  both.  The  chief  subject  of  Petrarch'a  enchantiiig 
Bonnets  was  the  beautiful  Laura.  He  was  crowned  with  laurel,  as  a  poet  and  writer, 
on  Easterday,  April  8, 1341 ;  and  died  at  Arqu^  near  Padua,  July  18, 1374.  Laura 
died  April  6, 1848. 

PETROPAULOYSEI,  a  fortified  town,  on  the  east  coast  of  Kamtschatka,  waa  attacked  by 
an  Enslish  and  French  squadron,  Aug.  30,  1854.  Thev  destroyed  the  batteries,  but 
failed  m  taking  some  Russian  frigates,  except  the  SiUoa^  a  store-ship,  taken  by  the 
Praident,  and  a  schooner  taken  by  the  Pique,  Admiral  Price  was  killed,  it  is  sup- 
posed by  the  accidental  dischai^ge  of  his  own  pistoL  A  party  of  700  sailors  and 
marines  landed  to  assault  the  place,  but  fell  into  an  ambuscade ;  many  were  killed, 
including  capt.  Parker  and  M.  Bourasset,  English  and  French  officers.  The  objects 
of  the  attack  were  not  attained,  it  is  thought  from  want  of  stores.  After  this  the 
Russians  greatly  strengthened  their  defences^  but  on  May  30, 1855,  the  allied  squadron 
in  the  Pacific  arriring  here  found  the  place  deserted.  The  fortifications  were  destroyed, 
but  the  town  was  spared.    The  Russian  ships  escaped. 

PEVENSEY  CASTLE.  This  deserres  mention  here,  as  a  remarkable  relic  of  antiquity. 
From  the  abundance  of  Roman  bricks,  it  is  supposed  that  there  was  a  Roman  fortreai 
on  the  spot.  The  duke  of  York,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  lY.  was  for  some  time 
confined  within  the  walls  of  this  castle ;  as  was  also  queen  Joan,  of  Navarre,  the  last 
wife  of  Henry  lY.  who  with  her  confessor,  friar  Randal,  was  accused  of  a  design  to 
destroy  the  king.  James  I.  of  Scotland,  by  order  of  Henry  lY.  suffered  a  captivity 
in  the  castle  for  about  eighteen  years.  In  1840,  on  removing  some  earth  within  the 
castle,  a  great  many  brass  eoins,  in  a  series  extending  over  the  reigns  of  six  or  seven 
Roman  emperors,  were  discovered. 

PFAFFENDORF,  BATTLE  or.  Between  the  Imperialistfi  and  Prussians.  The  Anstrians 
were  signally  defeated  with  great  slaughter  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  who  by  this 
victory  prevented  the  designed  junction  of  the  Russian  and  Austrian  grand  armies, 
Aug.  15,  1760.  The  plans  of  the  allies  were  frustrated,  and  Frederick  III.  worked 
out  the  consummate  policy  that  was  disclosed  by  the  subsequent  events  of  the  war. 

PHALANX.  This  old  military  word  sometimes  signified  a  battalion  or  squadron,  and 
sometimes  the  ranks  or  ranges  into  which  whole  armies  were  drawn  when  put  in 
posture  for  a  general  battle. — Pardon.  A  troop  of  men  closely  embodied. — MHicm, 
The  Qreek  phalanx  consisted  of  8000  men  in  a  square  battalion,  with  shields  joined* 
and  spears  crossing  each  other.  The  battalion  formed  by  Philip  of  Maoedon  was 
called  the  Macedonian  phalanx,  and  was  instituted  by  him  360  b.c. 

PHARISEES.  They  were  a  famous  sect  among  the  Jews;  so  called  from  a  Hebrew 
word  which  signifies  to  separate  or  set  apart,  because  they  pretended  to  a  greater 
degree  of  holiness  and  piety  than  the  rest  of  the  Jews.  Luke  xviiL  9.  The  I^Jmud 
enumerates  seven  classes  of  Pharisees. 

PHARMACY :  the  knowledge  of  the  chemical  and  medical  properties  of  drugs  and  all 
other  things  employed  medicinally.  The  Pharmaceuti(»l  Society  of  London  was 
founded  in  1841,  and  obtained  its  charter  in  1843.  It  publishes  a  monthly  joaraal. 
— 15  &  16  Yict.  c.  56  (1852),  regulates  the  qualifications  of  pharmaceutical  chemists. 

PHAROS  AT  ALEXANDRIA,  called  the  Pharos  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and  esteemed 
as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  It  was  a  tower  built  of  white  marble,  and  could 
be  seen  at  the  distance  of  100  miles.  On  the  top,  fires  were  constantly  kept,  to 
direct  sailors  in  the  bay.  The  building  cost  800  talimts,  which  are  equivalent  to 
above  165,1002.  English,  if  Attic ;  or  if  Alexandrian,  double  that  sum.  There  was  this 
inscription  upon  it — '*  King  Ptolemy  to  the  gods,  the  saviours,  for  the  benefit  of 
sailors ; "  but  Sostratus,  the  architect,  wishing  to  claim  all  the  glory,  engraved  bis 
own  name  upon  the  stones,  and  afterwards  filled  the  hollow  with  mortar,  and  wrote 
the  above  inscription.  When  the  mortar  had  decayed  by  time,  Ptolemy's  name 
disappeared,  and  the  following  inscription  then  became  visible :— "  Sostratiu  the 
Cnidian,  son  of  Dexiphanes,  to  the  gods,  the  saviours,  for  the  benefit  of  sailora.*' 
About  280  B.C. 

PHARSALIA,  BATTLE  OF.    Between  JuliuB  Csaear  and  Pompey,  in  which  the  fonner 


PHI 


401 


PHI 


obtained  a  great  and  memorable  yictorj,  glorions  to  Gseear  in  all  its  oonsequencee. 
0»8ar  loet  about  200  men,  or,  according  to  others,  1200.  Pompey*B  loss  was  15,000, 
or  25,000  according  to  others,  and  24,000  of  his  army  were  made  prisoners  of  war 
bj  the  conqueror,  May  12,  48  B.O.  After  this  defeat  Pompey  fled  to  Egypt,  where 
he  was  treacherously  slain,  by  order  of  Ptolemy  the  younger,  then  a  minor,  and  his 
body  thrown  naked  on  the  strand,  exposed  to  the  view  of  all  whose  curiosity  led 
them  that  way,  till  it  was  burnt  by  his  faithful  frecdman  Philip. 

PHILIPPI,  BATTLE  of.  Between  Octayius  Gsssar  and  More  Antony  on  one  side, 
and  the  republican  forces  of  Brutus  and  Cassius,  in  which  the  former  obtained  the 
▼ictory.  Two  battles  were  fought :  in  the  first,  Brutus,  who  commanded  the  right 
wing,  defeated  the  enemy ;  but  Cassius,  who  had  care  of  the  left,  was  overpowerad, 
and  he  ordered  his  freedman  to  run  him  through  the  body.  In  the  second  battle, 
the  wing  which  Brutus  commanded  obtained  a  victory ;  but  the  other  was  defeated, 
and  he  found  himself  surrounded  by  the  soldiers  of  Antony.  He,  however,  made  his 
escape,  and  soon  after  fell  on  lus  sword.    Both  battles  were  fought  in  October,  42  B.o. 

PHILIPPICS.  This  species  of  satu«  derives  its  name  from  the  orations  of  Demosthenes 
against  Philip  II.  of  Macedon.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  orations  of  Cicero 
against  Marc  Antony,  the  second  of  which  was  called  divine  by  Juvenal,  which 
cost  Cicero  his  life,  43  b.o.  Philippics,  from  these,  now  are  understood  to  mean  any 
invective  declamation. — BUkop  Ilurd, 

PHILIPPINE  ISLES.  Discovered  by  the  Spaniards  a.d.  1519.  In  this  archipelago  the 
illustrious  eircumnavigator  Magellan,  like  our  still  more  illustrious  Cook  in  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  lost  his  life  in  a  skirmish,  in  1621.  They  were  taken  possession  of  in 
1565  by  a  fleet  from  Mexico,  which  first  stopped  at  the  island  of  Zebu,  and  subdued 
it.  In  1570  a  settlement  was  effected  at  the  mouth  of  the  Manilla  river,  and  Manilla 
was,  in  the  following  year,  constituted  the  capital  of  the  Spanish  possessions  in  the 
Pliilippines.    See  Manilla, 


PHILOSOPHY.  The  knowledge  of  the  reason  of  things,  in  opposition  to  history, 
which  is  only  the  knowledge  of  facts ;  or  to  mathematics,  which  is  the  knowledge  of 
the  quantity  of  things; — the  hypothesis  or  system  upon  which  natural  effects  are 
explained. — Locke,  Pythagoras  first  adopted  the  name  of  philosopher  (such  men 
having  been  previously  called  sages),  about  528  B.O.  See  iforo^  PkUotophy.  Philo- 
sophers  were  expelled  from  Rome,  and  their  schools  suppressed,  by  Domitian,  a.d. 
83. — Utkiv.  Hist,  Philosophy  is  now  divided  into. — 1.  Moral  or  Ethical ;  2.  Intellec- 
tual ;  3.  Natural  or  Physical :  The  following  are  some  of  the  important  dates  of  the 
last  of  the  three. 


Oridb  and  Latin  PAi^oMpAy  .*— Thales  about 
B.O.  600;  Pythagoras,  690;  Ariatotlo  and 
Plato,  350  ;  Euclid,  SOO ;  Archimedes,  287 ; 
Hipparchua,  160 ;  Lucretius,  about  100  ; 
Juliua  Cesar,  60 ;  Ptolemy,  a.d.  160. 

Middle  Agu  .•—Arabians  :  Ben  Husa,  800  ; 
AlhazflQ,  Ac,  1100;  Gerbert,  Decimals, 
060 ;  Roger  Bacon,  Opui  Majw,  1266. 

hkdHCtive  PhUotopky : — 
Copemicus's  system  published    .        .  1543 

SrchoBrahe     ....       1646-1601 
epler^sLaws       ....      1609-18 
Bacon's  Novum  Organum.  .    .  1620 

OalUeo's  DioZotfuef        ....  1632 
Royal  Society  begins  (wAuAsw)      .    .  1646 


Otto  Guericke — Air-pump   .  .  1654 

Huyghens  on  Pendulums  .    .  1668 

Newton^Fluzions,  1666 ;  Analysis  of 
Light,  ie69 ;  Theory  of  Gravitation, 
1684  :   Prweipia   published,    1687 ; 

death 1727 

Bradley  discovers  aberration  .  .  .  1727 
Euler  on  Perturbation  of  the  Planets .  1748 

Black  on  Heat 1762 

Laplace  on  Tides 1776 

Lagrange,  M^eanique  Andl^iqut  .  .  1788 
GaTvaui  and  Volta'a  researches  .  .  1791 
lApUiee,  Af/eanigiM  OiUgU  .    .  1790 

Bee  Agronomy,  Optiei^Chemittty,  Sleetrieity,  Ac. 


PHILOSOPHER'S  STONE.  By  this  name  is  usually  meant  a  powder,  which  some 
chemists  imagined  had  the  virtue  of  turning  all  imperfect  metals  into  silver  and 
gold — ^all  metals  hut  these  being  so  considered.  Kircher  observes,  with  truth,  that 
the  quadrature  of  the  circle,  perpetual  motion,  the  inextinguishable  lamp,  and  philo- 
sopher's stone,  have  racked  the  brains  of  philosophers  and  mathematicians  for  a 
long  time,  without  any  useful  result.  For  a  remarkable  caM  of  folly  and  imposition 
in  relation  to  this  subject,  see  Alchemy. 

PHIPPS,  CAPTAIN,  HIS  EXPEDITION.  The  hon.  captain  Phipps  (afterwards  lord 
Mulghive)  sailed  from  England  in  command  of  the  Sea-horae  and  Carccue  ships,  to 
maki  discoveries,  as  near  as  possible,  to  the  North  Pole,  1773.  In  August  of  that 
yeai^  he  was  for  nine  days  environed  with  impenetrable  harriers  of  ice,  in  the 
Froten  Ocean,  north  of  Spitsbergen,  80"  48'  North  latitude.  All  further  progress 
way  not  only  impossible,  but  retraat  also,  and  in  this  dreadful  situation  all  on  board 


PHO  492  PHY 

gave  themselves  up  for  lost ;  but  they  were  providentially  liberated  from  the  vast 
mountains  of  ice  by  a  brisk  wind,  which  in  two  or  three  days  more  accomplished 
their  deliverance.  The  ships  returned  to  England  without  their  intrepid  commander 
having  made  any  discoveries,  Sept.  20,  1773.  In  this  expedition,  Nelaoa  was 
cockswain  to  the  second  in  command. 

PHOSPHORUS.  It  was  discovered  in  the  year  1667,  by  Brandt,  who  procured  it  from 
urine ;  and  Scheele  soon  after  found  a  method  of  preparing  it  from  bones.  The  dis- 
covery was  prosecuted  by  John  Kunokel  a  Saxon  chemist,  1670,  and  by  the  hon. 
Mr.  Boyle,  about  the  same  time. — Nouv.  Diet,  Phosphoric  acid  is  first  mentioned  in 
1743,  but  is  said  to  have  been  known  earlier;  the  distinction  was  first  pointed,  out 
by  lAvoisier  in  1777>  Canton's  phosphorus  is  so  called  from  its  discoverer,  17681. 
Photophosphurated  hydrogen  was  discovered  by  sir  Humphry  Davy  in  1812. 

PHOTOOAL VASOGRAPHY.  The  art  of  producing  engravings  by  the  action  of  light 
and  electricity.  The  earliest  specimens  were  produced  by  Nicephore  Niepce  and 
presented  by  him  in  1827  to  the  great  botanist  Robert  Brown.  Great  aidvmnoes 
have  since  been  made  in  this  art  by  MM.  Niepce  de  St.  Victor,  (who  pablished  a 
treatise  on  it  in  1866),  and  Vitry,  Mr.  W.  R.  Grove,  H.  Fox  Talbot,  &c.  In  1854, 
Paul  Pretsch  patented  a  process  which  he  called  *' Photogalvanography,"  and  a 
company  has  been  formed  to  apply  it  to  the  benefit  of  the  public. 

PHOTOGRAPHY.  The  action  of  light  on  chloride  of  silver  was  known  as  early  as  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  phenomena  was  studied  by  Scheele  (1777),  Senebier  (1790), 
Ritter  and  WoUaston  (1801).  From  the  results  of  these  investigations,  experiments 
were  made  by  Thos.  Wedgwood  and  Humphry  Davy,  which  were  published,  1802. 
Wedgwood  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  fihotographer.  His  paper  was  entitled  "An 
account  of  a  method  of  copying  paintings  upon  glass,  and  of  making  profiles  by  the 
agency  of  light  upon  nitrate  of  silver.*'*  Further  discoveries  were  made  by  Niepoe 
in  1814,  and  sir  J.  Herschel  in  1819.  Dagnerre  commenced  his  experiments  in  1824  ; 
and  in  1826  joined  Niepce,  and  worked  with  him  till  the  death  of  the  latter  in  18^3. 
The  production  of  the  Dagvarrotype  plates  was  announced  in  Jan.  1889 ;  and  the 
French  chamber  of  deputies  granted  a  pension  to  Daguerre  and  to  Isidore  Niepoe  (the 
son).  In  1839  also  Mr.  Henry  Fox  Talbot  first  published  his  mode  of  multiplying 
photographic  impressions,  by  producing  a  negative  photograph  {ue.  with  the  light 
and  shades  reversed)  from  which  any  number  of  positive  copies  may  be  obtained. 
HIb  patent  for  producing  the  Talbotype  or  Oaiotype  (on  paper)  is  dated  Feb.  1841. 
From  this  time  improvements  have  been  made  with  great  rapidity.  The  Phot<^raphic 
Society  of  London  was  established  in  Jan.  1853.  It  publishes  a  journal.  On  Dec 
22,  1852,  774  specimens  of  photography  were  exhibited  at  the  rooms  of  the  Sode^ 
of  Arts,  Adelphi. 

PHRENOLOGY.    See  Crwnidogy, 

PHYSIC.  Reason  and  chance  led  early  to  the  knowledge  and  virtues  of  certain  herbs. 
The  sea-horse  drawing  blood  from  his  body  by  means  of  a  reed  to  relieve  himself 
from  plethora,  taught  men  the  art  of  artificial  bloodletting. — Pliny,  In  fiibnloos 
history  it  is  mentioned  that  Polydius  having  seen  a  serpent  approach  the  wounded 
body  of  another  with  an  herb,  with  which  he  covered  it,  restor^  the  inanimate  body 
of  Glaucus  in  the  same  manner. — ByginuB,  Egypt  appears  to  have  been  the  cradle 
of  the  healing  art;  "and  the  priests,"  says  Cabanus,  "soon  seized  upon  the  province 
of  medicine,  and  combined  it  with  their  other  instruments  of  power."  From  the  hands 
of  the  priests  medicine  fell  into  those  of  the  philosophers,  who  freed  it  from  its 
superstitious  character.  Pythagoras  endeavoured  to  explain  the  formation  of 
diseases,  the  order  of  their  symptoms,  and  the  action  of  medicine  about  629  B.C. 
Hippocrates,  justly  regarded  as  the  father  of  medicine  and  the  founder  of  the  science, 
flourished  about  422  b.o.  Galen,  born  a.d.  131,  was  the  oracle  of  medical  science  for 
nearly  1500  years.  The  discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  by  Dr.  Harvey, 
furnished  an  entirely  new  system  of  physiological  and  psthological  speculation,  16& 

PHYSIC  GARDEN.  The  first  cultivated  in  Engknd  was  by  John  Genu^,  mugeon  of 
London  in  1567.  That  at  Oxford  was  endowed  by  the  earl  of  Danby  in  lb92.  That 
at  Cambridge  was  commenced  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  That  av  Chelsea, 
originated  by  sir  Hans  Sloaue,  was  given  to  the  Apothecaries'  Company  in  1^21 ;  this 
last  was  very  much  admired  by  the  illustrious  LinnsBUS.  The  fine  Botanic  C  vdeo  in 
Dublin  was  commenced  in  1768. 

*  Journal  of  the  Royal  lostitution,  1802,  p.  170. 


PHY  493  PIC 

PHYSICIAN  TO  THK  KINO.  The  earliest  mandate  or  warrant  for  the  attendance  of  a 
physician  at  court  is  dated  a.d.  1454,  the  33  Henry  VL,  a  reign  fertile  in  the  patronage 
which  waa  afforded  to  practitioners  in  medicine ;  but  in  l£at  reign  no  appointment 
existed  which  can  justly  be  called  physician  to  the  royal  person.  By  this  warrant 
the  king,  with  the  consent  of  his  privy  coimcil,  deputed  to  three  physicians  and  two 
surgeons  the  regulation  of  his  diet,  and  the  administration  of  such  medicines  and 
remedies  as  might  be  sufficient  for  bis  cure,  without  any  allusion  to  the  previous 
existence  or  permanency  of  the  office,  which  they  were  authorised  for  a  time  to  fill, 
or  to  a  remuneration  for  their  services. — Lift  of  Liinacre, 

PHYSICIANS,  ROYAL  COLLEOB  of,  London.  Projected  by  Dr.  Linaore,  physician 
to  Henry  VIIL,  who,  through  his  interest  with  cardinal  WoUey,  obtained  letters- 
patent,  constituting  a  corporate  body  of  regular  physicians  in  London,  with  peculiar 
privileges,  Oct  28, 1518.  Linacre  was  elected  the  first  president  of  the  college.  Dr. 
Harvey,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
was  another  ornament  and  benefactor  to  this  institution.  He  built  a  library  and 
public  ball,  which  he  granted  for  ever  to  the  college,  with  his  books  and  instruments. 
The  college  waa  afterwards  held  in  a  building  in  Warwick-lane,  erected  by  sir  C. 
Wren,  where  it  continued  till  1823,  when  the  present  elegant  stone  edifice  was  erected 
from  designs  by  sir  R.  Smirke.  The  College  of  Physicians,  Dublin,  was  founded  by 
charter  of  Charles  II.  1667,  and  waa  re-incorporated  in  1692.  The  Royal  College  of 
Physicians,  Edinburgh,  Nov.  29, 1681. 

PHYSICS.    See  P^aowpAy. 

PHYSIOONOMY.  This  is  a  science  by  which  the  dispositions  of  mankind  are  discovered, 
chiefly  from  the  features  of  the  face.  The  origin  of  the  term  is  referred  to  Aristotle; 
Cicero  was  attached  to  the  science.  It  became  a  fashionable  study  from  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century ;  and  in  the  last  century,  the  essays  of  Le  Cat,  and  Pernethy 
led  to  the  modem  system.  Lavater^s  researches  in  this  pursuit  arose  from  his  having 
been  struck  with  the  singular  countenance  of  a  soldier  who  passed  under  a  window 
at  which  he  and  Zimmerman  were  standing ;  published  1776. 

PHYSIOLOOY.  In  connection  with  natural  philosophy,  and  that  part  of  physics  which 
teaches  the  constitution  of  animals  and  plants,  so  far  as  it  is  in  its  healthy  or  natural 
state,  and  to  that  purpose  endeavours  to  accouut  for  the  reason  of  the  several  functions 
and  operations  of  the  several  members.  The  works  of  MuUer  and  Carpenter  are  the 
most  celebrated  at  the  present  time. 

PLANO  FORTE.  Invented  by  J.  C.  Schroder,  of  Dresden,  in  1717;  he  presented  a 
model  of  his  invention  to  the  court  of  Saxony ;  and  some  time  after,  O.  Silverman,  a 
musical-instrument  maker,  began  to  manufacture  piano-fortes  with  considerable 
success.  The  invention  has  also  been  ascribed  to  an  instrument-maker  at  Florenc& 
The  square  piano-forte  was  first  made  by  Freiderica,  an  organ-builder  of  Saxony, 
about  1758.  Piano-fortes  were  made  in  London  by  M.  Zumpie,  a  Oerman,  1766 ;  and 
have  been  since  greatly  improved  by  Broadwood,  Collard,  Kirkman,  Erard,  and  others. 

PICHEGRirS,  MOREAITS,  and  GEORQES'  CONSPIRACY.  The  memorable  con- 
spiracy against  Napoleon  Bonaparte  detected,  and  Geoi^es  and  Moreau  arrested  at 
Paris,  Feb.  23,  1804.  Pich^ru,  when  captured,  was  confined  in  the  Temple,  where 
he  was  found  strangled  on  the  morning  of  the  6th  April  following.  For  the  particulars 
relating  to  this  conspiracy,  see  article  Oeorges,  &c. 

PICQUET,  THB  GAME  of.  Picquet  was  the  first  known  g^me  upon  the  cards.  It  was 
invented  by  Joquemin,  and  afterwards  other  games,  for  the  amusement  of  Charles  V I. 
of  France,  who  was  at  the  time  in  feeble  health,  1390. — M6z4ray,  "It  is  remarkable," 
observes  a  French  writer,  Anon^  '*  that  the  earliest  game  upon  the  cards  should  be 
at  once  the  most  simple  and  intellectual."  Cards  are  referrod  by  some  persons  to  the 
Romans,  and  it  is  duputed  whether  they  are,  in  modem  times,  of  French  or  Spanish 
origin.    See  article  Cards. 

PICTS.  A  Scythian  or  Oerman  colony,  who  landed  in  Scotland  much  about  the  time 
that  the  Scots  began  to  seize  upon  the  Ebudss,  or  Western  Isles.  They  afterwards 
lived  as  two  distinct  nations,  the  Scots  in  the  highlands  and  isles,  and  the  Plots  in 
that  part  now  called  the  lowlands.  About  a.d.  838  to  843,  the  Scots  under  Kenneth  II. 
totally  subdued  the  Picts,  and  seized  all  their  kingdom,  and  extended  the  limits  as 
far  as  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

PICTS'  WALL.    See  Boman  WaU, 

PICTURES.    Bularchus  was  the  first  who  introduced,  at  least  among  the  Greeks,  the  use 


PIE  494  Pm 

of  many  colours  in  one  picture.  One  of  hie  picture*  wee  purchased  by  the  king  of 
Lydia  for  ita  weight  in  gold;  he  flourished  740  &c.  Until  about  the  dose  of  the  four- 
teenth century  of  the  Christian  era,  painting  had  not  revived.  The  earli^t  menlioii 
of  the  art  in  England  may  be  referred  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VIIL    See  Pahuimg, 

PIE  POUDRE  COURT.  In  Englbh  law  the  Court  of  Dusty  Foot  A  court  whoee 
jurisdiction  was  established  for  cases  arising  at  fairs  and  markets,  to  do  justice  to 
the  buyer  and  seller  immediately  upon  the  spot.  By  stat.  17  Edw.  IV.  it  had 
cognisance  of  all  disputes  io  the  preciucts  of  the  market  to  which  it  might  belong, 
A.D.  1476.  By  a  court  of  Pie-Poudre  at  Bartholomew  fair,  a  young  gentleman  paid 
Zl.  1 6f.  for  taking  away  an  actreas  when  she  was  going  to  perform,  and  SL  to  the 
husband,  the  lady  being  married,  Sept.  6, 1804. — PhiUip$» 

PIQEON,  THE  Carrisk.  Courier  pigeons  are  of  very  ancient  nee.  The  aneieiita  bemg 
destitute  of  the  post,  were  accustomed,  when  they  took  a  long  joomey,  and  were 
desirous  of  sending  back  any  news  with  uncommon  expedition,  to  take  tame  ptgeons 
with  them.  When  they  thought  proper  to  write  to  their  friends,  they  let  one  of 
these  birds  loose,  with  letters  fastened  to  its  neck :  the  bird  onoe  releasad*  woold 
never  cease  its  flight  till  it  arrived  at  its  nest  and  young  ones.  Taurostheoes  announced 
to  his  fiither  his  victory  at  the  Olympic  games  by  sending  to  him  at  .^gina  a  pigeon 
stained  with  purple. — OvitL  Hirtius  and  Brutus  corresponded  by  means  of  pigeons 
at  the  siege  of  Modena.  In  modem  times,  the  most  noted  were  the  pigeons  of  Aleppo^ 
which  served  as  couriers  at  Alexandretta  and  Bagdad.  Thirty-two  pigeons  sent  from 
Antwerp  were  liberated  from  London  at  7  o'clock  in  the  morning ;  and  on  the  same 
day  at  noon,  one  of  them  arrived  at  Antwerp ;  a  quarter  of  an  hour  afterwards  a 
second  arrived;  the  remainder  on  the  following  day,  Nov.  23,  1819. — PhiUipt. 

PILQRIMAOEa  They  began  to  be  made  about  the  middle  ages  of  the  Church,  but 
they  were  most  in  vogue  after  the  close  of  the  11th  century.  Pilgrimages  became 
frequent  in  France  at  the  dose  of  the  10th  century ;  king  Robert  IL  made  eereral 
pilgrimages,  among  others,  one  to  Rome  about  the  year  1016,  perhaps  in  1020,  when 
he  refused  the  imperial  dignity  and  the  kingdom  of  Italy. — ffenamU,  Many  lioeneea 
were  gi-anted  to  captains  of  English  ships  to  carry  pilgrims  abroad.    7  Hen.  VL 1428. 

PILGRIMAGE  OF  GRACE.  An  insurrection^  so  called,  headed  by  Aske  and  other 
gentlemen  of  Yorkshire,  joined  by  priests  in  the  habits  of  their  order,  and  40,000 
men  of  York,  Durham,  Lancaster,  and  other  counties,  against  Henry  VIII.  They 
took  Hull  and  York,  with  smaller  towns.  The  duke  of  Norfolk  marched 
them,  and  great  numbers  of  the  insurgents  were  executed,  1536-7. 

PILLORY.  A  scaffold  for  persons  to  stand  on,  in  order  to  render  them  infamous^  and 
make  them  a  public  spectacle,  for  every  one  to  see  and  know,  that  they  might  avoid 
and  refuse  to  have  any  commerce  or  dealings  with  them  for  the  future.  This  punish- 
ment was  awarded  against  persons  convicted  of  foigery,  perjury,  libelling^  &cl  In 
some  cases  the  head  was  put  through  a  hole,  the  hands  through  two  others,  the  noes 
slit,  the  face  branded  with  one  or  more  letters,  and  one  or  both  ears  were  cot  oC 
There  is  a  statute  of  the  pillory  41  Hen.  III.  1256.  Many  persons  died  in  the  piUoiy 
by  being  struck  with  stones  by  the  mob,  and  pelted  with  rotten  eggs  and  putrid 
offal.  It  was  abolished  as  a  punishment  in  all  cases  except  peijuiy,  56  Geo.  lU. 
1815-16.    The  piUory  was  totally  abolished  by  Act  1  Vict,  a  23,  30th  June^  1837. 

PILNITZ,  CONVENTION  and  TREATY  of,  against  PRANCE.  The  famous  con- 
vention of  Pilnitz  took  place  between  the  emperor  Leopold  and  the  king  of  Pmasia, 
July  20,  1791.  In  the  subsequent  part  of  the  month,  the  treaty  of  Pilnits,  or,  as 
some  style  it,  the  Partition  Treaty,  waa  finally  agreed  upon  at  Pavia  by  the  courts  in 
concert.  It  was  to  the  effect  "  that  the  emperor  should  ret^e  all  that  Louis  XIY. 
had  conquered  in  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  and  uniting  these  provinces  to  the 
Netherlands,  gave  them  to  his  serene  highness  the  elector  palatine,  to  be  added  to  the 
palatinate.    Bavaria  to  be  added  to  the  Austrian  possessions,"  &c. 

PILOTAGE.    The  latest  act  renting  to  pilots  is  16  &  .17  Vict  o.  129  (Aug.  20,  1853). 

PINETREES.  The  Stone  pine  {Pikus Pinea),  brought  to  these  countries  before  154«. 
The  Cluster  pine  {Pinua  Pinaster),  brought  from  the  South  of  Europe  before  1596. 
The  W^mouth  pine  {Pinut  Strobut),  from  North  America,  1705.  Frankincense  pine 
{Pinus  TcBda),  from  North  America,  before  1713.  There  are,  of  course,  other 
of  the  pine,  now  a  common  tree  in  England. 


PIN  495  PLA 

PINKET,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  English  onder  the  earl  of  Hertford^  protector, 
and  the  Soots,  when  the  latter  were  totally  defeated.  Few  victories  have  been  more 
decisive,  or  gained  with  smaller  loss  to  the  conquerors.  There  fell  not  200  of  the 
English;  and,  according  to  the  most  moderate  computation,  there  perished  above 
10,000  of  the  Scots.    Above  1500  were  taken  prisoners.    Sept.  10,  1547. — Hume, 

PINS.  As  an  article  of  foreign  commerce,  pins  are  first  mentioned  in  the  statutes  A.D. 
148S.  Those  made  of  brass-wire  were  brought  from  France  in  1540,  and  were  first 
used  in  England,  it  is  said,  by  Catherine  Howard,  queen  of  Henry  VIII.  Before  the 
invention  of  pins,  both  sexes  used  ribands,  loop-holes,  lacca  with  poiuts  and  tags, 
clasps,  hooks  and  eyes,  and  skewers  of  brass,  silver  and  gold.  They  were  made  in 
England  in  1543. — Stow. 

PISA,  LEANING  TOWER  or.  This  celebrated  tower,  likewise  called  Campanile,  on 
account  of  its  having  been  erected  for  the  purpose  of  containing  bells,  stands  in  a 
square  close  to  the  cathedral  of  Pisa.  It  is  built  entirely  of  white  marble,  and  is  a 
beautiful  cylinder  of  eight  stories,  each  adorned  with  a  round  of  columns,  rising  one 
above  another.  It  inclmse  so  far  on  one  side  from  the  perpendicular,  that  in  dropping 
a  plummet  from  the  top,  which  is  188  feet  in  height,  it  falls  sixteen  feet  from 
the  base.  Much  pains  have  been  taken  by  connoisseurs  to  prove  that  this  was  done 
purposely  by  the  architect ;  but  it  is  evident  that  the  inclination  has  proceeded  from 
another  cause,  namely,  from  an  accidental  subsidence  of  the  foundation  on  that  side. 

PISTOLS.  These  are  the  smallest  sort  of  firearms,  carried  sometimes  on  the  saddle- 
bow, sometimes  in  a  girdle  round  the  waist,  sometimes  in  the  pocket,  &c. — Pardon, 
The  pistol  was  first  used  by  the  cavalry  of  England  in  1544. 

PITCAIRNS  ISLAND.  A  small  solitary  island  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  seen  by  Cook  in 
1773,  and  since  noted  for  being  colonised  by  ten  mutineers  from  the  ship  Bounty, 
captain  Bligh,  in  1789.  See  Bounty,  They  remaiQed  unknown  to  England  uutil 
discovered  accidentally  in  1814.  A  ship  nearing  the  island  was  hailed  by  a  swarthy 
youth  in  the  English  language,  when  it  appeared  the  mutineers,  soon  after  settling 
there,  had  married  some  black  women  from  a  neighbouring  island,  and  had  become  a 
singularly  well-conducted  community  under  the  fostering  care  of  Adams  the  prin- 
cipal mutineer.  As  their  numbers  increased,  the  island  proved  incapable  of  their 
support.  Their  priest,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Nobbs,  obtained  for  them  the  favour  of  the 
English  government,  which  removed  them  with  all  their  property  in  the  ship  Moray- 
thire,  on  May  drd,  and  landed  them  after  a  boisterous  passage  on  Norfolk  Island, 
prepared  previously  for  their  reception,  June  8,  1856.  The  government  stocked 
Norfolk  ^land  with  2000  sheep,  450  head  of  cattle,  and  twenty  horses,  and  gave 
them  stores  to  last  twelve  months ;  their  numbers  were  96  males  and  102  females. 

PITTS  ADMINISTRATION.  The  first  administration  of  this  Ulustrious  statesman 
was  formed  on  the  dismissal  of  the  Coalition  ministry  {which  Me),  Dec.  27, 1783.  It 
terminated  by  his  resignation  in  1801.  His  second  aidministration  was  formed  May 
12,  1804 ;  and  was  terminated  by  his  death.    See  the  following : — 


AnmillSTRATIOV  OF  1783. 

Bt.  hon  William  Pitt,  first  lord  of  the  troa- 
■ury  aud  ebanoelloi  of  the  exchequer ;  earl 
Oower,  lord  preddent;  duke  of  Rutland,  privy 
seal;  marquees  of  Carmarthen,  homo  secretary ; 
earl  Temple,  immediately  succeeded  by  lord 
Sydney;  foreign  secretary;  lord  Thurlow, 
lord  chancellor ;  yisoount  Howe,  admiralty; 
duke  of  Richmond,  ordnance,  William  Wynd- 
ham  GnuQTiUe,  Henry  Duudas*  drc. 

[Mr.  Pitt  continued  minister  until  1801. 
Many  changes  in  his  ministry,  of  course, 
oocuxred  in  the  long  periodof  seventeen  years]. 


ADHINISTRATIDN  OF  1804. 

Rt.  hon.  William  Pitt,  first  minister ;  lord 
Eldon,  lord  chancellor;  duke  of  Portland 
succeeded  by  lord  Sidmouth  (late  Mr.  Ad- 
dinffton)  lord  president;  earl  of  Westmorland, 
lord  privy  seal ;  lord  Hawkesburv,  home,  lord 
Harrowby  ^succeeded  by  lord  MulfTraveX 
foreign,  and  earl  Camden  ^succeeded  by 
viscount  Castloreaffb),  colonial  secretary; 
visooxmt  Melville  (succeeded  by  lord  Bar- 
ham),  admiralty;  duke  of  Montrose,  lord 
Mulgrave,  Mr.  Dundas,  Ac. 


Mr.  Pitt  was  a  minister  of  commanding  powers  and  still  loftier  pretensions ;  and  died 
poeseased  of  the  esteem  and  admiration  of  a  great  portion  of  his  countrymen,  Jan.  23, 
1806.  A  public  funeral  was  decreed  to  his  honour  by  parliament^  and  a  grant  of 
40,0001.  made  to  pay  his  debts. 

PLAQUE.  "The  oiSspring  of  inclement  skies,  and  of  legions  of  putrefying  locusts." — 
Thomson,  The  first  recorded  general  plague  in  all  parts  of  the  woiid  occurred  767 
B.C. — Petaviue.  At  Carthage  a  plague  was  so  terrible  that  people  sacrificed  their 
children  to  appease  the  gods,  534  &a — Baroniua,  At  Rome  prevailed  a  desolating 
plague,  carrying  ofif  a  hundred  thousand  persons  in  and  round  the  city,  461  b.c.    At 


PLA 


496 


PLA 


Athens,  whence  it  spread  into  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  and  caused  an  awful  devastatioD. 
430  B.O.  Another,  which  raged  in  the  Greek  isluids,  Egypt,  and  Syria*  and  destroyed 
2000  persons  every  day,  188  b.o. — Pliny, 


At  Rome,  amost  awflil  plague :  10,000  penona 
perish  daily,  a.d.  78. 

The  same  fatal  diaease  again  raTaged  the  Ro- 
man empire,  a.d.  167. 

Another,  dreadful  in  almost  every  £&mily  In 
the  Roman  empire.  For  some  time  5000 
persons  died-  daily  at  Rome,  and  many 
towns  were  entirely  depopulated,  a.d.  260- 
265. 

In  Britain  a  plague  raged  so  formidably,  and 
swept  away  such  multitudes,  that  the 
living  were  scarcely  sufficient  to  bury  the 
dead,  a.d.  480, 

A  dreadful  one  began  in  Europe  in  658,  ex- 
tended all  over  Asia  and  An-ica,  and  it  is 
said  did  not  cease  for  many  years.  Univ. 
Hut. 

At  Constantinople,  when  200,000  of  its  inha- 
bitants perished,  a.d.  746. 

[This  plague  raged  for  three  vears,  and  was 
equally  £fttaliu  Calabria,  Sicily  and  Greece.] 

At  Chichester,  in  England,    an    epidemical 

disease  carried  off  84,000  persons,   772.— 

WUL  McUmt. 
In  Hootlaud,  40,000  persons  perished  of  a  pw- 

tilence,  a.d.  954. 
In  London,  a  great  mortality,  a.d.  1094 ;  and 

in  Ireland,  1005. 
Again,  in  London :    it  extended  to  cattle, 

fowls,  and  other  domestic  animals,  1111.— 

Holim, 
In    Iruland:     after    Christmas    this    year, 

Heniry  II.  was  forced  to  quit  the  country, 

1172. 
Again,  in  Ireland,  when  a  prodigious  number 

perished,  1204. 
A  general  plague  raged  throughout  Europe, 

causing  a  most  extensive  mortalitv.  Britain 

and  Ireland  suffered  griovouslv.  in  London 

alone,  200  persons  were  buried  daily  in  the 

Charterhouse-yard. 
In  Paris  and  Loudon  a  dreadful  mortality 

Erevailed  in  1362  and  1367 ;  and  in  Ireland 
1 1870. 

A  great  pestilence  in  Ireland,  called  the 
Fourth,  destroyed  a  great  number  of  the 
people,  1388. 

80.000  persons  perished  of  a  dreadful  peeti- 
lonce  in  London,  1407. 

Again  in  Ireland,  superinduced  by  a  famine : 
great  numbers  died  1466 ;  and  Dublin  was 
wasted  by  a  plague,  1470. 

An  awful  pestilence  at  Oxford,  1471 ;  and 
throughout  England  a  plague  which  de- 
suroywi  more  |>eople  than  the  continual 
wars  for  the  fifteen  preceding  years,  1478. — 
Rapin;  Salmon 

The  awfld  Sudor  Anglieut,  or  sweating  sick- 
ness, very  fatal  at  London,  1485. — IMaune. 


The  plague  at  London  so  dreadful  that  Henry 
VIi.  and  his  court  removed  to  Oalaie,  1500. 
— Stov. 

Again,  the  sweating  sickneas  (mortal  in  three 
hours).  In  most  of  the  capital  towns  in 
England  half  the  inhabitants  died,  and 
Oxford  was  depopulated,  9  Hen.  VIIL  1517. 
—Stow. 

Limerick  was  visited  by  a  plague,  whan 
many  thousands  perished,  152:2. 

A  pestilence  throughout  Ireland,  1525;  and 
the  English  Sweaty  1628 ;  and  a  pestilezioe 
in  Dublin,  1575. 

30,578  persons  perished  of  the  plague  in 
London  alone,  1603-1604.  It  was  also  fatal 
in  Ireland. 

200,000  perished  of  a  pestilence  at  Constanti- 
nople, in  1611. 

In  London  a  great  mortality  prevailed,  and 
85.417  persons  perished,  1625. 

In  France,  a  genond  mortality;  at  Lyons, 
60,000  persons  died,  1682. 

The  plague,  brought  from  Sardinia  to  Naples 
(being  introduced  by  a  trans()ort  with  sol- 
diers on  boardX  raged  with  such  violence 
as  to  carry  off  400,000  of  the  inhabitants  in 
six  months,  1656. 

Memorable  plague,  which  carried  off  68,596 
persons  in  London,  1665.    See  next  artkU. 

[Fires  were  kept  up  night  and  day  to  purify 
the  air  for  three  days ;  and  it  is  thoof^t 
the  infection  was  not  totally  deatroyed  till 
the  great  conflagration  of  1666.] 

60,000  persons  perished  of  the  plague  at  Mar- 
seilles and  neighbourhood,  brought  in  a 
ship  fh>m  the  I^v;^nt,  1720. 

One  of  the  moat  awful  plagues  thai  ever 
raged,  prevailed  in  Syria,  1760.  — Abti 
Mariti. 

In  Persia,  a  fiitol  pestilence,  which  carried 
off  80,000  of  the  inhabitants  of  Bassora, 
1778. 

In  E^pt,  more  than  800,000  persons  died  of 
plague,  1792. 

In  Barbary,  8000  died  daily;  and  at  Fes 
247,000  perished  1799. 

In  Spain  and  at  Gibraltar,  immense  nambera 
were  carrieii  off  by  a  pestilent  disease  in 
1804  and  1805. 

Again,  at  Gibraltar,  an  epidemic  fever  much 
resembling  the  plague,  caused  great  mor- 
tality, 1828. 

The  Asiatic  Cholera  (see  CkoUra)  made  its 
first  appearance  in  England,  at  Sunderland, 
Oct  26.  1881 ;  in  Soot&nd,  at  Haddixwtofi, 
Dec.  23,  same  year;  and  in  Ireland,  at 
Bel&st,  March  14.  1832. 

The  Cholera  again  visited  England,  &c. 
Cholera,  1848  and  1849. 


PLAGUE  IN  LONDON,  thb  GREAT.  This  most  awful  aud  memorable  tooai^ge  com- 
menced in  December,  1664.  In  the  months  of  May,  June,  and  July,  it  had  continued 
with  great  severity ;  but  in  August  and  September  it  quickened  into  dreadfel  activity, 
sweeping  away  8000  persona  in  a  week.  Then  it  was  that  the  whole  British  nation 
wept  for  the  sufferings  of  the  metropolis.  In  some  houses  carcasea  biy  waiting  for 
burial ;  and  in  others,  persons  were  seen  doubled  up  in  their  last  agonies.  In  one  room 
were  heard  dying  groans ;  and  in  the  next,  the  ravings  of  delirium,  mingled  with  the 
wailings  of  relatives  and  friends,  and  the  apprehensive  shiieks  of  children.  Infants 
passed  at  once  from  the  womb  to  the  grave.  The  yet  healthy  child  hung  upon  tha 
putrid  breast  of  a  dead  mother ;  and  the  nuptial  bed  was  changed  into  a  sepuldire. 
Some  of  the  affected  ran  about  staggering  like  drunken  men,  and  fell  and  expired  in 
the  streets ;  while  others  calmly  laid  themselves  down,  never  to  rise  but  at  the  caU 
of  the  last  trumpet     At  length,  in  the  middle  of  September,  more  than  12;000 


PLA 


497 


PLA 


perished  in  one  week ;  in  one  night  4000  died ;  and  in  the  whole,  not  68,000,  ae  has 
been  stated,  but  100,000  perished  of  this  plagua* — Btjot, 

PLAGUES  or  BGTPT.  The  refusal  of  the  king  to  hearken  to  Moses,  althongh  he  had 
performed  many  miracles  to  prove  his  divine  mission,  brings  a  display  of  wrath 
upon  the  land,  in  ten  awful  instances,  which  are  denominated  the  piftgues  of  Egypt^ 
1492  Ra 

PLAINS  or  ABRAHAM,  BATTLE  or  the.  The  celebrated  battle  in  which  the  French 
of  Oanada  were  defeated  by  the  British  under  the  heroic  generid  Wolfe,  who  fell 
mortally  wounded,  just  as  tiie  enemy  had  given  way,  and  he  had  conquered ;  a  ball 
having  pierced  his  breast,  Sept.  IS,  1759.  This  glorious  fight  (too  dearly  won)  is 
also  called  the  battle  of  Quebec.    See  Qtubec 

PLANETS.  The  planet  Jupiter  was  known  as  a  planet  to  the  Chinese  and  the  Chal- 
deans ;  to  the  former,  it  is  said,  8000  B.o. ;  and  correctly  inserted  in  a  chart  of  the 
heavens,  made  about  600  B.C.  and  in  which  1460  stars  are  accurately  described ;  this 
chart  is  said  to  be  in  the  imperial  library  at  Paris.  The  satellites  of  Jupiter  were  dis- 
covered by  Qalileo,  jld.  1610 ;  but  Janssen,  it  is  affirmed,  claimed  some  acquaintance 
with  them  about  twenty  years  before.  We  have  now  eleven  primary  planets,  vis. : 
Merewry,  Fenus,  the  Earth,  Man,  JwpnUr,  Satwn,  the  Qtorgium  Sidui,  Oerea,  PaUag, 
Jwmo,  and  Vesta  ;  and  forty-three  secondary  planets,  or  small  planets  belonging  to  our 
solar  system.    See  Venm,  ftc. 


Otorffhtm    9idu»f    called    also    HertckA  and 

Vtximu:  diacoTered  by  Henchel,  March  13, 

1781.    See  Otorgmm  Sidm, 
Jhptvnt,  dieeoTered  (in  consequence  of  the 

calculations  of  Le  Verrler  and  Adams)  Sept. 

28,  1846.    See  Neptune, 

XaiffOB  PLAXKTB. 

1.  Ctree  (whick  tee)  dlacOTered  by  Piaszi,  Jan. 

1,  1801.    This  planet  is  visible  to  the 

naked  eye. 
S.  BaWu,  disoovered  at  Bremen,  by  Olbers, 

Mandi  28,  1802.    See  PalUu. 
8.  JvoMf  discoverod  by   BLardiug,   Sept   1, 

1804.    See  Juno. 

4.  VetUtt  disooyered  by  Olbers  (his  second 

dlaooveryX  March  29,  1807.     See  Veata, 

5.  Attrcea     .       .  Dea  8,   1815,    by    K.  C. 

Hencke. 
.  July  1, 1847,  by  the  same. 
.  Au<p.   13,  1847,  by  J.  R. 

Hind. 
.  Oct.  18, 1847,  by  the  same, 
.  April  20,  1848,  by  A.  Gra- 

nam. 
.  April  12,  1849,  by  A.  do 

Oasparia. 
.  Mayll,  1850,  by  the  same. 
.  Sept.  13,   1850,  by  J.  R. 

Hind. 
.  Nov.   2,  1850,  by  A.  de 

Gasparis. 
.  May  19,  1851,  by  J.  R. 

Hind. 
.  July  29,  1851,  by  A.  de 

QvtpeixiA. 
.  March  17,    1852,  by  the 

same. 
.  April    17,    1852,   by    R. 

Luther. 
.  June  24,  1852,  by  J.  R. 

Hind. 


6.  I7e5«     . 

7.  Irie  . 

8.  Flora  . 

9.  JMif 

10.  Bjneia 

11.  Parihenape 

12.  Victoria  . 

18.  ^feria 

14.  Irene 

15.  Bwwmia 

16.  PjydU 

17.  TMU 

18.  Melpomine 


19.  Fortuna  . 

20.  MattUia     . 

21.  LiOetia     . 

22.  OaUiope 

23.  Thalia     . 

24.  Themi*. 

25.  Phoeia     . 

26.  Proeerpine  . 

27.  Euterpe    . 

28.  BeUona 

29.  AmphUrite  . 

30.  Urania    . 

31.  Buphrotyne 

32.  Pomona 

83.  PoljfhyvuUa 

34.  Circe 

35.  Leucothea 

36.  Fidet 
87.  Atalanta 

38.  leda 

39.  LiHitia 

40.  Harmonia 

41.  Daphne    . 

42.  Jtie 

43.  Ariadne      . 


.  August  2^  1852,  by  the 

same. 
.  Sept   19,  1852,  hy  A.  de 

Gasparis. 
.  Nov.     16,    1853,    by  H. 

Ooldachmidt. 
.  Nov.    16,  1852,  by  J.   R. 

Hind. 
.  Dec.  15, 1852. by  the  same. 
.  April   6,   1853,  by  A.  de 

Gaspuis. 
.  April  6,  1853,  by  M.  Gha- 

comae. 
.  May  5, 1853,  by  R  Luther. 
.  Nov.  8, 1853,by  J.  R.  Hind. 
.  March    1,    1854,    by    R. 

Luther. 
.  March   1,    1854,  by   Mr. 

Marth, 
.  July  22,  1854.  by  J.  R. 

Hind. 
.  Sept    1,    1854,    by   Mr. 

FerGTUBon. 
.  Oct  26,  1854,  by  H.  (3old- 

Bchmidt 
.  Oct.  28,  1854,  by  M.  C!ha- 

oomaa 
.  AprU  6, 1855,  by  the  same. 
.  April    19,    1855,     by    R. 

Luther. 
.  Oct.  5,  1855,  by  the  same. 
.  same  dav,  by  H.  Gold- 

schmidt 
.  Jan.  12, 1856,  by  M.  Cha- 

comae. 
.  Feb.  8, 1856,  by'the  same. 
.  March    31,   1856,    by  H. 

GoldschmidL 
.  May  22, 1866,  bv  the  same. 
.  May  23, 1856^  by  Norman 

Pogson. 
.  April  15, 1857,by  the  same. 


*  The  heanies  were  but  dead  carts  which  continually  traversed  the  streets,  while  the  appallinff 
cry,  **  Bring  ovi  your  dead,"  thrilled  through  every  souL  Then  it  was  that  parents,  husbands,  wives,  and 
children  saw  all  those  that  were  dear  to  them  thrown  with  a  pitchfork  into  a  cu*t,  like  the  offid  of  the 
•laof^ter-houae,  to  be  conveyed  without  the  walls,  and  flung  into  one  promiscuous  heap,  without  the 
riiea  of  sepulture,  without  a  coffin,  and  without  a  shroud  I  Some  graves  were  dug  so  large,  as  to  hold 
a  thousand  bodies  each  ;  and  into  these  huge  holes,  the  living,  wrapt  in  blankets  and  rags,  threw  them- 
aelvea  among  the  dead,  in  their  agonies  and  delirium.  Thev  were  often  found  in  this  state  hugging  the 
Beth  of  their  kindred  that  had  not  quite  perished.  People,  in  the  intolerable  torment  of  their  swelling^ 
ram  wild  and  mad,  laying  violent  hiuids  upon  themselves ;  and  even  mothers  in  their  lunacy,  muidered 
ihefr  own  children.  When  the  carts  were  insufficient  for  their  office,  the  houses  and  streets  were 
reodsred  tenfold  more  pestilential  by  the  unburied  dead.— 2>e/<^- 

K  K 


PLA  498  PLA 

PLANTAOENET.  HOUSE  of.  A  race  of  fourteen  English  kings,  from  Henry  II. 
1154,  to  Richard  III.  killed  at  the  battle  of  Bosworth,  1485.  Plantagenet  acems 
to  have  been  at  first  no  more  than  one  of  those  soabriquets  or  nicknamea  at  this  time 
BO  common.  The  first  so-called  was  Fulke  Kartel,  earl  of  Anjou,  in  the  tenth 
century.  That  noble  having  contrived  the  death  of  his  nephew,  the  earl  of  Britanny, 
in  order  to  succeed  to  the  earldom,  his  confessor  sent  him,  in  atonement  for  the 
murder,  to  Jerusalem,  attended  by  onlv  two  servants,  one  of  whom  was  to  lead  him 
by  a  halter  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  the  other  to  strip  and  whip  him  there,  like  a 
common  malefactor.  Broom,  in  French  genei,  in  Latin  genista,  being  the  only  tough 
pliant  shrub  in  Palestine,  the  noble  criminal  was  smartly  scoureed  with  it,  and  from 
this  instrument  of  his  chastisement,  he  was  called  Planta-gentstaf  or  Plantagenet. — 
Skinner,  M^ray, 

PLASSEY,  BATTLE  of.  Fought  between  the  British  under  Clive,  and  the  Hindoos 
under  Surajah  Dowlah,  June  23,  1757.  The  nabob  was  vanquished,  although  at  the 
head  of  70,000  men,  by  the  British,  whose  force  did  not  exceed  much  more  tlian  SOOO, 
The  victory  laid  the  foundation  of  our  power  and  empire  in  India.    See  India, 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS.  A  fossil  stone  of  a  particular  k&d,  somewhat  of  the  nature  of 
lime,  used  by  figure-masters  for  moulds,  statuary,  &a  The  method  of  taking  like- 
nesses by  its  use  was  first  discovered  by  Andrea  Verrochio,  about  a.d.  146G.  This 
gypsum  was  first  found  at  Montmartre,  a  village  near  Paris,  whence  it  obtained  its  name. 

PLATA,  LA.    See  Argentine  JUpublie, 

PLAT^  A,  BATTLE  of.  Between  Mardonius  the  commander  of  Xerzee,  king  of  Persia, 
and  Pauaanias,  the  Lacedaemonian,  and  the  Athenians.  The  Persian  army  consisted 
of  800,000  men,  of  whom  scarce  3000  escaped  with  their  lives  by  flight.  The  Oreetan 
army,  which  was  about  110,000,  lost  but  few  men;  and  among  these,  ninety-one 
Spartans,  fifty-two  Athenians,  and  sixteen  Tegeans,  were  the  only  soldiers  found  in 
the  number  of  the  slain.  The  plunder  which  the  Greeks  obtained  in  the  Penian 
camp  was  immense.  A  magnificent  present  of  ten  samples  of  evezything  that  wai 
valuable  among  the  spoils  was  awarded  to  Pausanias,  on  account  of  his  uncommon 
valour  during  the  engagement,  and  the  rest  were  rewarded  each  according  to  their 
respective  merit.  This  battle  was  fought  on  the  22nd  Sept  the  same  day  as  the  battle 
of  Mycale,  479  B.c. ;  and  by  them  Greece  was  totally  delivered  forever  from  the  conti- 
nual alarms  to  which  she  was  exposed  on  account  of  the  Persian  invasions,  and  from 
that  time  none  of  the  princes  of  Persia  dared  to  appear  with  a  hostUe  force  beyond 
the  Helleepontb 

PLATE.  The  earliest  use  of  plate  as  an  article  of  domestic  luxury  cannot  be  precisely 
traced.  In  England,  plate,  with  the  exception  of  spoons,  was  prohibited  in  publie- 
houses  by  statute  8  WUl.  IIL  1696.  The  celebrated  Plate  Act  passed  in  Hay  1756. 
This  act  was  repealed  in  1780.  The  act  laying  a  duty  upon  plate  passed  in  1784. 
See  Goldtmiths*  Company,  By  17  &  18  Vict,  c  96  (1854),  gold  wares  were  allowed 
to  be  manu&otured  at  a  lower  standard ;  but  a  later  act  excepted  marriage-ringa. 

PL  ATIN  A,  the  heaviest  of  all  the  metals,  and  harder  than  silver  and  gold.  The  name 
originated  with  the  Spaniards,  from  the  word  Plaia,  signifying  silver,  it  would  seem 
on  account  of  its  silvery  colour.  It  was  unknown  in  Europe  until  a.d.  1748,  when 
Don  Antonio  UUoa  announced  its  existence  in  the  narrative  of  his  voyage  to  Peru. 
— Oreig, 

PLATING.  The  art  of  covering  baser  metals  with  a  thin  plate  of  silver,  either  for  nee 
or  for  ornament,  said  to  have  been  invented  by  a  spur-maker.  Till  then  the  more 
elegant  spurs  in  common  use  were  made  of  solid  silver ;  and  from  the  flexibtUty  of 
that  metal  they  were  liable  to  be  bent  into  inconvenient  forma  by  the  aUgbteat 
accident.  To  remedy  this  defect,  a  workman  at  Birmingham  contrived  to  make  the 
branches  of  a  pair  of  spurs  hollow,  and  to  fill  that  hollow  with  a  slender  rod  of  steeL 
Finding  this  a  great  improvement,  and  desirous  to  add  cheapness  to  utility,  he  con- 
tinued to  make  the  hollow  larger,  and  of  course  the  iron  tlucker,  till  at  last  be  so 
coated  the  iron  spur  with  silver  as  to  make  it  equally  elegant  with  those  made  wholly 
of  that  metal.    The  invention  was  quickly  applied  to  other  purposes. 

PLATOKIG  TEAR.  The  period  of  time  which  the  equinoxes  take  to  finish  thdr  revo- 
lution, at  the  end  of  which  the  stars  and  constellations  have  the  same  place  with 
regard  to  the  equinoxea  that  they  had  at  first.  Tycho  Brahe  says  that  thia  jear  or 
period  requires  25,816  common  years  to  complete  it ;  Riodolus  computes  it  at  Sfi,9S0 ; 


PLA  499  POE 

and  CasBUii  at  24,800 ;  at  the  end  of  which  time  10010  imagined  that  there  would  bo 
a  total  and  natural  renovation  of  the  whole  creation. 

PLATTSBURQH,  EXPEDITION  to.  The  British  expedition  against  Plattaburgb,  on 
Lake  Champlain,  a  town  of  New  York,  was  designed  under  general  sir  Qeoige 
Preyost ;  but  it  was  abandoned  after  the  naval  force  of  England  had  suffered  a  defeat 
in  an  engagement  with  the  Americana,  Sept  11, 1818,  when  the  British  squadron  on 
Lake  Champlain  was  captured.    See  VnUed  Stales, 

PL  AT&  Tragedy,  comedy,  satire,  and  pantomime  were  performed  in  Qreece  and  Rome. 
Plays  became  a  general  and  favourite  pastime  about  165  B.C.,  but  were  performed  on 
occasions  of  festivity  some  ages  before.  The  Trojan  plays  consisted  of  horse-races 
and  exercises  of  the  youth,  under  a  proper  head  or  captain,  wherein  the  utmost 
dexterity  was  practised.  The  plays  of  Ceres  were  instituted  to  please  the  ladies,  who 
from  the  12th  to  the  20th  of  April  were  clad  in  white,  and,  in  imitation  of  that 
goddess,  went  with  a  torch  in  their  hands,  as  if  in  search  of  her  daughter  Proserpine* 
The  plays  of  Flora  were  so  offensive  that  they  were  forced  to  be  put  down,  women 
appearing  publicly  naked,  and  in  the  night-time  running  about  with  links  in  their 
hands,  dancing  to  the  sound  of  musical  instruments,  and  singing  immodest  songs. 
The  funereal  plays  were  plays  in  honour  of  the  dead,  and  to  satisfy  their  ghosts. 
There  were  numerous  institutions  under  the  name  of  plays.  Plays  were  first  acted 
in  England  at  Clerkenwell,  a.d.  1397.  The  first  company  of  players  that  received 
the  sanction  of  a  patent  was  that  of  James  Burbage  and  others,  the  servants  of  the 
earl  of  Leicester,  from  queen  Elizabeth,  in  1574.  Plays  were  subjected  to  a  censor^ 
ship  in  1787.    See  Drama  and  TkeatreB, 

PLC^ADINOS.  Clotharius  held  a  kind  of  moveable  parliament  called  pUicUa,  whence 
came  the  word  picas,  a.d.616. — HenauU,  In  the  early  courts  of  judicature  in  England, 
pleadings  were  made  iu  the  Saxon  language  in  a.d.  786.  They  were  made  iu  Norman- 
French  from  the  period  of  the  Conquest  in  1 066  ;  and  they  so  continued  until  the  36th 
of  Edward  III.  1362.  Cromwell  ordered  all  law  proceedings  to  be  taken  in  English  in 
1650.    The  Latin  was  used  in  conveyancing  in  our  courts  of  law  till  1731. 

PLOUGH  MONDAY.  This  day  occurs  in  January.  It  is  the  first  Monday  after  the 
£piphany ;  and  received  the  appellation  Plough  Monday  from  its  having  been  fixed 
upon  by  our  forefSeUhers,  as  the  day  upon  which  they  returned  to  the  duties  of  agri- 
culture  after  enjoying  Uie  festivities  of  Christmas. — A$he,  On  Plough  Monday,  too, 
the  ploughmen  in  the  north  country  drew  a  plough  from  door  to  door,  and  used  to 
beg  plough-money  to  drink. — Bailey, 

PLUM.  We  have  two  native  plums :  our  finer  kinds  came  from  Italy  and  Flanders 
about  1522.  The  Diotpyroi  Lotus,  the  date-plum,  was  brought  from  Barbary,  before 
▲.D.  1596.  The  Pishamin  plum,  DiotpyroB  Virginiana,  from  America,  before  1629. 
This  fruit  incloses  a  seed  or  kernel  in  a  hard  shell,  vulgarly  called  a  stone.  Formerly 
damsons,  apricots,  and  peaches  went  by  this  name,  as  do  raisins  to  this  day. 

PLURAL  NUMBER.  The  plural  number  ve  was  first  assumed  in  the  royal  style  by 
the  kings  ot  England.  The  pronoun  We  was  first  used  instead  of  the  pronoun  /,  by 
John,  king  of  England,  in  1199. — Oohe*a  IruHt.  According  to  other  authorities  the 
plural  was  used  at  a  later  date  of  the  same  reign.  It  was  soon  adopted  by  the  other 
European  potentates. — A  the. 

PLYMOUTH  BREAKWATER  and  DOCK.    See  Brtakwater  and  Dock-yard^ 

PLYMOUTH  BRETHREN.  A  body  of  Christians  calling  themselves  "  the  Brethren," 
which  first  appeared  at  Plymouth  about  1830.  In  1851,  they  had  182  places  of 
worship  in  England  and  Wales.  They  object  to  national  churches  as  too  latitudi- 
Darian,  and  to  dissenters  as  too  sectarian.  They  receive  into  communion  all 
who  confess  Christ  and  own  the  Holy  Qhost  as  his  vicar.  Their  doctrines  agree 
with  those  of  most  evangelical  Protestant  ohurohesi,  but  they  recognise  no  order 
of  ministers. 

POET-LAUREAT.  Selden  could  not  trace  the  preoiM  origin  of  this  ofiice.  The  first 
record  we  have  of  poet-laureat  in  England  is  in  the  85th  Henry  III.  1251.  The 
laureat  was  then  styled  the  king's  versifier,  and  a  hundred  shillings  were  his  annual 
stipend. — Warton;^    Madox,  But,  Exch,     Chaucer,  on  his  return  from  abroad, 

•  WartoD,  hi  his  Riitmry  of  Bn^tuK  Podry,  gives  an  esrly  date  to  the  appointment.  60  esrhr  as  tbe 
ivign  of  Henry  III.  there  was,  he  affirme,  a  VtrtifiecUor  RegU,  to  whom  an  annual  stipend  was  Ant  paid 
of  one  hundred  ihillingB.     The  tint  mention  of  a  Pott  Laureat  occurs,  we  believe,  in  the  reign  ox 

K  K  2 


POE 


500 


POI 


assumed  the  title  of  poet-laureat :  and  in  the  twelfth  year  of  Richard  IL  1889,  he 
obtained  a  grant  of  an  annual  allowance  of  wine.  James  L  in  1615,  granted  to  his 
laureat  a  yearly  pension  of  100  marks ;  and  in  1680,  this  stipend  was  augmented  by 
letters-patent  of  Charles  L  to  100^  per  annum,  with  an  additional  grant  of  one  tieros 
of  Canary  Spanish  wine,  to  be  taken  out  of  the  king's  store  of  wine  yearly. 

VAUBS  OF  PBBBONB  WHO  riLLSD  THB  OFFIOI  FROX  THI  BKIOIT  OF  QUBEH  BLIZABSTB. 


Elizabeth  appointed  Edmund  Spenser, 

who  died ▲.!>.  1508 

Samuel  Daniel,  died 1619 

Ben  Jonson,  died 1637 

Sir  WUIiam  Davenant,  dibd  .    .  1668 

John  Dryden :   he  was  deposed  at  the 

re?olution 1688 

Thomas  ShadwelL  died  .    .  1692 

Nahum  Tate,  died 1715 

Nicholas  Rows 1718 


The  nv.  Laurence  Busden,  died       a.o.  1780 

CoUey  Gibber,  died 1757 

WUIiam  Whitehead,  died  .        .  1786 

ReT.  Dr.  Thomas  Wartoo,  died  .  .  .  1790 
Heni7  James  Pye,  died  ....  1813 
Dr.  Robert  Southey.  died  .  March  21.  184S 
WilUam  Wordsworth,  died      .  April  33»  18S0 

Alfred  Tenn7K>n 1850 

The  present  Poet-Lanreat. 


"  At  the  accession  of  George  I.  Rowe  was  made  poet-laureat,  I  am  afraid  by  the 
ejection  of  poor  Nahum  Tate,  who  died  in  the  Mint,  where  he  was  forced  to  seek 
shelter  from  extreme  poverty." — Dr,  Johnson,  Serious  thoughts  had  been  entertained 
of  abolishing  the  office  of  poet-laureat,  since  the  death  of  the  gifted  Wordsworth : 
but  the  office,  it  will  be  seen,  has  lately  been  filled  up  by  the  appointment  of  the 
universally  and  justly  admired  poet,  the  present  (1857)  holder  of  the  laureatship. 
On  the  death  of  Warton  its  abolition  was  recommended  by  one  of  our  great  histo^ 
rians,  whose  elegant  compliment  on  the  occasion  still  more  forcibly  applied  on  Words* 
worth's  death  :  "  This  is  the  best  time  for  not  filling.up  the  office,  when  the  prince  is 
a  man  of  virtue,  and  Uie  poet  just  departed  was  a  man  of  genius." — Oibbim'9  JkcUme 
and  Fall,  Ac,  chap.  Ixz. 

POETRY.  The  oldest,  rarest,  and  most  excellent  of  the  fine  arts,  and  highest  species 
of  refined  literature.  It  was  the  first  fixed  form  of  lang^uage,  and  the  earliert  per- 
petuation of  thouffht.  It  existed  before  music  in  melody,  and  before  painthig  in 
description. — HatlxtU  The  exact  period  of  the  invention  of  poetry  is  uncertain.  In 
Scriptural  history,  the  song  of  Moses  on  the  signal  deliverance  of  the  Israelites,  &c. 
1491,  and  their  passage  through  the  Red  Sea,  is  said  to  be  the  most  ancient  piece  of 
poetry  in  the  world,  and  is  veiy  sublime. — Sxodm  xt.  Orpheus  of  Thraoe  is  the 
earliest  author,  and  is  deemed  the  inventor  of  poetry  (at  least  in  the  western  part  of 
the  world),  about  1249  B.a  Homer,  the  oldest  poet  whose  works  have  descended  to 
us,  flourished  about  907  B.O.  Parian  Marb,  lambio  verse  {vhich  see)  was  introduced 
by  Archilochus,  700  B.C. — Da  Pranoy,  For  odes,  see  Odes.  We  are  told  that  poetfj 
(or  more  properly  the  rules  of  poetry)  was  firat  brought  to  England  by  Aldhelme,  or 
Adelmus,  abbot  of  Malmsbury,  about  the  close  of  the  serenth  century. 

POISONINQ.  A  number  of  Roman  ladies  formed  a  conspiracy  for  poisoning  thor 
husbands,  which  they  too  fatally  carried  into  effect  A  female  slave  denounoed  170 
of  them  to  Fabius  Maximus,  who  ordered  them  to  be  publicly  executed,  8S1  B.a  It 
was  said  that  this  wss  the  first  public  knowledge  they  had  of  poisoning  at  Romei — 
Poisoning  was  made  petty  treason  in  England,  and  was  punished  by  boding  to  death 
(of  which  there  were  some  remarkable  instances),  23  Hen.  yill.  1582.  See  BMm§ 
to  Death,  The  frequency  of  cases  of  poisoning  by  means  of  arsenio,  in  England, 
caused  the  British  legislature  to  pass  a  law,  rendering  the  sale  of  arsenic  (which, 
until  then,  could  be  obtained  without  check  by  any  person,  from  druggists^  and 
apothecaries'  shops)  a  matter  of  difficulty.  This  act  regulated  the  sale  of  arsenic,  and 
was  passed  14  Vic  c.  13,  June  6,  1861.  Two  recent  remarkable  cases  of  poiaoning 
are  those  for  which  W.  Palmer  was  executed  in  1856,  and  Miss  M.  Smith  tried  in 
1857  (see  TriaU)»  A  committer  of  the  Commons  on  the  subject  of  poisons  was 
appointed  in  1857. 

POISONING  BT  WATER-TOFANA,  or  WIVES*  POISON.  The  deadly  poisoD  ao 
freely  administered  by  Italians  in  the  seventeenth  century,  called  o^tia  to/ana^  frova 
the  name  of  the  woman  Tofania,  who  made  and  sold  it  in  small  flat  Tiala,  She 
on  this  traffic  for  half  a  century,  and  eluded  the  police ;   but  on  being  takeoy 


Edward  lY.,  when  John  Kay  was  laureat ;  Andrew  Bernard  was  laureat,  temp.  Hency  TIL  ;  and  Jolm 
Skelton,  temp.  Henry  VIII.  Bdmund  Spenser,  as  above,  was  poet-laureat  in  the  reign  of  Biaabeth. 
Whitehead  was  created  on  the  reftiaal  of  Gray,  Warton  on  the  reftiaal  of  Mason,  and  Southey  on  the 
reftual  of  Scott  Laurence  Busden  oommonoed  a  aeries  of  birth-day  and  New  Tears*  Odai»  which 
continued  till  the  death  of  Pye,  in  1813.  We  believe  that  on  Southey's  appointment  the  tieros  of 
Canary  wine  was  commuted  for  271. 


POI 


501 


POL 


femtd  that  she  had  been  a  party  in  poisoning  600  peopla  Numeroua  persona  were 
implicated  by  her,  and  many  of  them  were  publicly  executed.  All  Italy  was  thrown 
into  a  ferment^  and  many  fled,  and  some  persons  of  distinction,  on  conviction, 
were  strangled  in  prison.  It  appeared  to  have  been  chiefly  used  by  married  women 
who  were  tired  of  their  husbands.  Four  or  six  drops  Were  a  fatal  dose ;  but  the 
effect  was  not  sudden,  and  therefore  not  suspected.  It  was  as  clear  as  water, 
but  the  chemists  have  not  agreed  about  its  real  composition.  A  proclamation  of 
the  pope  described  it  as  aquafortis  distUled  into  arsenic,  and  others  considered 
it  as  a  solution  of  crystaHised  arsenic.  Between  1666  and  1676  the  marchiunees 
de  BrinYilliers  poisoned  her  father  and  two  brothers  and  many  others.  She  wsa 
executed  July  16, 1676. 

POITIERS,  BATTLE  of,  in  Fbavcbl  Between  Edward  the  Black  Prince  and  John 
king  of  France,  in  which  the  English  arms  triumphed.  The  standard  of  France  was 
overthrown,  and  many  of  her  distinguished  nobility  were  slain.  The  French  king  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  brought  to  London,  through  which  he  was  led  amidst  an  amazing 
concourse  of  spectators.  Two  kings,  prisoners  in  the  same  court,  and  at  the  same 
time  were  considered  as  glorious  achievements ;  but  all  that  England  gained  by 
them  was  only  glory,  Sept.  19, 1856. — Carte. 

POLAND.  Anciently  the  country  of  the  Vandals,  who  emigrated  from  it  to  invade 
the  Roman  empire.  It  became  a  duchy  under  Lechus  I.  a.d.  550 ;  and  a  kingdom 
under  Boleslaus,  ▲.D.  999.  Poland  wss  dismembered  by  the  emperor  of  Germany, 
the  empress  of  Russia,  and  kiog  of  Prussia,  who  seised  the  most  valuable  territories 
in  1772.  It  was  finally  partitioned,  and  its  political  existenee  annihilated  by  the 
above  powers,  in  1795.  The  king  formally  resigned  his  crown  at  Grodno,  and  was 
afterwards  removed  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  remained  a  kind  of  state  prisoner  till 
his  death  in  1798.     With  him  ended  the  kingdom  of  Poland. 


FiMttn,  a  peasant  is  elected  to  the  ducal 
dignitj A.D.    842 

[Piastoa  lived  to  the  age  of  120,  and  hla 
reign  was  m>  prosperous  that  every 
Bucceedhig  native  sovereign  was  called 
aPiast] 

Introduction  of  Christianity  .    .    902 

Bed  Russia  added  to  Poland  .  .  1050 

Boledaua  II.  murden  the  bishop  of 
Cracow  with  his  own  hands;  his  king- 
dom laid  under  an  interdict  by  the 
pope,  and  his  subjects  absolved  of  their 

allegiance 1080 

Be  Hies  to  Hungarv  for  shelt^ ;  but  is 
refused  it  by  order  of  Gregory  VII., 
and  he  at  length  kills  himself     .        .  1081 

Uladislaua  deposed 1102 

Premislas  asmsslnated     ....  1295 
Louis  of  Hungary  elected  king  .        .    .  1870 
Waragainst  the  Teutonic  knights  .        .  14i7 
The  UnJlacbians  treacherou&ly  carry  off 
100,000  Poles,  and  sell  them  to  the 

Turks  as  slaves 

Splendid  reign  of  Bigismund  II. 
Stephen  forms  a   militia  composed  of 
Cossacks,  a  barbarous  race,  on  whom 
be  bestows  the  Ukraine 
Abdication  of  John  Casimir        .        .    . 
Massacre  of  the  Protestants  at  Thorn 
Stanislaus'  unhappy  reign  begins      .    . 
He  abolishes  torture        .... 
An  awful  pestilence  sweeps  away  2fi0,000 
of  the  people  a.d. 

The  evils  of  civil  war  so  weaken  the 
kingdom,  it  falls  an  easy  prey  to  the 
royal  plunderers,  the  empress  of  Rus- 
sia, emperor  of  Austria,  and  king  of 

Prussia 1772 

The  first  partition  treaty     .        Feb.  17,  1772 
The  public  partition  treaty      .     Aug.  6,  1772 
A  new  constitution  is  formed  by  the 
virtuous  Stanislaus  HayS,  1791 

[The  royal  and  imperial  snoliators,  on 
various  pretexts,  pour  their  armies 
into  PoUuid,  1792  et  teq.} 


1498 
1648 


1576 
ltif>9 
1724 
1763 
1770 

1770 


The  brave  Poles,  under  Poniatowski  and 
Kosciusko^  several  times  contend  suc- 
cessfully against  miiierior  armies,  but 
in  the  end  are  defeated.  Kosciusko, 
wounded  and  taken,  is  carried  pri- 
soner to  Bnssia     1794 

Suwarrow's  victories  and  massacres  .  .  1794 
Battle  of  Warsaw     .       .       .    Oct.  12.  1794 

[Here  Suwarrow  subsequently  butchers 
80,000  Poles  of  all  ages  and  conditions 
in  cold  blood.] 

Courland  is  annexed  to  Russia  .  1795 

Stanislaua  resigns  his  crown ;  final  par- 
tition of  his  kingdom   .        .  Nov.  25,  1795 
Kosciusko  set  at  liberty      .         Dec.  25,  1796 
He  arrives  hi  London  .     May  SO,  1797 

Stanislaus  dies  at  St.  PeterBburg  Feb.  12,  1798 
Treaty  of  Tilsit  (icAicA  m)  .  July  7.  1807 
[The  central  provinces  form  the  duchy 

of  Warsaw,  between  1807  and  181S.] 
General  Diet  at  Warsaw  .    June,  1812 
New  constitution     .                .         Nov. 
Cracow  declared  to  be  a  free  repub- 
lic   Nov. 

Polish  Diet  opened  .     Sept. 

A  revolution  at  Warsaw ;  the  army  de- 
clare in  favour  of  the  people    Nov.  29. 
The  Diet  declares  the  tArone  of  Poland 

vacant Jan.  25, 

Battle  of  Growchow,  near  Praga ;  the 

Russians  lose  7000  meu ;  the  Poles, 

who  keep  the  field.  2000     .      Feb.  20, 

Battle  of  Wawi  (vhich  w#)        March  SI, 

The  insurrection  spreads  to  Wilna  and 

Volhynia  ....  April  8,  1831 
Battle  of  Zelicho(wAtcA«e)  Aprils  1831 
Battle  of  Seidlex  .  April  10, 

Battle  of  Ostrolenka  (vhieh  fee),  signal 
defeat  of  the  Rusnians  .        .    May  26, 
The   Russian  general,   Diebitsch,    dies 

June  10, 
Battle  of  Wilna  (see  WOna) 
Grand  duke  Constantino  dies 
Battle  of  Winsk  (see  Winfk) 
Wanaw  taken  (see  Warmnc) 


1815 

1815 
1820 

1880 

1831 


1831 
1831 


1831 

1831 

1881 

June  19,  1831 

June  27, 1631 

July  14,  1881 

Sept  8,  1881 


POL 


502 


POL 


POLAND,  continued. 

[This  last  fiital  e^ent  terminated  the 
memorable  and  ghmooB,  but  nnfortu- 
ziate  struggle  of  the  Poles.] 

Ukase  issued  by  the  emperor  Nicholas^ 
decreeing  that  the  kingdom  of  Poland 
shall  henceforth  form  an  integral  part 
of  the  Rijssian  empire  .        .    Feb.  26, 

Oencmftl  aiid  serious  attempt  at  rB?olu- 
tion  in  Poland*        .        .        Feb.  2*^ 

The  courts  of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia 
revoke  the  treaty  of  1815,  constituting 


1838 
1846 


Craoow  a  firee  republic^  scad  Cncow  is 
declared  Austrian  tenitofy     Not.  16,  1846 

(Boon  afterwards  the  Anstriaas  take  pee- 
session  of  Cracow.  This  anitezation  is 
protested  against  by  England,  France^ 
(Sweden,  and  Turkey.] 

The  ki^gaom  of  Polsod  is  inooiporated 
with  RnBHia,and  finally  made  a  Knssiaa 
province         ....        May,  1647 

See  Cracow  and  Wartaw  :  see,  alao^  Ruatia 
and  Turhejf  for  late  events. 


DtJKBS  AND  KINGS  OF  POLAND. 


848.  Piastus. 

861.  Ziemovitus,  his  son, 

892.  Lesko  or  Leseus  IV. 
018.  Ziemomislas,  son  of  Lesko. 
064.  MiecislasL 

092.  Boleslas  I.  suniamed  the  Lion-hearted  ; 
obtained  the  title  of  king  f^om  the 
emperor  Otho  III. 

1086.  If ieci«las  II. 

1034.  Bichense  or  Richsa.  his  consort,  regent; 
driven  from  the  government 

1037.  f Interregnum.] 

1041.  Ctfcsimir  I.  her  son,  sumamed  the  Pa- 
cific ;  he  had  retired  to  a  monastery, 
but  was  invited  to  the  throne. 

1058.  Boleslas  11.  styled  the  Intrepid. 

lOSl.  Ladislas,  called  the  Careless. 

llOi.  Boleslas  III.  sumamed  Wry-mouth. 

1188.  Yiftdislas  II.  son  of  the  preceding. 

1146.  Boleslas  IV.  the  Curled. 

1173.  Miecislas  III.  the  Old:  deposed. 

1177.  Casimir  II.  suniamed  the  Just. 

1104.  Lesko  V.  the  White  :  relinquished. 

1900.  Miecislas  IV.  :  his  tyranny  restored 
Lesko,  but  the  latter  was  again  forced 
to  resij^n. 

1203.  Lodislas  III. :  retired. 

1206.  Lesko  V.  a  third  time  ,*  assassinated  ; 
succeeded  by  his  son,  an  infant. 

1227.  Boleslas  V.  surnamed  the  Chaste. 

1279.  Lesko  VI.  sumamed  the  Black. 

1289.  [Interregnum.] 

1295.  Premislas;  aseasshiated. 

1296.  Lndishis  IV.  the  Short :  deposed. 
1300.  Wenceslas,  kiug  of  Bohemia. 
1304.  Ladialas,  the  Short,  ngain. 

1833.  Casimir  III.  the  Great,  one  of  the  beet 

f>rinces  of  Poland ;  killed  by  a  (all 
rom  his  horse. 
1370.  Louis,  king  of  Hungary. 
1382.  [Interregnum.] 
13iS5.  Hedwige,  daughter  of  Louis,  and  her 

consort^  Ja^ello,  duke  of  Lithuania, 

by  the  stylo  of  Ladislas  V. 
1399.  Ladis.as  V.  alone :  he  united  Lithuania 

to  Poland. 
1434.  Ladislas  VI.  his  son;  succeeded  as  king 

of  Hungary,  1440. 
1445.  [Interregnum.] 
1445.  OMimir  IV. 
1492.  John  (Albert)  I.  his  son. 


1501.  Alexander,  prince  of  Livtnla,  brottfeer 
of  the  preceding. 

1606w  Bigismund  I.  brower  of  Alexander ;  ob- 
tained the  surname  of  the  Great. 

1548.  Slgismund  II.  Augustus,  son  of  the 
last  Idng;  a  sfdendld  reign;  added 

Livonia  to  his  kingwlftm^ 

1573.  interregnum.] 

1574.  Henry,  duke  of  A^jou,  brother  to  the 

kiug  of  France:  he  afterwards  soo- 
oeeded  to  the  French  throne. 
1576.  Stephen  Battbori,  prince  of  Tnui^I- 
vauia:  established  the  Cossacks  as  a 
militia. 

1586.  [Interregnum J 

1587.  Sigismuud  III.  son  of  the  Ung  of  8we> 

dan,  to  the  exclusion  of  Maximilian 

of  Austria,  elected  by  the  noUea. 
1632.  Ladislas  VII.  Vaaa.  son  of  Slgismund 

HI. ;  succeeded  by  his  brother. 
1648.  John  II.  or  Casimir  V. ;  abdicated,  and 

retired  to  France,  wliere  ho  died  in 

1672. 

1668.  [Interregnum.] 

1669.  Michael-Koributh-Wieaaowiski :  hi  this 

reign  the  Cossacks  join  the  Tazks.and 
ravsffe  Poland. 

1674.  John  III.  Sobieskl ;  an  illustrioos  war- 
rior, whose  victories  over  the  Cossacks, 
Turlcs,  and  Toxtars,  procure  him  the 
crown. 

1097.  rintem^^nm.] 

1697.  Frederick-Augustas,sonof  John-Oeofge, 
elector  of  Saxony,  and  elector  in  1694^ 
deprived  of  his  crovra. 

1704.  Stanislas  I.  (Lezinski)  fbroed  to  retire 
from  his  kingdom. 

1709.  Frederick-Augustus,  again. 

1734.  Frederick-Augustus  II.  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding sovereign. 

1763.  [Interr^^um.] 

1764.  Stanislaus  II.  Augustus  Poniatowrid, 

commences  his  unhappy  rmgn. 

1772.  The  Austrians,  Russians,  and  ProasiaDS 
make  their  first  division  of  Poland. 

1793.  Second  great  division  ofthe  kingdom  by 
the  same  powers. 

1795.  Final  partition  of  Poland,aad  depositicm 
of  tne  king,  who  died  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, a  state  prisoner,  in  1703. 


*  This  revolution  will  be  better  described  in  the  way  of  narrative.  On  Februanr  8S^  1846,  an  Austrian 
force  under  general  Collin,  which  had  entered  Cracow  on  the  approach  of  armed  bands  of  peasantry, 
was  attacked  and  driven  out  of  the  town.  A  Provisional  Government  was  then  proclaimed  by  the 
insurgents,  and  two  days  afterwards  they  crossed  the  Vistula,  expecting  to  be  joined  by  the  peasantry 
of  Gallicia,  who  were  solicited  by  the  nobles  and  cleiigy  to  strike  a  blow  in  the  cauae  of  libwty.  The 
Austrian  government,  in  order  to  prevent  this  junction,  excited  in  the  peasantry  a  suspicion  of  the 
motives  of  the  noblet,  and  ofiered  a  reward  for  evexy  noble  delivered  up,  alive  or  doftd :  a  geDcral 
massacre  of  the  nobility  and  clergy  in  the  circle  of  Tamow  followed :  the  insurgents  ftrim  Cracow  were 
defeated  at  Gdow,  whence  they  retreated  to  Podgonce,  a  suburb  of  Cracow ;  hers  they  were  altarketi 
by  general  Colhn,  and  driven  into  Cracow  on  the  27th  of  February.  The  forces  of  the  three  powcn 
then  began  to  concentrate  on  Craoow ;  the  people  in  the  town  opened  negodations  with  the  Amtrians 
about  a  surrender,  and  while  these  were  going  on,  a  RuMian  corps  entered  the  town  without 
and  soon  afterwaids  the  revolution  was  at  an  end. 


POL  503  POL 

POLAR  RBQIONa    For  Votagbb  of  Dzbcoysrt  to  the,  see  NarlkrWai  Pataage, 

POLE  STAR,  OR  POLAR  STAR.  A  star  of  the  second  magnitude,  the  last  in  the  tail 
of  the  conBtellation  called  the  LiteU  Bear  ;  its  nearness  to  the  North  Pole  causes  it 
neTcr  to  set  to  those  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  therefore  it  is  called  the 
seaman's  guide.  One  of  the  stars  in  the  constellation  Ursa  Majtjr,  or  Great  Bear,  is 
called  the  pointtr  to  the  Polar  star.  The  disooTery  of  the  Pole  star  is  ascribed  by  the 
Chinese  to  their  emperor  Hong  Ti,  the  grandson  (they  say)  of  Noah,  who  reigned  and 
flourished  1970Ra— {/fitv.  Hist, 

POLICE.  That  of  London  has  been  extended  and  regulated  at  various  periods.  Its 
jurisdiction  was  extended  27  Eliz.  1585,  and  16  Chas.  I.  1640;  and  the  system 
improved  by  various  acts  in  subsequent  reigns.  The  London  police  grew  out  of  the 
London  watch,  instituted  about  1253.  Police  statutes  5,  11,  82,  and  54  Geo.  IIL 
The  magistracy  at  Bow-etreet  has  been  long  established.  The  jurisdiction  of  twenty- 
one  magistrates,  three  to  preside  in  each  of  the  seven  divisional  offices,  commenced 
Aag.  1, 1792.  The  Thames  police  was  established  in  1798.  The  London  police  was 
remodelled  by  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Robert)  Peel,  by  statute  10  Geo.  lY.  June  19*  1829, 
and  commenced  duty  Sept  29  following.  The  London  Police  Improvement  acts 
passed  3  Vict.  1839,  4  Vict.  1840,  which  were  amended  by  19  k  20  Vict  c.  2, 1856. 
Dublin  police  commenced  Sept.  29,  1786  ;  remodelled  in  1807,  and  1824.  New  act 
passed  July  4, 1836.    See  Constabulary. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY,  or  improvement  of  the  condition  of  mankind.  Its  history  In 
this  ooontry  may  be  dated  from  the  publication  of  Dr.  Adam  Smith's  Wealth  of 
Natiom,  1776.    The  works  of  Mill,  and  Mc  Culloch  are  jusUy  celebrated. 

POLITICIANS.  A  politician  is  described  as  a  man  well  versed  in  policy,  or  the  well 
regulating  and  governing  of  a  state  or  kingdom ;  a  wise  and  cunning  man. — Pardon, 
A  man  of  artifice ;  one  of  deep  contrivance. — SotUfi.  One  versed  in  public  affairs. — 
Skahapeare.  One  versed  in  the  arts  of  government,  and  skilled  in  politics. — Johnson. 
The  term  was  first  used  in  France  about  a.d.  1569. — BenauU,  A  new  faction  appeared, 
known  by  the  name  of  Politicians,  headed  by  the  due  d'Alen9on  and  the  Montmoren- 
cies,  and  strengthened  by  the  accession  of  the  Huguenots,  in  1574. — Idem,  The  duke 
was  arrested,  and  the  Montmorencies  sent  to  the  Bastile. — Idem, 

POLL-ACT,  iRELAin).  An  iniquitous  act  passed  in  that  country  by  the  Junto  of  the 
Pale,  putting  a  price  upon  the  heads  of  certain  of  the  ancient  Irish,  the  earl  of  Des- 
mond being  the  deputy,  5  Edward  lY.  1465.  This  act  endured  for  a  number  of  years. 
For  particulars  of  the  nature  and  objects  of  the  act,  see  kotb  to  article  It^nd, 
Numbers  of  the  Irish  suffered  under  this  act. — Scully. 

POLL-TAX.  The  tax  so  called  was  first  levied  in  England  A.D.  13*78.  The  rebellion  of 
Wat  Tyler  sprung  from  this  impost  (see  Tyier,  Wat,  his  Rebellion),  1881.  It  was  again 
levied  in  1513.  By  the  18th  Charles  IL  every  subject  whs  assessed  by  the  head,  viz. 
— a  duke  100^  a  marquis  SOL  a  baronet  30^.  a  knight  20^  an  esquire  10/.  and  every 
single  private  person  I2d. ;  1667.  This  grievous  impost  was  abolished  by  William  IIL 
at  the  period  of  the  Revolution. 

POLOTSK,  BATTLE  of.  The  French  under  marshal  Oudinot  were  defeated  by  the 
Russians  under  general  Wittgenstein,  July  30  and  31,  1812.  The  same  armies  con- 
tending the  next  day,  the  Russians  were  defeated.  After  several  actions  of  less  note, 
in  which  the  advantage  was  sometimes  on  one^  sometimes  on  the  other  side,  Polotsk 
was  stormed  by  the  Russians,  and  retaken,  OcL  20, 1812. 

POLYGAMY.  Most  of  the  early  nations  of  the  world  admitted  polygamy.  It  was 
general  among  the  ancient  Jews,  and  is  still  so  among  the  Turks  and  Persians.  In 
Media,  it  was  a  reproach  to  a  man  to  have  less  than  seven  wives.  Among  the 
Romans,  Marc  Antony  is  mentioned  as  the  first  who  took  two  wives ;  and  the  practice 
became  frequent  until  forbidden  by  Arcadius,  a.d.  393.  The  emperor  Charles  Y. 
punished  this  offence  with  death.  In  England,  by  statute  1  Jas.  I.  1603,  it  was  made 
felony,  but  with  benefit  of  clergy.  This  offence  is  now  punished  with  transportation. 
It  is  permitted  by  the  Mormonitea    See  Marriages, 

POLYGLOT.  The  term  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words  denoting  "many  languages," 
snd  it  is  chiefly  used  for  the  Bible  so  printed.  The  Polyglot  Bible,  termed  the  Com- 
plutensian  Polyglot,  in  six  vols,  folio,  was  printed  at  Alcala  (Complutensis)  in  Spain, 
A.I).  1514-17 ;  the  first  edition  at  the  expense  of  the  celebrated  Cardinal  Ximenes, 
costing  250,000  ducats.    Six  hundred  copies  of  it  were  printed ;  three  on  vellum. 


POL  604  PON 

Count  Mac  Carthy,  of  Toulouse,  paid  4882.  for  one  of  these  copies  at  the  Pinelli  sale. 
The  second  Polyglot  was  printed  at  Antwerp,  by  Montanns,  8  vols,  folio,  in  1569. 
The  third  was  printed  at  Paris,  by  Le  Jay,  in  10  toLs.  folio,  1628-45.  The  fourth  in 
London,  printed  by  Bryan  Walton,  in  6  vols,  folio,  1657. — Burnet,  Copies  of  all  four 
are  in  the  library  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 

POLYPUS.  An  insect^  named  Hydra,  on  account  of  its  property  of  reproducing  its^ 
when  cut  in  pieces,  every  part  soon  becoming  a  perfect  animal ;  first  discovered  by 
Leeuwenhoek,  and  described  by  him  in  the  Philoaophieal  TranM.  1708  ;  bat  the 
wonderful  property  in  question  was  not  thoroughly  ascertained  till  March  1740,  when 
Mr.  Trembly  made  it  manifest.  The  polypi  are  of  the  order  of  Zoophytes ;  they  par- 
take of  the  animal  and  vegetable  nature,  and  therefore  are  justly  placed  as  the  link 
which  joins  the  animal  to  the  vegetable  world. 

POMEGRANATE  TREE.  Pwiica  Oranatum.  It  was  brought  to  England  from  Spain 
before  a.d.  1584.  It  originally  came  from  Spanish  America.  In  Peru,  the  fruit  is  aaid 
to  have  been  found  as  large  as  a  barrel ;  and  the  Spaniards,  by  way  of  curiosity,  used 
to  carry  it  in  the  procession  of  the  sacrament.  The  pomegranate  is  one  of  the  most 
favourite  fruits  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  where  it  g^ws  abundantly. — Aaks, 

POMFRET  CASTLE.  Built  ▲  D.  1069.  Here  Richard  II.  was  confined  and  murdered. 
Henry  lY.  by  whom  he  was  deposed,  wishing  for  his  death,  one  of  the  assaasiDS  of 
the  court,  attended  by  eight  followers,  rushed  into  the  apartment  of  the  vnfortonate 
king.  Richard,  concluding  that  their  design  was  to  take  away  his  life,  resolved  not  to 
fall  unrevenged ;  wherefore,  wresting  his  pole-axe  from  one  of  the  murderers,  be  soon 
laid  four  of  their  number  dead  at  his  feet.  But  he  was  at  length  overpowered,  and 
struck  dead  by  the  blow  of  a  pole-axe,  Feb.  IS,  1400.  In  this  casUe  also,  the  earl 
Rivers,  lord  Gray,  sir  Thomas  Yaughan,  and  sir  Richard  Hawse  were  executed,  or 
rather  murdered,  by  order  of  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  then  protector  of  England 
(afterwards  Richard  IIL),  June  18, 1483. 

POMPEII,  RUINS  OF.  This  ancient  city  of  Campania  was  partly  demolished  by  aa 
earthquake  in  A.D.  63.  It  was  afterwards  rebuilt,  but  was  swallowed  up  by  an  awful 
eruption  of  Yesuvius,  accompanied  by  an  earthquake,  on  the  night  of  the  24th  of 
August,  A.D.  79.  Many  of  the  principal  citizens  happened  at  the  time  to  be  assembled 
at  a  theatre  where  public  spectacles  were  exhibited.  The  ashes  buried  the  whole  city, 
and  covered  the  surrounding  country.  After  a  lapse  of  fifteen  centuries,  a  country- 
man, as  he  was  turning  up  Uie  ground,  accidentally  found  a  bronze  figure ;  and  this 
discovery  attracting  the  attention  of  the  learned,  further  search  brought  numerous 
productions  to  light,  and  at  length  the  city  was  once  more  shone  on  by  the  sun. 
bifierent  monarchs  have  contributed  their  aid  in  uncovering  the  buried  dty ;  the  part 
first  cleared  was  supposed  to  be  the  main  street,  ▲.!).  1750. 

POMPEY'S  PILLAR.  A  remarkable  vestige  of  antiquity,  standing  about  three  quarter* 
of  a  mUe  from  Alexandria,  between  the  city  and  the  lake  Mareotis.  The  shaft  is 
fluted,  and  the  capital  ornamented  with  palm-leaves;  the  whole,  which  is  highly 
polished,  composed  of  three  pieces,  and  of  the  Corinthian  order.  The  column  measures^ 
according  to  some,  94  feet;  though  other  travellers  state  it  to  be  141,  and  even  as 
much  as  160  feet;  but  of  its  oriftin,  name,  use,  and  age,  nothing  is  certain.  It  is 
generally  believed,  however,  that  the  column  has  no  reference  to  Pompey,  to  whom 
a  mark  of  honour  was,  nevertheless,  set  up  somewhere  about  this  part.  One  supposes 
the  edifice  was  dedicated  to  Yespasian,  another  to  Severus;  and  Mr.  Clarke,  from  a 
half-effaced  inscription  on  the  base,  discovers  that  Adrian  is  the  person  honoored ; 
while  many  assert,  from  the  i^ame  inscription,  that  it  is  dedicated  **  to  Diodetius 
Augustus,  most  adorable  emperor,  tutelar  deity  of  Alexandria.** 

PONDICHERRY,  India.  Formerly  the  capital  of  French  India,  and  first  settled  by  the 
French  in  1674.  It  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Butch  in  1693,  and  was  besieged  by 
the  English  in  1748.  It  was  taken  by  our  forces  in  Jan.  1761,  and  was  netmd  in 
1768.  Again  taken  Oct  1778,  and  restored  in  1788.  Pondicherry  was  once  vaon 
captured  by  the  British,  Aug.  23,  1793;  and  finally  in  1803. 

PONTIFF.  A  high  priest  so  called  from  the  Roman  PontiJUea,  established  by  Nums. 
The  college^rst  consisted  of  4  patricians,  to  these  4  plebeians  were  afterwards  added. 
Sylla  iucreased  the  number  to  15  (8  majores,  7  minona).  The  chief  was  called  the 
Pontifex  maximus.    T.  Coruncanius,  a  plebeian  obtained  this  office  B.a  254. 

PONTUS.  The  early  history  of  this  country  (which  seems  to  have  been  but  a  portion  of 
Cappadocia,  and  received  its  name  from  its  vicinity  to  the  PoiUui  £uxinmt}  is  vciy 


POO 


505 


POO 


obaoars.  Artabasus  wtm  made  king  of  Pontiis  by  Darioa  HyBtaspet.  Hia  succeaeon 
were  litUe  more  than  aatiapa  or  lieutenant*  of  the  kinga  of  Persia,  and  are  Boarcely 
known  even  by  name. 


Artnbasufl  mada  kiug  of  Pontaa  by  Da- 
rius Hystaapea      ....  B.a 

BeignofMlthridateal 

Ariofaarxanea  invades  Pontua . 

Mithridatea  II.  reooven  it  . 

Miihridatea  III.  reigns    .... 

Ariobarzanes  II.  reigua 

Mithridataa  IV.  is  besieged  in  his  capital 
hr  the  Gauls»  Ac 

MiUiridatea  makea  an  unauooessfol  at- 
tack upon  the  Area  city  of  Sinope,  and 
is  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  by  the 
Rhodiuia 

Reign  of  Phamaoea;  he  takea  Sinope, 
aud  makea  it  the  capital  of  his  kingdom 

Rei^ofMithridatesY 

He  IS  murdered  in  the  midst  of  his  court 

Mithridates  VI.  sumamed  the  Great,  or 
Eupator,  reoeivea  the  diadem  at  IS 
years  of  age 

If  arriea  Laodice,  his  own  sister 

She  attempts  to  poison  him ;  he  puts  her 
and  her  accomplices  to  death  .        .    . 

Mithridates  makes  a  glorious  campaign; 
conquers  Scythia,  Boaphorus,  Colchis, 
sad  other  countries      .       .        .        . 

He  enter*  Capnadoda 

Hia  war  with  Home 


48T 
S8S 
863 
886 
801 
266 

S52 


819 

183 
167 
128 


123 
116 

118 


111 
97 
69 


TIgranes  ravagea  Gappadoda     .       B.C.      86 
Mithridates  enters  Bithynia.  and  makea 
himself  master  of  many  Roman  pro- 
vinces, and  puts  80,000  Roma^  to 
death      .......      66 

Archelaus  defeated  by  Bylla,  at  Ch«ro- 

nea :  100.000  Ca)>padocians  slain  .  .  86 
Victories  and  conquests  of  Mithridatea 

up  to  this  time 74 

The  fleet  of  Mithridates  defeats  that 

under  Lucullus.  in  two  battles  .  .  73 
Mithridates  defeated  by  Lucullus  .  .  69 
Mithridates  defeaU  Fabiua .  .    .      68 

But  is  defeated  by  Fompey     ...      66 
Mithridates  stabs  himself;  and  dies   .    .      68 

Reign  of  Phamacos 68 

Battle  of  Zela  (see  Zela) ;  Phamaces  de- 
feated by  CKsar 


47 

Darius  reigns 89 

-~  -  30 

83 
40 


A.D. 


Polemon,  son  of  SSeno,  reigns 
Polemon  II.  succeeds  his  nther 
Mithridates  VII.  reigns       .        .        .    . 
Pontus  afterwards  became  a  Roman  pro- 
vince, under  the  emperors. 
Alexis  Comnenus  founded  a  new  empire 
of  the  Greeks  at  Trebisond.  in  this 
.    country,  ▲.o.  1804,  which  continued  till 
the  Turks  destroyed  it,  in  1459. 


How  numeroua  the  inhabitanta  of  Pontua  were,  and  what  particular  cuatoms  they  had, 
we  at  preeent  ,know  not ;  thongh  it  is  probable  that,  in  their  general  characteristica, 
they  were  aimilar  to  the  Cappadociana,  with  whom,  indeed,  they  were  frequently 
confounded.  Many  of  the  sovereigna  of  Pontua  not  only  encouraged  men  of  science 
and  literature,  but  also  applied  themaelves  to  study,  particularly  to  that  of  botany. 
The  herb  centaury  derives  ita  Greek  name  from  Phamaces  I. ;  and  Mithridates  the 
Great  composed  an  antidote  to  poisona,  which  is  retained  in  the  modem  phaxmaoopoeia, 
and  bears  his  name. 

POOR  LAWS.  The  poor  of  England  till  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  aubsiated  as  the  poor 
of  Ireland  until  1838,  entirely  upon  private  benevolence.  By  an  ancient  atatnte 
28  Edw.  II L  1348,  it  waa  enacted  that  none  ahould  give  alms  to  a  beggar  able  to  work. 
By  the  common  law,  the  poor  were  to  be  sustained  by  "  parsons,  rectors  of  the  church, 
and  pariahionera,  so  that  none  should  die  for  de&nlt  of  sustenance ; "  aud  by  atatute 
15  fiich  IL  impropriators  were  obliged  to  distribute  a  yearly  sum  to  the  poor.  But 
no  compulsory  law  waa  enacted  till  the  27th  Hen.  VIII*  1635.  The  origin  of  the 
preeent  system  of  poor  laws  ia  referred  to  the  43rd  of  Elizabeth,  1600. 


In  1580,  the  Poor  Rates  were 
1680,  they  amounted  to 
1608,  they  amounted  to     , 
1760,  they  amounted  to 
1786,  they  amounted  to     . 
1802,  they  amounted  to 
1815,  they  amounted  to 
1820,  they  amounted  to 


.    £188.811 

In  1830. 

666,562 

1835, 

81»,000 

184U, 

.     1,566,804 

1845, 

.     2.184,960 

185U, 

.     4,1^52,421 

1850, 

.     5.418,845 

1851, 

.     7,889,504 

1858, 

the  Poor  Rates  were 
they  amounted  to 
they  amounted  to 
they  amounted  to 
vear  ending  March  26 
last  half  ot  this  year     . 
half  year  to  Michaelmas 
the  Poor  Rates  were    . 


.£8,111,422 

.  6,356,345 

.  5,468,699 

.  5,543,650 

.  3,816,900 

.  1,803,591 

.  1,609,761 

.  6,522,412 


The  Poor  Law  Amendment  bill  waa  passed  4  &  5  Will.  IV.  Aug.  1884.  This  statute 
was  followed  by  Amendment  acta,  6  &  7  Will.  IV.  18S6,  and  act  1  Vict.  11th  June, 

1838.  Several  amendments  followed  ;  acts  relating  to  the  removal  of  the  poor, 
9  k  10,  and  10  k  11  Vict  Aug.  1846,  and  July  1847,  respeoUvely.  The  J'oor  Law 
(Ireland)  act  was  passed  2  Vict  July  31,  1838,  and  waa  amended  2  Vict  March  15, 

1839.  The  Poor  Law  (Ireland)  Rate  in  Aid  act  passed  12  Vict  cap.  24,  May  1849. 
In  Scotland,  in  the  year  ending  May  1851,  the  number  relieved  waa  141,870,  at  an 
average  cost  of  2^  21  5d.  and  the  expenditure  was  535,9432.  In  Ireland,  the  poor'a 
rate  for  the  year  ending  Sept  1851,  was  1,101,878/. — Poor  Lato  JUtumt,  On  Jan.  1, 
1856,  in  England,  8V 6,655  paupers  were  receiving  relief  An  agitation  for  the  equali- 
aation  of  poor'a  ratea  throughout  the  kingdom  began  in  1857. 

POOR  KNIGHTS  or  WINDSOR.  Instituted  by  Henry  VIIL  in  his  testament,  1546-7. 
Their  original  number  waa  thirteen,  but  the  kuighta  were  subsequently  increased  to 
twenty-eight ;  and  the  institution  underwent  modifications  irom  time  to  time*    King 


POP 


506 


POP 


William  lY.  changed  the  name  hj  which  these  knights  had  been  till  then  known,  and 
thej  were  designated  '*  Military  Knights  of  Windsor/*  in  consequence  of  their  haring 
all  held  eommlBsions  in  the  army,  Sept.  1838.  The  "Naval  Knights  of  Windsor* 
are  maintained  on  a  distinct  foandation,  under  the  bequest  of  Samuel  Trayeim, 

POPE.  This  title  was  originally  given  to  all  bishops.  It  was  firat  adopted  by  Hyg]naii» 
A.D.  188;  and  pope  Boniface  III.  procured  Phocas,  emperor  of  the  East^  to  confine 
it  to  the  prelates  of  Rome,  606.  By  the  connivance  of  Phooas  also,  the  pope's 
supremacy  over  the  Christian  Church  was  established.  The  custom  of  kissing  the 
pope's  toe  was  introduced  in  708.  The  first  sovereign  act  of  the  popes  of  Rome 
was  by  Adrian  I.  who  caused  money  to  be  coined  with  his  name,  780.  Sergiiis  II. 
was  the  first  pope  who  changed  his  name,  on  his  election  in  844.  Some  contend 
that  it  was  Sergius  I.  and  others  John  XII.  or  XIIL  See  Name$,  John  XVIIL 
a  layman,  was  made  pope,  1024.  The  first  pope  who  kept  an  army  was  Leo.  IX.  1054. 
Gregory  Y II.  obliged  Henry  lY.  emperor  of  Germany,  to  stand  three  days,  in  the 
depth  of  winter,  barefooted  at  his  castle-gate,  to  implore  his  pardon,  1077.  The 
pope's  authority  was  firmly  fixed  in  England,  1079.  Appeals  from  English  tribunals 
to  the  pope  were  introduced  19  Stephen,  1154. —  Viner't  8UUuU$,  Henry  IL  of 
England  held  the  stirrup  for  pope  Alexander  III.  to  mount  his  horse,  1161  ;  and  alao 
for  Becket,  1170.*  Celestine  III.  kicked  the  emperor  Henry  YL's  crown  off  his  head 
while  kneeling,  to  show  his  prerogative  of  making  and  unmaking  kings,  1191.  The 
pope  collected  the  tenths  of  the  whole  kingdom  of  England,  1226.  The  papal  seat 
was  removed  to  Avignon,  in  France,  in  1308,  for  seventy  years.  The  Holy  8ee*B 
demands  on  England  were  refused  by  parliament,  1868.  Appeals  to  Rome  from 
England  were  abolished,  1633. —  Viner,  The  words  *'  Lord  Pope"  were  struck  out  of 
all  English  books,  1541.  Thd  papal  authority  declined  about  1600.  Kissing  the 
pope's  toe,  and  other  ceremonies,  were  abolished  by  Clement  XI Y.  1778.  The  pope 
became  destitute  of  all  political  influence  in  Europe,  1787.  Pius  YL  was  buruMi  in 
effigy  at  Paris,  1791.  He  made  submission  to  the  French  republic,  1796.  Was 
expelled  from  Rome,  and  deposed,  Feb.  22, 1798,  and  died  at  Yalenoe,  Aug.  19, 1799. 
Pius  YII.  was  elected  in  exile,  March  18,  1800.  Was  dethroned.  May  18,  1809. 
Remained  a  prisoner  at  Fontainebleau  till  Napoleon's  overthrow ;  and  was  restored 
May  24, 1814.    See  Italy;  Borne;  JtrforTtiatiim ;  and  Rome,  Modem. 

BISHOPS  AND  POPES  OF  ROME. 


100. 
109. 
119. 


42.  St.  Peter  :   crucifiad,  his  head  down- 
wards, Id  M. 
**  St  Clement  {CteiMnM  Rofma%u$)\  aocord- 

ing  to  TtrtiiUian, 
60.  St.  Linus  :t  martyred. 
78.  St.  Anacletus:  martyred. 
91.  St.  Clemeut:  abdicated. 
St  EvHristua:  martyi-ed. 
St  Alexander:  martyred. 
St  Sixtua :  martyred. 
128.  St  Tcleephorus :  martyred. 
1S9.  St  H^giiiufl :  the  firat  who  called  him- 

aeltpopf. 
142.  St  Piua :  martyred. 
157.  St.  Anicetufl. 
108.  St  Soterus  :    martyred  under  Marcus 

Antoninus. 
176.  St  Eleutherus :  he  (mpoaed  with  s^reat 
seal  the  doctrine  or  the  Valentinhins. 
192.  St.  Victor :  martyred  under  ScTerus. 
202.  St  Zephtrinus. 
219.  St  Calixtus :  martyred. 
S22.  (The  chair  vacant  1 
223.  St  Urban  :  beheaded  in  the  persecation 
of  Alexander  Severus. 


280. 

286. 
230. 
250. 
261. 
262. 

268. 

267. 


258. 
269. 

200. 
275. 
288. 

296. 


804. 


St  Pontianua :  banished  by  the  emperor 

Maximin. 
St.  Anterus :  martyred. 
St  Fabian  :  martyred  under  Dodua. 
[The  chair  vacanul 
St.  Cornelius :  died  the  next  year. 
St.  Lneios:  martyred  the  year  foUowiof. 

NoTaUanoa;  antifiope 
St  Stephen :  martyred  in  the  penacatkm 

of  Valerian. 
Sixtus  II.  (his  coadjutor)  martyred  three 

days  before  hia  faithftil  disciple  St 

Laurence,  in  the  penacution  of  Tal^ 

rian,  268. 

B*he  cbair  vacant  ] 
iouysius :  opposed  the  hereby  ci  Sabdo 
litis. 

Felix :  martyred ;  canonised. 

Eutychianus:  martyred. 

Gains :  a  relative  of  the  emperor  Dio- 
cletian. 

Marcellinus:  distinguished  by  his  coa- 
roge  under  a  severe  penocutian; 
canonised. 

[The  chair  vacant] 


*  "  When  Louis,  kins  of  France,  and  Henry  11.  of  England,  met  Pope  Alexander  III.  at  the  eastk 
of  Torci,  on  the  Loire,  tney  b<>th  diitmotwted  to  receive  him,  and  holding  each  of  them  one  of  the  reins 
uf  his  bridle,  walked  on  fiwt  by  his  side,  and  conducted  him  in  that  submiaiive  manner  into  the  castle.  * 
'^HwKM.  Pope  Adiian  IV.  was  the  only  EngUsbmau  that  ever  obtained  the  tiara.  His  anpc^anoe  was 
Siich,  that  he  obliged  Frederick  I.  to  prostrato  himself  before  him,  kiss  his  foot,  hold  his  stirrup,  and 
load  the  white  iKUfroy  on  which  ho  rode.  Bis  name  was  Nicholas  Bmkespeaie,  a  native  of  Aboot's 
Langley,  a  village  near  St.  Alban's,  Herts.    He  was  elected  to  the  popedom  in  1164. 

t  St  Linus  is  set  down  in  nearly  all  accounts  of  popes  as  the  immediate  successor  of  St  Peter ;  but 
Tertullian,  who  was,  tudoubtedly,  well  informed,  maintains  that  St  Ciemeut  succeeded  the  Apoitk. 
In  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  Cliurch,  neither  the  dates  of  suooessfon,  nor  the  sucoession  of  popes, 
are  reconciled,  even  by  the  best  authorities. 


POP 


507 


POP 


POPE,  eaniinMed, 


808.  MarcelluB :  banished  trmn  Rome  by  the 
emperor  Maxentiiu ;  canonised. 

810.  SL  Euaebius :  died  the  same  year. 

311.  8t  Melchiadee:  ooadiutor  to  £uaebiae. 

8U.  Silveeter. 

S36.  Marcus  or  Mark :  died  the  next  year. 

837.  Jallus:  of  great  piety  and  leamlog;  main- 
tained the  canse  of  8t.  Atbauaains. 

851  liberiua :  banished ;  and  in 

SM.  Felix  II. ;  antipope :  placed  in  the  chair 
by  Conetans,  during  the  exile  of  Iibe> 
noMf  on  whoee  return  he  was  driTon 
from  it  with  ignominy. 

[The  emperor  would  have  the  two  ponea 
reign  Kwether ;  but  the  people  cned 
out,  *'One  Ood,  cm  Christ,  amd  one 
IriMhapr] 

858   Liberiaa,  again  :  abdicated. 

858.  Felix  became  legal  pope ;   but  he  was 

made  away  with  by  Liberius. 

859.  Liberius,  again. 

886.  Damascus:    opposed   the   Arians:    St. 

Jerome  was  his  secretaTy. 
884.  BIricius :  suoceedMi  to  the  exclusion  of 

Ursicinus. 
886.  Anastasius :  caused  the  works  of  Origen 

to  be  proscribed. 
403.  Innocont  1. 

417.  Zosimus:  canonised. 

418.  Boniface  I. :  maintained  in  the  pontiflcal 

chair  by  the  emperor  Honorius,  against 
his  rival,  Enlalius  :  canonised. 

4SS.  Celestine  I. :  canonised. 

4SS.  Sixtus  III. :  suppressed  the  heresies  of 
Nestorius  aua  Polagitu  in  the  West. 

440.  Leo  I.  the  Great :  most  sealous  in  his 
endeaTours  to  extend  the  papal  see : 
canonised. 

461.  St  Hilary. 

468.  St  Simplicius. 

483.  Felix  III. :  had  a  violent  dispute  with 
the  emperor  Zeno  resfiecting  the 
Western  Church :  canonised. 

492.  Qelasius :  canonised. 

496.  Anastasius  II. :  endeavoured  to  bring 
about  a  unity  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Cluirches :  ainonised. 

498.  Symmachus:  canonised. 

614.  Laiirentiits:  antipope. 

514.  Hormisdas:  canonised. 

5'J8.  John  I. :  thrown  into  prison,  where  he 
died  in  526. 

526.  Felix  I V.  :iutroduoed  extreme  unction  as 
a  sacrament:  canonised. 

630.  Bonilkoe  II. 

633.  John  II. :  opposed  the  Eutychians  and 
Nestorians. 

535.  Agaiwtus :  died  the  same  year. 

586.  Suverhis :  son  of  pope  Hormisdas,  who 
had  married  bctore  entering  into  the 
ecclesiastical  state.  The  empress 
Tbeodoaia  violently  persecuted  him, 
and  procured  his  banishment  Into 
Lycia,  making  Viffilius  his  successor. 

538.  Yiffiiius:  banished,  but  restored. 

565.  Pelagius  I.  :  endeavoured  to  reform  the 
manners  of  the  clergy. 

660.  John  III.  :  the  great  omamonter  of 
ehurchea. 

573.  [The  see  vacant] 

574.  Benedict  I.,  sumamed  Bonosus. 

678.  Pelagius  II. :  died  of  the  plague  then 
de»olating  Rome. 

690.  Gregory  the  Greats  an  illustrious  patri- 
cian :  converted  the  English  to  Chris- 
tianity. 

604.  Sabinianua 

606.  Boniface  III.  :  died  in  a  few  months. 

607.  BoDi&oelV. 


614.  Deusdedit. 
617.  Boniface  V. 
625.  Honorius  I. 

639.  [The  see  vacant] 

640.  Severinus:  died  shortly  after. 
640.  John  IV. 

642.  Theodorusl. 

649.  Martin  I. :  starved  to  death,  soma  say ; 

died  of  his  sufferings,  others. 
654.  Eugenius  I. :  canonised. 
657.  Vitalianus:  this  pope  sent  misstonaries 

into  England. 
672.  Adeodatus,  the  *'  Gift  of  God." 
676.  Domntis  I. 
678.  Agathon. 

682.  Leo  II. :  instituted  holy  water. 

683.  [The  see  vacant.] 

684.  Benedict  II. 

685.  John  V. :  ruled  with  wisdom. 

686.  Conon. 

686.  Theodore  and  Pascal ;  antipopes. 

687.  Sergius :  •'  governed  wisely.**^ 
701.  John  VL 

706.  JohnVII. 

708.  Sisinnius :  died  20  days  after  election. 

708.  Constantiue. 

715.  Gregory  II. :  canonised. 

731.  Gr^ory  III. :  the  first  pope  who  sent 
nuncios  to  foreign  powers. 

741.  Zacharias. 

762.  Stephen  II. :  with  this  pope  oommenoed 
the  temporal  power  of  the  Church  of 
Rome. 

757.  Paul  I. :  moderate  and  pious. 

768.  Stephen  III. 

772.  Adrian  I.  :  sanctioned  images,  in  which 
he  was  opposed  by  the  kings  of  Eng- 
land and  France. 

795.  Leo  III. 

816.  Stephen  lY. :  died  the  next  year. 

817.  Pascal  L 
824.  Eugenius  II. 

827.  Valentinua. 

828.  Gregory  IV. :  pious  and  learned. 
844.  Sergius  II. 

847.  Leo  IV. :  defeated  the  Saracens. 

[Between  Leo  IV.  and  the  next  pontifl, 
Benedict  III.  an  absurd  story,  not 
worth  refutation,  places  "  pope  Joan.** 
—HenauU.] 

855.  Benedict  III. :  opposed  by  an  antipope 
called  Anastasius. 

858.  Nicholas  I.  styled  the  Great 

867.  Adrian  II. 

872.  John  VIII. :  it  is  to  this  John  that  soms 
authors  refer  the  scandalous  fkbrica- 
tion  of  pope  Joan  ;  but  they  err  even 
in  point  of  time.    Set  abcwe. 

882.  Martin  II. 

884.  Adrian  III. :  died  the  next  year. 

886.  Stephen  V. 

891.  Forraosus:  dieddetested;  his  corpse  was 
thrown  into  the  river  Tiber. 

896.  Boniface  VI. :  deposed. 

897.  Bomanus :  antipope. 

897.  Stephen  VI. :  strangled  In  prison. 

898.  Tbeodorus  II. :  governed  22  days. 
898.  John  IX. 

900.  BenedietlV. 

903.  Leo  V. :   driven   fhnn   his  seat  a  few 

months  after  his  election,  and  died 
in  prison. 

904.  Seivpua  11 L :  disgraced  his  dignity  by 

his  vices. 
911.  Anastasius  III. 
013.  Lnndonius,  or  Lando. 
914.  John  X. :  resiffned,  and  was  stifled  by 

Guy,  duke  of  Tuscany. 


POP 


608 


POP 


POPE,  eotUinued. 

928.  Ii6o  YI. :  considered  an  intruder  by  many 

Roman  Catholic  hiatorianB. 
989.  Stephen  VIX. 
981.  John  XI. :  impriaoned  in  the  caatle  of 

St.  Angelo.  where  he  died. 
936.  Leo  VII. :  sreat  in  zeal  and  piety. 
939.  Stephen  Vlll. :  "  of  ferocious  character.  '* 
948.  Martin  III. 
946.  Airapetua  II. :  of  holy  life. 
950.  John  XII..  called  the  Inikmous :  depoeed 

for  adultei^  and  cruelty,  and,  m  the 

end,  murdered. 

[The  preceding  pope  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  who  changed  his  name  on  his 
elevation  to  Uie  papal  chair.] 

963.  Leo  VIII. :   an  honour  to  the  chair, 

though  an  intruder. — BaroniuM. 
968.  Benedict  V. :  chosen  on  the  death  of 
John  XII.  but  opposed  br  Leo  VIII. 
who  was  supported  hv  the  emperor 
Otbo :  the  Roman  people  were  obliged 
to  abandon  his  cause. 
966.  John  XIII.  elected  by  the  authority 
of  the  emperor  sgahist  the  popular 
wilL 
972.  Benedict  VI. :  murdered  in  prison. 
974.  Boniface  VIL 
974.  Donmus  II. 
976.  Benedict  VII. 

983.  John  XIV. 

984.  John  XV. :  died  before  consecration. 

985.  John  XVI. 

996.  Oregorv  V.    An  antipope  named  John 
AVII.  was  set  up  but  expelled  by  the 
emperor. 
909.  Silvester  IL 

1003.  John  XVII. :  legitimate  pope,  died  same 
year. 

1003.  John  XVIII. :  abdicated. 

1009.  Bergius  IV.  < 

1012.  Benedict  VIIL 

1024.  John  XIX. 

1033.  Benedict  IX. :  became  pope^  by  pur- 
chase, at  12  yean  of  age :  expelled. 

1044.  Gregory  VL  :  abdicated. 

1046.  Clement  II.  (the  Romanists  call  Clemens 

RomanuM  ttkojlrtt  Clement):  died  next 
year. 

1047.  Benedict  sgain :  again  deposed. 

1048.  Damasua  li.  :  died  aoon  after. 
1048.  Leo  IX.  :  canonised. 

1054.  FThe  throne  vacant  one  year.] 

1055.  Victor  U. 

1057.  Stephen  IX. 

1058.  Benedict  X. ;  an  aatii.op6 :  expelled. 
1066   liicholaslL 

1061.  Alexander  II. :   he  carried  the  papal 

Kwer  to  a  height  it  had  not  reached 
fore. 
1073.  Gregory  VIL    the    celebrated    Hilde- 
brand  :    remarkable  for  the   unex- 
ampled powen  he  usurped,  and  his 
unpriucipled  caret^r.* 

1085.  [Thmiie  vacant  one  year.] 

1086.  Victor  III. 


1088.  Urban  II.  :   in  this   pontificmta  com- 
menced the  great  crusade. 
Pascal  n. 

retired  to  a  monaatcfy. 


1099. 
1118. 
1119. 
1124. 
1130. 
1143. 
1144. 

1145. 
1153. 
1154. 

1159. 

1181. 
1185. 
1187. 
1187. 
119L 
1198. 

1216. 
1227. 

1241. 

1?4L 
1243. 
1251. 
1261. 
1265. 


1268. 
1271. 


1276. 
1276. 

1276. 
1276. 
1277. 
1281. 
1285. 
1288. 


1292. 
1294. 
1294. 


1308. 


1804. 
1305. 

1314. 
1316. 


Gelaaiua  IL : 
Calixtus  IL 
Honorius  iL 
Innocent  1 1. 
CeUisUne  IL  : 
Lucius  II. : 


ruled  5  months, 
killed  by  accident  in  a 
popular  commotion. 

Eugenius  III. :  canonised. 

Anastaslus  iV. :  ruled  a  short  time  onty. 

Adrian  IV.  or  NichoUs  Brakespeare^  an 
Bngliabman:  bom  near  St.  Albana. 

Alexander  IIL  :  avenger  of  the  muider 
of  Thomas  k  Becket 

Lucius  IIL 

Urban  IIL 

Gregory  VIIL :  ruled  only  two  mootba. 

Qement  IIL 

Celeiitine  III. 

Innocent  III.  (Lothario  Conti):  excom- 
municated king  John  of  Rngtywd. 

Honorius  III. :  learned  and  pious. 

Gregory  IX. :  caused  a  new  cruaade  to 
be  undertaken. 

Celestiue  IV. :  died  in  18  dt^  alUr  his 
election. 

[Throne  vacant  1  year  and  7  montba] 

Innocent  IV. :  gave  the  red  hak 

Alexander  FV. 

Urban  IV. 

Clement  IV.,  an  enlightened  French- 
man, previoualy  cardinal  and  legate 
to  England:  discouraged  the  crusades. 

FThrone  vacant  8  yean  and  9  montba.] 

Gregory  X. :  elected  while  be  was  with 
Edward  I.  of  England  in  the  Holy 
Land. 

Innocent  V. :  died  shortly  after. 

Adrian  V. ;  legate  to  England  in  1254 : 
died  36  days  after  electioa. 

Vioedominus :  died  the  next  day. 

John  XX  or  XXI. :  died  in  8  montha. 


Nicholas  IIL 
Martin  IV. 
Honorius  IV. 
Kicholaa  IV. 
the  prini 


died  in  1280. 


promoted  the 
endeavoured  to  stir  up 
of  ChrisUindom  to  a  new 
crusade,  but  without  auooca*. 

Sfarone  vacant  2  yean  and  3  months.] 
ilrstine  V. :  resigned  from  fear. 

Boniface  VIIL  :  proclaimed  thai  "  God 
had  set  him  over  kings  and  king- 
doms : "  imprisoned  his  predecessor, 
and  laid  France  and  DenmariL  under 
interdict. 

Benedict  XL  :  a  pious  and  liberal  pon- 
tiff: poisoned  by  some  ambitioua 
cardinals,  a  short  time  after  his 
election. 

[Throne  vacant  11  months.] 

Clement  V.  Bertrand  the  Goth :  remaved 
the  papal  seat  from  Rome  to  Aviguoo. 

[Tlirone  vacaut  2  yean  and  4  muntiia.] 

John  XXII. 


*  In  the  eleventh  century  the  power  of  the  pontiff  of  Rome  seems  to  have  reached  its  utmosi 
height.  Gregory  VIL  tlio  famous  Hildcbrand,  assumed  the  exclusive  title  of  Pope,  which  till  then  had 
been  common  to  other  bishops  ;  and  his  successcn  carried  their  pretensions  so  fiar  as  to  hold  them- 
selves out  as  lords  of  the  uuivene,  arbitere  of  the  fate  of  empires,  and  supreme  rulcn  of  the  ksQga 
and  princes  of  the  earth.  In  this  character  they  proceeded  to  dispose  of  kmgdoma,  and  to  loose 
sut^ects  from  their  allegiance,  as  is  remarkably  instanced  in  the  history  of  John^  king  of  KngUad.  At 
length  they  affirmed  the  whole  earth  to  be  their  propeity,  as  well  where  Christianity  baa  been  pio- 
pagated,  as  where  it  had  not ;  and  therefore,  on  the  discovery  of  the  Kast  and  West  Indies  and  AmerieSk 
Alexander  VI.  in  1493  granted  to  the  Portuguese  a  right  to  all  the  countries  lying  to  the  eastward,  and 
to  the  Spaniards  all  those  westward  of  Cape  Non.  in  Africa,  which  they  mignt  respectively  be  able  to 
conquer.  They  fiuallv  pretended  to  be  lords  of  the  future  world  also^  and  by  lioenaes,  pardooat  dJ^ 
pensations,  and  indulgences,  which  they  aold  to  Uie  best  bidden,  to  have  a  power  of  realrainiBg, 
and  in  some  instaniMMt  of  subverting,  oven  the  Divine  Justice  iiM9lt.-~Jfpiii ;  Uwa  <tfth$  F^pn. 


POP 


509 


POP 


POi'E,  continued. 


1334.  Benedict  ZII.  [Niebolae  Y. ;  aatipope, 
At  Rome.] 

1342.  Clement  VI. :  a  learned  prelate,  a 
generous  prince^  and  amJable  man. 
— PdrardL 

IU2.  Innocent  VI. 

1352.  Urban  V.  :  illustrloua  aa  a  patron  of 
learning. 

1370.  Qnfcory  Ja. :  also  an  eminent  protector 
of  learning:  be  restored  the  papal 
chair  to  Rome. 

1378.  Urban  IV. :  ao  acTere  and  cruel  that  the 
cardinals  chose  Robert  of  Qeneva, 
under  the  name  of  Clement  VII., 
which  led  to  great  violence. 

1389.  Boniface  IX. 

13U4.  Benedict  (called  XIII.):  antlpope  at 
Avignon. 

1404.  Innocent  VII. :  died  in  1400. 

1400.  Gregory  XII.  Angelo  Corario :  elected 
during  the  schism  in  the  East ;  Bene- 
dict ]QII.  being  the  other  pope :  both 
popes  wera  deposed. 

1409.  Alexander  V. :  died,  supposed  by  poiwm. 

1410.  John  XXIII. :  elected  during  the  great 

schism:  deposed. 

1417.  ICartin  V.  Otho  Colonna. 

1431.  Eugenins  IV.  Gabriel  Condolmera :  de- 
posed by  the  council  of  Basil,  and 
Araadens  of  Savoy  chosen,  as  Felix  V. 
in  1439 ;  antlpope. 

1447.  Nicholas  V. 

1455.  Calixtualll. 

1458.  Pius  II.  ^neas  Bilvius  PiooolominL 

14M.  Paul  II.,  a  noble  Venetian. 

1471.  Sixtus  IV. 

1484.  Innocent  VIII.,  a  noble  Genoese. 

1492.  Alexander  VI.  the  inCsunoua  Boderic 
Borgia :  poisoned  at  a  feast  by  drink- 
ing of  a  bowl  he  had  prepared  for 
another. 

1503.  Pius  III.  Francis  Todeschlni :  died  21 
days  after  election. 

1503.  Julius  II.  Julian  de  la  Ruvere. 

1513.  Leo  X.  (John  de  Medici):  this  nope's 
grant  of  indulgences  for  crime  led  to 
the  Reformation. 

1529.  Adrian  VI. 

1523.  Clement  VTI.  Julius  de  Medid :  reftised 
to  divorce  Catherine  of  Arnu^on,  and 
denounced  the  marriage  of  Heniy 
VIII.  with  Anna  Boleyn. 

1634.  Paul  III.  Alexai^der  Famese. 

1550.  Julius  III. 


1555.  Maroellus  II. :  died  soon  after  election. 

1555.  Paul  IV.  John  Peter  (}aralfiL  When 
queen  Elisabeth  sent  him  an  ambas- 
sador toannouoce  her  accession,  he 
haughtily  answered,  *'that  to  the 
holy  see,  and  not  to  her,  belonged  the 
throne,  to  which  she  had  no  right  as 
being  a  bastard." 

1560.  Plus  IV.  cardinal  de  Kedid. 

1566.  Pius  V. 

1572.  Gregory  XIII.  :  the  greatest  dvilian 
and  canonist  of  his  time :  under  him 
the  calendar  was  reformed.*, 

1585.  Bixtus  V. :  the  most  extraordinary  man 
of  his  time.— TUlemorU. 

1590.  Urban  VII. :  died  12  days  after  election. 

1590.  Gregory  XIV.  Nicolas  Sfondiate. 

1591.  Innocent  IX. :  died  in  2  months. 

1592.  Clement  VIII. :  learned  and  jusL 
1605.  Leo  XI. :  died  same  month. 
1605.  Paul  V.  Camille  Borgbese. 

1621.  Gregorv  XV.  Alexander  Ludovislo. 
1623.  Urban  VIII. :  gave  the  title  of  Eminence 

to  cardinals. 
1644.  Innocent  X.  John  Baptist  Pamphilus. 
1655.  Alexander  VIL  FaUo  (^xigL 
1667.  aementlX. 

1670.  Clement  X.  John  Baptiste  Emile  Altieri. 
1676.  Innocent  XL 
1689.  Alexander  VIIL 
1691.  Innocent  XII.  Antonio  Pignatelli. 
1700    Clement  XL  John  Francis  Albani. 
1721.  Innocent  XIII.  Michael  Angelo  Conti ; 

the  eighth  pontiff  of  his  family. 
1724.  Benedict  XI 11.  properly  so  called. 
1730.  Clement  XII. 

1740.  Benedict  XIV. :  the  amiable  LambertinL 
1758.  Clement  XI 11.  Charles  Reszonioo. 
1769.  Clement  XIV.  :   (the  illustrious  Gan- 

ganelU)  suppressed  the  Jesuits. 
1775.  Pius  VI.  Angelo  Braschi :  dethroned  by 

Bonaparte. 
1800.  Pius  VIL  Cardinal  Chiaramonte:  dc 

poeed  by  Bom^iarte  in  1809  ;  restored 

in  1814:   died  Aug.  29,  1799.     (He 

restored  the  Jesuits.) 
1823.  LeoXIL  AnnibaldelhiGanga.  Sept.  28. 
1829.  Pius  VIII.  Francis  Xavier  CastlglionL 

March  31. 
1831.  Gregory  XVI.  Mauro  Capellari.    Feb. 

2,  1831 :  died  June  1,  1846. 
1846.  Pius  IX.  Mastai  Ferretti :  elected  June 

16.    The  present  (1857)  Pope. 
Bee£omc. 


In  consequence  of  an  insurrection  at  Rome,  tbe  present  pope  (Pius  IX.)  fled,  in  diqguiBey 
to  Ghieta,  Nov.  24,  1848  ;  and  a  provisional  goyemment  declared  him  divested  of  all 
temporal  power,  Feb.  8,  1849.  His  holinesa  appealed  to  the  Roman  Oatholic  powers 
for  an  armed  intervention  in  his  favour,  and  a  French  force  took  possession  of  the  state 
soon  after.  After  some  fighting,  the  rebellion  was  subdued,  the  national  assembly 
diasoWed,  and  the  pope's  authority  ultimately  re-established,  July  15,  following,  and 
he  returned  to  the  seat  of  his  pontifioate  in  April  1850.    See  Xome,  Modem, 

POPE  JOAN.  •  It  is  fabulously  asserted  that  in  the  ninth  century,  a  female,  named  Joan, 
conceived  a  violent  passion  for  a  young  monk,  named  Felda,  and  in  order  to  be 
admitted  into  his  monastery  assumed  the  male  habit.  On  the  death  of  her  lover,  she 
entered  on  tbe  duties  of  professor,  and  bemg  very  learned,  "was  elected  pope,  when 
Leo  IV.  died,  in  855.  Other  scandalous  particulars  follow;  "yet  until  the  Keforma- 
tion  the  tale  was  repeated  and  believed  without  offence." — Oihbon,  See  note  between 
the  years  847  and  855  in  the  preceding  list  of  Popet. 

POPISH  PLOT.  A  plot,  generally  so  called,  said  to  have  been  contrived  by  the  Roman 
Catholics,  to  assassinate  Charles  II. ;  and  concerning  which,  even  modem  hiBtorians 
have  affirmed  that  some  circumstances  were  true,  though  some  were  added,  and 
others  much  magnified.  The  Popish  plot  united  in  one  conspiracy  three  particular 
designs ;  to  kill  the  king,  to  subvert  the  government,  and  extirpate  the  Protestant 


POP 


510 


POP 


religion.     The  unfortunate  lord  Stafford  was  tried  and  convicted  of  high  treason 

conspirator  in  this  plot,  and  was  beheaded,  making  on  the  scaffold  the  uoat 

and  solemn  protestations  of  his  innocence,  Dea  29,  1 680.— i2apm.    See  ChMpowder  PloL 

POPLAR  TREEa  The  Tacamahoc  poplar,  Poptdut  haUamifera,  was  brought  hiOier 
from  North  America  before  1692.  The  Lombardy  poplar  was  brought  from  Italy 
about  the  year  175S. — Bist.  of  Plants,  There  are  other  varieties  of  the  poplar^  h^ 
the  tree  is  now  well  known  in  the  woods  and  shrubberies  of  these  countries. 

POPULATION.  The  population  of  the  world  may  now,  according  to  the  best  and 
latest  authorities,  Balbi,  Hanneman,  the  Almanack  dt  Qotka,  &c.  be  stated  in  round 
numbers  at  1075  millions.  Of  these  Europe  is  supposed  to  contain  275  millions ; 
Asia,  570  millions;  Africa,  120  millions;  America,  80  milliona;  and  Australasia,  30 
milliona  The  population  of  England  in  ▲.D.  1377  was  2,092.978  souls.  In  a  little 
more  than  a  hundred  years,  1483,  it  had  increased  to  4,689,000.  In  1696  it  was 
estimated  at  5,250,000.  The  following  tables  of  the  population  of  the  United 
Kingdom  are  from  official  returns : — 

FOFULATIGlf  OF  EMOLANO  AKD  WALBS  DECENNIALLY  FOB  ONE  HONDRKD  TEa.B8. 


Year  1700    . 

,    PopuUtion 

5,475,000 

Tear  1760 

.    .    PopuUtioia 

6,467,000 

1710 

ditto 

5,240.000 

1760     . 

ditto 

6,736.000 

1720    . 

ditto 

5,565,000 

1770 

.    .          ditto 

7.438,000 

1730 

ditto 

6,796.000 

1780     . 

ditto 

7.953,000 

1740     . 

ditto 

6,064,000 

1700 

.    .          ditto 

8,67d,000 

POPULATION  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AT  DECENNIAL  PERIODS  TO   1851. 


DMrioB. 

1801. 

IBU. 

1831. 

l?«l. 

1811. 

\m\. 

England   . 

W  Jee   .... 

BcotlAnd   . 

Army,  Nary,  &c.     . 

Total  .        . 

8,831,434 
541,546 

1,599.068 
470.598 

9,551,888 
611,788 

1,805.688 
640,^)0 

11,261,437 

717,438 

2,093,456 

319,300 

13,089,338 

805,236 

1^865.807 

27r.017 

14.995,188 

916.619 

2,620,184 

312;49S 

16,854.142 

1,000.626 

2,870,784 

142^916 

10.942,646 

12,609,864 

14,391,631 

16,687,398 

18,844,434 

90,99^408 

POPULATION  OF  IRELAND,  ROMAN  CATHOUG  AND  PROTESTANT,  IN  THE  TEAR  1781. 


ProTlneetk 

Roman  CathoUet. 

Protettanta. 

ToUL 

Connaiigbt    . 
Leinst^r    .        .    . 
Munater 
Ulster       .       .    . 

Total 

221.780 
447,916 
482,044 
158,028 

21,604 
203,087 
115,130 
860,632 

243,384 
651.003 
697,174 
518,660 

1,309,768 

700,453 

2,010,221 

POPULATION  OF  IRELAND,  GATHOUO  AND  PROTESTANT,  IN   1831,  ONE  HUNDRED 

TEARS  after: — 


Prorlacca. 

Bomaa  CathoUci. 

Protettanta,  Ac. 

TMaL 

Connatight    . 
Letnster    .        .    . 
Munster 
Ulster       .       .    . 

Total 

989,720 
1.684.484 
1,965,870 

837,724 

193.870 

510,855 

249,457 

1,852,954 

1.183,590 
2.195,339 
2,215,827 
2,190.678 

5,4n,798 

2,807,186 

7,784,934  « 

1 

POPULATION  OF  IRELAND,  IN  PROVINCES,  DT  THE  TEAR  1841. 


Peraona. 

Houiea. 

Faailiaa. 

Iffrienltara. 

TraAc^ae. 

Ijeinster  .... 
Kunater      .... 
Ulster      .... 
Connaught.               .    . 

Total 

1.973,731 
2.396,161 
2,386.378 
1,418,859 

820,051 
877,685 
436,767 
249,877 

362,134 
415.154 
439,805 
255,694 

214.066 
292,983 
267,799 
199.360 

188,098 

112;171 

17S^006 

5«.3S4 

8,175,124 

1.884,300 

1,472,787 

974,188 

608^090 

POP 


611 


POP 


POPULATION,  ewUinued. 


POFULATIOir  OF  IRELAND  IK    1851. 


ProvincM. 

Boose*. 

Penoni. 

ProTiaect. 

HouM*. 

PenoDi. 

Total  nnmber 
of  penoDs. 

Leinster . 
Monster     . 

259,252 
266,936 

1,667,771 
1,831,817 

Ulster     . 
Gomutught 

851,973 
109,674 

2,004,289 
1,011,917 

6,516,794 

POPULATION  OP  THB  WHOLI  BRITIBH   EMPIRE  IN   1851. 


Coantrtoo. 

Hoatninhablied. 

Uniohabited. 

Male*. 

Pemalei. 

ToUl  Popnlstlon. 

Englaxul  and  Wales 
Scotland             .     . 
Ireland    . 
Islands  in  Brit  Seas 

Total 

3,280.961 

366.650 

1,047.736 

21,826 

152,898 

11.956 

65,159 

1.077 

8,762,588 

1.363.622 

3,176.727 

66.511 

9.160,180 

1,507.162 

3,339.067 

76,405 

17,922,768 

2,870.784 

6.615,794 

142.916 

4,717,172 

231,090 

13,369,448 

14,082.814 

27,462.262 

POPULATION   RETURNS  OF  THE  OITT  OF   LONDON   AT  FIVE  DECENNIAL  PERIODS. 


Diitriets. 

1801. 

1811. 

I'Jl. 

1S?1. 

1841. 

Within  the  walls 
Without  the  walls .        .    . 
Southwark  .... 
Westminster  . 
Within  the  bills  . 
A^acent 

Total     .... 

75.171 

81.688 

67.448 

158.210 

364.5*26 

117,802 

65.484 

65,425 

72,119 

162.085 

498.719 

155,714 

56,174 

69,260 

85.905 

182,085 

616,628 

215,642 

67.605 

67.878 

91.601 

202,080 

761,343 

293.567 

64,626 

70.382 

98.098 

222.721 

907.160 

620.689 

864.845 

1,009,546 

1,225,694 

1,474,069 

1,873,676 

In  1851,  the  population  of  London,  according  to  abttracU  of  the  census  for  that  year, 
amounted  to  2,862,236;  of  which  1,106,558  were  males,  and  1,255,678  were  females, 
and  included  London,  Westminster,  Finshury,  Marylebone,  Tower  Hamlets,  Lambeth, 
Southwark,  Ac.  These  figures  may  be  altered  in  some  very  slight  degree  upon 
revision;  but  it  is  improbable  that  any  material  correction  of  them  will  be,  if  at 
all,  necessary.    The  population  of  London  is  now  (1857)  said  to  amount  to  2,622,000 

POPULATION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  TOWNS  OF  GREAT  BRITAni  AT  DECENNIAL  PERIODS. 


Towns. 

1801. 

1811. 

18S1. 

I8S1. 

1841. 

1861. 

Manchester,  Ac. 

94,876 

115,874 

161,636 

237.832 

242,683« 

404,465 

Ohu^w,  Ac  . 

77.385 

100,749 

147,043 

202.426 

274,533 

840,653 

Liverpool    . 

• 

• 

79,722 

100,240 

131,801 

189.244 

286,487 

375.955 

Edinburgh 

82,560 

102,987 

138.235 

162,403 

168.182 

193,929t 

Birmingham 
Leeds,ic. 

73.670 

85.763 

106.721 

142,251 

182,922 

232,841 

«  «  •  • 

•  »  «  • 

83,796 

123,393 

162,054 

172.270 

Hali£uc  Paris! 

i 

•  •  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

112.628 

109,899 

130,743 

140,943 

Bristol,  toe.    . 

63,645 

76.433 

87,779 

103,886 

122,296 

137.328 

Sheffield      . 

•  •  •  « 

ft  «  •  • 

69.479 

91,692 

111,091 r 

138,602 

Plymouth 

43,194 

66.060 

61,212 

76,634 

80,059 

102,380 

Portsmouth 

43.461 

52.769 

66.620 

63.026 

63,032 

85,433 

Norwich 

36.832 

37,256 

60.288 

61,116 

72,344 

68,196 

Aberdeen 

27,608 

35,870 

44,796 

68,019 

63,288 

71,945 

Newcastle 

36.063 

36,369 

46,948 

57,937 

70,860 

89,146 

Paisley 

31,179 

36,722 

47,003 

57.466 

60,487 

69,951 

Nottingham  , 

28.861 

34,263 

40,416 

60.680 

71.844 

68,418 

Hull    . 

34.964 

32,467 

41,874 

49,461 

71,629 

84,690 

Dtmdee  . 

26,084 

29,616 

30.575 

46,355 

62,794 

77,829 

Brighton     . 
Bath 

7,339 

12,012 

24,429 

40.634 

46,661 

65,673 

30,118 

32.214 

86,811 

38.063 

38,304 

64,240 

Tork   .        . 

23,692 

26,422 

29,527 

84,461 

88.321 

67,511 

Praston  . 

11.887 

17,065 

24,675 

83,112 

60,181 

69,542 

Cambridge  . 

13.360 

13.802 

14,142 

20,917 

24,453 

27,816 

Oxford 

15,124 

15,337 

16,364 

20,432 

23,834 

27,843 

*  Manchester  and  suburbs  in  1841  oontained  296,188  souls. 

i  ShetBeld  town  contained  68.186 ;  but  with  the  suburban  parts,  111,001  souls. 

t  The  county  of  Edinburgh  is  259,435. 


li 


Beudsa  muiy  of  the  praoediag,  Tarimu  othar  towD*  mimbar  k  hondivd  Uioiuuid 
inhnbitaDta  tad  npwmrdi,  u,  for  instuioe,  AshtoD-iuid«i~LTiia,  Bbuibani,  Bndfocd, 
Huddertfield,  WoUerhunptoii,  Ao. 


^^000,M>0    Kadna. 
(iiyuooii '  NaplH 


Juptn  iMppied)  . 


wiaaljih  Emplr* 

Iiutted  aute*  of  Amofat,  *< 

Tarker 

TurkLih  Biuplr« 
Fnusluk  moEurohT 

Eingdom  of  ths  Two  SfdUca 


oCBluU 


The  preoeding  numben  >re  from  the  Isteit  ntnms,  or  kr«  tho  present  T«put«d 
iDhkbituita,  fumiihed  by  the  AlmanaA  dt  QaAa,  18£3,  ud  othsr  nqnallj  TBoeiTn) 
■uthoritiea.  They  will  eu&ble  the  reader  to  aetmute  the  probable  or  reUtire  niuabecB 
at  the  present  time. 

PORCELAIK.     Bee  CAina  Foretiain  uid  Dradtn  China. 

FORT  EOMONT.  Ooe  of  the  fioaat  huboun  in  the  world,  on  the  N.W.  oout  of  Fklk- 
Uod  lalaadi.  Cammodore  Bjron  waa  deapatched  to  found  a  coloor  here  in  ITU. 
The  whole  nivy  of  Englaod  might  ride  in  the  port  in  perfect  Mcurity  &mn  all  winda ; 
STsrything  for  the  rafreahmBnt  of  ahipa  la  to  be  obtained  in  abundanoe,— Avetm. 
The  FalkUnd  laliuidi  were  probabi;  eeeo  bj  Ifagellan,  butDatU  ii  euppoMd  to  ha*a 
been  the  firat  who  diioovared  them,  in  1692.  They  were  Ti«t«d  b;  air  Bidurd 
Hawking  in  ISM.    They  are  most  inhoapitable. 

PORTEOUS,  CA.PTAIN,  DEATH  or.  This  offioer,  at  Edinburgh,  on  April  14.  ITU, 
commanded  the  guaid  at  the  eiscutioo  of  a  amti^gler,  who  bad,  heedleaa  of  hia  own 
&ta,  aared  the  life  of  a  brother  criminal,  by  apringing  upon  the  aoldian  aronnd  thaoi. 
and  by  main  force  keeping  them  back,  while  his  companion  fled,  who  nerer  aftenraida 
was  heard  of  The  execution  of  thia  brave  fellow  aidCed  great  oommiferKtion,  and 
the  apectaton  pelted  the  guard  with  atones.  Fearing  a  rescne,  capt.  Porteoua  ord«T«d 
hia  men  to  &re  upon  the  mob,  seTenteen  of  whom  were  killed  or  wounded.  For  tlkia 
he  waa  tried  and  found  guilty  of  murder,  June  22, 1T3S;  butthe  quaengranled  him  » 

*  ThB  aeomnt  of  th«  popuIaUon  of  Uia  ChlnaH  empln.  on  ihg  authorttv  of  Uu  itatanHot  fOrnlibed 
(a  lord  Macartnty.  mwlkm  &  S«3,00a,l)DI> ;  whlls  wa  nnd  Jn  Ifaa  BMieuta  Aaliima,  thit  tba  Uat  (mku 
or  that  nnplra.  Ukan  in  1T«0.  waa,  according  to  Mattucd,  lU,lH.r34,  Tfaii  Uttar  aocsanl  nau); 
oomaponda  with  tba  report  at  H.  niomu,  who  ilitaa  tfaa  pniuUtlon  of  China  at  1M.1T(I^<B.    Otbar 

Id  hct,  ths  Maouota  of  populatlun  of  aU  coootilEa  dlfliir  ao  tridBl;,  and  are  ao  Taiioiv,  few  atataoiKU 
can  barallKl  on  at  bilnc  accurate.- jr.  AdHm  BalH;  Balana  FiHlion  lU  eintt. 


POR 


518 


POB 


reprieTe  (the  king  beingthen  in  Hanover) ;  and  the  court,  interested  for  him,  determined 
to  aave  him.  The  people,  on  the  other  hand,  resolved  that  he  should  not  haye  the 
benefit  of  the  royal  clemency ;  and  on  the  day  which  had  been  named  for  his  execu- 
tion, they  aroee  in  prodigious  numbers,  assembled  round  the  prison,  broke  open  its 
doors,  took  out  Porteous,  and  dragging  him  to  the  Grass-market,  hanged  him  on  a 
dyer's  sign-poet,  in  defiance  of  the  municipal  and  military  power,  Sept.  7,  17S6. 
Strange  to  say,  not  one  actor  in  this  scene  was  ever  identified,  notwithstanding  the 
ofier  of  great  rewards. 

PORTER.  Dr.  Ashe  says  that  this  beverage  obtained  this  appellation  on  account  of  its 
having  been  drunk  by  porters  in  the  city  of  London,  about  17S0.  The  malt  liquors 
previously  in  use  were  ide,  beer,  and  twopenny,  and  it  was  customary  to  call  for  a  pint 
or  tankard  of  half-and-half,  «.e.  half  of  ale  and  half  of  beer ; — ^half  of  ale  and  half  of 
twopenny ; — or  half  of  beer  and  half  of  twopenny.  In  the  comise  of  time  it  also 
became  the  practice  to  ask  for  a  pint  or  tankard  of  three  thirds,  meaning  a  third  of 
ale,  beer,  and  twopenny ;  and  thus  the  publican  was  obliged  to  go  to  three  casks  for  a 
single  pint  of  liquor.  To  avoid  this  trouble  and  waste,  a  brewer,  of  the  name  of 
Harwood,  conceived  the  idea  of  making  a  liquor  which  should  partake  of  the  united 
flavours. of  ale,  beer, and  twopenny.  He  did  so,  and  succeeded,  calling  it  entire,  or 
entire  butt  beer,  meaning  that  it  was  drawn  entirely  from  one  cask  or  butt)  and  being 
a  hearty  nourishing  liquor,  it  was  very  suitable  for  porters  and  other  working  people. 
Hence  it  obtained  its  name  of  porter,  and  was  first  retailed  at  the  Blue  Last,  Curtain- 
road. — Leigh, 

POBTKB  BSrWJBD  BT  THE  TEN  FBINOIFAL  LOITDON  BBEWEBIS8  IK  1760,  VIZ. : — 


BarrtU. 

Calvert  ft  Co. 74,734 

Whitbread 63,408 

Truman 60,140 

Sir  WUliam  Calvert        ....    62,785 
GiilbidftCo 41,410 


BarreU. 

Lady  Parsona 84,098 

Thrale 80,740 

HuckftCo 29,615 

Harman 28,017 

MeuxftCo 10,012 


FOBTEB  BBSWED  BT  THE  SEVEN  OHIBF  LONDON  HOUSES  IN  THE  TBAB  1815,  VIZ. : — 

Barrdt. 
Barclay  and  PtfrUna .  .  .  .  887,621 
Manx,  R«id,  ft  Co.  ....  282,104 
Truman,  Hanbury,  ft  Co.  .  272,162 
Whitbread  ft  Co. 261,018 


Sarr^B. 

Heniv  Meux  ft  Co 2*29,100 

F.  Calvert  ft  Co 219,388 

Combe^  Delafield,  ft  Co.    .  .    105,081 


FOBTEB  BBBWED  IN  LONDON  BT  THE  SEVEN  FBINOIPAL  HOUSES  IN  THE  TEAB  1840,  VIZ. : — 


BarreU. 
Barclay,  Perkins,  ft  Co.  .  .  .  861,321 
Truman,  Hanbtury,  ft  Co.  .    263,235 

Whitbread  &  Co. 218,828 

BeidftCo. 196,442 


Barrels. 
Combe,  Delafield,  A  Co.       .       .    .    177.542 

Felix  Calyert  ft  Co 186,887 

Sir  Henry  Meux  ft  Co.  .    .    116,547 


The  porter  brewed  in  the  decennial  year  1850  has  not  been  published;  but  the 
increase  must  be  vast.  The  number  of  licensed  brewers  in  1850,  in  England,  was  2257. 
The  number  in  Scotland,  154;  and  in  Ireland,  96 — ^total  2507.  London  engrossw,  it 
is  said,  one  third  of  the  entire  business  of  the  whole  of  England,  and  it  is  remarkable 
that  this  business  has  been  drawn  of  late  into  the  hands  chiefly  of  eight  or  ten  houses 
of  gigantic  capitals.  Messrs.  Whitbread  k  Co.  built  a  porter  cask  65  feet  in  diameter, 
25  feet  high,  with  56  hoops  weighing  from  one  to  three  tons  each  —  the  contents 
20,000  banelSb  It  was  four  years  in  building.  At  Meuz*s  brewhouse  two  large  vats 
suddenly  burst,  deluging  and  destroying  many  neighbouring  houses.  Several  lives 
were  lost;  and  the  total  loss  of  porter  was  estimated  at  between  8000  and  9000 
barrels,  Oct.  17, 1814. 

PORTERAGE  ACT.    Act  for  regulating  the  porterage  of  small  parcels,  July  1799. 

PORT  JACKSON.  This  bay  and  harbour  are  on  the  coast  of  New  South  Wales,  18  miles 
north  of  Botany  Bay.  The  capes  that  form  its  entrance  are  high,  rugged,  and  perpeiv 
dicular  cliffs ;  and  the  harbour  ia  one  of  the  noblest  in  the  world,  extending  14  miles 
in  length,  with  numerous  creeks  or  coves.  The  name  of  Port  Jackson  was  given  to  it 
by  the  illustrious  circumnavigator  Cook,  who  observed  it  in  sailing  along  the  coast  in 
1770.    See  Botany  Bay  ;  New  South  Wales;  Sydney. 

PORT  PHILLIP,  IN  NEW  SOUTH  WALES.  The  original  name  of  the  colony  of 
Vidoriaf  which  see. 

LL 


POR 


516 


POR 


PORTUQAL,  coniinuedL 

Independence  of  BnuU,  the  prince  regent 

made  emperor  .  Oct.  12,  1822 

The  king  of  PortngiU  sapproaeoa  the  oon- 

Btitution        ....    Junes,  182S 
Disturbances  at  Lisbon;  Dom  Miguel 

departs,  Ac.  .  Hay  1—9.  1824 

Treaty  with  BracU  .        Aug.  29,  1825 

Death  of  John  YI.   .  .    Feb.  18,  1826 

Dom  Pedro  grants  a  charter,  and  con- 
firms the  regency     .  April  20.  1826 
He  relinquishes  the  throne  of  Portugal 
in   favour  of    his  daughter,    Donna 
Karia  da  Gloria     .               .     May  2.  1826 
Dom  Miguel  takes  the  oath  of  fealty  at 

Vienna Oct  4,  1826 

Marquess   of   Chave's  insurrection   at 

Lisbon Oct  6.  1826 

Dom  Miguel  and  Donna  Maria  betrothed. 

(See  Inceat)       .  Oct  29,  1826 

Portugal  solicits  the  assistanoe  of  Great 

Britain Dec.  S,  1826 

Departure  of  the  first  British  auxiliary 

troops  for  Portugal  .  Dec  17,  1826 

Bank  of  Lisbon  stops  payment  Dec.  7,  1827 
Dom  Miguel  arrives  in  Londoa,  Dec.  SO.  1827 
He  arrives  in  Lisbon   .  Feb.  22,  1828 

He  takes  the  oaths  as  regent  .    .  1828 

Formal  act  of  abdication  oy  Dom  Pedro, 

March  S,  1828 
The  British  armament  finally  quits  Por- 
tugal       April  28, 1828 

Foreign  ministers  withdraw  .  May  8,  18*28 
8br  John  Dovle  arrested  .  .  June  IS,  1828 
Dom  Miguel  formally  assumes  the  title 

of  klDg July  4,  1828 

He  disaolves  the  three  estates  July  12,  1828 
Miguel  s  troops  take  Madeira  Aug.  24,  1828 
Release  of  Sir  John  Doyle  .  Sept  7,  1828 
The  queen  Donna  Maria  arrives  at  Fal- 
mouth ....  Sept.  24,  1828 
Bhe  aiTives  in  London.  .      Oct.  (^  1828 

Her  reception  atWmdsor  .  Dec  22,  1828 
Dom  Miguel's  expedition  against  Teroeira 

defeated        ....  Aug.  U,  1829 
Revolution  at  Brazil    .  April  7, 1831 
Dom  Pedro  arrives  in  England,  June  16,  1881 
Insurrection  in  Portugal,  in  fkvour  of  the 
queen,  in  which  more  than  800  lives 
are  lost  .....  Aug.  21,  1881 
Dom  Pedro's  expedition  sails  fi!t>m  Belle- 
isle    Feb.  9,  1832 

At  Teroeira  Dom  Pedro  proclaims  him- 
self regent  of  Portugal  on  behalf  of 
his  daughter  .        .        .    April  2,  1832 

He  Ukes  Oporto  .  .        .  July  8.  1832 

The  MigueUtes  attack  Oporto,  and  are 
defeated  with  considerable  loss  on  both 

Bides Sept  19, 1832 

Mount  Gavello  taken  .  April  9,  1838 

Admiral  Napier  takes  the  whole  of  Dom 
Miguel's  squadron  off  Cape  St  Vincent 

July  2,  1833 
Lisbon  is    evacuated   by  the  duke  of 

Gadaval's  army    .  .    July  23,  1888 

After  various  conflicts.  Dom  Miguel  ca- 
pitulates to  the  Pedroite  forces,  and 
Bantarem  surrenders  May  26, 183  i 

Dom  Miguel  is  permitted  to  leave  the 
country  unmolested,  and  he  embarks 
at  Bvora  for  Genoa       .       .    May  31,  1834 
Massacres  at  Lisbon    .  June  9,  1834 

The  queen  declared  by  the  Cortes  to  be 

of  ■««. Sept  16,  1884 

Dom  Pedro  dies  .  Sept  21,  1834 

Oporto  wine  company  abolished     .        .  1834 


Prince  Augustus  of  Portugal  (duke  of 
LeuchteubergX  Just  married  to  the 
queen,  dies  March  28,  1886 

The  queen  marries  prince  Ferdinand  <rf 

Saxe  Coburg  ....     Jan.  1,  1836 

Revolution  at  Lisbon    .  Aug.  9,  1836 

Another  outbreak  there   .        .    Kov.  8,  1836 

The  duke  of  Terceira  attempts  to  restore 
Dom  Pedro's  charter  Aug.  18v  1837 

He  and  Marshal  Saldanha  fkU  in  the 
attempt^   and  embark  for  England, 

Seut  18,  1837 

The  Oporto  wine  company  re-eetaolished, 

April  r,  18S8 

The  northern  provinces  in  a  state  of  in* 
surrection  aoout  this  time   .  April  SO,  1846 

The  duke  of  Palmella  resigns  nia  mi- 
nistry       ....         Oct  31.  1846 

Action  at  Bvora,  the  queen's  troops  defeat 
the  insurgent  forces  .    Oct  31,  1846 

British  s(^iuMiron  under  admiral  Parker 
arrives  m  the  Tagus  at  the  request  c^ 
the  queen  Oct  31,  1846 

Palmella  banished   .  .  Nov.  26,  1846 

Marquess  of  Saldanha  defeats  count 
Bomfin  at  Torres  Vedras .        Dec  22,  1846 

The  insurgents  enter  Oporto  .      Jan.  7,  1847 

London  conference,  by  which  England, 
France,  and  Spain  determine  to  assist 
the  queen  of  Portugal  to  terminate  the 
clvUwar   ....         May  21.  1847 

Submission  of  8a  de  Bandeira  to  the 
queen June  11,  1847 

A  Spanish  foroe  enters  Oporto^  and  the 
Junto  capitulates  June  26,  1847 

An  American  squadron  arrives  in  the 
Tagus  to  enforce  claims  against  the 
Portuguese  government       .  June  29^  18M 

Militiuy  insurrection,  headed  by  the 
duke  of  Saldanha,  who  being  out- 
stripped in  his  march  on  Bantarem  by 
the  Mug  of  Portugal,  flees  north  wanu 

April  10,  18ftl 

Oporto  declares  for  the  duke,  who  had 
left  the  eitv  for  Vi«o  to  embark  for 
England ;  out  is  called  back  by  the 
insursents     ....  April  24,  18S1 

The  duke  of  Saldanha  makes  a  trium- 
phal entry  into  Oporto    .       April  29,  1861 

The  conde  de  Thomar,  prime  minister, 
rerigns,  and  embarks  on  board  a 
Briush  ship  for  England,  where  he 
arrives      ....         May  16^  1831 

Dom  Miguel,  the  Portuguese  pretender, 
msrries  the  princess  of  Lowenatein- 
Rosenberg     ....  Sept  21,  1851 

The  queen  lays  the  foundatlon-stdne  of  a 
monument  to  Dom  Pedro  at  Lisbon, 

July  17,  1852 

An  addition  to  the  Portuguese  diarter 
sanctioned  by  the  queen :  the  prinoe- 
royal  takes  the  oath  to  the  ceaiBtita- 
tion July  18,  1852 

Conversion  of  the  public  debt    Dec  18,  1852 

Death  of  the  queen  .    Nov.  15.  1858 

King-consort    recognised    as    regent^ 

Dec  19.  1853 

The  young  Idng  visits  England .    June,  1864 
andFnmce  ....  May,  1855 

All  the  slaves  on  the  royal  domains 
declared  free  .    Dec  30,  18M 

Inauguration  of  the  king   .        Sept  16,  1855 

Reaignation  of    Saldanha  ministry, 

June  5,  1656 


KINGS  OF  PORTUGAL. 
1093.  Henry,  count  or  earl  of  Portugal.  1 1139.  Alfonso  declared  king, having obtaineda 


1112.  Alfonso,  his  son,  and  Theresa. 
1128.  Alfonso^  count  of  Portug^  alone. 


signal  victory  over  a  prodigioos  aroy 
of  Moors  on  the  plains  of  Ouziqae. 


POR 


617 


POS 


PORTUGAL,  eoiUvmed. 


1185. 
121S. 

122S. 
1S4S. 
1279. 

18S5. 
1357. 
1367. 

1384. 


1433. 
1438. 
1481. 


1495. 
1521. 


1557. 


1578. 
1580. 


1040. 


1658. 


Sancho  I.  aon  of  Alfonsa 

AlfonBo  II.  sumamad  CnsBua,  or  the  Fat. 

Bancho  II.  or  the  Idle :  deposed. 

Alfoneo  III. 

Denia  or  DionysiaB,  styled  the  Father 
of  hie  counti^. 

Alfonso  IV. 

Peter  the  Sevore :  succeeded  b^  his  son, 

Ferdinand  I. :  suooeeded  by  his  natural 
brother. 

John  I.  the  Bastard,  and  the  Oreat : 
married  Philipps,  daughter  of  John 
of  Qaunt^  duke  of  Lancaster. 

Edward. 

Alfonso  y.  the  African. 

John  11.  whose  actions  procured  him  the 
titles  of  the  Oreat»  and  the  Perfect ; 
succeeded  by  his  oousin, 

Emmanuel,  the  Fortunate. 

Johnlll.  Bonof  Emmanud :  he  admitted 
Into  his  kingdom  the  religious  insti- 
tution of  the  Inquisition. 

Sebastian :  slain  in  the  great  battle  of 
Alcasar,  in  AiHca,  Aug.  4, 1578 ;  when 
the  crown  reverted  to  his  great  uucle, 

Henry,  the  Cardinal,  son  of  Emmanuel. 

Anthony,  prior  of  Crato,  son  of  Em- 
manuel :  deposed  by  FhlUp  II.  of 
Spain,  who  united  Portugal  to  his 
other  dominions,  till  1640. 

John  IV.  duke  of  Bragansa:  dispos- 
seasod  the  Spaniards  in  a  bloodless 
revolution,  and  was  proclaimed  king, 
Dec.  1. 

Alfonso  VI. :  deposed  in  1668,  and  his 
brother  and  successor  Peter  made  re- 
sent; the  latter  ascended  the  throne 


1683.  Peter  II. :  soooeeded  by  his  son, 

1706.  John  V. :  succeeded  by  his  son, 

1750.  Joseph.  The  daughter  and  suooessor  of 
this  prince  married  his  brother,  t^ 
dispensation  from  the  pope,  and  they 
ascended  the  throne,  as 

1777.  Maria  (Frances-Isabella)  and  Peter  IIL 
Jointlv. 

1786.  Maria,  alone :  this  princess  afterwards 
fklls  into  a  state  of  melancholy  and 
derangement. 

1792.  Regency.  John,  son  of  the  qnoen,  and 
afterwards  king,  declared  regent  of 
the  kingdom. 

1816.  John  YI.  previously  regent  He  had 
withdrawn  in  1807,  owing  to  the 
French  invasion  of  Portugu,  to  his 
Brazilian  dominions ;  but  the  discon- 
tent of  his  subjects  obliged  him  to 
return  in  1821 ;  died  in  18*26. 

1826.  Peter  IV.  (Dom  Pedro)  son  of  John  VI : 
making  bis  election  of  the  empire  of 
Brasil,  abdicated  the  throne  of  P(V- 
tugal  iu  favour  of  his  daughter. 

1826.  Maria  II.  (da  Gloria^  who  beoune  queeu 
at  7  years  of  age. 

1828.  Dom  Miflruel,  brother  to  Peter  lY. 
usurped  the  crown  whidi  he  retained, 
amid  civil  contentions,  imtil  1833. 

1833.  Maria  II.  restored  :declaredinS^t  1884 
(being  then  15)  to  be  of  age.  and  as> 
sumed  the  royal  power  accordingly ; 
died  Nov.  15,  1858 :  succeeded  by  her 
son, 

1858.  Peter  V.  (Dom  PedroX  bom  Sept  10L 
1837;  the  present  (1857)  king  of 
Portugal. 


There  are  in  Portugal  two  aniyersities,  that  of  Coimbra,  founded  in  1308,  and  the 
smaller  one  of  Evora,  founded  in  1583.  Liebon  has  also  its  royal  academj,  and  the 
small  town  of  Thomar  has  an  academy  of  sciences ;  but  in  general,  literature  is  at  a 
low  ebb  in  Portugal.  The  poet  Camoens,  called  the  Virgil  of  his  country,  and  author 
of  the  LvaiaAf  an  exquisite  production,  translated  into  English  by  Mickle,  was  a 
native  of  Lisbon. 

POSTS.  Originated  in  the  regular  couriers  established  by  Cyrus,  who  erected  post' 
houses  throughout  the  kingidom  of  Persia.  Augustus  was  the  first  who  introduced 
this  institution  among  the  Romans,  and  who  employed  post-chaises.  This  waa 
imitated  by  Charlemagne  about  ▲.D.  800. — Atkt.  Louis  XI.  first  established  post* 
houses  in  France  owing  to  his  eagerness  for  news,  and  they  were  the  first  institution 
of  this  nature  in  Europe,  1470. — BenauU,  In  England  tne  plan  commenced  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  IV.  1481,  when  riders  on  post-horses  went  stages  of  the  distanoe  of 
twenty  miles  from  each  other,  in  order  to  procure  the  king  the  earliest  intelligence  of 
the  events  that  passed  in  the  course  of  the  war  that  had  arisen  with  the  Scots. — Oale, 
Richard  III.  improved  the  syaterr  of  couriers  in  1483.  In  1543  similar  arrangements 
existed  in  England. — Sadlti'B  JUitera.  Post  communications  between  London  and 
most  towns  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  existed  in  1635. — Strype, 

POST-OFFICE,  Ths  GENERAL^  ov  ENGLAND.  See  preceding  artide.  The  first 
chief  postmaster  of  England  was  Mr.  Thomas  Randolph,  appointed  by  queen  Elisabeth 
in  1581.  The  office  of  foreign  postmaster  was  established  by  James  I.  who  appointed 
Matthew  de  I'Equester  to  that  office ;  and  Charles  I.  appointed  William  Frisell  a4d 
Thomas  Witherings  in  1631,  A  proclamation  of  Charles  I.  in  1635,  states  in  the 
preamble  that  "  whereas  to  this  time  there  hath  been  no  certain  intercourse  between 
the  kingdoms  of  England  and  Scotland,  the  king  now  commands  his  postmaster  of 
England  for  foreign  parts  to  settle  a  running  post  or  two  to  run  night  and  day 
between  Edinburgh  and  London,  to  go  thither  and  come  back  again  in  six  days.**  * 

*  The  king  also  commanded  his  "  postmaster  of  England  for  foreign  parts,"  to  open  a  regular  oom> 
munication  by  running  posts  between  the  metropolis  and  Edinburgh,  West  Chester,  Holyhead* 
Ireluid,  Plymouth.  Exeter,  Ac  (Bates  of  postage— 1  letter  carried  under  80  miles,  8c(. ;  under  140 
miles,  4d. ;  above  that  distance  in  England,  0d. ;  to  any  part  of  Scotland,  8d, ).    Even  so  late  as  betwetn 


POS 


518 


POS 


An  enlaiged  office  was  erected  bj  the  parliament  in  1648 ;  and  one  more  oonaidMmble 
in  1657,  with  a  yiew  "to  benefit  oonuneree,  oonyej  the  public  diapatehei^  tod  u  tb« 
best  means  to  diworer.and  prevent  many  dangerous  wicked  designs  agsimt  tht 
commonwealth  by  the  inspection  of  the  correspondence.* — AAc  See  Pemiy  Pod. 
The  post^ffioe  as  at  present  constitated  was  founded  12  Charles  tL  Dea  27, 1660. 
The  maUs  were  first  conveyed  by  coaches,  Aog.  2,  1784^  when  the  first  mil  I«ft 
London  for  Bristol    See  Mail  CoaehiB. 

BBTSKUB  OW  IBM  POCTOVITCS  OV  ENQLAHD  AT  THS  rOLLOWIHO  FBBIOSi^  TO.  :— 


In  IMS.  It  yielded      .... 
IMS.  FsnDEiedtoJohnlfsiile7,«0q. 

fov  .  • 

166S.  Fmnad  to  Dantol  O'Neale, 

eaq.  for       ...       . 
1074.  ViuTDed  fin- 
IMS.  It  yielded     .       .        .       . 
1707,  Ditto 


1714.  Ditto 
1728.  Ditto 
1744.  Ditto 
1764.  Ditto 


£5,000 

In  1790. 

1800. 

10,000 

1806. 

1810. 

Sl,600 

1815. 

43,000 

1890. 

0fi,000 

1825. 

111,4«1 

18S0. 

145,227 

1885. 

201,805 

1889. 

2S5,402 

48^048 

1840. 

It  yielded  ....  £480^074 

Ditto 745»SU 

Great  Britain     .  .  1,4M,M4 

Ditto 1,709.066 

Ditto 1.76S^8M 

United  Kingdom  .       .    .  2.403,067 

Ditto %tU^t» 

Ditto 2,801,4SS 

Ditto 2,88S,S4I» 

liMt  year  of  the  havrj 

poetsge ^SS%4K 

First  year  of  the  low  rate.    4n.00« 


TOan-OWnOE  RBYSNUS  of  THB  DVITED  kingdom,  UXDXB  THS  UITIFOBM  FOSTAOB  8I8TSM :— 


TMraadlDf 

Gnas  BcTeBme. 

Com  of 
Managemcat. 

NctBcTCanc 

QoTcrvBcat 

£1,869,466 

£858,677 

£600,780 

£00.761 

1842 

1,499,418 

988.168 

561.949 

118,255 

1848 

1,578,145 

977,504 

600.641 

122.161 

1844 

1,0-20,867 

980,650 

640,217 

116,509 

1845 

1.705.067 

985,110 

719,967 

100.82 

„            1840 

1,887,576 

1,125,594 

761,982 

101.100 

1847 

1,968,857 

1,188,746 

826,112 

100.864 

1848 

2,181,016 

1,196.520 

984,496 

121,290 

1849 

2,192,478 

1,886.858 

740,429 

Len  other  cfe«|ti 

I860 

2.218,149 

1,807,248 

840,787 

thammaMatmfH. 

1851 

2.264,684 

1,460,785 

808.898 

Not  stated. 

1862 

2,422,168 

1,804.168 

1,118,004 

Not  stated. 

The  Postal  Qoide  first  appeared  in  1866,  in  which  year  London  and  the  Tidnity  was 
divided  into  districts  for  postal  purposes :  Tix.  East,  West,  Ac  The  Foitmasttf< 
general  issues  reports  from  time  to  time,  three  have  appeared.  Early  in  1SS7, 
Mr.  Rowland  Hill  broached  his  plan  of  penny-pottage,  which  was  adopted  sftsr  i  loll 
investigation  by  a  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  1839.  The  new  postagt 
law,  by  which  the  uniform  rate  of  id,  per  letter  was  tried  as  an  experiment,  cime  into 
operation  Dec.  5, 1839.  The  xmiform  rate  of  Id.  per  letter  of  half  an  ounce  weight) 
ko.  commenced  Jan.  10, 1810.  The  stamped  postage  covers  came  into  uie  Key  6, 
1840.  In  the  last  year  of  the  heavy  postage  (1839)  the  number  of  letters  vm 
82,470,596,  including  6,563,024  franks;  in  1840,  the  number  was  168,768,344;  in 
1851.  the  number  was  360,651,187,  whereof  36,512,649  were  in  Scotland,  ind 
85,982,782  were  in  Ireland.  The  number  in  1856  wae,  England  388  millioni; 
Scotland,  42  millions ;  Ireland,  48  millions ;  total,  478  millions ;  being  an  inerease  of 
4}  per  cent,  on  1855,  and  an  average  of  17  to  each  person.  On  Feb.  14, 1856, 
618,000  letters  passed  through  the  general  post-office.  The  revenue  from  the  post- 
office  was,  in  1853,  1,104,000/.;  in  1854,  1,022,000/.  On  June  5,  1855,  a  tnmry 
warrant  was  issued,  providing  for  the  carriage  by  post  of  books,  pamphlets,  ke.  under 
certain  restrictions — 4ob.  for  Id;  8  oz.  for  2d,  kc 

POST-OFFICES.  The  General  Post-Office  of  London  was  originally  established  In  doek- 
lane,  near  Dowgate>hill,  whence  it  was  removed  to  the  Black  Swan,  in  Bishopegate- 
street.  On  oocasion  of  the  great  fire  of  1666,  it  was  removed  to  the  Two  Black* 
Pillars  in  Brydges-street,  Coventgarden,  and  afterwards  to  sir  Robert  Yiner  a  mansion 
in  Lombard-street,  where  it  continued  till  Sept  23, 1829,  when  it  was  tranafened  to 
St  Martin's-le-Qrand«  It  now  occupies  the  site  of  an  ancient  college  and  sanekutfT* 
This  magnificent  building  was  commenced  in  1825,  from  designs  by  B.  Smirke,  eaq. 

1780  and  1740,  the  poet  was  oaly  tnmamitted  three  days  a  week  between  Edinborgh  and  London :  wd 
the  metropolla,  on  one  ocoaaloo,  onfy  teni  a  HngU  letter,  whioh  was  for  an  Bdinbuigfa  banker,  namtd 
Kunmy. 


P08  619  POY 

and  completed  Sept.  23,  1829.  The  new  poat-offioe  of  Dublin  was  opened  Jan.  6, 
1818.  The  offioei  of  poBtmaBten-genend  of  England  and  of  Ireland  were  united  into 
one,  1  Will  IV.  1831.  The  street  letterboxes  were  ereeted  in  March  1855.  The 
fint  one  was  placed  at  the  comer  of  Fleet-street  and  Farringdonnitreet. 

POST!  NO.  Post-chaises  were  invented  by  the  French,  and  were  introduced,  according 
to  Grainger,  into  this  country  by  Mr.  William  Tull,  son  of  the  well-known  writer  on 
Husbandry.  Posting  was  fixed  by  statute  of  Edward  YI.  at  one  penny  per  mile,  1548. 
By  a  statute,  re-establishing  the  post-office,  none  but  the  postmaster  or  his  deputies 
could  furnish  post-horses  for  travellers,  1660,  and  hence  the  nam&  The  post-horse 
duty  was  imposed  in  1779.  Post  horse  duty  yielded,  in  1862,  in  England  128,60U 
and  in  ScoUand  16,933/. 

POTATOES.  The  potato  is  a  native  of  Chili  and  Pern.  Potatoes  were  originally  brought 
to  England  from  Santa  Fe,  in  America,  by  sir  John  Hawkins,  ▲.o.  1668.  Others 
ascribe  their  introduction  to  sir  Francis  Drake,  in  1686 ;  while  their  general  introduc- 
tion is  mentioned  by  many  writers  as  occurring  in  1692.  Their  first  culture  in 
Ireland  is  referred  to  sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who  had  large  estates  in  that  country,  about 
Youghal,  in  the  county  of  Cork.  It  is  said  that  potatoes  were  not  known  in  Flanders 
until  1620.  A  fine  kind  of  potato  was  first  brought  from  America  by  that  "patriot 
of  every  clime,"  the  late  Mr.  Howard,  who  cultivated  it  at  Cardington,  near  Bedford, 
1766 ;  and  its  culture  became  general  soon  after.  It  is  affirmed  that  the  Neapolitans 
once  refused  to  eat  potatoes  during  a  famine. — Bv/der.  The  failure  of  the  potato  crop 
in  Ireland,  where  that  esculent  is  the  principal  food  of  the  pessantry,  four  successive 
years  from  1846,  caused  famine  among  the  poor  of  that  country,  to  which  succeeded 
pestilent  fever  and  disease,  of  which  multitudes  died,  among  them  many  priests, 
physicians,  and  others  attending  on  the  sick  poor.  Parliament  voted  ten  millions 
eterling  in  this  awful  exigency,  and  several  countries  of  Europe, and  the  United  States 
of  America,  forwarded  provisions  and  other  succours,  yet  all  was  too  little  to  stay  the 
famine  or  reduce  the  pestilence.    See  Ireland,* 

POTOSI,  MINES  OF.  Thene  mines  were  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1646,  and 
produced  the  best  silver  in  America.  They  are  in  a  mountain  in  the  form  of  a 
sugar-loaf.  Silver  was  as  common  in  this  place  as  iron  is  in  Europe ;  but  the  mines 
are  now  much  exhausted. 

POULTRY  COMPTER.  This  was  one  of  the  most  noted  of  the  old  city  prisons,  and 
existed  very  early,  but  the  time  is  not  precisely  known.  The  compter  of  Wood-street 
belonged  to  the  sheriff  of  London,  and  was  made  a  prison-house  in  1656.  This  latter 
and  £ead-8treet  compter  were  rebuilt  in  1667.  The  Giltspur-street  prison  was  built 
to  supply  the  place  of  the  old  city  compters;  it  was  pulled  down  in  1866.  The 
Poultry  chapel  was  erected  on  the  site  of  the  Poultry  compter,  in  1819. — LeigK 

POULTRY.  An  exhibition  of  Poultry  was  held  in  London  in  January  1863,  when  nearly 
1000  cocks  were  exhibited. 

POUND.  From  the  Latin  Pondtu,  The  pound  sterling  was  in  Saxon  times,  about 
A.D.  671,  a  pound  troy  of  silver,  and  a  shilling  was  its  twentieth  part ;  consequently 
the  latter  was  three  times  as  large  as  it  u  at  present. — Peacham.  The  value  of  the 
Roman  pondo  is  not  precisely  known,  though  some  suppose  it  was  equivalent  to  an 
Attic  mina  or  3iL  4«.  7d.  Our  avoirdupois  weight  {avoir  du  poidt)  came  from  the 
French,  and  contains  sixteen  oimces ;  it  iiin  proportion  to  our  troy  weight  as  seventeen 
to  fourteen. — Chamben. 

POWDERINO  THB  HAIR.  This  custom  took  its  rise  from  some  of  the  ballad-singers  at 
the  fair  of  St.  Germain  whitening  their  heads  to  make  themselves  ridiculous.  Unlike 
other  habits,  it  was  adopted  from  the  low  by  the  high,  and  became  very  general 
about  A  D.  1614.  In  England  the  powdered  hair-tax  took  place  in  May  1796,  at  which 
time  the  preposterous  practice  of  using  powder  was  at  its  height ;  this  tax  was  one 
guinea  for  each  person.  The  hair-powder  tax  is  still  continued,  though  it  yields  in 
England  under  40002.  per  year.    It  was  abolished  in  Ireland. 

POYNINO'S  LAW.  A  law  so  called  after  sir  Edward  Poyning.  one  of  the  lord  deputies 
of  Ireland,  at  the  time  of  its  passing  in  that  country,  a.d.  1494.  By  this  law  all  acts 
were  to  originate  in  the  English  council.  This  act  was  repealed,  together  with  the 
English  Declaratory  act  of  the  6th  of  Geo.  1.  and  some  other  equally  obnoxious  Irish 
statutes,  April  17%2,— Sadly  ;  Staiutea, 

*  From  statistical  returns,  it  appears  that  the  potato  crop  is  so  very  uncertain  that  it  ought  not  to 
be  relied  on  aa  a  staple  artiole  of  food. 


PBiB  520  PRA 

PR^MONSTRATENSIAN  ORDER.  The  first  hoose  of  this  order  in  England 
founded  by  Peter  de  Qouala  or  Qousel,  at  Kewsham,  in  lincolnahire,  A.D.  114S. — 
Ta-wMT  :  according  to  otherSi  in  1146.  The  order  spread  widely  through  EIngland  aoon 
after.    The  house  at  Newsham  was  dedicated  to  St  Mary  and  St.  MartiaL — LewU. 

FRiEMUNIRE,  LAW  of.  This  law  (which  obtained  its  name  from  the  first  two  words 
**  Prcemoneri,'*  or  "  Proemvniri  facias,**  *'  cause  to  be  forewarned,"  and  which  is  ^pUed 
to  any  offence  in  the  way  of  contempt  of  the  sovereign  or  his  government)  deriTod  its 
origin  from  the  exorbitant  power  which  was  exercised  in  England  by  the  pop«.  The 
offence  ranked  as  one  against  the  king,  because  it  consisted  of  introducing  a  foreign 
power  into  the  land,  and  thereby  creating  an  imperi%an  in  imperio.  The  first  statato 
of  Premunire  was  enacted  35  Edward  I.  1306,— Coke.  The  Church  of  Rome  in  tiie 
assertion  of  her  supremacy,  bestowed  most  of  the  bishoprics,  abbeys,  &o.  before  they 
were  void,  upon  favourites,  on  pretence  of  providing  the  church  with  better  qualified 
successors  before  the  vacancies  occurred.  To  put  a  stop  to  these  encroacbm«its» 
Edward  ILL  enacted  three  statutes  in  25,  27,  and  28  of  hi«  reign.  The  statute  com- 
monly referred  to  as  the  statute  of  Prssmunire  is  the  16th  of  Richard  II.  1392.  But 
several  other  enactments,  of  similar  object^  followed  in  the  subsequent  reigns. 

PR^TORS.  Magistrates  of  Rome.  The  offioe  was  instituted  866  B.O.  when  one  pr«tor 
only  was  appointed;  but  a  second  was  appointed  in  252  b.o.  One  administered 
justice  to  the  citizens,  and  the  other  appointed  judges  in  all  causes  which  related  to 
foreigners.  In  the  year  of  Rome  520,  two  more  pretors  were  created  to  assist  tlie 
consul  in  the  government  of  the  provinces  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  which  had  been 
lately  conquered,  and  two  more  when  Spain  was  reduced  into  the  form  of  a  Roman 
province,  A.  U.  C.  551.  Sylla,  the  dictator,  added  two  more,  and  Julius  CSwsar 
increased  the  number  to  10,  and  afterwards  to  16,  and  the  second  triumvirate  to  64. 
After  this  their  number  fluctuated,  being  sometimes  18,  16,  or  12,  till,  in  the  decline 
of  the  empire,  their  dignity  decreased,  and  their  numbers  were  reduced  to  threei. 

PRAQA,  BATTLES  of.  In  this  most  bloody  battle  30,000  Poles  were  butchered  by  the 
renowned  but  merciless  Russian  general  Suwarrow,  fought  Oct  10,  1794. — BatUe  of 
Praga,  in  which  the  Poles,  commanded  by  Skrznecki  defeated  the  Russian  army  com' 
manded  by  General  Qiesmar,  who  lost  4000  killed  and  wounded,  6000  prisoners  and 
12  pieces  of  cannon ;  fought  between  Qrothoff  and  Wawer,  March  31,  1831. 

PRAGMATIC  SANCTION.  An  ordinance  rekting  to  tEe  church  and  sometimes  state 
affdrs;  and  at  one  time  particularly  the  ordinances  of  the  kings  of  France,  whersin 
the  rights  of  the  Qallican  Church  were  asserted  against  the  usurpation  of  the  pope  in 
the  cnoice  of  bishops.  Also  the  emperor's  letter,  by  advice  of  his  oonncil,  in 
answer  to  high  personages  in  particular  contingencies. — The  Pragmatic  Sanction  for 
settling  the  empire  of  Germany  in  the  house  of  Austria,  aj>.  1439.  Again,  the 
emperor  Charles  VI.  published  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  whereby,  in  de&ult  of  male 
issue,  his  daughters  should  succeed  in  preference  to  the  sons  of  his  brother  Joiieph  I. 
April  17,  1713 ;  and  he  settled  his  dominions  on  his  daughter  Maria  Theresa*  in  con- 
formity thereto,  1722.  She  succeeded  in  Oct.  1740;  but  it  gave  rise  to  a  war,  in 
which  most  of  the  powers  of  Europe  were  engaged. 

PRAGUE,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  Imperialists  and  BohemiansL  The  latter,  who 
bad  chosen  Frederick  V.  of  the  Palatinate  (son-in-law  of  our  James  I.)  for  their  king, 
were  totally  defeated.  .  The  unfortunate  king  was  forced  to  flee  with  his  queen  and 
children  into  Holland,  leaving  all  his  baggage  and  money  behind  him.  He  was  after- 
wards deprived  of  his  hereditary  dominions,  and  the  Protestant  interest  was  rained 
in  Bohemia;  all  owing  to  the  pusillanimity  and  inactivity  of  James,  Nov.  7,  1620L 
Prague  was  taken  by  the  Saxons  in  1631 ;  and  by  the  Swedes  in  1648.  *  It  was  taken 
by  storm  by  the'French  in  1741 ;  but  they  were  obliged  to  leave  it  in  1742.  In 
1744  it  was  taken  by  the  king  of  Prussia;  but  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  it  in  the 
same  year.  The  great  and  memorable  battle  of  Prague  was  fought  May  6, 1757.  In 
this  engagement  the  Austrians  were  defeated  by  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  and  their 
whole  camp  taken;  their  illustrious  commander,  general  Browne,  was  mortally 
wounded ;  and  the  brave  Prussian,  marshal  Schwerin,  was  killed.  After  this  victory, 
Prague  was  besieged  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  but  he  was  soon  obliged  to  raise  the  siege. 

PRAISE-GODBAREBONES'  PARLIAMENT.  A  celebrated  parliament,  also  denomi- 
nated the  Barebones'  Pariiament  (which  tee),  and  so  called  from  one  of  the  membera 
(who  had  thus  fantastically  styled  himself  according  to  the  fashion  of  the  times), 
met  July  4, 1653.    This  parliament  consisted  of  about  120  memben,  summoned  by 


PRA  621  PRE 

the  protector  Cromwell ;  they  were  to  sit  for  fifteen  monthsy  and  then  they  were  to 
choose  a  fresh  parliament  themselyes. 

PRASLIN  MURDER,  nr  Fravci.  Among  the  most  extraordinary  and  dreadful  of 
modem  times,  was  perpetimted  on  the  duchesse  de  Choiseul-Praslin,  by  her  husband, 
the  due  de  Praslin,  at  Paris,  Aug.  17,  1847.  She  was  the  only  daughter  of  the  cele- 
brated marshal  Sebastiani,  the  mother  of  nine  children,  and  in  her  forty -first  year. 
This  shocking  deed,  was  done  by  the  duke  at  his  own  residence ;  and  circumstances 
were  so  managed  by  him  as  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  being  the  act  of  another. 
During  the  arrangements  for  the  trial  the  duke  took  poison. 

PRAYER-BOOK.    See  Common  Prayer. 

PRAYERS  FOR  THE  DEAD,  &c.  These  prayers  were  first  introduced  into  the 
Christian  Church  about  ▲.d.  190. — Euteabita,  Prayers  addressed  to  the  Virgin  Mary 
and  to  the  saints  were  introduced  by  pope  Oregory,  ▲.d.  598.  The  mode  of  praying 
with  the  face  to  the  east  was  instituted  by  pope  Boniface  II.  ▲.&.  582.  This  last  has 
lately  been  followed  in  some  Protestant  places  of  worship  in  England. 

PRECEDENCE.  Precedence  was  established  in  very  early  ages ;  and  in  most  of  the 
countries  of  the  East  and  of  Europe,  and  was  amongst  the  laws  of  Justinian.  In 
England  the  order  of  precedency  was  regulated  chiefly  by  two  statutes,  namely,  one 
passed  81  Henry  VIII.  1539,  and  the  other,  1  George  L  1714. 

PREDESTINATION.  The  belief  that  God  hath  from  all  eternity  unchangeably 
appointed  whatever  comes  to  pass.  This  doctrine  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the  most 
perplexing  controversies  that  have  occurred  among  mankind.  It  was  taught  by  the 
ancient  stoics  and  early  Christians ;  and  Mahomet  introduced  the  doctrine  of  an 
absolute  predestination  into  his  Koran  in  the  strongest  light.  The  controversy 
respecting  it  in  the  Christian  Church  arose  in  the  fifth  century,  when  it  was  main- 
tained by  St.  Augustin  ;  and  Lucidus,  a  priest  of  Gaul,  taught  it,  A.D.  470. 

PREROGATIVE  COURT.  The  court  wherein  all  wills  are  proved,  and  all  administra- 
tions taken,  which  belong  to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  by  his  prerogative ;  and, 
if  any  dispute  arise  between  parties  concerning  such  will  or  administration,  the 
cause  is  properly  decided  in  this  court.  The  judge  is  appointed  by  his  grace  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury.  There  are  appeals  from  this  court  to  the  judicial  com- 
mittee of  the  privy  council,  by  statutes  11  Geo.  IV.  and  1  Will.  IV.  1830. 

PRESBURG,  PEACE  of.  Between  France  and  Austria,  by  which  the  ancient  states  of 
Venice  were  ceded  to  Italy;  the  principality  of  Eichstett,  part  of  the  bishopric  of 
Passaa,  the  city  of  Augsburg,  the  Tyrol,  all  the  possessions  of  Austria  in  Suabia,  in 
Brisgau,  and  Ortenau,  were  transferred  to  the  elector  of  Bavaria  and  the  duke  of 
Wurtemberg,  who,  as  well  as  the  duke  of  Baden,  were  then  created  kings  by  Napo- 
leon ;  the  independenoe  of  the  Helvetic  republic  was  also  stipulated,  Dec.  26, 1805. 

PRESBYTERIANS.  A  numerous  class  of  Christians,  so  called  from  their  maintaining 
that  the  government  of  the  church  appointed  in  the  New  Testament  was  by 
Presbyteries,  or  associations  of  ministers  and  ruling  elders,  equal  in  power,  office, 
and  in  order.  The  first  Presbyterian  meeting-house  in  England  was  established 
at  Wandsworth,  Surrey,  Nov.  20,  1572.  Presbyterianism  is  the  established  form 
of  church  government  in  Scotland.  Its  distinguishing  tenets  seem  to  have  been 
first  embodied  in  the  formulary  of  faith  attributed  to  John  Knox,  and  compiled  by 
that  reformer  in  1560.  It  was  approved  by  the  parliament,  and  ratified,  1567,  and 
fioally  settled  by  an  act  of  the  Scottish  senate,  1696,  afterwards  secured  by  the  treaty 
of  union  with  England  in  1707. 

PRESCOTT,  BATTLE  of,  Upper  Canada.  The  Canadian  rebels  were  attacked  by 
the  British  under  major  Young,  and  (on  the  following  day)  by  lieut-colonel  Dundas, 
who,  after  an  obstinate  resistance,  succeeded  in  dispersing  the  insurgents,  several  of 
whom  were  killed,  and  many  taken  prisoners;  the  troops,  however,  also  suffered 
considerably.  After  the  attack  of  lieut>colonel  Dundas,  the  remainder  of  the  rebels 
surrendered.  In  these  engagements  they  were  aided  by  Americans  of  the  United 
States,  who  invaded  the  Canadian  territory  in  great  numbers,  Nov.  17,  1838. 

PRESIDENT  OF  thb  COUNCIL,  LORD.  The  President  of  the  Council  (the  fourth 
great  officer  of  state)  is  appointed  to  this  important  office  by  letters-patent,  under 
the  great  seal,  durante  heneplaeito,  and,  by  his  office,  is  to  attend  the  king's  roysl 
person,  and  to  manage  the  debates  in  council ;  to  propose  matters  from  the  king  at 
the  oouncil-table ;  and  to  report  to  his  majesty  the  resolutions  taken  thereupon. 


PRE  522  FBK 

From  the  12  Chas.  II.  1660,  when  ADthony,  lord  Ashlej^  was  lord  praident,  thU 
office  has  existed  unioterruptedly  to  the  preaent  time. 

PRESIDENT  OF  the  UNITED  STATES  ow  AMERICA.  This  rank  (bnog  that  of 
first  magistrate)  was  first  conferred  on  George  Washington,  father  of  Americia 
independence.  He  was  unanimously  elected  president  of  the  federal  eonTentioD, 
which  sat  at  Philadelphia  from  May  25  to  Sept  17,  1787;  and  was  uDanimouBlf 
elected  president  of  the  United  States,  April  6,  1789.  This  illustrious  patriot^ 
eminent  statesman,  and  general,  was  again  elected  president  in  1793,  and  died  Dee; 
14,  1799.    For  the  presidents  of  the  United  States,  see  United  StaUi, 

PRESS,  THE  PRINTING.  This  great  engine  was  of  rude  constmetion  fifom  the  period 
of  the  discovery  of  the  art  of  printing  up  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  oentoiy, 
when  many  improTements  were  made.  William  Caxton,  a  mercer  of  London^  hid 
a  press  set  up  at  Westminster,  1471. — Stou^a  Chr<m,  The  earl  of  Stanhope's  iron 
presses  were  in  general  use  in  1806.  The  printing-machine  was  invented  by  Koenig 
in  1811,  and  Applegath's  followed.  The  Columbian  press  of  Clymer  was  produced 
in  1814;  and  the  Albion  press,  an  improvement  on  this  last,  came  into  use  a  fev 
years  after.  Printing  by  means  of  steam  machinery  was  first  executed  in  Englud  it 
The  Timat  office,  London,  on  Monday,  Nov.  28,  1814.  Cowper^s  and  Applegith'i 
rollers  for  distributing  the  ink  upon  the  types  were  brought  into  use  in  1817.  See 
article  Printing, 

PRESS,  LIBERTY  of  the.  The  imprimatur  "let  it  be  printed/*  was  much  used  on 
the  title-pages  of  books  printed  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries.  The  liberty  of  the 
press  was  restrained,  and  the  number  of  master-printers  in  London  and  Weitmiitfter 
limited,  by  the  Star  Chamber,  14  Chas.  I.  1638.  And  again  by  act  of  parliiment 
6  Will.  in.  1698.  The  celebrated  toast,  "  The  Uberty  of  the  press— it  is  like  the  lir 
we  breathe — if  we  have  not  we  die,"  was  first  given  at  the  Crown  and  Anchor 
tavern,  at  a  Whig  dinner  in  1795.  Presses  were  llceneed,  and  the  priDtei'i  name 
required  to  be  placed  on  both  the  first  and  last  pages  of  a  book,  July  1799. 

PRESS  NEWSPAPER,  in  Ireland.  A  celebrated  journal,  published  in  Dublin,  of  con- 
siderable talent,  but  of  a  most  revolutionary  tendency.  It  was  oommeneed  in 
Oct.  1797,  but  the  celebrated  Arthur  0*Connor,  and  Mr.  Emmett,  the  barriitcr 
(whose  brother  was  executed  in  1803) ;  and  several  other  conspicuous  men  were 
contributors  to  It :  their  writings  served  to  inflame  the  public  mind  in  Ireland,  on  the 
eve  of  the  memorable  rebellion,  which  broke  out  in  1798.  The  paper  wassupprened 
by  a  military  force,  March  6,  1798,  and  Mr.  O'Connor  was  arrested  at  Margate  while 
attempting  his  escape  to  France. — The  existing  weekly  paper  of  that  name  wis  tint 
published  in  May  1853« 

PRESSING  TO  DEATH.  A  punishment  in  England,  referred  to  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 
or  of  Edward  I.  and  on  the  statute  book  until  the  latter  part  of  the  last  oentuiy. 
A  remarkable  instance  of  this  death,  in  England,  is  the  following : — Hugh  Calterly 
of  Calverly  in  Yorkshire,  esq.  having  murdered  two  of  his  children,  and  stabbed  his 
wife  in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  being  arraigned  for  his  crime  at  York  assises,  stood  mate, 
and  was  thereupon  pressed  to  death  in  the  castle,  a  large  iron  weight  being  placed 
upon  his  breast,  3  James  1. 1605. — Stow*M  Chron, 

PRESSING  FOR  THB  SEA  SERVICE.  See  Impresment,  Supported  by  custom,  u&r 
back  as  records  can  be  found.  It  is  said  that  the  first  commission  wta  iieaed 
29  Edw.  III.  1856.  Impressment  was  a  crhninal  punishment  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.  Mr.  Read,  an  alderman  of  London,  was  pressed  and  sent  to  eerre  on 
board  the  fleet  in  foreign  parts,  for  refusing  to  pay  a  tax  levied  on  him  by  the  king 
in  1554.— ^oio'e  Chnm, 

PRESTON,  BATTLE  ov.  Between  the  Scotch  insurgents,  under  Forater,  and  the 
British,  under  general  Wills.  The  first  attack  was  successful  on  the  nde  of  the 
Scots ;  but  general  Wills  having  been  reinforced  by  general  Carpenter,  the  roytl 
army  invested  Preston  on  all  sides,  and  the  Scots  at  length  laid  down  their  armfi 
and  their  nobles  and  leaders  were  secured ;  some  of  them  were  shot  as  deeerten, 
and  others  were  sent  to  London,  pinionod  and  bound  together,  to  intimidate  their 
party;  fought  Nov.  12,  }715.^Chld9mUh. 

PRESTON-PANS,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  Young  Pretender,  prince  Charles  Stuart, 
heading  his  Scotch  adherents,  and  the  royal  army  under  sir  John  Cope.  l%e  latter 
was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  500  men,  and  was  forced  to  flee  at  the  very  first  oniei 
Sir  John  Cope  precipitately  galloped  from  the  field  of  battle  to  Berwick-upon-Tweed, 


PRE  523  PRI 

wh«re  he  wms  the  first  to  announoe  his  own  discomfiture.  His  disgrace  is  perpetuated 
IB  a  faTourite  Scottish  ballad,  called,  from  the  doughty  hero,  "Johnnie  Cope." 
Fought  Sept.  21, 1745. 

PRESTON  STRIKE.  In  1853,  a  great  number  of  strikes  took  place  among  the  work- 
men in  the  north  of  England.  Those  at  Preston  struck  for  an  increase  of  10  per 
cent,  on  their  wages.  On  Oct.  15,  the  masters,  in  consequence,  dosed  forty-nine  mUls, 
and  20,000  persons  were  thrown  out  of  employment,  who  were  mostly  maintained 
for  a  long  time  by  subscriptions  from  their  fellows.  In  the  week  ending  Dec.  17, 
1853,  14,972  were  relieved  at  the  cost  of  28202.  8f.  The  committee  of  workmen 
addressed  Lord  Palmerston,  Not.  15,  1858,  who  gave  them  his  advice  Dec.  24  follow- 
ing. After  many  attempts  at  reconciliation,  the  strike  closed  for  want  of  funds. 
May  1,1854. 

PRETENDER  The  person  known  in  our  history  by  the  title  of  the  Pretender,  or 
Chevalier  de  St.  G^rge,  was  the  son  of  James  II.  bom  in  1688,  and  acknowledged 
by  Louis  XIV.  as  James  III.  of  Blngland,  in  1701.  He  was  proclaimed,  and  his 
standard  set  up,  at  Braemar  and  Castletown,  in  Scotland,  Sept.  6,  1715;  and  he 
landed  at  Peterhead,  in  Aberdeenshire,  from  France,  to  encourage  the  rebellion  that 
the  earl  of  Kar  and  his  other  adherents  had  promoted,  Deo.  26,  same  year.  This 
rebellion  having  been  soon  suppressed,  the  Pretender  escaped  to  Montrose  (from 
whence  he  proceeded  to  Qravelines),  Feb.  4, 1716 ;  and  died  at  Rome,  Dec.  30,  1765. 

PRETENDER,  thi  TOUNa.  The  son  of  the  preceding,  called  prince  Charles,  bom  in 
1720.  He  landed  in  Scotland,  and  proclaimed  his  father  king.  June  1745.  He 
gained  the  battle  of  Preston-pans,  Sept.  21, 1745,  and  of  Falkirk,  Jan.  18, 1746 ;  but 
was  defeated  at  Culloden,  April  16,  same  year,  and  sought  safety  by  flight.  He  con- 
tinued wandering  among  the  frightful  wUds  of  Scotland  for  nearly  six  months,  and 
as  30,0001.  were  offered  for  taking  him,  he  was  constantly  pursued  by  the  British 
troops,  often  hemmed  round  by  his  enemies,  but  still  rescued  by  some  lucky  acci- 
dent, and  he  at  length  escaped  from  the  isle  of  Uist  to  Morlaix.    He  died  March  3, 

1788.  His  natural  daughter  assumed  the  title  of  duchess  of  Albany  ;  she  died  in 

1789.  His  brother,  the  cardinal  York,  calling  himself  Henry  IX.  of  England,  bom 
March  1725,  died  at  Rome  in  August,  1807.    See  Scotland, 

PRIDE'S  PURGE.  In  the  civil  war  against  Charles  I.  colonel  Pride,  at  the  head  of  two 
regiments,  surrounded  the  house  of  parliament^  and  seizing  in  the  passage  forty-one 
members  of  the  Presbyterian  party,  sent  them  to  a  low  room,  then  called  hell.  Above 
160  other  members  were  excluded,  and  none  admitted  but  the  most  furious  of  the 
independents^  This  atrocious  invasion  of  parliamentary  rights  was  called  PrM» 
Purge,  and  the  privileged  members  were  named  the  Rump,  to  whom  nothing  remained 
to  complete  their  wickedness  but  to  murder  the  king,  24  Charles  L  1648. — Cfoldttmith, 

PRIESTS.  Anciently  elders,  but  the  name  is  now  given  to  the  clergy  only.  In  the  Old 
Testament  the  age  of  priests  is  fixed  at  thirtv  years.  Among  the  Jews,  the  dignity 
of  high  or  chief  priest  was  annexed  to  Aaron's  family,  1491  B.o.  After  the  captivity 
of  Babylon,  the  civil  government  and  the  crown  were  superadded  to  the  high  priest- 
hood ;  it  was  the  peculiar  privilege  of  the  high  priest,  that  he  could  be  prosecuted  in 
no  court  but  that  of  the  great  Sanhedrim.  The  heathens  had  their  arch-flamen  or 
high-priest,  and  so  have  the  Christians,  excepting  among  some  particular  sects. 

PRIMER.  A  book  so  named  from  the  Romish  book  of  devotions,  and  formerly  set  forth 
or  published  by  authority,  as  the  first  book  children  should  publicly  learn  or  read  in 
Bchools,  containing  prayers  and  portions  of  the  scripture.  Copies  of  primers  are  pre- 
served of  so  early  a  date  as  1589. — Aehe.  From  this  early  book  came  the  name  of  the 
elementary  primer  made  use  of  in  schools. — Idem,  The  primer  is  so  named  from  the 
Romish  book  of  devotions. — Locke, 

PRIMOOENITURE,  RIGHT  of.  A  usage  brought  down  from  the  earliest  times. 
The  first-bom  in  the  patriarchal  ages  bad  a  superiority  over  his  brethren,  and  in  the 
absence  of  his  father  was  priest  to  the  family.  In  England,  by  the  ancient  custom 
of  gavelkind,  primogeniture  was  of  no  account.  It  came  in  with  the  feudal  law, 
3  WiU.  L  1068. 

PRINTED  GOODS.  The  art  of  calico-printing  is  of  considerable  antiquity,  and  there 
exist  specimens  of  Egyptian  cotton  dyed  by  figured  blocks  many  hundred  years  old. 
A  similar  process  has  been  resorted  to  even  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  where  they  use 


PRI 


624 


PRI 


a  large  leaf  as  a  eubBtitute  for  the  block.    See  article  Chiton.    The  copyxi^t  of 
designa  was  secured  hj  two  acts,  2  Vict.  c.  18, 17,  passed  June,  1889. 

PRINTING.  The  greatest  of  all  the  arts.  The  honour  of  its  invention  has  been  appro- 
priated to  Mentz,  Strasburg,  Haarlem,  Venice,  Rome,  Florence,  Basle,  and  Augsburg; 
but  the  names  of  the  three  first  only  are  entitled  to  attention.  Adrian  Junius  awards 
the  honour  of  the  invention  to  Laurenses  John  Koster  of  Haerlem,  "  who  printed* 
with  blocks,  a  book  of  images  and  letters,  Speculum  BumantB  Salvationit,  and  com- 
pounded an  ink  more  viscous  and  tenacious  than  common  ink,  which  blotted,  aboat 
A.D.  1438."  The  leaves  of  this  book  being  printed  on  one  side  only,  were  afterwardi 
pasted  together.  John  Faust  established  a  printing  office  at  Menta^  and  printed  the 
l^wUatut  Petri  Hiapani,  in  1442.  John  Guttenberg  invented  cut  metal  tjpm,  and 
used  them  in  printing  the  earliest  edition  of  the  Bible,  which  was  commeDced  in  1444, 
and  finished  in  1460.  Peter  Schsefier  cast  the  first  metal  types  in  matrices,  and  was 
therefore  the  inventor  of  complete  pbiittino,  1452. — Adrian  JutUut;  J>u  Frttmnf. 


1459 


1460 
1460 


Bock  of  PjoIim,  printed    .  a.d.  1457 

The  Dwrandi  RaHonate,  first  work  printed 
with  east  metal  types 

[Printing  was  introduced  into  Oxford, 
about  this  time.— CoUier.  But  this 
statement  is  discredited  by  Dibdin.] 

A  Livy  printed. — Du  Franoy  .    . 

The  first  Bible  completed.— /c2cm   . 

[Mentz  taken  and  plundered,  and  the  art 
of  printing,  in  the  general  ruin,  is 
spread  to  other  towns.  J   .  .    . 

The  types  were  uidformly  Gothic,  or  old 
German  (whence  our  old  Bngliah  or 
Block  LetUr),  until        .... 

Greek  characters  (quotations  only)  first 
used,  same  year 

deero  tit  Qfflciu  printed  (^air) 

fioman  chaxacters,  first  at  Rome       .    . 

A  Chronicle,  said  to  have  been  found  in 
the  archbishop  of  Canterbury's  palace 
(the  fact  disputedX  bearing  the  date 
Ozfordf  anno 

WUliam  Caxton,  a  mercer  of  London,  set 
up  the  first  press  at  Westminster  *    . 

He  printed  WiUjfam,  Caxton'i  Recuyd  of 
the  HjfitoryeM  of  3Vt^,  5y  Raoul  le  Feure. 
—FhUUpt 

His  first  pieces  wero,  A  TroatUe  en  the 
Game  of  Che$$  and  TvUjfe  Offica  (see 
Mow). — Bibdin 

JB»op*e  FabteSt  printed  by  Gaxton,  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  first  book  with  its 
leaves  numbered 

Aldus  cast  the  Greek  alphabet,  and  a 
Greek  book  printed  (ap.  Jldi)     . 

He  introduces  the  Itnhc     .       .        .    . 

The  Pentaieueh,  in  Hebrew     . 


1465 

1465 
1466 
1467 


1468 
14n 


1471 


1474 


Homer,  in  folio,  beautifully  done  at  Flo- 
rence, eclipsing  all  former  printing,  by 
Bemetriue 


1476 

•    « 

1482 


1488 


Printing  used  in  Scotland  .  a.d.  1509 

The  first  edition  of  the  vAofe  Bible  was, 
strictly  speaking,  the  CompJutwisfam 
Polyglot  of  caMinal  Ximenea  (see 
Polyglot) 1517 

The  JUiurgp,  the  first  book  printed  in 
Ireland,  by  Humphrsy  Powell    .        .  15fi0 

Printing  in  Irish  characters  introdTooed 
by  Nicholas  Walsh,  cliancellor  of  8U 
Patrick's  1571 

The  first  newspaper  printed  in  England 
(see  Jfewipapera)  -       .        .        .  1588 

First  patent  granted  for  printing      .    .  1591 

First  printing-press  improved  by  Wil- 
liam Blaeu,  at  Amstenlam  .        .  1001 

First  printing  in  America,  in  New  Sng- 
lana,  when  the  Freeman'e  Oath  and  an 
Almanac  were  printed  .    .  1630 

First  Bible  printed  in  Ireland  was  at 
Belfast— #only'«  Tour        ,  .1704 

First  types  cast  in  England  by  Caakm  — 
PhiUipe 1790 

Stereotype  printing  suggested  by  William 
Ged.  of  Edinburgh.— JVidkob       .        .  ITSS 

The  present  mode  of  stereotype  inveotad 
by  Mr.  Tilloch,  about  .    .  1779 

[Stereotype  printing  was  in  uae  in  Hol- 
land in  the  last  century.— /*Aac«fML] 

The  printing-machine  was   flrvt    sug- 
gested by  Nicholacm     ....  1790 
The  Stanhope  press  was  in  general  use 

in 1806 

Machine  printing  (see /Vyu)   .  .1811 

Steam  machinery  (see  Preu)  .    .  1814 

The  Columbian  press       ....  1814 

The  Albion  press 1816 

The  roller,  which  was  a  suggestion  of 

Nicholson,  introduced         .        .        .  1816 
Applogath's  roUers  (see  iVitt)  .    .  1817 


TITLES  OF  THE  EABUEST  BOOKS  OF  OAXTOIV  AIVD  WTNKTN  DE  WOUDB. 


The  Game  and  Playe  of  the  Cham.  TrandaUd 
mtt  of  the  Frtnehe  and  emprynted  by  «m 
William  Gaxton  Fynys$hid  fht  last  day  qf 
Marehe  the  ytr  qf  our  Lord  Ood  a  thoMMand 
foure  hondrtd  and  Ixxiiij. 

TULLY. 

l%e  Soke  ^f  TvXle  of  Olde  age  Bmprynted  by  me 
timple  pereone  William  Caxton  into  JSnglysehe 
<u  the  ptayeir  solace  and  revfrenee  of  wen 
growyng  in  to  old  age  the  xij  day  of  AuguM 
the  yen  qf  our  lord  M  oocx^.tex^'.— Hkrbkrt. 


TRS  POLTCBOHTCOK. 

The  Poiyeronyeon  conteyning  the 
BedM  itf  vMOny  Tymee  in  eyf^  BoIm.  At- 
priiOed  fty  William  Caxton  <(/t«r  Aaritv' •  «M- 
vhat  chaunged  the  rude  and  oUe  Mfngtymh^ 
that  it  to  mU  [to  witj  eertayn  Wm>t*  which 
in  thete  Bayet  beneiihtr  wyd ne underatmndtn. 
Ended  the  teeond  day  of  Juyli  at 
the  xxij  ytre  of  the  B/qpu  of  A>N9ff 
the  fwuiky  and  of  the  Ineamaeion  V 
Lord  a  Thoutand  four  Hondred  four  Score 
and  tveyne  [1482].— UiBDiH'a  Ttp.  Airr. 


*u  \^*1  ***5  T?"*  **'  ***•  Sanctuary  in  Westminster  Abbey,  stood  the  Eleemosynary  or  Almonry.  wh«fe 
the  first  printing-Dress  In  BngUnd  was  erected  in  1471,  by  WiUlam  Caxton,  encounged  by  the  kanwd 
Thomas  MlUmg,  then  abbot  He  produced  "  The  Game  and  Play  of  Chetee, "  the  tirat  book  erer  printed 
in  these  kingdoms.  There  is  a  slight  diflerence  about  the  place  in  which  it  was  printed,  but  aU  sgias 
that  it  was  within  the  prechicta  or  this  religious  house.— X^-i^ 


PRI 


525 


PBI 


PRIKTINQ,  eonlinued. 

THB  OHBOHICLCO. 

1%e  CronAeUM  of  SitgUmd  BmpnUd  6y  mt  Wyll- 
yani  Caxton  fAa66ey  qf  Wettmynttrt  by  Icndon 
Hu  9  day  o/Juyn  the  yen  qf  tkincamaeion  of 
our  lord  god  u,oooo.Lxxx. 

POLTCEOmOOlC. 

Po'ycrenycon.  Bndtd  ifu  tkyrUiUh  dayeofApryU 
the  tenth  yert  of  CA«  fyync  of  kinge  Harry  the 
gewmih  And  uf  the  Jneamaeyon  of  our  lord 
Moood^xxxT  Bnprynted  6y  Wyukjn  Tbe> 
wmdo  at  Weatmeatre, 

RILL  or  PSBTBonoir. 

Ikt  BMtof  Perftetioa  tmprytded  atth$in$Ume€ 
of  ikt  rtpermd  rdynoui  fader  Tho.  Prior  qf 
the  houtofSL  Atmt  Me  order  of  the  charterouae 
Aceomply$9^^d}  aiad  fynysah^d]  att  Weet- 
myneter  the  uiii  day  qf  Janeuer  the  ytrt  ofow 
Ivrd  Jhoueande  ococlxxxxtii.  And  tn  the 
xH  yert  efkyn^e  Henry  theviihynu  wynkyn 
do  worde. — ^Axeb^  Hkbbuit,  Dxaour. 

XVOLAICO. 

The  Deeeripeynn  of  JBuffUmde  WalyeScotiand  and 
IHond  epeaHng  of  the  NoUeaee  and  Worthy' 
neaee  qf  the  §ame  Fynyeehed  and  enprynted 
t»  FleU  etrele  t»  the  syne  of  the  Sonne  by  me 
Wynkyn  de  Worde  the  yert  of  our  lord  a 
M.eeeee  and  ij.  meneit  Mayiii  [monae  Mail}. — 
DiHDur's  Ttp.  axt. 


TBI  rBOTIVAL. 

The  Feetyvall  or  Sermons  on  eondaye  and  holi- 
daie  taken  out  of  the  golden  legend  enprynUd  ai 
Umdon  in  FleteetreUi  ai  y  eygne  of  jr  Sonne  by 
wynkyn  da  worde.  In  the  yere  of  our  lord 
X.OOCOC.VUI.    And  ended  the  xi  daye  qf  Maye 


TBE  lord's  PSATEB. 

[As  printed  by  Caxton  in  148S.] 

Father  our  that  art  in  heavene,  kallowei  be  thy 
name :  thy  kimgdome  come  to  ue  ;  ihy  wiU  be 
done  in  earth  aeie  in  heaven :  our  every  days 
bred  give  ne  to  dajf ;  and  forgive  us  ours 
trespasses,  as  we  forgive  <Aem  that  trespau 
against  ue  :  and  lead  us  not  in  to  temptaiion^ 
but  ddiveruefrom  all  evil  tin,  amen.—ljKWU^ 
Liri  or  Caztom. 


▲  PLAOABO. 

[As  printed  by  William  Caxton.] 

Jl[f  it  pleae  ony  nuin  spirUuel  or  temperd  to  bye 
onypies  of  two  or  three  comemoraeiOs  of  Salie- 
bun  use  *  enprynted  after  ike  forme  of  this 
presH  Uttre  wAidke  ben  wel  and  truly  correct, 
late  him  came  to  westmonester  in  to  the  almo- 
nettye  at  the  reed  pale  [red  pale]  ofwf  he 
shall  havs  them  good  there.— uibdix'b  Ttp. 
Abt. 


Among  the  early  printen,  the  only  points  used  were  the  commB,  parentheBia,  inter- 
rogation, and  full  stop.  To  these  succeeded  the  colon ;  afterwards  the  semicolon ; 
and  last  the  note  of  admiration.  The  sentences  were  full  of  abbreviations  and  con- 
tractions ;  and  there  were  no  running-titles,  numbered  leaves,  or  catch-words.  Our 
punctuation  appears  to  have  been  introduced  with  the  art  of  printing. 

PRIKTINQ  IN  COLOUBS  was  first  commenced  by  the  employment  of  several  blocks, 
to  imitate  the  initial  letters  in  MSS.  (for  instance,  the  Menta  Psalter  of  Faust,  ad. 
1457,  which  has  a  letter  in  three  colours).  Imitations  of  chiaroscuro  soon  followed 
(*'  Bepose  in  Egypt,"  engraving  on  wood,  after  Louis  Cranach,  1519,  in  Qermany : 
others,  by  Ugo  da  Carpi,  in  Italy,  1518).  J.  B.  Jackson  (17201754)  attempted,  with- 
out success,  to  imitate  water-colour  drawings,  and  to  print  paper-hangings.  About 
1783,  John  Skippe,  an  amateur,  printed  some  chiaroscuros.  In  1819-22,  Mr.  William 
Savage  produced  his  remarkable  work,  **  Hints  on  Colour  Printing,"  illustrated  by 
imitations  of  chiaroscuro,  and  of  coloured  drawings,  which  are  still  greatly  admired, 
giving  details  of  the  processes  employed.  In  1836,  Mr.  Qeorge  Baxter  produced  beau- 
tiful specimens  of  Picture-Printing,  and  took  out  a  patent,  which  expired  in  1 855. 
In  some  of  the  illustrations  to  the  ''Pictorial  Album"  (1886),  he  has  employed 
twenty  different  blocks.  Since  then  great  improvements  have  been  made  in  the  art. 
It  has  been  applied  to  Lithography  (hence,  Chromolithography).  In  1848,  Mr.  Q. 
C  Leighton  produced  imitations  of  water-colour-drawings,  by  means  of  modifica- 
tions and  improvements  of  Savage's  processes.  He  has  since  availed  himself  of 
electrotyping  to  multiply  copies  of  the  blocks,  and  of  steam-power  in  printing 
from  them. 

PRINTING  MACHINES.  WUliam  Nicholson,  editor  of  the  PhUotophieal  Jownal,  first 
projected  (1790-1),  but  M.  Konig  first  contrived  and  constructed  a  working  printing- 
machine,  which  began  with  producing  The  Times  of  Nov.  28, 1814,  a  memorable  day 
in  the  annals  of  typography.  In  1815,  Mr.  E.  Cowper  applied  his  inventive  mind  to 
the  subject,  since  then  improvements  have  been  rapid  and  important :  Konig's 
machine  printed  1800  an  hour ;  Cowper's  improvements  increased  this  number  to 
4200.  This  has  now  been  raised  to  50,000,  by  Mr.  Applegath's  machine,  which 
prints  T%e  Times, 

PRIORIES.  They  were  of  early  foundation,  and  are  mentioned  in  a.d.  722  in  England. 
They  were  at  first  dependent  on  the  great  abbeys.    See  Abbeys  and  Mon<uteries,    The 

*  Romish  Service  books,  used  at  SalLBbuiy  by  the  devout,  called  Pies  (Pica,  LatinX  as  is  supposed 
fttnn  the  different  colour  of  the  text  and  rubnc  Our  Pica  is  called  Cicero  by  foreign  printers.— 
Wheatley. 


PRI  526  FBI 

priories  of  iJiens  were  first  seized  upon  by  Edward  L  in  1285,  on  the  breaking  oat  of 
a  war  between  England  and  France.  They  were  seised  in  several  succeeding  reigns 
on  the  like  occasions,  but  were  usually  restored  on  the  conclusion  of  peace.  These 
priories  were  dissolved,  and  their  estates  vested  in  the  crown,  8  Hen.  Y.  1414. — 
Jiyma^a  FoedertL 

PRISONERS  OF  WAR.  Among  the  ancient  nations,  prisoners  of  war  when  spared  by 
the  sword  were  usually  enslaved,  and  this  custom  more  or  less  continued  until  about 
the  thirteenth  century,  when  civilised  nations,  instead  of  enslaving,  commonly 
exchanged  their  prisoners.  The  Spanish,  French,  and  American  prisoners  of  war  in 
England  were  12,000  in  number,  Sept.  SO,  1779.  The  number  exchanged  by  cartel 
with  France,  from  the  commencement  of  the  then  war,  was  44,000,  June  1781. — 
PhiUipi,  The  English  prisoners  in  France  estimated  at  6000,  and  the  French  in 
England,  27,000,  Sept  179S.— -Idem.  The  English  in  France  amounted  to  lO.SOO, 
and  the  French,  &c.  in  England  to  47,600,  in  1811. — Idem,  This  was  the  greatest 
number,  owing  to  the  occasional  exchanges  made,  up  to  the  period  of  the  last  war. 

PRISONS  or  LONDON.  The  period  of  the  first  erection  of  the  celebrated  King^s 
Bench  (now  Queen's  Bench)  prison,  Southwark,  is  unknown ;  but  a  prison  faaa 
existed  on  or  near  this  spot  for  some  centuries.  In  the  reign  of  Elisabeth  many 
persons  died  in  it  of  what  was  called  the  "  sickness  of  the  houseL*'— Stow.  The  Clink, 
on  the  Bankside,  also  existed  at  a  very  early  period.  The  Fleet  prison  (whiA  see)  was 
built  before  a.d.  1169.  Newgate,  so  called  from  its  beinf?  built  later  than  the  rest  of 
the  gates,  was  a  prison  in  John's  reign,  about  1216.  See  Newgate,  Clerkenwell  prison 
was  built  in  1615,  in  lieu  of  the  noted  prison  called  the  Cage,  which  was  taken  down 
in  1614.  Cold  Bath-fields  prison  was  built  on  the  suggestion  of  the  philanthropisi 
Howard.  The  atrocities  of  Qovemor  Aris  in  this  prison  were  exposed  in  parliament, 
July  12, 1800.  Horsemonger-lane  gaol  was  built  in  1781.  Giltspar<treet  compter 
(pulled  down  in  1856)  was  also  built  upon  the  plan  suggested  by  Howard,  about 
1780.  See  Poultry,  The  Savoy  prison,  for  the  confinement  of  deserters  from  the 
Guards,  formerly  situated  in  the  Strand,  was  pulled  down  in  1819,  to  make  room  for 
Waterloo-bridge.  The  White  Cross-street  prison  for  debtors  was  erected  in  181S. 
The  Borough  compter  was  a  mean  and  confined  place  till  visited  by  a  parliamentary 
committee  in  1817.  The  new  Bridewell  prison  was  erected  as  a  substitute  for  the 
City  Bridewell,  Blackfriars,  in  1829.  Tothill  Fields  Bridewell  was  rebuilt  in  1831. 
The  House  of  Detention,  Clerkenwell,  was  commenced  in  1847.  Holloway  prison  was 
opened,  Feb.  6, 1852. 

PRISON  DISCIPLINE  S0CIET7  owes  its  existence  to  the  philanthropic  labours  of 
sir  T.  F.  Buxton,  li.P.  It  was  instituted  in  1815,  and  held  its  first  public  meeting 
in  1820.  Its  objects  are,  the  amelioration  of  gaols,  by  the  diffusion  of  information 
respecting  their  management,  the  classification  and  employment  of  the  prisoners,  and 
the  prevention  of  crime,  by  inspiring  a  dread  of  punishment^  and  by  inducing  the 
criminal,  on  his  discharge,  to  abandon  his  vicious  pursuits. 

PRIVATEER.  A  vessel  belonging  to  one  or  more  private  individuals,  sailing  with  a 
licence  from  government  in  time  of  war,  to  seise  and  plunder  the  ships  of  the  enemy. 
The  practice  first  became  general  during  the  war  between  Spain  and  the  Netherlands 
about  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century ;  and  was  very  general  during  the  last 
French  war.  Privateering  was  abolished  by  the  great  sovereigns  of  Europe  by  treaty, 
March  80, 1856. 

PRIYILEQED  PLACES  in  LONDON.    See  At!flums. 

PRIYT  COUNCIL.  This  sssembly  is  of  great  antiquity.  A  council  was  instituted  by 
Alfred,  A.D.  895.  In  ancient  times  the  number  was  twelve ;  but  it  was  afterwards  so 
increased,  that  it  was  found  inconvenient  for  secrecy  and  despatch,  and  Charies  IL 
limited  it  to  thirty,  whereof  fifteen  were  the  princiiNd  officers  of  state  (oouncillois 
ex  officio),  and  ten  lords  and  five  commoners  of  the  king^s  choice,  ▲.D.  1679. — Salmon, 
The  number  of  the  council  was  about  twelve  when  it  discharged  the  functions  of 
state,  now  confined  to  the  members  of  the  cabinet ;  but  it  had  become  of  unwieldy 
amount  before  1679,  in  which  year  it  was  remodelled  upon  sir  William  Temple's  plan, 
and  reduced  to  thirty  members :  the  number  is  now  unlimited. — Beaiton,  To  attempt 
the  life  of  a  privy-councillor  in  the  execution  of  his  office  msde  capital,  oecsaianed  by 
Guiscard's  stabbing  Mr.  Harley  while  the  latter  was  examining  him  on  a  ohai^  i 
high  treason,  9  Anne,  1711. 

PRIYT  COUNCIL,  JUDICIAL  COMMITTEE  of  the.    In  Usu  of  the  0>ttri  of  Dele. 


PRI  627  PRO 

gates,  for  appesls  from  the  lord  cbanoeUon  of  Great  Britain  and  of  Ireland  in  cases 
of  lunacy — ^from  the  Ecclesiastical  and  Admiralty  courts  of  England,  and  the  Vice- 
Admiralty  courts  abroad — from  the  Warden  of  the  Stannaries,  the  courts  of  the  Isle 
of  Man,  and  other  islands,  and  the  Colonial  courts,  &o.,  fixed  by  statute  3  ft  4  Will  lY. 
c.  4Iy  1833.  Judges — ^the  president  of  the  privy  council,  the  lord  chancellor,  and 
Buch  members  of  the  privy  council  as  may  hold  and  have  held  that  office  of  lord 
keeper  or  first  commissioner  of  the  great  seal,  lord  chief  justice  of  the  Queen's  Bench, 
master  of  the  rolls,  vice-chancellor,  lord  chief  justice  of  the  Common  Pleas,  lord  chief 
baron,  judge  of  the  Admiralty,  chief  judge  of  the  court  of  Bankruptcy,  and  others 
appointed  by  the  queen,  being  privy  councillors. 

PRIVY  SEAL,  TBS  LORD.  The  fifth  great  officer  of  state,  denominated  from  his 
having  the  custody  of  the  privy  seal,  which  he  must  not  put  to  any  grant,  without 
good  warrant  under  the  king's  signet.  This  seal  is  used  by  the  king  to  all  charters, 
grants,  and  pardons,  signed  by  the  king,  before  they  come  to  the  great  seaL  Richard 
Fox,  bishop  of  Winchester,  held  this  office  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YIII.  previously  to 
1523,  when  Cuthbert  Tunstall,  bishop  of  London,  was  appointed.  The  privy  seal  has 
been  on  some  occasions  in  commission. — BtaUon, 

PRIZE  HONEY.  The  money  arising  from  captures  made  upon  the  enemy,  is  dirided 
into  eight  equal  parts,  and  thus  distributed  by  order  of  government :— Captain  to 
have  three-eighths,  unless  under  the  direction  of  a  flag  officer,  who  in  that  case  is  to 
have  one  of  the  said  three-eighths ;  captains  of  marines  and  land  forces,  sea  lieuten- 
ants,  &c  one  eighth ;  lieutenants  of  marines,  gunnen,  admirals'  secretaries,  &c.  one- 
eighth;  midshipmen,  captain's  clerk,  &c.  one-eighth;  ordinary  and  able  seamen, 
marines,  &c.  two-eighths.    Qiven  at  St.  James's,  April  17,  1793. 

PROFILES.  The  first  profile  taken,  as  recorded,  was  that  of  Antigonus,  who,  having 
but  one  eye,  his  likeness  was  so  taken,  330  b.o. — A^ie.  '*  Until  the  end  of  the  third 
oentuiy,  I  have  not  seen  a  Roman  emperor  with  a  full  face ;  they  were  always  painted 
or  appeared  in  profile,  which  gives  us  Uie  view  of  a  head  in  a  very  m^estic  manner." 
— Addiion, 

PROMISSORY  NOTES.  They  were  regulated  and  allowed  to  be  made  assignable  in 
1705.  First  taxed  by  a  stamp  in  1782 :  the  tax  was  increased  in  1804,  and  again  in 
1608,  and  subsequently.  Numerous  enactmenibs  varied  the  amount  of  the  stamp  upon 
promissory  notes  and  bills.    See  Bills  of  Exchange, 

PROPAGANDA  FIDE.  The  celebrated  congregation  or  college  in  the  Romish  Church, 
Ootiffregatio  de  Propaganda  Fide,  was  constituted  at  Rome  by  Pope  Gregory  XY.  in 
1 622.    Its  constitution  was  altered  by  several  of  the  succeeding  pontiffs. 

PROPERTY  TAX.  Parliament  granted  to  Henry  YIII.  a  subsidy  of  two^fifteenths  from 
the  commons  and  two-tenths  from  the  clergy  to  aid  the  king  in  a  war  with  France, 
1512. — Jtapin.  Cardinal  Wolsey  proposed  a  tenth  of  the  property  of  the  laity  and  a 
a  fourth  of  the  dei^gy  to  the  same  king,  1522.  The  London  merchants  strenuously 
opposed  this  tax :  they  were  required  to  declare  on  oath  the  real  value  of  their 
effects;  but  they  firmly  refused,  alleging  that  it  was  not  possible  for  them  to  g^ve  an 
exact  account  of  their  effects,  part  whereof  was  in  the  hands  of  correspondents  in 
foreign  countries.  At  length  the  king  was  pleased  to  accept  the  tax  according  to 
their  own  calculation. — ButUr,  This  tax  was  levied  at  various  periods,  and  was  of 
great  amount  in  the  last  years  of  the  late  war.  The  assessments  on  real  property, 
under  the  property  tax  of  1815,  were  51,898,4232.;  of  which,  Middlesex  was 
5,595,537/. ;  Lancashire  8,087,774^ ;  and  Yorkshire,  4,700,0002. ;  whUe  Wales,  of 
4,752,000  acres,  or  one  million  more  than  Yorkshire,  was  but  2,153,8012.  An  attempt 
to  renew  the  property-tax  was  lost  in  the  commons  by  a  majority  of  37,  March  18, 
1816.    For  the  later  and  present  imposts  upon  incomes,  see  Income  Tax, 

PROPHECY.  We  have  in  the  Old  Testament  the  writings  of  sixteen  prophets ;  ie.  of 
four  greater,  and  twelve  lesser.  The  former  are  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and 
Daniel;  the  latter  are  Hosea,  Joel,  Amos,  Obadiah,  Micah,  Jonah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk, 
Zephaniah,  Haggai,  2iechariah,  and  Malacbi.  Prophecy  was  given  in  the  earliest  times. 
See  Jewi,  The  prophetic  denunciations  upon  Babylon  were  executed  by  Cyrus,  538  B.a 
Ood's  judgment  upon  Jerusalem  {Isaiah  xxix.  1 — 8),  executed  by  Titus,  ▲.D.  70.  Many 
other  instances  of  prophecy  occur  in  Scripture. 

PROTECTIONISTa  A  name  given  to  that  section  of  the  Conservative  party  which 
opposed  the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws,  and  which  separated  from  sir  Robert  Peel  in  1 846. 
Tlis  name  was  derived  from  a  "  Society  for  the  ProteUUm  of  Agriculture,"  of  which 


PRO  528  PRO 

the  duke  of  Richmond  was  chairman,  and  which  had  been  eatabliahed  to  coouUinct 
the  efforts  of  the  Anti-Corn  Law  League.  Lord  George  Benfcinck  was  the  head  of  the 
party  from  1846  till  his  death,  Sept.  21,  1848.  The  Derby  administration  Dot 
proposing  the  restoration  of  the  corn-Uwe,  the  above  society  was  dissolved,  Febw7, 1853. 

PROTECTORATES  in  ENGLAND.  That  of  the  earl  of  Pembroke  began  Oct  19, 1216, 
and  ended  by  his  death  the  same  year.  Of  the  duke  of  Bedford  be^  Aug.  81, 1422, 
and  ended  by  his  death  in  September  1435.  Of  the  duke  of  GlouoMtcr  began 
April  9, 1483,  and  ended  by  his  assuming  the  royal  dignity,  June  22,  the  same  ywr. 
Of  Somerset  began  Jan.  28, 1547,  and  ended  by  his  resignation  in  1549.  Of  Oliver 
Cromwell  began  Deo.  12,  1653,  and  ended  by  his  death.  Sept  3,  1658.  Of  Richard 
Cromwell  began  Sept.  4,  1658,  ended  by  his  resignation,  April  22, 1659.  See  England, 

PROTESTANTS.  The  emperor  Charlea  Y.  called  a  diet  at  Spires  in  1529,  to  requert 
aid  from  the  German  princes  against  the  Turks,  and  to  devise  means  for  allaying  th« 
religious  disputes  which  then  raged  owing  to  Luther's  opposition  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion.  Against  a  decree  of  this  diet,  to  support  the  doctrines  of  the  Church 
of  Rome,  six  Lutheran  princes,  with  the  deputies  of  thirteen  imperial  towns,  formally 
and  solemnly  proietted,  April  17, 1530.  Hence  the  term  Protestants  was  given  to  the 
followers  of  Luther,  and  it  afterwards  included  Calvinists,  and  all  other  aecti 
separated  from  the  see  of  Rome.  The  six  protesting  princes  were :  John  and  Oeoi^ge, 
the  electors  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg;  Ernest  and  Francis,  the  two  dokea  of 
Lunenbex^ ;  the  landgrave  of  Hesse ;  and  the  prince  of  Anhalt ;  theae  were  jomed  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Strasburg,  Nuremberg,  Ulm,  Constance,  Heilbron,  and  seven  other 
cities.    See  Luiheranitm,  Calvininn,  &c 

PROTESTANT  ASSOCIATION.  An  association  which  embraced  a  multitude  of  pervMis 
of  almost  every  class  and  rank  in  the  kingdom,  formed  to  oppose  the  grant  of  con- 
cessions to  the  Roman  Catholics.  The  association  petitioned  parliament,  and  to 
enforce  their  object  a  vast  body  of  the  London  populace  collected,  headed  by  lord 
George  Gordon,  and  committed  the  most  dreadful  and  daring  excesses,  June  2  to  7, 
1780.    See  Gordon* i  '*  No  Popery  * '  Mob, 

PROTESTANT  COLONISATION  SOCIETY.  A  society  for  planting  eommunitiea  of 
the  poorer  Protestants  on  tracts  of  land,  particularly  in  the  northern  countiea  of 
Ireland,  was  established  in  Dublin  ih  December  1829.  The  Protestant  Coneerrative 
Society  was  also  established  in  that  city,  Dec  9, 1831.  Several  societies,  under  the 
general  designation  of  Protestant  (yet  some  of  a  political  nature),  have  been  formed; 
but  most  of  them  have  fallen  to  decay,  and  many  have  ceased  altogether. 

PROYINCUL  BANKING  COMPANY  of  IRELAND.  Established  by  act  of  pa^ 
liameot  in  1825.  On  Sept  1,  in  that  year,  the  Cork  branch  was  eatabliahed;  and 
the  Limerick  branch  on  Nov.  1 ;  the  Clonmel  branch  on  Nov.  15 ;  and  the  London- 
derry branch  on  Dec.  12,  following.  The  Sligo,  Wexford,  Belfast,  Waterford,  and 
Gal  way  branches,  were  formed  in  1826 ;  the  Athlone,  Armagh,  Coleraine,  and 
Kilkenny  branches  in  1827 ;  the  Ballina  and  Tralee  branches  in  1828 ;  the  Youghal 
and  Enmskillen  in  1831 ;  and  various  other  branches  in  the  following  yeazv.  Theae 
companies  are  now  general  throughout  the  kingdom. 

PROYISIONS — Remarkable  facts  oonobrnimq  them.  Wheat  for  food  for  100  men 
for  one  day  worth  only  one  shilling,  and  a  sheep  for  fourpence,  Henry  L  about  IISO. 
The  price  of  wine  raised  to  sixpence  per  quart  for  red,  and  eightpence  for  white,  thai 
the  sellers  might  be  enabled  to  live  by  it,  2  John,  1200. — BurUm*i  AnnaU.  When 
wheat  was  at  6t.  per  quarter,  the  fafthing  loaf  was  to  be  equal  in  weight  to  twenty* 
four  ounces  (made  of  the  wliole  grain),  and  to  sixteen  the  white.  When  wheat  was 
at  1«.  6d,  per  quarter,  the  £Eu*thing  white  loaf  was  to  weigh  sixty-four  ounces,  and  tbe 
whole  grain  (the  same  as  standsoxl  now)  ninety-six,  by  the  first  aasixe,  a.d.  1202.— 
Mat.  Paris.  A  remarkable  plenty  in  all  Europe,  1280. — Dufresnop,  Wheat  U  per 
quarter,  14  Edw.  L  12S6,— Stow.  The  price  of  provisions  fixed  by  the  common 
ooimcil  of  London  as  follows :  two  pullets,  three  half*pence ;  a  partridge,  or  two 
woodcocks,  three  half-pence ;  a  fat  lamb,  sixpence  from  Christmaa  to  Shrovetide,  the 
rest  of  the  year  fourpence,  29  Edw.  I.  1299.— Stow.  Price  of  provisions  fixed  by 
parliament :  at  the  rate  of  21.  Ss.  of  our  money  for  a  fat  ox,  if  fed  with  com,  S/.  12a; 
a  shorn  sheep,  5«. ;  two  dozen  of  egg^  3d. ;  other  articles  nearly  the  same  as  fiied  by 
the  common-council  above  recited,  7  Edw.  II.  1818. — Rot.  Pari.  Wine,  the  beet  aold 
for  20f.  per  tun,  10  Rich.  IL  1887.  Wheat  being  at  U.  Id.  the  bushel  in  1390,  thia 
was  deemed  bo  high  a  price  that  it  is  called  a  dewth  of  com  by  the  faistonaos  of  that 


PKU 


629 


PRU 


Beef  and  pork  Mttled  at  a  halfpeimy  tUe  puiuid,  aod  veal  tliree-&rthing8y  by  act 
of  parliament,  24  Hen.  VIII.  1533. — Andenon't  Origin  of  Commerce,  Milk  was  sold 
thne  pints,  ale>measnrs,  for  one  half-penny,  2  Elic  1560. — Stou^e  CkronieU, 

PRniyHOliMES,  CONSEILS  DE  (from  prudene  homo),  trade  tribunals  in  Fnmce,  com- 
posed of  mastera  and  workmen,  instituted  in  1806,  by  Napoleon,  to  arbitrate  on  trade 
disputes.  Similar  bodies  with  this  name  existed  as  far  back  as  1452  at  Marseilles,  and 
1464  at  Lyons. 

FBUSSIA.  This  country  was  anciently  possessed  by  the  Yenedi,  about  820  b.o.  The 
Yenedi  were  conquered  by  a  people  c^ed  the  Borussi,  who  inhabited  the  Riphtean 
mountains ;  and  from  these  the  country  was  called  Borussia.  Some  historians,  how- 
«Ter,  derive  the  name  from  Po,  signifying  near,  and  Ruttia — ^Po-Russia,  easily  modified 
into  Prussia.  The  Porussi  afterwards  intermixed  with  the  followers  of  the  Teutonic 
knights,  and  latterly  with  the  Poles.  This  people  and  country  were  little  known 
unm  about  ▲.D.  1007. 


1163 


1225 
1231 

1286 


••«« 


1416 


St.  Adalbert  arrives  in  Pnusia  to  preach 
ChriBtianit7«  but  is  murdered  by  the 
pagans    ......  a.d.  1010 

Boledaus  of  Poland  rerenges  his  death 
by  dreadful  ravaffea 

Berlin  boilt  by  a  colony  from  the  Nether- 
lands^ in  the  reion  of  Albert  the  Bear 

The  Teutonic  kaigbtA,retaming  from  the 
holy  wars,  unttortake  the  oonquest  of 
Prussia,  auxd  the  oanTersion  of  the 
people 

Thorn  built  by  them        .... 

K5nigsberK,]ately  built, made  the  capital 
of  Frussut 

The  Teutonic  knights  almost  depopulate 
FrussiA.  It  is  rspeopled  by  Qerman 
colonists  in  the  13th  oentuxy 

Frederick  IV.  of  Nuremberg  obtidns  by 
purchase  from  Sigismond,  emperor  of 
Germany,  the  mazgrayiate  of  Bran- 
denbuzg 

pThis  Frederick  is  the  head  of  the  present 
reigning  &mily.] 

Caaimir  IV.  of  Poland  assists  the  natiTes 
against  the  opTn-esslon  of  the  Teutonic 
knights 1446 

Albert  of  Brandenburg,  grand-master  of 
ib»  Teutonic  order,  renounoee  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion,  embraces 
Lutheranism,  and  ia  acknowledged 
duke  of  East  Prussia,  to  be  held  as  a 
fief  of  Poland 1625 

University  of  Kdnigsberg  founded  by 
duke  Albert  ...*..  1644 

The  dukedom  of  Prussia  is  Joined  to  the 
dect<nate  of  Brandenburg,  and  so  con- 
ttaues  to  this  day 1694 

John  Sigismond  created  elector  of  Bran- 
denbuiv  and  duke  of  Prussia       .        .  1608 

The  principalis  of  Halberstadt  and  the 
bishopric  of  Minden  transferred  to  the 
house  of  Brandenburg  .    .  1648 

Poland  obliged  to  acknowledge  Prussia 
as  an  independent  state,  under  Frede- 
rick Willuun,  sumamed  the  Great 
Elector 1657 

Order  of  Concord  Instituted  by  Christian 
Ernest,  elector  of  Brandenburg  and 
duke  of  Prussia,  to  distinguish  the 
part  he  had  taken  in  reetoraig  peace 
to  Europe 

Frederick  III.  in  an  assembly  of  the 
states,  puts  a  crown  upon  his  own  head 
and  upon  Uie  bead  of  his  consort,  and 
is  proclaimed  king  of  Prussia,  by  the 
title  of  Frederick  I.       .... 

Order  of  the  Black  Ettfle  instituted  by 
Frederick  I.  on  the  <uy  of  hia  corona- 
tion     

Gueldera  taken  frx>m  the  Dutch 

Frederiok  I.  seises  Neufch&tel  or  Neun- 


1660 


1701 


1701 
1702 


burg,  and  Valengia,  and  purchases  the 
principality  of  Tecklenbiuv    .        a.d.  1707 
The  principality  of  Meurs  added  to  the 

PrusaiaD  dominions      ....  1712 
Beign  of  Frederick  the  Great,  during 
which  the  Prusaian  monarchy  is  made 
to  rank  among  the  first  powers  in 

Europe 1740 

Broalau  ceded  to  Prussia .  .  1741 

Silesia,  Glats,  Ac.  ceded  ....  1742 
Frederick  the  Great  vinits  England  .  1744 
General  Lacy  with  15,000  Austriaiis,  and 
a  Russian  army,  march  to  Berlin.  The 
city  laid  under  contribution ;  and  pays 
800,000  guildcm  and  1,900,000  crowns, 
the  magazines,  ansenaLB,  and  foundries 

destroyed 1760 

Peaoe  of  Hubertsberg  .  .  Feb.  15,  1763 
Frederick  the  Great  dies  .  Aug.  17,  1786 
The  Prussians  take  poaaession  of  Hanorer 

Jan.  30,  1806 
Pmssia  joins  the  allies  of  England  against 

France Oct.  6,  1806 

Fatal  battle  of  Jena       .  Oct.  14,  1806 

[Here  followed  the  loss  of  almost  every 
corps  in  succession  of  the  Prussian 
army,  the  loss  of  Berlin,  and  of  every 
province  of  the  monarchy  except  Prus- 
sia Proper.] 


Berlin  decree  promulgated 
Peaoe  of  Tilsit  (tpkieh  «ee) 
Convention  of  Berlin        . 
Prussia  Joins  the  allies 
Treaty  of  Paris 
The  lung  visits  England 
Dines  at  Guildhall 


Nov.  20, 1806 

July  7,  1807 

Nov.  6,  1808 

March  17, 1818 

April  11, 1814 

June.  6,  1814 

June  18,  1814 

Aug.  1,  1819 


Congress  of  Carlsbad    . 

Marshal  Blucher  dies  in  Bilosia,  aged  17, 

Sept.  12,  1810 

[From  this  time  Pmssia  pursued  a  peace- 
ful and  undisturbed  policy  until  1848.] 

Serious  attempt  made  on  the  life  of  the 
king,  by  an  assassin  named  Tesch, 
who  fired  two  shots  at  him  .    July  2^  1844 

Berlin  declared  in  a  state  of  sira^e, 

Nov.  12,  1848 

The  Constituent  Assembly  meets  in  Bran- 
denburg castle  Nov.  29,  1848 

This  assembly  is  dissolved,  and  the  king 
issues  a  new  constitution  to  his  sul^ 
Jects Dec.  5.  1848 

Prussia  declines  the  imperial  crown 
oifered  to  it         ...      Jan.  23, 1840 

[Bat  adds,  in  a  note  to  the  Frankfort 
ministry,  **  Prussia,  with  the  consent 
of  the  German  government,  is  ready  to 
undertake  any  task  that  Germany 
may  impose  upon  it."] 

The  German  National  Assembly  elect  the 

M  U 


PRU 


530 


PRU 


PRUSSIA,  coiUinued, 

king  of  PruMl*  "heraditazv  emperor 
oftheOermans"     .       .     Hareh  28.  1819 

The  king,  however,  docUnoe  the  imperial 
erown    .....  April  S9,  1849 

Royal  ordinanoe,  placing  the  kingdom 
under  martial  law     .  May  10^  1849 

The  Pruasianfl  enter  Garlsrahe.  June  SS,  1849 

Armistice  between  Prussia  and  Denmark 
(see  Ikimark)  .    July  10,  1849 

Httmburg  occupied  by  a  Oerman  force, 

Aug.  14,  1849 

Bararla  declares  an  imperial  constitution 
with  the  king  of  Prussia  at  its  head, 

Sept.  8,  1849 

Treaty  between  Pruada  and  Austria* 

Sept  80,  1849 

Austria  protests  againat  the  alliance  d 
Prussia  with  the  minor  states  of  Ger- 
many*      ....       Not.  12,  1849 

The  king  takes  the  oath  required  by  the 
constitution    ....    Feb.  6,  1850 

HanoTor  withdraws  firom  the  Prussian 
alliance     ....        Feb.  S5»  1800 

Traaty  signed  at  Munich  between  Aus- 
tria, &iTaria,  Saxony,  and  Wurtem- 
beiv,  to  *wa«tifAiri  the  German  union, 

Feb.  27,  1860 

Wurtembeig  denounces  the  insidious 
ambition  of  the  kinjB^  of  Prussia,  and 
announces  a  league  between  Wurtem- 
berg,  BaTaria,  and  Saxony,  under  the 
sanction  of  Austria  March  16, 1860 

Attempt  mode  to  asauriuate  the  king  of 
Prussia May  22, 1860 

Hesse-Darmstadt  withdraws  from  the 
Prussian  league  June  80, 1860 

Treaty  of  peace  between  Prussia  and 
Denmark        ....    July  2, 1860 

A  congress  of  deputies  trom  the  states 
included  in  the  Prussian  ZoUverein 
opened  at  Oassel  Jnly  12, 1860 

Prussia  refuses  to  Join  the  restricted  diet 
of  Frankfort         .       .        .  Aug.  26,  1860 

The  Prussian  goTcmment  addresses  a 
despatch  to  the  cabinet  of  Vienna, 
declaring  its  resolTc  to  uphold  the 
constitution  in  Heaso-Cassel  Sept  21, 1860 

Count  Brandenburg,  prime  minister  of 
Prussia,  dies  .  Not.  6, 1860 

Decree,  calling  out  the  whole  Prtissian 
army,  223,000  infkntiy,  88^000  caTalzy, 


and  29.000  artillery,  with  1080  fteU- 

pieces       ....  NoT.T.UM 

The  Pruanan  troops  in  Hesse  retire  upoo 

and  occupy  tha  militaxy  road  in  tost 

electorate  .  Nor.  9,18M 

The  Prussian  forces  withdraw  from  the 

grand  duchy  of  Baden  .       .   Nor.  14,  IBM 
General  Radowita,  late  war  nlnistar, 

Tisits  queen   YicUnia    at   Windsor, 

Not.  )C  18W 
The  Prussian  troops  oomnMrnne  their 

retreat  ftom  HeMO-Oissnl  .       De&  5^  18U 
Prince  SchwarLEenberg  laaTes  Dresden 

on  a  Tisit  to  the  king  of  Fnissia  st 

Beriin       ....        Dee.S8.UM 
The  king  oelebratas  by  a  grand  bsaqoet 

the  150th  annlToraary  of  the  Pmssiaa 

monarchy     ....    Jan.  18,  ISl 
The  king  of  Proflria  Tisits  the  emperor  of 

Russia       ....        May  18.  1851 
The  king  and  cxar  leave  Warsaw  for 

Olmuts  to  have  an  interriew  wiih  the 

emperor  of  Austria  .    MayfT,  18S1 

Statue  of  Frederick  the  Oraot  by  Baudie 

Inaugurated  at  Beriin  May  31,  1861 

The  king  reTiTcs  the  ooondi  of  stats  as 

It  existod  before  the  rerd^ntion  of  1848, 

Jan.  11 18SS 
A  Prussian  Industrial  exhibition  opened 

at  Berlin       ....    May  28.  1851 
Prussia  repudiates  a  customiT  union  wiUi 

Austria      ....        June  7,  IKl 
But  agrees  to  a  commercial  treaty, 

Feb.  19,  18SS 
Plot  at  Beriin  detected    .  AprO,  18U 

Death  of  Badowits  Dee.  25^1853 

Vacillation  of  the  gOTcmment  upon  the 

Eastern  question  .     March  ana  April.  1851 
Agrees  to  a  protocol  for  jpreserratioa  ct 

the   integrity  of  Turkey,    which  is 

signed  at  Vienna  April7, 1854 

Continue  neutral  in  the  war. 

Sept  21,  Oct  13, 18M 
Excluded  from  the  conforsnces  at  Vtenna 

Feb.  1855 

Dispute  with  Switaeriond  (see  SmMJuI) 

Not.  1866  to  May  185T 

Prince  Frederick  William  of  Pnisria  be- 
trothed to  PrinceMBfqyalofEnglsni 


MARGRAVES*  ELECTORS*  DUKES*  AND  KIKG& 


XABOBATn  OR  SLSCTOBS  Or  BRAVDBllBinUI. 

1184.  Albert   L   sumamed  the  Bear,   first 

elector  of  Braadenboiv. 
1170.  Otho  L 
1184.  Otho  11. 
1206.  Albert  II. 
1221.  John  I.  and  Otho  III. 
1266.  John  IL 
1282.  Otho  IV. 
1309.  Waldemar. 
1819.  Henry  I.  U  Jaau, 
1320.  [Interregnum.] 
1828.  liouis  I.  of  BaTaria. 
1352.  Louis  II.  sumamed  the  Roman. 
1866.  Otho  V.  U  Fain^amt. 
1873.  Wenceslas,  of  Luxemburg. 
1378.  Sigismund,  of  Luxemburg. 
1888.  Joasus,  the  Bearded. 
1411.  Sigismund,  again :  emperor. 
1415.  Frederick  I.  of  Nuremberg. 
1440.  Frederick  IL  eumamed  Ironside. 
1470.  Albert  III.  sumamed  the  German 

AchiUes. 
1476.  John  IIL  his  son ;  as  matgrsTe :  styled 

the  Cicero  cl  Germany. 
1486.  John  III.  Ml  elector. 


1499.  Joachim  I.  son  of  John. 
1685.  Jooehim  11.  poleoned  by  a  Jew. 
1571.  John-Qeoroe. 
1598.  Joachim-mderiok. 
1608.  John-Siglsmund. 

AND  DUKXB  OF  PKinBU. 

1616.  John-Sigiamimd. 
1619.  George-William. 
1640.  Frederick-William,  his  sod;  MDsrrily 

styled  the  "  Great  Elector.'^ 
1688.  Frederick,  son    of  the    preosdiiff; 

crowned  king,  Jan.  18^  1701. 

KDros  OF  PRUttia. 

1701.  Frederick  L:  king. 

1718.  Frederick-William  I.  son  of  FMdsriek  L 

1740.  Frederick  II.  (Frederick  IIL ;  styled 

the  GreatX  son  of  the  preeedli«: 
[The  Prussian  monardiy  was  tabed  to 

its  high  rank  as  a  miUtaiy  povffi 

under  this  prince.] 
1786.  Frederick-William  IL  nephew  of  the 

preceding  king. 
1797.  Frwlerick-WilUam  UL    Behadteooa- 


PBU  681  PUN 

PKUSSIA,  cotutnued. 

1840.  Fkwlerlek.WillUm  IV.  son  of  the  lut 
moaarch;  suoooeded  June  7.  Tbo 
FitKBXKT  (1857)  Kiiig  of  Fnuaia. 


tend  against  the  might  of  Napoleon, 
and  after  extraordinaiy  ▼iclasitudee, 
he  aided  England  in  the  overthrow 
of  that  oaurper. 


PRUSSIC  ACID.  This  acid  U  ooloorless,  but  smells  like  peach  flowen,  freezes  at 
two  degrees,  and  is  very  Yolatile ;  it  turns  vegetable  blues  into  red.  It  was  acciden- 
tally disooyered  by  Diesbacb,  a  German  chemist,  in  1709.  Scheele  first  obtained  this 
aoid  in  a  separate  state,  about  1782.  Simple  water  distilled  from  the  leaves  of  the 
lavnHxrtuiu  was  first  aeoertained  to  be  a  most  deadly  poison  by  Dr.  Madden  of 
Dublin.  An  unfortunate  gentleman  of  good  family,  named  Montgomery,  who  was 
oonvicted  of  forgery  in  London,  drank  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  this  acid  in  Newgate,  and 
was  found  dead  in  his  cell  on  the  morning  appointed  for  his  exeoation,  July  4, 1828« 

PTOLEMAIC  SYSTEM.  Claudius  Ptolemy  of  Pelusium,  in  Egypt  (about  a.o.  150), 
supposed  that  the  earth  was  fixed  in  the  centre  of  the  universe,  and  that  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars  moved  round  once  in  twenty-four  hours.  This  system  (still  the 
official  doctrine  of  the  diurch  of  Rome)  was  universally  taught  till  that  of  Pythagoras 
(B.a  500)  was  revived  by  Copernicus  (aj>.  1530),  demonstrated  by  Kepler  (1619)  and 
Newton  (1687). 

PUBLICANS^  IN  Holt  Wbtt.  A  publican,  among  the  Romans,  was  one  who  acted  as 
collector  of  the  customs,  or  who  farmed  the  taxes  and  public  revenues;  the  collectors 
of  such  imposts  as  were  laid  on  the  Jews,  and  consequently  hateful  to  them. 

PUBUC  HEALTH.    See  Health. 

PUBLIC-HOUSEa    See  VieHuUUn, 

PUDDLING.    See  Iron  Manufacture. 

PULLET.  The  pulley,  together  with  the  vice  and  other  mechanical  instruments,  are 
said  to  have  been  invented  by  Archytas  of  Tarentum,  a  disciple  of  Pythagoras,  about 
516  B.C. — Univ.  Hut,  It  has  been  ascertained  that  in  a  single  moveable  pulley  the 
power  gamed  is  doubled.  In  a  continued  combination  the  power  is  twice  the  number 
of  pulleys,  less  1. — Phillipe. 

PULTOWA,  BATTLE  or.  In  this  memorable  engagement,  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden 
was  entirely  defeated  by  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia^  and  obliged  to  take  refuge  at 
Bender,  in  the  Turkish  dominions.  The  vanquished  monarch  would  have  &len 
into  the  hands  of  the  czar  after  the  engagement,  had  he  not  been  saved  by  the 
personal  exertions  of  the  brave  count  Poniatowski,  a  Polish  nobleman,  whom  Voltaire 
has  commemorated  and  immortalised.  This  battle  was  lost  chiefly  owing  to  a  want 
of  concert  in  the  generals,  and  to  the  circumstance  of  Charles  having  been  danger* 
ously  wounded,  just  before,  which  obliged  him  to  issue  his  commands  from  a  litter, 
without  being  able  to  encourage  his  soldiers  by  his  presence.    Fought  July  8,  1709. 

PULTUSK,  BATTLES  of.  One  between  the  Saxons  and  Swedes,  in  which  the  former 
were  signally  defeated,  1708 ;  another  between  the  French  under  Napoleon  and  the 
Russian  and  Prussian  armies,  in  which  both  sides  claimed  the  victory,  but  it  inclined 
in  fiskvour  of  the  French,  whose  loss,  though  very  severe,  was  not  as  great  as  on  the 
Russian  side,  Dec.  26, 1806. 

PUMPS.  Ctesibius  of  Alexandria,  architect  and  mechanic,  is  said  to  have  invented  the 
pump  (with  other  hydraulic  instruments),  about  224  B.O.,  although  the  invention  is 
ascribed  to  Danaus,  at  Lindus,  1485  B.a  They  were  in  genenid  use  in  England, 
A.D.  1425.  The  a^-pump  was  invented  by  Otto  Guericke  in  1654,  and  was  improved 
by  Boyle  in  1657.  An  inscription  on  the  pump  in  front  of  the  late  Royal  Exchange^ 
London,  stated  that  the  well  beneath  was  first  sunk  in  ▲.D.  1282. 

PUNIC  WARS.  The  first  Punic  war  was  undertaken  by  the  Romans  against  Carthage, 
264  B.O.  The  ambition  of  Rome  was  the  origin  of  tlds  war ;  it  lasted  twenty-throe 
years,  and  ended  241  B.O.  —  The  second  Punic  war  began  218  B.a  in  which  year 
Hannibal  marched  a  numerous  army  of  90,000  foot  and  12,000  horse  towards  Italy, 
resolved  to  carrr  on  the  war  to  the  gates  of  Rome.  He  crossed  the  Rhone,  the  Alps, 
and  the  Apennmes,  with  uncommon  celerity ;  and  the  Roman  consuls  who  were 
stationed  to  stop  his  progress  were  severally  defeated.  The  batUes  of  Trebia,  of 
Ticinus,  and  of  the  lake  of  Thruvmenus,  218,  and  of  Cannae,  216,  followed.  Scipio 
carried  the  war  into  Africa,  and  mnnibal  was  reoalled.  The  decisive  battle  of  Zsina 
fought  202  B.O.  the  Carthsginiaiis  being  totally  defeated.  This  war  lasted  seventeen 

U  M  2 


PDR  632  PYR 

years,  and  ended  in  201  B.O. — The  third  Punic  war  began  149  B.a  and  was  iemuxntod 
by  the  fall  of  Carthage,  146  B.a     See  Carihoffe. 

PURGATIYES.  Those  of  the  mild  species,  particularly  cassia,  manna,  and  senna,  mn 
first  discoTered  by  ActuariuSy  a  Greek  physician,  ajd.  1245.  They  adyantag^aily 
supply  the  place  of  drastics,  which  frequently  occasion  great  injuxy  to  the  animal 
system.    A  very  mild  kind  of  puigatiYe  is  now  called  aperient. — Athc 

PURGATORY.  The  middle  place  between  the  grave,  or  heaven,  and  hell,  whoe,  it  ii 
believed  by  the  Roman  Catholics  the  soul  passes  through  the  fire  of  purificatioa 
before  it  enters  the  kingdom  of  God.  The  doctrine  of  pui^gatory  was  known  about 
A.D.  250 ;  and  was  introduced  into  the  Roman  Church  in  593. — Platina,  Introduced 
early  in  the  sixth  century. — Dupin,  It  was  first  set  forth  by  a  council  at  Florence^ 
1438.— Z>r.  ffooL 

PURIFICATION.  The  act  of  cleansing,  especially  considered  as  relating  to  the  religions 
performance  among  the  Jewish  women.  It  was  ordained  by  the  Jewish  law  that 
a  woman  should  keep  within  her  house  forty  days  after  the  birth  of  a  son,  and  eighty 
days  after  the  birth  of  a  daughter,  when  she  was  to  go  to  the  temple  and  offer  a 
lamb,  pigeon,  or  turtle,  B.o.  1490.  Among  the  Christians,  the  feast  of  purification  vaa 
instituted,  a.o.  542,  in  honour  of  the  Yixigin  Mary's  going  to  the  temple,  where, 
according  to  custom,  she  presented  her  son  Jesus  Chnst,  and  offered  two  tortlea. 
Pope  SexgiuB  L  ordered  the  procession  with  wax  tapers,  whence  Candlemaaday. 

PURITANS.  The  name  given  in  the  reigns  of  queen  Elizabeth,  king  James,  and  kiag 
Charles  L  to  such  persons  act  pretended  to  greater  purity  of  doctrine,  holiness  of 
living,  and  stricter  discipline  than  others.  They  at  first  were  members  of  the  Bata- 
blished  Church,  but  afterwards  separated,  professing  to  follow  the  word  of  God 
alone,  and  maintaining  that  the  English  Church  still  retained  many  homan  inren- 
tions  and  popish  superstitions.    The  name  was  given  about  1564. 

PURPLE.  A  mixed  tinge  of  scarlet  and  blue,  discovered  at  Tyre.  It  is  said  to  hare 
been  found  by  a  dog's  having  by  chance  eaton  a  shell-fish,  called  murex  or  pnrpwrOf 
and  upon  returning  to  his  master,  Hercules  Tyrius,  he  observed  his  lips  tinged,  and 
proper  use  was  made  of  the  discovery.  Purple  was  anciently  used  by  die  princes  and 
great  men  for  their  garments  by  way  of  distinction,  and  to  tJiia  day  tiie  purple  ooloor 
is  the  livery  of  our  bishops,  &c.  The  dignity  of  an  archbishop  or  great  magistrats  is 
frequently  meant  by  the  purple.  The  purple  was  first  given  to  Uie  cardinals  by  pope 
Paul  II.  1465. 

PUSBYISM.  A  name  attached  to  the  views  of  certain  clergymen  and  lay  members  of 
the  Church  of  England,  who  endeavoured  to  restore  the  practice  of  tiie  Church  of 
England  to  what  they  believed  to  be  required  by  the  language  of  her  Litoi^  and 
Rubrics ;  but  which  were  considered  by  their  opponents  to  be  contrary  to  her  doctrine 
and  discipline,  and  of  a  Romish  tendency.  The  term  was  derived  from  the  name  of 
the  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Oxford,  Dr.  Pusey,  who  was  popularly  supposed  to  be  the 
originator  and  chief  supporter  of  those  views.  The  heads  of  houses  of  the  nnivenity 
of  Oxford  passed  resolutions  censuring  Dr.  Pussy's  attempts  to  renew  practicea  which 
are  now  obsolete,  March  15,  1841 ;  and  his  celebrated  sermon  was  condemned  by  the 
same  body,  May  SO,  1843.  This  term  is  now  applied  to  those  dei^men  and  laymen 
who  agree  with  the  views  of  Dr.  Puaey. 

PYRAMIDS  or  EGYPT.  The  pyramids,  according  to  Dr.  Pooockeand  Sonnini,  "ao 
celebrated  from  remote  antiquity,  are  the  most  Slustrious  monuments  of  arl  It  i> 
singular  that  such  superb  piles  are  nowhere  to  be  found  but  in  Egypt;  for  in  CTsry 
other  country,  pyramids  are  rather  puerile  and  diminutive  imitationB  of  those  in 
Egypt,  than  attempts  at  appropriate  magnificence.  The  three  principal  pyninida 
are  situated  on  a  rock  at  the  foot  of  some  high  mountains  which  bound  the  Nile." 
The  first  building  of  them  commenced,  it  is  supposed,  about  1500  B.a  The  greatert 
is  said  to  have  been  erected  by  Cheops,  B.c.  1082.  The  laigest,  near  Qiseh,  is  461  feet 
in  perpendicular  height,  with  a  platform  on  the  top  32  feet  square,  and  the  leogth  of 
the  base  is  746  feet.  It  occupies  above  twelve  acres  of  ground,  and  is  constructed  of 
stupendous  blocks  of  stone.  There  are  many  other  smaller  pyramids  to  the  south 
ofUiese. 

PYRENEES,  BATTLE  of  the.  Between  the  British  army,  commanded  by  lord 
Wellington,  and  the  French,  under  the  command  of  Marshal  Soult.  The  latter  army 
was  defeated  with  great  slaughter,  July  28, 18 1 8.  After  the  battle  of  Yittoria  (fought 
June  21),  Napoleon  sent  Soult  to  supexBede  Jourdan,  with  inatmctiona  to  drive  the 


PYU  633  QU^ 

■  — —^—^-^.^^^.^^^^^^^^^.^^ 

allies  acroBs  the  Ebro,  a  duty  to  which  his  abilitiee  were  inferior,  for  Soult  retreated 
into  France  with  a  loes  of  more  than  20,000  men,  having  been  defeated  in  a  sehes  of 
engagements  from  July  25  to  August  2. 

PTBENEES,  PEACE  of  the.  A  peace  concluded  between  France  and  Spain,  between 
cardinal  Mazarin  for  the  French  king,  and  Don  Lewis  de  Haro  on  the  part  of  Spain, 
in  tbe  island  of  Pheasants,  on  the  Bidassoa.  By  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  Spain 
yielding  Roussillon,  Artois,  and  her  right  to  Alsace ;  and  France  ceding  her  conquests 
in  Catalonia,  Italy,  &c  and  engaging  not  to  assist  Portugal,  Noy.  7, 1659. 

PYTHAGOREAN  PHILOSOPHY.  Founded  by  Pythagoras,  of  Samoa,  head  of  the 
Italic  sect.  He  first  taught  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis  or  transmigration  of  the 
soul  from  one  body  to  another.  He  forbade  his  disciples  to  eat  flesh,  as  i\Mo  beans, 
because  he  supposiBd  them  to  have  been  produced  from  the  same  putrified  matter 
from  which  at  the  creation  of  the  world  man  was  formed.  In  his  theological  system, 
Pythagoras  supposed  that  the  universe  was  created  from  a  shapeless  heap  of  passive 
matter  by  the  hands  of  a  powerful  being,  who  himself  was  the  mover  and  soul  of  the 
world.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the  multiplication  table,  and  a  great  improver  of 
geometry,  while  in  astronomy  he  taught  the  system  adopted  at  this  day.    589  B.O. 

PYTHIAN  QAMES.  Games  celebrated  in  honour  of  Apollo,  near  the  temple  of  Delphi 
They  were  first  instituted,  according  to  the  more  received  opinion,  by  Apollo  himself 
in  commemoration  of  the  victory  which  be  had  obtained  over  the  serpent  Python, 
from  which  they  received  their  name ;  though  others  maintain  that  they  were  first 
established  by  Agamemnon,  or  Diomedes,  or  by  Amphictyon,  or,  lastly,  by  the 
council  of  the  Amphictyons,  b.c.  1263. — Arwnddian  MurlUt^ 


Q. 

QUACKERY  awd  QUACK  MEDICINES.  At  the  first  appearance  that  a  F^rench  quack 
made  in  Paris,  a  boy  walked  before  him,  publishiog,  with  a  shrill  voice, "  My  father 
cures  all  sorts  of  distempers ;"  to  which  the  doctor  added  in  a  grave  manner,  "  What 
the  child  says  is  true." — Addiaon.  Quacks  sprung  up  with  the  art  of  medicine ;  and 
seveial  countries,  particularly  England  and  fSrance,  abound  with  them.  In  London, 
some  of  their  establishments  are  called  colleges.  Quaek  medicines  were  taxed  in 
1783,  et  aeq.  An  inquest  was  held  on  the  body  of  a  young  li«dy.  Miss  Cashin,  whose 
physician,  St.  John  Long,  was  afterwards  tried  for  manslaughter,  Aug.  21,  1830;  he 
was  found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  2502.  Oct.  30  following.  The  same 
quack  (who  had  previously  absconded)  was  tried  for  manslaughter  in  the  case  of 
Mrs.  Catherine  Lloyd,  and  acquitted  Feb.  19, 1831. 

QUADRAGESIMA  SUNDAY.  First  Simday  in  Lent.  Ercombert,  king  of  Kent, 
appointed  the  fast  of  Lent  in  this  country  in  640-1.  Succeeding  generations  marked 
the  distinctions  between  the  various  kinds  of  food.  We  find  flesh  to  have  been 
early  prohibited  during  Lent,  though  Henry  YIII.  published  a  proclamation  in  1543, 
allowing  the  use  of  white  meeUa^  which  continued  in  force  until,  by  proclamation  of 
James  L  in  1619  and  1625,  and  by  Charles  I.  in  1627  and  1631,  flesh  was  again  wholly 
forbidden.    See  Lenif  and  Quinquaguima  Swnday, 

QUADRANT.  The  mathematical  instrument  in  the  form  of  a  quarter  of  a  circle.  The 
solar  quadrant  was  introduced  about  290  B.C.  The  Arabian  astronomers  under  the 
caliphs,  in  a.d.  995,  had  a  quadrant  of  21  feet  8  inches  radius,  and  a  sextant  57  feet 
9  inches  radius.  Davis's  quadrant  for  measuring  angles  was  produced  about  1600. 
Hadley's  quadrant,  in  1731.    See  Navigation, 

QUADRUPLE  ALLIANCE.  The  celebrated  treaty  of  alliance  between  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  the  emperor,  signed  at  London.  This  alliance,  on  the  accession  of  the 
states  of  Holland,  obtained  the  name  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance,  and  was  for  the 
purpose  of  guaranteeing  tbe  euccession  of  the  reigning  families  in  Great  Britain  and 
France,  and  settling  the  partition  of  the  Spanish  monarchy.    Aug.  2,  1718. 

QUiESTOR.  In  ancient  Rome  the  Qusostor  was  an  officer  who  had  the  management  i>f 
the  public  treasure,  institated  484  B.G.  Tbe  qusstorship  was  the  first  office  any 
person  could  bear  in  the  commonwealth,  and  gave  a  right  to  sit  in  the  senate.  At 
first  there  were  only  two  ;  but  afterwards  the  number  was  greatly  increased.  Two 
more  were  added  in  409  B.O.,  to  attend  the  consuls  in  discharging  their  duties.    These 


QUA  584  QUE 

latter  were  sub-called  Perefftim,  while^the  others,  whose  employment  was  in  the  dfcy, 
received  the  name  of  Urinmi, 

QUAKERS  OR  FRlENDa  Originally  called  Seekers,  from  their  seeking  the  truth ;  tnd 
afterwards  Friends — a  beautiful  appellation,  and  characteristic  of  the  relation  which 
man,  under  the  Christian  dispensation,  ought  to  bear  towards  man.~C^{arbBii. 
Justice  Bennett  of  Derby,  gave  the  society  the  name  of  Quakers  in  1650,  bcetnse  Fox 
(the  founder)  admonished  him,  and  those  present  with  him,  to  tremble  si  the  word 
of  the  Lord.  This  respectable  sect,  excelling  in  morsls,  prudence»  and  indutiy, 
was  commenced  in  England  about  A.D.  1646,  by  Geoige  Fox  (then  sged  S2),  who  wh 
soon  joined  by  a  number  of  learned,  ingenious,  and  pious  men — among  othen^  by 
Qeorge  Keith,  Wm.  Penn,  and  Robert  Barday,  of  Ury.*  Fox  carried  his  reverence  for 
supernatural  teaching  so  far  as  to  reject  all  religious  ordinances,  and  eiplained 
away  the  commands  rolatiye  to  baptism,  &o.  They  reject  the  ordinary  nsmes  of  tha 
days  and  months ;  and  use  thee  and  thou  for  you,  as  more  consonant  with  truth :  theae 
praotioea  originated  with  their  founder,  who  published  a  book  of  instnictionf  for 
teachers  and  professors.  The  first  meeting*house  in  London  was  in  White  Hait^ 
court,  Qracechuroh-etreetw  The  first  meeting  of  Quakers  in  Ireland  was  in  Dublin  in 
1658 ;  and  their  first  meeting-house  in  that  city  was  opened  in  Eostaoe^tieet,  1692. 
The  solemn  affirmation  of  Quakers  was  enacted  to  be  taken  in  all  esses,  in  the  courts 
below,  wherein  oaths  are  required  from  other  subjects,  8  Will  lU.  1696.  This 
affirmation  was  altered  in  1702,  and  again  in  1721.  Quakers  were  reUeved  from  otthi 
qualifying  persons  to  municipal  offices,  &&,  9  Geo.  lY.  1828.  More  ezoreisly 
relieved  by  stat  1  Vict.  1837.  This  last  act  was  extended  to  persons  who,  hsying 
been  formerly  Quakers  or  Moravians,  had  seceded  therefrom,  yet  hsd  retsinod 
certain  opinions  as  to  oaths,  2  Vict.  August  1888.  See  AJirmation  ^  lAe  Tr^A,  The 
Quakers  had  in  England  413  meeting-houses  in  1800  and  871  in  1851. 

QUARANTINE.  The  custom  first  observed  at  Venice,  ▲.D.  1127,  wherelor  ell  m«^ 
chants  and  others  coming  from  the  Levant  were  obliged  to  remain  in  the  boose  of 
St.  Lazarus,  or  the  Laasretto,  forty  days  before  they  were  admitted  into  the  dty. 
Various  southern  cities  have  now  Uaarettos ;  that  of  Venice  is  built  in  the  wtter. 
In  the  times  of  plague,  England  and  all  other  nations  oblige  those  that  oome  from 
the  infected  places  to  perform  quarantine  with  their  afaipsi  fta,  a  long^  or  shorter 
time,  as  may  be  judged  most  safe. 

QUARTER  SESSIONS'  COURT.  The  jurisdicUou  of  this  court  wss  established  by 
statute  84  Edw.  III.,  and  then  extended  to  the  trying  of  all  felonies  end  trespiisee 
whatsoever ;  but  now  it  seldom  tries  other  than  mmor  offisnoes.  The  days  of  sitting 
quarterly  were  appointed  2  Hen.  V.,  1413.  fiy  act  1  Will.  IV.  1830,  it  is  ssmM 
that  "  in  the  year  1831,  and  afterwards,  the  justices  of  the  peace  in  every  ooonty, 
riding,  or  division,  for  which  quarter  sessions  of  the  peace  by  law  ought  to  be  held, 
shall  hold  their  general  sessions  of  the  peace  in  the  first  week  alter  the  11th  of 
October ;  in  the  first  week  after  the  28th  December ;  in  the  first  week  after  the  81st 
March ;  and  in  the  first  week  after  the  24  th  June.** — fitoliOea 

QUATRE-BRAS,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  British  and  allied  army  under  the  duke  of 
Brunswick,  the  prince  of  Orange,  and  sir  Thomas  Picton,  and  the  French  under 
marshal  Ney,  fought  two  days  before  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  The  Britidi  fought  to 
maintain  their  position,  with  remarkable  intrepidity,  notwithstanding  their  inferiority 
in  number,  and  the  fatigue  of  marching  all  the  preceding  night.  The  gallant  42nd 
regiment  of  Scotch  Highlanders  suffered  severely  in  pursuit  of  a  French  diviiioD 
repulsed  early  in  the  morning,  by  cuirassiers  being  posted  in  ambofdi  behind  growing 
com  as  high  as  the  shoulders  of  the  tallest  men.  In  this  engagement  the  gsIUnt 
duke  of  Brunswick  fell,  June  16, 1815. 

QUEBEC.    Founded  by  the  French  in  1605.    It  was  reduced  by  the  English,  with  sll 


*  Tho  Quakers  early  suffered  griOTous  persecutions  in  England  and  America.    At  Boston,  whera 


this  time,  by  name,  to  government,  to  be  imprisoned  in  lieu  of  an  equal  number  in  danger  (from  con- 
flnement)  of  death.  Pllty-five  (out  of  120  sentenced)  were  transported  to  A»»A'^'^  bv  sn  odor  <» 
council,  1664.  The  masters  of  yessela  reftiaing  to  carry  them  for  some  months*  an  embaiso  wsa  u^ 
on  Woet  India  shiiw,  when  a  mercenary  wretch  was  at  length  found  for  the  service.  But  the  Frteadi 
would  not  walk  on  board,  nor  would  the  sailors  hoist  them  into  the  veissel,  and  soldiera  ftom  UmTofot 
were  employed.  In  1666.  the  vessel  sailed ;  but  it  was  immediately  captured  by  the  Dntch,  who 
liberated  twenty-eight  of  the  prisoners  in  Holland,  tho  rest  having  died  of  the  plague  in  that  fcv. 
Bee  PIo^iw.    Of  the  120,  few  reached  America. 


QUE  585  QUB 

Otnada^  in  1626,  bat  was  rettored  in  1632.  Quebec  was  besieged  by  the  Engliah, 
bot  without  BuooesB^  in  1711 ;  but  was  conquered  by  them,  after  a  battle  memorable 
for  the  death  of  general  Wolfe  in  the  moment  of  Yictory,  Sept  18,  1759.  Thia 
batUe  waa  fought  on  the  Plaxna  of  Abraham.  Quebec  was  besieged  in  Tain  by  the 
American  proyindals,  under  their  general,  Montgomery,  who  was  ilain.  Dee.  81, 1775 ; 
•nd  the  siege  was  raised  the  next  year.  The  public  and  pxiYate  stores,  and  lereral 
wharfr,  were  destroyed  by  fire  in  Sept  1815 ;  the  loss  being  estimated  at  upwards  of 
260,000A  Awfnl  fire,  1650  houses,  the  dwellings  of  12,000  persons,  burnt  to  the 
ground.  May  28,  1845.  Another  sreat  fire,  one  month  afterwards;  1865  houses 
burnt,  June  28, 1845.  Disastrous  fire  at  the  theatre^  50  lives  lost,  Jan.  12,  1846. 
See  Camtda  and  MonirtaL 

QIJEEN.  The  first  queen  inTestcd  with  authority,  as  a  ruling  sovereign,  was  Semiiamis^ 
queen  and  empress  of  Assyria,  2017  B.a  She  embellished  the  city  of  Babylon,  made 
it  her  capital,  and  by  her  means  it  became  the  most  magnificent  and  superb  dty  in 
the  world.  The  tiUe  of  queen  is  coeval  with  that  of  king.  The  Hungarians  had 
such  an  aversion  to  the  name  of  queen,  that  whenever  a  queen  ascended  the  throne, 
she  reigned  with  the  title  of  king.    See  note  to  article  Hvmgtury. 

QUEEN  ANNE^  BOUNTY.  Established  in  Feb.,  1704,  by  queen  Anne,  being  the 
First  Fruits  with  the  .Tenths,  to  incrsase  the  incomes  of  the  poorer  clei^gy.  There 
were  5597  clerical  livings  under  50(.  per  annum  found  by  the  commissioners  under 
the  act  of  Anne  capable  of  augmentation. — Chalmen,  Act  to  consolidate  the  offices 
of  First  Fruits,  Tenths,  and  Queen  Anne's  Bounty,  1  Vict  1888. 

QUEEN  ANNE'S  FARTHINa&  The  popular  stories  of  the  great  value  of  this  coin 
are  fabulous,  although  some  few  of  paiticular  dates  have  been  purchased  by  mistaken 
persons  at  Idgh  prices.  The  current  farthing,  with  the  brcMtd  brim,  when  in  fine 
preserration,  is  worth  12.  The  common  patterns  of  1718  and  1714  are  worth  1^ 
The  two  patterns  with  Britannia  under  a  canopy,  and  Peace  on  a  car,  b  B  b,  are 
worth  £2.  2c  each.  The  pattern  with  Peace  on  a  car  is  more  valuable  and  rare,  and 
worth  5^ — PinkerUm, 

QUEEN'S  BENCH  COURT.    See  article  Kin^^i  Btnck,  ChuH  of, 

QUEEN'S  BENCH  PRISON.    See  Kmg't  Bench  Priaon  and  article  PriiWi. 

QUEEN'S  BOUNTY.  An  annual  grant  of  10002.  which  commenced  about  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  Geo.  III.  and  was  continued  until  the  10th  Oeo.  IV.  1829,  when  it 
ceased  altogether.  The  collection  upon  the  king's  letter,  which  used  to  accompany 
this  grant,  has  also  been  discontiaued  since  that  year. 

QUEEN  CAROLINE'S  TRIAL,  ftc.  Caroline,  the  consort  of  George  lY.  was  sub- 
jected, when  princess  of  Wales,  to  the  ordeal  of  the  Delicate  Investigation  {tohieh  9ee), 
May  22, 1806.  A  secret  committee  in  the  house  of  lords  was  appointed  to  examine 
papers  on  diarges  of  incontinence,  June  8, 1820.  Bill  of  Pains  and  Penalties  intro- 
duced by  lord  I^verpool,  July  5.  The  queen  removed  to  Brandenburg-house,  Aug.  3. 
She  received  the  address  of  the  married  ladies  of  the  metropolis,  Aug.  16.  Her  trial 
commenced,  Aug.  19.  Last  debate  on  the  bill  of  Pains  and  Penalties,  when  the 
report  was  approved  by  108  against  99 — ^the  numerical  miyority  of  nine  being  pro- 
duced by  the  votes  of  the  ministers  themselves.  In  this  situation,  lord  Liverpool, 
instead  of  moving  that  the  bill  do  now  poM,  moved  that  it  be  reconsidered  that  day 
iix  fMmihi,  Nov.  10.  Great  exultation  throughout  England,  and  illuminations  for 
three  nights  in  London,  Nov.  10,  11, 12.  The  queen  went  to  St.  Paul's  in  state, 
November  29  following.  She  protested  against  her  exclusion  from  the  coronation, 
July  18, 1821.  Was  taken  ill  at  Drury-lane  theatre,  July  80 ;  died  at  Hammersmith, 
Aug.  7.  Her  remains  were  removed,  on  their  route  to  Brunswick,  on  which  occasion 
an  alarming  riot  occurred,  owing  to  the  military  opposing  the  body  being  carried 
through  the  d^,  Aug.  14,  1821. 

QUEEN  CHARLOTTE  Ship  ot  War.  A  first-rate  ship  of  the  line,  of  1 10  guns,  the  flag- 
ship of  lord  Keith,  then  commanding  in  chief  in  the  Mediterranean,  was  burnt  by  an 
accidental  fire,  off  the  harbour  of  Leghorn,  and  more  than  700  British  seameu,  out  of  a 
crew  of  850,  perished  by  fire  or  drowning,  March  17,  1800.  In  his  despatches  to  the 
admiralty,  lord  Keith  thus  describes  this  dreadful  catastrophe :— **The  ship  took  fire 
just  before  daybreak,  while  she  was  under  easy  sail  between  the  island  of  Grorgona  and 
the  port  of  Leghorn.  It  was  occasioned  by  the  fire  of  a  match,  which  had  been  kept 
lighted  for  the  purpose  of  firing  signal  guns,  and  which  oommonioated  to  some  hay  that 


QUE 


586 


QUB 


lay  upon  the  half-deck.  The  fire  spread  very  rapidly,  and  baivtiog  through  the  port- 
holes and  up  the  hatchways  of  the  ship,  soon  caught  the  shrouds,  and  notwithBtanding 
every  exertion,  she  burnt  to  the  water's  edge,  and  then  blew  up.  Upwarda  of  700 
lives  were  losl^  as  the  boats  could  not  contain  one  fourth  of  the  large  oomplememt  of 
men  on  board.".   Lord  Keith  was  himself  on  shore  at  Leghorn. — (XBymu 

QUEEN  VICTORIA  Stbah-Shif.  Shipwreck  of  this  vessel,  bound  from  Liverpool  to 
Dublin  with  passengers  and  a  valuable  cargo,  off  the  Bailey  lighthouse,  Feb.  15, 185S. 
She  had  almost  reached  the  point  of  debarkation,  when  mistaking  her  course,  in  a  deose 
snow-shower  that  at  the  moment  prevailed,  she  struck  upon  a  rock  within  a  short 
distance  of  the  shore,  and  of  120  souls  on  board,  58  only  were  saved.  The  captain^  wlio 
should  have  slackened  his  speed  in  the  snow-storm,  was  among  those  who  periahed. 

QUEENS  OF  ENGLAND.  There  have  been,  since  the  conquest,  besides  our  praaeDt 
sovereign,  four  queens  of  England  who  have  reigned  in  their  own  rights  not  countiiig 
the  empress  Maude,  daughter  of  Henry  I.  or  the  lady  Jane  Qrey,  whose  ^[uaai  rejgn 
lasted  only  ten  days.  There  have  been  thirty-four  queens,  the  consorts  of  kin^ 
exclusively  of  four  wives  of  kings  who  died  previously  to  their  husbands  aacendlng 
the  throna  Of  thirty-five  actual  sovereigns  of  England,  four  died  unmazriedy  three 
kings  and  one  queen.    The  following  list  includes  all  these  royal  peraonageB : — > 

or  WILUAM  I. 

MaiUda,  daughter  of  Baldwin,  earl  of  Flaa- 
ders  ;  ahe  was  married  in  1051 ;  and  died  in 
1084. 

WILLZAX  n. 

This  aoveroign  died  unmarried. 

or  HEKKT  I. 

Matilda,  daughter  of  Maloohn  III.  king  of 
Scotland ;  she  was  married  Nov.  11, 1100 ;  and 
died  Mav  1    1119. 

Addau,  oaughtor  of  Qodlrey,  earl  of  Lou- 
vaine;  she  was  married  Jan  29,  1129.  Sur- 
vived the  king. 

XAUDB  OR  MATILDA. 

Daughter  of  Henry  I.  and  rightfiil  heir  to 
the  throne ;  she  was  born  1101 ;  was  betrothed, 
in  1109,  at  eight  years  of  age,  to  Henry  Y. 
emperor  of  Germany,  who  died  1125.  She 
married,  aeoondly,  Oeoffivy  Plantagenet,  earl 
of  Aqjou,  1180.  Was  set  aside  from  the  Bug- 
liah  micoession  by  Stephen,  11S5 ;  landed  in 
England,  and  claimed  the  crown,  11S9. 
Crowued,  but  was  soon  after  defeated  at  Win- 
Chester,  1141.  Concluded  a  peace  with  Stephen, 
which  secured  the  succession  to  her  son 
Henry,  1168 ;  died  1167. 

or  BTEPHXN. 

Matilda^  daughter  of  Eustace,  count  of 
Boulogne ;  she  was  married  in  1128,  and  died 
If  ay  3,  1161. 

OF  HENKT  IL 

Eleanor,  the  repudiated  queen  of  Louis  VII. 
king  of  France,  and  heiress  of  Quiei:ine  and 
Poitou :  she  was  married  to  Henry  1152 ;  and 
died  1204. 

[The  Fair  Rosamond  was  the  miatress  of 
this  prince.    Bee  article  Jtominumd.} 

OF  aiCHABD   I. 

Berftiffera,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Navarre ; 
she  was  married  May  12,  1191.  Survived  the 
king. 

or  JOHN. 

Avita,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Gloucester; 
she  was  married  in  1189.    Divorced. 

/«aMia,daughter  of  the  count  of  Angoulfime; 
she  was  the  yoimg  and  virgin  wife  of  the 
count  de  la  Marche ;  married  to  John  in  1200. 
Survived  the  king,  on  whoso  death  she  was 
re^manied  to  the  count  de  la  Marche. 


or  HEKar  m. 
Meemor,  daughter  of  the  count  de  Pxwcnee  ; 
she  was  married  Jan.  14, 1238.    Survived  tea 
king;   and  died  in   1292;  in  a  monssteiy, 
whither  she  had  retired. 

or  EDWABD  I. 

BUanor  of  Castile ;  she  was  married  in  ISSS; 
died  of  a  fever,  on  her  journey  to  Bootland.  aft 
Homeby,  in  lihoolnahire,  1296L 

Marffartt,  sister  of  the  Idsg  of  Franee ;  ahe 
was  married  Sept.  12,  1299.  Survived  the 
king. 

or  xDWAiin  n. 
I$aleUay  daughter  of  the  king  of  Fraaoe ;  ahe 
was  married  in  1808.  On  the  death,  by  the 
gibbet,  of  her  favourite  Mortimer,  ahe  was 
confined  for  the  rest  of  her  life  in  her  own 
house  at  Riainga,  near  London. — S% 


or  KDWABD  ni. 
PkUippa,  daughter  of  the  count  ot  HdtlaiMl 
and  Hainault;  sne was mairied  Jan.  H,  1S2S; 
and  died  Aug.  18, 1389. 

or  KIGHABO  II. 

Anne  of  Bohemia,  sister  of  the  euipeim 
Winoealaus  of  Germany ;  she  vraa  married  in 
Jan.  1882;   and  died  Aug.  8,  1996. 

ItabdUi,  daiighter  of  Charles  V.  of  Pkance; 
ahe  was  mamed  Nov.  1,  ISM.  On  the  mutder 
of  her  husband  ahe  retiuned  to  her  fikther. 

OT  HXNXT  IV. 

Jfary,  daughter  of  the'eari  of  Herefovd ;  she 
died,  befiore  Henry  obtained  the  crown,  in 
1894. 

Joan  of  Navaire,  vridow  of  the  duke  of  Brs- 
tagne;  she  was  married  in  1403.  Survived 
the  king,  and  died  in  1487. 

or  BsnaT  ▼. 
Caihtrinet  daughter  of  the  king  of  Franee : 
she  was  married  May  80,  1420.    She  outlived 
Henry,  and  was  married   to  Owen  Tudor, 
grandfather  of  Heniy  VIL 

or  HKiaiT  Ti. 
Margard,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Ai^Ioq  : 
she  was  married  April  22, 1445.    She  survived 
the  unfortunate  kmg,  her  husband,  and  died 
in  1482. 

or  KDWARn  IT. 

Lady  EHgabeth  Orew,  daughter  of  sir  Riohard 
Woodevills,  and  widow  ox  sir  John  Qnj,  at 


QUE 


637 


QUE 


QUEENS  OF  ENQLAKD,  continued. 

Groby ;  she  wu  married  March  1, 1464.    Sqb- 

ected  of  fovouring  the  insurrection  of  Lam- 
rtSimnel;  and  cloeed  her  life  in  oonine- 
ment. 

XDWABD  T. 

This  prince  perished  in  the  Tower,  in  the 
ISth  year  of  his  age ;  and  died  unmarried. 

OF    MOBABD  UL 

Amu,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Warwick,  and 
widow  of  Edward,  prinoe  of  Wales,  whom 
Richard  had  murdered,  1471.  She  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  poisoned  by  Richard 
(haTing  died  suddenly  March  fl^  14861  to 
malce  way  for  his  intended  marriage  with  the 
princess  Elizabeth  of  York. 

or  moniT  vix. 
Blitabeth  of  York,  princess   of  England, 
daughter  of  Edward  IV. :  she  was  married 
Jan  18»  1480 ;  and  died  Feb.  11, 1503. 

OF  HSKBT  Tin. 

OBUkeriiuo/Arragcn,  widow  of  Heniy's  elder 
brother,  Arthur,  prince  of  Wales.  She  was 
married  June  3,  1509;  was  the  mother  of 
queen  Mazy ;  was  repudiated,  and  afterwards 
formally  dlroroed.  May  S8, 1633 ;  died  Jan.  6, 
16Se. 

Anna  BoUyn,  daughter  of  sir  Thomas  Boleyn, 
and  maid  of  honour  to  Catherine.    She  was 

Srivatelv  married,  before  Catherine  was 
Ivorced,  Nov.  14,  1532 :  was  the  mother  of 
iueen  ElisabeUi ;  was  beheaded  at  the  Tower, 
lav  19,  1530. 

JcHU  Snrviumr,  daughter  of  sir  John  Bevmour, 
and  maid  of  honour  to  Anna  Boleyn.  She  was 
married  May  90,  1636^-  the  day  after  Anna's 
execution ;  was  the  mother  of  Edward  VI.  of 
whom  she  died  hi  childbirth,  Oct.  13, 1637. 

Anne  <^  Cltvet,  sister  of  William,  duke  of 
Clevea.  She  was  married  Jan.  0, 1640 ;  was 
divorced  Julv  10,  1640 ;  and  died  in  1657. 

CaUherine  H<neardt  niece  of  the  duke  of  Nor- 
folk ;  she  was  manied  Aug.  8, 1640 ;  and  was 
beheaded  on  Tower  hill,  Feb.  12,  1648. 

Catkerwt  Parr,  daughter  of  sir  Thomas 
Parr,  and  widow  of  Nevill,  lord  Latimer. 
She  was  married  July  12,  1648.  Survived 
the  king,  after  whose  death  she  married  sir 
Thomas  Seymour,  created  lord  Sudley;  and 
died  Sept  6, 1648. 

KDWAXD  ▼!« 

This  prince,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  his 
tenth  year,  reigned  six  years  and  five  months, 
and  died  unmwried. 

LAST  JAHB  ORKT. 

Daughter  of  the  duke  of  Suffolk,  and  wife 
of  lord  Guildford  Dudley.  Proclaimed  queen 
on  the  death  of  Edward.  In  ten  days  after- 
wards returned  to  private  life ;  was  tried 
Nov.  13,  1663 ;  and  beheaded  Feb.  12,  1654, 
when  but  seventeen  years  of  age. 

KABY— QUEEN  BZOHAKT. 

Dangfater  of  Henry  VIII.  She  ascended 
the  throne,  July  0,  1563 ;  married  Philip  II. 
of  Spain,  July  25,  1564 ;  and  died  Nov.  17, 
1658.    The  king  her  husband  died  in  169& 

KUZARETR— qUEEK  RBONANT. 

Daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  Succeeded  to  the 
crown  Nov.  17.  1668;  reigned  44  years,  4 
mcmths,  and  7  days :  and  died  unmarried. 


or  JAMBi  I. 

Anne,  princess  of  Denmark,  daughter  of 
Frederick  II.:  she  was  married  Aug.  20, 
1689 ;  and  died  March,  1819. 

or  CHARLES  I. 

Henrietta-Maria,  daughter  of  Henry  IV. 
king  of  France ;  she  was  married  June  13. 
1026.  Survived  the  unfortunate  king;  ana 
died  in  France^  Aug.  10, 1600. 

OW  CHABLEB  IL 

Caiherme^  inflmta  of  Portugsl,  daughter  of 
John  IV.  and  sister  of  AUbnso  VI. :  uie  was 
married  May  21,  1002.  Survived  the  king, 
returned  to  Pcrtugal,  and  died  Dec.  21,  1706. 

or  JAMES  IL 

Ann  Ifyde,  daughter  of  Edward  Hyde,  earl 
of  Clarendon ;  she  was  was  married  in  Sept. 
1600 ;  and  died  before  James  ascended  the 
throne,  in  1071. 

Mary-Btatrie«,  princess  of  Modena,  daughter 
of  Alphonso  d'Este,  duke  ;  she  was  married 
Nov.  21,  1673.  At  the  revolution  in  1088,  she 
retired  with  James  to  France;  and  died  at 
St  Germains  in  1718,  having  sunrived  her 
consort  seventeen  yean. 

WILUAM  AWD  XABT— QUEBH  BBOMAirr. 

Mary,  the  princess  of  Orange,  daughter  of 
James  II. ;  married  to  William,  Nov.  4, 1077 ; 
ascended  tbe  throne  Febw  13, 1080 :  died  Dec. 
28,  1094. 

ABim— qUXEM  BBOHAXT. 

Daughter  of  James  II.  She  married  Geoiigs 
prince  of  Denmaric,  July  28,  1688  ;  succeeded 
to  the  throne,  March  8.  1702;  had  thirteen 
childrexL  all  of  whom  died  youug  ;  lost  her 
husband,  Oct.  28,  1708;  and  died  Aug.  1, 
1714. 

or  OBOROB  L 

Sofkia-DcTolhta,  daughter  of  the  duke  of 
ZelL  She  died  a  few  weeks  previously  to  the 
accession  of  George  to  the  crown,  Jime  8, 1714. 

or  OBOBOB  n. 
WUhdmima  Caroline  Dorothea,  of  Branden- 
burg-Anspach  ;  married  in  1704 ;  and  died 
Nov.  20,  1737. 

or  ocoBOB  m. 
Chartotte  Sovkia,  daughter  of  the  duke  of 
Mecklenburg-Strelits ;  married  Sept  8, 1701, 
and  died  Nov.  17,  1818. 

or  OBOROB  IV. 

Cdroline  Anulia  Augueta,  daughter  of  the 
duke  of  Brunswick ;  she  was  married  April  8, 
1796 ;  was  mother  of  the  lamented  princess 
Charlotte ;  and  died  Aug.  7, 1821.  See  article 
Qneen  Oar^ine, 

OW  WILLLAM  TV. 

Adelaide  Amelia  Loniea  Ttreta  OanXiint,  sister 
of  the  duke  of  Saxe-Meinengen ;  she  waa 
married  July  11, 1818 ;  and  survived  the  king 
twelve  years.    Her  mc^esty  died  Deo.  i,  1849. 

TICTORIA— qUKEIf  RBONAHT. 

Alexandrina  Victoria,  the  reigning  queen, 
daughter  of  the  duke  of  Kent :  bom  May  24, 
1819 ;  succeeded  to  the  crown  June  20,  1837 ; 
crowned  June  28,  1838.  Married  her  cousin, 
prinoe  Albert  of  Saxe-Ooburg-Gotha,  Febw  10, 
1840. 


Of  these  queens,  fiye  it  will  be  seen,  were  queens  by  inheritance,  and  reigned  in  their 
own  right :  namel^,  Mary  I.  who  ascended  the  throne  July  6, 155S ;  Elizabeth,  who 


QUB  588  QUI 

asoended  Not.  17,  1558 ;  Mary  II.  who  (with  her  eonBort  WiUiam  III.)  aaoeaded  m 
joint  sovereign  Feb.  IS,  1680 ;  Anne,  who  came  to  the  crown  Maroh  8,  1702 ;  and 
ViGtoria,  our  present  queen  (whom  God  preserve),  who  became  queen  June  20, 1837. 

QUEEirS  THEATBK    See  Opera  Houte,  the  Italian. 

QUEENSTOWN,  Upfsb  Canada.  This  town  on  the  river  Niagara,  was  taken  in  the  last 
war  with  America,  by  the  troops  of  the  United  States,  Oct  13, 1812 ;  but  waa  retaken 
by  the  British  forces,  who  defeated  the  Americana  with  conatderable  loas  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  prisoners,  on  the  same  day.    Queenstown  suffered  severely  in  thia  war. 

QUERN.  The  querUi  or  handmill,  is  of  Roman,  or  as  some  say,  of  Irish  invention ;  but 
the  latter  is  not  likely,  as  Roman  querns  have  been  foimd  in  Yorkshire ;  and  it  is  said 
by  others  that  the  Romans  found  querns  there.  No  doubt  exists,  however,  that  the 
quern  was  in  very  early  use  in  Ireland,  as  it  is  mentioned  by  her  oldest  histortana 

QUESNO Y,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  British  and  French,  in  which  the  former  defeated 
the  latter  with  some  loss,  Sept  11, 1793.  Quesnoy  was  taken  by  the  Austrians  in  1793, 
but  was  recovered  by  the  French  next  year.  It  surrendered  to  prince  Frederick  of  the 
Netherlands,  June  29, 1815,  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo. — ^It  was  here  that  cannon 
were  first  used,  and  callod  bombards. — Uenauli. 

QUIBBRON  BAY.  A  British  force  landed  here  in  1746,  but  was  repulsed.  In  the  bay 
admiral  Hawke  gained  a  complete  victory  over  the  French  admiral  Conflana^  Hue 
most  perilous  and  important  action  defeated  the  projected  invasion  of  Great  Britain, 
Nov.  20, 1759.  Quiberon  was  taken  possession  of  by  some  French  regiments  in  the 
pay  of  England,  July  3, 1795 ;  but  on  July  21,  owing  to  the  treacherous  condoct  of 
some  of  these  soldiers,  the  French  republicans  retook  it  by  surprise,  and  many  of  the 
emigrants  were  executed.  About  900  of  the  troops,  and  nearly  1500  royalist  inha- 
bitants,  who  had  joined  the  regiments  in  the  pay  of  Great  Britain,  effected  their 
embarkation  on  board  the  ships.  The  remainder  fell  into  the  handa  of  the  enemy, 
together  with  such  stores  and  ammunition  as  had  been  landed. 

QUICELSILVER.  In  its  liquid  state  it  is  commonly  called  vii^  mercury.  It  is  endowed 
with  very  extraordinary  properties,  and  used  to  show  the  weight  of  the  atmoephen^ 
and  its  continual  variations,  &c.  Its  use  in  refining  silver  was  discovered  ajk  15401 
There  are  mines  of  it  in  various  parts,  the  chief  of  which  are  at  Almeida,  in  Spain,  and 
at  Udria,  in  Camiola,  in  Germany;  the  latter  discovered  by  accident  in  1497,  for 
several  years  yielded  1200  tons.  A  mine  was  discovered  at  Ueylon  in  1797.  Quick- 
silver was  congealed  in  winter  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  1759.  It  was  congealed  in  R»»g»^n^ 
by  a  chemical  process,  without  snow  or  ice,  by  Mr.  Walker,  in  1787.    See  OalouuL 

QUIETIST.  The  doctrines  and  religious  opinions  of  MoUnos,  a  Spaniard  (1627-9^, 
whose  work,  the  SjdriiwU  Ouide,  was  the  foundation  of  this  sect  in  France.  Hia 
principal  tenet  was,  that  the  purity  of  religion  consisted  in  an  internal  silent  medi- 
tation and  recollection  of  the  merits  of  Christ,  and  the  mercies  of  God.  Hia  doctrine 
was  alao  called  Quietism  from  a  kind  of  absolute  reet  and  inaction  in  which  the  sect 
supposed  the  soul  to  be,  when  arrived  at  that  state  of  perfection  called  bv  them  unittve 
life.  They  then  imagined  the  soul  to  be  wholly,  employed  in  contemplating  its  God. 
Madame  de  la  Mothe-Quyon  was  imprisoned  in  the  Baistile  for  her  visiona  and  {VO' 
phecies,  but  released  through  the  interest  of  F^ndlon,  the  celebrated  archbishop  of 
Cambray,  between  whom  and  Bossuet,  bishop  of  Meaux,  she  occasioned  the  fimioqp 
controversy  concerning  Quietism,  1697.    The  sect  sprang  up  about  1678.— iVioiiv.  JHeL 

QUILLSw  They  are  said  to  have  been  first  used  for  pens  in  A.D.  553 ;  but  some  say  not 
before  635.  Minshew  derives  the  word  from  the  Teutonic. — Bailejf,  Quills  are  for 
the  moat  part  plucked  with  great  cruelty  from  living  geese^  swans,  and  tui^eya ;  and 
all  persons,  from  convenience,  economy,  and  feelings  ought  to  prefer  metallie  peos^ 
which  came  first  into  use  about  1820. — PkUUpe, 

QUINCE.  The  Pyrm  Cydonia,  brought  to  theee  countries  firom  Austria,  before  A.D.  1573. 
The  Japan  Quince,  or  Ptfnu  Japonica,  brought  hither  from  Japan,  1796.  Of  this  fruit 
a  well-known  confection  is  made.  A  quince,  in  token  of  fruitfulness,  was,  by  the  laws 
of  Solon,  given  to  the  brides  of  Athens  upon  the  day  of  their  marriage. 

QUININE  OR  QUINIA,  an  alkaloid  (much  used  in  medidue),  discovered  in  1820  by 
Pelletier  and  Caventou.  It  is  a  probable  constituent  of  all  genuine  cinchona  bazk% 
especially  of  the  yellow  bark. 

QUINQUAGESIMA  SUNDAY.    The  observation  of  this  Sunday  was  instituted  by  pope 


QUI  589  RAD 

Qregoiy  the  Great,  about  1572.  The  name  of  the  fint  Sunday  in  Lent  having  been 
distangulBhed  by  the  appellation  of  QitadroffeiuiM,  and  the  three  weeks  preceding 
having  been  appropriated  to  the  gradiud  introduction  of  the  Lent  fast,  the  three 
Bondays  of  these  weeks  were  called  by  names  significant  of  their  position  in  the 
calendar;  and  reckoning  by  decades  (tenths),  the  Sunday  preceding  Qiiadngesima 
received  its  present  name,  QiiinquageHma,  the  'second  JSexagetima,  and  the  third 
Sepivoffegima,    See  QitadrageHma. 

QUINTILIANS.  An  extraordinary  sect  of  heretics  in  the  seoond  century,  the  disciples 
of  Montanus^  who  took  their  name  from  QuinUlia,  a  lady  whom  he  had  deceived  by 
his  pretended  sanctity.  They  followed  Quintilia,  whom  they  regarded  as  a  prophetess ; 
they  made  the  euchariat  of  bread  and  cheese,  and  allowed  .women  to  be  priests  and 
bishops. — Pardon, 

QUIRINUS,  TEMPLE  OT,  at  Rome.  L.  Papirius  Cursor,  general  in  the  Roman  army, 
first  directed  a  sun-dial  in  the  temple  of  Quirinus*  from  which  time  the  days  began  to 
be  divided  into  hours,  293  B.a — Atpin.  The  sun-dial  was  sometimes  called  the 
Quirinua  firom  the  origuud  place  in  which  it  was  set  up. — Atht, 

QUITO.  A  presidency  of  Colombia  (lohick  tee),  celebrated  as  having  been  the  scene  of  the 
measurement  of  a  degree  of  the  meridian,  by  the  French  atid  Spanish  mathematicians 
in  the  reign  of  Lous  XY.  Forty  thousand  souls  were  hurled  into  eternity  by  a  dreadful 
earthquaike  at  Quito,  which  almost  overwhelmed  the  city,  Feb.  4,  1797.  Since  then 
violent  shocks,  but  not  so  disastrous,  have  occurred.    See  £arthquakee. 

QUOITS.  This  amusement  originated  with  the  Greeks.  It  was  first  played  at  the 
Olympio  games^  by  the  Idaai  Dactyli,  fifty  years  after  the  Deluge  of  Deucalion,  1453 
B,a  He  who  threw  the  discus  farthes^  and  with  the  greatest  dexterity,  obtained  the 
prize.  Perseus,  the  grandson  of  Acrisius,  by  Danai;,  naving  inadvertentlv  slain  his 
grandfather,  in  throwing  a  quoit,  exchanged  the  kingdom  of  Argos,  to  which  he  was 
heir^  for  that  of  Tirynthus,  and  founded  the  kmgdom  of  Myoenie,  1313  b.o. 


R. 

RACES.  One  of  the  exercises  among  the  ancient  games  of  Greece  (see  CharioU),  Horse- 
races were  known  in  England  in  very  early  times.  Fltz-Stephen,  who  wrote  in  the  days 
of  Henry  II.  mentions  the  delight  token  by  the  citisens  of  London  in  the  diversion. 
In  James's  reign,  Croydon  in  the  south,  and  Oarterly  in  the  north,  were  celebrated 
courses.  Near  York  there  were  races,  and  the  prise  was  a  little  golden  bell,  1607. — 
Oamden,  In  the  end  of  Charles  I.'s  reign,  races  were  performed  at  Hyde-park,  and 
also  Newmarket,  although  first  used  as  a  place  for  hunting.  Charles  II.  patromsed 
them,  and  instead  of  bells,  gave  a  silver  bowl,  or  cup,  value  100  guineas.  William  III. 
added  to  the  plates  (as  did  queen  Anne),  and  founded  an  academy  for  riding.  Act  for 
suppressing  races  by  ponies  and  weak  horses,  13  Geo.  II.  1739.    See  Newmarket, 

RACE-HORSES.  Plifing  Childere,  bred  in  1715  by  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  was  allowed 
by  sportsmen  to  have  been  the  fleetest  horse  that  ever  ran  at  Newmarket,  or  that 
was  ever  bred  in  the  world ;  he  ran  four  miles  in  six  minutes  and  forty*eight  seconds, 
or  at  the  rate  of  35  A  miles  an  hour,  carrying  nine  stone  two  pounds.  He  died  in  174 1, 
aged  26  years.  Sclipte  was  the  fleetest  horse  that  ran  in  England  since  the  time  of 
ChUdert;  he  was  never  beaten,  and  died  in  February,  1789,  aged  25  yeara  HIb  heart 
weighed  141b.  which  accounted  for  his  wonderful  spirit  and  courage. — Ckrietie 
White 9  Hist.  qftJie  Turf. 

RACKS.  This  engine  of  death,  as  well  as  of  torture,  for  extracting  a  confession  from 
criminals,  was  early  known  in  the  southern  countries  of  Europe.  The  early  Christians 
suffered  hy  the  rack,  which  was  in  later  times  an  instrument  of  the  Inquisition.  The 
duke  of  Exeter,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YI.  erected  a  rack  of  torture  (then  called  the 
duke  of  Exeter^s  daughter),  now  seen  in  the  Tower,  1423.  In  the  case  of  Felton, 
who  murdered  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  the  judges  of  England  nobly  protested 
against  the  pumshment  proposed  in  the  privy  council  of  putting  the  assassin  to  the 
rack,  ae  being  contrary  to  Uie  laws,  1628.    See  BavaiUac 

RADCLIFFE  LIBRARY,  Oxford.  Founded  under  the  will  of  Dr.  John  Radcliffe,  tiie 
most  eminent  physician  of  his  time.  He  had  been  physician  to  queen  Anne,  while 
princess  Anne  of  Denmark;  he  offended  her  by  telUng  her  that  her  ailments  were 


RAD 


640 


RAI 


nothing  more  than  the  Tapoon,  and  she  was  not  reconciled  to  him  when  »he  eame  to 
the  throne;  but  in  caaes  of  emergency  he  was,  nererthelesi,  consulted.  He  died  Kot.  1, 
1714,  leaving  40,0002.  to  the  UniverBity  of  Oxford  for  the  founding  a  library,  the  firat 
atone  of  which  waa  laid  May  17, 1737;  the  edifice  was  completely  finished  in  1749, 
and  waa  opened  April  13,  in  the  same  year.  The  library  oonaiats  chiefly  of  wotlu  of 
medical  and  philoeophicil  sciente. 

RADCLIFFE  OBSERVATORY,  Oxford.  Founded  by  the  exertions  of  Dr.  Homsby, 
Savilian  professor  of  astronomy,  about  1771,  and  completed  in  1794.  The  obaerra- 
tions  are  published  by  Mr.  Manuel  J.  Johnson,  the  present  director,  appointed  in  1839. 


BADSTADT,  PEACE  of.  Between  Frsnoe  and  the  emperor,  March  6, 1714.  It 
signed  by  marshal  Yillars  on  the  part  of  the  French  king,  and  by  prince  Eogene  oo 
the  part  of  the  emperor,  and  restored  the  German  frontier  to  the  terms  of  the  peace 
of  Ryswidc  The  Congrksb  of  Raobtadt,  to  treat  of  a  general  peace  with  the 
Germanio  powers,  was  commenced  Dec.  9, 1797;  and  negociations  were  carried  oo 
throughout  the  year  1798.  The  atrocious  massacre  of  the  French  plenipotentiaries  at 
Radstadt  by  the  Austrian  regiment  of  Saeltzler,  took  place  April  28, 1799. 

RAFTS.  The  Greeks  knew  no  other  way  of  croesing  their  narrow  seas  but  on  rmAs  or 
beams  tied  to  one  another,  until  the  use  of  shipping  wss  brought  among  them  by 
Danaus  of  Egypt,  when  he  fled  from  his  brother  Rameses,  1485  B.a — BepUm, 

RAGGED  SCHOOLS.  Free  schools  for  outcast  destitute  ragged  children,  set  up  in  kfge 
towns.  In  these  schools  the  instruction  is  based  on  the  scriptures,  and  mo^t  of  the 
teachers  are  yoluntary  and  unpaid.  They  existed  in  some  parts  of  London  prerious  to 
1844,  but  did  not  receive  their  name  till  that  year,  when  the  "Ragged  school  union* 
was  formed,  principally  by  Mr.  S.  Stacy,  and  Mr.  Wm.  Locke  (now  Hon.  Secretary). 
The  earl  of  Shaftesbury  is  chairman.  In  1 60  Ragged-school  institutions  there 
Pec.  1866)  :— 


128  Sunday  sehools  with  16,987  BchoUra. 

98  Dmy  scbools  with  13.067  scholars. 
117  Ehrening  schools  wito  8,086  scholars. 

84  Industxial  classes  with  8,224  scholars. 


168  Paid  teachers  In  day  schools. 
126  Paid  teachers  in  week  night-schoola 
43  Paid  rsAige  and  industrial 
2189  Voluntwry  teachers. 


There  are  16  refturcs,  where  600  inmates  are  fed,  lodged,  clothed  and  educated.    Upwards  of 
600  hoys  and  girls  nave  emigrated  to  the  ooloniea    See  Shoe-Moot  Brigade. 


RAILWAYS.  There  were  short  roads  called  tram-ways  in  and  about  Newoastle^ 
down  by  Mr.  Beaumont  so  early  as  1602 ;  they  were  made  of  wood.  They  are  thus 
mentioned  in  1676 : — *'The  manner  of  the  carriage  is  by  laying  rails  of  timber  from 
the  colliery  to  the  river,  exactly  straight  and  purallel;  and  bidky  carta  are  made 
with  four  rollers  fitting  those  rails,  whereby  the  carriage  is  so  easy  that  one  horae  will 
draw  down  four  or  five  chaldron  of  coals,  and  is  an  immense  benefit  to  the  ooal- 
merchants." — Hoger  North,  They  were  made  of  iron  at  Whitehayen,  in  1738.  An 
iron  railway  was  laid  down  near  Sheffield  by  John  Curr  in  1776»  which  was  destroyed 
by  the  colliers.  The  first  considerable  iron  railway  was  laid  down  at  Golebrook  Dale 
in  1786.  The  first  iron  railway  sanctioned  by  parliament  in  1801  (with  Uie  exception 
of  a  few  undertaken  by  canal  companies  as  small  branches  to  mines)  waa  the  Surrey 
iron  railway  (by  horses),  from  the  Thames  at  Wandsworth  to  Croydon.  The  Stockton 
and  Dsrlington  railway  (by  engines),  constructed*  bv  Edw.  Pesse  and  George  Ste- 
phenson, was  opened  Sept.  27, 1825.  The  LiTorpool  and  Manchester  railway  com- 
menced in  Oct  1826,  and  opened  Sept.  15, 1830.  See  Liverpool.  This  railway  led  to 
similar  enterprises  throughput  Euffland  and  the  continent.  The  examination  of 
railway  schemes,  before  their  introduction  into  parliament,  by  the  Board  of  Trader 
was  ordered  1844.  An  act  psssed  10  Vict.  Aug.  28, 1846,  for  constituting  commis- 
sioners of  railways,  who  have  since  been  incorporated  with  the  Board  of  Trade. 
See  end  of  thit  artide, 

LIST  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  RAILWATS  OF  THE  UNITED  KINODOM. 

To  rmder  te/ertnee  /ocila,  Ike  raUvayt  are  namtd  after  tktir  termini,  and  net  after  their  cempoM^  «t 
teveral  linet  in  many  comc  belong  to  one  company.  If  the  reader  does  not  Jhtd  any  pariiemlar  raUway 
under  one  tcrmtnii^  he  wiUftnd  it  under  the  other. 

BailuayM.                          Date  of  Openinff.  RaUwayM.                          Datt  ^  Oftnm^. 

Aberdare Aug.  6»  1M6  Alston    branch  of  the  Newcastle  and 

Aberdare  and  Neath   .  .     Sept.  1861        Carlisle May,  lUS 

Aberdeen  and  Portlethen              March,  1860  Apedale  branch  of  the  North-Straflonl- 

Alloa  to  Btirlhig;  branch  of  the  Stirling  shire May,  18SS 

and  Dunfermilne             .        .     July,  1862  Arbroath  and  Forfiu*               .      Jan.  S^  1839 


RAI 


541 


RAI 


RAILWAYS,  etmiinmed. 

RaHwajft,  BaU  of  Open, 

ABhboume  bntneh  of  th«  North-Struflbrcl- 

ahire May, 

Aahford  to  Hastings  and  St.  Leonards ; 

branch  of  tho  South-Eastern         Feb. 
Aahton  bnmoh  of  the  Manchester  and 


■  wwmn  .  .  .  •  April  15, 
Aahton  l»anch  of  the  Mancheeter  and 

Sheffield  ....  Dec.  30, 
Aylesbury  branch  of  the  London  and 

Birmingham  ....  June, 
Ballocbuey,  Scotland  .... 
Banbury  and  Fenny  Compton ;  brsnch 

of  the  Great  Western  Sept. 

Bangor  and  Gamarron    .  July, 

Bangor  to  Tilanfair ;  Chester  and  HoIt- 

hesd ......  March, 

Battle  and  St.  Leonards;  South-Eastem, 

Jan. 
Belfast  and  Comber ;  BeUkst  and  countv 

of  Down        ....       April, 
Bedford  branch  of  the  London  and  Bir- 
mingham ....        Not.  17, 
Belikst  and  Portadown    .... 
Krmingham  and  Derby  Feb.  10, 

Birmingham  and  Gloucester  .  Sept.  17, 
Birmingham,  Wolverhampton,  and  Stour 

Valley July. 

Bishop- Auckland  and  Weardale,  Not.  8, 
Bishopetoke  and  Salisbuxy  .  March  1, 
Blackburn  to  Chalbum  .    June, 

Blackburn  and  Preston  .  June  1, 

Blackburn.  Darwen,  and  Bolton    . 
Blackpool  br.  of  the  Preston  and  Wyre  . 
Bletchley  to  Banbury .  .    Aiiril, 

Blyth  and  Tjme       ....  Oct. 
Bodmin  and  Wadebridge    . 
Bolton  and  Preston  .  .  June  22, 

Bolton,  Kenyon,  and  Leigh  .  June. 
Bootie  branoh  of  the  Whitehaven  ana 

Fnmess Oct. 

Brandling  Junction  Sept. 

Bridlington  branch  of  the  York  and  Scar- 

boTDi^^fa  (pvt)  ....  Oct. 
Brighton  and  Chichester  .  .  June  8, 
Brighton  and  Hastings  .  .  June  27, 
Bristol  and  Exeter  .       .  May  1, 

Bristol  and  Gloucester    .  July, 

Osldeoot  and  Luffenham;  London  and 

North -Western  ...  April, 
Cambridge  and  Brandon  .  July  80, 
Canterbiuy  and  Whitstable  May. 

Cheltenham  and  Swindon  .  Mi^  12, 
Chepstow  Bridge ;  South  Wales  July, 
Chepstow  and  Swansea ;  Do.  .  June, 
Chester  and  Birkenhead  .  .  Sent.  28; 
Chester  and  Crewe  .  Oct.  1, 

Chester  and  Holyhead  (part)  . 
Clarence  ;  first  act  passed  in  .  .  . 
Claydontolslip;  Buckinghamshire,  Sept 
Cockermouth  and  Workmgton,  April  28, 
Colchester  and  Ipswich  .  .  June  16, 
Cork  to  Ballinhajsig;  Cork  and  Bandon, 

Dec 
CoTontry  and  Leamington  Dec.  2. 

Coventry  and  Nuneaton ;  London  and 

North-Westem  Aug. 

Crediton  br.  of  the  Bristol  and  Ezoter  . 
Croydon  and  Efaneom  .    May  17, 

Cumnock  and  uloe^um    .  Oct 

Dereham  br.  of  the  Norwich  and  Brandon 
Droitwichand  Stourbridge ;  Oxford,  Wor- 
cester, and  Wolverhampton         May, 
Dublin  and  Carlow  .  .  Aug.  10, 

Dublin  and  Drogheda .  May  20, 

Dublin  and  Ki:^stown  .  .  Dec.  17. 
Dundalk  and  Portadown;  Dublin  ana 

Belflurt  Junction      .  .    June, 

Dundee  and  Arbroath  April  8, 

Dundee  and  Newtyle .  Dec. 


862 

851 

8i0 

845 

830 
828 

852 

852 

850 

852 

850 

846 
842 
842 
840 

852 
843 
847 
850 
846 
847 
846 
850 
852 
834 
843 
831 

850 
830 

846 
846 
846 
844 
844 

851 
845 
830 
845 
862 
850 
840 
840 
847 
828 
850 
847 
846 

851 
844 

850 
847 
847 
850 
847 

852 
846 
844 
834 

852 
840 
831 


Railwaff$.  JkUe  i^f  Open 

Dundee  and  Perth  .  .    May  22. 

Dunfermline  and  Alloa;   Stiriing  and 
Dunfermline     ....     Aug. 
Durham  and  Sunderluid        .  June  28, 
East  and  West  India  Docks  and  Birming- 
ham Junction ;  fit>m  Blaokwall  railway 
to  Ounden  Town  .        .       .         Aug. 
Edinbui^gh  and  Berwick     .       June  18y 
Edinburgh  and  Dalkeith 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  .  Feb.  8, 

Edinburgh,  Leith,  and  Granion  .  . 
Edinbuiigh  and  Museelbuiigh  .  July  14, 
Elgin  and   Lossiemouth  (MonyshireX 

Aug. 
Ely  and  Huntingdon  .... 
Ely  and  Peterborough  Jan. 

Evesham  to  Kempsey;  Oxford, Worcester, 
and  Wolverhampton  .         May, 

Exeter  and  Crediton  .  .  .  May, 
Exeter  and  Plymouth  (port)  .  May  20. 
Famham  to  Alton ;  London  and  South 

Western July, 

Fenny  Compton  and  Birmingham :  Great 
Western        ....        Sept 

Pumess Aug. 

Glasgow  and  Ayr  .  .  Aug.  12, 
Glasgow  and  Greenock  March  31, 
Glasgow,  Gamkirk,  and  Coatbridge, 
Scotland  ....  July. 
Gloucester  and  Chepstow  .  .  Sept 
Gosport  branch  of  the  London  and  South- 
ampton   Feb.  7, 

Gravesend  and  Rochester  .        Feb.  10, 
Guildford  bntnch  of  the  London  and 
Southampton  .        May, 

Haddington  branch  of  the  Edinburgh 
and  Berwick    ....    June, 
Halifax  branch  of  the  Manchester  and 

Leeds July  1, 

Hartlepool 

Hertford  branch  of  the  London  and  Gam- 
bridge    Oct  31, 

Hudderafield  and  Penistone  .  June, 
Hull  and  Bridlington      .  Oct  7, 

Hull  and  Selby    ....  Julyl, 
Ipswich  and  Bury  St  Edmunds  Dec.  24, 
Kelso ;  branch  of  North  British     June, 
Kendal  and  Windermere 
Keymer  and  Lewes  .  Oct  1, 

Kingstown  and  Dalkey  .         March  29, 
Knottingly;  branch  of  the  York  and 
North  Midland  .    April, 

Lancaster  and  Carlisle    .        .    Deo.  16, 
Lancaster  and  Preston        .        June  30, 
Landore  and  Carmartben;  branch  of  the 
South  Wales.        .       .  Nov. 

Leeds  and  Bradford    .  .  July  1, 

Leeds  and  Derby     .       .  July, 

Leeds  and  Selby  ....  Sept. 
Leicester  and  Swannlngton  July, 

Leverton,  North,  and  Saxelby  .  Anru, 
liverpool  and  Birmingham  .  July  4, 
Liverpool  and  Manchester  .  Sept  16, 
liverpool  and  Preston  .    Oct  81, 

Lochlomond  branch  of  the  Caledonian 
and  Dumbartonshire       .  July, 

London  and  Birmingham  .  Sept  17, 
London  and  Blackvrall  .  .  Aug.  2, 
London  and  Brighton  .  Sept  21, 

London  and  Bristol  .       June  30, 

London  and  Cambridge  .  .  July, 
London  and  Colchester  March  29, 

London  and  Croydon  .  .  June  1, 
London  and  Dover      .  .  Feb.  6, 

London  and  Greenwich  .  ,  Dec.  26, 
London  and  Richmond  .  July  27, 
Loudon  and  Southampton  .  Mav  11, 
London  and  Werrington ;  branch  of  the 
Great  Northern        .  .     Aug.  1850 


847 

850 
839 


850 
846 
831 
842 
.846 
847 

852 
847 
847 

852 
851 
846 

852 

852 
846 
840 
841 

815 
851 

842 

845 

845 

846 

i844 
836 

848 
850 
846 
840 
846 
850 
847 
847 
844 

850 
846 
840 

85S 
846 
840 
834 
832 
850 
837 
880 
838 

850 
.838 
841 
841 
841 
845 
843 
839 
844 
838 
846 
840 


BAI 


642 


RAI 


RAILWAYS,  continwd. 

Raiheajft,  Date  <if  Open^. 

Londonderry  and  Newtown  LlmaTAdy, 

Dec.  1862 
Londonderry  to  Btrabane  .  April  19.  1847 
Lowestoft  branch  of  the  Norwich  ana 

Yarmouth 1847 

Low  Moor  and  Haliihx    .  Aug.  1850 

Lynn  and  Dereham 1847 

Lynn  and  Ely 1847 

Ly  tham  branch  of  the  Preston  and  Wyrs,  1846 
Maoclesfield  branch  of  the  Manchester 

and  Birmingham     .  Not.  84.  1846 

Maidstone  branch  of  the  London  ana 

Dover Sept.  24,  1844 

Manchester  and  Birmingham  Aug.  10,  1842 
Manchester  and  Bolton  May  29,  1888 

Manchester  and  Leeds  .  .  March  1,  1841 
Manchester  and  Rawtenstall  Sept.  26b  1846 
Manchester  and  Sheffield  .  Dec.  22,  1846 
Maxgate  branch  of  the  London  and  Dover  1846 
Maryport  and  Carliale.  Jan.  1846 

Melmerby  and  Stockton ;  branch  of  the 

Xieeds  Northern     .  May,  1852 

Morthyr-Tydvil  and  Cardiff  April  12,  1841 
Middlesborough  and  Rodear  .  June  4,  1846 
Monkland  and  Kirkintilloch,  act  passed  1824 
Mullingar  and  Oalway ;  branch  of  the 

Midland  Great  Western  July,  1861 
Neath  and  Aberdare   .                .     Sept.  1851 
Newcastle  branch  of  the  North  Stafford- 
shire       SepL  1852 

Newcastle  and  Berwick  July,  1847 

Newcastle  and  Carliale  .  .  June  18,  1839 
Newcastle  and  Darihiffton.  April  15,  1844 
Newcastle  and  North  Shields  June  18,  1839 
Newmarket  and  Cambridge  .  .  Oct.  1861 
Newtown-Stewart  and  Omagfa  .  Sept.  1852 
Newport  and  Pontypool .  .  Juiv,  1852 
Newtyle  and  Cupar- Anffus .  Feb.  1837 

Northampton  and  PoterDorough,  Jime2,  1846 
North  ana  South  Western  Junction,  Dea  1852 
North  Levcrton  and  Saxelby  .  April,  1850 
Norwich  and  Brandon  .    .  1845 

Norwich  and  Yarmouth  .  .  May  1,  1844 
Nottingham  to  Qrantham  .  July,  1850 

Nottiuf^ham  and  Lincoln  Aug.  S,  1846 

Nottingham  branch  of  the  Bu^y  and 

Derby       ....         May  80.  1839 
Oldham  branch  of  the  Manchester  ana 

Leeds     ....         March  31,  1842 
Oxford  branch  of  the  London  and  Bristol, 

June  12,  1844 
Oxford  and  Banbury  .  .     Aug.  1860 

Paisley  and  Ronft^w  May,  1837 

Ponxonoe  to  Comboume     .  Jan.  1852 

Perth  and  Castlecaiy  (p«rt)    .  .  1847 

Pinxton  and  Kirby     .  ,    June,  1850 

PoQtop  and  South  Shields      .  .  1836 

Portlethen  and  Aberdeen  .  .  March,  1860 
Preston  and  Wyre   .  .    July  20.  1840 

Bavenglass  to  Bootle;   branch  of  the 

Whitehaven  and  Fumess        .    July,  1850 
Redruth  to  Truro    .        .  Aug.  1852 

Richmond  branch  of  the  York  and  Dar- 

Ungton      ....        Sept  10^  1846 


BaHmagt.  DaU  9f  Opnimg. 

Robert's-Bildge  and  Battle ;  hraodi  cf 

the SouthEastem  .        .  Dec  1851 

Royston  and  Hitchhi .  .  .  Sept.  1850 
Rugby  and  Caldeoot ;  London  and  North* 

Western  ....  April,  1850 
Rugby  and  Derby  Jubr,  1810 

Rugby  and  Leamington  .  .  Foo.  1851 

Rugby  and  Stafford 1847 

St  Andrew's  ....  July,  1859 
St  Helen's ;  first  act  passed  .    .  1830 

Salisbury  branch  of  the  Londnn  and 

Southampton 1847 

Sheffield  and  Rotherham    .  Oct  1838 

Bhelford  branch  of  the  Eastern  Countiee 

and  Royaton  and  Hitchin  .  July,  1851 
Shrewsbury  and  Cheeter  (part) .  Nov.  4.  1846 
Shrewsbury  and  Ludlow.       .      April.  1863 

Slamanuao,  Scotland 1840 

Southampton  and  Dorchester.  Junel,  1847 
Sooth-Sostem;  Tunbridge- Wells  branch 

Nov.  25,  1846 
South-Eastem ;  North  Kent  line  .  .  1S49 
Stockton  and  Darlington  .  .  Sept  1825 
Stockton  and  Hartlepool  .  Feb.  lOt  1841 
Stourbridge  and  Dudley     .  Dec  1852 

Strabane  and  Newton-atewart  .  Feb.  I85S 
Bwinton  and  Bamsley  .    JuOfS,  1851 

Syston  and  Peterborough  (part)  .  1846 

Teignmouth  to  Newton  .  Dec  31.  1846 
Tipperarv  and  Clonmel  .  .  April.  1852 
Trent  Valloy  .  June  90^  1847 

Tunbridge- WeUa  branch  of  the  London 

and  Dover Oct  1846 

Tunbridge-Wells    to    Bobert'a-Bridge : 

branch  of  the  South-Eastem  .  Aug.  1651 
Warrington  and  Newton ....  18S3 
Weunii^tonand  High  Bentham;  branch 

of  the  North-Westem  .     May,  18S0 

Werrington  and  Retford ;  branch  of  the 

Great  Northern    .  July,  1862 

West  and  East  India  Docks  and  Binning^ 

ham  Junction  from  the  Blaokwall  Bail- 

way  to  Camden  Town  Aug.  1850 

Westbury  to  Frome  .  Oct  1S50 

Westbiury  and  Warminster;  farandi  of 

the  Great  Western    .  .     Sept  1851 

West  Durham  ....  June,  1840 
Weat  London  (part)     .  May  S7,  1844 

.  Whitby  and  Pickering  .      May  6^  \9a/b 

Whitehaven  and  Maryport .  March  18,  1847 
Widness  and  Garston  Jone^  1852 

Wils<nitown,  Momingaide,  and  Coltneaa, 

June  21,  1845 
Wishaw  and  Ooltness  .*  first  aot  passed  .  18tt 
Worcester  branch  of  the  Oxfera,  Wor> 

cester,  and  Wolverhampton  .  Sept  1850 
Worcester  and  Droitwich  .  Jan.  1852 

York  and  Darlington  .  .  Jan.  4»  1841 

York  and  Newoaatle ;   Borooghbridge 

branch June  17,  1S47 

York  and  Nonnanton.  June  SO,  1810 

York  and  Searboroogh    .        .     July  7,  1845 


EXTKNT  OF  RAILWATB  OPENED  THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD. 


warn. 

United  Kingdom,  June  30, 1854    .       .    7803 

„  „  Dec.  81, 1866       .    .    8871 

America  \ 3800 


Germany 
HolLwd 
Belgium 
France 


up  to  1848  inclusive 


1670 

200 

1005 

2200 


Italy. 

Denmark  .  . 
Cuba. 

Russia  .  .  • 
British  Colonies 
East  India   .    . 


JfOfli. 

115 

.....      106 

uptol648indQaive   ;      ^ 

.    !    1000 
500 


In  the  six  months  ending  Juno  80,  1854,  50.8C7.404  persons  travelled  by  railway  in  the 
United  Kingdom ;  in  the  half-year  ending  Dec.  1,  1855,  the  persons  who  travelled  were 
66.770,084 :  the  receipts,  11,613,660^  The  receipte,  hicluding  cattle,  maU%  luggage^  Ac  were 
0,424,6054. 


BAI  643  BAT 


of  87  miles  per  hour ;  and  at  the  preeent  moment  looomotives  have  attained  a  speed 
of  70  milee  per  hour.  During  the  same  period  the  quantity  of  fuel  required  for  gene- 
i»ting  steam  has  heen  diminished  five-sixths,  that  is,  six  tons  of  coal  were  formerly 
consumed  for  one  at  the  present  time,  and  other  expenses  are  diminished  in  a  corre- 
sponding ratia — Tud^t  Eailwajft.  The  capital  invested  in  railway  undertakings  has 
reached  a  most  astonishing  amount  Up  to  1840  it  was  69  millions ;  and,  according 
to  the  acts  of  parliament  which  sanctioned  railways,  the  share  capital  and  borrowing 
powers  of  all  the  British  railway  companies  amounted,  on  March  1, 1853,  to  868 
millions  sterling.  The  railway  mania  and  panic  year  was  1845.  An  act  for  the  better 
regulation  of  railwavB,  17  &  18  Vict.  c.  31,  was  passed  July  10, 1854.— A  railway  in  the 
Cximea^  from  Belaklava  to  the  trenches  before  Sebastopol,  was  opened  in  June  1855. 

BAINBOW.  The  theory  of  this  was  accurately  developed  by  Kepler  in  1611,  and  by  Bend 
Descartes  in  1629.    Further  discoveries  respecting  its  colours  were  made  in  1689. 

BAMILIES,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  English  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and 
the  aUiea  on  one  sidcy  and  the  French  on  the  other,  commanded  by  the  elector  of 
Bavaria  and  the  marshal  de  Yilleroy.  The  French,  having  no  confidence  in  their 
oommandersy  or  on  their  disposition  of  their  army,  were  soon  seized  with  a  panic,  and 
a  general  rout  ensued :  about  4000  of  the  allied  army  were  slain  in  the  engagement ; 
fou£^t  on  Whitsunday,  May  23, 1706.  The  duke  pursued  and  achieved  one  of  his 
most  glorious  victories,  which  accelerated  the  fall  of  Louvain,  Brussels,  and  other 
important  plaosa.  Parliament  rewarded  the  victor  by  settling  the  honours  which  had 
been  conferred  on  himself,  upon  the  male  and  female  issue  of  his  daughters. 

BAKGOON.  Maritime  capital  of  the  Burmese  empire,  was  taken  by  sir  A.  Campbell  on 
Hay  11, 1824,  and  remained  in  our  possession  tUl  December  1826,  when  it  was  ceded 
to  the  Burmese  on  condition  of  the  payment  of  a  sum  of  money,  the  reception  of  a 
British  resident  at  Ava,  and  freedom  of  commerce.  The  oppression  of  the  British 
merchants  led  to  the  second  Burmese  war ;  and  Bangoon  was  taken  by  storm  by 
general  Godwin,  April  14, 1852. 

RANSOMED  ARTIFICIAL  STONE  is  made  by  dissolving  common  flints  (silica)  in 
heated  caustic  alkali,  and  then  adding  fine  sand;  the  mixture  being  pressed  into 
moulds  and  heated  to  redness.  It  was  made  known  by  the  inventor  Mr.  Frederick 
Ranaomein  1848. 

RAPE.  This  offence  was  punished  by  the  Saxon  laws  with  death.  It  was  punished  by 
mutilation  and  the  loss  of  eyes  in  WilL  L's  reign.  This  punishment  was  mitigated 
by  the  statute  of  Westminster  1,  8  Edw.  1. 1274.  Made  felony  by  stat.  Westminster  2, 
12  Edw.  IIL  1338;  and  without  benefit  of  clergy,  18  Eliz.  1575.  The  earl  of 
Gaatlehaven  (lord  Audley  in  England)  was  executed  for  inviting  people  to  violate  his 
wife,  May  13, 1631.    Rape  is  now  punished  by  transportation,  4  Vict  1841. 

RAPHOE,  BISHOPBIC  of.  It  is  no  easy  task  to  ascertiun  tiie  exact  time  when  this  see 
was  founded.  St.  Columb-dlle,  a  man  of  great  virtue  and  learning,  and  bom  of  royal 
blood,  founded  a  monastery  in  this  place ;  and  it  was  afterwards  enlarged  by  other 
holy  men ;  but  it  is  the  received  opmion  that  St.  Eunan  erected  the  church  into  a 
cathedral,  and  was  the  first  bishop  of  this  see.  Baphde  was  united  to  the  bishopric 
of  Deny,  by  act  8  &  4  WilL  lY.  1833.    See  Bishopi, 

RA8PBEBRY.  This  fruit  is  not  named  among  the  fruits  that  were  early  introduced 
into  this  country  from  the  continent  of  Europe.  A  frag^nt  and  most  delidoua 
bernr,  chiefly  used  for  conserves. — Jlioriimer.  The  Virginian  raspbeny,  or  JUtbug 
ceddaUdUtt  was  brought  from  North  America,  before  1696.  The  flowering  raspberry, 
or  Ruhru  odaratut,  oame  from  North  America  in  1700.    See  FnUU, 

RATHMINES,  BATTLE  of,  nr  iRBLAim.  Colonel  Jones,  governor  of  Dublin  Castle, 
made  a  sally  out,  routed  the  marquess  of  Ormond,  killed  4000  men,  and  took  2517 
prisoners,  with  their  cannon,  baggage,  and  ammunition,  Aug.  2, 1649,  the  period  of 
the  Irish  rebellion  of  O'Neil  and  others.  This  battle,  followed  up  by  other  successes 
and  much  severity,  discomfited  the  rebels  in  this  quarter  of  the  kingdom. 

*  This  was  construotad  by  Ifr.  Georae  Stophenson,  and  obtained  the  inize  of  &0<M.  ofi<irod  by  the 
directon  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manoheeter  railway  company  for  the  best  locomotive. 


RAT 


544 


REB 


RA.TISBON,  PEACE  of.  Concladed  between  France  and  the  emperor  of  Qermany,  and 
by  which  was  terminated  the  war  for  the  Hantaan  raooeesion,  aigned  Oet.  13, 1630. 
In  later  times,  it  was  at  Ratisbon,  in  a  diet  held  there,  that  the  German  prineea 
seceded  from  the  Germanic  Empire,  and  placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of 
the  emperor  Napoleon  of  France,  Aug.  1, 1806. 

RATS.  The  brown  rat,  very  improperly  called  the  Norway  rat,  the  great  pest  of  our 
dwellings,  originally  came  to  us  from  Persia  and  the  soaUiem  regions  of  Asia.  This 
fiict  is  rendered  evident  from  the  testimony  of  Pallas  and  F.  CuTier.  Fkllaa 
describes  the  migratory  nature  of  rata,  and  states  that  in  the  autumn  of  1729  they 
arrived  at  Astrachan  in  such  incredible  numbers,  that  nothing  could  be  done  to 
oppose  them;  they  came  from  the  western  deserts,  nor  did  the  waves  of  the  Volga 
arrest  their  progress.  They  only  advanced  to  the  vicinity  of  Paris  in  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  and  in  some  parts  of  France  are  still  unknown. 

RAVAILLAC'S  MURDER  of  HENR7  IV.  of  FRANCE.  The  death  of  Ravailko  is 
one  of  the  moat  dreadful  upon  record.  He  assassinated  the  king,  May  14,  1610;  and 
when  put  to  the  torture,  he  broke  out  into  horrid  execrations.  He  was  carried  to  the 
Gr^ve,  and  tied  to  the  rack,  a  wooden  engine  in  the  shape  of  St  Andrew's  erofls. 
His  right  hand,  within  which  was  fastened  the  knife  with  which  he  did  the  murder, 
was  flnt  burned  at  a  slow  fire.  Then  the  fleshy  and  most  delicate  parts  of  his  body 
were  torn  with  red-hot  pincers,  and  into  the  gaping  wounds  melted  lead,  oil,  pitch, 
and  rosin  were  poured.  His  body  was  so  robust,  that  he  endured  this  exquisite 
pain;  and  his  strength  resisted  that  of  the  four  horses  by  which  his  limbs  were  to  be 
pulled  to  pieces.  The  executioner  in  consequence  cut  him  into  quarters^  and  the 
spectators,  who  refused  to  pray  for  him,  dragged  them  through  the  streets. 

RAVENNA,  BATTLE  or.  Between  the  French  under  the  great  Gaston  de  Foix  (duke  of 
Nemours  and  nephew  of  Louis  XIL)  and  the  Spanish  and  papal  armies.  De  Fcix 
gained  the  memorable  battle,  but  perished  in  the  moment  of  victory,  and  his  death 
closed  the  fortunes  of  the  French  in  Italy,  April  11, 1512.  The  confederate  aimy 
was  cut  to  pieces.  The  duke  of  Nemours  had  performed  prodigies  of  valour,  but 
being  too  Mg^r  in  his  pursuit  of  the  Spaniards,  who  were  retiring  in  good  order,  he 
was  slain. — ffenauU. 


REBELLIONS,  REMARKABLE,  nr  BRITISH  HISTORY.    Among  the  most 

rable  and  extraordinary  rebellions  which  have  occurred  in  these  realms  firom  the 
period  of  the  Norman  Conquest  were  the  following.  The  list  is  compiled  from  the 
most  esteemed  authorities :— 


AMinst  WilUam  the  Conqueror,  In  (kvoar  of 
Jidgar  Atheling,  by  the  Soote  and  Danes, 
▲  D.  1060. 

Against  William  II.  in  ikvoar  of  his  brother 
Robert,  a.d.  1088.    BxUnguished,  1090. 

Of  the  Welsh,  who  defeated  the  Normans  and 
English,  commenced  in  a.d.  1095. 

In  England,  in  favour  of  the  empress  Maude^ 
▲.D.  1139.    Ended.  115S. 

The  rebellion  of  prince  Richard  against  his 
father  Henry  II.  a.d.  1189. 

Of  the  Barons.  April  1S16.  Compromised  by 
the  grant  of  Magna  Charta,  June  15  follow- 
ing.   Bee  Ma^pM  Charia, 

Of  the  Barons,  a.d.  1262.  This  rebellion  ter- 
minated in  1S67. 

Of  the  lords  spiritual  and  temporal  against 
Edward  II.  on  aooount  of  his  favoiult^  the 
Gavestons,  1312.  Again,  on  account  of  the 
Spencers,  1821. 

Of  Walter  the  Tyler,  of  Doptford,  vulgarly 
called  Wat  TVIer,  occasioned  by  the  brutu 
rudeness  of  a  tax-collector  to  his  daughter. 
Having  killed  the  collector  in  his  rage,  ho 
raised  a  party  to  oppose  the  tax  Itself 
which  was  a  grievous  poll«taz,  1381.  Bee 
3Wr. 

Of  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  and  other  lords,  in 
England,  1388. 

Of  Henry,  duke  of  Lancaster,  who  catised 
Richard  II.  to  be  deposed,  1399. 

In  Ireland,  when  Roger,  earl  of  Mareh,  the 
▼loeroy  and  heir  presumptive  to  the  crown, 
was  slain,  1899. 


RebeUioh  of  the  English  and  Welsh-  bunt 

forth,  1400. 
Against  king  Henry  IV.  by  a  number  of  ooo- 

federated  lords,  140S. 
Of  Jack  Cade,  in  ftvour  of  the  duke  of  Tock, 

against  Heniy  YL  1451.    See  Cadtt  huwr- 

TtCttO%, 

In  favour  of  the  house  of  York,  145S,  wlfieh 

ended  in  the  imprisonment  of  Henry  VL 

and  seating  Edward  IV.  of  York  on  the 

throne,  1461. 
Under  Warwick  and  Clarence,  1470,  which 

ended  with  the  expulsion  of  Edward  IV. 

and  the  restoration  of  Henry  VL  the  same 

year. 
Under  Edward  IV.  1471,  which  ended  with 

the  death  of  Henry  VL 
Of  the  earl  of  Richmond,  against  Richard  IIL 

1485,    which  ended  with    the    death  eT 

Richard. 
Under  Lambert  Siinnel,  who  protended  to  be 

Richard  II I. 's  nephew,  I486,  wlkich  ended 

the  same  year,  in  discovering  that  Simnsl 

was  a  baker's  son  ;  he  wss  pardoned. 
Under  Perkin  Warbeck,  1491^  which  ended  ia 

the  execution  of  Warbeck. 
Under  Flaunock.  owing  to  taxes^  ended  with 

the  batUe  of  Blsckheath,  1497. 
Of  the  English  in  the  West,  owing  to  indo- 

Bures,  and  to  the  oppressions  of  the  gentiy, 

June,  1549 :  suppressed  same  year. 
In  Norfolk,  hoaaed  by  XeC,  the  tanner,  bat 

soon  suppressed,  Aug.  1549. 
In  ikvour  of  lady  Jane  Grey,  against  qi 


REB 


545 


REF 


REBELLIONS,  REMARKABLE,  in  BRITISH  HISTORY,  continued. 


Marv.  Lady  J ase  was  proclaimed  queen  of 
England  on  the  death  of  Edward  VI.  July  9, 
1&&3  ;  but  she  reaiflrned  the  crown  to  Mary, 
ten  days  afterwards :  she  was  beheaded  for 
high  treason,  in  the  Tower,  Feb.  12,  1654, 
nged  17. 

Of  sir  Thomas  Wyat  and  others^  on  account 
of  <)ueen  Mary^s  marriage  with  Philip  of 
Spam,  Ac.  1554. 

Of  the  Roman  Oatholics  sgainst  queen  Eliza- 
beth ;  this  insurrection  was  suppressed  the 
same  year. 

Of  the  Irish,  under  the  earl  of  Tyrone,  1599, 
suppressed  in  1601. 

Under  the  earl  of  Esrsx,  against  queen  Elisa- 
beth, 1600 :  it  ended  in  his  deatli,  1601. 

Against  Charles  I.  10S9 ;  it  ended  in  his 
death,  1649. 

Of  the  Iriah  under  Roger  More,  sir  Phelim 
O'Neil,  Ac.  against  the  English  in  Ireland ; 
it  ended  in  1661. 

Rebellion  of  the  Soots,  1666 ;  soon  afterwards 
put  down. 

Under  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  1685 ;  it  ended 
in  his  death. 

Of  the  Scots,  in  favour  of  the  Old  Pretender, 
1715 :  quelled  in  1716. 

Of  the  Scots,  under  the  Young  Pretender, 


1745  ;  suppressed  in  1746.  when  lords  Lovat, 
Balmerino,  and  Kilmarnock  were  beheaded. 

Of  the  AmericHnst  on  account  of  taxation, 
1774.  This  rebeUion  led  to  a  disastrous 
war;  and  to  the  loss  of  our  chief  North 
Amwican  colonies,  and  to  the  independence 
of  the  United  States.  1782. 

In  Ireland,  called  the  Oreat  RebeUion^  when 
nearly  the  whole  kingdom  took  up  arms, 
commenced  May  24,  1798 ;  not  finally  sup- 
pressed till  next  year. 

Again  in  Ireland,  under  Robert  Emmett,  a 
gifted  enthusiast,  July  28,  1803.  In  this 
rebellion,  lord  Kilwarden  was  put  to  death, 
with  several  others,  by  the  insuigents.  See 
MoMoerfi. 

Oanadiwn  Insurrection  (wki^  $eeX  Deo.  1887 
to  Not.  1838. 

Smith  O'Brien's  silly  Irish  rebellion  ;  termi- 
nated in  the  defeat  and  dispersion  of  a 
multitude  of  his  deluded  followers  by  sub- 
inspector  Trant  and  about  sixty  police 
constables,  on  Boulagh  common,  Ballin- 
garry,  oo.  Tipperary,  July  29,  1848.  See 
Ireland. 

The  most  dreadftil  rebellion  in  modem  times 
is  that  now  in  course  of  suppression  in 
India,  vhich  we. 


RECEIPTS  roB  MONET.  Receipts  were  first  taxed  by  a  stamp-duty  in  1782.  The 
act  waa  amended  in  1784,  1791  ei  $eq,  and  receipts  were  taxed  by  a  duty  Taiying 
according  to  the  amount  of  the  money  received,  in  all  transactions.  Stamps  required 
on  bills  of  exchange,  notes,  and  receipts  in  Ireland,  by  stat.  86  Qeo.  III.  1795.  See 
BilU  of  Exdiange,  The  uniform  stamp  of  one  penny  on  receipts,  for  all  suras,  was 
enacted  by  16  &  17  Vict  c  59  (Aug.  4, 1853). 

RECITATIVE.  A  sort  of  speaking  in  a  plain  but  yet  singing  manner,  much  like  the 
chant  used  in  cathedrals  at  reading  the  psalms.  Used  in  the  performance  of  operas. 
It  was  first  introduced  at  Rome  by  signor  Emilio  del  Cavaliere,  who  disputed  the 
claim  of  Rinuccini  to  the  introduction  of  the  Italian  opera,  1600.  See  article  Opera, 
It  waa  soon  afterwards  adopted  in  other  parte  of  Italy,  and  by  degrees  in  Europe* 

RECORDER.  The  title  given  to  the  first  judicial  officer  of  great  corporations.  He  is.  In 
London,  considered  as  the  first  corporation  officer,  and  is  paid  a  salary  which  waa 
originally  10^  per  annum,  and  is  at  present  25002.  enjoyed  for  life.  The  first 
recorder  of  the  city  of  London  was  Jeffrey  de  Norton,  alderman,  26  Edw.  I*  1298; 
Russell  Gumey,  Esq.,  Q.  C.  is  the  present  (1857)  recorder,  elected  1856. 

RECORDS,  THB  PUBLIC.  The  public  records  began  to  be  regularly  preserved  and 
kept  from  a.d.  1100,  by  order  of  Henry  I.  The  repositories  which  possess  materials 
the  meet  ancient  and  interesting  to  the  historian  are,  the  Chapter-house  of  West- 
minster Abbey,  the  Tower  of  London,  and  the  Queen's  Remembrancer's  offices  of  the 
exchequer.  The  early  records  of  Scotland,  going  from  London,  were  lost  by  shipwreck 
in  1298.  In  Ireland,  the  council-chamber  and  most  of  the  records  were  burned,  1711. 
Public  Records  act,  2  Vict.  o.  94,  10  Aug.  1838. — A  new  Record  Ofkoe  has  been 
erected  on  the  Rolls  estate,  between  Chancery  and  Fetter  lanes,  to  which  the  reoorda 
will  be  gradually  removed. 

REDHILL.    See  RrformaUry  SchooU, 

REFLECTORS.  The  account  of  the  burning-glasses  of  Archimedes  had  always  appeared 
fabulous  to  some  of  the  modems,  till  the  experiments  of  Buffon,  in  Frsnce,  and  others, 
demonstrated  its  truth  beyond  contradiction.  These  celebrated  glasses  were  supposed 
to  be  reflectors  made  of  metal,  and  capable  of  producing  their  effect  at  the  distance 
of  a  bow-shot. — Lempriere. 

REFORM  IN  PARLIAMENT.  This  subject  was  a  chief  source  of  agitation  for  many 
years,  and  during  several  of  our  late  administrations.  Mr.  Pitt*s  motion  for  a  reform 
in  parliament  was  lost  by  a  majority  of  20,  in  1782.  The  discussion  on  this  motion 
was  the  most  remarkable  up  to  the  period  at  which  reform  was  conceded.  The  first 
ministerial  measure  of  reform  was  in  earl  Grey's  administration,  when  it  was  proposed 
in  the  house  of  commons  by  Lord  John  Russell,  March  1, 1831. 

V  V 


REM  548  REV 

the  religious  diviftions  may  be  Buppoaed  to  bear  a  similar  proportion  to  each  other. — 
Weimar  Ephem,  (kog. 

REMONSTRANTS.  A  sect  in  Holland,  called  also  Arminiana,  yery  namerons  and 
powerful,  taking  their  name  from  a  writing  or  remonstrance  presented  to  the  States 
in  1609,  wherein  they  reduced  their  doctrine  to  five  articles.  The  Calvinists,  who 
opposed  them,  and  had  the  governing  power,  used  them  very  severely :  and  at  a  synod 
held  at  Dort,  their  opinions  were  condemned  in  1618. 

RENTS  IN  ENGLAND.  Rents  were  first  made  payable  in  money,  instead  of  in  kind, 
A.D.  1136.  Numerous  statutes  have  been  enacted  in  various  reigns  to  define  the 
relations  and  regulate  the  dealings  between  landlord  and  tenant  By  the  s£t 
8  Anne,  no  goods  are  removable  from  tenements  under  an  execution  until  the  rant 
shall  have  iMen  paid  to  the  landlord  by  the  sherifi^  1709.  In  England,  the  duke  of 
Sutherland  received  his  rents  in  the  value  of  com,  and  in  Scotland  in  the  value  of 
wool  and  sheep.  The  rental  of  England,  including  land,  houses,  and  minea^  was  mx 
millions  about  the  year  1600,  and  twelve  years*  purchase  the  value  of  land.  About 
1690,  the  rental  amounted  to  fourteen  millions,  and  the  land  was  worth  eighteen 
years'  purchase. — Davenant  cm  the  Be^etma,  The  present  rental  of  the  United 
Kingdom  has  been  estimated  lately  in  Parliament  at  127  millions.    See  Lamd,  &c. 

REPEAL  07  THB  UNION,  IRELAND.  An  Irish  Association  was  formed  with  this  object 
under  the  auspices  of  Mr.  O'Connell,  in  1829.  A  proclamation  of  the  lord-lieutenant 
prohibited  the  meetings  of  a  society  ''leagued  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  a  repeal  of 
the  union,  under  the  name  of  the  Irish  Society  for  ijegal  and  Legislative  R^iet  or 
the  Anti-Union  Society,"  Oct  18, 1830.  A  new  and  more  resolved  aasodaUon  after- 
wards sprung  up,  and  in  1841, 1842,  and  1848  became  more  violent,  each  suoceative 
year,  in  its  deliberations.  Assemblies  of  the  lower  claases  of  the  people  were  held  in 
the  last-named  year,  in  various  parts  of  Ireland,  some  of  them  amounting  to  150,000 
persons,  and  called  *'  monster  meetings."  The  great  meeting  at  Trim  took  place  on 
March  19 ;  the  assemblages  at  Mullingar,  Cork,  and  Longford,  on  May  14,  21,  and  28, 
respectively ;  those  at  Drogheda,  Kilkenny,  Mallow,  and  Dundalk,  on  June  5,  8, 11, 
and  29 ;  those  at  Donnybrook  and  Baltinglass,  July  8  and  20 ;  at  Tara,  Aug.  15 ;  at 
Loughiea,  Clifton,  and  Liamore,  Sept  10, 17,  and  24  ;  and  at  Mullagfamast  Oct.  I.  A 
meeting  to  be  held  at  Clontarf,  on  Oct  8,  was  suppressed  by  government ;  and  Mr. 
O'Connell  and  his  chief  associates  were  immediately  afterwards  prosecuted,  and  were 
brought  to  trial,  Jan.  15, 1844.  See  Triali.  The  association  »>r  the  repeal  of  the 
union  continued  for  some  time  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  John  O'Connell,  but  was 
littie  regarded.    The  total  "  repeal  rent  **  amounted  to  134,3794 

REPUBLICANS.    See  Ikmoerats. 

REPUBLICS.    See  Athant,  Borne,  Qetwa^  Venice,  &o. 

REQUESTS*  COURTS  of.    See  articles  Cotirto  of  BequaiM,  and  CkmteUaux. 

RESOLUTE,  Ship.    See  Franklin, 

RESTORATION,  The.  Emphatically  so  called,  being  the  restoration  of  king  Charles  II. 
to  the  crown  of  England,  after  an  interregnum  of  eleven  vears  and  four  months, 
between  Jan.  30, 1649,  when  Charlea  I.  was  beheaded,  and  May  29, 1660,  on  which 
latter  day  the  exiled  monarch  was  restored,  and  entered  London  amidst  theenthnaiaBtic 
acclamations  of  the  people.    See  England, 

RETREAT  of  thb  GREEKa  Memorable  retreat  of  10,000  Greeks  who  had  joined  the 
army  of  the  younger  Cyrus  in  his  revolt  against  his  brother  Artaxerzea,  a.c.  401. 
Xenophon  was  selected  by  his  brother  officers  to  superintend  the  retreat  of  his 
countrymen.  He  rose  superior  to  danger,  and  though  under  continual  alarms  from 
the  sudden  attacks  of  the  Persians,  he  was  enabled  to  cross  rapid  rivers,  penetrate 
through  vast  deserts,  gain  the  tops  of  mountains,  till  he  could  rest  secura  for  awhile, 
and  refresh  his  tired  companions.  This  celebrated  retreat  waa  at  last  happily 
efiected ;  the  Greeks  returned  home  after  a  march  of  1155  parssangs,  or  leagaea^  which 
was  performed  in  215  days,  after  an  absence  of  fifteen  months.  The  whole  perfaafas 
might  now  be  forgotten,  or  at  least  but  obscurely  known,  if  the  great  pbiloaopher  who 
planned  it  had  not  employed  his  pen  in  describing  the  dangers  which  he  escaped,  and 
the  difficulties  which  he  surmounted. —  Voniue. 

REVENUE,  PUBLIC,  of  ENGLAND.  The  reveoue  collected  for  the  civil  list,  and  for 
all  the  other  charges  of  government,  as  well  ordinary  as  extraordinary,  1,200,000^  per 


REV 


649 


REV 


anaum,  in  1660,  the  first  after  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  Raised  to  6,000,0002. 
and  every  branch  of  the  revenue  anticipated,  which  was  tiie  origin  of  the  funds  and 
the  national  debt,  William  and  Mary,  1690,— Salmon'^  Ohnm,  ffiat, 

OJUIKRAL  YIKW  OF  THB  FUBUO  RSVEirnB  SINCE  THE  CONQUEST,  BT  8IB  JOHN  SINCLAIR. 


William  the  Conqueror  .                .  £400,000 

Willi&m  RuAis 850,000 

Henry  1 800.000 

Stephen 250,000 

Heiuy  II 200,000 

BichardI 150,000 

John 100,000 

Henry  III. 80.000 

Edward  1 150,900 

Edward  II 100.000 

Edward  III 154,000 


Richard  II. 
Henry  IV. 
Heniy  V.     . 
Henry  YI. 
Edward  IV. 
Edward  v. 


130,000 

100,000 

76,643 

64.976 

•  •  •• 

100,000 

Richard  III 130,000 

Henry  VII 400.000 

Henry  YIII 800,000 

Edward  VL 400,000 

450,000 


Elizabeth        .        .       .        . 

Jamee  I 

Charles  I 

Commonwealth 

Charles  IL  .... 

James  II 

WUUamlll. 

Anne  (at  the  Union) 

Oeoi)g^  I.     •        •  • 

George  II 

George  III.  1788 

Ditto,  1820,  United  Kingdom 

George  IV.  1825,  ditto 

William  IV.  1830.  ditto  . 

Ditto,  1835.  ditto 

Victoria,  1845.  ditto 

Ditto,  1850,  ditto 

Ditto,  1863       .        .        .        . 

Ditto,  1854  .... 

Ditto,  1855       .        .        .        . 

Ditto^  1856  .... 


£500.000 

600,000 

895.819 

1,517.247 

1,400,000 

2,001.855 

8,895.206 

6,691,803 

6.762.643 

8,522,540 

15,572,971 

65.590,670 

62,871.300 

55,431,817 

50,494.782 

53,060,364 

62.810,680 

54,430,844 

56,822.509 

63.364,605 

72,218,968 


Frevioiisly  to  1854  there  had  been  an  avenige  turpliu  of  2^  millions  since  1849.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  Russian  war  the  d^fieienep  in  1854  was  8,209,0591 ;  in  1865,  21,141,188^ ;  in  1856^ 
10, 1 64, 418L    Bee  Property  Tax  and  Xoaiu. 

BEYIEWa  The  BMwUUquit  AnglaUe  (1716-27)  and  the  Journal  da  Sfo/varu  may  be 
said  to  have  been  the  first  reyiews.  The  latter  was  published  in  Paris,  May  30, 1666, 
and  met  with  so  favourable  a  reception,  that  it  was  not  only  soon  imitated  throughout 
Europe,  but  the  author  had  the  satis&ction  of  having,  at  the  same  time,  his  own 
journal  translated  into  various  languages.  It  is  still  published.  George  III.  spoke  of 
this  publication  to  Dr.  Johnson,  in  the  private  interview  with  which  he  was 
honoured  by  his  majesty,  in  the  library  of  the  queen's  house,  in  the  month  of 
February,  1767.— ^o#ice^«  Life  ofJohnton. 


Monthly  Reriew,  first  published    .        .  1749 

Critical 1756 

Anti-Jacobin 1798 

Edinbnrgh 1802 

Quarterly 1809 

Eclectic 1813 

North  American 1815 

Retroepective 1820 


Westminster 1824 

Southern  American 1828 

DubUn 1836 

North  British 1844 

British  Quarterly 1844 

NaUonal 1865 

Saturday 1855 


REVOLUTION,  ERA  of  thk.  This  memorable  revolution  took  place  in  Enghmd 
in  1688,  and  is  styled  by  Toltaire  as  the  era  of  English  liberty.  Jamee  II.  had 
rendered  himself  hateful  to  his  subjects  by  his  tyranny  and  oppression ;  and  soon 
after  the  landing  of  the  prince  of  Orange  at  Torbay,  Nov.  6,  1688,  he  abdicated 
the  throne  and  fled.  William  III.  and  his  queen  (Mary,  daughter  of  James)  were 
proclaimed,  Feb.  13,  and  crowned  April  11, 1689. 

REVOLUTIONS,  REMARKABLE,  in  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  The  Assyrian  empire 
destroyed,  and  that  of  the  Modes  and  Persians  founded  by  Cyrus  the  Great,  636  B.O. 
The  Macedonian  empire  founded  on  the  destruction  of  the  Persian,  on  the  deft«t  of 
Darius  Codomanus,  by  Alexander  the  Great,  331  b.o.  The  Roman  empire  established 
on  the  ruins  of  the  Macedonian,  or  Greek  Monarchy,  by  Julius  Caosar,  47  a  a  The 
Eastern  empire,  founded  by  Constantino  the  Great,  on  the  final  overthrow  of  the 
Roman,  A.D.  806.  The  empire  of  the  Western  Franks  began  under  Charlemagne^ 
▲.D.  802.  This  empire  underwent  a  new  revolution,  and  became  the  German  empire, 
under  Rodolph  of  Hapsbuig,  the  head  of  the  house  of  Austria,  a.d.  1278,  from  whom 
it  is  also  called  the  Monarchy  of  the  Austrians.  The  Eastern  empire  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Turks,  a.d.  1453.  See  also  the  Revolutions  of  particular  countries  under 
their  proper  heads,  as  Rome,  France,  Portugal,  kc 

REVOLUTIONS,  thb  MOST  CELEBRATED  in  MODERN  HISTORY.  In  Portugal, 
A.D.1640.  In  England,  1649  and  1688.  In  Poland,  1704, 1795,  and  1830.  In  Russia,  1730 
and  1762.  In  Sweden,  1772  and  1809.  In  America,  1775.  In  France,  1789. 1830, 
and  1848.    In  Holland,  1795 ;  counter-revolution,  1813.    In  Venice,  1797.    In  Rome, 


RHE  550  BIN 

1798  and  1848.    In  the  Netherlands,  1880.    In  Bronawiok,  1880.    In  BtabO,  188L 
In  Hungary,  1848.    See  these  countries  reepoeiively. 

RHKIMS.  The  principal  church  here  was  built  before  ajd.  406 ;  it  was  rebuilt  in  the 
twelfth  century,  and  is  now  very  beautiful.  The  corpse  of  St  Remy,  the  arehbishop^ 
is  preserved  behind  the  high  altar,  in  a  magnificent  shrine.  The  kings  of  France  have 
been  suoceaaively  crowned  at  Rheims ;  probably,  because  Clovis,  the  founder  of  the 
French  monarchy,  when  converted  from  paganism,  was  baptised  in  the  cathedral  here^ 
in  the  year  496.  The  city  was  taken  and  retaken  several  times  in  the  last  months  of 
the  fVen(^  war,  1814. 

RHETORIC.  Rhetorical  points  and  aecents  were  invented  by  Aristophanes  of  Byxtntinm, 
200  B.O. — AbbS  Lenglk,  Rhetoric  was  first  taught  in  Latin  at  Rome  by  Photius 
Gallus,  87  B.O.— /(fem.  "  We  are  first  to  oonsider  what  is  to  be  said ;  secondly,  how; 
thirdly,  in  what  words ;  and  lastly,  how  it  is  to  be  ornamented." — CSeero.  A  regioa 
professor  of  rhetoric  was  appointed  in  Edinburgh,  April  20,  1762,  when  Ihv  Blair 
became  first  professor.    We  have  professors  of  rhetoric  in  all  our  univeiiitie& 

RHINE,  CONFEDERATION  of  the.    See  article  CkmfederaHon  of  (he  JZ&tne. 

RHODE-ISLAND,  America.  Celebrated  for  its  fine  women  and  called  by  travelleii» 
when  in  its  most  flourishinff  state,  the  **  Eden  of  America."  Settled  1636  and  1644. 
It  was  taken  in  the  war  of  independence  by  the  British,  Dec  6, 1 776 ;  but  was  evacuated 
by  them,  Oct.  25,  1779.  Rhode-Island  suffered  great  injuiy  during  the  revoluticoazy 
war,  but  it  has  latterly  improved  in  every  respect,  and  again  flourishea. 

RHODES.  This  dty  was  peopled  from  Crete,  as  early  as  916  B.O.  The  Rhodians  were 
famous  navigators,  masters  of  the  sea,  and  instituton  of  a  maritime  code,  whioh  was 
afterwards  adopted  by  the  Romans.  The  republic  was  not  completed  till  480  B.C.  The 
dty  built  482,  B.a  ItsfEtmous  Colossus  (see  Colouud)  thrown  down  by  an  earthquake, 
224  B.a  and  finally  destroyed  by  the  Saracen  admiral,  Moavia,  A.D.  672. — PriaUy, 

RICHMOND,  SuBBBT.  Anciently  called  Sheen,  which,  in  the  Saxon  tongue^  ngnifiea 
retpUnderU.  Here  stood  a  palace  in  which  Edw.  I.  and  IL  resided,  and  Edw.  IIL  died, 
1377.  Here  also  died  Anne,  queen  of  Richard  IL  who  first  taught  the  English  ladies 
the  use  of  the  side-saddle.  The  palace  was  repaired  by  Henry  Y.  who  founded  three 
religious  houses  near  it  In  1497  it  was  destroyed  by  fire ;  but  Henry  VIL  leboilt  it, 
and  commanded  that  the  village  should  be  called  Richmond,  he  having  bome  the 
title  of  earl  of  Richmond  before  he  obtained  the  crown ;  and  here  he  died  in  1509. 
Queen  Elizabeth  was  a  prisoner  in  this  palace  for  a  short  time  during  the  reign  of 
her  sister.  When  she  became  queen,  it  was  one  of  her  favourite  places  of  residence ; 
and  here  she  died,  March  24, 1603.  It  was  afterwards  the  residence  of  Henry  prinoe 
of  Wales.  The  beautiful  park  and  gardens  were  enclosed  by  Charles  I.  The 
observatory  was  built  by  sir  W.  Chambers  in  1769.  In  Richmond,  Thomson  "nng 
the  Seasons  and  their  change ; "  and  here  he  died,  Aug.  27, 1748. 

RIALTO,  BRIDGE  of  thx,  at  Ybitioe.  A  renowned  bridge,  mentioned  by  Shakspeare 
in  his  "  Merchant  of  Venice.**  It  was  built  in  1570,  and  consists  of  a  single  ardi,  but 
a  very  noble  one,  of  marble,  built  across  the  Grand  Canal,  near  the  middle,  when  it 
is  the  narrowest :  this  celebrated  arch  is  ninety  feet  wide  on  the  level  of  the  canal,  and 
twenty-four  feet  high.  It  is  alike  remarkable  for  its  height^  boldness^  and  solidity, 
and  is  ascended  at  each  end  by  a  flight  of  steps. 

RIGHTS^  BILL  of.  One  of  the  bulwarks  of  the  constitution,  obtained  by  parliamettt 
from  king  Charles  I.  although  he  had  endeavoured  by  variqus  artifices  to  avoid 
granting  it,  June  26, 1628.  To  the  petition  of  Bights,  preferred  March  17, 1627<8, 
his  migestv  answered,  **  I  will  that  right  be  done,  according  to  the  laws  vid  coatoms 
of  the  rejm."  Both  houses  addressed  the  king  for  a  fuller  uj^mw  to  their  petition 
of  Rights,  whereupon  he  gave  them  an  answer  less  evasive,  *^SoUfaii  c9mmeUui 
disiri"  June  7*  1628.  Declaration  made  by  the  lords  and  commons  of  Bngland  to 
the  prince  and  princess  of  Orange,  Feb.  13, 1689.    See  Biil  rf  liighU. 

RINGS.  Ornaments  of  gold  and  silver,  usually  worn  on  the  finger,  and  m  the  ean.  The 
latter  have  the  name  of  ear-riogs.  See  Bar^ngB,  Anciently  they  had  a  seal  or  a^net 
engraved  on  rings,  to  seal  writings,  and  they  are  so  used  to  this  day.  Tiie  wearing 
ringi  is  a  very  old  custom,  as  appears  by  Genesis  zzviii  18,  and  other  paaaagea  of 
Scripture ;  Pharaoh  gave  Joseph  his  ring  from  off  his  finger.  The  Jews  were  ao  fend 
of  rings  that  the  women  wore  them  in  their  ears  and  noses ;  they  were  aa  enatgns  of 
authority  in  princes  and  great  men.    History  ascribes  extraordinary  effeeta  to  certain 


RIO 


551 


RIO 


magical  ringi,  upon  which  BupentitiouB  figures  were  engraved  or  oarred,  and  which 
were  worn  to  preeerre  peraona  from  aoctdenta,  &c  Ringa  are  now  put  upon  women's 
fourth  finger  ai  marriage ;  but  the  first  use  of  rings  by  the  Jews  was  at  the  espousal 
or  contract  brfore  manisge. 

RIOTSp  IN  BRITISH  HISTORY.  The  riotous  assembling  of  twelve  or  more  persona, 
and  their  not  dispersing  upon  proclamation,  was  first  mtade  high  treason  by  a  statute 
enacted  2  ft  3  Edw.  vl.  1548*9.  The  present  operative  statute,  which  is  usually 
understood  as  the  Riot  Act,  was  passed  2  Qeo.  L  1715.    See  below. 


Boina  riotous  dtlsena  of  London  demolished 
the  couveat  belonging  to  Westminster  Ab- 
bey ;  the  ringlsAder  was  hanged.  And  the 
reethsd  theirhands and  feet  cut ofC  6  Hen. 
III.  1221. 

Goldsmiths*  and  Tailon'  companies  fought  in 
the  streets  of  London ;  several  were  Killed 
on  each  side ;  the  sheriffii  quelled  it,  and 
thirteen  were  hanged,  1262. 

A  riot  At  Norwich ;  the  rioters  burned  the 
cathedral  and  monastery ;  the  king  went 
thither,  and  saw  the  ringi^adera  executed, 
1271. 

The  mem<»mble  riot  in  London  known  as  the 
riot  of  Eril  Hay-day,  1517.  See  article  BvU 
May-dajf. 

A  riot  in  London,  and  Dr.  Lamb  killed  by 
the  mob,  June,  1628. 

A  riot,  on  pretence  of  puUingdown  houses  of 
ill-fiime ;  several  of  the  ringleaders  hanged, 
1668. 

Another,  at  Ooildhall,  at  the  election  of  she- 
riflb;  several  oonsidenible  persons,  who 
seized  the  lord  mayor,  were  ooncerned,1682. 

At  Edinburgh  and  Dumfries,  on  account  of 
the  Union,  1707. 

In  London,  on  account  of  Dr.  Bacheverers 
trial;  several  dissenting  meeting-houses 
were  broken  open,  1709. 

Riot  of  the  Whig  and  Tory  mobs,  called  Or- 
mond  and  Newcastle  mobs.  The  Riot  Act 
passed  the  same  year,  great  mischief  having 
been  done  by  both  parties  in  London,  1716. 

The  MughouM  riot^  in  Salisbury-court,  be- 
tween the  Whigs  and  Tories.  The  riot 
quelled  by  the  guards,  1716. 

Of  the  Bpitolfields  weavers^  on  account  of 
employing  workmen  come  over  ftt>m  Ire- 
land. Quelled  by  the  military,  but  many 
Uvea  lost.  1786. 

Between  the  Irish,  Welsh,  and  English  hay- 
makers, same  year. 

The  memorable  riot  at  Edinburgh,  where  the 
mob  rose,  set  fire  to  the  prison,  and  took 
out  captfldn  Porteous,  whom  they  hanged, 
1786.    See  PorUow. 

A  great  body  of  rioteta  in  Woreeetenhire 
(nailers)  mvch  to  Birmingham,  and  make 
their  own  terms  with  the  iron-merchants 
there,  1787. 

Of  sailors  who  were  robbed  and  lll-uaed  at  a 
house  of  ill-fame  in  the  Strand;  being 
assisted  by  a  large  body,  they  pulled  down 
the  house  and  oeatroyed  the  ftimituro  of 
several  others,  turning  the  women  naked 
into  the  streets,  1749. 

Of  the  Bpitolfields  weavers;  the  duke  of 
Bedford  narrowly  escaped  being  killad; 
many  lives  lost,  1765. 

A  mob  in  St  Qeorao's  Fields,  to  see  Mr.  Wilkes 
in  the  King's  Bench  prison  ;  the  military 
aid  indiscreetly  called  for  by  the  Justices  of 
the  peace,  and  several  innocent  persons, 
particularly  young  Allen,  fired  upon,  and 
klUed.  1768. 

The  memorable  riot  in  London  bjr  the  popu- 
laoD,  called  Lord  Georae  Gordon's  mob, 
June  2  to  7,  1780.  Bee  OwrdofCi  *' No 
Pytry'*  M&b. 

At  Birmingham,  on  aocount  of  oommemo- 


rating  the  French  RevolatioD,  July  14, 1791, 

when  several  houses  were  destroyed. 
In  various  parts  of  Scotland,  on  account  of 

the  Militia  Act,  August  1797,  when  several 

were  killed. 
At  Maidstone^  at  the  trial  of  Arthur  O'Connor 

and  others,  Msy  22. 1708 ;  the  earl  of  Thanet, 

Mr.  Ferguaon,  ana  othen.  were  active  in 

endeavouring  to  rescue  O'Connor,  for  which 

they  were  tried  and  convicted,  April  26, 1799. 
At  Liverpool,  occasioned  by  a  quarrel  between 

a  party  of  dragoons  and  a  press-gang,  June 

27, 1809. 
O.  P.  Riotat  the  Theatre  Royal,  Coven t^ardan. 

Sept  1609.    Bee  (7.  P.  Riot. 
In  Piccadilly,  in  consequence  of  the  house  of 

commons  committixig  sir  Francis  Burdett 

to  the  Tower,  April  6,  1810. 
At  Sheffield,  during  which  800  muskets  be- 
longing to  the  lo^  militia  wore  deetroyed, 

April  14,  1812. 
In  various  parts  of  the  north  of  England,  by 

the  Ludditee,  durlxig  1811  and  1812. 
At  the  Theatre  RoyaC  Dublin,  on  aocount  of 

the  celebrated  Dy  ttf  Montargia.    This  riot 

continued  several  nights,  and  the  miechief 

done  was  very  considerable,  Dec.  1814. 
Alarming  riots  at  Weatminater,  on  account  of 

the  Com  Bill;  they  lasted  several  days, 

March  1815. 
At  the  d^l  at  Dartmoor,  tn  quelling  which 

seven  Americans  were  kuled,  and  thirty-five 

wounded,  April  1816. 
Popular  meeting  at  Bpa-fields,  when  the 

snops  of  the  eunsmitus  were  attacked  for 

arms.    Mr.  Piatt  shot  in  that  of  Mr.  Beck- 

with  on  Snow-hill,  Dec.  2,1816.  Watson  tried 

for  high  treason,  but  acquitted,  June  1817. 
In  the  Park,  on  the  prince  regent  goinr  to  the 

house,  in  which  an  atr*gnn  was  fired  at  hia 

ro^al  highness,  Jan.  28,  1817. 
At  Manchester,  in  conBoquenoe  of  a  popular 

meeting,  March  S,  1817. 
Memorame  a£&ay  at  Manobester,  called  the 

"Field  of  Peterloo,"  Aug.  It,  1819.    Bee 

Mancketier  Rtform  Metting. 
Again  at  the  Theatre  Royal,  Dublin,  of  several 

nighta'  duration.    This  riot  originated  wiUi 

the  fk*iends  of  Miss  Byrne,  to  whose  wishes 

the  patentee,  Mr.  Jones,  yielded  in  the  end, 

on  tM  representation  of  certain  fiicts,  firom 

motives  of  humanity  towards  the  young 

lady,  1819. 
Riot  at  Paisley  and  Glasgow ;  many  houaea 

plundered,  Sept.  16,  1819. 
At  Edinburgh,  on  the  acquittal  of  quean 

Caroline,  Nov.  19, 1820. 
At  the  Aineral  of  the  queen,  In  consequence  of 

the  tnilitary  oppoaing  the  body  being  carried 

through  the  city,  Aug.  14,  1821. 
At  Knigotsbridge,  between  the  militaiy  and 

the  populace,  on  the  ftmeral  of  Honey  and 

Frands,  Aug.  26,  1821. 
In  various  parts  of  the  south  of  Ireland  for 

several  months,  in  1821  and  1822;  and  in 

the  north  in  1823. 
At  the  Theatre  In  Dublin ;  the  memorable 

riot  called  the  "  Bottle  Cinupiraey/'  against 

the  marqueas  Wellesley,   lord-Ueutenant, 

Dec.  14,  1822. 


RIO 


552 


ROB 


covered,  and  numy  persons  ooneenied  in  the 

plot  arrested,  Jan.  11, 1840. 
Fatal  affray  at  Dolly's  Brae,  near  CastleweUaa. 

in  Ireland,  between  the  Orangemen  and  the 

Roman  CathoUoa ;  several  of  the  latter  luei 

their  lives,  and  some  of  their  hooaee  were 

wrecked  and  burnt,  Julv  IS,  1849. 
Serious  riots  at  Yarmouth,  ariain?  ont  of  n 

dispute  between  the  ship-owners  and  tbe 

seamen,  Feb.  23, 1851. 
Fatal  riot  occasioned    hv  a   pmoeeeion  of 

Orangemen  at  Liverpool,  and  aev«ral  li^ 

lo»t»  July  14,  1851. 
Religious  riot  at  Stockport,  in  Cheshire ; 

Roman  OathoUc  chapels  destroyed,  and  the 

housea  of  several  Roman  Chtholica  gutted 

or  burnt,  June  20, 1862. 
Fierce  relifirious  riots  at  Belftaik  ^  Ireland, 

occur  Jiuy  14.  1852. 
Fatal  eleoUon  riot  at  Six-mile-Bridge,  in  the 

oounty  of  dare,  in  Ireland ;  five  peraona 

ahot  dead  by  the  militaiy,  July  2S^  1853. 

See  Six-ntiU-Brid{f€. 
Biota  at  Wigan,  among  the  ooal-minen,  sap- 

pressed  by  the  military  without  loas  oflife^ 

Oct  28,  1863. 
Bread  riots  at  Liverpool,  Feb.  19, 1856. 
Riots  at  Hyde  Park,  on  account  of  SuDday 

Bill,  July,  1866;  on  dearaass  of  brswi,  Oct. 

14,  21.  28.  1865. 
Religious  riots  again  at  BeUhst  throogh  the 

open-air  preachingof  the  Rev.  Ho^h  w»»»tt*,. 

Sept  a.  18,  1857. 


BIOTS,  IN  BRITISH  HISTORY,  wntinued. 

Riot  of  Ballybay.    For  thia  affair  Mr.  Lawless 

was  arreated,  Oct.  9,  1828. 
Riot  at  Limerick ;  the  proviidon-warehouses 

attacked  and  plundered,  and  great  mischief 

done,  June  15,  1830. 
[For  the  lamentable  and  fhtal  afirays  at  CattU- 

voUard  and  Newlonbarrif,  see  these  articles.] 
AlarmiDg  riots  at  Merthyr-Tvdvil,  among  the 

iron-workers,  several  of  whom,  fired  on  hr 

the  military,  were  killed  and  wounded, 

June  3,  1831. 
Riot  at  the  Forest  of  Dean,  June  8, 1881.  See 

Dean,  Porttt  qf. 
Fatal   riots  at   Bristol,  which   commenced 

Oct  29,  1831.    See  BHatol. 
Affhiy  at  CasUeshock,  county  of  Kilkenny, 

when  a  number  of  police,  sitacked  by  the 

populace,  were,  with  their  commander,  Mr. 

Oibblns,  killed,  Dec  14, 1831. 
Riot  at  Boughton,  near  Canterbury,  produced 

by  a  body  of  persona  called  Thomitetf  headed 

l^  a  fanatic  named  Thom,  or  Courtenay, 

who,  with  others,  was  kiUed,  M^  31. 1838. 

See  Thomita. 
Oreat  riots  throughout  the  countrv,  occasioned 

by  the  ChartiBts.    Suppressed  by  proclama- 
tion, Dec.  12,  1838. 
Riote  in  Birmingham,  when  much  miechlef 

ensues,  July  1^  1839.    See  Birminpham. 
Great  riot  at  Newport,  caused  by  the  Chartists, 

headed   by   John   Frost;   many    pexaons 

killed,  Nov.  4,  1830.    See  Nfwport. 
Meditated  Chartist  outbreak  at  ShefBold,  with 

most  destructive  objects^  providentially  dia- 

ROADS  OF  ENGLAND.  The  finfc  general  repair  of  the  highways  of  ihia  oonntry 
directed  in  1288.  Acts  were  passed  for  the  porpose  in  1524  and  1555,  followed 
by  others  in  Elizabeth's  and  the  succeeding  reigna  Roads  through  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland  were  begun  by  general  Wade  in  1746.  Loudon  M'Adam's  roads  were 
introduced  about  1818 ;  he  prescribes  the  breaking  of  stones  to  six  ounces  weight* 
and  calculates  the  expense  of  breaking  stones  at  a  shilling  a  ton;  clean  flints  and 
granite  clippings  answer  best  Wooden  pavements  were  tried  with  partial  suooess 
in  the  streets  of  London;  at  Whitehall  in  1839,  and  in  other  streets  in  1840. 
Asphalt  pavement  soon  after.    See  Roman  Roads  and  Wooden  PavemmU. 

ROASTINO  ALIVE.  One  of  the  earliest  instances  of  this  cruel  death  ia  that  of 
Bocchoris,  king  of  Egypt,  who  was  slowly  roasted  alive  by  order  of  Sabacon  of 
Ethiopia,  737  B.C. — Lenglet,  Sir  John  Oldcastle,  lord  Cobham,  the  first  noble  mai^ 
to  the  Reformation,  was  hung  by  the  middle  in  chains,  his  legs  having  previously  been 
broken,  and  thus  roasted  and  consumed,  6  Henry  V.  1417.  M.  Servetus  was  roasted 
alive  by  a  slow  fire,  on  a  charge  of  heresy,  at  Qeneva,  in  1553.  Many  maityn  and 
others  suffered  death  in  this  manner.    See  Ruming  AUve  and  Martyrs, 

ROBBERS.  First  punished  with  death  by  Edmund  I.*s  laws,  which  diracted  that  the 
eldest  robber  should  be  hanged.  The  punishment  was  pecuniaiy  till  that  time.  The 
most  remarkable  robbers  were  Robin  Hood,  in  England,  A.D.  1189  (see  Rolnn  Hood)^ 
and  Claud  Du  Val,  "  executed  at  Tyburn/'  says  an  historian,  quaintly,  "to  the  great 
grief  of  the  women,"  January  1670.  In  Ireland,  the  fiunous  Mao  Oabe  vraa  himged 
at  Naas,  Aug.  19,  1691.  GkUloping  Hogan,  the  rapparee,  flourished  at  thia  period. 
Freney,  the  celebrated  highwayman,  surrendered  lumself,  May  10,  1749,  In  later 
times,  the  accomplished  Barrington  was  transported,  Sept  22, 1790. 

ROBESPIERRE^  REIQN  of  TERROR.  MaximiUen  Robespierre  headed  the  populaee 
in  the  Champ  de  Mars,  in  Paris,  demanding  the  dethronement  of  the  king, 
July  17,  1791.  He  was  triumphant  in  1793,  and  great  numbers  of  eminent  men 
and  citicens  were  sacrificed  during  his  sanguinary  administration.  Billaud  Varennes 
denounced  the  tyranny  of  Robespierre  in  the  tribune,  July  28, 1794.  Criea  of  **  Down 
with  the  tyrant  1 "  resounded  through  the  hall ;  and  he  was  immediately  ordered  to 
the  place  of  execution  and  suffered  death.    See  Pranos^ 


ROBIN  HOOD.    The  celebrated  captain  of  a  notorious  band  of  robben,  who  iJ 

the  forest  of  Sherwood  in  Nottinghamshire,  and  from  thence  made  exouraionBto 
many  parts  of  England,  in  searoh  of  booty.    Some  historians  assert  that  this 


ROC  553  ROM 

only  a  name  anumed  by  the  theu  earl  of  HuntingdoD,  who  was  di^gnoed  and 
banuhed  the  ooart  by  Richard  I.  at  his  accession.  Robin  Hood,  Little  John  his 
friend  and  second  in  command,  with  their  numerous  followers,  continued  their 
depredations  from  about  1189  to  1247,  when  Robin  died. — Siou^t  Chron. 

ROCHESTER,  BISHOPRIC  or.  This  bishopric  is  the  smaUest,  and,  next  to  Canterbniy, 
the  most  ancient  in  England,  it  haying  bMn  founded  by  St  Augustin  about  ten  years 
after  he  first  came  to  JEiogland.  The  cathedral  church  was  first  erected  by  Ethelbert, 
king  of  Kent>  when  it  was  made  a  bishop's  see.  St.  Justin  was  bishop  in  604. 
Rochester  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  8582.  8«.  2|ci.  per  annum* 

ROCKETS,  CONQREYE'S.  Thesearewar  implements  of  a  very  destructive  power;  they 
were  invented  by  sir  William  Congreve  about  1808.  The  carcase  rockets  were  first 
used  at  Boulogne,  their  powers  having  been  previously  demonstrated  in  the  presence 
of  Mr.  Pitt  and  several  of  the  cabinet  ministers,  1806.  They  are  still  in  use.  See 
article  Boulogne  Flotilla, 

ROCKINGHAM'S,  MARQUESS  of,  FIRST  ADMINISTRATION.  Charles^  marquess 
of  Rockingham,  first  lord  of  the  treasury ;  rt  hon.  William  Dowdeswell,  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer;  earl  of  Winchelsea  and  Nottingham,  lord  president;  duke  of 
Newcastle,  privy  seal ;  earl  of  Northington,  lord  chancellor ;  duke  of  PorUand,  lord 
chamberlain ;  duke  of  Rutland,  master  of  the  horse ;  lord  Talbot,  lord  steward ;  hon. 
Benry  Seymour  Conway  and  the  duke  of  Graiton,  secretaries  of  state ;  lord  Egmont, 
admiralty;  marquess  of  Granby,  ordnance;  viscount  Barrington,  secretary-at-war ; 
viscount  Howe,  treasurer  of  the  navy ;  hon.  Charles  Townshend,  paymaster  of  the 
forces;  earl  of  Dartmouth,  first  lord  of  trade;  lords  Besborough  and  Grantham, 
lord  John  Cavendish,  Thomas  Townshend,  &c.  July  1765.    Terminated  Aug.  1766. 

ROCKINGHAM'S,  MARQUESS  of,  SECOND  ADMINISTRATION.  The  marquess  of 
Rockingham  sgain  first  minister  of  the  crown ;  lord  John  Cavendish,  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer;  lord  Camden,  president  of  the  council ;  duke  of  Grafton,  privy  seal; 
lord  Thurlow,  lord  chancellor;  William,  earl  of  Shelbume  and  rt.  hon.  Charles 
James  Fox,  secretaries  of  state ;  rt  hon.  Augustus  Keppel,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty; 
duke  of  Richmond,  master-general  of  the  ordnance ;  rt  hon.  Thomas  Townshend, 
secretary-at-war;  rt  hon.  Iraac  Ban^,  rt  hon.  Edmund  Burke,  &c.  March  1782. 
The  death  of  the  marquess  of  Rockingham,  July  2,  1782,  led  to  the  Shelbume 
administration,  which  succeeded. 

RODNET^S^  ADMIRAL,  VIOTORIEa  This  renowned  admiral  fought,  near  Cape  St. 
Vincent,  the  Spanish  admiral,  Don  Langara,  whom  he  defeated,  and  made  prisoner, 
capturing  six  of  his  ships,  one  of  which  blew  up,  Jan.  16, 1780.  On  April  12,  1782, 
he  encountered  the  French  fleet  in  the  West  Indies^  commanded  by  the  count  de 
Grasse,  took  five  ships  of  the  line,  and  sent  the  French  admiral  prisoner  to  England: 
Rodney  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  June  1782. 

ROGATION  WEEK.  Rogation  Sunday  received  and  retains  iU  title  from  the  Monday, 
Tuesday,  and  Wednesday  immediately  following  it,  which  are  called  Rogation  days, 
derived  from  the  Latin,  roffare,  to  beseech.  The  earliest  Christians  appropriated 
extraordinary  prayers  and  supplications  for  those  three  days,  as  a  preparation  for  the 
devout  observance  of  our  Saviour's  ascension,  on  the  next  day  succeeding  to  them, 
denominated  Holy  Thursday,  or  Ascension-day.  The  whole  week  in  which  these 
days  happen  is  styled  Rogation  week ;  and  in  some  parts  it  is  still  known  by  the 
other  names  of  Crop  Week,  Gross  Week,  and  Procession  Week.  The  perambulations 
of  parishes  have  usually  been  made  in  this  week. 

ROLLS*  CHAPEL,  LoNDOir.  Founded  by  Henry  III.  in  1283,  for  ordaining  Jewish 
rabbis  converted  to  Christianity.  On  the  banishment  of  the  Jews,  the  buildings 
now  called  the  Rolls,  and  the  chapel,  were  annexed  by  patent  to  the  keeper  or 
master  of  the  rolls  of  Chancery,  from  which  circumstance  they  took  their  name. 
A  number  of  public  records  from  the  time  of  Richard  IIL  were  kept  in  presses  in 
this  chapel.    See  Records, 

ROMAN  CATHOLICa  The  period  of  the  rise  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  may  be 
dated  from  the  establishment  of  Christianity  by  Cotistantine,  A.D.  823.  See  Borne, 
The  foundation  of  the  papal  power  dates  from  ▲.D.  606,  when  Boniface  III.  assumed 
the  title  of  Universal  Bishop.  See  Pope.  Pepin,  king  of  France,  invested  pope 
Stephen  II.  with  the  temporal  dominions  of  Rome  and  its  territories,  a.d.  756.  The 
power  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  was  weakened  by  the  Reformation,  and  has  since  been 
gradually  yielding  to  the  influence  of  the  reformed  doctrines^  and  the  general 


ROM  554  ROM 

diffusion  of  knowledge  among  the  nations  of  the  earth.  Of  225  milUona  of  Chiistiaiu^ 
about  160  millions  are,  or  pass  under  the  denomination  of  Roman  OsthoUca. — 
M.Balln, 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  ASSOCIATION.  An  organised  assembly  in  Ireland,  whose  object 
was  the  removal  of  the  political  and  civil  disabilities  which  then  affected  their  aeck 
Previouslv  to  1824,  various  assodations  had  existed  under,  other  appellationa,  but 
with  similar  purpose.  An  act  of  parliament  passed  for  the  suppreesion  of  this  body, 
March  5,  1829 ;  but  it  voted  its  own  dissolution  (its  object  having  been  aehiered) 
Feb.  12,  preceding. 

ROMAN  CATHOLICS  of  THESE  REALMa  Laws  were  enacted  against  them  in 
1539.  They  were  forbidden  the  British  court  in  1673;  but  restored  to  favour  tbwe 
in  1685.  Disabled  from  holding  offices  of  trusty  1689 ;  and  excluded  from  the  British 
throne  same  year.  Obliged  to  register  their  names  and  eatates,  1717.  Indolgenees 
were  granted  to  Roman  Catholics  by  parliament  in  1778.  They  were  parmiitsd  to 
purchase  land,  and  take  it  by  descent,  1780. — In  London,  an  immense  multitude 
assembled  in  St.  Qeorge*s-fields  to  accompany  lord  Qeoige  Gordon  with  a  petition  to 
repeal  the  law  of  a  preceding  session  favourable  to  the  Roman  Catholics :  here  they 
divided  into  bodies,  and  proceeded  to  the  avenues  of  the  house  of  commoas, 
insulting  the  members  of  both  houses,  and  compelling  them  to  put  cockades  to  their 
hats,  inscribed  '*  No  Popery,**  Lord  Qeorge  having  harangued  tuem,  and  aanounoed 
that  their  petition  had  been  rejected,  dreadful  excesses  followed  (see  Gordon's  Mob). 
— Further  disabilities  removed,  1791,  and  at  subsequent  periods.  Roman  Catholic 
Emancipation  Bill  passed,  10  Geo.  IV.  c  7,  April  18, 1829.    See  Paial  Lowl 

DIVISIONS  ON  THE  CATHOLIC  QUESnON  IN  THE  BRITIBB  BOUSE  OF  OOMMOVa 

1829.  March   6.  Foroommlttoe         .    .    188 


p3ill  first  proposed  as  a  measure  of 

governments] 
.  21.  Read  a  first  time 


March  18.  For  second  reading      .    180 
Mart^SO.  For  third  reading     .    .     178 


THE  DITISIONB  ON  THE  SAME  BILL  IK  THE  BOUSE  OF  L0BD6  WERE  AS  FOLLOW : — 

1829.  March  SI.  Road  a  first  time,  nemine  dmentiente. 

April     4.  Second  readmg :  for  the  bill.  217— against  it,  112.    Minority,  105. 
April    10.  Thixtl  reading :  for  the  bill,  218-«gain8t  it,  109.    Majority,  104. 

The  royal  assent  was  given  to  this  measure,  and  it  became  a  law,  lOth.  Gea  TV., 
April  IS,  1829.  Mr.  O'Connell,  who  had  been  elected  for  Clare  county,  July  5, 1828. 
now  took  his  seat,  he  being  the  first  Roman  Catholic  representative  in  parliament 
since  the  Revolution.  The  first  English  member  returned  was  the  earl  of  Surrey,  for 
Horsham,  May  4, 1829 ;  and  the  duke  of  Norfolk  and  lords  Dormer  and  Cliflfbid  were 
the  first  Roman  Catholic  peers  who  took  their  seats,  April  28, 1829.  Mr.  Alexander 
Raphael  was  the  first  Roman  Catholic  sheriff  of  London,  8^t  28, 1834.  Sir  Michael 
O'Loghlen  was  the  first  Roman  Catholic  judge  (as  Master  of  the  Rolls  in  Ireland), 
appointed  Oct  30, 1836 ;  and  lir.  O'Connell  was  elected  first  Roman  Catholic  loitl 
mayor  of  Dublin,  in  1841.  See  Rome,  Modem,  and  PapcU  AggrtmUm,  In  1851  there 
were  670  Roman  Catholic  chapels  with  186,111  sittings.— The  Roman  Catholic  C9mrch 
in  Ireland  consists  of  four  archbishops,  24  bishopa,  and  (in  18l>4)  2291  priMts  ;  thers 
are  numerous  monasteries  and  convents. 

ROMAN  ROADS  nr  ENGLAND.  Our  historians  maintam,  but  are  mistaken,  that 
there  were  but  four  of  these  roads. — Camden.  They  were  :  let^  WATLnio-BTRKEt,  so 
named  from  Vitellianus,  who  is  supposed  to  have  directed  it,  the  Britons  calling  him 
in  their  languajge  Qv^Udin,  2nd,  Ikbkeld^  or  Ikekild-street,  Irom  its  beginning 
among  the  IcenL  3rd,  Fosse,  or  Fossb-wat,  probably  from  its  having  been  d^endea 
by  a  fosse  on  both  sides.  4th.  Ermik-stbest,  from  Jrmuntul,  a  German  word, 
meaning  Mercury,  whom  our  German  anoeators  wonhipped  under  that  name.  "  The 
Romans,''  says  Isidore,  "  made  roads  almost  all  over  the  world,  to  have  their  marches 
in  a  straight  line,  and  to  employ  the  people ; "  and  criminalB  were  frequently  con- 
demned to  work  at  such  roads,  as  we  learn  from  Suetonius,  in  his  life  of  OaUgxilsL 
They  were  commenced  and  completed  at  various  periods,  between  the  2nd  and  4th 
centuries,  and  the  Roman  soldiery  were  employed  in  making  them,  that  inaetivitj 
might  not  give  them  an  opportunity  to  raise  disturbance. — Bw, 

ROMAN  WALIJ3.  They  were  erected  by  Agrioola  (a.d.  79  to  85)  to  defend  Britain 
from  the  incursions  of  the  Plots  and  Scots ;  the  first  wall  extended  from  the  Tyiie  to 
the  Solway  frith  (80  miles) ;  the  second  from  the  frith  of  Forth  near  Edinbuigh  to 
the  frith  of  Clyde  near  Dumbarton  (86  miles).    The  former  waa  renewed  and 


ROM 


655 


ROM 


sferengthezied  by  the  emperor  Adrian  (a.d.  121),  and  by  Septimius  SereruB  (a.d.  208). 
It  oommenoed  at  Bowneaa  near  Carliale  and  ended  at  WaUaend,  near  Newcastle.  It 
had  battlements  and  towers  to  contain  soldiers.  The  more  northern  wall  was  renewed 
by  Lollius  Urbicus  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius  about  ▲.d.  140.  Many  remains  of 
these  walls  still  exist,  particularly  of  the  Southern  one.  See  Bruce^s  Rtman  Wall, 
published  in  1853. 

ROMANCES.  "  Stories  of  love  and  arms,  wherein  abundance  of  enthusiastio  flights  of 
the  imagination  are  introduced,  giring  fifilse  images  of  life.'* — Pardon,  As  Heliodorus, 
•  bishop  of  Tricea,  in  Thessaly,  was  the  author  of  Ethiopia,  in  Greek,  the  first  work  in 
this  species  of  writing,  he  is  hence  styled  the  "  Father  of  Romances."  He  flourished 
A.D.  398.— J7iMt  de  Origine  FahuL  Jioman. 

ROME,  ANCIENT,  Once  the  mistress  of  the  worid,  and  subsequently  the  seat  of  the 
most  extensive  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  ever  acknowledged  by  maiUund.  Komulus 
is  uniTenally  supposed  to  have  laid  the  foundations  of  this  celebrated  city  on  the 
20th  of  April,  according  to  Varro,  in  the  year  8961  of  the  Julian  period,  8251  years 
after  the  creation  of  the  world,  758  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  481  years  after  the 
Trojan  war,  and  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  sixth  Olympiad.  In  its  original  state,  Rome 
was -but  a  small  castle  on  the  sunmiit  of  Mount  Palatine ;  and  the  founder,  to  give 
his  followers  the  appearance  of  a  nation  or  a  barbarian  horde,  was  obliged  to  erect  a 
standard  as  a  common  asylum  for  every  criminal,  debtor,  or  murderer,  who  fled  from 
their  native  country  to  avoid  the  punishment  which  attended  them.  From  such  an 
assemblage  a  numerous  body  was  soon  collected,  and  before  the  death  of  the  founder 
the  Romans  had  covered  with  their  habitations  the  Palatine,  CapitoUne,  Aventane, 
Esquiline  hiUs,  with  Mount  Coslius,  and  Quirinalis.  The  Romans  and  the  Albans, 
contesting  for  superiority,  agreed  to  choose  three  champions  on  each  part  to  decide 
it.  The  three  Horatii,  Roman  knights,  and  the  three  CuricUiif  Albans,  having  been 
elected  by  their  respective  countries,  engaged  in  the  celebrated  combat,  which,  by  the 
victory  of  the  fforatii,  united  Alba  to  Rome,  667  B.a — Livy,  The  numerous  and 
successful  wars  of  the  Romans  led,  in  the  course  of  ages,  to  their  mastery  Over  all 
mankind,  and  to  their  conquest  of  nearly  the  whole  of  the  then  known  world.  In  the 
time  of  Julius  Caesar,  the  empire  was  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Euphrates,  Taurus, 
and  Armenia;  Ethiopia  on  the  south;  the  Danube  on  the  north ;  and  the  Atlantic 
on  the  west. 


Poundation  of  the  city  oommenoed  by 
Romulofl B.C.  753 

The  Bomana  aeUe  on  the  Sabine  woman 
at  a  public  qwotade,  and  detain  them 
forwivea 750 

The  Ceninians  defeated,  and  first  trium- 
phal prooeeaian       748 

Rome  taken  bv  the  Sabines :  the  Sabinea 
incorporated  with  the  Bomana  aa  one 
nation 747 

Jtomalua  eole  king  of  the  Romans  and 
Cures 742 

Oonauest  of  the  Camerinee  .  .    .  738 

The  Veil  oooquerad 782 

Roraolua  murdered  by  the  sonatorB ; 
reigned  87  yeara 716 

Numa  Pom^ue  elected  king  of  the 
Bomane 715 

He  inatitutes  the  BovenU  orders  of  the 
priesthood 710 

The  augun  and  veatals  are  also  eota- 
bliahed.    See  VestaU  .  .710 

Roman  calendar  of  10  montha  reformed, 
and  made  IS 710 

Noma  dies  of  old  age         ....  672 

War  with  the  Fidenatee ;  the  dty  of  Alba 
destroyed 665 

Ostia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Tiber, 
buiH 627 

The  Apiolanl  are  conquered .       .        .    .  616 

Conqueat  of  the  Btrurlans  .  567 

The  first  census  of  the  Roman  state  is 
taken  (Zmpj^O 666 

Reign  of  TarqufniusSuperbus.  .  584 

The  rape  of  Lucretia  oy  Sextus,  son  of 
Tarquin ;  royalty  la  aboUshod,  and  Rome 
becomoa  a  oommonwealth.  .    .  500 


Junius  Brutns  ond  Tarquinlus  CoUatinua 

first  consuls b.c.  600 

First  alliance  ofthe  Romans  with  Osrthage  509 
The  Capitol  finished,  and  dedicated  to 

Jupiter  CapUotinut 607 

War  with  Etruria 507 

The  lesser  triumph,  called  an  ovati<m.  Is 

begun 508 

The  Latins  declare  war  against  the  re- 

pubUc 501 

Titus  Lartlus,  first  dictator  .405 

C.  Martius  Coriolanus  banished  .  .  .  401 
He  beeieses  Rome,  but  withdraws  at  the 

suit  of  nis  wife  and  mother  .  .  488 

The  first  agrarian  law  is  published  at  Rome  480 
The  Fabii  slain.    (See  FabU)    .  .477 

The  Secular  Games  first  celebrated  .  .  456 
The  DocemTiri  created  ....  451 
Vixginius  kills  his  datighter,  Virginia,  to 

saveherfixmi  the lustofAppius Claudius  449 
Military  tribunes  first  created  .  .  444 

Office  of  censor  Instituted  ....  443 
Rome  afflicted  with  an  awfhl  fiunine^  and 

many  persons,  on  account  of  it»  drown 

themselves  in  the  Tiber        .  .  440 

The  Veil  defeated,  and  their  king  Tolum- 

nus  slain 487 

War  with  the  Tuscans  ....  434 
A  temple  is  dedicated  to  Apollo  on  account 

of  a  pestilence 483 

^ui  and  Volsci  defeated .  .        .481 

Two  new  qiuestors  are  added  to  the  former 

number 421 

Another  and  moredreadAil  fkmlne  occurs 

at  Rome •  411 

Three  qtuestors  are  chosen  from  the  body 

of  the  people  for  the  first  Ume         .    .  410 


ROM 


556 


ROM 


BOM£,  ANCIENT,  cmUnued. 

The  knlghtfi  begin  to  serve  in  the  cavalry 

about  thiB  time      ....  B.a  408 
Institution  of  the  Lectisteraian  festival 

on  account  of  a  pestilence  .    «  890 

Veil  taken  after  a  Bi^;e  of  more  than  ten 

years 896 

The    Gauls,    under    Brenuus,    besiege 

Clusium 888 

Borne  burnt  to  the  ground  by  the  Oauls, 

who  besiege  the  (^pitol  .        .  887 

M.  Manlius  Capitolinus  thrown  from  the 
Tarpeian  roclc,  on  a  charge  of  aiming  at 

sovereign  power 884 

The  Volsci  defeat  the  Romans .                .879 
The  first  appointment  of  curule  magis- 
trates   871 

Lucius  Sextus,  the  first  plebeian  oonauL 

— JKvy 866 

Marcus  CurUus  leaps  into  the  gulf  which 

had  opened  in  the  forum  .  •    .  86S 

Titus  Manlius  made  dictator    .        .        .  863 
The  Oauls  defeated  in  Italy  .  .    .  8&0 

War  with  theSamnites^  which  lasts  sixty 

years 848 

The  vestal  Minutia   buried  alive  on  a 

charge  of  incontinence       .        ...  837 
Priests  firet  elected  from  the  body  of  the 

people 800 

The  Ghtuls  invade  the  Roman  territory ; 

siege  of  Arezso 284 

The  vestal  Bextilia  Imried  aUve  for  a 

violation  of  her  vow       ....  274 
First  Punic  war  commenced  .    .  264 

AtUlius  Regulus  put  to  a  cruel  death  by 

the  Carthaginians 256 

Second  Punic  war  breaks  out  .    .  218 

The  Romans  are  defeated  by  Hannibid  at 

Cannie 216 

Byraouse  taken  by  Maroellus  .    .  212 

Bdpio  defeats  Hannibal  at  Zama  in  Africa  202 
The  first  Macedonian  war  begins  with 

PhiUp 200 

Death  of  Bdpio  AfHcanuB  the  Elder        .  185 
Beoond  Macedonian  war  begins  .       .    .  171 
First  library  erected  at  Rome  .               .  107 
Philosophers  and  rhetoricians  are  ban- 
ished Rome 161 

Third  Punic  war  begins  .       .  -     .  149 

Corinth  and  Carthage  destroyed  by  the 

Romans.    (See  Ctirthaoe)  .        .        .     .  146 
The  Ambrones  defeated  by  Marius ;  their 
wives,  being  refused  security  ftt)m  vio- 
lation, murder  themselves  and  their 

children 102 

The  Mithridatic  war  (wAicA  Me)    .        .    .    89 
Rome  besieged  by  four  armies  (vis. :  those 
of  Marius,  Cinna,  Carbo,  ana  Sertorius) 

and  taken 87 

SvUa's  defeat  of  Marius        .  .    .    82 

Tne  Catiline  oouspizacy  ....  63 
War  between  Caesar  and  Pompcy  .  .  60 
BatUeofPharsaliarvAioAfw)  ...  47 
Gaosar  killed  In  the  senate-house .  .  .  44 
Cicero  killed,  proscribed  by  Antony  .  48 
Battle  of  Philippi(wA«cA«ee)  .  .  .  41 
Battle  of  Actlum(ipAicA  Me)      ...    81 

[The  commencement  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire dates  fifY>m  this  year.] 

Octavius  takes  Alexandria  .  .  .  .  80 
He  aaaumes  the  title  of  Avffuthu  .    S7 

The  empire  now  at  peace  with  all  the 

world;    the  Temple  of  Janus   shut; 

JcsDsbom.    8eo/«w«       ....      5 

Ovid  banished  to  Tomi      .        .        .  a.d.      9 
Tiberius  retires  to  Caprea    .        .        .    .    26 
A  census  being  taken  by  Claudius,  the 
emperor  and  censor,  the  inhabitants  of 
Rome  are  stated  to  amount  to  6,900,000. 


973 
274 


-^Itis  now  considered  that  thepopol*- 

tion  of  Rome  within  the  waUa  was 

under  a  million]  ....  a.Du  4S 
Caractacus  brought  in  ch^ns  to  Roma  .  51 
St.  Paul  arrives  in  bonds  at  Rome  .  .  62 
Nero  bums  Rome  to  the  ground,  and 

charges  the  crime  upon  the  CfaristiaDa. 

See  PermctOioni 64 

Seneca,  Lucan,  dec  put  to  death  .  .  .  66 
Peter  and  Paul  put  to  death  .67 

Jerusalem    taken,    and   levellod  to  the 

ground,  by  Titus        .  Sept.  8,    70 

Revolt  of  the  Parthians  ....  77 
The  Dacian  war  continues  15  yearn  .  .  88 
Cornelia,  a  vestal,  buried  alive  .  •  9S 
Pliny    Junior,   proconsul  in    Bithynia, 

sends  Trajan  his  celebrated  account  of 

the  Christians 109 

Tndan's  expedition  into  the  East,  i^painst 

the  Parthians,  Ac 106 

Tnyan's  Column  erected  at  Rome  .  .114 
Adrian,  during  his  residence  in  Britain, 

erects  the  fi&mous  wall  .    .  121 

Heresies  among  the  Christians  .  .  141 
The  worship  of  Sers^  introduced  .  .  146 
The  Capitol  destroyed  by  lightning .  .  188 
Bysantium  taken ;  its  walls  razed  .  .  196 
The  Ooths  are  paid  tribute 

[The  Goths,  Vandals,  Alani,  Buevi,  and 
other  NcMthem  nations  attack  the  em- 
pire on  all  hands.] 

Pompey's  amphitheatre  burnt  .    . 

PestUenoe  throughout  the  empire    . 

Oroat  victory  over  the  Ooths  obtained  by 
Claudius;  800,000 slatn     .       .        .    . 

Longinus  put  to  death      .... 

The  Barbarians  obtain  Dada  .    . 

The  era  of  Martyrs 

The  Franks  settle  in  OauL~JW/«C  . 

Constaatius  dice  at  York  .    . 

Four  emperon  Teisn  at  one  time 

Constanune  the  Great,  in  oonsequeooe 
of  a  vision,  places  the  croas  on  his 
banners,  and  arrives  at  Rome  .       •    . 

He  begins  to  favour  the  CliristiaDa . 

He  tolerates  the  Christian  iiuth  .        .    . 

Constantine  convokes  the  first  general 
council  of  Christians,  at  Nice 

The  seat  of  empire  removed  firom  Rome 
to  Byaantium 

Constantine  orden  the  heathen  templos 
to  be  destroyed 

Revolt  of  300,000  Sarmatlan  slaves  fh»m 
their  masters 

Death  of  Constantine :  he  is  succeeded  hj 
his  three  sons.  Constans,  ConstantinsII. 
and  Constantine  II 

The  army  under  Julian,  sumamed  the 
Apostate,  proclaims  him  emperor    .     . 

Julian,  who  had  been  educated  for  the 
priesthood,  and  had  iVequeutly  offi- 
ciated, abjuree  Christianity,  and  re- 
opens the  heathen  temples,  *M?T*"mtng 
the  pagan  pontiff 

Julian  kUled  in  battle 

Christianity  restored  bv  Jovian 

Jovian  found  dead  in  his  bed,  supposed 
to  have  been  poisoned  .    . 

The  empire  divided  into  Eastern  and 
Western  by  Valentinian  and  Valen% 
brothen :  the  former  has  the  Weetem 
portion,  or  Rome    .... 

The  Ooths  allowed  by  Valens  to  settle  in 
Thrace 

They  enter  the  Imperial  territories  • 

Valentinian  deposed  by  May^mt^^  ^iio 
restores  paganism 

Arcadius  and  Honorius  reign    . 

The  defeat  of  900,000  Goths .       .       .    . 


287 


312 
319 


887 


361 

8Si 
363 


.  364 

876 
SSi 

397 
886 
405 


ROM 


657 


ROM 


BOMB,  ANCIENT,  eoniinued. 

The  VancU]fl»  Alalns,  and  Sneyt  lettle  in 
France  and  Spain,  by  a  oonoeMion  of 
Honoriua a.d.  409 

Borne  taken,pil]aaed,  and  burned  to  the 
ground  by  the  Vioigotha,  under  Alaric, 
who  aoon  dies 410 

The  Viaigotha  begin  the  kingdom  of 
Toulooae 414 

The  Vandals  begin  their  kingdom  in  Spain  412 

Fhanunond  begins  the  kingdom  of  the 
Franks 420 

The  Vandals  pass  into  AMca  .    .  427 

Genserie  takes  Carthage    ....  430 

Attlla,  chief  of  the  Huns,  ravages  all 
Burope,  and  obtains  the  surname  of  the 
"Scourge  of  God" 447 

The  Vandals  ravage  Sicilv  .464 

Valentinian  dishonours  tne  wife  ofMaxi- 
mas 464 

He  is  killed  by  two  guards,  influenced  by 
MaximuB.  who  marries  Eudoxia,  Valen- 
tinian's  widow 466 

Eudoxia,  to  avenge  the  murder  of  her 
first  husband,  and  punish  the  guilt  of 
her  second,  invites  Genserio,  chief  of 
the  Vandals,  into  Italy      .  .    .  466 

Rome  taken  and  pillaged  on  the  12th  of 
July;  Maximus  stoned  to  death,  nu- 
merous   boUdinga    demolished,    and 


Eudoxia,  with  bar  daughter  Placidia, 
and  many  thousands  oi  persons,  sent 
captives  to  AMca  ....  a.d.  465 
Jfajorianus,  emperor,  takes  up  his  resi- 
dence at  Ravenna *** 

The  Vandals  driven  out  of  Sicily  .  4«4 

The  Goths  defeated  in  Gaul ....  4M 
Great  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  by  which 

Campania  is  burned  up .  .  472 

Odoaoer,  chief  of  the  Heruli,  enters  Italy, 
takea  Rome,  and  assumes  the  title  of 
king  of  Italy,  which  ends  the  Western 

empire 476 

Rome  is  recovered  for  Justinian,  by  Beli- 

sariua 6S7 

Retaken  by  the  Gotbs 647 

Naraes,  Justinian's  general,  again  recon- 
quers Rome    .        .,      .  .  663 
Papal  power  established                      .    .  006 
Rome  revolts  from  the  Greek  emperors, 

and  becomes  free 726 

Pope  Stephen  1 1,  invested  with  the  tem- 
poral dominion  of  Rome   .  .    .  766 
Charlemagne  acknowledged  as  emperor 

of  the  West 800 

•  ••••• 

The  popes  oontinned  in  possession  of  the 
dty  and  territories.  See  article  Popes, 
and  Italy. 


RINGS  OF  ROME. 


BKrORB  GBKrST. 

763.  Romulus ;  murdered  by  the  senators. 
[Tatiua^  king  of  the  Cures,  had  removed 
to  Rome  in  747,  and  ruled  Jointly  with 
Romulus  six  vears.] 

716.  rinterrnnium.r 

715.  Numa  Pompilius,  son-in-law  of  Tatius 
the  Sabine^  elected :  died  at  the  sge 
of  82. 

678.  Tullus  HostiliuB :  murdered  by  hii  suc- 
cessor, by  whom  his  palace  was  set  on 
fire :  his  fkmily  perished  in  the  flames. 

640.  Ancus  Hartiui^  grandson  of  Numa. 


616.  Tarquinius  Priscus ;  son  of  Demaratus,  a 
Corinthian  emigrant,  chosen  king. 

673.  Servius  Tullius;  a  manumitted  slave; 
married  the  king's  daughter ;  and  suc- 
ceeded bv  the  united  suffhiges  of  the 
army  ana  the  people. 

634.  Tarquinius  Superbus,  grandson  of  Tar- 
quinius Priscus :  assassinates  ills  father- 
in-law,  and  usurps  the  throne. 

510.  [The  ra])^  of  Lucretia,  by  Sextus,  son  of 
Tarquin.  leads  to  the  abolition  of 
royalty.] 


REPUBLIC. 


Firtt  period.  From  the  expulsion  of 
Tarquin  to  the  dictatorship  of  Sylla, 
610  to  82  B.a 


Second  period.    From  Sylla  to  Auguatns, 
82  to  81  B.O. 


EMPERORS  OF  ROME. 


BBTORB  CHRIBT. 

48.  Gains  Julius  Caesar;  perpetual  dictator : 
asssasinated,  March  16,  44  b.o. 

31.  Octavianus  CBsar  :  in  the  year  27  b  a 
Augustus  imperator. — Livy. 

AfTBR  0HBI8T. 

14.  Tiberius  (Claudius  Nero). 

37.  C&ius  Ciuiffula :  murdered  by  a  tribune. 

41.  Claudius  (Tiber.  Drusus):  poisoned  by 

his  wife  Agrippina,  to  make  way  for 
64.  Claudius  Nero  :  deposed ;  put  himself  to 

death  to  escape  a  yet  more  terrible 

end. 
68.  Servius  Sulpicius  Galba:  slain  by  the 

prsetorian  iMuid. 
60.  M .  Salvius  Otho :  stabbed  himself  after 

a  reign  of  three  months. 
60.  Aulus  Vitellius :  deposed  by  Vespasian, 

and  put  to  death. 
60.  Titus  Flavins  Vespasian. 
70.  Titus  (Vespasian),  his  son. 
81.  Titus  Flavtus  Domitian,  brother  of  Titus ; 

Isst  of  the  twelve  Cnsars :  assassinated. 
96.  Coooeius  Nerva. 
06.  Trajan  (M.  Ulpius  Crinitus). 
117.  Adrisn  or  Hadrian  (Publlus  MHva). 
188.  Antoninus  Titus,  sumamed  Pius. 


101.  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  Lucius  Venn,  his 
son-in-law  :  the  latter  died  in  160. 

180.  Commodus  (L.  Aurelius  AntoninusX  son 
of  Marcus  Aurelius:  poisoned  by  his 
favourite  mistress,  Martia. 

198.  Publius-Helvius-Pcrtinax :  put  to  death 
b^  the  praetorian  band. 
[Four  emperors  now  start  up :  Dldius 
Julianus,  at  Rome ;  Pescennius  Niger, 
in  Syria ;  Lucius  Septimius  Beverus.  in 
Pannonia ;  and  Clodius  Albinus,  in 
Britain.] 

193.  Lucius  Septimius  Severus:  died  at  York, 
bi  Britain,  in  21 1 ;  succeeded  by  his  sons, 

211.  M.  Aurelius  Caracalla,  and  Septimius 
Geta.  Geta  murdered  the  same  year  by 
his  brother,  who  reigned  alone  until  217, 
when  be  was  slain  by  his  successor, 

217.  M.    Opilius    Macrinus,    prefect  of  the 

guaras  :  beheaded  in  a  mutiny. 

218.  Heliocalmlus  (M.  Aurelius  Antoninus),  a 

youUi :  put  to  death  for  his  follies  and 
enormities  by  his  incensed  subjects. 

22S.  Alexander  Severus:  assassinated  by  some 
soldiers  corrupted  by  Maxirolnus. 

235.  Caius  Julius  Varus  Maximinus :  assas- 
sinated in  his  tent  before  the  walls  of 
Aquileia. 


ROM 


558 


ROM 


ROME,  ANCIENT,  eofUmued. 

SS7.  M.  Antonim  OordianuB.  and  his  son : 
tbe  UtUr  iMTing  been  killed  in  ft 
battle  with  the  putieBne  of  Mazimi- 
nii8»  the  fktber  Btnuif^led  hinueif  in  a 
fit  of  des^dTp  at  Carthage,  in  hia  80th 
year. 

287.  BalbinuB  and  Pupienoa  :  put  to  death. 

288.  Gordlan,  junior,  icrandflon  of  tfae  elder 

Gordian,  in  hia  16th  year:  aaaaaslnated 
by  the  guarda,  at  the  instigation  of  his 
successor, 

144.  Philip  the  Arabian :  asHasHJr.atwl  by  hia 
own  soldiers :  his  son  Philip  was  mur^ 
dered,  at  the  same  time,  in  hiamother'a 
arms. 

240.  Metiua  Declua:  he  perished  with  hia 
two  sons,  and  their  anny,  in  an  engage- 
ment with  the  OothSw 

361.  Oallus  Hostiliusu  and  hia  son  Volusdaoua: 
both  dsin  by  the  soldiery. 

263.  JEmilianus :  put  to  death  after  a  reign  of 
only  fonr  montha. 

263.  Valerianus»  and  his  son,  Gallienua :  the 
first  was  taken  nrisoner  by  Sapor,  king 
of  Persia,  and  nayed  alive. 

200.  Gallienus  reigned  alone. 

[About  this  time  thirty  pretenders  to 
imperial  power  start  up  in  difPeront 
parts  of  the  empire  ;  of  these,  Cyriades 
is  the  first,  but  he  is  slain.] 

268.  Claudius  II.  (Gallienus  having  been  as- 
sasrinated  by  the  oAovs  of  the  guard) 
succeeds :  dies  of  the  plague. 

270.  QuintiUus,  his  brother,  elected  at  Rome 
by  the  senate  and  troops ;  AureUan  by 
the  army  in  lUyricum.  QuintUlus, 
despairing  of  success  sgalnst  his  rival, 
who  was  marching  against  him,  opened 
his  veins,  and  bled  himself  to  death. 

270.  Aurelian  :  assassinated  by  his  soldiers  in 
his  march  against  Pervia,  in  Jan.  276. 

279.  [Interregnum  of  about  nine  months.] 

276.  TacituN,  elected  Oct  25 :  died  at  Tarsus 
in  Cilida,  AprU  13,  276. 

276.  Florian.  his  brother :  his  title  not  recQg^ 
nised  by  the  senate. 

270.  U.  AureUus  Probus :  assassinated  by  his 
troops  at  Sirmium. 

282.  H.  Aurolius  Cams :  killed  at  Ctesiphon 
by  lightning ;  succeeded  by  his  sons, 


283. 


28flL 

106. 


806. 


806. 
306. 
806. 
807. 


Carinas  and  Numerianas:  both  aans- 
atnated,  after  transient  raigna. 

Diod^ian  :  who  aaaoeiated  as  hia  eol- 
league  in  the  govemmentk 

Haznnlanas  Hereulea :  the  two  emperwa 
resign  in  fiivour  of 

Constantius  Chloms  and  Galeriaa  1Cazi> 
mianus:  the  first  died  at  Tork,  ia 
Britain,  in  30^  and  the  tioopa  aahited 
as  emperor,  his  son, 

Constantino,  afterwards  styled  the 
Great :  whilst  aft  Borne  tha  pmterian 
band  proclaimed 

Xaxentiuab  aou  of  IfazinriaBnaHarailaa. 
Residas  theaa  wers^ 

Uaximianus  Heronles,  whoendaavoared 
to  recover  his  abdicated  power, 

Flaviua  Valeriua  Sevems,  murdered  bj 
the  last-named  pratendflor ;  and 

Flaviua  Valerlanua  Lidaiuii^  the  brother- 
in-law  of  Oonstantioa. 


[Of  theae,  Maximlanua  Hereulas 
strangled  in  Gaul  in  310;  Galeriaa 
Maximianns  died  wretchedly  in  311 ; 
Uaxentius  was  drowned  in  the  Tibar 
in  312;  and  Licinius  was  put  to  dsath 
by  order  of  Constantino  in  324.] 


824. 


Conatanttne  the  Qi 
died  on  WhiUunday,  May  22,  837. 

f  Bona  of  Constanthw ; 
divided  the  empire 


887. 


fConstantine  II. 
Constana, 
Gonatantiua  II. 


between  them  :~the 
fint  waa  dein  in 
S40,andtheaacood 
murdered  in  360. 
when  the  third  be- 
came aole  emperor. 
861.  Julian,  the  Apoatate,  so  called  for  attfur- 
ing  Christianity,  having  been  ediio^ted 
for  the  prieathood :  mortally  woonded 
in  a  battle  with  the  Persiana. 
Jovian ;  reigned  8  months  :  found  dead 
in  his  bed,  supposed  to  have  died  from 
the  fUmes  of  charcoal. 

[The  Roman  empira  may  be  aaid  to  have 
terminated  here,  aa  a  single  dominioo.] 

See  JBatUm  Empire  and  Weattfn  Smpirt, 


868. 


ROME,  MODERN.  Rome,  as  an  ecdealBstical  ttate,  has  contiiraed  to  be  gOTemed  by  ber 
popes  or  bishops,  from  the  earliest  ages  of  Ohristtanitj  up  to  the  present  time.  As 
a  temporal  power,  Rome  is  Tery  insignificant,  and  has  been  always  so ;  but  she  has 
exerted,  notwithstanding,  an  influence,  amounting  at  times  to  oomplete  dominion, 
over  a  great  portion  of  the  Christian  world.  In  the  character  and  assumptions  of  her 
popes  are  presented  the  most  striking  features  and  incidents  of  her  history,  and  we 
have  endeavoured  to  delineate  these  in  our  ample  and  oonsecutive  list  of  the  popes, 
compiled  from  the  most  certain  and  accepted  authorities,  attaehing  to  each  name  tbe 

?rominent  qualitiea  that  distinguished  them  as  rulers  of  the  Chureh.  See  Popaa 
his,  properly,  forms  the  history  of  Modem  Rome.  Some  flaw  remarkable  erentu, 
however,  of  very  recent  occurrence,  are  necessary  to  be  recorded  here  in  a  distiact 
artide,  as  they  threatened,  for  a  short  time  at  least,  the  overthrow  of  papal  temporal 
power. 


Cotmt  Rossi,  prime  minister  of  the  ponti- 
fical government^  aaaaasinated  on  the 
staircase  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
at  Rome        ....   Nov.  15,  1848 

Insurreotion  at  Rome,  the  populace  de- 
mand a  democratic  miniatry  and  other 
concessions ;  the  Pope  (Pius  IX.)  not 
giving  an  immediate  anawer,  the 
Romans  surround  the  pslaoe,  when  a 
oonflict  enauea  between  the  papal  and 
civic  guard.    The  troops  inveat  the 


Quirlnal,  and  place  oannon  agalnat  the 
entranoe;  and  the  pope  Is  forced  to 
accept  a^pular  miniatry    .  Nov.  10^  IMS 

[Cardinal  Palma,  the  pope's  aeerstavy,  is 
ahot  in  thia  conflici.] 

The  pope  eeo^Ma  in  diagniae  from  Rome 
to  QaSU    ....        Nov.  24.  1S48 

H.  de  Coroelloa  leavea  Paria  for  Booie,  a 
French  armed  expedition  to  CIvita 
y  ecchia  having  preeeded  him,  to  aflord 
protection  to  the  pope        .   Nov.  87,  1948 


k 


ROM 


659 


ROS 


and  thoy  erentually  capitulate  to  the 
Freneharmj    .  June  30,  1840 

The  Roman  aaBembly  dlasolved,  July  4,  1840 

An  officer  trom  Oudinot'a  camp  anivea 
at  GaSta,  to  preaeut  the  pope  with 
the  Icoye  of  the  two  gates  or  Rome  by 
which  the  JPrenoh  army  had  entered 
the  city July  4,  1840 

The  re-eetablishmentof  the  pope's  auUio- 
rity  proclaimed  at  Rome     .    July  16,  1840 

Oudinot  issues  a  general  order  stating 
that  the  pope  (or  his  reprosentativ^ 
now  r»-poneBiwes  the  administration  of 
affidrs,  but  that  public  security  in  the 
pontifical  dominions  still  remains 
under  the  special  guarantee  of  the 
Fkenoh  army    ....  Aug.  3,  1849 

His  Holiness  arrives  at  Fortiei  on  a  Tisit 
to  the  king  of  Naples  .       .    Bept.  4,  1840 

He  issues  from  Poruci  a  motupropHo  to 
his  subjects  .  Sept.  12.  1840 

The  pope  leaves  Portici  for  Rome,  where 
he  arrives      ....  April  12,  1850 

He  issues  the  buU  establishing  a  Roman 
Catholic  hierarchy  in  England.  Bee 
Papal  AffffrtMsion  Sept  24,  1860 

In  a  consistory  court  holden  at  Rome, 
the  pope  names  fourteen  cardinals,  of 
whom  only  four  are  Italians :  among 
the  foreigners  is  Dr.  Wiseman,  R.C., 
Ticar  apostolic  of  London,  created  arch- 
bishop of  Westminster    .        Sept.  SO,  1861 

Important  ooucordat  with  Austria,  Auff.  1866 

The  pope  visits  difierent  parts  of  h& 
dominions     ....        June,  1867 

See  Papal  AggnMrionj  Ckmetptitm,  ImmaculaU, 


ROME,  MODERN,  anUinmed. 

Protest  of  the  pope  against  the  violence 

and  outrage  waich  induced  him  to 

leave  Rome,  and  against  the  acta  of 

the  provisional  government,   Nov.  28,  1848 
A  constituent  assembly  meets  at  Rome, 

Feb.  6. 1849 
The  Roman  National  Assembly  declares 

the  pope  divested  of  all   temporal 

power,  and  adopts  the  repubUam  form 

of  govenunent  .  Feb.  8;  1849 

[The  republican  fls^  ia  hoisted  on  the 
tower  of  the  Capitol  on  the  same  dsy.] 

The  pope  protests  against  the  decree  for 
his  dethronement  .        Feb.  14,  1849 

His  HolinesB  appeab  to  the  great  Roman 
Gatholjc  powen  for  an  armed  inter- 
vention in  his  behalf  .        .    Feb.  18,  1849 

Civita  Veochia  occupied  bv  the  French 
force  under  marshal  Ouoinot^  Apr.  26,  1840 
.      A   small  French  force  repulsed  fbom 

Rome        ....       April  30,  1849 

[In  this  action  the  French  are  driven 
back  tcGm  the  city  with  the  loss  of 
about  700  men.] 

EnsBgement  between  the  Romans  and 
Neapolitans;  the  former  capture  60 
prisooers  and  400  muskets  .     May  6,  1849 

The  French  under  marshal  Oudinot  com- 
mence an  attack  on  Rome      .  June  8,  1849 

They  make  a  breach  in  the  walls  of 
Rome June  14,  1840 

The  French  send  storming  parties 
through  the  breaches  made  in  the 
walls         ....        June  21,  1840 

The  Romans  send  a  deputation  to  mar- 
shal Oudinot^  to  treat  for  a  surrender, 

ROSAMOND'S  BOWER.  Rosamond  was  daughter  of  lord  aifford^  and  mistress  of 
Heniry  11.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  by  the  queen,  prince  Henry,  and  his  other  sons, 
against  the  king,  on  account  of  his  attachment  to  her.  "  The  beauty  of  Fair  Rosamond 
was  so  exquisite,**  say  the  writers  of  those  days,  "that  no  other  than  a  jealous  and 
exasperated  woman  could  have  harmed  her.  Her  eyes  were  full  of  sweetness,  and  the 
benignest  in  the  world ;  and  her  features  of  such  surpassing  tenderness,  that  the  most 
fierce  barbarian  would  have  shrunk  from  the  thought  of  violence."  Henry  kept  her 
in  a  labyrinth  at  Woodstock,  where  his  queen,  Eleanor,  it  is  said,  disoovered  her 
apartments  by  the  clue  of  a  silk  thread,  and  poisoned  her.  She  was  buried  at  Qodstow 
church,  from  whence  Hugh,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  had  her  ashes  removed,  with  every 
species  of  indignity,  in  1191. 

ROSARY.  An  office  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  made  up  of  five,  sometimes  fifteen 
tens  of  beads,  each  ten  beginning  with  a  Pater-Noster,  to  direct  the  person  to  say  so 
many  Ave-Marias  in  honour  of  the  Virgin  Miuy. — Pardon.  **  We  owe  to  Dominic  de 
Guzman,  a  canon  of  the  order  of  St.  Augustin,  two  most  important  blessingB,"  says 
a  Spanish  writer,  "the  Rosary  and  the  Holy  Office,"  ▲.D.  1202.  Other  authors 
menti(m  the  Rosary  as  being  said  in  1093. 

ROSAS,  BAT  OF.  Brilliant  naval  action  by  the  boats  of  the  Cumberland,  Yolontaire, 
Apollo,  Topaze,  Philomel,  Scout,  and  Tuscan,  commanded  by  lieut  Tailour,  which 
ended  in  the  capture  or  destruction  of  eleven  armed  vessels  in  the  bay,  Nov.  1, 1809. 

ROSBACH,  BATTLES  of.  In  the  battle  fought  at  Rosbach,  40,000  rebel  Flemings 
under  the  command  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  the  king,  Charles  VL  of  France,  being 
present,  fell,  Nov.  17, 1382.  Battle  between  the  Prussians,  commanded  by  their  king, 
and  the  combined  army  of  French  and  Austrians,  in  which  the  latter  sustained  a 
severe  loss  and  complete  defeat.  Many  thousands  were  slain  in  this  battle  on  both 
sides,  Nov.  5, 1757. 

ROSE,  THB  FLOWER.  The  Romans  were  fond  of  rosea.  Cleopatra  received  Antony,  at 
one  of  her  banquets,  in  an  apartment  covered  with  rose-leaves  to  a  considerable  depth ; 
and  Antony  himself,  when  dying,  begged  to  have  roses  scattered  on  his  tomb.  The 
Roman  generals  who  hod  achieved  any  remarkable  victory  were  permitted  to  have 
roses  sculptured  on  their  shields.    Rose-water  was  Uie  fiivourite  perfume  of  the 


R03  560  ROT 

Roman  ladies,  and  the  most  luxurious  even  used  it  in  their  hatha.  In  the  East  the 
rose  has  always  been  a  favourite  with  the  poets.  The  Turks  beliere  that  rosea  sprang 
from  the  perspiration  of  Mahomet :  for  which  reason  they  never  tresd  upon  a  rose- 
leafy  or  suffer  one  to  lie  on  the  ground  ;  they  also  sculpture  a  rose  on  the  tombstones 
of  females  who  die  unmarried. — Arboretum  Britannieum^ 

'*  ROSE,  UNDER  THR"  The  rose,  a  symbol  of  silence,  gave  rise  to  the  phrase  "  under 
the  rose."  This  phrase,  ntb  roid,  is  almost  universal,  and  is  said  by  Italian  writers  to 
have  arisen  from  the  circumstance  of  the  pope's  presenting  consecrsted  roaes^  whidi 
were  placed  over  the  confessionals  at  Rome,  to  denote  secrecy,  A.D.  152d. 

ROSES*  IN  ENQLAND.  Roses  were  first  planted  in  England,  a.d.  152±^Salmcm.  The 
Damask  Rose,  or  Jiota  Damaacena,  was  brought  from  the  south  of  FVance  before  1573. 
The  Provence  Rose,  Ro9a  PravincialiB,  brought  from  Italy  before  1596.  The  Moea 
Rose,  Rota  Mtucova,  before  1724.  The  Rose  without  Thorns,  /?om  peftdvlina,  brought 
from  North  America,  before  1726.  The  China  Rose,  Bota  Indica,  i>roaght  firom 
China  about  1789.  The  sweet-scented  Guelder  Rose,  Vibummm  odoratunmvm, 
brought  from  China,  1821. 

ROSES,  WARS  OF  the  WHITE  avd  RED.  The  intestine  wars  which  so  long  deTaatirf«d 
England,  were  carried  on  under  the  symbols  of  the  White  and  the  Red  Btie,  and  were 
called  the  wars  of  the  Roses.  The  partisans  of  the  house  of  Lancaiter  chose  the  rrd 
rose  as  their  mark  of  distinction,  and  those  of  York  were  denominated  from  the  isAite. 
These  wars  originated  with  the  descendants  of  Edward  III.  That  monarch  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  grandson,  Richard  II.  who  being  deposed,  the  duke  of  Lancaster  was 
proclaimed  king,  by  the  title  of  Henry  IV.  in  prejudice  to  the  duke  of  York,  the 
right  heir  to  the  crown ;  he  being  descended  from  Lionel,  the  teccmd  son  of  Edward  III. 
whereas  the  duke  of  Lancaster  was  the  son  of  John  of  Qaunt,  the  third  son  of  king 
Edward.  The  accession  of  Henry  occasioned  several  conspiracies  during  his  reign : 
and  the  animosities  which  subsisted  between  his  descendants  and  those  of  the  duke  of 
York  afterwards  filled  the  kingdom  with  civil  commotions,  and  deluged  its  plains  with 
blood,  particularly  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VI.  and  Edward  IV.  First  battle  fought. 
May  22,  1456.  See  AlhamM^  St,  Union  of  the  Roses  in  the  marriage  of  Henry  VJI. 
with  the  princess  Elisabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV.  1486. 

ROSETTA,  IK  EoTFT.  Taken  by  the  French  in  1798  ;  and  by  the  British  and  Turks, 
April  19, 1801.  The  Turks  repulsed  the  British  here  in  1807.  Near  Roeetta,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Nile,  was  fought  the  memorable  battle  of  Aug.  1, 1798,  between  the 
fleets  of  Frsnce  and  England,  the  latter  commanded  by  Nelson.  See  iVt^.  All  I^ha 
rendered  great  service  to  his  country  by  a  canal  between  Rosetta  and  Alexandria. 

ROSETTA  STONE,  brought  from  Rosetta  by  the  French,  and  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  It  is  a  piece  of  black  basalt,  about  3  feet  long,  and  24  feet  wide^  with  an 
inscription  in  three  languages,  viz.,  hieroglyphics,  modified  hieroglyphics  (enchorial), 
and  Qreek,  settirg  forth  the  praises  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes  (about  B.a  194).  It  hn 
been  subjected  to  the  investigations  of  Dr.  T.  Young  and  Champollion. 

ROSICRUSIANS.  A  sect  of  hermetical  philosophers,  first  appesred  in  Germany  in  ISOl!. 
and  again  early  in  the  17th  century.  They  swore  fidelity,  promised  secrecy,  and 
wrote  hierogljphically ;  and  afiBrmed  that  the  ancient  philosophers  of  E^ypt,  the 
Chaldeans,  Magi  of  Persia,  and  Gymnorophists  of  the  Indies,  iaught  the  same  doctrine. 

ROSS,  BATTLE  of,  in  Ibeland.     Fought  between  the  royal  troops  commanded  by 

feneral  Johnston,  and  the  insurgent  forces  commanded  by  general  Beauchamp  Bagenal 
Tarvey ;  when,  after  a  most  obstinate  contest,  the  latter  were  defeated,  losing  mora 
than  2600  killed  on  the  field  of  bsttle,  June  4,  1798.  This  was  one  of  the  beet 
contested  battles  fought  by  the  insurgents  in  the  memorable  rebellion  of  that  year. 

ROSS,  BISHOPRIC  of,  in  Ibeland.  Founded,  it  is  supposed,  by  St  Facbnan,  m  the 
beginning  of  the  sixth  century ;  but,  until  the  arrival  of  the  English,  nothing  certain 
of  this  see  is  known.  It  is  not  valued  in  the  king's  books ;  but  by  a  manuscript  in 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  it  is  taxed  at  19/.  in  81  Eliz. ;  and  by  a  manuscript  in  Mai«h*s 
library  at  102.  in  88  EHzl  1690.  It  was  united  to  Cork  in  1840 ;  and  Cloyne  to  both, 
by  the  provisions  of  8  &  4  Will.  IV.  called  the  Irish  Church  Temporalities  act,  e.  37* 
passed  Aug.  14, 1888.    See  Bithopt, 

ROTA  CLUB.  A  society  who  met  at  Miles*  Coffee-house  in  New  Plslace-yard,  West- 
minster, during  the  administration  of  Oliver  Cromwell ;  their  plan  was  that  all  the 
great  officers  of  state  should  be  chosen  by  ballot ;  and  that  a  certain  numbex  o( 


\ 

J 


ROT  561  ROY 

members  of  parliameQt  should  be  changed  annually  by  rotation,  from  whence  they 
took  theur  title.    Sir  William  Petty  was  one  of  the  members  in  1659. — Biog,  Brit, 

ROTHESAY  CASTLE  STEAM-PACKET.  This  vessel,  plying  between  Liverpool  and 
Beaumaris,  was  lost  at  night  with  nearly  200  passengers  and  crew  on  board,  not  more 
than  twenty  of  whom  were  saved.  This  shipwreck  was  wholly  ascribed  to  the  indis- 
cretion of  the  commander,  Aug.  17, 1831. 

ROUND-HEADS.  During  the  unhappy  war  which  brought  Charles  I.  of  England  to  the 
scaffold,  the  adherents  of  that  monarch  were  first  called  Cavaliers,  and  the  friends  of 
the  parliament  were  ealled  Round-heads.  This  latter  term  arose  from  those  persons 
who  thus  distinguished  themselves  putting  a  round  bowl  or  wooden  dish  upon  their 
heads^  and  cutting  their  hair  by  the  edges  or  brims  of  the  bowl.    See  Cavaliers, 

ROYAL  ACADEMY.  From  a  society  of  artists  which  met  in  St  Peter's  court,  St. 
Martin's-lane,  about  1739,  Hogarth  established  the  society  of  Incorporated  Artists, 
who  held  their  first  exhibition  at  the  Society  of  Arts,  Adelphi,  April  21, 1760.  From 
this  sprang  the  Royal  Academy,  in  consequence  of  a  dispute  between  the  directors 
and  the  fellows.  On  Dec.  10th,  1768,  the  institution  of  the  present  Royal  Academy 
was  completed  under  the  patronage  of  George  III. ;  and  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  knighted 
on  the  occasion,  wss  appointed  its  first  president. — Leigh,  The  first  exhibition  of 
the  Academicians  (at  Pail-mall)  was  in  1769.  In  1771  the  king  granted  them  apart- 
ments  in  old  Somerset-house,  and  afterwards  in  1780,  in  new  Somerset-house, 
where  they  remained  till  1838,  when  they  removed  to  the  National  Qallery.  Among 
its  first  professors  were  Johnson,  Gibbon,  and  Goldsmith  :  among  its  present  ones  are 
the  historians  Macaulay  and  Hallam. 

ROYAL  ACADEMY  or  MUSIC.  Was  incorporated  by  charter  in  1880.  The  first  concert 
took  place  Dec.  8, 1828. 

ROYAL  ADELAIDE  STEAMER  This  fine  ship,  bound  from  Dublin  and  Cork  to 
Plymouth  and  London,  was  totally  wrecked  on  the  Tongue  Sand  off  Margate,  on  the 
night  of  Saturday,  March  30,  1850,  her  voyage  being  nearly  completed.  By  this 
catastrophe  the  whole  of  those  on  board,  captain,  crew,  and  passengers,  amounting  to 
more  than  two  hiudred  personsy  were  lost.  The  first  intimation  identifying  the 
steamer  lost  was,  the  finding  a  lantern  bearing  her  name,  floating  on  the  waters. 

ROYAL  ASSENT.  If  the  king  assent  to  a  public  bill,  the  clerk  of  the  parliament  declares 
in  Norman  French,  '*  Le  toy  le  vewt**  the  king  wills  it  so  to  be.  If  the  king  refuse 
bis  sssent,  it  is  in  the  gentle  language  of  " Le  roy  8*avisera**  the  king  will  advise  upon 
H.  This  is  the  language  usxially  adopted  to  the  present  day. — HaU.  By  the  statute 
33  Hen.  YIII.  1541,  the  king  may  give  his  assent  by  letters-patent. — Blachttone*a  Com. 

ROYAL  EXCHANGE,  Lo]n>oy.  The  foundation  of  the  original  edifice  was  laid  by  sir 
Thomas  Gresham,  June  7, 1566,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Tun  prison.  Queen  Elizabeth 
visited  this  Exchange  in  January  1571,  and  by  the  sound  of  trumpets  her  herald  named 
it  the  Royal  Exchange. — Hume.  This  grand  fabric  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  great 
fire  in  1666,  precisely  a  century  after  its  erection.  Charles  IL  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  next  edifice,  Oct  23,  1667,  which  was  completed  by  Mr.  Hawkesmoor,  a  pupil  of 
sir  Christopher  Wren's^  in  about  three  years ;  and  it  was  repaired  and  beautified  in 
1769.  This  last  also  became  a  prey  to  a  destructive  fire,  Jan.  10, 1838 ;  and  was  burned 
to  the  ground  with  a  number  of  public  ofi&ces  and  adjoining  houses.  The  new  Royal 
Exchange,  commenced  in  1840,  imder  the  direction  of  Mr.  Tite,  was  opened  by  the  queen, 
in  state,  accompanied  by  her  ministers  and  a  grand  civic  procession,  Oct.  28, 1844. 

ROYAL  EXCHANGE,  Dubux.  Commenced  in  1769,  and  opened  ten  years  after — a 
magnificent  building,  whose  expense  was  defrayed  by  lottery  schemes,  conducted  by 
the  merchsnts  with  an  integrity  that  did  them  honour. — Hardie, 

ROYAL  GEORGE.  First-rate  man-of-war  of  100  guns,  overset  off  Spithead,  and  sud- 
denly went  down  while  at  anchor,  by  the  guns  rolling  to  one  side.  By  this  dreadful 
catastrophe,  rear-admiral  Eempenfeldt,  the  crew,  many  marines,  women  and  Jews,  in 
all  above  600  persons,  were  drowned,  Aug.  29, 1782.  By  the  use  of  the  diving-bell, 
this  ship  was  surveyed  imbedded  in  the  deep,  in  May  1817  tt  eeq. ;  since  when  several 
Buocessive  gunpowder  explosions  have  brought  up  numerous  portions  of  the  wreck. 

ROYAL  HUMANE  SOCIETY,  London.  This  institution,  for  the  recovery  of  persons 
apparently  drowned,  was  founded  in  1774,  by  Drs.  Goldsmith,  Heberden,  Towers, 
Letteom,  Hawes,  and  Cogan,  but  principally  by  the  exertions  of  the  last  three  gentle- 
men. The  society  has  eighteen  receiving-houses  in  the  metropolis,  all  of  which  are 
supplied  with  perfect  and  excellent  apparatus,  and  designated  by  conspicuous  boards, 

o  o 


ROT  562  ROT 

ftunouncing  their  object.  The  principal  receiving-house,  however,  waa  erected  m  17M, 
and  ia  aituated  on  a  apot  of  ground  given  by  hia  majeaty  (George  IIL  on  the  north  tide 
of  the  Serpentine  river,  Hyde-park.  ForW-three  aimilar  inatitutiona  have  been 
eatabUshed  in  Great  Britain,  five  in  the  British  foreign  aettlementa,  and  ten  in  foreign 
countriea.  The  motto  of  the  aociety  ia  appropriate — **  Laleat  icifiiUida  fonan''^"^ 
amall  spark  may  perhapa  lie  oonoealed." 

ROTAL  INSTITUTION  of  Qrbat  BBtTAiv.  Thia  institution,  the  earliest  of  the  kind 
in  London,  was  founded  in  March,  1799,  by  Count  Rumford  and  sir  Joseph  Btaki, 
assisted  by  earls  Spencer  and  Morton,  and  other  noblemen  and  gentlemen.  It 
received  the  immediate  patronage  of  Qeoi^ge  III.  and  was  incorporated  in  1800  by 
royal  charter  sa  "  The  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,  for  diffusing  the  knowledge, 
and  £EtciUtating  the  general  introduction,  of  uieful  mechanical  inventaoni  and  im* 
provements,  and  for  teaching,  by  courses  of  philosophical  lectures  and  experimenti, 
the  application  of  acience  to  the  common  purposea  of  life.**  It  waa  enlarged  and 
extended  by  an  act  of  parliament  in  1810.  The  original  plan  aa  drawn  up  by  Coont 
Rumford  in  1799,  has  been  considerably  modified.  —  The  Houbb  (in  Albe- 
marle-street,  Piccadilly)  was  purchased  in  June,  1799 ;  and  the  preaent  fnmi  wai 
added  by  subscription  in  1838.  The  Lecture  theatre  was  erected  in  1803,  under  the 
superintendence  of  Mr.  T.  Webster. — The  Library  was  commenced  in  1803,  by  the 
munificent  subscriptions  of  the  proprietors  of  the  institution.  It  now  (1857)  com- 
prises  about  30,000  volumes,  the  present  annual  increase  being  about  1000.  A  new 
edition  of  the  claaalfied  catalogue  was  published  in  1857. — The  Mubkuh  containa 
many  choice  geological  specimens  collected  by  Davy,  Hatchett^  Wollaaton,  kc,  and 
much  of  the  original  philoaophical  apparatus  of  Cavendish,  and  of  Davy,  Faraday, 
and  other  profeasors  of  the  institution ;  alao  many  other  intereating  objecta,  chiefly 
contributed  by  the  members. — In  1804  air  J.  St.  Aubyn  and  other  gentlemen  pro- 
posed to  form  a  School  of  Mines  at  this  institution ;  but  the  plan,  although  winnly 
supported  by  the  membera,  was  withdrawn  for  want  of  encouragement  by  the  govern- 
ment and  by  mining  proprietors. — ^The  first  Lecturr  was  delivered  March  4,  ISOl, 
by  Dr.  Gamett,  he  being  the  first  professor  of  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry.  In 
1802  he  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Thomas  Toung,  so  celebrated  for  his  researchea  in 
optics,  resulting  in  the  discovery  of  the  interference  of  ligbt^  and  the  establiahmeot 
of  the  theory  of  undulation.  His  '*  Lectures  on  Natural  Philosophy  and  the  Meefaa- 
nical  Arts,"  fii^st  published  in  1807,  are  still  considered  a  text-book  of  pbyacil 
science.  His  works  on  antiquarian  literature  (hieroglyphic  inacriptiona,  &c)  are  alio 
highly  esteemed. — In  Feb.  1801  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Humphry)  Davy  was  engaged  tf 
aasiwtant  lecturer  and  director  of  the  laboratory,  and  on  May  81,  1802,  be  wia 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry.  His  lectures  were  eminently  succesafnl,  and  bii 
discoveries  in  chemistry  and  electricity  have  immortalised  his  name,  and  conferred 
honour  on  the  institution  :  by  him  the  alkaloids,  potassium  and  sodium,  were  dii- 
covered  in  1807 ;  the  nature  of  chlorine  was  determined  in  1810,  snd  the  safety-lamp 
invented  in  1815. — Mr.  W.  T.  Brando  succeeded  sir  Humphry  ss  professor  a 
chemistry  in  1813,  and  held  that  office  till  his  resignation  in  1852,  since  which  time 
he  has  been  elected  hon.  professor  :  from  1816  to  1850  he  delivered,  in  the  laboratory 
of  this  institution,  his  celebrated  chemical  lectures  to  studeota— In  1813  Mr. 
Faraday,  on  the  recommendation  of  sir  H.  Davy,  waa  engaged  as  assistant  in  the  labo- 
ratory, and  in  1825  as  its  director :  in  1827  he  became  one  of  the  permanent  lectaren 
of  the  institutioo.  In  1820  he  commenced  those  researches  in  electricity  and  mag- 
netism which  form  an  era  in  the  history  of  science.  In  1824  he  diaoorered  the 
condensability  of  chlorine  and  other  gases ;  in  1881  he  obtained  electricity  from  the 
magnet ;  in  1845  he  exhibited  the  two-fold  magnetism  of  matter,  comprehending  ill 
known  substances,  the  magnetiam  of  gaaea,  flame,  &c. ;  and  in  1850  he  published  his 
researches  on  atmospheric  magnetism.  Dr.  J.  Tyndall,  F.R.S.,  the  present  professor 
of  natural  philosophy,  was  first  elected  in  July,  1853,  since  which  time  he  has  pro- 
secuted his  msgnetic  and  other  researches  in  this  place,  and  laid  the  results  experi- 
mentally before  the  members. — The  ioeekiy  evening  meetingg,  on  the  Fridays  from 
January  to  June,  as  now  arranged,  commenced  in  1826.  Discourses  are  given  at  these 
meetings  by  the  professors  of  the  institution,  and  by  the  most  eminent  men  in  ererr 
department  of  science. — EndowmenU.  In  1833  John  Fuller,  Esq.  of  Rose-hilL 
endowed  two  professorships,  of  chemistry  snd  physiology :  the  former  wss  bestowed 
on  Mr.  Faraday  for  life ;  the  latter  on  Dr.  Roget  for  three  years,  to  be  filled  ^*^^ 
wards  by  triennial  election. — The  present  Fullerian  professor  of  physiology  is  Thomas 
Huxley,  Esq.,  F.RS.  elected  in  1855.— In  1838  Mrs.  Acton  gave  lOOOL  to  be  invested 
for  paying  every  seven  years  100  guineas  for  the  best  essay  on  the  beneficence  of  the 


ROY  5C3  RUL 

Almighty  as  illustrated  by  discoveries  in  soienoe ;  which  have  been  awarded — ^in  1844 
to  Mr.  Q.  Fownes;  in  1861  to  Mr.  T.  Wharton  Jones. — The  Jirtt  officen  were  sir 
Joseph  Banks,  pretident,  till  the  charter  was  granted,  afterwanis  the  earl  of  Win- 
chilsea;  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Thomas)  Bernard,  treoMurer ;  rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Olasse, 
teerttary.  The  prttent  are  the  duke  of  Northumberland,  K.Q.  president  (since  1842); 
W.  Pole,  Esq.  treasurer  (since  1849) ;  rev.  John  Barlow,  M.A.  secretary  (since  1848).* 

ROTAL  MARRIAGE  ACT.    See  article  Marriage  Ad,  Royal, 

ROTAL  MILITARY  ASYLUM,  Chelsea.  The  first  stone  of  this  important  institution 
was  laid  by  the  late  duke  of  York,  June  19, 1801.  The  principal  front  has  a  portico 
of  four  noble  Doric  pillars,  supporting  a  pediment  with  the  imperial  arms ;  and  on  the 
frieze  is  this  inscription, "  The  Royal  Military  Asylum  for  the  children  of  the  Soldiers 
of  the  Regular  Army." 

ROYAL  NAVAL  ASYLUM,  Orxeitwich.  This  institution  was  commenced  at  Paddmg- 
ton  in  1801 ;  but  it  was  tranferred  to  its  present  situation,  near  the  entrance  to 
Qreenwich  park,  in  1807.  The  interior  of  the  central  portion  of  the  building  is 
remarkable,  having  been  commenced  in  1618  by  Anne  of  Denmark,  and  completed  in 
1635  by  queen  Henrietta-Maria,  whose  arms  still  adorn  the  ceiling  of  the  room  in 
which  her  son  Charles  II.  was  bom,  in  1680.  This  house,  which  was  afterwards  trans- 
formed into  the  ranger's  lodge,  became  the  occasional  retirement  of  prime-minister 
Pelham,  from  whom  it  derived  the  name  of  Pelham-house. 

ROYAL  SOCIETY,  LONDON.  In  1645  several  learned  men  met  in  London  to  discuss 
philoaopbical  questions  and  report  experiments ;  the  Novum  Organon  of  Bacon,  pub- 
lished in  1620,  having  given  g^reat  impulse  to  such  pursuits.  Some  of  them  (Drs. 
WUkins,  Wallis,  &c),  about  1648-9,  removed  to  Oxford,  and  with  Dr.  (afterwards 
bishop)  Seth  Ward,  the  hon.  Robert  Boyle,  Dr.  (afterwards  sir  W.)  Petty,  and  several 
doctors  of  divinity  and  physic,  frequently  assembled  in  the  apartments  of  Dr.  Wilkins, 
in  Wadham  College,  Oxford,  lliey  formed  what  has  been  called  the  Philosophical 
Society  of  Oxford,  which  only  lasted  till  1690.  The  members  were,  about  1658,  called 
to  various  parts  of  the  kingdom,  on  account  of  their  respective  professions ;  and  the 
majority  coming  to  London,  constantly  attended  the  lectures  at  Gresham  College,  and 
met  occasionally  till  the  death  of  Oliver  Cromwell.  The  society  was  first  organised 
in  1660,  and  Charles  IL  April  22, 1662,  constituted  them  a  body  politic  and  corporate, 
by  the  appellation  of  "  the  President,  Council,  and  Fellows  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London,  for  improving  Natural  Knowledge."  The  Philotophieal  Trantactions  date 
from  March  6,  1664-5.  In  1668,  Newton  invented  his  reflecting  telescope  (now  in  the 
possession  of  the  society),  and  on  April  28, 1686,  presented  to  the  soeiety  the  MS.  of 
his  Principia,  which  the  council  ordered  to  be  printed.  This  was  done  under  tii» 
superintendence  and  also  at  the  expense  of  Halley,  the  astronomer,  at  that  time 
clerk  to  the  society.  The  society  met  for  some  years  at  Qresham  College,  and 
afterwards  at  Arundel  House  (1666),  where  it  came  into  possession  of  a  valuable 
library,  presented  by  Mr.  Howard,  grandson  of  its  collector,  the  earl  of  Arundel. 
After  various  changes  the  fellows  returned  to  Gresham  College,  where  they  remained 
till  Nov.  8,  1710,  when  they  held  their  first  meeting  at  Crane-court,  in  a  house 
purchased  by  themselves,  and  which  they  occupied  tiU  they  removed  to  apartments 
granted  them  in  Somerset-house,  in  1780.  In  1857  they  again  removed  to  apart- 
ments in  Burlington-house,  Piccadilly .f  The  first  Copley  Medal  was  awarded  to 
Stephen  Gray  in  1731 ;  the  Royal  Medal  to  John  Dalton,  1826 ;  the  Rumford  Medal 
to  count  Rumford,  in  1800.    The  following  are  the  more  eminent  presidents  : — 


Sir  Robert  Moray,  1600-3.  '  Dr.  W.  H.  Wollaston,  1820 

Lord  Brounclcer  (the  fimt  under  the  charter),    Sir  H.  Davy,  1820-7 

lMS-77.     •    •    • 
Sir  C.  Wren,  1680-2.    •    •    • 
Samuel  Pepya,  1684-6.    •    •    • 
John  lord  Bomers,  16e8-1703. 
Sir  I.  Newton,  1708-27. 
Sir  Hans  Sloane,  1727-41.    •    *    • 
Sir  Joeeph  Banks,  1778-1820. 


Davies  Gilbert,  182730. 
Duke  of  Sussex,  1830-8. 
Marquess  of  Northampton,  1838-48. 
Earl  of  Rosse.  1848-54. 
Lord    Wrotiesley,     1854       (the    present 
President,  Oct.  1857). 


RULING-MACHINES.     Used  for  ruling  paper  with  faint  lines,  for  merchants'  account* 
books,  &c.    They  were  invented  by  an  ingenious  Dutchman  resident  in  London,  in 

*  The  members  are  elected  by  hallot,  and  pay  five  guineas  on  admiasiou,  and  five  ^ineos  annually 
or  a  composition  of  sixty  guineas. 

t  Only  fifteen  Fullows  are  elected  annually,  who  iiay  ten  pounds  on  oJroisaion,  and  four  poimds 
anntuiUy.  or  a  composition  of  sixty  pounds. 

u  o  2 


RUM 


564 


RUS 


1782,  and  were  Bubseqaently  groatly  improTed  by  Woodmnaoa.  Pajne,  Brown,  ud 
others.  They  were  improyed  in  ScoUand  in  1803.  An  invention  baa  lately  rendered 
account  booka  perfect  by  the  numbering  of  the  pagea  with  typee,  inetetd  of  Um 
numbers  being  written  by  a  pen,  so  that  a  page  cannot  be  torn  out  from  them  with- 
out being  discoTerod. 

RUMP  PARLIAMENT.  The  parliament  so  designated  which  lasted  from  Dee.  6, 1S49, 
to  April  20, 1653.  Colonel  Pride  at  the  head  of  two  regimenta  blockaded  the  boose 
of  commons,  and  seised  in  the  passage  41  members  of  the  Presbyterian  party,  whom  bs 
confined;  above  160  more  were  excluded ;  and  none  but  the  most  determined  of  the 
Independents,  about  60,  were  permitted  to  enter  the  houseu  This  invasion  of  psriis- 
mentary  rights  was  called  Pride's  Purge,  and  the  admitted  memben  wers  celled  the 
Rump,  l6i9.'-Ooldamith, 

RUSSELL,  LORD  JOHN ;  his  ADMINISTRATIONS. 


FiBsr  ADVivnrntATiov. 

On  the  resignation  of  sir  Robert  Peel,  the 
premienbip  devolved  upon  lord  John  RuaeeU. 
as  first  lora  of  the  treMury.  The  mombers  of 
his  government  were  :  marqueas  of  Lans- 
downe,  lord  preeideut  of  the  council ;  eari  of 
Mint's  privy  seal;  Mr.  (now  sir  CharlesX 
Wood,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer ;  viscount 
Palroerston,  foreign,  sir  George  Orey,  home, 
and  earl  Orey,  colonial,  aecretariea ;  air  John 
BobhouBo(now  lord  Broughton,  of  Bronghton 
de  Uyfford,  county  WiltsX  and  earl  of  Ciaren- 
doa^sttcoeeded  by  Mr.  LabouchereX  boards  of 
oontrol  and  trade  ;  the  earl  of  A  uckland^f suc- 
ceeded by  sir  Franeis  Thomhill  BaringX 
admiralty ;  lord  Campbell  (succeeded  bv  the 
earl  of  Carlisle,  late  viscount  MorpethX  duchy 
of  Lancaster :  Mr.  Fox  Maulo  (now  lord  Pau- 
mureX  secretary-at-war ;  marquess  of  Clauri- 
carde,  postmaster ;  Mr.  Macaulay,  Sx. ;  lord 
Cottenham  (succeeded  by  lord  TniroX  lord 
chancellor.  July  1846.  Lord  John  I^isseU 
and  his  colleagues  resigned  thf>ir  offices,  Feb. 
SI,  1851 ;  but  were  induced  (after  the  fidlure 


of  lord  Btanley*a  par^  to  form  an  adminirtnr 
tion)  to  return  to  power,  Maivh  3  following.— 

•     ■BOOXD  ADMnRRRAnOV. 

Or  continuation  of  his  first  Lord  John 
RnsaeU,  first  lord  of  the  tressuiy ;  maninMi 
of  Lanadowne,  president  of  the  council;  «iri 
of  Minto,  lord  privy  seal ;  sir  Charias  Wood, 
chaneellor  of  the  Exoheqner ;  sir  George  Oraj. 
viscount  PalmerstOD,  and  eari  Orey,  hosM, 
foreign,  and  colonial  sccrstaries ;  sir  Fnnds 
T.  Baring,  first  lord  of  the  admirslty ;  lord 
Broughton,  board  of  control ;  Mr.  Laboodme, 
board  of  bade ;  Mr.  Fox  Msule  (afterwsid& 
succeeded  aa  Lord  Panmurei  soeretary-at- 
war;  marqueas  of  ClanTieanle,  postmsster- 
general;  eari  Granville,  paymaster-general 
lord  Seymour,  eari  of  Carlisle,  ^c;  kmi 
Truro,  lord  chancellor.  March  1S51.  Lord 
Palmerston  was  succeeded  as  foreign  sscretary 
by  the  eari  OranviUe,  December  ti  MUmrng. 
Thia  ministry  resigned  to  the  Derby  sdminift- 
tration,  February  SI,  1852.  Bee  Ikr^  Admmi- 
trtUifOn. 


RUSSELL,  WILLIAK,  LORD.  His  trial  for  the  Ryo-Houae  Plot  was  mailed  by  »  most 
touching  Bceoa  When  he  ropplieated  to  hare  aome  one  near  him  to  take  notes  to 
help  his  memory,  he  was  answered,  that  any  of  his  attendants  might  asaat  him;  npoo 
which  he  iaid,  "  M j  wirs  is  here,  and  will  do  it  for  me."  He  was  bebsadsd  in 
LinoolnVInn-Fields,  July  21, 1683,  having  slept  soundly  the'  night  before  his  eieea- 
tion.  Lady  Russell  suryived  him  forty  yearSi  dying  Sept  29, 1723,  in  her  87th  jmr. 
The  attainder  of  this  illustrious  nobleman  was  reversed,  1  Will..IU.  1689,  hii  dttth 
haying  been  deemed  a  mubdeb. 

RUSSIA*  Anciently  Sarmatia.  It  is  conjectured  that  the  aboriginea  of  this  TStt  tnet  of 
country  were  the  immediate  progeny  of  Magog,  second  son  of  Japhet ;  and  that  they 
settled  here  very  shortly  after  the  dispersion  from  Babel,  where  they  were  grsdiuUy 
divided  into  tribes,  each  distinguished  by  a  particular  name,  but  still  retaining  their 
ancient  general  appellation,  un&  it  was  changed  by  the  Romanainto  that  of  Scythiana 
Rurick  was  grand-duke  of  Novogorod,  a  J>.  882,  which  is  the  earliest  authentic  aoooast 
of  this  country.  In  981,  Wladunir  was  the  first  Christian  king.  Juris  I.  begin  hit 
reign  in  1156,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  Moscow.  About  1200,  the  Mongol  Tutan 
conquered  Russia,  and  held  it  in  subjection  till  1640,  when  Ivan  Basilorits  restored  it 
to  independence.  In  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Russians  discovered  aad 
conquered  Siberia. 


The  foundation  of  tlie  present  monarchy 
laid A.D.  1474 

Basil  IV.  earries  his  victorious  arms  into 
the  East,  1509  to 1584 

Ivan-Basilovitz  takes  the  tiUe  of  cear, 
sifn^iiying  great  king,  and  drives  the 
Tartars  dear  out   of  his  dominions 

1534  to  1660 

The  navigation  from  Bngland  first  die- 
covePftd  by  Robert  Chaucollor        .     .  1654 

The  Tartars  surprise  Moscow,  and  slay 
80.000  of  the  people  .        .        .  1571 

The    Novogoroaians  having   intrigued 


with  the  Poles,  Ivan  orders  the  efai«f 
inhabitants  to  be  hewn  into  small 
pieces  before  his  eyes     .  a.d.  1561 

The  race  of  Rurick,  who  had  govenied 
Russia  for  700  years,  beoomee  extinct  I59S 

The  Impoeition  practised  by  Demetriua 
Bm  hnpotUfn IM 

The  Poles  place  Ladislaus.  son  of  their 
own  king,  Sigismuud  II.  upon  the 
throne  ot  Russia 1^1^ 

Michnel-Fedorovits,  of  the  house  of 
Romanof,  asoeuds  the  throne  .  l^^H 

Revolt  fh>m  Polish  tyranny  .    .  1*1^ 


RUS 


566 


RUS 


RUSSIA,  etmtifwecL 

•  Finland  ceded  to  Sweden  .  4.D.  1017 

Hsign  of  Peter  I.  or  the  Great    .        .    .  1682 

He  visited  Bngland.  and  worked  in  the 
dockyard  at  Deptford  ....  1697 

Orders  of  St  Andnw,  and  of  St.  Alex- 
ander NeTskoi,  instituted  about     .    .  1698 

The  RuasianB  begin  their  new  year  from 
Jan.  1 1700 

Peter  builds  St  Petersburg  .    .  1703 

Peter  IL  depoeed,  and  the  crown  given 
to  Anne  of  Courland    ....  1780 

Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  I.  reigns, 
in  prejudice  of  Ivan  VI.  an  inCeuit, 
who  is  imprisoned  for  life        .        .    .  1741 

Peter  III.  dethroned  and  murdered, 
succeeded  by  Catharine  his  wife         .  1762 

The  young  prince,  the  rightftil  heir,  till 
now  immured,  put  to  &ath  .  176S 

The  dismemberment  of  Poland  com- 
menced by  Catharine  (see  Poland)         1772 

This  perfidioiis  robberv  completed    .    .  1795 

Catharine  gives  her  subjects  a  new  code 
of  laws ;  abolishes  torture  in  punish- 
ing criminals  ;  and  dies  .  1796 

Murder  of  the  emperor  Paul,  who  is 
found  dead  in  his  chamber    March  23,  1801 

Great  defeat  of  Alezandn',  at  Austerlitz, 
by  Napoleon     ....  Dec.  2,  1805 

Alejcaader  visits  England      .    .  June  6, 1814 

The  graud-duke  Constantino  renounces 
the  right  of  succession  .    Jan.  26, 1822 

The  emperor  Nicholas  is  crowned  at 
Moscow      ....         Sept  S,  1826 

RuMian  war  against  Persia     .    Sept.  28, 1825 

Nicholas  invested  with  the  order  of  the 
Garter       ....  July  9, 1827 

Peace  concluded  between  Russia  and  the 
Persians     ....        Feb.  22, 1828 

War  between  Russia  and  the  Ottoman 
Porte  declared     .        .        .    April  26,  1828 

[For  the  disastrous  consequences  of  this 
to  Turkey  see  Turkey,  and  Battla.] 


The  war  for  the  independence  of  Poland 
against  Russia  .  Nov.  29,  1880 

This  war  closed  with  the  capture  of  War^ 
saw,  and  the  total  overthrow  of  the 
Poles.    See  Wartaw.     .        .    Sept  8,  1881 


(For  the  events  of  this 
article  Potand.} 


last  war,  see 


Cracow,  which  had  been  erected  into  a 
republic,  and  its  independence  guaran- 
teed by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in 
1815,  is  occupied  by  a  Russian  and 
Austrian  army  .  .        Feb.  13, 1836 

Failure  of  the  Russian  expedition  against 
Khiva Jtui.  8, 1840 

Treaty  of  London  (see  Syria)  .    July  16,  1840 

The  emperor  Nicholas  visits  Eugkuid; 
he  amves  in  Loudun  .  June  1, 1844 

Die  grand-duke  Gonstantine  arrives  at 


Portsmouth  in  the  Jnffermanland,  of 

74  guns         ....      June  9,  1846 

[For  the  participation  of  Russia  in  the 
Hungarian  war  of  1848-0,  and  the  con- 
sequent events,  see  Bunffary.] 

Russia  demands  the  expulsion  of  the 
Hungarian  refugees  from  Turk^.  See 
Turkey         ....        Nov.  5,  1849 

This  demand,  which  had  interrupted  the 
diplomatic  relations  between  Russia 
and  the  Porte,  induces  the  latter  to 
send  the  Huugarian  and  Polish  refu- 
gees to  Koniah,  in  Asia  Minor       Jan.  1850 

Conspiracy  against  the  life  and  policy  of 
the  emperor  detected  .    Jan.  6, 1850 

The  emperor  decrees  seven  men  in  each 
thousand  of  the  population  of  Western 
Russia  to  be  enrolled  in  the  army, 
giving  a  total  increase  of  180,000  soldiers 

Aug.  1850 

The  king  of  Prussia  and  the  csar  leave 
Warsaw  for  Olmutx  to  have  an  inter- 
view with  the  emperor  of  Austria, 

May  27,  1851 

The  emperor  of  Russia  visits  Vienna, 

May  8,  1852 

Prince  Menschikoff  repairs  to  Constan- 
tinople to  demand  of  the  Sultan  the 
settlement  of  several  important  mea- 
sures :  tine  Holy  Places,  the  indepon- 

'   dence  of  Montenegro,  the  condition  of 
the  Greek  patrijux^,  the  hardships 
of  the  Greek  Christians,  Ao.      March,  1853 
See  XusBO' Turkish  war. 

Conference  between  the  emperors  of 
Russia  and  Austria  at  Olmuts  Sept  24, 1853 

And  king  of  Prussia  at  Warsaw,    Oct.  2,  1853 

Interview  of  Mr.  J.  Sturgeand  his  friends 
with  the  csar      ....     Feb.  1854 

Ten  northern  provinces  put  in  a  state  of 
siege  March  5, 1854 

The  czar  issues  a  manifesto  to  bis  sub- 
jects: he  wiU  only  combat  for  the 
faith  and  Christianity     .       April  23,  1854 

Death  of  the  Czar  Nicholas.  No  change 
of  policy  March  %  1855 

Most  extoosive  levy  ordered  by  the  czar 
(at  Nlcolaieff )    .  Nov.  8, 1855 

He  visits  his  army  at  Sebaatopol 

Nov.  10,  1856 

Death  of  prince  Ivan  Paskiewitsch,  aged 
74 Feb.  1,  1856 

Alexander  II.  crowned  at  Moscow 

Sept  2,  1856 

Amnesty  granted  to  the  Poles  May,  27.  1856 

Manifesto  on  account  of  the  English  and 
French  interference  in  the  aflairs  of 
Naples Sept.  1856 

Grand-duke  Constantino  visits  France 
and  England      ....  April,  1857 


DUKES.  CZARS,  AND  EMPERORS. 


DUKIS  OF  KIUV. 

862.  Rurick. 

878.  Igor. 

Q«K   )  Olpga,  regent. 

*^^*  j  Swiatoalaw  or  Spendobloa. 

972.  Jnropalkl. 

980.  Vladimir,    Wladimir,  or  Woldimlr 

styled  the  Great 
1015.  Jaraslaw.  or  Jaruslaf  I. 
1054.  Isjialaw  I. 
1078.  Wsewolod  I. 
1093.  Swiatopalk. 
1114.  Vladimir  II. 
1125.  Mtislaw  or  Michael  I. 
1132.  Jaropalk  II. 


1138.  ( Wiatschelaw. 

1139.  \  Wsewolod  II. 
1146.   j  l^jialHwII. 

1154.  tRosUslaw. 

1155.  Juris  or  Geoige  T. :  the  city  of  Moscow 

was  built  by  this  duke. 

QRAND-DUKBB    OF  WLADIIIIR. 

...»     (Andrew  I.  until  1175;  first  grand- 

^^'*^'    [duke.    Michael  II. 

1177.  Wsewolod  III. 

loia     S  Jtirie  or  George  II. 

^^^°-    I  Constantino,  untU  1218. 

1238.  Jaraslaw  II. ;  succeeded  by  his  son. 

1245.  Alexander-Nevski  or  Newski,  the  Saint 


RU3 


566 


RUS 


RUSSIA,  continued. 


Jaraslaw  III. 

Vasali  or  BmU  I. 

"Dmitri  or  Demetrius  I. 

•Andrew  IT. 

'Daniel-Alezandrovits. 

*Jurie  or  Oeorao  III. :  deposed. 

•Michael  III. 

•VaaaU  or  Basil  II. 

*Jurie  or  Geoi^^  III. :  rostored. 

ORAND-DUKB8  OF  MOSOOffT. 

Ivan  or  John  I. 

Simon,  suruamed  the  Proud. 

lyan  or  John  II. 

Demetrius  II.  prince  of  Busdal. 

Demetrius  III.  Donskoi. 

^Vastili  or  Basil  III.  Temnoi. 

Vnsali  or  Basil  IV. 

iTan  (Basilovltz)  or  John  III.  :  laid  the 

foundation  of  the  present  monarchy. 
Vasali  or  Basil  V.  obtained  the  tiUe  of 

emperor  from  Maximilian  I. 

[Those  marked  thus  *  are  doubtftil, 
owing  to  the  difficulty  that  occurs  at 
every  step  in  early  Russian  annals.] 

OZABB  or  KUBOOTT. 

Ivan  (Basilovits)  IV.  first  tsar  or  czar 
(great  king)  in  1547. 

Fe^Mlor  orTheodor  I.:  supposed  to  have 
been  poisoned,  and  his  son,  Deme- 
trius, murdered  by  his  successor. 

Boris-Oodonof,  who  usurped  the  throne. 

Demetrius,  the  Impostor,  a  vouug 
Polonese  monk :  pretended  to  be  the 
murdered  prince  Demetrius :  put  to 
death. 

Vasali-Chouiski,  or  Zouinski. 

rinterregnum  ] 
1618.  Iticfaael-Fedorovits,  of  the    house   of 
Romannf,  descended  from  the  csar 
Ivan-Basilovitz. 


1803. 
1270. 
1877. 
1284. 
1294. 
1302. 
1306. 
1820. 
1826. 


1328. 
1340. 
1363. 
1860. 
1862. 
1889. 
1486. 
1462. 

1606. 


1633. 
1684. 


1698. 
1606. 


1686 
1610 


1646. 

1676. 
1682. 


1689. 


1725. 


1727. 
1780. 
1740. 


1741. 
1762. 


1762. 


1796. 


1801. 


1825. 
1866. 


Alexis,  son  of  the  preoeding,  styled  the 

fiither  of  his  country. 
Feodor  or  Theodor  II. 

( Ivan  IV.  and 

(  Peter  I.  brothers  of  the  precediag. 

KMPEJtOBft. 

Peter  I.  the  Great,  alone ;  took  the  titl« 
of  emperor  in  1728.  founded  8t.  Peten- 
buxg,  and  elevated  the  empire. 

Catharine  1.  his  consort :  at  fint  the 
wife  of  a  Swedish  drsgocai,  who  ia 
said  to  have  been  killed  on  the  day  of 
marriage. 

Peter  II.  sou  of  Alexia-Petrovitx,  snd 
gnrndscm  of  Peter  the  Oreat :  deposed. 

Anne,  duchess  of  Oourland,  daughter  of 
the  ccar  Ivan. 

Ivan  VI.  an  infitnt,  grand-nephew  to 
Peter  the  Oreat :  tmmiumi  m  a  don- 
geon  for  18  years ;  murdered  in  1761 

Elisabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Orost, 
reigned  during  Ivan's  captivity. 

Peter  III.  son  of  Anne  and  of  Cfaariet- 
Frederick,  duke  of  Hobtein-Gottofp : 
deposed,  and  died  soon  after,  inp- 
posed  to  have  been  murdered. 

Oatiiarine  II.  his  consort :  a  great  sove- 
reign: extended  the  Russian  teni- 
tones  ou  all  sides :  died  in  1796. 

Paul,  her  son :  found  dead  in  his  cbsm- 
ber;  supposed  to  have  been  nrar> 
dered. 

Alexsnder,  his  son ;  who  after  znsny 
adverse  battles,  snd  a  forced  sUisnoe 
with  Prance,  at  length  aided  in  tlte 
overthrow  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

Nicholas,  brother  to  Alexander;  sne- 
ceded,  Deo.  1, 1826. 

Alexander  1 1,  son  of  Nicholas,  succeeded 
at  his  other's  death,  March  2. 18S6. 
The  present  emperor  of  Russia  (1S57^ 


The  established  religion  of  Russia  is  the  Greek  Church,  with  a  free  toleration,  how- 
ever, of  other  sects,  even  the  Mahometans.  By  an  imperial  ukase,  in  1802,  wer« 
established  six  universities,  viz.  one  each  at  St  Petersburg,  Moscow,  Wibia,  Dorptt 
(in  Livonia),  Charcov,  and  Kasan ;  but  literature  has  made  little  progress,  the  nstiTe 
publications  being  very  few,  and  the  best  books  being  all  translations.  The  Rosuan 
language,  though  not  devoid  of  elegance,  is,  to  a  foreigner,  of  veiy  difficult  pronunds- 
tion :  the  number  of  letters  and  diphthongs  is  forty-two. 

RUSSO-TURKISH  WAR**  The  Russian  and  French  govemmenU  having  esoh  tskeo 
a  side  in  the  dispute  between  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches  as  to  the  exdivi^ 
possession  of  the  Holy  Placeg  (which  see)  in  Palestine,  the  Porte  advised  the  formstion 
of  a  mixed  commission,  which  decided  in  fictvour  of  the  Greeks,  and  a  firman  wss  pro- 
mulgated accordingly,  Msich  9,  1858  :  to  this  decision  the  French  acceded,  although 
dissatisfied.  The  Russians  now  made  further  claims,  and  Prince  Menschikoff  (who 
arrived  at  Constantinople  Feb.  28,  1853),  by  various  notes  (between  March  22  and 
May  18),  demanded  that  a  convention  should  be  signed  by  the  sultan  granting  to  the 
csar  such  a  protectorate  over  the  Greek  Christians  in  Turkey,  as  the  sultan  conaidend 
inimical  to  his  own  authority.  Menschikoff'«  ultimatum  was  rejected,  and  he  quitted 
Constantinople  May  21.    On  June  6,  the  sultan  issued  a  hatU-soherif  confirming  iU 

*  In  1844,  when  the  czar  was  in  England,  he  conversed  with  the  duke  of  WeUington  sod  lord 
Aberdeen  (whom  he  had  known  for  many  years)  respecting  the  dissolution  of  the  Turkish  cmoire ;  «sd 
on  his  return  he  embodied  hin  views  in  a  memorandum  drawn  up  by  count  Nesselntde,  which  «i0 
transmitted  to  London,  but  kept  secret  tiU  March  1864.  In  January  and  February  of  that  yesr  the 
csar  had  several  conversations  on  the  subject  with  the  British  envoy  at  St.  Petersbuiy.  Sir  0.  & 
Sevmour,  in  one  of  which  (Jan.  14)  he  compared  Turkey  to  a  man  in  a  state  of  decrepitude  sod 
sickness,  on  the  point  of  death,  and  made  proposals  to  the  British  government  as  to  the  dispotsl  of  hif 
property.  He  stated  frankly  that  he  would  not  permit  the  British  to  establish  themselTcs  st 
Constantinople ;  but  said  in  another  conversation,  he  would  not  object  to  their  possessing  E^urpt  Tbi 
purport  of  these  conversations  wss  conveyed  in  despatches  to  Lord  John  Russell,  who  replied  thatj^ 
British  government  declined  to  make  any  provision  for  the  contingency  of  the  fall  of  Turkey.  The 
csar  made  similar  proposals  to  the  French  government  with  the  same  result. 


BUS 


667 


BUS 


the  rights  and  priyileges  of  the  Greek  Ghrietianfly  and  appealed  to  his  alliefl.  On 
June  18,  the  English  and  French  fleets  anchored  in  Beaika  bay.  On  June  26,  the 
cnur  published  his  manifesto,  and  his  troops  crossed  the  Pmth  and  entered  Moldavia, 
July  2  (see  Danvbian  Prineipaliiiet).  Negotiations  to  preserve  peace  were  commenced 
at  Vienna  July  24,  by  England,  Fnnce,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  without  effect.  The 
sultan,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  a  grand  national  oouocil,  after  demanding  the 
evacuation  of  the  principalities,  Oct.  8,  declared  war  sgainst  Bussia,  Oct.  5.  The 
Russian  declaration  followed  Nov.  1, 1853.  France  and  England  declared  war  against 
Russia,  March  27  and  28, 1854.  See  article  Vienna.  Hostilities  ceased  Feb.  29, 1856, 
and  peace  was  proclaimed  in  April  following. 


The  RunianSk  under  gen.  Ludera,  croas 

the  Pruth  and  enter  Moldavia  July  2,  1853 
Circular  of  count  Nesselrode  in  Justi- 

tication  ....  July  %  1853 
Ixml  Olarenoon'a  reply  .  .  July  16,  1853 
The  conference  at  Vienna  agree  to  a  note 

July  81,  1853 
Which  ifl  accepted  by  the  czar.  Aug.  10,  185S 
But  the  aultau  requires  modincatioua 

Aug.  10,  1853 
Which  the  czar  rejects  .  .  Sept.  7,  1853 
Two  English  an<l  two  French  ships  enter 

the  Dardanelles  .  Bept  14,  1863 

Soltandtclares^aragidnst  Russia  Oct.  5,  1853 
The  Turkish  fortress  at  Issaktocha  fires 

on  a  Russian  flotilla  (the  first  act  of 

war) Oct  23,  1853 

The  Turks  cross  the  Danube  at  Widdin 

and  occupy  Kalafat  Oct.  28 — Nov.  3,  1853 
Russia  declnres  war  against  Turkey 

Nov.  1,  1858 
English  and  French  fleets  enter  Boa- 

phorus Nov.  2,  1853 

Rua-ians  defeated  at  Oltcnitza    Nov.  4,  1853 
Turks  (in  Asia)  defeated  at  Bayandur, 

Atskur  and  Achalteik,  Nov.  14,  18,  20,  1853 
Turkish  fleet  destioyed  at  Sinope 

Nov.  80,  1853 
Collective  note  from  the  four  powers  re- 

?uiriug  to  know  on  what  terms  the 
'orte  will  ne&otiate  for  peace    Dec.  5,  1853 

Contests  at  Kalafat :  (Russians  defeated 
at  Citate.  Jan.  6)  Dec.  31,  1853— Jan.  9,  1854 

At  the  request  of  the  Porte  (Dec.  5)  the 
allied  fleets  enter  the  Black  Sea 

Jan.  4,  1854 

Reply  of  the  Porte  to  the  note  of  Dec.  5^ 
containing  four  points  as  bases  of 
negotiation :  viz.  1.  The  promptest 
possible  evacuation  of  the  priiiciita- 
lities.  2.  Revision  of  the  treaties. 
S.  Maintenance  of  religious  privileges 
to  the  communities  of  all  confessions. 
4.  A  definitive  settlement  of  the  con- 
vention respecting  the  Holy  Places 
(dated  Dec  31), — approved  by  the  four 
powers Jan.  18,  1854 

Vienna  conferences  dose  Jan.  18,  1854 

Kalafat  invested  by  the  Russians 

Jan.  28—31    1854 

Propoaal  in  a  letter  from  the  emperor  of 
France  to  the  czar  (Jan.  29)  declined 

Fob.  9.  1854 

Turkish  flotilla  at  Rutachuk  destroyed 
by  the  Russians  under  Schilders, 

Feb.  15,  1854 

Ultimatum  of  England  and  France  sent 
to  St.  Petersburg     .  Feb.  27,  1864 

The  czar  '*  did  not  Judge  it  suitable  to 
give  an  answer  "  .  March  19,  1854 

Baltic  fleet  saiK  under  sir  0.  Napier, 
(see  article  Battie)    .        .     March  11    1854 

Treaty  between  England,  France,  ana 
Turkey         .  March  12,  1854 

Russians,  under  Gortschakoff,  pass  the 
Danube  and  occupy  the  Dobrudscha : 


severe  conflicts  in  consequence;  the 
Turks  at  last  retire  .        March  23,  24.  1854 

France  and  England  declare  war  against 
Russia    ....  March  'i7,  S8»  1864 

Rupture  between  Turkey  and  Greece 
(see  Turkejf)  .  March  28,  1854 

Q«n.  Canrobert  and  French  troops  arrive 
at  Gallipoli,  soon  after  followed  by  the 
EngUsh    ....       March  31,  18E4 

Russians  defeated  by  the  Turks  at  Ka- 
rakai May  30.  1864 

English  vessel  Furiou*,  with  a  flag  of 
truce,  fired  on  at  Odessa  .         April  8,  1864 

Four  powers  sign  a  protocol  at  Viemuk 
guaranteeing  mtegrity  of  Turkey  and 
civil  and  religious  rights  of  her  Chris- 
tian subjects  .  April  10,  1864 

Russians  defeated  at  Kostelli  by  Mus- 
tapha  Pacha  .      April  10,  1864 

Offensive  and  defensive  alliance  be- 
tween England  and  France     April  10,  1864 

Treaty  between  Austria  and  Prussia 

April  20.  1854 

Bombardment  of  Odessa  by  allied  fleet 

April  22,  1864 

Russians,  under  gen.  Schilders,  assault 
Kalafat ;  they  are  repulsed ;  the 
blockade  raised  April  19—21.  1864 

The  Tiffer  steamer  run  aground  near 
Odessa,  captured  by  the  Russians, 

May  is;  1854 

Russians  defeated  at  Turtukai    May  IS,  1854 

Siege  of  SiUstna  began    .        .     May  17,  1854 

Allied  armies  diseinbark at  VamaMay  29,1864 

Mouths  of  the  Danube  blockaded  by 
allied  fleeto  June  1,  1864 

Russians  repulsed  at  Silistria;  Paske- 
witsch  ana  many  officers  wounded, 

Junes,  1864 

Turks  defeated  at  Ozurghetl  (in  Asia)t 

June  16,  1864 

Severe  conflict  before  Silistria,  the  siege 
raised     ....    June  18—26,  1864 

Batteries  at  the  Sulina  mouths  destroyed 
by  capt.  Parker  .  June  26,  27,  1854 

Captain  Parker  killed  .     July  8,  1864 

Russians  defeated  at  Giurgevo     July  7.  1864 

10,000  French  troops  embark  at 
Boulogne  for  the  Baltic    .       July  15.  1864 

Turks  (tofeated  at  Bayazid  in  Armenia 

July  29,  80,  1864 

And  again  near  Kars  .    Aug.  5,  1864 

Bombardment  and  surrender  of  Bomar- 
sund Aug.  16,  1854 

[In  Julv  and  August  the  allied  armies 
and  fleets  in  the  East  suffered  severely 
fh>m  cholera.] 

The  Russians  aefeated  by  Bchamyl  in 
Georgia     .        .        .     about  Aug.  28.  1864 

They  b^n  to  ovactiate  the  principalities 

Aug.  and  Sept  1854 

By  virtue  of  a  to-eaty  with  Turkey  (Juno 
14)  the  Austrians,  under  count  Coro> 
niui,  enter  Bucharest       .         Sept.  6.  1864 

Allies  sail  from  Varna,  Sept  3,  and  Und 
at  Old  Fort,  near  Eupatorla,*  Sept  14,  1864 


40,000  men,  a  laiige  number  of  horses,  and  a  powerful  artillery  were  landed  in  one  day. 


BUS 


568 


RYE 


Nov.  24,  1854 


1854 


RUSSO-TURKISH  WAR,  continiud. 

Russians  finally  evacuate  the  princi- 
palities    ....        Se|)t.  20,  18M 

Skirmiish  at  the  Bulganao      .    Sept  19,  1854 

Battle  of  the  Alma      .  Sept.  20.  1854 

Buasians  sink  part  of  their  fleet  at  Sebas- 
topol Sept.  23,  1854 

Allies  occupy  Balaklava      .        Sept.  26,  1854 

Death  of  marshal  St.  Amaud     Sept  29,  1854 

General  Canrobort  appointed  his  sue 
coasor    ..._.. 

Siege  of  Seb.istopol  commenced — grrand 
attack  (without  success)  .         Oct.  17. 

Battle  of  Balaklaya-'fiaUaiit  chanre  of 
the  light  cavalry  under  lord  Car^gau, 
with  severe  loss   .        .        .     Oct.  25,  1854 

Sortie  from  Sebastopol  repulsed  by  gonls. 
Evans  and  Bosquet  .  Oct  26,  1854 

Battle  of  Inkerman ;  defeat  of  the 
RusBians        ....      Nov.  5,  1854 

Great  tempest  in  Black  Sea,  loes  of  the 
Pnnce,  and  many  other  vessels  with 
stores  Nov.  14— 16.  1854 

Treaty  of  alliance  between  England, 
France,  Austria  and  Prussia — a  com- 
mission to   meet  at  Vienna:  signed 

Dec.  2,  1854 

Russian  sortie    ....  Dec.  20,  1854 

Omar  Pacha  arrives  in  the  Crimea, 
(followed  byTurkisharmyfh>mVamaX 

Jan.  5,  1855 

Sardinia  Joins  England  and  France. 

Jan.  26,  1855 

Great  sufibrings  in  the  camp  flnom  cold 
and  sickness  .  Jan.  and  Feb.  1855 

Russians  defeated  by  the  Turks  at 
Eupatoria  ....        Feb.  17.  1855 

Death  of  Emperor  Nicholas,  and  ac- 
cession of  Alexander  II.  (no  change  of 
war  policy)    ....  March  2,  1855 

Sortie  irom  the  Malakhoff  tower  (15,000 
men)  repulsed   .  .    March  22,  1855 

Capture  of  Russian  rifle-pits      April  19,  1855 

Arrival  of  Sardinian  contingent    May  8,  1855 

Resi^ation  of  gen.  Canrobert,  suc- 
ceeded by  gen.  Peliasier         .  May  16,  1855 

DesjierAte  night  combats    .  May  22 — ^24,  1855 

Expedition  into  the  sea  of  Azoff  (under 
sir  £.  Lyons  and  sir  G.  Brown) ;  de- 
struction of  Kertch  and  large  amount 
of  stores  May  24— June  3.  1855 

Taganrog  bombarded  .  June  3,  1866 

Massacre  of  an  English  boat's  crew  with 
flag  of  truce  at  Uango  .  June  5,  1855 

Russians  evacuate  Anapa     .        June  5,  1855 

The  White  Works  and  Mamelon  Vert 
taken      ....        June  6,  7,  1855 

UnsuccessAil  attack  on  the  Malakhoff 
tower  and  Redan  .    Jime  18,  1855 

Death  of  Lord  Raglan ;  suoceeded  by 
General  Simpson  June  28,  1855 

Russians  invest  Ears  in  Armenia,  de- 
fended by  gen.  Williams      .    July  16»  1855 

Bombardment  of  Sweaboi-g .        Aug.  9,  1855 


Battle  of  the  Tehemaya— defeat  of  the 
Russians        ....  Aug.  14,  1855 

Ambuscade  on  the  glads  of  the  Ifadsk- 
hoff  taken  ;  Bua^au  sortie  repulsed 

Aug.  18,  1S55 

The  French  take  the  Malakhoff  (mki^A 
tee)  by  assault;  the  English  assault  the 
Redan  without  sucxsess :  the  Russians 
retire  fh)m  Sebastopol  to  the  North 
Forts,  and  the  aUiea  enter  ihe  dty ; 
the  Russians  destroy  or  sink  the  re- 
mainder of  their  fleet    .     Sept.  8,  ke.  1SS5 

Tanan  and  Fanagoria  captured  Sept  S4,  1S&5 

The  Russians  assaulting  Kars  are  de- 
feated with  great  loss  .    Sept  99.  1SS5 

Russian  cavalry  defeated  (50  killeil,  105 
prisoners)  at  Kough^  near  Euphoria, 
by  the  French  .  Sept  29,  18.'i5 

Kinbum  taken(1420  priaonen»  174  gunsX 

Oct  17.  1855 

Russians  blow  up  Oczakoff   .      Oct  18,  18^ 

Lam  stores  of  com  destroyed  near 
Gheisk  in  the  sea  of  A2off  .      Nov.  4.  1855 

Defeat  of  the  Russians,  and  paasage  of 
the  Ingour  by  the  Turka  under  Omar 
Paoha        ....         Nov.  6.  1855 

The  eicar  viaita  his  army  near  SebasU^ 

Nov.  10,  1855 

Sir  Wm.  Godrington  takes  the  command 
in  ro6m  of  gen.  Simpson     .    Nov.  14^  1855 

Explosion  of  100,000  lbs.  of  powder  in 
tne  French  siege-train  at  Inkerman, 
with  great  leas  of  life       .       Nov.  15^  1855 

Sweden  joins  the  allies  1^  a  tnatv 

iiov.  21,  1855 

(Capitulation  of  Kars  to  gen.  Mouiavieff, 
afteragallant  defence  by  gen.  Williama, 

Nov.  26,  1855 

Death  of  admiral  Bruat  .        .    Nor.  27,  1855 

Russian  Mtack  on  the  French  posts  at 
Baidar  repulsed  Dec  8^  1855 

Proposala  of  peace  ttom  Austria,  with 
the  consent  of  the  aUiea,  sent  to  Bt 
Petersbuiig  ....     Dec.  1%  1S&5 

Centre  dock  at  Sebastopol  blown  up  by 
the  English  .  Jan.  2.  1856 

Council  of  war  at  Paris    .        .    Jan.  11, 18M 

Protocol  signed  accepting  the  Austrian 
propositiona  as  a  bads  of  negotiation 
lor  peace    ....         Feb.  1,  IS56 

Destruction  of  Sebastopol  docks  com- 
pleted      Feb.  1,  1S56 

Report  of  air  John  MTfeUl  and  eoL 
TuUoch  on  state  of  the  army  before 
Sebastopol,  published  Feb.  5^  1856 

Peace  conferencea  open  at  Paris,  an  ar- 
mistice till  March  81,  agreed  on, 

Feb.  25,  1856 

Suspension  of  hostilities  .        .    Feb.  29,  1S56 

Proclamation  of  peace  in  the  Crimea, 
April  2 :  in  London         .       Apnl  29,  1856 

The  Crimea  evacuated    .        .     July  9,*  1856 


RYE-HOUSE  PLOT.  A  real,  or  more  probably  a  pretended  conspincy  to  MBMUD*t« 
Charles  II.  and  hiti  brother  the  duke  of  York  (afterwards  James  11.)^  at  a  place  called 
Rye-house,  on  the  way  to  London  from  Newmarket.  This  design  was  Mdd  to  have 
been  frustrated  by  the  king's  house  at  Newmarket  accidentally  taking  firs,  which 
hastened  the  royal  party  away  eight  days  before  the  plot  was  to  take  plaoe»  Uarch  22, 
1683.  The  plot  was  discovered  Juae  12  following.  The  patriot,  Alg**mon  Sidney, 
suffered  death  on  a  false  charge  of  being  concerned  in  this  conspiracy,  Dec.  T,  l^^* 
See  Newmarket,  and  a  note  to  that  article. 


*  The  English  lost :  killed  in  action  and  died  of  woimds  about  3500  ;  died  of  cholera,  4S44 ;  of  otbsr 
diseases  nearly  16,000 :  total  loss  about  19,500  (including  270  officers);  2873  were  disabled.  The  wtf 
added  to  the  national  debt  41,0U,00O{.  The  French  lost  about  (>S,600  meu  ;  the  Russians  about 
half  a  miiliou. 


RYS  569  SAC 

RTSWICK,  PEACE  or.  Concluded  between  Eogiand,  France,  Spain,  and  Holland, 
signed  Sept  20,  and  by  the  emperor  of  Qermanj,  Oct  80,  1697.  By  tbia  fitmoua 
treaty  the  peace  of  Europe  was  eetabliahed.  The  treaty  oonsisted  of  four  parts:  the 
fimt  between  France  and  Holland  ;  the  second  between  France  and  Spain ;  the  third 
with  England ;  and  the  fourth  with  the  emperor. — I/tnauU, 


S. 

SABBATARIANS.  Though  commonly  applied  to  the  denomination  of  Seventh-day 
Baptists,  or  (as  they  call  themsvlves)  ^'  Sabbath-keepers/'  yet,  in  the  seventeenth  century 
this  name  was  given  to  the  English  Puritans,  who  insisted  that  Sunday  was  "  the 
Sabbath.**  Traces  exist  of  Sabbatarii  or  Sabbathaires,  among  the  sects  of  the  sixteenth 
century  on  the  continent.  Upon  the  publication  of  the  **  Book  of  Sports"  in  1618,  a 
long  and  violent  controversy  arose  among  EngUsh  divines  on  these  two  points :  first, 
whether  the  Sabbath  of  the  fourth  commandment  was  in  force  among  Christians ;  and 
secondly,  whether,  and  on  what  groimd,  the  first  day  of  the  week  was  entitled  to  be 
distinguished  and  observed  as  **  the  Sabbath."  In  1628,  Theophilua  Braboume,  a 
clergyman,  published  the  first  work  in  favour  of  the  Seventh-day  or  Saturday,  as  the 
only  true  Christian  Sabbath ;  he  and  several  others  suffered  gi'eat  perMCution  for  this 
opinion ;  but  it  so  prevailed,  notwithstanding,  that  after  the  restoration  there  were 
three  or  four  congregations  observing  the  Isst  day  of  the  week  for  public  worship  in 
London,  and  seven  or  eight  in  the  country  parts  of  England.  In  1851  there  were 
only  three  Sabbatarian  or  Seventh-day  Baptist  congregations  in  England;  but  in 
America  (especially  in  the  New  England  states)  they  are  numerous  and  flourishing. 

SABBATH,  THE.  Ordained  by  the  Almighty.  The  Jews  observed  the  seventh  day  in 
commemoration  of  the  creation  and  their  redemption  from  the  bondage  of  the 
Egyptians ;  the  Christians  observed  the  first  day  of  the  week  in  commemoration  of 
the  resurrection  of  Christ  from  the  dead,  and  the  redemption' of  mankind.  The 
Sabbath-day  was  ordained  to  be  kept  holy  in  England,  from  Saturday  at  three  in 
the  afternoon  to  Monday  at  break-of-day,  4  Canon,  Edgar,  a-D.  960.  Act  of  parliament, 
levying  one  shilUng  on  every  person  absent  f^om  church  on  Sundays,  8  James  1. 1606. 
Act  reetnuning  amusements,  1  Chas.  I.  1625.  Act  restraining  the  performance  of 
servile  works,  and  the  sale  of  goods,  except  milk  at  certain  hours,  meat  in  public- 
houses,  and  works  of  necessity  and  charity,  on  forfeiture  of  five  shillings,  29  Chas.  II. 
1677.     See  Sunday. 

SABBATH  SCHOOLS.  The  first  "  Sabbath  school "  was  founded  by  Ludwig  Hacker 
between  the  years  1740  and  1747,  at  Ephrata,  Lancaster  county,  Pennsylvania,  among 
the  German  Seven-day  Baptists  there.  The  school-room  was  used  as  an  hospital  after 
tha  battle  of  Brandy  wine,  fought  in  1777.  This  event  occasioned  the  breaSdng  up  of 
*the  school  about  five  years  b^ore  the  first  Sunday-school  was  instituted  in  England, 
at  Qlouceater,  by  Robert  Raikes,  about  1782.    See  Sunday  SchooU. 

SABBATICAL  TEAR.  A  Jewish  institution,  1444  rc.  Every  seventh  year,  during 
which  time  the  very  ground  had  rest,  and  was  not  tUled ;  and  every  forty-ninth  year 
all  debts  were  fox^ven,  slaves  set  at  liberty,  and  estates,  &c.  that  were  before  sold  or 
mortgaged,  returned  to  their  original  families,  kc—Jot^tia, 

SABELLIANISM,  from  Sabellius  (of  Ptolemais  in  Egypt),  who  flourished  in  the  third 
century,  and  who  taught  that  there  was  but  one  person  in  the  Godhead,  the  other 
persons  of  the  Trinity  being  but  different  names  of  the  same  person.  This  doctrine 
was  condemned  at  a  council  held  at  Rome  a.d.  263.  Somewhat  similar  views  were 
put  forth  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century  by  Drs.  Watts  and  Doddridge. 

SABINES.  The  people  from  whom  the  Romans,  under  Romulus,  took  away  their 
daughters  by  force,  for  wives,  having  invited  them  to  some  public  sports  or  shows  on 
purpose.  When  the  Sabines  determined  to  revenge  this  affront,  the  women  became 
mediators  to  their  fathers  in  behalf  of  their  husbands  the  Romans,  and  a  lasting 
peace  was  made  between  them ;  so  that  the  Sabines  became  a  part  of  the  Roman 
govemm«nt  and  people,  750  B.C.  To  this  day  one  of  the  ecclesiastical  provinces  is 
called  Terra  Sabina,  whose  chief  town  is  Magliano. 

SACRAMENTAL  WINE  was  used  in  the  primitive  church.  The  wine  was  laid  aside, 
and  communion  by  the  laity  under  one  form  alone,  that  of  bread,  took  its  rise  in  the 
West,  under  pope  Urban  II.  1096. — M.  de  Marea.    Communion  in  one  kind  only  was 


SAC  570  SAO 

authoritatively  aanctioned  by  the  council  of  ConBtanoe,  in  1414.— Dr.  ^oolr.  Henrj 
VIII.  of  Qermauy  was  poisoned  by  a  priest  in  the  conaecrated  wafer,  1314.  The 
sacramental  wine  was  poisoned  by  the  grave-digger  of  the  church  at  Zurich,  by  which 
sacrilegious  deed  a  number  of  persons  lost  their  livesy  Sept.  4, 1776. 

SACRED.  This  term  was  first  added  to  the  title  of  Majesty,  in  the  style  of  the  kings  of 
England,  at  the  time  of  the  accession  of  James  I.  1603.     See  TitUt, 

SACRED  WAR.  Sacrum  Bdlum,  The  first,  concerning  the  temple  at  Delphi,  took  plsce 
448  B.O.  In  this  war  the  Athenians  and  Lacedsemonians  were  auxiliaries  on  oppocite 
sides.  The  second  Sacred  War  occurred  on  Delphi  being  attacked  by  the  Phodaoi, 
856  B.O.  This  latter  war  was  terminated  by  Philip  of  Hacedon  taking  all  the  dties  of 
the  Phocians,  and  dispersing  the  inhabitants,  848  b.o. — Plulctreh. 

SACRIFICE.  The  first  religious  sacrifice  was  offered  to  God  by  Abel;  it  consisted  of 
milk  and  the  firstlings  of  his  flock,  8875  B.c. — JasepkuM ;  Uther.  Sacrifices  to  the  godi 
were  first  introduced  into  Greece  by  Phoroneus,  king  of  Ai-gos,  1778  &&  The  ofieriog 
of  human  sacrifices  seems  to  have  originated  with  the  Chaldeans,  from  whom  the 
custom  passed  into  Greece,  Persia,  and  other  Eastern  nations.  All  sacrifices  to  the 
true  God  ceased  with  the  sacrifice  of  the  Redeemer,  a.d.  33. 

SADDLES.  In  the  earlier  ages  the  Romans  used  neither  saddles  nor  stirrups,  whirled 
to  several  maladies  of  the  hips  and  legs.  Saddles  were  in  use  in  the  thiid  oentory, 
and  are  mentioned  as  made  of  leather  in  ▲.D.  804.  They  were  known  in  England  about 
the  year  600.  Side-saddles  for  ladies  were  in  use  in  1388.  Anne,  the  queen  of 
Richard  II.,  introduced  them  to  the  English  ladies. — Stow, 

SADDUCEES.  A  sect  among  the  Jews,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  one  Sadoc,  a  scholar 
of  Antigonus,  who,  misinterpreting  his  master's  doctrine,  taught  there  was  neither 
heaven  nor  hell,  an^el  nor  spirit ;  that  the  soul  was  mortal,  and  that  there  was  do 
resurrection  of  the  body  from  the  dead.  As  for  their  other  opinions,  the  Saddueeei 
agreed  in  general  with  the  Samaritans,  excepting  that  they  were  partakers  of  all  the 
Jewish  sacrifices.  There  was  an  irreconcilable  dislike  between  them  and  the  Phaiiwei. 
This  sect  began  about  200  B.C.— Pardon. 

SADLER'S  WELLS.  So  called  after  Mr.  Sadler,  who  built  an  orchestra  to  entertaio  the 
invalids  who  used  the  waters  medicinally,  1683.  Many  superstitious  notions  were 
attached  to  the  waters  before  the  Reformation.  In  the  course  of  time  the  ordieetra 
was  enclosed,  and  the  building  became  a  place  fur  dramatic  performances.  The 
present  theatre  was  opened  in  1765.  Eighteen  persons  were  trampled  to  death  at 
this  theatre,  on  a  false  alarm  of  fire,  Oct.  15,  1807.    See  Thealreg, 

SAFETY-LAMP.  That  of  the  illustrious  sir  Humphry  Davy,  to  prevent  acridentB  which 
happen  in  coal  and  other  mines,  introduced  in  1815,  and  improved  in  181 7<  The 
safety-lamp  is  founded  on  the  principle  that  flame,  in  passiug  through  iron-wire 
meshes,  loses  so  much  of  its  heat  as  not  to  be  capable  of  igniting  inflammable  SDhstaoCce 
around,  while  flame  alone  ignites  gas.  It  should  be  mentioned,  that  the  £itber  of  all 
safety -lam  pa  is  Dr.  Reid  Clanny,  of  Sunderland,  whose  invention  and  improrementa 
are  authenticated  in  the  TraniaciioM  of  the  Society  of  ArU  for  1817,  and  in  Ihmm'i 
AnnaU  of  Philosophyf  same  year. 

SAFFRON.  Saffron,  French;  Saffrano,  Italian.  The  flower  of  crocus.— Partfoa.  Of 
strong  aromatic  odour,  formerly  used  sgainst  infection,  still  used  as  a  medicisef  ami 
much  esteemed  in  cookery.  It  was  first  brought  to  England  in  the  reign  of  £dward 
III.  by  a  pilgrim,  about  1339,  probably  from  Arabia,  as  the  word  is  from  the  Arabic 
taphar. — Afiller.  It  was  cultivated  in  England  in  1582 ;  and  the  best  grows  in  Essex, 
between  Cambridge  and  Saffron- Walden. 

SAGE.  Sauge,  French ;  Salvia,  Latin.  A  wholesome  herb,  comfortable  to  the  brain  and 
nerves. — Mortimer.  A  species  of  this  garden  plant  grew  early  in  England,  and  Bone 
varieties  were  imported.  The  Mexican  sage.  Salvia  Mtxicana,  was  brought  fixun 
Mexico  A.D.  1724.  The  blue  African  sage.  Salvia  Africana,  and  the  golden  African 
sage,  Salvia  aurea,  were  brought  to  England  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  17S1. 

^AGUNTUM,  SIEGE  op.     The  famous  and  dreadful  siege  of  Saguntum  (now  Mortiedfo, 

in  Valencia)  was  sustained  219  B.c.     The  heroic  citizens,  after  exerting  incredible  acts 

of  valour  for  eight  months,  chose  to  be  buried  in  the  ruins  of  their  city  rather  thin 

surrender  to  Haimibal.     They  burnt  themselves,  with  their  houses,  and  all  their 

.    eflfects,  and  the  conqueror  became  master  of  a  pile  of  ashes  and  of  dead. 


SAI  571  SAI 

ST.  ALB A.N'S.  Anciently  Vemlam ;  once  the  capital  of  Britain,  and  preyiously  to  tlie 
invasion  of  JaliuB  Cssar  the  refiidence  of  British  princes.  At  St.  Alban'a,  queen 
Boadicea  made  her  celebrated  aBsault  upon  the  Romans,  and  failed,  after  an  immense 
slaughter,  it  is  said,  of  70,000  men ;  and  Cassibelaunus  was  defeated  by  Cs^ar  at  this 
place.  It  takes  its  present  name  from  St.  Alban,  who  was  born  here,  and  who  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  martyr  for  Christianity  in  Britain.  He  is  hence  commonly 
styled  the  proto-martyr  of  this  country,  and  was  decapitated  during  the  persecution 
raised  by  Diocletian,  June  23,  a.d.  286.  A  stately  monastery  was  erected  in  the  town 
to  his  memory  by  Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  in  793.  St.  Alban's  was  incorporated  by 
Edward  VL  1552 ;  and  again  by  Chai-les  11.  The  borough  of  St.  Alban*s  was  dis- 
franchised for  bribeiy,  June  17, 1852.    See  Bribery. 

ST.  ALBAN*S,  BATTLES  of.  The  first,  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  m 
which  Richard  duke  of  York  obtained  a  victory  over  Henry  VI.  of  whose  army  5U00 
were  slain,  while  that  of  the  duke  of  York  suffered  no  materal  loss ;  fought  May  22, 
1455.  The  second,  between  the  Yorkists  under  the  earl  of  Warwick,  and  the  Lan- 
castrians, commanded  by  queen  Margaret  of  Anjou,  who  conquered :  in  this  battle 
2500  of  the  defeated  army  perished;  fought  on  bhrove-Tuesday,  Feb.  2,  1461. 

ST.  ANDREW.  He  suffered  martyrdom  by  crucifixion  at  Patrse,  Nov.  30.  a.d.  69.  St. 
Andrew  is  the  titular  saint  of  Scotland,  in  consequence  of  Hungus,  a  Pictish  prince, 
having  dreamed  that  the  saint  was  to  be  his  friend  in  a  pending  battle  with  the 
Northumbrians,  and  accordingly  a  St.  Andrew's  cross  appeared  in  the  air  during  the 
fight,  and  Hungus  conquered.  The  collar  of  an  order  of  knighthood,  founded  on  this 
legend  is  formed  of  thistles  (not  to  be  touched)  and  of  rue  (an  antidote  to  poison), 
with  the  motto  "  Nemo  me  impune  lacessit."  It  was  instituted  by  Achaius  in  809, 
and  was  revived  by  king  James  V.  in  1540.  The  festival  of  St.  Andrew  was  instituted 
about  the  year  359. 

ST.  ANDREW'S,  BISHOPRIC  of.  Originated  with  the  establishment  of  Chiistianity 
in  Scotland.  The  legendary  tale  of  transporting  the  relics  of  the  apostle  St.  Andrew 
from  the  city  of  Patrse,  in  Achaia,  is  thus  recorded  by  the  ancient  Scots  historians  : — 
"  Regulua,  a  Qreek  monk,  about  a.d.  370,  living  at  Patrse,  a  city  of  Achaia  (by  whom 
the  relics  of  St.  Andrew  the  apostle  were  preserved),  was  wanied  in  a  vision  by 
night  (three  nights  before  the  emperor  Constantius  came  to  the  city  on  purpose  to 
translate  these  relics  to  Constantinople)  to  visit  the  shrine  where  the  relics  were  kept, 
and  take  out  thereof  the  arm-bone,  three  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  a  tooth,  and  one 
of  the  caps  of  the  Apostle's  knees,  which  he  should  carefully  preserve,  and  carry  with 
him  to  a  region  towards  the  west,  situate  in  the  utmost  parts  of  the  world.  Regulua 
was  at  first  troubled  with  the  strangeness  of  the  vision,  but  resolved  to  obey,  and, 
putting  the  relics  in  a  little  box,  he  went  to  sea,  taking  copartners  with  him  Damianus, 
a  presbyter,  Oelasius,  and  Cubaculus,  two  deacons,  eight  hermits,  and  three  devout 
virgins.  After  long  storms,  the  vessel  was  driven  into  the  bay  near  where  Sl  Andrew's 
now  stands,  and  totally  wrecked  upon  a  rock ;  but  Regulus  and  his  companions  were 
brought  safe  ashore,  having  nothing  left  them  but  the  relics  saved.  Hergustus,  kiug 
of  the  Picts,  came  to  visit  them  in  the  place  where  they  had  settled,  now  St.  Andrew's, 
then  a  forest  for  wild  boars.  The  king  gave  Regulus  all  the  land  of  the  forest,  and 
erected  the  first  church."  Sir  R.  Sibbald's  list  of  the  bishops  of  St.  Andrew's  com- 
mences with  Killach,  a.d.  872.  The  see  became  archiepiscopal  in  1470,  and  ceased 
soon  after  the  Revolution,  1689.  St.  Andrew's  is  now  a  post-revolution  bishopric,  re- 
instituted  in  1844.    See  Buhoja, 

ST.  ASAPH,  BISHOPRIC  of.  Of  great  antiquity,  founded  about  a-D.  560,  by  Eentigem, 
bishop  of  Glssgow.  Eentigem  returning  into  Scotland,  left  a  holy  man,  St  Asaph, 
his  successor,  from  whom  the  prelacy  takes  its  name.  It  is  valued  in  the  king's  books 
at  187^  lit.  6d.  By  an  order  in  council,  Oct.  1838,  the  sees  of  St.  Asaph  and  Bangor 
were  to  have  been  united  on  the  next  vacancy  in  either ;  and  the  bishopric  of  Man- 
chester was  to  have  been  then  created.  This  order  was  annulled  by  act  10  Vict. 
1846j  and  the  two  sees  are  still  to  subsist  separate.    See  Manchetter. 

ST.  BARTHOLOMEW'S  HOSPITAL,  in  London.    See  Bartholomew,  St 

ST.  BARTHOLOMEW,  MASSACRE  of,  in  France.    See  Bw-tholomew,  St.,  MasMcrt  of. 

ST.  CHRISTOPHER'S.  Discovered  a-D.  1493.  Columbus,  pleased  with  the  appearance 
of  this  island,  called  it  after  himself.  Settled  by  the  English  and  French,  1626. 
Entirely  ceded  to  England  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  1718.    Taken  by  the  French  in 


SAI  672  SAI 

1782,  but  restored  the  next  year.    Thia  islaad  suffered  greatly  from  a  iterm,  and  tbe 
town  of  Basseterre  from  a  fire,  Sept.  8, 1779. 

ST.  D  A.yiD*S,  BISHOPRIC  of.  Once  the  metropolitan  see  of  Wales,  and  srchiepiMoptl. 
When  Christianity  wss  planted  in  Britain,  there  were  three  archbiahopt'  aetu 
sppointed,  viz.  London,  York,  and  Caerleon  upon  Usk,  in  Monmouthshire.  Hist  tt 
Caerleon  being  too  near  the  dominions  of  the  Saxons,  was  removed  to  Menew,  ud 
called  St  David's  in  honour  of  the  archbishop  who  removed  it^  St.  Samp«oa  vm 
the  last  archbishop  of  the  Welsh ;  for  he,  withdravring  himself  on  accoont  of  s  peeti* 
lence  to  Ddle,  in  Britanny,  carried  the  nail  with  him ;  but  his  suocesson  preeerred 
the  archiepisoopal  power,  although  they  lost  the  name.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  Ltbew 
prelates  wore  forced  to  submit  to  the  see  of  Canterbury.  SL  David  was  thefini  an^* 
bishop  of  St.  David's,  a.d.  619. — BeaUon, 

ST.  DAVID'S  DAT.  This  day  is  annually  commemorated  by  the  Welsh,  in  honour  of 
St.  David,  mentioned  in  the  preceding  article.  Tradition  states  that  on  St  David's 
birthdav  a  great  victory  was  obtained  by  the  Welsh  over  their  Saxon  invaders.  That 
the  Welsh  soldiers  might  be  distinguished,  St  David  ordered  each  of  them  to  fix  a 
leek  in  his  cap  previous  to  the  commencement  of  the  battle.  Id  memory  of  thti 
circumstance,  the  Welsh  still  wear  a  leek  in  their  hats  on  the  1st  of  MaroL 

ST.  DENIS.  An  ancient  town  of  France,  fionous  for  its  abbey, and  church,  the  fonner 
abolished  at  the  Revolution  :  the  latter  desecrated  at  the  same  epoch,  after  hsTiog 
been  the  appointed  place  of  sepulture  of  the  French  kings,  from  its  foundatioii,  by 
Dagobert,  in  618.  This  church  is  a  beautiful  Gothic  edifice,  not  large,  but  coo- 
Btructed  in  the  purest  taste.  On  the  12th  October,  1793,  the  republicsns  demolished 
most  of  the  royal  tombs,  and  emptied  the  leaden  coffins  into  the  dunghills,  melting 
the  lead  for  their  own  use.  By  a  decree  of  Bonaparte,  dated  Feb.  20, 1806,  the  church 
(which  had  been  turned  meanwhile  into  a  cattle-market !)  was  ordered  t^  be  cleansed 
out  and  redecorated  as  *'  the  future  burial-plaoe  of  the  emperors  of  Fkaoce."  On  the 
return  of  the  Bourbons,  some  more  restorations  were  effected,  and  when  the  duke  de 
Berry  and  Louia  XVIII.  died,  both  were  buried  there — thus  reconsecrating  it  for  * 
time  to  the  old  dynasty. 

ST.  DIZIER,  BATTLES  or,  in  Fbanoe.  Between  the  allied  armies  and  the  French, 
commanded  bv  Napoleon  in  person.  The  French  sustained  in  these,  ss  in  several 
preceding  battles,  severe  defeats,  and  considerable  loss  in  killed  and  wounded.  They 
were  among  the  train  of  victories  which  opened  the  way  of  the  allied  army  to  the 
French  capital ;  fought  Jan.  27,  and  March  26, 1814. 

ST.  DOMINGO.    Seeffoffti 

ST.  DOMINIGK,  ORDER  ov,  OB  BLACK  FRIARS.    See  Blackfrtart. 

ST.  EUSTATIA.  This  island  was  settled  by  the  Dutch  in  1682;  it  wss  tsken  by  the 
French  in  1689 ;  by  the  English  in  1690 ;  and  again  by  the  British  foron  under 
admiral  Rodney  and  general  Vaughan,  Feb.  8,  1781.  It  was  recoverod  by  the  French 
imder  the  marquis  de  Bouill^,  Nov.  26.  same  year ;  and  was  again  captored  by  the 
British  in  1801  and  1810 ;  but  restored  to  the  Dutch  at  the  pesMM  in  1814. 

ST.  OEOROE.  The  patnm  saint  of  England.  The  order  which  is  now  called  the 
order  of  the  Garter  was,  until  king  Edward  VI.'s  time,  called  the  order  of  St 
George.  The  figure  of  St  Geoige  on  horseback,  represented  as  holding  a  spear,  and 
killing  the  dragon,  was  first  worn  by  the  knights  of  the  Garter  on  the  institution  of 
that  order  in  1849-50.  It  is  suspended  by  a  blue  ribbon  across  the  body  from  the 
shoulder.  This  patron  saint  of  England  was  a  tribune  in  the  reign  of  Diodetisn,  snd 
being  a  man  of  great  courage,  was  a  iSavourite  with  the  emperor ;  but  complaining  to 
the  emperor  of  his  severities  towards  the  Christians,  and  anting  in  their  defence  he 
was  put  in  prison,  and  beheaded,  April  28,  ▲.D.  290.    See  OwrUr. 

ST.  GEORGE,  British  ship  op  98  ouns.  Stranded  in  a  storm,  on  the  western  cosit 
of  North  Jutland,  and  admiral  Reynolds  and  the  whole  crew,  except  eleven,  wen 
lost,  Dea  24,  1811.  The  Hero  and  Defence  ships  of  the  line  were  lost  in  the  ssioe 
dreadful  storm,  and  their  crews  perished ;  two  thousand  souls,  England's  biavest 
sons,  were  swept  into  eternity  by  the  wreck  of  these  throe  shipsL — The  SL  Qw^ 
steam-packet  was  wrecked  at  Douglas,  Isle  of  Man,  Nov.  19, 1880. 

ST.  GEORGE  Steam-ship.  This  vessel,  bound  from  liverpool  to  New  York,  with  ISl 
emigrant  passengers  (chiefly  labouring  Irish),  and  a  crew  consiating  of  twenty-oitt' 


SAX  573  SAI 

aeamen  (the  captain  inclusive),  wae  destroyed  by  fire  at  aea,  Deo.  24,  1852.  The  crew 
and  Beventy  of  the  passengen  were  saved  by  the  American  ship  Ortando,  and  con- 
veyed to  Havre,  in  France;  but  the  remainder,  fifty-one  soul^  are  supposed  to 
have  perished. 

ST.  HELENA.  The  ialand  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  on  the  festival  of  St 
Helena,  a  J).  1502.  The  Dutch  were  afterwards  in  possession  of  it  until  1600,  when 
they  were  expelled  by  the  English.  The  British  llast  India  Company  settled  here 
in  1651 ;  and  the  isLmd  was  alternately  possessed  by  the  English  and  Dutch,  until 
1673,  when  Charles  II.  on  Dec.  12,  assigned  it  to  the  company  once  more.  St 
Helena  was  made  the  place  of  Napoleon's  captivity,  Oct  16,  1815 ;  and  it  became  the 
scene  of  his  death,  May  5,  1821.  It  being  decreed  by  the  government  and  French 
chambers,  at  Paris  that  the  ashes  of  Napoleon  should  be  removed  to  France,  the 
expedition  for  that  purpose,  under  the  prince  de  Joinville,  sailed  from  Toulon,  July 
7 ;  it  arrived  at  St  Helena,  and  (with  the  consent  of  England)  the  body  was  exhumed 
Oct  16 ;  the  expedition  returned  to  France,  Nov.  30 ;  and  Napoleon's  remains  were 
interred  in  the  H6pital  des  Invalides,  Dec  15,  1840.    See  Bonaparte. 

ST.  JAMES'S  PALACE.  Was  built  by  Henry  Till,  on  the  site  of  an  hospital  of  the 
same  name,  ▲.D.  1580.  It  haa  been  the  official  town-residence  of  the  English 
court  ainoe  Whitehall  was  consumed  in  1695. 

ST.  JAMESES  PARK,  London.  Was  a  complete  marsh  till  the  time  of  Henry  YIII. 
who  having  built  St.  James's  Palace,  inclosed  it,  laid  it  out  in  walks,  and  collecting 
the  waters,  gave  the  new  inclosed  ground  and  building  the  name  of  St  James's.  In 
1668  it  was  much  improved  by  Charles  IL  who  employed  Le  Kdtre  to  add  several 
fields,  to  plant  rows  of  lime-trees,  and  to  lay  out  the  Mall,  which  is  a  vista  half  a  mile 
in  length,  at  that  time  formed  into  a  hollow,  smooth  walk,  skirted  by  a  wooden 
border,  with  an  iron  hoop  at  the  further  end,  for  the  purpose  of  playing  a  game 
with  a  ball  called  a  mall.  He  formed  a  canal,  100  feel  broad  and  2800  long,  with  a 
decoy  and  other  ponds  for  water-fowl.  Succeeding  kings  allowed  the  people  the 
privilege  of  walking  here,  and  William  III.  in  1699.  granted  the  neighbouring  inhabi- 
tants  a  passage  into  it  from  Spring-gardens.  The  irons  and  safeguards  for  the 
balls  were  removed  firom  the  Mall  in  1752.  The  drains  were  filled  up  in  1775.  A 
grand  display  of  fire-works  took  place  here  at  the  peace  in  1814,  when  the  pagoda 
bridge  erected  here  by  Sir  W.  Coogreve  was  accidentally  burnt  The  park  was 
improved  by  Qeo.  IV.  in  1827  ei  eeq.  The  inclosure  was  first  opened  to  the 
publio  in  Jan.  1829 ;  the  opening  by  Carlton-eteps  in  1881.  The  marble  arch  that 
fronted  Buckingham  palace  was  set  up  at  Cumberland-gate,  Hyde-park,  March 
29,  1851.  See  Parks,  A  neat  iron  bridge  over  the  ornamental  water  is  now  con- 
structing (1857) ;  and  other  alterations  going  on  in  St  James's  Park. 

ST.  JEAN  DE  LUZ,  BATTLE  of.  Sonit  had  a  strong  position  on  the  Nivelle  from 
St  Jean  de  Luz  to  Ainhoe,  about  twelve  miles  in  length.  Qeneral  Hill,  with  the 
British  right,  advanced  ftrom  the  valley  of  Baztan,  and  attacking  the  French  on  the 
heights  of  Ainhoe,  drove  them  towards  Cambo,  on  the  Nive,  while  the  centre  of  the 
allies,  consisting  of  English  and  Spanish  troops  under  marshal  Beresford  and  general 
Alten,  carried  the  works  behind  Sarre,  and  drove  the  French  beyond  the  Nivelle, 
which  the  allies  crossed  at  St  Pd,  in  the  rear  of  the  enemy.  Upon  this  the  French 
hastily  abandoned  their  ground  and  works  on  the  left  of  the  Nivelle,  and  in  the 
night  withdrew  to  their  intrenched  camp  in  front  of  Bayonne ;  and  lord  Wellington's 
head-quarters  were  established  at  St.  Jean  de  Lu^  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Nivelle, 
Nov.  10, 1818.— 5»r  W.  P.  P.  Napier, 

ST.  JOHN'S  OATB,  London.  This  gate,  opening  into  St  John*&4quare.  is  the  finest 
▼estige  of  monastic  building  in  the  metropolis.  It  was  originally  the  gate  to  the 
priory  of  St  John  of  Jerusalem,  but  is  also  remarkable  as  the  place  where  the  early 
numben  of  the  Oentleman'a  Magatine  were  published.  The  house  was  often 
Tinted  by  Dr.  Johnson,  Qarrick,  and  other  eminent  characters.  It  is  now  occupied 
partly  as  a  tavern.    See  article  MagoMme, 

ST.  LUCIA.  First  settled  by  the  French  in  1650.  Taken  by  the  British  several  times 
in  the  subsequent  wars.  Memorable  insurrection  of  the  French  negroes,  April  1795. 
In  this  year  Quadaloupe,  St  Vincent,  Grenada,  Dominica,  St.  Eustatia,  and  St.  Lucia, 
were  taken  by  the  British.  St.  Lucia  was  restored  to  France  at  the  peace  of  1802; 
but  was  again  seized  on  by  England  the  next  year,  and  confirmed  to  her  by  the 
treaty  of  Paris  in  1814.    See  Colonies, 


SAI  676  SAL 

Feb.  14,  1797.     Two  of  the  captured  shipe  were  of  100  guos  each,  and  the  other  two, 
each  of  74.*    From  this  Cape  the  earl  had  hia  title. 

ST.  VIKCENT,  CAPK  The  aaxne  Gape.  Admiral  Rooke,  with  twenty  men  of  mr,  and 
the  Turkey  fleet  under  his  convoy,  was  attacked  by  admiral  Toairille,  with  &  font 
▼aatly  inperior  to  his  own,  off  Cape  St.  Vincent,  when  tweWe  English  and  Dutdi 
men-of-war,  and  eighty  merchantmen,  were  taken  or  destroyed  by  the  French,  Jane  IC, 
1693.  Here  admiral  Rodney  destroyed  seyeral  Spanish  ships,  Jan.  16,  1780.  S«e 
£odney*i  Victories, 

SALAD.  First  introduced  into  England,  with  other  garden  roots,  from  Aitoii,  aboot 
1520,  It  was  not  till  the  latter  end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  YIIL,  vis^  abont  1547,  thit 
any  salads,  carrots,  cabbage,  or  other  edible  roots,  were  produced  in  England— ^s(/«r. 
Queen  Catherine  (Henry's  fint  consort),  when  she  wanted  a  salad,  was  obliged  to 
despatch  a  messenger  thither  on  purpose. — ffwne, 

SALAMANCA,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  British  and  allies  commanded  hy  lord 
Wellington,  and  the  French  army  under  marehal  Marmont,  fought  July  22, 1812.  In 
this  great  and  memorable  battle  the  illustrious  Wellington  was  victorious,  thoogfa  the 
loss  of  the  allies  was  most  severe,  amounting  in  killed,  wounded,  and  misung.  to  nearly 
6000  men ;  but  that  of  the  enemy  was  much  greater.  Marmont  left  in  the  rictor'i 
hands  7141  prisoners,  11  pieees  of  cannon,  6  stands  of  coloors,  and  two  eaglet;  8000 
men  are  believed  to  have  been  killed  and  wounded.  Karmont  was  the  seventh  Fnndi 
marahal  whom  lord  Wellington  had  defeated  in  the  course  of  four  yean.  As  imme* 
diate  consequence  of  this  victory  was  the  capture  of  Madrid  with  2500  mors  pRNun 
and  an  immense  quantity  of  stores. 

SALAMIS,  BATTLE  op.  The  Persians  defeated  by  the  QreeVs  in  this  great  aei-iighi 
Oct.  20,  480  B.a  Themistocles,  the  Greek  commander,  with  only  810  sail,  defeated 
the  fleet  of  Xerxes,  which  consisted  of  2000  sail.  After  this  battle,  Xenei  retired 
from  Greece,  leaving  behind  him  Mardonius,  with  300,000  men,  to  csny  on  the  war, 
and  suffer  more  disasters.  In  his  retreat  he  found  the  bridge  of  boats  he  had  croaMd 
over  at  the  Hellespont,  now  the  Dardanelles,  destroyed  by  a  tempest. 

8ALD ANHA  BAY.  A  bay  of  the  Atlantic  ocean,  northward  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hopi. 
Here  a  Dutch  squadron,  under  admiral  Lucas,  was  captured  by  vice-admiral  sir  Qeor^ 
Keith  Elphinstone,  without  resistance;  two  ships  of  the  line  and  leven  «miUer 
vessels  surrendered;  and  sir  George  was  created  lord  Keith,  in  oonse^oenee  of 
this  great  and  bloodless  achievement,  which  was  executed  with  wonderful  jodgmeDt, 
Aug.  17,  1796. 

SALENCKEMEN.  Victory  gamed  over  the  Turks,  oommanded  by  the  gnad  fiiic 
Muetapha  Kiuprigli,  by  the  Imperialists  under  prince  Louis  of  Baden,  Aug.  19,  l^^l- 

SALIQUE,  OB  SALIC,  LAW.  By  this  law  females  an  excluded  from  inberitiog  tb« 
crown  of  Franca  It  was  instituted  by  Pharamond,  a.d.  424.  Ratified  in  a  eoooeil  of 
state  by  Clovis  I.,  the  real  founder  of  the  French  monarchy,  in  611. — BenawUtPrma. 
In  order  to  give  more  authority  to  the  maxim  that  "  the  crown  should  nerer  itatM 
to  a  female,'*  it  was  usual  to  derive  it  from  a  clause  of  the  Salian  code  of  the  ueicfit 
Franks ;  but  this  clause,  if  strictly  examined,  carries  only  the  appearanoe  of  ftvoarinc 
the  principle,  and  does  not  in  reality  bear  the  sense  imposed  upon  it.  Tet,  though 
positive  law  seems  wanting  among  the  French  for  the  exclusion  of  females,  the  pnctice 
has  taken  place,  and  the  rule  was  established  beyond  all  controversy  on  some  udnt, 
as  well  as  some  modem,  precedents.  The  monarchy  has  always  been  governed  by  voiltt, 
and  no  female ;  and  no  one  who  founded  his  title  on  a  female  has  ever  mounted  tbc 
throne. — Hume,  The  Salique  law  prevailed  for  many  generations  in  Spain,  bet «» 
formally  abolished,  March  25, 1830  ;  and  on  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  his  dsagk*"'' 
the  present  queen,  succeeded  to  the  sceptre,  as  Isabella  II.,  when  in  her  third  J9S, 
Sept  29,  1888.    See  Spain, 

SALISBURY.  Founded  in  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century,  on  theremoTsl  of  tb* 
cathedral  hither  from  Old  Sarum.  National  councils  or  parliaments  wero  repeet^^'5 
held  at  Salisbury,  particularly  in  1296,  by  Edward  L  ;  in  1328,  by  Edward  HI  :  «j 
in   1384.     Henry  Stafford,  duke  of  Buckingham,  was  executed  here  by  ord«r  a 

•  The  battle  wan  fouffht  by  sir  John  JorvU  with  a  fleet  of  fifteen  sail  of  the  line  only,  and  vitfc  ^""-"^ 
smMl  force  ho  totally  defeated  the  8{Mini8h  fleet,  con«i8tiue  of  tweuty-seven  sail,  seven  of  which  t^''  * 
from  112  to  130  guns  each.  He  was  immediately  elevated  to  the  peerage,  by  the  titles  of  bsTtm  i«^ 
of  Meaford.  and  earl  Bt  Vincent,  talcing  his  latter  title  from  the  cape  near  which  be  had  Mshitif^  ^ 
glorious  victory. 


SAL  677  SAN 

Kiohard  IIL,  in  1483.  On  Saltsbubt  Plaiit,  800  English  nobleo  wei-e  tnassacred  by 
Hengirt,  May  1,  a.d.  474.  This  plain  was  estimated  at  600,000  acres.  On  it  were  so 
many  cross  roads,  and  so  few  bouses  to  take  directions  from,  thnt  Thomas,  earl  of 
Pembroke,  planted  a  tree  at  each  milestone  from  Salisbury  to  Shaftesbury,  for  the 
traveller's  guide. 

SALISBURT,  BISHOPRIC  of.  Its  first  seat  was  at  Sherbom,  St  Adhelm  being  prelate, 
A.D.  705.  Wells  and  Exeter  were  dismembered  from  the  see  in  006.  Herman 
removed  the  seat  to  Old  Sarum  in  1056 ;  and  the  see  was  removed  to  this  city,  under 
the  authority  of  a  papal  bull»  in  1217.  The  bishopric  is  valued  in  the  king's  books 
at  1367A  11«.  8d.  It  has  yielded  to  the  church  of  Rome  one  saint  and  two  cardinals. 
The  building  of  the  cathedral  commenced  April  28,  1220,  and  was  completed  in  1258. 
This  edifice  is  reckoned  one  of  our  finest  ecclesiastical  erections;  and  its  spire  the 
loftiest  in  the  kingdom. 

SALT.  In  Scripture,  much  is  said  of  this  substance;  and  it  is  therein  mentioned  as 
savouring  and  seasoning  all  things,  and  is  commanded  to  be  used  in  sacrifices.  The 
Jews  were  wont  to  rub  their  new-bom  infants  with  salt,  upon  the  supposition  that  it 
dried  up  the  humidity  wherewith  they  abound,  and  closed  up  the  pores,  which  were 
too  open  and  susceptible  of  taking  cold.  It  has  been  made  the  symbol  of  wisdom, 
and  of  perpetuity  and  incorruption ;  also  of  hospitality  and  fidelity :  and  sometimes 
of  barrenness  and  sterility.  It  is  used  in  one  of  the  sacraments  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  to  this  day,  that  of  baptism ;  and  is  also  used  as  an  ingredient  in  blessing 
holy  water. 

SALT  AND  SALT-MINES.  Salt  is  either  procured  from  rocks  in  the  earth,  from  salt- 
springs,  or  from  sea-water.  The  famous  salt-mines  of  Wielitzka,  near  Cracow,  in 
Poland,  have  been  worked  600  years,  and,  it  has  been  lately  said,  yet  present  no 
appearance  of  being  exausted.  Rock-salt  was  discovered  about  a.d.  960.  Saltpetre 
was  first  noade  in  England  about  1626.  The  fine  salt-mines  of  Staffordshire  were 
discovered  about  1670.  Salt-duties  were  first  exacted  in  1702 ;  they  were  renewed 
in  1732;  and  were  considerably  reduced  in  1823.  At  a  period  of  the  French  war,  the 
duty  had  reached  to  30t  per  ton ;  it  is  now,  however,  totally  abolished. 

SALT-TAX,  OR  GA6ELLE,  in  FRANCE.  It  is  refexred  to  the  year  1344,  when 
Edward  III.  facetiously  called  Philip  of  Yalois,  "the  author  of  the  salie  law."  But 
Philip  the  Long  was  the  first  that  laid  a  duty  upon  salt;  Philip  of  Yalois,  however, 
raited  the  duty.  After  the  battle  of  Poitiers  the  king  engrossed  the  whole  trade  to 
himself,  and  erected  public  magazines  for  all  the  salt  in  the  kingdom.  The  Qabelle 
was  afterwards  farmed  out  by  Henry  II.  for  ten  years,  1348.  The  produce  of  the 
salt-duty  throughout  the  realm  was  equal  to  the  revenue  of  the  Spanish  West  Indies. 

SALUTE  AT  SEA.  It  is  a  received  maxim  at  sea,  that  he  who  returns  the  salute  always 
fires  fewer  guns  than  he  receives,  which  is  done  even  between  the  ships  of  princes  of 
equal  dignity ;  but  the  Swedes  and  Danes  return  the  compliment  without  regarding 
how  many  guns  are  fired  to  them.  Merchantmen  lower  their  main-yard  ;  but  men- 
of-war  strike  only  their  topsalL  The  EngliHh  claim  the  right  of  being  saluted  first 
in  all  placeii,  as  sovereigns  of  the  seas ;  the  Venetians  claim  this  honour  within  their 
gulf,  &c    See  Fiag  and  Naval  SaltUe, 

SALUTING.  The  customary  and  natural  expressions  of  civility  or  friendship.  The 
custom  of  saluting  ladies  by  their  relatives  and  friends  was  introduced,  it  is  said,  by 
the  early  Romans,  not  out  of  respect  originally,  but  to  find  by  their  breath  whether 
•  they  had  been  drinking  wine,  this  being  criminal  for  women  to  do,  as  it  sometimeB 
led  to  adultery.  The  kin  was  the  ofEspring  of  nature,  the  saliUe  the  formality  of 
civilised  life,  and  as  distinct  as  love  and  ceremony. — Athe, 

SAMARITANS.  Samaria  was  built  by  Omri,  B.O.  926,  and  became  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  IsiaeL  On  the  breaking,  up  of  that  kingdom  (B.c.  721)  the  conqueror 
Sb^maneser  placed  natives  of  other  countries  at  Samaria.  The  descendants  of  these 
mixed  races  were  abominable  to  the  Jews,  and  much  more  so  in  consequence  of  the 
rival  temple  built  on  Mount  Qerizim  by  Sanballat,  the  Samaritan,  B.c.  332,  which 
was  destroyed  by  John  Hyrcanus,  B.C.  130.     (See  John  iv.  &  viii.  48,  and  Luke  x.  33.) 

SANCTUARIES.  They  had  their  origin  in  the  early  ages.  Rome  was  one  entire  sanc- 
tuary from  761  B.c.  In  England,  privileged  places  for  the  safety  of  offenders  were 
granted  by  king  Lucius  to  our  churches  and  their  precincts.  St.  John's  of  Beverley 
was  thus  privileged  in  the  time  of  the  Saxon&  St  Burein*s,  in  Cornwall,  was  privi- 
leged by  Athelstan,  a.d.  986;  Westminster,  by  Edward  the  Confessor;  St.  Martin's* 

p  p 


SAN  578  SAP 

le-Qrand,  1529.  Sanctuarids  were  aboliahed  at  the  Reformation.  Sevenl  pbe«  in 
London  were  privilesed  against  the  arreat  of  persona  for  debt  Th«e  Int  mn 
auppreeaed  in  1696.    See  Aiylunu. 

SANDALS.  The  ahoe  or  slipper  worn  especially  by  the  esatem  nations.  At  fini  it  wm 
only  a  piece  of  leather  like  the  sole  of  a  ahoe,  to  keep  the  foot  from  the  groand,  bat 
was  in'  the  course  of  time  improved  to  a  ooTcring  of  cloth,  ornamented  with  ill  the 
delioaciea  of  art,  and  made  of  the  richest  materials,  and  worn  by  the  hi^  priests  at  gnst 
solemnities,  and  by  kings,  princes,  and  great  men,  as  a  mark  of  distinction.  SsndilB 
were  also  worn  by  women,  as  appears  from  the  story  of  Judith  and  Holofemes,  whsre, 
among  other  decorations,  she  is  said  to  have  put  on  sandaU,  at  the  sight  of  which  he 
waa  raviahed.  It  was  usual  for  ladies  to  have  slavea  to  cany  their  sandals  in  ctsei, 
ready  to  adorn  their  feet  on  occaaiona  of  state.    See  Skoet, 

SANDEICANIANS.    Bee  COaiites. 

SANDHURST,  ROTAL  MILITARY  COLLEQE.  Founded,  fiivt  at  High  Wyeombe,  in 
1799.  Removed  to  Great  Marlow  in  1802,  and  to  Sandhurat  in  1812.  The  ooUege, 
for  which  the  land  waa  purchased  by  government  at  Blackwater,  near  Bsgshott  ooDiiiti 
of  two  departments,  called  the  Senior  and  Junior :  the  former  is  intended  toinatruct 
and  qualify  officers  for  the  general  staff  of  the  army ;  the  latter  is  eomposed  of  two 
companies  of  cadets,  who  get  their  commissions  from  the  college,  either  by  pnrchan 
or  without  purchase ;  in  the  latter  esse  the  cadet  muat  have  passed  such  an  ezaminition 
as  may  recommend  him  for  this  mark  of  royal  fitvour.  The  two  branches  of  the  ioiti- 
tution  have  been  united  since  1820.  The  building  is  a  handsome  edifice,  with  a  Doiic 
portico  of  eight  columns,  and  is  calculated  to  recdve  400  cadets,  and  80  studeoti  of 
the  senior  department. 

SANDWICH  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  eleven  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Tbej  wen 
discovered  by  captain  Cook  in  1778.  Many  voyageta  report  that  tiie  natoial  eapsdt/ 
of  the  natives  aeems  in  no  respect  below  the  common  atandard  of  mankind.  It  wis 
in  one  of  these  islands  that  this  illustrious  circumnavigator  fell  a  victim  to  the  indden 
resentment  of  the  nativea,  Feb.  14,  1779.  See  OwftyAee.  Of  late  years,  these  people 
have  made  g^reat  progress  towards  civilization,  and  from  their  interoouxse  with 
Christians  hsd  renounoed  idolatry  before  any  missionaries  were  settled  among  theoL 
A  proteatant  mission  has  been  some  time  established  in  the  islands.  The  present  kiog 
Kam^ham^ha  lY.  when  20  years  old  succeeded  his  uncle,  Dec  15, 1854. 

SANHEDRIM.  An  ancient  Jewish  council  of  the  highest  jurisdiotion  (of  aeveoty,  orn 
some  say,  seventy-three  members),  usually  considered  to  be  that  eatabliehed  by  Moiei, 
Num.  li,  16,  B.0. 1490.  It  was  yet  in  being  at  the  time  of  Jeaua  Christy  /oAazTiil  SI. 
A  Jewish  Sanhedrim  was  summoned  by  the  emperor  Napoleon  at  Paris,  Joly  S3, 180(; 
and  it  assembled  accordingly,  Jan.  20, 1807. 

SANTA  CRUZ,  TnrERirFB.  Here  admiral  Blake  entirely  destroyed  16  SpaDish  ihipi, 
secured  with  great  nautical  skill,  and  protected  by  the  castle  and  forts  on  the  thore. 
This  waa  thought  at  the  time  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  naval  exploits  ever  aocompliabed. 
—Butler.  It  waa  so  miraculous,  that  all  who  knew  the  place  wondered  say  lober 
man,  with  what  courage  soever  endowed,  would  have  undertaken  it ;  and  the  victon 
could  hardly  persuade  themselves  to  believe  what  they  had  done ;  whilst  the  sarririog 
Spaniards  thought  that  they  were  devils,  and  not  men,  who  had  destroyed  their  ihipi 
in  such  a  manner,  April  20,  1657. — OarendotL  In  an  unsuccessful  attack  madeapoo 
Santa  Cms  by  Nelaon«  aeveral  officers  and  141  men  were  killed,  and  Uie  admiitl  W 
hia  right  arm,  July  24, 1797.* 

SAPPHIC  VERSE.  The  verse  invented  by  Sappho,  the  lyric  poetess  of  Kitjlene- 
Sappho  waa  equally  celebrated  for  her  poetry,  her  beauty,  and  her  amorous  dispositioa 
She  conceived  a  hopeleaa  passion  for  Phaon,  a  youUi  of  her  native  eoantiy,  oa  which 
account  ahe  threw  herself  into  tiie  sea  from  Mount  Leucaa,  and  waa  drowaed.   The 

*  It  was  remarkable,  that  captain  Fremantle,  the  fHond  of  Nelaoo,  and  a  oompankm  of  hit  to  ns^ 
of  hie  brilliant  achierementa,  waa  also  wounded  in  the  arm  immediately  before  Melaon  bad  r«oei«M 
hU  wound  in  the  aame  limb.  The  following  characteristic  note,  addraned  to  the  lady  of  oipua 
Fremantle  (who  waa  on  board  with  her  husband  at  the  time  he  wrote)  haa  been  praaerred,  as  biiof  »• 
first  letter  written  by  the  glorious  hero  with  his  left  hand  :— 


THE  ran  LSTraa  wbitrv  bt  niaoir  with  his  Larr  baud. 

*'  Mr  DSAa  Mas.  FBaKAVTUE^—Tell  me  how  Tom  is?    I  hope  he  has  saved  Ma  arm.    JtftM  if  f 
but,  thank  Ood  1  1  am  as  well  as  I  hoi>e  he  is.    Ever  youre,  HoaAXio  IIb«»« 


SAP 


679 


SAR 


Lesbians,  after  her  death,  paid  her  dWine  honours,  and  called  her  the  tenth  muse, 
694  B.a 

SAPPHIRE.  This  predous  stone  is  of  an  scare  or  beautiful  sky-colour,  and  transparent ; 
in  hardness  it  exceeds  the  ruby,  and  is  next  to  the  diamond ;  it  is  so  hard  as  scarcely 
to  bear  engraving.  It  was  most  highly  piised  by  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  East, 
and  many  nations  attributed  all  their  happiness  and  auccess  to  wearing  it  about  their 
person ;  it  was  valued  more  as  a  charm  Uian  an  ornament.  Thamas  Kouli  Khan  is 
said  to  have  been  possessed  of  a  sapphire  valued  at  three  hundred  thonssnd  pounds, 
1738.  With  us,  this  stone  is  the  fourth  in  the  order  of  value.  Artificial  sapphires 
were  made  in  1867  by  M.  Gkindin.  Equal  parts  of  alum  and  sulphate  of  potash 
were  heated  in  a  crucible. 

SARACENS.  A  celebrated  people  from  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  Sarra  in  their  language 
signifying  a  desert.  They  were  the  first  disciples  of  Mahomet;  and  within  40  years 
after  his  death,  in  A.D.  681,  they  conquered  a  great  part  of  Aeia,  Africa,  and  Europe. 
They  conquercKl  Spain  in  718,  et  acq.  ;  the  empire  of  the  Saracens  cIoscmI  by  fiagdad 
being  taken  by  the  Tartars,  1258. — Blair.  There  are  now  no  people  known  by  this 
name ;  the  descendants  of  those  who  subdued  Spain  are  called  Mqotl 

SARAGOSSA.  Anciently  Ceesarea  Augusta;  whence,  by  corruption,  its  name.  Its 
church  has  been  a  place  of  g^reat  devotion.  They  tell  us  that  the  Virgin,  while  yet 
livings  appeared  to  St  James,  who  was  preaching  the  gospel,  and  left  him  her  image, 
which  was  afterwards  placed  in  the  church,  with  a  little  Jesus  in  her  anns,  ornamented 
with  a  profusion  of  gold  and  jewels,  and  illuminated  by  a  multitude  of  lamps.  In 
Dee.  1778,  four  hundred  of  the  inhabitants  perished  in  a  fire  at  the  thestre.  Saragossa 
was  taken  by  the  French,  after  a  most  heroic  defence  by  general  Palafox,  during  as 
renowned  a  siege  (1808  and  1809)  as  is  on  record,  Feb.  18, 1809.  The  unyielding 
iuhabitants,  of  both  sexes,  resisted  the  French,  until  worn  out  by  Qghting,  famine, 
and  pestilence,  they  were  obliged  to  surrender. 

SARATOGA,  BTTRGOTNE'S  SURRENDER  at.  General  Burgoyne,  commander  of  a 
body  of  the  British  army,  after  a  severe  engagement  with  the  American  provincials  in 
the  memorable  war  of  independence  (Oct.  7),  being  surrounded,  the  whole  of  this 
large  force  surrendered  to  the  American  general  Gates.  Ko  less  than  6791  men 
laid  down  their  arms,  Oct.  17,  1777.  The  American  accounts  stated  the  number 
to  be  much  greater.    This  was  the  greatest  check  the  British  sufiered  in  the  war. 

SARAWAK    See  Borneo. 

SARDANAPALUS.  The  last  king  of  Assyria.  ^eAuyria.  One  of  the  most  infiunous 
and  sensual  monarchs  that  ever  lived.  Having  grown  odious  to  his  subjecta,  and 
being  surrounded  by  hostile  armies,  dreading  to  fall  into  their  hands,  he  shut  himself 
up  in  his  capitid  at  Nineveh.  Here  he  caused  a  vast  pile  of  wood  to  be  raised  in  a 
court  of  his  palace,  and  heaping  upon  it  a]l  his  gold,  silver,  jewels,  precious  and  rare 
articles,  the  royal  apparel,  and  other  treasures,  and  enclosing  Ids  concubines  and 
eunuchs  in  an  apartment  within  the  pile,  he  set  all  on  fire,  perishing  himself  in  the 
flames.  This  is  the  mightiest  conflagration  of  wealth  on  record.  The  riches  thus 
destroyed  were  worth  a  thovsa$ul  myriads  of  talent4  of  gold,  and  TXV  tikes  as  many 
talenU  of  tUver,  about  1,400,000,000/.  sterling. — Athenonu,  This  story  is  now  doubted. 

SARDINIA.  The  first  inhabitants  of  Piedmont,  Savoy,  &c.  are  supposed  to  have  been 
the  Umbrians,  Etrurians,  Ligurians,  and  afterwards  the  Gauls  (when  they  established 
themselves  in  Italy  under  Brennus,  &a)  from  whom  this  counUy  was  called  Cisalpine 
Gaul  (or  Gaul  on  this  side  of  the  Alps,  with  respect  to  Rome) :  it  afterwards  became 
a  part  of  Lombardy,  from  which  it  was  taken  by  the  Buigundians.  The  island  of 
Sardinia  has  been  successively  possessed  by  the  Phoenicians  and  Greeks,  the  Cartha- 
ginians, Romans,  Saraoens,  and  Spaniards;  {torn  settlers  belonging  to  which  various 
nations  the  present  inhabitants  derive  their  origin. 


Eubjugated  by  the  Romans 


ft 


281 


Taken  by  the  Mooni,  about  a.d.    728 

Reduced  by  the  Genoese  .  1116 

The  pope  granie  Sardinia  to  the  Plaanese. 
who  are,  however,  too  weak  to  expel 

theSaiBceoB 1132 

Alphtmmia   IV.    of    Arra^n,    becomes 
master  of  Sardinia        ....  1324 


Taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  the  English 

naval  forces  .      A.n.  1708 

Recovered  by  the  Spaniards  .  .  .  1717 
They  again  lose  poesesaion  .  .  .  .  1710 
Ceded  to  the  duke  of  SaToy,  as  an 

equiyalent  for  Sicily  ....  1720 
Yictor  Amadeua,  having  the  title  of  king, 

abdicates  in  &vour  of  his  son.  .  .  1780 
Attempting  to  recover  Sardinia,  he  is 

tidcon,  and  diea  in  prison  •  173S 

Fp2 


SAH 


6b0 


8AT 


SARDINIA,  cofUinued. 

[The  court  kept  at  Turin  till  1796,  when 
these  dominiozu  were  oremm  by  the 
French  anna,  and  shortly  afterwards 
annexed  to  the  French  empire.] 

The  king  resigns  his  crown  to  his 
brother,  duke  of  Aouiit    .         Jtme  4,  1802 

Sardinia  annexed  to  Italy,  and  Bonaparte 
crowned  king  of  the  whole      Dec.  S6^  1805 

Restored  to  its  rightfiil  eoTereign,  with 
Genoa  added  to  it    .  Dec  1814 

The  king,  Charles- Albert  openly  espouses 
the  cause  of  the  Italian  regeneration 
against  Austria  March  23.  1848 

Defeat  of  the  Auatrians  hy  the  Sardinian 
army  at  Ooito  .  Hay  29.  1848 

The  fortress  of  Peeeheira  snrrendersio 
the  Sardinian  troops     .        .    May  SO,  1848 

The  Sardinian  army,  which  had  fought 
with  the  greatest  bravery  for  many 
weeks,  is  at  length  forced  to  retreat 
towards  Milan  .  July  27,  1848 

The  Sardinians,  who  had  retreated  to 
Milan,  capitulate  to  the  Atuitrian  6eld- 
marshal  Radetsky  Aug.  4,  1848 

Armistice  between  Sardinia  and  Aus- 
tria     Sept.  21.  1848 

The  Sardinians  resume  hostiUties  against 
Austria  ....         March  12,  1849 

Radetsky  defeats  a  division  of  the  Sar- 
dinian army,  and  occupies  Mortara, 

March  21,  1849 

Ck>mp]ete  rout  of  the  Sardinian  army  by 
the  Auatrians  at  Novara       March  23,  1849 


1718. 


1730. 
1773. 
1790. 


1802. 
1805. 


KINQS  OF 

Victor- Amadsas  I.  king  (II.  as  duke) ; 
resigned,  in  1730,  in  favour  of  his 
son  ;  died  in  1732. 

Charles-Emmanuel  I.  his  son. 

Yictor-Amadeus  II.  his  son. 

Charles-Emmanud  II.  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding ;  resigned  his  crown  in  Csvour 
ofhisDfrother, 

Victor-Emmanuel  I. 

[Sardinia  merged  in  the  kingdom  of 
Italy,  of  which  the  emperor  Napoleon 
was  crowned  king.  May  26,  1805.] 


Charles- Albert  abdicates  in  faroarofhU 
son,  the  duke  of  Savoy,  and  leaveB  hte 
dominions  .     March  25,  18tf 

The  Austriana  occupy  Novara  and  other 
places     ....        March  SSlStf 

Another  armistice  between  Austm  and 
Sardinia    ....     March  98, 18« 

The  duke  of  Savoy  procUumed  kinx  of 
Sardinia,  under  the  title  of  Victor- 
Emmanuel  11.  March  Sfi,  1M9 

Death  of  Charles- Albert^  the  ez-Ung,  at 
Oporto      ....        JnlyniW* 

Treaty  of  Milan  between  Austria  and 
Sardinia,  signed    .  .    Ang.  e.  1S49 

Treaty  of  peace  with  Austria  ratified  by 
the  chambers  at  Turin    .       .  Jan.  0,  1850 

Arrest  of  the  bUhop  of  Turin .     May  4.  MM 

He  is  released  from  the  citadel   June2,lU0 

Bill  for  suppression  of  convents  pasaod, 

March  2.  1855 

Convention  with  England  and  Fivnoe 
aigned.  a  contingent  of  15,000  troops 
to  be  supplied  against  Russia  April  10,  1S5S 

10,000  troops  under  general  La  Marmora 
arrive  in  the  Crimea     .       .      May  8,  1855 

Who  distinguish  themaelves  ia  the  battie 
on  the  Tchemaya     .        .       Aug.  Ifi,  1855 

The  king  visits  London,  ftc  Nov.  80,  kc  1855 

Disputes  with  Austria  .  April,  1857 

Count  Gavour  declares  in  fiavoor  of 
free-trade      ....       J«n«.  1^7 

Bee  Tmrin. 

SARDINIA. 

1814.  Victor-Emmanuel,  restored ;  lerignad 
in  March,  1821 ;  and  died  in  1824. 

1821.  Charles-FelU ;  succeeded  by  Ua  ne- 
phew,   

1831.  Charles^Albert.  This  prince  mtmtad 
a  war  with  Austria ;  was  defeated  in 
battle,  and  abdicated  hi  fiarour  of  hu 
•on.  Mazch  23,  1849.  Died  at  Op«t(^ 
July  28.  1849. 

1849.  Victor-Emmanuel  IL :  the  present  (1857) 
king  of  Sardinia. 


SA.TTRE.  About  a  century  after  the  introduction  of  comedy,  satire  made  its  appeannee 
at  Rome  in  the  writiogs  of  Luciliua,  who  waa  so  celebrated  in  this  species  of  com- 
position that  he  has  been  called  the  inventor  of  it,  116  B.C. — JAvy.  The  Satiret  of 
Horace  (b.o.  85)  and  Juvenal  (about  ▲.D.  100)  and  Persius  (about  a.d.  60)  are  toe 
most  celebrated  in  ancient  times,  and  those  of  Churchill  (1761)  and  Pope  (1729)  in 
modem  times. 

SATURDAY.  With  us  this  is  the  last,  or  seventh  day  of  the  week ;  but  with  the  Jew» 
it  is  the  Sabbath.  See  Sabbath.  It  was  so  called  from  an  idol  worshipped  on  thii  day 
by  the  old  Saxons,  and  according  to  Yerstegan,  was  named  by  them  Sateme's  daj.-^ 
Pardon,  It  is  named  Saturday  from  the  ancient  Saxon  idol  Seater. — BiUUr,  It  la 
more  properly  from  Saturn,  dia  Satumi, — Adduon, 

SATURN,  The  Planbt.  Ascertained  to  be  about  900  milUons  of  miles  distant  fit>m  the 
sun,  and  its  diameter  to  be  89,170  miles.  His  satellites  were  discoyered  by  Galilflo 
and  Simon  Meyer,  1608-9-10 ;  his  belt,  &c.  by  Huygens,  in  1634 ;  his  fifth  satellite  by 
the  same,  in  1655 ;  and  his  sixth  and  seventh  by  Herschel,  in  1789.  Caaaini  waa  alao  a 
discoverer  of  the  satellites  of  the  planets.  In  Heathen  Mythology,  Saturn  is  esteemed 
the  fiither  of  the  gods. 

SATURNALIA.  Festivals  in  honour  of  Saturn.  They  were  instituted  long  before 
the  foundation  of  Rome,  in  commemoration  of  the  freedom  and  equality  which  pre- 
vailed on  the  earth  in  the  golden  reign  of  Saturn.  Some,  however,  suppose  that  the 
Saturnalia  were  first  observed  at  Rome  in  the  reign  of  Tullua  Hostilius,  ^^  J 
victory  obtained  over  the  Sabines ;  while  others  suppose  that  Janus  first  iDStitatea 
them  in  gratitude  to  Saturn,  from  whom  he  had  learned  agriculture.  Others 
suppose  that  they  were  first  celebrated,  after  a  victory  obtained  over  the  Latioa  by 


»  ^ 


SAV  681  SAX 

the  dictator  Posthumius.  During  these  feeti^als  bo  buaiiieBS  waa  allowed^  amasements 
were  encouraged,  and  diatinctions  ceased. — Lengld. 

SAYINGS*  BANK&*  The  Rev.  Joseph  Smith,  of  Wendover,  began  a  Benevolent  Inati- 
tutioD  in  1799;  and  in  1803-4  a  Charitable  Bank  was  instituted  at  Tottenham  by  Miss 
Elizabeth  Wakefield.  Henry  Dundas  established  a  Parish  Bank  at  Ruthwell  in  1810. 
One  was  opened  in  Edinburgh  in  1814.  The  benefit  clubs,  among  artisans,  having 
accumulated  stocks  of  money  for  their  progressive  purposes,  a  plan  was  adopted  to 
identify  these  funds  with  the  public  debt  of  the  conntiy,  and  an  extra  rate  of  interest 
waa  held  out  as  an  inducement;  hence,  savings'  banks  to  receive  small  sums,  return- 
able, with  interest,  on  demand,  were  formed.  In  1816  an  extensive  development  of 
the  system  was  effected,  and  it  was  brought  imder  parliamentary  regulation  in  the 
same  year,  by  the  efforts  of  rt  hon.  sir  George  Rose.  Acts  to  consolidate  and  amend 
previous  laws  relating  to  savings*  banks,  9  Geo.  lY.  1828,  and  11  and  12  Yict  o.  133 
(1847).     The  act  extended  to  Scotland,  6  Will.  lY.  Sept  9,  1835. 

CLAfiSIPIOATION  OF  THE  riBST  TWEKTT  THOUBA'ND  DEP06IT0RB  WHO  OPENED  A0CO17NT& 


DomesUc  senrants 7245 

Persona  in  trade,  mechanics,  &c.  .  .  7473 
labourers  and  porters  ....  672 
Miners 1454 


Friendly  and  charitable  societies   .        .      68 
Persons     not     classed,     viz.    widows, 
teachers,  sailors,  die 8098 


SATIEGS'  BANKB,  ASD  DEPOSITORS  IN  ENOLAKD,  BOOTLAND,  WALES,  AKD  IBELAKD,  IH  1840. 

Counirjf.  Ko.  of  Banks.  Jfo.  uf  DeponUrtn.  Amount. 

England         ....  401         ....  627,443         ....  £19,818,678 

Scotland 39 44,628 471,888 

Wales :n         ....     15,927         ....         642.476 

Ireland 79 78,366 2,228,367 

KUMBEB  OF  DEP0BIT0B8  AND  AMOUNT  OF  DEPOSXT&  IN  BAYINGB'  BANKB,  AT  THE  CIXWB  OF  1848. 

CbmUry.  No.  qf  Bankt.  Account*  opened.  Total  Anumnt. 

England  and  Wales       .        .  481         ...        .909,336  .        .£26,871.176 

Scotland -lO 86,472 1.080,191 

Ireland 61         ....    60,119         ....       1,358,062 

Jersey  and  Guernsey       .    .      2 9,736 236,710 

Grand  Total    ...  684         ...        1,054,663         ....  £28,046,139 

On  Not.  20,  1851,  the  number  of  aavinga'  banks  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  waa 
574,  besides  many  thousands  (exceeding  twenty  thouaand)  of  Friendly  Societiea  and 
charitable  institutions.  The  depositors  (in  the  banks)  were,  1,092,581,  while  the 
societies  embraced  a  vast  but  unknown  number  of  persons :  the  amount  of  deposits 
waa  32,893,511^.  The  amount  of  stock  held  on  account  of  savings'  banks  waa 
34,546,4342.  according  to  a  return  Nov.  20, 1853. 

SAVOT.  It  became  a  Roman  province,  118  B.O.  The  Alemans  seized  it  in  a.d.  395,  and 
the  Franks  in  496.  It  shared  the  revolutions  of  Switzerland  till  1040,  when  Conrad, 
emperor  of  Germany,  gave  it  to  Hubert,  with  the  title  of  earL  Amadeus,  earl  of 
Savoy,  solicited  Sigismund  to  erect  his  dominions  into  a  duchy,  which  he  did  at 
Cambray,  Feb.  19,  1417.  Yiotor-Amadeus,  duke  of  Savoy,  obtained  the  kingdom  of 
Sicily,  by  treaty  from  Spain,  which  he  afterwards  exchanged  with  the  empei*or  for 
the  island  of  Sardinia,  with  the  title  of  king,  1713-20.  The  French  subdued  thia 
country  in  1792,  and  made  it  a  department  of  France,  imder  the  name  of  Mont  Blanc, 
in  1800.    See  Sardinia. 

SAVOY  CONFFRENCE.    See  Conference, 

SAW.  Invented  by  Dsedalus. — Pliny,  Invented  by  Talus. — ApoUodoruB,  Talus,  it  is 
said,  having  found  the  jaw-bone  of  a  snake,  employed  it  to  cut  through  a  piece  of 
wood,  and  then  formed  an  instrument  of  iron  like  it  Beecher  says  saw-mills  were 
invented  in  the  seventeenth  century ;  but  he  errs.  Saw-mills  were  erected  in  Madeira 
in  1420;  at  Breslau,  in  1427.  Norway  had  the  first  saw-mill  in  1530.  The  bishop  of 
Kly,  ambassador  from  Mary  of  England  to  the  Court  of  Rome,  describes  a  saw-mill 
there,  1555.  The  attempts  to  introduce  saw-mills  in  England  were  violently  opposed, 
and  one  erected  by  a  Dutchman  in  1663  was  forced  to  be  abandoned. 

SAXONT.  The  royal  family  of  Saxony  is  of  a  very  ancient  origin,  and  is  allied  to  all 
the  royal  houses  in  Europe.  The  sovereignty  still  continues  in  the  same  family,  not- 
withstanding it  encountered  an  interruption  of  more  than  two  hundred  years,  from 

*  The  first  of  these  was  instituted  at  Berne,  in  Switzerland,  in  17S7,  by  the  name  of  eaisM  da  domea- 
tiquee,  being  intonded  for  servants  only ;  another  was  set  up  in  fiasel,  in  1792,  open  tu  all  deiKiaitora. 


SCA  582  800 

1180  to  1423.  Saxony,  which  had  been  for  many  oentories  an  electorata,  was  focmod 
into  a  kingdom  in  1806,  when  Frederick  Augustua  became  the  firtt  king.  That 
aovereign  was  auooeeded  by  hU  brother,  Anthony,  May  5,  1827.  Frederick  Auguitoa 
II.  ascended  the  throne,  June  6, 1686 ;  he  was  killed  by  a  kick  from  a  horse,  Aog.  9, 
1854,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  John,  the  present  king  (1857).  Saxony 
became  the  scene  of  the  great  struggle  against  Napoleon  in  1818. 

SCALES  AKD  MEASURES.    See  Beatn  and  ScaUi,  and  Meanurtt,  Wcigkti,  kc 

SCANDALUM  MAOKATUM.  The  name  giren  to  a  special  statute  relatiog  to  any 
wrong,  by  words  or  in  writing,  done  to  high  personages  of  the  land,  such  as  peen, 
judgesiy  ministers  of  the  crown,  officers  in  the  state,  and  other  great  public  functiooariei, 
by  the  circulation  of  scandalous  statements,  false  news,  or  horrible  messages,  by  which 
any  debate  or  discord  between  them  and  the  commons,  or  any  scandal  to  their  penom, 
might  arise.— C7Aani5era    This  law  was  first  enacted  2  Rich.  IL  1378. 

SCANDINAVIA.  The  ancient  name  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  great  part  of  Denmark, 
whence  proceeded  the  Northmen  or  Normans,  who  conquered  Normandy  (aboat 
A.D.  900),  and  eventually  England  (1066).  They  were  also  called  Sea-Kings  or  Yikingi. 
They  settled  Iceland,  and  Greenland,  and,  it  is  thought^  the  northern  r^uof 
America,  about  the  9th  century. 

SCARLET.  The  Scarlet,  or  kermes  dye,  was  known  in  the  East  in  the  earliest  ag«; 
cochineal  dye,  a.d.  1518.  A  Fleming,  named  Kepler,  established  the  first  dye-houe 
for  scarlet  in  England,  at  Bow,  1 648.  The  art  of  dyeing  red  was  improved  by  Brewer, 
1667. — BedeMonn. 

SCEPTIC.  The  ancient  sect  of  philosophers  founded  by  Pyrrho,  334  B.a  Pynho  was 
in  continual  suspense  of  judgment ;  he  doubted  of  everything ;  never  made  any  con* 
elusions,  and  when  he  had  carefully  examined  a  subject,  and  investigated  sll  its  parts, 
he  conduded  by  still  doubting  of  its  evidence.  As  he  showed  so  much  indifference 
in  everything,  and  declared  that  life  and  death  were  the  same  thing,  some  of  his 
disciples  asked  him,  why  he  did  not  hurry  himself  out  of  the  world  ?  '*  Becaoie,'*  says 
he,  "  there  is  no  d^erence  between  life  and  death."  Timon  was  one  of  the  chief 
followers  of  this  sect,  which  was  almost  extinct  in  the  time  of  Cicero. — Strabo, 

SCEPTRE.  This  is  a  more  ancient  emblem  of  royalty  than  the  crown.  In  the  earlier 
ages  of  the  world  the  sceptres  of  kings  were  long  walking-staves ;  they  afterwards 
were  carved,  and  made  shorter.  Taiquin  the  elder  was  the  first  who  assumed  the 
sceptre  among  the  Romans,  about  468  B.O.  The  French  sceptre  of  the  first  raee  of 
kings  was  a  golden  rod,  a.d.  481. — Le  Omdre, 

SCHOOLS.  Charity  schools  were  instituted  in  London  to  prevent  the  aeduetion  of  the 
infant  poor  into  Roman  Catholic  seminaries,  3  James  II.  1687. — Rapm.  Cfaart«r 
schools  were  instituted  in  Ireland,  1733. — ScuUy.  In  England  there  were,  in  1847, 
13,642  schools  (exclusively  of  Sunday  schools)  for  the  education  of  the  poor;  and  the 
number  of  children  was  998,431.  The  parochial  and  endowed  schools  of  Scotland 
were  (exclusivoly  of  Sunday  schools)  4836 ;  and  the  number  of  children,  181,467.  The 
schools  in  Wales  were  841,  and  the  number  of  children,  88,164  :  in  Ireland,  18,S37 
schools,  and  774,000  children.  In  1851,  there  were  2810  schools  in  connection  with 
the  Education  Committee  actually  inspected  in  England  and  SooUand,  They  indaded: 
1713  Church  of  England  schools  in  England  and  Wales;  282  F^teetant  Dissenting 
schools  in  England  and  Wales ;  98  Roman  Catholic  schools  in  Qreat  Britain ;  and 
217  Presbyterian  schools  in  Scotland,  whereof  91  were  of  the  Free  Church ;  the  whole 
affording  accommodation  for  299,425  scholars.  In  the  same  year  (1851)  the  esttmatei 
sums  voted  for  education  were:  for  Qreat  Britain,  I50,000i.;  for  Ireliand,  194,560^. 
See  Bditoalion. 

SCILLT  ISLES. — They  held  commerce  with  the  Phoenicians;  and  are  mentioned  by 
Strabo  as  being  ten  in  number.  A  memorable  shipwreck  of  the  British  sqasdroo 
under  sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  occurred  here.  This  brave  admiral,  returning  from  an 
expedition  against  Toulon,  mistook  these  rocks  for  land,  and  struck  upon  them. 
His  ship  the  AuoeiaUon,  in  which  were  his  lady,  two  sons,  many  persons  of  rank,  and 
800  brave  men,  went  instantly  to  the  bottom.  The  Bagle,  captain  Hancock,  and  the 
Bomney  and  Firebrand,  were  alw  lost.  The  rest  of  the  fleet  escaped.  Oct  22,  17tf7- 
Sir  Cloudesley's  body,  being  found,  was  oonveved  to  London,  and  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey,  where  a  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory. 

SCOTLAND.     See  Cakd<mia,     This  important  member  of  the  British  Smpiie  was 


V"  l"L-* 


SCO 


58S 


SCO 


govemed  by  a  king  before  the  RomaDs  Tinted  England,  and  continued  an  independent 
kingdom  till  the  death  of  the  English  queen  EUjtabeth,  when  James  VL  of  Scotland, 
the  moat  immediate  heir,  waa  called  to  the  throne  of  England,  and  constantly  resided 
in  the  latter  kingdom;  he  and  his  successors  calling  themselves  kings  of  England  and 
Scotland.  Each  country  had  &  separate  parliament,  till  the  year  1707»  in  the  reign 
of  queen  Anne,  when  both  kingdoms  were  united  under  the  general  name  of  Qreat 
Britain.    See  England, 


Camelon,  capital  of  tha  FicU,  taken  by 
Kenneth  II.  and  eyexy  living  creature 
put  to  the  sword  or  deetroTed     .  ▲.d.    843 

The  feudal  syrtem  established  by  Mal- 
colm II 1004 

Divided  into  baronies     ....  1032 

The  Danes  are  driven  out  of  aU  parts  of 
Scotland 1040 

Duncan  I.  is  murdered  by  his  kinsman 
Macbeth,  by  whom  the  crown  is  seized  1040 

Malcolm  III.  aided  by  Bdward  the  Con-» 
fesaor,  meets  the  usurper  at  Dunsi- 
Dane ;  Macbeth  is  kiUed  l^  MacduflT .  1057 

The  SaxoQ-Engliah  langua^  introduced 
into  Scotland,  by  fturitives  from  Eng- 
land escaping  from  we  Normans        .  lOSO 

Siege  of  Ahx«^ok ;  Malcolm  III.  killed 
by  the  governor 1003 

Splendid  reign  of  David  I.  who  compiles 
a  code  of  laws 1124 

Scotland  invaded  by  Hacho,  king  of  Nor- 
way, with  160  snipe  and  20,000  men ; 
the  invadera  are  cut  to  pieoee  by 
Alexander  III.  who  now  reoovers  the 
Western  Isles 1203 

John  Baliol  and  Edward  Bruce  contend 
for  the  throne 1200 

Bdward  I.  of  England,  aa  umpire,  decides 
in  fiftvour  of  John 1200 

John  Baliol,  king  of  Scotland,  appears  to 
a  summons,  and  defends  his  own  cause 
in  Westminster-hall  sgainst  the  earl  of 
Fife.— £tow'j  CAron.       ....  1293 

Edward,  wishing  to  annex  Scotland  to 
Englsnd,  dethrones  John,  ravages  the 
country,  destruys  the  monuments  of 
Scottish  history,  and  seises  the  pro- 
phetic stone  (see  Oonmalion  Chair)     .  1296 

William  Wallace  taken  by  the  English, 
and  executed  on  the  elms  in  Smithiiela 
as  a  traitor    ....  Aug.  23,  1306 

Robert  I.  recovers  the  crown,  and  defeats 
the  English  at  Bannockbum.  (See 
Bannoelkmm)   .        1        .        .        .    .  1314 

David  II.  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of 
Durham,  by  queen  Philippa  of  Eng* 
land,  and  detained  in  captivity  11  years  1846 

Battle  of  Chevy  Chase,  between  Hotspur, 
Percy,  snd  earl  Douglas.  (See  Olier- 
frum,  BattUo/y 

James  I.  captured  bv  the  English  near 
Flamborough  Head  on  his  passage  to 
France 

St.  Andrew's  University  founded      .    . 

Detained  eighteen  years  a  prisoner  in 
England:  marries  a  daugnter  of  the 
earl  of  Somerset;  and  obtains  his 
liberty 1424 

He  is  asssssinated  in  his  bed  by  the 
friends  of  those  whom  he  had  punished 
for  their  mal-administration  during 
his  imprisonment 1437 

James  II.  commences  his  reign  at  seven 
years  of  age 1487 

The  univemity  of  Olasgow  founded  by 
bishop  William  Tumbull  .    .  1451 

James  11.  killed  at  the  siege  of  Roxburgh 
by  a  cannon  bursting  .        .  1460 

James  III.  a  weak  prince  addicted  to 
Judicial  astrok)gy,  by  which  he  is  se- 
duced to  cause  the  murder  of  his 
brother  John,and  oommitothercrimes. 


1838 


1406 
1411 


is  killed  in  an  insurrection  of  his  people 
at  Bannookbum-field  .  .  a.d. 

Univeraity  of  Aberdeen  founded  by 
bishop  Elphinstone 

Battleof  Flodden  Field,  where  James  IV. 
is  slain,  and  his  army,  comprising  the 
flower  of  the  Scotch  nobility,  is  cut  to 
pieces.   (See  Flodden  Field,  Battle  qf) . 

James  Y.  estabUshes  the  court  of  Sesmon. 
(See  Seation) 1682 

Order  of  St  Andrew,  or  the  Thistle,  is 
revived.    (See  Th%$tU)     .... 

Mary,  afterwards  the  queen  of  Soots, 
bom Dec.  8, 

Succeeds  her  fother,  James  V.  when  but 
a  few  days  old  .  Dec.  18, 

She  marries  the  Dauphin  of  France,  after- 
wards Francis  II. .  .  April  20. 

Francis  II.  dies,  leaving  the  beautifm 
and  young  Muj  a  widow 

The  Reformation  takes  place  in  Scotland, 
diuring  the  minority  of  Mary,  between 
1650  and 

The  BeformaUon  is  consummated  by 
John  Knox 

Mary,  after  an  absenoe  of  thirteen  years, 
airives  at  Leith,  ftx>m  France,  Aug.  21, 

Upon  an  inquisition,  which  was  officially 
taken,  t^  order  of  queen  Elisabeth, 
only  58  Scotsmen  were  foimd  in  Lon- 
don.—filtov        

Mary  marries  her  cousin,  Henry  Stuart, 
lord  Damley         .       .        .  July  27, 

David  Riszio,  who  had  obtained  the  con- 
fidence and  favour  of  Mary,  and  her 
secretary,  murdered  by  Damley,  in  her 
presence   ....       March  9, 

Lord  Damley  blown  up  by  gunpowder, 
in  his  house  Feb.  10,  1667 

[Mary  is  accused  of  connivingat  his  death, 
either  in  resentment  for  the  death  of 
Rizsio,  or  to  gratify  an  illicit  passion 
for  Bothwell.  J 

James  Hepburn,  earl  of  Bothwell,  seizes 
on  the  person  of  the  queen,  who  mar- 
ries him         ....    May  16, 

Tlie  unfortunate  Maiy  imprisoned  by  her 
nobles 

Her  infant  son  crowned,  as  James  VI.. 
and  the  earl  of  Murray  appointed 
regent July  22, 

Maiy  escapes  from  prison,  and  collects  a 
large  army,  which  is  defeated  by  the 
regent  Murray,  at  the  battle  of  Lang- 
side     (See  Langside)  May  16, 

The  earl  of  Lennox  is  appointed  regent 
of  the  kingdom    .  .    July  12, 

The  earl  of  Mar  is  chosen  regent  of  Scot- 
land   Sept.  6, 

Death  of  the  great  Reformer  John  Knox, 
sged  67 Nov.  24, 

[HisfUneral  in  Edinbuigh  is  attended  by 
most  of  the  nobility,  and  by  the  regent 
Morton  ^choeen  the  day  of  his  decease), 
who  exclaims,  when  Knox  was  laid  in 
his  grave,  "There  lies  he  who  never 
feared  the  £sce  ofhum."] 

The  University  of  Edinbuiigh  founded. 

(See  J5Uia6utvA)        .....  IMO 
Mary  having  taken  t9tag9  in  England 


1488 
1494 


1613 


1640 
1642 
1642 
1668 
1659 


1660 
1660 
1661 


1562 
1666 


1666 


1667 
1667 


1567 


1668 
1670 
1671 
1672 


SCO 


584 


SCO 


SCOTLAND,  eofUinwd. 

where  ehe  was  thrown  into  confine- 
ment by  queen  micabetU,  is.  after  18 
years'  captivity*  beheaded  at  Fotheriu- 
gay  Castle.    ^8ee  Fotheringay)  Feb.  8.  1587 

Gowrie'a  conspiracy         ....  1600 

Union  of  the  crown  of  Scotland  with  that 
of  England,  by  the  acoeaaion  of  James 
VI.  to  the  throne  of  the  latter  kingdom 

March  24,  1603 

Charles  I.  of  England  is  betrayed  by  the 
Scottish  army  into  the  himda  of  the 
English  rebels 1647 

Marquess  of  Montroae  put  to  death  at 
Edinburgh 1650 

Scotland  united  to  the  English  common- 
wealtli,  by  Oliver  Cromwell    .        .     .  1651 

The  commonwealth  destroyed,  and 
royalty  restored  with  Charles  II.        .  1660 

Assassination  of  Archbishop  Sharpe,  who 
is  dragged  from  his  carruige,  near  St 
Andrew's,  by  some  fanatics,  headed  by 
John  Balfour  of  Burley,  and  des- 
patched with  swords  in  the  presence 
of  his  daughter  .        .  May  3,  1679 

Revolution  in  favour  of  WilUam  III.  and 
establishment  of  presbytery  .        .    .  1688 

]f  assHcre  of  the  Macdoniuds  at  Olenooe. 
(See  Olmeoe) 1691 

James  II.  of  England,  of  the  Stuart  line, 
dies  in  exile  Sept.  16,  1701 

Union  of  Scotland  with  England,  forming 
together  the  kingdom  of  GreatBntain, 

May  1,  1707 

Bebellion  in  Scotland  in  favour  of  the 
sun  of  the  late  king,  James  II.,  oalled 
the  Pretender.   (See  Pretender)       .    .  1715 

The  partisans  of  the  Pretender  are  de- 
feated at  the  battle  of  Sheriflmuir, 
(which  »ee) 1716 

They  are  again  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Preston     ....        Nov.  12.  1715 

Affair  of  captain  Porteous,  who  is  kiUea 
by  a  desperate  mob  in  Ediubuigh.  (See 
Porteous)       ....     Sept.  7,  1736 

The  last  efTort  is  made  by  the  Stuart 
family  to  recover  possession  of  their 
ancient  kingdom ;  tneToung  Pretender 
gains  the  battle  of  Preston-Pans.  (See 
PreMon-Pani)    ,  .       Sept  21,  1745 

And  of  Falkirk  .        .    Jan.  18,  1746 

But  is  completely  defeated  at  Culloden. 
(wAteA  ««)...        April  16,  1746 

Lords  Kilmaniock  and  Balmerino  are 


executed  fbr  high  treason  on  Tower- 
hiU Aug.  la,  174« 

The  Highland  dress  prohibited  by  act  of 
parliament ;  but  the  act  was  afterwards 
repealed 17M 

Simon  Fraser,  Lord  Lovat,  executed  at 
the  ago  of  80  .        .    April  9,  1747 

Thomson,  the  poet,  dies  Aug.  S7,  1748 

The  Old  Pretender,  the  **Chevalierde  St 
George,"  dies  at  Borne  in  his  88th  year, 

Dec.  80,  1765 

Prince  Charles  Edward  Lewis  Csfdmir, 
the  Young  Pretender,  dies  in  the  same 
city March  3,  1788 

Death  of  Robert  Bums  .    July.  17M 

Cardinal  York  (the  last  of  the  Stuarts) 
dies        ....       August  Id.  1807 

The  Court  of  Session  is  formed  into  two 
divisions 1807 

The  establishment  of  a  Jury  court  under 
a  lord  chief  commissioner    .  .  1815 

Visit  of  his  m^esty  George  IV.  to  Soot- 
Und  ....       October.  18SS 

Sir  Walter  Scott  dies  .  Sept.  21.  1832 

Seven  ministers  of  the  presbytery  of 
Btrathbogie  are  deposed  Sy  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  for 
obeying  the  civil,  in  preference  to  the 
ecclesiastical  Uw  .  .    May  28,  1841 


[Their  deposition  was  formally  protested 
against  by  the  minority  of  minister^ 
headed  by  Dr.  Cook.] 

The  General  Assembly  condemn  patron- 
age as  a  grievance  to  the  cause  of  true 
religion  that  ought  to  be  abolished, 

M^  2S,  1842 

Visit  of  queen  Victoria,  prince  Albert, 
and  the  court;  her  Migesty lands  st 
Oranton  pier     .        .  Sept.  1.  1842 

The  queen  ieaveti  and  embarks  for  Wool- 
wich        Sept.  IS,  1842 

Secession  of  the  non-intrusion  ministen 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland  (about  400.) 
at  the  General  Aasembly.  (See  Prre 
Church)       .        .        .        .       May  18.  1843 

[The  queen's  visits  to  R*»/FtKn**  have  since 
been  fVequent  J 

Death  of  JeflVey  .       .    Jan.  26^  18M 

Natural   association  for  vindication  of 
Scottish  rights,  fbrroed    .       .     Nov.  1853 
See  Bdinburgh. 


KINGS  OF  SCOTLAND. 


BSrORB  CHRIST. 

[The  early  accounts  of  the  kings  are,  by  many 
historians,  deemed  in  a  great  measure  fabu- 
lous. The  antiquity  of  the  king*  is  carried 
as  fiirbackas  Alexander  the  Great.] 

330.  Fergus  I. :  ruled  26  years :  lost  In  the 

Irish  Sea.* 
805.  Fritharis,  brother  of  Feigus :  supposed 

to  have  been  poisoned. 

290.  Mainus ;  succeeded  his  uncle;  a  Just  and 

esteemed  prince. 

291.  Domadilla^  son  of  Hainus ;  a  peaceful 

reign  of  28  years. 
233.  Northatus.    brother  of  the  preceding; 

cruel  and  avaricious :  slain. 
213.  Reuthorus,  Kon  of  Domadilla. 
187.  Reutha,  brother  of  Reutherus ;  resigned 

iu  favour  of  his  nephew. 


170.  Thereus,  son  of  Reutherus;  a  tyrant: 

deposed  and  exiled. 
158.  Josina.  brother  of  Thereus. 
184.  Fiuanus ;  sucoeded  his  father  Josina:  a 

prosperous  reign. 
104.  Durstus.  son  of  the  preceding :  **«°f°*' 

prince ;  murderea  many  of  his  noU« 

at  a   feast    whereupon  a  civil  trtf 

arose,  and  he  was  slain. 
95.  Bvenus,   a   Just,  resolute,   and  vslia&t 

ruler,  succeeded  by 
76.  Gillus,hisillegiUmateson,who.u8arnutf 

the  royal  power,  caused  the  muider  of 

the   rightful   heirs :    deposed  by  W« 

nobles,  and  beheaded. 
75.  Evenus  II.  nephew  of  Pinanua,  closen 

in  his  room. 
69.  Ederus,  grandson  of  Duntua. 
12.  Bvenus  III.  succeeded  his  fiUberEderu; 


«  Fergus,  a  brave  prince,  came  fbom  Ireland  with  an  army  of  Soota,  and  was  choeen  king.  BstuV 
defeated  the  Britons  and  slain  their  king  Coilus,  the  kii^om  of  the  Scots  wss  entailea  opoo  o" 
liosterity  for  ever.  He  went  to  Ireland,  and  having  settlidhis  afTairs  there,  was  drowned  on  bis  r«(o'"* 
launching  fh>m  the  shore,  near  the  harbour,  called  Carrick-l'^ut  to  this  d^y,  3^  ▲.M.-^nt^c^""'- 


SCO 


£85 


SCO 


SCOTLAND,  eontmued. 


deposed  for  hia  enormotw  crimes,  and 
strangled  in  prison. 
4.  Motelbuius,  nephew  of  Ederus ;  eminent 
for  his  j  ustico  And  Tirtues. 

▲JTSR  CHRIST. 

35.  Caratacns,  or  Caiuctocus,  nephew  of  the 

preceding. 
&5.  Oorbred,  his  brother. 
72.  DardanuSk  son  of  Corbred ;  a  dissolute 

tyrant :  his  subjects  slew  him. 
76.  Corbred   II.   stunamed   Oaldus.    Some 

suppose  this  king  to  be  the  Gaigacus 

whom   Tacitus   mentions   as  having 

fought  vaUanUy  sgainst  Julius  Agri- 
cola. 
110.  Luctacus,  or  Lugthacus,  his  son,  a  cruel 

and  sensual  tyrant :  murdered  by  his 

nobles. 
118.  Mogaldus,    grandson    of     Corbred  II. : 

murdered. 
140.  Conarus,  his  son ;  he  oonsj^red  in  his 

(athei^s  murder :  deposed,  and  died  in 

prison. 
163.  Ethodius  I. :  slain  by  an  Irish  harper  in 

revenge  for  the  murder  of  a  kinsman  : 

the  regicide  wss  torn  asimder  by  wild 

horses. 
105.  Batrael  or  Batrahel,  brother  of  the  pre- 

ceding  :  grown  odious  for  his  yicos  and 

oppression,  he  was  strangled  by  his 

courtiers. 
109.  Donald  I.  brother  of  the  two  last 
216.  Sthodius  II.  son  of  Ethodius  I. :  slain  by 

his  giiards  in  a  domestic  tumuli. 
231.  Athiroo,  succeeded  his  father :  an  odious 

tyrant ;  dishonoured  the  dAughters  of 

Nathalocus.  a  noble,  who  took  arms 

against  him :  slew  himself  to  avoid  a 

severer  death. 
242.  Nathalocus,  who  usurped  the  throne  on 

the  king's  death ;  murdered  many  of 

his  nobl^ :  killed  bv  his  domestics. 
253.  Vlndochus,  son  of  Atbirco ;  murdered  in 

a  conspiracy,  in  which  his  brother, 

Carantius,  was  a  principal. 
864.  Donald  II.  a  third  sou  of  Athirco    slain 

in  a  battle  with  Douald  of  the  Isles, 

who  succeeded. 
S66.  Donald  III.  lord  of  the  Isles  ;  usurped 

the  throne ;  a  terror  to  his  people : 

slain  by  his  successor, 
277.  Carthilinthus  or   Critthilinthus.  son  of 

Findochus  ;  reigned  24  years. 
801.  Fincormachus,  son  of  Donald  II. ;  reigned 

47  years,  and  died  lamented. 
848.  Bomachus,  nephew  of   the  preceding: 

slain  by  his  nobles,  and  succeeded  by 

his  cousin, 
851.  Angusianus  or  iEneanus  :  fell  in  battle 

with  the  PictLsh  kmg,  who  was  also 

slain. 
354.  Fethelmaehus.  also  cousin  of  Romachus : 

defeated    the    Plots     and     mortally 

wounded  their  new  king  in  battle: 

murdered  by  a  Pictiith  minstrel  who 

feigned  himself  a  Scot,  hired  by  Iler- 

gustus,  the  succeeding  king  of  that 

nation. 
357.  Eugenius  I.  son  of  Fincormachus :  slain 

in   battle  by  Maximus,   the  Roman 

general,  and  the  confederate  Picts. 

*,*  With  this  battle  ended  the  kingdom  of 
the  Scots,  after  having  existed  from 
the  coronation  of  Fergus  I.  a  period  of 


706  years  :  the  royal  fiimily  fled  to 
Denmark. — Boec«:  Bvehanan. 
[Interregnum  of  27  years.] 


404.  Fergus  II.*  (I.)  ffreat-grandaon  of 
Eugenius  and  40tn  kiag:  slain  in 
battle  with  the  Romans. 

420.  Eugenius  II.  or  Bveuus,  son  of  Feiigus : 
reigned  31  years. 

451.  Dongardus  or  Domangard,  brother  of 
Eugenius  :  defeated  and  drowned. 

457.  Constautine  I.  brother  of  Dongardus: 
assassinated  by  Dugall,  a  noble  whose 
daughter  he  had  dishonoured. 

479.  Congallus  I.  nephew  of  the  preceding : 
a  just  and  prudent  king. 

501.  Ooraiius,  brother  of  Congallus:  mur- 
dered —Boeee.  Died  wliSe  Douald  of 
Athol  was  conspiring  tu  take  his  life. 
—Hcaa. 

535.  Sugeuius  III.  succeeded  his  uncle,  Go- 
ranus:  "none excelled  him  injustice." 

558   Congallus  II.  brother  of  Eugenius  III. 

560.  Kiimatellus,  brother  of  the  pruoeding : 
resigned  in  favour  of  Aidanus. 

570.  Aidanus  or  Aldan,  son  of  Goranus. 

605.  Kenneth   or  Keunett   I.    son   of  Con- 

gallus II.  :  reigned  one  year. 

606.  Eugenius  IV.  son  of  Aidanus. 

621.  Forchard  or  Ferquhard,  son  of  the  last : 
confined  for  misdeodis  to  his  polnce, 
where  he  laid  violent  hands  upon 
himself.— £eo(t 

632.  Donald  IV.  brother  of  Ferchard : 
drowned  m  Loch  Tay. 

646.  Ferchard  II  son  of  Ferchard  I. ;  "the 
most  execrable  of  kings ; "  died  from 
the  bite  of  a  mad  wult 

664.  Malduinus,  son  of  Donald  IV. :  strangled 
by  his  wife  for  his  supposed  infidolitv, 
for  which  crime  she  was  immediately 
afterwards  burnt. 

684.  Eugenius  V.  brother  of  Malduinus. 

688.  EugeuiusVI  «on  of  Ferchard  II. 

698.  Amberkeletus,  his  nephew :  fell  by  an 
arrow  from  an  unknown  hand. 

600.  Eugenius  VII.  his  brother :  some  ruflSans 
designing  the  king's  murder,  entered 
his  chamber,  and,  ha  being  absent^ 
stabbed  his  queen,  Biiontana,  to 
death.-— &ott. 

715.  Mordachus,  sou  of  Amberkeletus. 

730.  Etfinus.  son  of  Eugenius  VII. 

761.  Eugeuius  VIII.  son  of  Mordachus; 
sensiuil  and  tyraunous :  put  to  death 
by  his  nobles,  and  his  parasites 
strangled. 

764.  Fergus  III.  son  of  Etflnus :  killed  by 
his  queen  in  a  fit  of  jealousy :  she 
immediately  afterwards  stabbed  her- 
self to  escape  a  death  of  torture.' 

767.  Solvathius,  mn  of  Eugeuius  VIII. 

787.  Achaius ;  a  just  and  wise  prince. 

819.  Congallus  III. ;  a  peaceful  reign. 

824.  Dongal  or  Dougal,  son  of  ^Ivathius : 
drowned  in  the  Bpey. 

831.  Alpine,  son  of  Achaius :  taken  prisoner, 
and  beheaded,  with  many  of  his 
nobles,  bv  the  Picts. 

834.  Kenneth  II.  son  of  Alptnus,  and  sur- 
named  Mao  Alpine ;  defeated  the 
Picts.  and  slew  their  king  and  his 
nobility.  United  the  Picts  and  Scots 
under  one  aocptro,  and  became  the 
first  sole  monarch  of  all  Scotland,  8iS. 


*  Some  call  this  Fergus  the^r«l  king,  and  suppose  that  either  the  foregoing  kings  were  fabuloui^  or 
that  they  were  only  chiefs  or  generals  ot  armies,  having  no  royal  authority.  The  controversv  thus 
arising,  1  leave  to  be  decided  by  the  antiquai-ies,  and  must  follow  the  received  histories  of  Scotland. — 
Anderson. 


SCO 


586 


SCR 


SCOTLAND,  continued, 

8M.  Donald  V.  brother  of  Ktjnneth  ;  de- 
throoed,  and  terminated  an  inglorious 
reign  in  prison,  dying  by  Us  own  hand. 

858.  Constantine  II.  eon  of  Kenneth  :  taken 
in  battle  by  the  Danes,  and  beheaded. 

874.  Eth  or  Ethua,sumanied  Lightfoot :  died 
of  grief  in  prison,  having  been  thrown 
into  con6nement  fbr  his  sensuality 
and  crimes. 

876.  Gregory,  called  the  Great ;  distinguished 
(as  a  king)  for  his  bravery,  modera- 
tion, and  Justice. 

893.  Donald  VI.  second  sou  of  Constantiiie; 
an  excellent  prince 

904.  Constantine  III.,  son  of  Ethus :  resigned 
in  favour  of  Malcolm,  after  a  long 
reign,  and  retired  to  a  monastery. 

944.  Malcolm  I.  son  of  Donald  VL  :  treache- 
rously murdered  in  Moray. 

953.  IndulAis  or  Gondulph :  killed  by  the 
Danes  in  an  ambuscade. 

961.  DuflTor  DulRis,  son  of  Malcolm :  basely 
murdered  bv  Donald,  the  governor  of 
Forres  Castle. 

965.  Ctillen  or  Culenus^  son  of  Indulfus ; 
avenged  the  murder  of  his  predecessor: 
assassinated  at  Methven  by  a  thane, 
whose  datighter  he  had  diriionoured. 

970.  Kenneth  III.  brother  of  Duffus :  mur- 
dered by  Fenella»  the  lady  of  Fetter- 
eaim. 

994.  Constantine  IV.  son  of  Culenus,  usurped 

the  throne :  slain. 

995.  OrimuB,  or  the  Grim,  son  of  Dufflu : 

routed  and  slain  in  battle  by  Malcolm, 
therightftd  heir  to  the  crown,  who 
succeeided. 

1003.  Malcolm  II.  son  ofKenneth  III. :  assas- 
sinated on  his  way  to  Glamis ;  the 
assassins  in  their  flighty  crossing  a 
frozen  lake,  were  drowned  by  the  ice 
giving  way.  Malcolm  was  succeeded 
by  his  grandson, 

1033.  Duncan  I.  :  assassinated  by  his  cousin 
Macbeth,  who  ascended  the  throne. 

1039.  Macbeth,  usurper  and  tyrant :  slain  by 
Maoduli;  the  thane  of  Fife,  and  the 
rightful  heir  succeeds. 

Historians  so  differ,  up  to  this  reign,  in  the 
number  of  the  kings,  the  dates  of  suc- 
coBsion,and  the  drcumstanoes  narrated, 
that  no  account  can  be  taken  as  precisely 
accurate. 


«  « 


1057. 


1098. 


1094. 

1094. 
1098. 


Malcolm  III.  (Cean-Mohr  or  GanmoroX 

son  of  Duncan :  killed  while  besittring 

Alnwick  CasUe. 
Donald  VII.  or  Donald  Bane,  brother 

of  Malcolm,  usurped  the  Umme :  fled 

to  the  HebridesL 
Duncan  II.  natural  son  of  Malcolm; 

also  an  usurper :  murdered. 
Donald  Bane,  again :  depoeed. 
Edgar,  son  of  Malcolm,  and  lightAU  heir. 

Henry  I. of  England  marrira  his  sister 

Maud,  who  had  taken  the  vows,  but 

not  the  veiL 


1107.  Alexander,  suraamed  the  Ftaroe,  bro- 
ther of  Edgar. 

1124.  David,  brother  of  the  two  pncedinjr 
kings:  married  MatUda,  duighter of 
Waltheof,  earl  of  Northumberland. 

1153.  Malcolm  IV.  grandson  to  David :  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother, 

1165.  William,  sumamed  the  Lien. 

1514.  Alexander  II.  son  of  William :  manied 

Joan,   daughter  of  John,  king  of 

England. 
1249.  Alexander    III. :    married    Manaret. 

daughter  of  Henrv  III.  of  Englaod : 

dislocated  his  neck,  when  banting, 

near  Kinghom. 
1286.  Maigaret,  called  the  "Maiden  of  Nor 

way,"grand-daaghter  of  the  last  king : 

**  reooffnised  by  the  states  of  fiootlaad. 

though  a   female,  an  in&nt,  snd  a 

foreinMr :  **  died  oa  hv  pssiige  to 

Sootfamd. 

On  the  death  of  Mvgaret,  a  compe- 
tition arose  for  the  vacant  throne^ 
which  Edward  I.  of  England  decided 
in  favour  of 

1291  JohnBalioI,  whoafterwardssuxrendered 

his  crown,  and  died  in  exile. 

pnterregnum.! 
1306.  Bobert  (Brace)  I. :  the  Brace  of  Bui- 

nockbum  :  a  brave  ininoe,  bdoved  by 

his  people. 
1329.  David  (Brace)II.  son  of  Bobert  Edwwd 

Baliol  disputed  the  throne  with  him. 
1382.  Edward  Bafiol,  son  of  John:  lengned. 
1342.  David  II.  again :  eleven  vesia  apriaoDcr 

in  England ;  auoceeded  by  his  nei)hew, 
1371.  Bobert  (Stunrt)  II. :  socoeeded  by  hti 

son, 
1390.  Bobert  III.   whoee  proper  name  ma 

John,  changed  on  nis  aeoeseion. 
1406.  James  I.  second  son  of  the  preoediBg; 

imprisoned  18  years  in  EngUmd ;  set 

at  liberty  in  1428  :  conspired  agafaut 

and  murdered,  1437.  AsnseinstediB 

his  bed-chamber,  Feb.  21,  14S7«.- 

Bank». 
1437.  James  II.   son  of  James  I.  whom  he 

succeeded   at  seven  yean  of  age: 

killed  at  the  siege  of  Boxboigh  Oiatle 

by  a  cannon  bursting. 
1460.  James  III.  sucoeededhla  fktber:  UUed 

in  a  revolt  of  his  aubjeotsat  Baanoek- 

bum-field. 
1488.  James  IV. ;  married  Maigaret  Todcr. 

daughter  of  Henry  VII  of  England : 

killed  at  the  battle  of  Flodden. 

1515.  James  V. :  son  of  thelast king:  succeeded 

when  little  more  than  a  year  cAA ;  a 
sovereign  possessing  many  virtaea 

1542.  Mary,  daughter  of  James  v.;  sucoeedcd 
in  her  infancy:  put  to  death  in 
England. 

1507.  James  VI.  sonof  Mary.  In  160S,  on  the 
death  ofbueen  £lisabeth,he  socoeeded 
to  the  throne  of  England  and  the 
kingdoms  became  united. 


SCREW.  This  instrument  waa  known  early  to  the  Greeks.  The  pompiog-ioew  of 
Archimedes,  or  screw-cylinder  for  raising  water,  inyented  286  B.c.  is  still  in  vm,9Bd 
still  bears  that  philosopher's  name.  The  power  of  the  screw  is  astonishing;  it  bebg 
calculated  that  if  the  distance  between  the  two  spiraJs  or  threads  of  the  screw  be  half 
an  inch,  and  the  length  of  each  handle  twelve  inches,  the  circle  that  they  describe  ia 
going  round  vrill  be  seventy-five  inches,  and  consequently  160  times  gres^  then  failf 
an  inch,  the  distance  between  the  two  spirals.  Ther^ore  one  man  can,  with  the 
assistance  of  this  screw,  press  down  or  raise  up  as  much  as  150  men  could  do  without 


sou  587  SEA 

it.    This  powvr  increaaeB  in  proportion  to  the  cloaeneas  of  the  epiimls  and  the  length 
of  the  handlee. — Ortig.    The  screw  has  been  adopted  in  steam-Teasels. 

SCULLABOOUE,  MASSACRE  at,  izr  IRELAND.  One  of  the  most  horrible  of  the 
many  crimes  committed  during  the  memorable  rebellion  of  1798.  One  hundred  and 
eighty-four  persons,  men,  women,  and  children,  having  sought  refuge  at  the  bam  of 
SOTllabogue,  the  baurn  was  set  on  fire,  and  they  were  burned,  or  shot,  or  pierced  to 
death  by  pikes  in  their  endeavouni  to  escape  from  the  flames.  They  were  chiefly 
Protestants,  and  the  massacre  was  perpetrated  by  the  insurgent  Irish,  June  4, 1798.  — 
Sir  JRiekard  MtugroM, 

SCULPTURE.  The  origin  of  this  art  cannot  be  traced  with  any  certainty.  The  inven- 
tion is  given  by  some  ancient  writers  to  the  Egyptians,  and  by  others  to  the  Greeks. 
It  is  referred  by  some  historians  to  1020  b.o.  and  sculpture  in  marble  to  872  B.a 
Pauaanias  refers  the  nearest  approach  to  perfection  in  the  art  to  560  B.c.  According 
to  saored  history,  Beaaleel  and  Aholiab,  who  built  the  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness, 
and  made  all  the  vessels  and  ornaments,  were  the  first  architects  and  sculptors  of 
repute,  and  their  excellence  is  recorded  as  the  gift  of  Ood,  Exodtu  zxxi.  Dipoenus 
and  Scyllis,  statuaries  at  Crete,  established  a  school  at  Sicyon.  Pliny  speaks  of  them 
as  being  the  first  who  sculptured  marble  and  polished  it ;  all  statues  before  their 
time  being  of  wood,  568  B.C.  This,  however,  can  only  be  fact  so  far  as  it  relates  to 
the  wsetem  world;  for  in  the  eastern  countries  the  art  was  known  long  before. 
Alexander  gave  Lysippus  the  sole  right  of  making  his  statues,  826  B.a  He  left  no 
less  than  600  pieces,  some  of  which  were  so  highly  valued  in  the  age  of  Augustus, 
that  they  sold  for  their  weight  ia  gold.  Sculpture  never  found  any  very  distinguuBhed 
followers  among  the  Romans,  and  in  the  middle  ages  it  fell  into  disuse.  With  the 
revival  of  the  sister  art,  painting,  it  revived  also;  and  Donato  di  fiardi,  bom  at 
Florence,  a.d.  1383,  was  the  earliest  professor  among  the  modems.  Sculpture  was 
revived,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Medici  fitmily,  about  1460. — Abbi  Lenglet. 

SCUTAOE  OB  ESCUAGE.  The  service  of  the  shield  is  either  uncertain  or  certain. 
Escuage  uncertain  is  where  the  tenant  by  his  tenure  is  bound  to  follow  his  lord. 
Another  kind  of  escuage  uncertain  ia  called  Castleward,  where  the  tenant  is  bound  to 
defend  a  castle.  Eisctiage  certain  ia  where  the  tenant  is  set  at  a  certain  sum  of  money, 
to  be  paid  in  lieu  of  such  uncertain  services.  The  first  tax  levied  in  England  to  pay 
an  army,  5  Hen.  II.  1159. — Covid. 

SCUTARI,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  opposite  Constantinople,  of  which  it  ii  a  suburb. 
It  was  anciently  called  ChrytopolUt  golden  city,  in  consequence,  it  is  said,  of  the 
Persians  having  established  a  treasury  here  when  they  attempted  the  eonquest  of 
Greece.  Near  here  Constantine  finally  defeated  Licinius,  a.d.  324.  The  hospital  was 
occupied  by  the  sick  and  wounded  of  the  Anglo-French  anny,  in  1854-5,  whose 
Bufferings  were  much  alleviated  by  the  kind  exertions  of  Miss  Florence  Nightingale 
and  a  band  of  nurses  under  her,  aided  by  a  large  fund  of  money  (15,000/.)  subscribed 
by  the  public  and  placed  in  the  care  of  the  proprietors  of  the  Timea  newspaper. 

SCTTHIA  OR  TART  ART,  which  tee.  The  country  situate  on  the  most  northem  parte 
of  Europe  and  Asia,  from  which  circumstance  it  is  generally  denominated  European 
and  Asiatic.  The  most  northern  parts  of  Scythia  were  uninhabited,  on  account  of 
the  extreme  coldness  of  the  climate.  The  boundaries  of  Scythia  were  unknown  to 
the  andents,  as  no  traveller  had  penetrated  beyond  the  vast  tracts  of  lands  which  lay 
at  the  north,  east>  and  west.  The  Scythians  made  several  irruptions  upon  the  more 
southern  provinces  of  Asia,  especially  b.o.  624,  when  they  remained  in  possession  of 
Asia  Minor  for  twenty-eight  years ;  and  we  find  them  at  different  periods  extending 
their  conquests  in  Europe,  and  penetrating  as  far  as  Egypt.  In  the  first  centuries 
after  Christ  they  invaded  the  Roman  empire.  They  are  thought  to  have  at  one  time 
held  the  Crimea. 

SEA  BATTLES,  ANCIENT,  ahd  in  BRITISH  HISTORY.    See  Naval  BaUlet. 

SEIAL.  See  Great  Seal  of  England  and  Privy  Seal.  Seals  were  not  much  in  use  with  the 
Saxons ;  but  they  signed  parchments  with  the  cross,  impressions  of  jead  being  affixed. 
Sealing  of  deeds  and  writs  was  practised  in  England,  a.d.  1048.  There  was  a  seal  of 
king  Edward's  at  Westminster,  1188.  Until  William  I.'s  time  the  name  was  written, 
adding  the  sign  of  the  cross.  Arms  were  then  introduced  in  seals.  The  most  ancient 
English  seal  with  arms  on  it  is  that  of  Richard  I.  Amulphus,  earl  of  Flanders  used 
one  about  940.  Wax  was  first  used,  hung  at  the  bottom  of  the  deed,  wrapped  in 
cloth,  parchment,  or  tin,  about  1213.  Sealing-wax  for  letters  was  not  brought  into 
general  use  in  England  until  1556. 


SEA  588  SED 

SEAS,  SOVEKEIGNTY  or  thb.  The  claim  of  Englaxid  is  of  very  tndent  date. 
Arthur  was  the  first  who  assumed  the  sovereignty  of  the  seas  for  Britain,  snd  AUred 
afterwards  supported  this  right.  The  sovereignty  of  England  over  the  British  seaa 
was  maintained  by  Selden,  and  measures  were  taken  by  government  in  consequcaco, 
8  Charles  L  1638.  The  Dutch,  after  the  death  of  Charles  I.  made  some  attempts  to 
obtain  it,  but  were  roughly  treated  by  Blake  and  other  admirals.  Ruasia  and  other 
powers  of  the  north,  armed,  to  avoid  search,  1780 ;  again  1800.  See  Armed  Aeiilni/Ujr, 
and  Flag. 

SEBASTOPOL,  or  SEVASTOPOL,  a  town  and  naval  arsenal,  at  the  S.  W.  point  of  tbe 
Crimea,  formerly  the  little  village  of  Aktiar.  The  buildings  were  commraoed  in. 
1784,  by  Catherine  11.  after  the  conquest  of  the  countiy.  The  town  is  built  in  the 
shape  of  an  amphitheatre  on  the  rise  of  a  large  hill  flattened  on  its  summit,  sccording 
to  a  plan  laid  down  before  1794,  which  has  ^n  since  adhered  ta  The  fortificstioni 
and  harbour  were  constructed  by  an  English  engineer,  colonel  Upton,  and  his  sooa, 
since  1830.  The  popuUtion  in  1834  was  15,000.  This  place  will  be  memorable 
hereafter  for  its  eleven  months'  Sisob,  by  the  English  and  French  in  1854  and  1S55. 
Immediately  after  the  battle  of  the  Alma,  Sept.  20,  1854,  the  allied  army  marched 
to  Sebastopol,  and  took  up  its  position  on  the  plateau  between  it  and  BalaklsTa,  and 
the  grand  attack  and  bombai^ment  commenced  Oct.  17,  1854  without  suoceas.* 
After  many  sanguinary  encounters  by  day  and  night,  and  repeated  bombardmeDta,  a 
grand  assault  was  made  on  Sept.  8,  1855,  upon  the  Malakhoff  tower  and  the  Badans, 
the  most  important  fortifications  to  the  south  of  the  town.  The  Frendi  succeeded 
in  capturing  and  retaining  the  MalakhoC  The  attacks  of  the  English  on  the  great 
Kedan  and  of  the  French  upon  the  little  ^dan  were  succesaful,  but  the  sssailanta 
Were  compelled  to  retire  after  a  desperate  struggle  with  great  loss  of  life.  The  French 
lost  1646  killed,  of  whom  5  were  generals,  24  superior  and  116  inferior  officen; 
4500  wounded,  and  1400  missing.  The  English  lost  885*  killed  (29  being  com- 
missioned and  42  non-commissioned  officers) ;  1886  wounded ;  and  176  miaslDg.  In 
the  night  the  Russians  abandoned  the  southern  and  principal  part  of  the  town  aod 
fortifications,  after  destroying  as  much  as  possible,  and  crossed  to  the  northern  forU. 
They  also  sank  or  burnt  the  remainder  of  their  fleet.  The  allies  found  a  very  great 
amount  of  stores  when  they  entered  the  place.    See  Buuo-Twkith  War, 

SECRETARY  of  STATE.  The  earliest  authentic,  record  of  a  secretary  of  state  is  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  HI.  when  John  Maunsell  is  described  as  " Seerdariut  NoiUr* 
1253. — Rymer.  Towards  the  close  of  Henry  VIIL's  reign,  two  secretaries  were 
appointed ;  and  upon  the  union  with  Scotland,  Anne  added  a  third  as  secretary  for 
Scotch  affiurs :  this  appointment  was  afterwards  laid  aside ;  but  in  the  reign  of  Geoive 
HI.  the  number  was  again  increased  to  three,  one  for  the  American  department  In 
1782  this  last  was  abolished  by  act  of  parliament ;  the  secretaries  were  appointed  for 
home,  foreign,  and  colonial  affairs.  When  there  were  but  two  secretaries,  one  held 
the  portefeuiUe  of  the  Northern  department,  comprising  the  Low  Coontriei, 
Germany,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Poland,  Russia,  &c. ;  the  other,  of  the  Southern 
department,  including  France,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Turkey ;  the 
aff<drs  of  Ireland  belonging  to  the  elder  secretary ;  both  secretaries  then  equally 
directed  the  home  affairs. — Scatstm,  There  are  now  four  secretaries  for  home, 
foreign,  colonial,  and  war  affiiirs,  all  in  the  cabinet ;  the  latter  was  added  in  18M. 

SECTS,  RELiaiOUS.    Bee  lUligion, 

SEDAN  CHAIRS.  So  called  from  Sedan,  on  the  Meuse.  in  France.  The  first  aeen  in 
England  was  in  1581.  One  was  used  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  by  the  duke  of  Bud- 
Ingham,  to  the  great  indignation  of  the  people,  who  exclaimed  that  he  waa  employing 
his  fellow  creatures  to  do  the  service  of  beasts.  Sedan  chairs  came  into  faahion  in 
London  in  1634,  when  sir  Francis  Duncomb  obtained  the  sole  privilege  to  uaej^^ 
and  hire  a  number  of  such  covered  chain  for  fourteen  yeare.  They  came  into  veiy 
general  use  in  1649. 

*  In  consequence  of  the  sufferinga  and  diaaatera  of  the  army  in  the  winter  of  1854-5,  the  ^ebwtopo 
Inquiry  Committee  waa  appointed,  and  the  Aberdeen  administration  resigned,  Feb.  1855.  *°* J^™" 
mittee  sat  from  March  1  to  May  15,  lord  Aberdeen  being  the  last  pereon  examined.  Ito  "P*'"  "* 
presented  June  18.  Mr.  Roebuck,  the  chairman,  moved  on  July  17  that  the  house  ahouid  pajj  •  w 
of  aevere  reprehension  on  every  member  ot  the  Aberdeen  administration.  On  July  19  his  ''i')^?*' r!: 
loat  by  a  majority  of  107  againat  it.  In  1865  the  government  acnt  sir  John  M  'Ncill  and  coL  ^"«*fr 
inquire  into  the  state  of  the  armies  in  the  Crimea.  Their  report  was  riresented  to  pariiament  m  r**- 
1856.  A  commission  was  api>oiutod  to  consider  the  statements  in  tno  i-eiiort  (which  wen  very  w>- 
fuvuurable  tu  many  officersX  but  the  aubauuice  of  the  report  waa  iinahaken. 


SKD  6&tf  8KP 

S£DGMOOH,  BATTLE  of.  In  which  the  duke  of  Moomouth,  who  had  risen  in 
rebellion  on  the  accession  of  James  IL  was  completely  defeated  by  the  royal  army, 
July  5,  1685.  The  duke,  who  was  the  natural  son  of  Charles  IL  by  Lucy  Walters, 
one  of  bis  mistreeses,  was  made  a  prisoner,  having  been  found  in  the  disguise  of  a 
peasant,  lying  at  the  bottom  of  a  ditch,  overcome  with  hunger,  fatigue,  and  anxiety. 
He  was  soon  afterwards  beheaded. 

SEDITION  ACTS.  Several  acts  under  this  name  were  passed  in  the  reign  of  Qeorge 
III.  The  memorable  proclamation  against  seditious  writings  was  published  May 
17d2.  The  celebrated  Sedition  Bill  pused  December  1795.  Seditious  societies  were 
suppressed  by  act,  June  1797.  The  seditious  meetings  and  assemblies'  bill  passed 
March  31,  1817.  In  Ireland,  during  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Repeal  agitation,  acts 
or  proclamations  against  sedition  and  seditious  meetings  were  published  from  time  to 
time  on  til  1848,  inclusive. 

SEIDLITZ,  BATTLE  or,  nr  POLAND.  Between  the  Poles  struggling  for  independence 
and  their  Ruosian  oppressors.  The  Poles  obtained  the  victory  after  a  bloody  con- 
flict, taking  4000  prisoners  and  several  pieces  of  cannon.  The  killed  and  wounded 
on  both  sides  amounted  to  many  thousands,  April  10, 1831.  This  success  of  the 
Poles  was,  however,  soon  afterwards  followed  by  most  disastrouB  and  fatal  reverses. 

SELEUCIDES,  ERA  of  the.  It  dates  from  the  reign  of  Seleucus  Nicator,  311  years 
and  four  months  B.o.  It  was  used  in  Syria  for  many  years  and  frequently  by  the 
Jews  until  the  fifteenth  century,  and  by  some  Arabians  to  this  day.  Opinions  are 
yrery  much  at  variance  as  to  the  precise  commencement  of  this  era.  To  reduce  it  to 
our  era  (supposing  it  to  begin  Sept.  1,  312  b.c.)  subtract  311  years  and  four  months. 

SEMINCAS,  BATTLE  of.  One  of  the  most  bloody  of  the  times  in  which  it  was 
fought,  between  the  Moors  and  Ramirez  II.  king  of  Leon  and  the  Asturias.  More 
than  80,000  of  the  infidels  were  slain,  the  dead  lying  in  heaps  for  miles  round. 
The  Spanish  historians  swell  the  number  to  a  greater  amount ;  fought  a.d.  988. 

SEHPACH,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  Swiss  and  Leopold,  duke  of  Austria.  The 
heroic  Swiss,  after  prodigies  of  valour,  gained  a  great  and  memorable  victory  over  the 
duke,  who  was  slain,  July  9, 1386.  By  this  battle  they  established  the  liberty  of  their 
country ;  and  it  is  still  annually  commemorated  with  great  solemnity  at  Sempach. 

SEMPER  EA  DEM.,  First  adopted  by  queen  Anne  as  the  motto  for  the  royal  arms  of 
England,  Dec  13,  1702.  It  was  suspected  by  many  of  the  politicians  of  the  day  that 
this  motto  was  meant  to  denote  her  Jacobitism ;  which  was  wholly  discountenanced 
by  her  subsequent  conduct    The  motto  ceased  to  be  used  after  her  reign. 

SENESCHAL.  A  high  officer  of  the  royal  household,  and  one  of  the  most  ancient  titles 
attached  to  those  who  commanded  the  armies  of  the  kings  of  France,  particularly  of 
the  second  and  third  race.  In  the  reign  of  Philip  1. 1059,  the  office  of  seneschal  was 
esteemed  the  highest  place  of  trust  under  the  French  crown,  and  seems  to  have  been 
much  the  same  with  our  lord  high  steward. 

SEPTEMBER.  The  ninth  month  of  the  year,  reckoned  from  January,  and  the  seventh 
from  March,  whence  its  name,  from  Septimus,  seventh.  It  became  the  ninth  month 
when  January  and  February  were  added  to  the  year  by  Numa,  713  B.O.  The  Roman 
■enate  would  have  given  this  month  the  name  of  Tiberius,  but  that  emperor  opposed 
it;  the  emperor  Domitian  gave  it  his  own  name,  Germanicus;  the  senate  under 
Antoninus  Pius  gave  it  that  of  Antoninus;  Commodus  gave  it  his. surname,  Herculeus ; 
and  the  emperor  Tacitus  his  own  name,  Tacitus. 

SEPTEM6RIZERS.  In  the  French  revolution  a  dreadful  massacre  took  place  in  Paris. 
The  different  prisons  were  broken  open,  and  all  the  state  prisoners  butchered,  among 
them  an  ex-bishop,  and  nearly  100  non-juring  priests.  Some  accounts  state  the  number 
of  persons  slain  on  this  occasion  at  1200,  others  at  4000.  The  agents  in  this  dreadful 
slaughter  of  innocent  victims  were  branded  with  the  name  of  Septembrixers,  Sept  2, 
J792,— Hist,  French  Revol, 

SEPTENNIAL  PARLI  AMENTa  Edward  I.  held  but  one  parliament  every  two  years. 
In  the  4th  Edward  III.  it  was  enacted,  "that  a  parliament  should  be  holden  every 
year  once."  This  continued  to  be  the  statute-law  till  16  Charles  II.  when  an  act  was 
passed  for  holding  of  parliaments  once  in  three  years  at  least ;  but  parliaments  for  a 
longer  period  than  a  year  were  held  after  Henry  VIII.  ascended  the  throne.  The 
Trienniid^act  was  confirmed  soon  after  the  Revolution  of  1688  by  6  Will.  &  Mary, 
c.  2.   Triennial  parliaments  thence  continued  till  the  second  year  of  Gtoorge  L*s  reign, 


SEP  500  SET 

1715,  when,  in  contequence  of  the  allegation  that  "a  popish  faction  were  deeigniog  to 
renew  the  rebellion  within  this  kingdom,  and  the  report  of  an  intrarion  from  abroid, 
it  was  enacted  that  the  then  parliament  ahould  continue  for  aeyen  yean."  Tliis 
Septennial  Act  has  ever  since  been  in  force.    See  Parliamentt, 

SEPTUAGESIMA  SUNDAY.    See  Quadragtnma  Sunday  and  Weth. 

SEPTUAOINT  VERSION  of  thx  BIBLE,  made  277  b.c.  SeTenty-twotnmi^atoit  were 
shut  up  in  thirty-six  cells;  each  pair  translated  the  whole;  and  on  subsequent  eom- 
parison  the  thirty-six  copies  did  not  vary  by  a  word  or  letter. — /utfm  Mtartyr.  St 
Jerome  affirms  that  they  translated  only  the  Pentateuch ;  but  St,  Justin  and  othen 
say  they  translated  the  whole.  Ptolemy  Philadephus  gave  the  Jews  about  a  million 
sterling  for  a  copy  of  the  Testament,  and  seventy  translators  half  a  million  more  for 
the  translation. — Jotephu$,  Finished  in  seventy-two  days. — ffewlett.  The  abore 
statements  are  merely  traditionaL 

SERINQAPATAM,  BATTLES  of.  The  battle  of  Seringapatam,  called  also  the  battle 
of  Arikera,  in  which  the  British  defeated  Tippoo  Saib,  fought  May  15, 1791.~Battk 
in  which  the  redoubts  were  stormed,  and  Tippoo  was  reduced  by  lord  ComwiUii, 
Feb.  6,  1792.  After  this  capture,  preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed,  and  Tippoo 
agreed  to  cede  one  half  of  Mysore,  and  to  pay  S3,000.000  of  rupees  (about  3,800.0002. 
sterling)  to  England,  and  to  give  up  to  lord  Comwallis  his  two  eldest  sons  ss  host- 
ages.— In  a  new  war  the  Madras  army,  under  gen.  Harris,  arrived  before  SeiingipatuDt 
April  5,  1799  ;  it  was  joined  by  the  Bom^y  army,  April  14;  and  the  plaee  vm 
stormed  and  carried  by  major-general  Baird,  May  4,  same  year.  In  this  engagement 
Tippoo  was  killed.    See  InditL 

SEHJEANTS-AT-LAW.  These  are  pleaders  from  among  whom  the  ja^gn  are  ordiBirily 
chosen,  and  by  way  of  eminence  are  called  Serjeants  of  the  coif.  The  jndjres,  when 
speaking  to  them,  call  them  brothers.  The  Serjeant's  coif  was  originally  a  rkull-etp, 
worn  by  knights  under  their  helmets.  The  coif  was  introduced  before  1259,  and  wts 
used  to  hide  the  tonsure  of  such  renegade  clergymen  as  chose  to  remain  advocates  in 
the  secular  courts,  notwithstanding  their  prohibition  by  canon. — Bladat<me,  The  coif 
was  at  first  a  thin  linen  cover  gathered  together  in  the  form  of  a  skull  or  belmet,ihe 
material  being  afterwards  changed  into  white  silk,  and  the  form  eventually  into  a 
black  patch  at  the  top  of  the  forensic  wig,  which  is  now  the  distingnishing  mark  of 
the  degree; — Post'i  Livet  of  the  Judges. 

SERPENT&  The  largest,  the  record  of  which  is  in  some  degree  Batisfactorily  attested, 
was  that  which  disputed  the  psssage  of  the  anny  led  by  Regulus  along  the  banks  of 
the  Bagrada.  It  was  120  feet  long,  and  had  killed  many  of  his  soldiers.  It  was 
destroyed  by  a  battering-ram ;  and  its  skin  was  afterwards  seen  by  Pliny  in  the  Capitol 
at  Rome. — Pliny.  The  American  papers  abound  with  accounts  of  sea-serpents,  deetned 
by  us  in  England  to  be  fabulous ;  but  a  sea-serpent  is  said  to  have  been  csst  on  abon 
on  the  Orkney  Islands,  which  was  fifty-five  feet  long,  and  the  circumference  equal  to 
the  girth  of  an  Orkney  pony,  1808. — PhUltjn, 

SERVANTS.  An  act  laying  a  duty  on  male  servants  was  passed  in  1775.  This  tax  was 
augmented  in  1781  et  ieq.  A  tax  on  female  servants  was  imposed  in  1785 ;  bat  this 
latter  act  was  repealed  in  1792.  The  tax  on  servants  yielded  in  1830  about  250,0001 
per  annum ;  in  1840  the  revenue  from  it  had  fallen  to  201,482/.;  in  1850  it  produced 
about  the  same  sum. 

SESSION  COURTS.  The  sessions  in  England  were  appointed  to  be  held  qnaiterij, 
2  Hen.  V.  1418.  The  times  for  holding  these  courts  were  regulated  by  statute^ 
1  Will.  IV.  1831.  See  QuarUr  Seuiwu.  In  Scotland,  a  court  of  session  was  esta- 
blished by  James  1. 1425.  This  court  was  put  aeide  in  1502,  but  was  re-constitiited, 
with  lords  to  preside,  in  1532.  The  kirk-session  in  Scotland  consists  of  the  minister 
and  elders  of  each  pariah.  They  superintend  the  affairs  of  their  own  community  in 
religious  concerns,  determine  on  matters  of  lesser  scandal,  ditpenae  the  money  eol* 
lected  for  the  poor,  and  manage  what  relates  to  public  worship. 

SETTLEMENT,  ACT  of,  for  securing  the  succession  to  the  British  throne,  to  the 
exclusion  of  Roman  Catholics,  was  passed  1  Will.  &  Mary,  1689.  This  name  is  alfo 
given  to  the  statutes  12  &  13  Will.  III.  by  which  the  crown  is  limited  to  the  present 
royal  family,  June  12,  1701.  The  Irish  act  of  settlement  was  passed  in  1662,  bat  was 
repealed  in  1689.    See  Hanoverian  SucceuUm, 

SEVEN  CHURCHES  of  ASIA,  to  the  angels  of  which  the  Apostle  John  was  com- 


8EV  691  SHA 

manded  to  write  the  epiatles  ooDtained  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  ohapten  of  hia  Revelation, 
▲J).  96,  via.,  Epheeos,  Smyrna,  Pergamo%  Thyatira,  Sardis,  Philadelphia,  and  Laodioea. 

1.   BfkuntM  (whirA  j«X     Paul   founded   the  '  4.    Tkyatink.     Now  a  amall   town  of  2000 
ehuroh  here.  ▲.!>.  67,  and  in  a.d.  59,  was  ,     houses,  called  Ak-hissar,  "  White  Castle." 


in  great  danger  from  a  tumult  created  by 
I>emetriu8.  To  the  elders  of  this  church 
he  deUverod  bis  warning  address,  a.d.  60 
(Acts  zix.  XX.).  Ephesos  was  in  a  ndnous 
state  eren  in  the  time  of  Jostinian  (aj). 
5S7X  and  still  remains  so. 

S.  Smyrna.  Now  an  important  commercial 
city  and  sea-port  of  Ionia.  Polycarp,  its 
first  bishop^  suffered  martyxdom,  a.d.  176. 

S.  Poyamoc  Capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
same  name^  founded  by  FhiletaDms,  b.o. 
S8S.  and  part  of  Bithynia.  It  was  re- 
nowned for  its  library.  It  is  still  an  im- 
portant place  called  Bergamo. 


6.  SardiA.  Formerly  the  capital  of  Lydia,  the 
kingdom  of  Cnssus  (B.a  660X  is  now  a 
miserable  Tillage,  named  Sart. 

6.  PhUadHpkia.  Was  buUt  by  Attains  Phila- 
delpbus,  king  of  Pergamoe  (about  a.o.  169- 
138).  It  is  now  called  Allah  Shehr,  "  The 
city  of  Ood,"  and  is  a  miserable  town  of 
8000  bouses. 

7.  Laodieecu  In  Fhrygia,  near  Lydia,  baa 
suffered  much  from  earthquakes.  It  is 
now  a  deserted  place  called  Eske-hissar, 
"The  old  castle." 


SBVENTH-DAY  BAPTISTS.    See  article  ScMxUariant,  ko. 

SEYERUS'S  WALL.    See  Roman  Walit. 

SEVILLE.  One  of  the  moat  ancient  oitiee  of  Spain;  but  the  date  of  its  foundation  ia 
unknown.  It  was  the  capital  of  Spain  untU  Philip  II.  finally  established  his  court 
at  Madrid,  a.d.  1563.  This  city  is  the  Hitpolit  of  the  Phoenioians,  and  the  Julia  of 
the  Bomans.  It  opened  its  gatea  to  the  Moors  in  711,  soon  after  their  iuTasion  of 
the  kingdom,  and  continued  in  their  hands  upwards  of  five  centuries.  It  waa  taken 
from  them  by  the  Christians  in  1247,  after  one  of  the  most  obstinate  sieges  in  Spanish 
history.  The  peace  of  Seville  between  England,  France,  and  Spain,  and  sliso  a  derentive 
alliance  to  which  Holland  acceded,  signed  Nov.  9, 1729.  In  the  late  peninsular  war, 
Seville  surrendered  to  the  French,  Feb.  1, 1810;  and  was  taken  by  assault  by  the 
British  and  Spaniards,  after  the  battle  of  Salamanca,  Aug.  27,  1812,  when  the  French 
left  it  at  the  general  evacuation  of  the  south  of  Spain,  in  consequence  of  their  signal 
defeat  in  that  battle. 

SEXAGESIMA  SUNDAY.    See  Quadraguima  Sunday  and  Week. 

SEXTANT,  This  instrument  is  used  in  the  manner  of  a  quadrant,  and  contains  sixty 
degreesy  or  the  sixth  part  of  a  circle.  It  is  for  taking  the  altitude  of  the  planets,  &c. 
Invented  by  the  celebrated  Tycho  Brahe,  at  Augsburg,  in  1550. —  Vinee*i  AHron. 
The  Arabian  astronomers  under  the  caliphs  are  said  to  have  had  a  sextant  of  fifty- 
nine  feet  nine  inohee  radius,  about  a.d.  995. — Ashe. 

SHAKSPEABE*S  OLOBE  THEATBE,  LoNDOir.  This  renowned  theatre  was  situated 
near  the  spot  still  called  Bankside,  at  the  commencement  of  the  17th  century. 
Sbakspeare  was  himself  part  proprietor;  here  some  of  his  plans  were  first  produced, 
and  he  himself  performed  in  them.  It  was  of  a  horBe*Bhoe  form,  partly  covered  with 
thatch.  After  it  was  licensed,  the  thatch  took  fire,  through  the  negligent  discharge  of  a 
piece  of  ordnance,  and  the  whole  building  was  consumed.  The  house  was  crowded  to 
excess,  to  witness  the  play  of  Henry  VIII.,  but  the  audience  escaped  unhurt  This 
was  the  end  of  Shakspeare's  connection  with  this  theatre :  it  was  rebuilt  the  following 
year,  much  in  the  same  style,  about  A.D.  1603. 

SHAKSPEARE'S  JUBILEE.    See  JubUee. 

SHAKSPEARE19  NATIVE  PLACE,  Stratford-ufok-Aton.  Shakspeare  was  bom  at 
Stratford,  April  28, 1564,  and  died  there  on  the  anniversary  of  his  natal  day,  1616. 
A  projeot  was  originated  in  1820  for  the  erection  of  an  edifice  to  his  memory  in  the 
nature  of  a  museum,  cenotaph,  or  temple,  but  it  failed ;  another  attempt  to  honour 
Shakspeare  was  made  with  better  success  in  1885,  and  a  Shakspeare  festival  was  held 
at  Stratford,  April  28, 1886.  In  1847,  a  number  of  persons  of  distinction  interested 
themselves  for  the  preservation  of  the  house  in  which  Shakspeare  was  bom,  then 
actually  set  up  for  sale ;  they  held  a  meeting  at  the  Thatched-House  Tavern,  London, 
Aug.  26,  in  that  year,  and  took  measures  for  promoting  a  subscription  set  on  foot  by 
the  Shakspearian  Club  at  Stratford :  and  a  committee  was  sppointed  to  carry  out  their 
object  In  the  end,  Shakspeare's  house  was  sold  at  the  Auction  Mart  in  the  city  of 
London,  where  it  was  "knocked  down"  to  the  United  Committee  of  London  and 
Stratford  for  the  huge  sum  of  80002.  Sept  16, 1847. 

SHAMROCK.  It  is  taid  that  the  shamrock  used  by  the  Irish  was  introduced  by  Patrick 
M' Alpine,  since  called  St  Patrick,  as  a  simile  of  the  Trinity,  a.d.  432.    When  he  could 


8UK  592  SHI 

not  make  them  understand  him  by  words,  he  showed  the  Irish  a  stem  of  clover  or 
trefoil,  thereby  exhibiting  an  ocular  demonstration  of  the  poeaibility  of  three  uniting 
into  one,  and  one  into  three. 

SHEEP.  They  were  exported  from  England  to  Spain,  and,  the  breed  being  thereby 
improved,  produced  the  fine  Spanish  wool,  which  proved  detrimental  to  our  woollen 
manufacture,  8  Edw.  IV.  1467. — Andernon.  Their  exportation  prohibited  on  pain  of 
fine  and  imprisonment,  1522.  The  number  of  sheep  in  the  United  Kingdom  has  been 
variously  stated— by  some  at  43,000,000,  by  others  at  49,000.000,  and  by  more  at 
60,000,000,  in  1840.  The  number  must  have  progressively  increased  to  the  present 
time,  particularly  as  the  unreatricted  importation  since  1846  vastly  swells  theamoont 
In  the  year  ending  Jan.  5,  1852,  there  were  imported  into  England  201,859  sheep 
and  lambs. 

SHELBURNE  ADMINISTRATION.  The  earl  of  Shelbume  (aOerwards  marqnees  of 
Lansdowne)  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  on  the  death  of  the  marqnese  of 
Rockingham,  July,  1782;  right  hon.  William  Pitt,  chancellor  of  the  exebeqaer;  lord 
(afterwards  earl)  Camden,  president  of  the  council;  duke  of  Grafton,  privy  eesl; 
Thomas,  lord  Grantham,  home,  and  right  hon.  Thomas  Townshend,  foreign,  eeere- 
taries ;  viscount  Keppel,  admiralty ;  duke  of  Richmond,  ordnance ;  right  hon.  Henry 
Dundas,  Isaac  Barr^,  Sir  George  Tonge,  &c.  Lord  Thurlow,  lord  duineellor.  This 
ministry  terminated,  on  the  formation  of  the  celebrated  "  Coalition'*  adminisfcratioD 
{whidi  tee),  April  1783. 

SHERIFF,  AKD  HIGH  SHERIFF.  The  office  of  sheriff  is  from  thirt-reve,  governor  of 
a  shire  or  county.  London  had  its  sheriffs  prior  to  William  L'a  reign ;  but  some  aey 
that  sheriffs  were  first  nominated  for  every  county  in  England  by  William  in  1079. 
According  to  other  historians,  Henry  Comhil  and  Richa^  Reynere  were  the  fint 
sheriffs  of  London,  1  Rich.  I.  1189.  The  nomination  of  sheriffs  according  to  the 
present  mode  took  place  in  1461. — Siow.  Anciently  sheriffs  were  hereditary  in 
Scotland,  and  in  some  English  counties,  as  Westmoreland.  The  sherifb  of  Dablin 
(first  called  bailiffe)  were  appointed  in  1808 ;  and  obtained  the  name  of  sheriff  by  u 
incorporation  of  Edward  VI.  1548.  Thirty-five  sheriffs  were  fined,  and  eleven  excoied, 
in  one  year,  rather  than  serve  the  offioe  for  London,  1734.    See  BaiUfi, 

SHERIFFMUIR,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  royal  army  under  the  duke  of  Argyle, 
and  the  Scotch  rebel  forces  who  favoured  the  pretender  (the  chevalier  de  St  Qeorig^ 
son  of  James  II.),  commanded  by  the-  earl  of  Mar ;  the  insurgenta  were  defeat«i 
and  several  persons  of  rank  were  taken  prisoners.  The  battle  was  fought  oo  the 
very  day  on  which  the  rebel  forces  in  the  same  cause  were  defeated  at  Frcstoo, 
Nov.  12, 1716. 

SHIBBOLETH.  The  word  by  which  the  followers  of  Jephthah  tested  their  opponents 
the  Ephnumitea,  on  passing  the  Jordan,  about  B.C.  lliS.^Judget,  ch.  xiL  The  term 
is  now  applied  to  any  party  watchword  or  dogma. 

SHILLING.  The  value  of  the  ancient  Saxon  coin  of  this  name  was  five  pence,  bat  it 
was  reduced  to  four  pence  about  a  century  before  the  Conquest.  After  the  oonqueEt 
the  French  tolidus  of  twelve  pence,  in  use  among  the  Normans,  was  called  tAi^/iii^. 
The  true  English  shilling  was  first  coined,  but  in  small  quantity,  18  Hen.  YIL  1503. 
— Dr.  Kelly,  In  1505. — Buhop  Fleetwood.  A  peculiar  shilling,  value  nine  pence,  but 
to  be  current  at  twelve,  was  struck  in  Ireland,  1560;  and  a  large  but  very  heie 
coinage  in  England  for  the  service  of  Ireland,  1598.  Milled  shiUings  were  oained 
18  Chas.  II.  1662.    See  Cbiiu. 

SHIP-BUILDING.  The  art  is  attributed  to  the  Egyptians,  as  the  first  inventors;  the 
first  ship  (probably  a  galley)  being  brought  from  Egypt  to  Greece,  by  Danaus,  1485  b  & 
— Blair,  The  first  double-decked  ship  was  built  by  the  Tyrians,  786  B.a— J>s^^- 
The  first  double-decked  one  built  in  England  was  of  1000  tons  burthen,  by  order  of 
Henry  YIII.  1509;  it  was  called  the  Great  Barry,  and  cost  14,000t~Stow.  Before 
this  time,  24-gun  ships  were  the  largest  in  our  navy,  and  these  had  no  port-holcS)  the 
guns  being  on  the  upper  decks  only.  Port-holes  and  other  improvements  weie 
invented  by  Deschai^s,  a  French  builder  at  Brest,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XII.,  about 
1500.  Ship-building  was  first  treated  as  a  science  by  Hoste,  1696.  A  74-gQO  ship 
was  put  upon  the  stocks  at  Van  Diemen*s  Land,  to  be  sheathed  with  India-rubber,  18S9. 
See  Navy  and  Steam  VeueU. 

SHIP-MONEY.  It  was  first  levied  a.d.  1007,  and  caused  great  commotiona  Tbii 
impost  being  illegally  levied  by  Charles  I.  in  1684,  led  to  the  revolution.    He 


SHI 


593 


SHO 


London  in  seven  ships,  of  4000  tons,  and  1560  men;  Yorkshire  in  two  ships,  of  600 
ions,  or  12,000^.;  Bristol  in  one  ship  of  100  tons;  Lancashire  in  one  ship  of  400  tons. 
The  trial  of  the  patriot  Hampden  for  refusing  to  pay  the  tax,  which  he  at  first  solely 
opposed,  took  place  in  1688.  Ship-money  was  included  in  a  redress  of  grievances  in 
1641.  Hampden  received  a  wound  in  a  skirmish  with  prinoe  Rupert,  and  died 
June  24, 1643. 

SHIPPING  or  THS  UNITED  KINGDOM.  Shipping  was  first  registered  in  the  river 
Thames  in  1786;  and  throughout  the  empire  in  1787.  In  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century,  the  shipping  of  England  was  but  half  a  million  of  tons— lees  than  London 
now.     In  1830,  the  number  of  ships  in  the  British  empire  was  22,785. 

HUMBXB  OF  VESSELS  REOISTERED  IS  THE  BRITISH  SMriRE  ON  JAN.  1,  1840, 


Ommirjf. 
Kngland       .... 
Bootland  .  ... 

Ireland  .  .  .  . 
Oueniaey,  Janey,  and  Man 
Bxitiah  plantaUona 

Total 


Ve*mU.  Tons.  Seamm. 

15.830  .         .         .  1,983,523        .        .        .  114,593 

3,318  ....  S78.194  ....     25.900 

1.889  .                 .  169.280        .        .        .     11,288 

033  .                 .     .  39,630  ....      4.478 

6,075  .                 .  497,798        .        .        .    85.020 


27,746  . 


.  8,068,433 


.  181,288 


The  following  are  the  numbers  of  the  Registered  Sailing  and  Steam  Vessels  (ezolusivd 
of  River  Steamers)  of  the  United  Kingdom,  engaged  in  the  home  and  foreign  trade : — 


IH1849. 

Iirl866. 

Sailing  . 
Steamera .    . 

Total. 

VmmIi. 

Tonnage. 

Men  «Dpl<qred. 

VCHCU. 

Tbnnage. 

Men  emplof  ed. 

17,807 
414 

2,988.021 
108,321 

144,165 
8.446 

18,410 
851 

3,825,022 
331,056 

151,080 
22,838 

18,221 

3,096.842 

162,611 

19,270 

4,166^077 

178,918 

SHIPWRECKa    See  article  Wrecks  of  Skipping. 

SHIRT.  This  now  almost  universal  garment  is  said  to  have  been  first  generally  worn  in 
the  west  of  Europe  ^arly  in  the  eighth  century. — Da  Pretnoy.  Woollen  shirts  were 
commonly  worn  in  England  until  about  the  38th  of  Hen«  III.  1253,  when  linen,  but 
of  a  coarse  kind  (fine  coming  at  this  period  from  abroad),  was  first  manufactureid  in 
England  by  Flemish  artisans. — Stow, 

SHOES.  Among  the  Jews  they  were  made  of  leather,  linen,  rush,  or  wood.  Moons 
were  worn  as  ornaments  in  their  shoes  by  the  Jewish  women. — Itaiah  iii.  18.  Among 
the  Greeks  shoes  were  of  various  kinds.  Pythagoras  would  have  his  disciples  wear 
shoes  made  of  the  bark  of  trees;  probably,  that  they  might  not  wear  what  were 
made  of  the  skins  of  animals,  as  they  refrained  from  the  use  of  everything  that  had 
had  life.  Sandals  were  worn  by  women  of  distinction.  The  Romans  wore  an  ivory 
orescent  on  their  shoes ;  and  Caligula  wore  his  enriched  with  preduus  stouea  The 
Indians,  like  the  Egyptians,  wore  shoes  made  of  the  bark  of  the  papyrus.  In  England 
the  people  had  an  extravagant  way  of  adorning  their  feet ;  they  wore  the  beaks  or 
points  of  their  shoes  so  long,  that  they  encumbered  themselves  in  walking,  and  were 
forced  to  tie  them  up  to  their  knees ;  the  fine  gentlemen  fastened  theirs  with  chains 
of  silver,  or  silver  gilt,  and  others  with  laces.  This  custom  was  in  vogue  from 
A.D.  1462,  but  was  prohibited,  on  the  forfeiture  of  20«.  and  on  pain  of  being  cursed  by 
the  clergy,  7  Edw.  IV.  1467.  See  Drtaa.  Shoes,  as  at  present  worn,  were  introduced 
about  1633.    The  buckle  was  not  used  till  1668.    Stow;  MoHimer, 

SHOEBLACK  BRIGADES,  (Blue,  Red,  and  Yellow,)  were  established  at  various  times 
by  the  Ragged  School  Union  {which  tee),  founded  1844.  In  1855,  108  boys  had 
cleaned  544,800  pairs  of  boots  and  shoes,  and  thus  earned  2270/.;  of  which  1235/.  had 
been  paid  to  the  boys,  527/.  to  their  bauk,  and  516/.  to  the  society., 

SHOP-TAX.  The  act  by  which  a  tax  was  levied  upon  retail  shops  was  passed  in  1 785 ; 
but  it  caused  so  great  a  commotion,  particularly  in  London,  that  it  was  deemed 
expedient  to  repeal  it  in  1789.  The  statute  whereby  shop- lifting  was  made  a  felony, 
without  benefit  of  clergy,  was  passed  10  &  11  Will  IIL  1699.  This  sUtute  haa  been 
tome  time  repealed. 


SHO  594  SI  A 

SHORE,  JANE.  The  mistress  of  Edward  lY.  and  afterwards  of  lord  Hastingi.  She  did 
public  penanee  in  1483,  and  was  afterwards  confined  in  Lndgate,  but  upon  the  petition 
of  Thomas  Hymore,  who  agreed  to  marry  her,  king  Richard  III.  in  1484,  restored  her 

*  to  liberty,  and  sir  Thomas  More  mentions  having  seen  her;  which  oontiidicto  the 
story  of  her  having  perished  by  hunger. — ffaHnan  MSS, 

" Short-lived  "  administration.  The  administration  of  the  right  hon-Waiiui 
Pulteney,  earl  of  Bath,  so  called  from  its  having  expired  two  days  after  its  pirtUl 
formation  :  on  this  account  it  was  called  also,  in  derision,  the  ''  Long-lived  Adminii- 
tration."  The  few  memben  of  it  were :  the  earl  of  Bath,  lord  Carlisle,  lord  Wiscbel- 
sea,  and  lord  Granville.  It  was  commenced  Feb.  10,  and  was  dissolved  Feb.  12, 1746. 
See  Bath,  Earl  of,  hia  AdminittrcUian, 

SHREWSBURY  ADMINISTRATION.  A  remarkable  and  a  short  administration  in  the 
reign  of  queen  Anne.  Charles  duke  of  Shrewsbury  was  made  lord  treasurer,  Joly  SO, 
1714,  two  days  before  the  queen's  death  ;  but  his  patent  was  revoked  soon  after  the 
accession  of  Qeox^  I.  October  IS,  following,  when  the  earl  of  Halifax  became  first 
lord  of  the  treasury.  See  Halifax.  The  office  of  lord  treasurer  has  been  executed 
by  commissioners  ever  since ;  the  duke  of  Shrewsbury  being  the  last  personage  who 
executed  the  office  as  an  individual. 

SHREWSBURY,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  royal  army  of  Henrv  lY.  and  the  army  of 
the  nobles,  led  by  Percy  (sumamed  Hotspur),  son  of  the  earl  of  Northumberland, 
who  had  conspired  to  dethrone  Henry.  Each  army  consisted  of  about  12,000  men, 
and  the  engagement  was  most  bloody.  Henry  was  seen  everywhere  in  the  thickeet 
of  the  fight ;  while  his  valiant  son,  who  was  aTterwards  the  renowned  oonqneror  of 
France,  fought  by  his  side,  and  though  wounded  in  the  face  by  an  arrow,  still  kept 
the  field,  and  performed  astonishing  acts  of  valour.  On  the  other  side  the  daring 
Hotspur  supported  the  renown  he  had  acquired  in  many  bloody  engagementa,  and 
everywhere  sought  out  the  king  as  a  noble  object  of  his  vengeance.  2300  geotlemen 
were  slain,  and  about  6000  private  men.  The  death  of  Hotspur  by  an  unknown  hand 
decided  the  fortune  of  the  day,  and  gave  the  victory  to  the  king,  July  21, 1403.— ifMK. 

SHROPSHIRE,  BATTLE  07.  In  which  the  Britons  were  completely  subjugated,  and 
Caraotacus,  the  renowned  king  of  the  Silures,  became,  through  the  treachery  of  the 
queen  of  the  Briganti,  a  prisoner  to  the  Romans,  a.d.  51.  While  Caractacoa  wii 
being  led  through  Rome,  bis  eyes  were  daazled  by  the  splendours  that  sarroanded 
him.  "  AIm  I "  he  cried,  "  how  is  it  possible  that  a  people  possessed  of  sach  magnifi- 
cenoe  at  home  could  envv  me  an  humble  cottage  in  Britain  t "  The  emperor  wu 
afieeted  with  the  British  hero's  misfortunes,  and  won  by  his  address.  He  ordered 
him  to  be  unchained  upon  the  spot,  and  set  at  liberty  with  the  rest  of  the  captiTea 

SHROYE  TUESDAY.  In  the  season  of  Lent,  after  the  people  had  made  oonfewon, 
according  to  the  diedpHne  of  the  ancient  Church,  they  were  permitted  to  indulge  in 
festive  amusements,  although  not  allowed  to  partake  of  any  repast  beyond  the  oraal 
substitutes  for  flesh ;  and  hence  arose  the  custom  yet  preserved  of  eating  pancakea 
and  fritters  at  Shrovetide,  the  Greek  Christians  eating  eggs,  milk,  Ac.  daring  the  fint 
week  of  Lent  On  these  days  of  authorised  indulgence  the  most  wanton  recreationi 
were  tolerated,  provided  a  due  regard  was  paid  to  the  abstinence  eommsnded  by  the 
Church ;  and  from  this  origin  sprang  the  Carnival.  On  Shrove  Tuesday  the  people 
in  every  parish  throughout  England  formerly  confessed  their  sins ;  and  the  panih 
bell  for  the  purpose  was  rung  at  ten  o'clock.  In  several  ancient  parishes  the  eoitom 
yet  prevails  of  ringing  the  bell,  and  obtains  in  London  the  name  of  paneake>beU. 
Observed  as  a  festival  before  1480. 

SIAM.  An  extensive  kingdom  in  India,  bordering  on  the  Burmese  empire.  Siam  vai 
re-discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1511,  and  a  trade  established  in  which  the  Dutch 
joined  about  1604.  A  British  ship  arrived  about  1613.  In  1683  a  Cephaloniao  Greek, 
Constantine  Phaulcon,  became  foreign  minister  of  Siam,  and  opened  a  oommnnioation 
with  France ;  Louis  XI Y.  sent  an  embassy  in  1686  with  a  view  of  oonvertiog  the  kisj^ 
without  effect.  After  several  ineffectual  attempts,  sir  John  Bowring  succeeded  in 
obtaining  a  treaty  of  friendship  and  commerce  between  England  and  Sianit  ^^ 
was  signed  April  80,  1855,  and  ratified  April  5,  1856. 

SIAMESE  TWINS.  The  two  persons  known  under  this  name,  are  twins,  born  ahooi 
1811,  enjoying  all  the  fiiculties  and  powers  usually  possessed  by  separate  and  distiDCt 
individuals,  although  united  together  by  a  short  cartilaginous  band  at  the  pit  of  the 
stomach.    They  are  named  Chang  and  Eng,  and  were  fint  dissevered  on  the  hasb 


SIB 


595 


SIC 


of  the  Suun  liyer  by  an  American,  Mr.  Robert  Hunter,  by  whom  they  were  taken  to 
New  York,  where  Uiey  were  exhibited,  and  wero  afterwarda  consigned  to  the  care  of 
captain  Coffin,  by  whom  they  were  brought  to  England,  and  publicly  shown.  No 
connection  exists  between  them  but  this  l»nd,  and  their  proximity  seems  in  no  way 
to  inconvenience  either.  They  are  perfectly  straight  and  well-made,  and  walk  with 
a  gait  like  other  people ;  being  perfect  in  all  their  parts,  and  having  all  the  animal 
functiona  distinct,  the  faculties  of  each  belonging  to  himself.  After  having  been 
exhibited  for  several  years  in  London,  and  the  provinces,  the  Siamese  Twins  went  to 
America,  where  they  settled  on  a  fann,  and  married  sisterBi 

SIBTLSl  The  SibyllsD  were  oeitain  women  inspired  by  heaven,  who  flourished  in 
different  parts  of  the  world.  Their  number  is  unknown.  Plato  speaks  of  one^  others 
of  two,  Pliny  of  three,  JEHux  of  four,  and  Varro  of  ten ;  an  opinion  which  is  univer- 
sally adopted  by  the  learned.  An  Erythrean  sibyl  is  said  to  have  offered  to  Tarquin  II. 
nine  books  containing  the  Roman  destinies,  demanding  for  them  800  pieces  of  gold. 
He  denied  her,  whereupon  the  sibyl  threw  three  of  them  into  the  fire,  and  asked  Uie 
same  price  for  the  other  six,  which  being  still  denied,  she  burned  three  more,  and 
sgain  demanded  the  same  sum  for  those  that  remained ;  when  Tarquin  conferring 
with  the  pontiffs,  was  advised  to  buy  them.  Two  magiBtrates  were  created  to  commit 
them  on  all  occasions,  581  B.O. 

SICILY.  See  NapUi,  The  ancient  inhabitants  of  this  island  were  the  Sioani,  a  people 
of  Spain,  and  Etruscans,  who  came  hither  from  Italy,  1294  b.o.  A  second  colony, 
nuder  Sicnlus,  arrived  80  years  before  the  destruction  of  Troy»  1264,  b.c. — LcfigUL 
The  Phcenicians  and  Qrceks  tettled  some  colonies  here,  and  at  last  the  Carthaginians 
became  masters  of  the  whole  island,  till  they  were  dispossessed  of  it  by  the  Romans 
in  the  Punic  wars.  Some  authors  suppose  that  Sicily  was  originally  joined  to  the 
continent,  and  that  it  waa  separated  from  Italy  by  on  earthquake,  and  that  the  straits 
of  the  Chary bdia  were  formed. — Jtuiin;  Livy. 


Arrival  of  Ulyaaea. — Homtr  .  b.0. 

He  puts  out  the  eye  of  Polyphemua  .    . 

Byracuae  founded. — Evsebiiu  . 

Gela  founded. — Thueydida  .    . 

Arrival  of  the  Mecaeuiana 

Phalaria,  tyrant  of  Affrigentum,  put  to 

death.    See  Brantn  BmU  .  .    . 

Bippocratea  beeomea  tyrant  of  Gela 
I^w  of  Fataliam  inatituted  .    . 

KeigD  of  Dionyaiua 

Offended  with  the  freedom  of  the  philo- 

aopher  Plato,  the  tyrant  aella  him  for 

aalaTe. — StariUy 

Plato  nnaomed  by  hia  frienda 

Damon  and  Pythiaaflouriah.  EeeDkitmm 

and  Ppthiat 

The  away  of  Timoleon     .        .        .        ^ 
Usurpation  of  Agathoclea 


1186 

llb6 

782 

718 

668 

662 
496 
466 
405 


386 
S86 

886 
346 
817 


Defeat  of  Bamllcar 800 

Pillage  of  the  templea  of  Lepari         .    .  S04 
The  Romana  arrive  in  Sicily  .        .        .264 

Agrigoitum  taken  by  the  Komana    .    .  262 

P^ermo  besieged  by  the  Romana  .        .  264 

Archimedes  flouriahea  286 
The  Romana  take  Syracuse,  and  make 

all  Sicilv  a  province      ....  212 

The  Servile  war  began.— Xivy     .        .    .  136 


Conquered  by  the  Baraccna 


▲.D.     821 


[They  made  Palermo  the  capital,  and  the 
standard  of  Mahomet  triumphed  for 
200  years.] 

They  are  driven  out  by  a  Norman  prince, 
Roger  I.  son  of  Tancred,  who  takea 
the  title  of  count  of  Sicily       .        .    .  1080 

Ro^^  II.  son  of  the  above-named,  unltea 
Sicily  with  Naplea,  and  ia  crowned 
king  of  the  Two  Sicilies  .  1130 

Charlea  of  Ai\}ou,  brother  to  St.  Louis, 
king  of  France,  conauera  Naplea  and 
Sicily,  deposea  the  Norman  princes^ 
and  makea  himself  king  .        ...  12f  6 

The  French  becoming  hated  by  the  Bid- 
liana,  a  general  maaaacre  of  the  in* 


1288 


1882 


place,  one  Frenchman 
oulyeacaping.  See  Sicilian  Fttptn  a  Jk 

In  the  aame  year,  Sicily  ia  aeiaed  by  a 
fleet  aent  by  the  kings  of  Arragon.  in 
Spain;  but  Naplea  remaina  to  the 
houae  of  Anjou,  which  ezphrea 

Jane,  the  late  sovereign,  having  left  her 
crown  to  Loula,  duke  of  AnJou,  his 
pretensiona  are  reaiatad  by  Charlea 
buracso,  oouain  of  Jane,  who  aaoends 
the  throne 1386 

Alphonsua,  king  of  Anagon,  takea  poa- 
aeaaion  of  Naplea 1468 

The  kingdom  of  Naples  and  Sicily  united 
to  the  Sjiahish  monarchy    . 

The  tyranny  of  the  Spaniarda  cauaea  an 
inaurrection.  excited  by  Haaaniello,  a 
fisherman,  who,  in  fifteen  daya,  raises 
two  hxmdred  thouaand  men    . 

Henrv  duke  of  Guiae,  taking  advantage 
of  these  commotions,  procurea  himaelf 
to  be  proclaimed  king ;  but  is,  in  a  few 
days,  delivered  up  to  the  Spaniards  by 
his  adherenta        .... 

Ceded  to  Victor,  duke  of  Savoy,  by  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht 

Ceded  by  him  to  the  emperor  Charlea  YI. 
Sardinia  bi-ing  given  to  him  aa  an 
equivalent 1720 

The  Spaniarda  having  made  thcmaelvea 
maatera  of  both  kingdoms,  Charles, 
son  of  the  king  of  Spain,  aacenda  the 
throne,  with  the  ancient  title  renewed, 
of  king  of  the  Two  Siciliea      . 

Order  of  St.  Januariua  inatituted  by 
king  Charlea 17S8 

The  throne  of  Spain,  becoming  vacant, 
Charles,  who  Is  heir,  vacatea  toe  throne 
of  thelSvo  Siciliea  in  favour  of  his  bro- 
ther Ferdinand,  agreeably  to  treaty 

Dr«ulfVil  earthquake  at  liloaaina,  in 
Sicily,  which  deatroys  40,000  persona. 

Naplea  preaerved  fVom  the  power  of  the 
French  by  the  Britiah  forcea  under 
admiral  Nelaon        .... 


1604 


1647 


1647 
1713 


17S4 


1760 
178S 


1790 


gq2 


SIC 


596 


SIK 


SICILY,  continued. 

Violent  earthquake  in  the  neighboiirhood 
of  Naples A..D.  1805 

The  French  invade  Naples,  depose  king 
Ferdinand  IV.  and  ^ve  the  crown  <^ 
the  Two  SicUiM  to  Joseph  Bonaparte, 
brother  to  the  emperor  of  the  French  1806 

Joachim  Murat  raised  to  the  throae  of 
Naples 1808 


Ferdinand  restored  .      a.d.  18M 

Inefiectual  attempt  of  the  Sidlisni  to 
limit  the  royal  prsrogatlTe,  caaaing 
much  bloodshed  at  Fslermo  and  other 

towns 1B30 

[For  the  details  of  the  late  insurreetkm 
(that  of  1848-0)  and  other  events,  lee 
IfapUi.] 


1718. 


KINGS  OF  THE  TWO 

1808. 


Victor  Amadeus,  duke  of  Savov;   he 

resifjned  it  to  the  emperor  Charles  VI. 

in  1718,  and  got  Sardinia  in  liou  of  it 
1718.  Charles  VI.  emperor. 
17S4.  Charies,  second  son  to  the  king  of  Spain, 

resigned  in  1750. 
1750.  Ferdii^nd  IV.  third  son  of  the  former 

king. 
1806.  Joseph  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 


1816. 


1835. 
1830. 


BICIUES. 

Joachim  Murat :  he  was  shot,  October 
IS.  1815. 

FerdUnand  L  :  formeriy  Ferdinand  IV. 
of  Naples,  and  intermediately  Ferdi- 
nand  III.  of  SicUy :  now  of  the  United 
Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sidlies. 

Francis  I. 

Ferdinand  IL  Nov.  8.  The  preaeat 
(1857)  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 


SICILIAN  VESPERS.  The  memorable  musacre  of  the  French  in  Sicilj,  known  by  this 
name,  commenced  at  Palermo,  March  30.  1262.  The  French  had  become  hatefiilto 
the  Sicilians,  and  a  conspiracy  against  Charles  of  Anjou  was  already  ripe,  when  the 
following  occurrence  led  to  its  development  and  accomplishment.  On  Easter  Moodij, 
the  chief  conspirators  bad  assembled  at  Palermo ;  and  while  the  French  were  engaged 
in  festivities,  a  Sicilian  bride  happened  to  pass  by  with  her  train.  She  was  observed  by 
one  Drochet,  a  Frenchman,  who,  advancing  towards  her,  began  to  use  her  rudelj, 
under  pretence  of  searching  for  arms.  A  young  Sicilian,  exasperated  at  this  afiront, 
stabbed  him  with  his  ov^n  sword ;  and  a  tumult  ensuing,  200  French  were  instaDtly 
murdered.  The  enraged  populace  now  ran  through  the  city,  crying  out "  I«t  the 
French  die  !*'  and,  without  distinction  of  rank,  age,  or  sex,  they  slaughtered  all  of 
that  nation  they  could  find,  to  the  number  of  8000.  Even  the  churches  proved  no 
sanctuary ;  and  the  massacre  became  general  throughout  the  island. 

SIDON,  IN  Stria.  Capture  of  this  town  from  the  pacha  of  Egypt  by  the  troops  of  the 
sultan  and  of  his  allies,  assisted  by  some  ships  of  the  British  squadron,  under  admtnl 
the  hon.  sir  Robert  Stopford  and  commodore  Charles  Napier,  Sept.  27, 1840.  Here 
were  found  lai^ge  quantities  of  ammunition  and  stoi-es.  The  capture  of  Acre  and  the 
operations  connected  with  it  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  were  effected  by  the  British  floet 
under  these  commanders  at  the  same  time.     See  articles  Syria  and  Turkty. 

SIEGES,  MEHORABLK  Azoth,  which  was  besieged  by  Psammitichua  the  PowerH 
held  out  for  nineteen  years. — UsKer.  It  held  out  for  twenty -nine  years. — Hendf^i^ 
This  was  the  longest  siege  recorded  in  the  annals  of  antiquity.  The  siege  of  Troy  was 
the  most  celebrated,  and  occupied  ten  years,  1184  B.O.  The  following  are  the  principal 
and  most  memorable  sieges  since  the  twelfth  century  : — 


Acre,  1198 :  1799,  hyBonAparU; 
siege  raised  ajter  00  cto^c, 
opentrenehu. 

Algesiras,  1341. 

AJflriera,  1681  ,*  B<mb-ve$9di 
firii  vMd  by  a  French  en- 
ffxneer  nauMd  RenaUt  1810. 

Alkmaer,  157S 

Almeida,  Aug.  27, 1810. 

Amiens,  1597. 

Aucona.  1799. 

Angoulfime,  1345. 

Antwerp,  1676.  Um  t*f  infer- 
nal machine*,  1583,  1585^ 
1706,  1798,  1814.  1830. 

Arms.  1414. 

Ath,  1745. 

Avignon,  1826. 

Axoff,  1736. 

BadiOoz,  March  U,  1811.  Be- 
sieged by  lord  WtUington, 
in  May:  btU  siege  raised. 
Again  injutu;  raised  June 
9.  Taken  by  eseaUuU  on  the 
night  qf  AprU  6,  1912. 

Bagdad,  1248. 

Bangalore,  March  6, 1791. 


Barcelona,  1697,  1714. 

Bayonne,  1451. 

Beauvais,  1472. 

Belgrade,    1489,    1455.    1521, 

1688, 1717, 1789,  1789. 
BeUegarde.  1793,  1794. 
BeUe-lsle,  April  7,  1761. 
Beigen-op-Zoom,  1588,  168S, 

1747,  1814. 
Berwick,  1293. 
Bcsan^on,  1668,  1674. 
Betbune,  1710. 
Bois-le-Duc.  1603, 1794. 
Bologna,  1512,  1796. 
Bommel ;  the  invention  of  tike 

eovert-way,  1794. 
Bonifacio,  1553. 
Bonn,  1587,  1689, 1708. 
Bordeaux,  1451.  1653. 
Boucbain,  1676, 1711. 
Bouloerne,  1545. 
Biunnau,  1744,  1805. 
Breda,  1590,  1625.  1793. 
Brescia,  1612,  1796.  1799. 
Breslau.  Jan.  8.  1807. 
Briaac,  1638,  1703. 
Brussels,  1695. 1746. 


Buda.  1526. 1541, 1686. 

Burgoo.  Sept  19  to  Oct  SS, 
1812 :  raised,  ne  Fnnek  is 
their  retreat  bU»  vp  the 
wn-ks,  June  IS,  181S. 

Cadis,  1618. 

Caen.  1346.  1450. 

Calais.  1347  (BrUiA  UitoHsM 
affirm,  that  cannon  vert  rtmi 
at  Cressy.  1846^  and  hen  i^ 
1347.  Firti  used  here  » 
1888.~BT]Cxa's  F(BD.)rlU8, 
1696. 

Calvi,  1794. 

Campo-Mayor,  Mar.  23,  ISIL 

Candia;  the  largest  cannon  then 
known  in  Burope  mssi  hereby 
tke  Turks,  1667. 

Capua,  1501. 

Cartbagena,  1706. 

CastUlon.  1452, 1586^ 

Ceuta,  1790. 

Chalons,  1199.  ^ 

Charleroi,  1672;  167?,  1«W. 
1786. 1794. 

Chartzvs.  1568, 1501. 

Chave,s  March  85, 1809. 


SIE 


597 


SIE 


SIEGES,  MEMORABLE,  cofUmued. 


Cherbouii^,  1450. 

ChincillA,  Oct  SO,  181S. 

Ciudnd  Kodrigo,  1706;  July 
10,  1810 :  Jan.  10,  1812. 

Colbeiiff,  1760, 1807. 

Colchester,  1646. 

Comom,  1849. 

Compiegne  (Joan  o/JreX  14S0. 
See  Joan  nf  Are, 

Cand6, 1676, 1792,  1794. 

Conl  1691,  1744. 

ConstaQtinople,  I  ASS. 

Copenhagen,  1700,  1801, 1807. 

Corfe,  1715. 

Coortny,  1302,  et  teq.,  1794. 

Cracow,  1772. 

Cremona,  1702. 

DanUic,  1784. 1703, 1807,1813, 
to  Jan.  li,  1814. 

Delhi,  1857. 

Dendermonde,  1667. 

Dole,  1668,  1674. 

Douay,  1710. 

Dover,  1216. 

Drewlen,  1745,  1813. 

Drogheda.  1649. 

Dublin.  1500. 

Dunkirk,  1646, 1793. 

Edinburgh.  1093. 

Figuenu,  Aug.  19,  1811. 

Flushing,  Aug.  15, 1809. 

Fontenov,  1242. 

Fredericksbal ;  Charlea  XII. 
kUUd,  171S. 

Frederickstein.  Aug.  IS,  1814. 

Fumee.  1676,  1744.  1793. 

Gaeta,  1433,  1707,  1734,  1790, 
July  180'v  1815. 

Genoa,  1747,  1800. 

Oerona,  Dec.  10, 1809. 

Ghent,  1576.  1708. 

Gibraltar.  1704, 1779  (see  Oib- 
raUarX  1782. 

Ql&tx.  1742,  1807. 

GOtUngen.  1760. 

Graven.  1602,  1674,  1794. 

GraveUnes,  1644. 

Grenada,  1401.  1402. 

Groningen,  1580,  1672,  1795. 

Guastalla,  1702. 

Guddres.  16^7,  1639,  1640, 
1703.  1757,  1794. 

Haeriom,  1572,  1578. 

Hnm,  1411. 

Harfleur,  1415,  1460. 

Heidelberg,  1688. 

Herat,  June  28.  1838. 

Uuuingen,  1815. 

Ismael ;  the  mtrcUen  Smear- 
row  bvtchend  SO.OfO  men, 
the  brave  ffarrUon,  and  6000 
womra,  in  cold  bloody  Dec. 
22,  1790. 

Kara,  1855. 

Kehl.  1733.  1796. 

Landau,  1702.  el  $eq^  1713, 
1792,  and  1703. 

Landrecis,  1543,  1712. 


lAon,  991,  1594. 

Leipsic,  1637,  et  $eg.,  1818. 

Lemberg,  1704. 

Lerida,  1647.  1707, 1807. 

Leyden,  1574. 

Li^,  1468.  1702. 

Lille^  1667,  1708,  1702. 

liUo,  1747. 

Limerick,  1661.  1691. 

Londonderry,  1689. 

Louisbourg.  1758. 

Luxemburg,  1795. 

Lyons,  1793. 

Haestricht,  1676. 1673.  Van- 
ban  Jlrgt  eanu  into  notice, 
1676 ;  1743,  1794. 

Magdeburg,  1631, 1806. 

Malaga,  1487. 

Malta,  1565,  1798,  1800. 

Mantua,  1734,  1797,  1799. 

Maraeilles,  1544. 

Meuts,  by  Charlee  P.,  1552, 
1689.  1792,  et  »eq.,  1797. 

Melun,  14i'0.  1559. 

Menin.  1706,  1744. 

Mequinenza,  June  8,  1810. 

Messina,  1282,  1719. 

Metz.  1562. 

M^i^res,  1521. 

Middleburg,  1572. 

Mons.  1572,  1691.  1709,  1746, 
1792,  1794. 

Montargis.  1427. 

Montauban,  1621. 

Montevideo,  Jan.  1808. 

Mothe;  the  French,  taught  by 
a  Mr.  MtUler,  an  English  en- 
gineer, flrtt  practised  the  art 
of  throwing  theUe,  1634. 

Murviedro,  Oct.  25,  181L 

Namur,  1692,  1746,  1792. 

Naples,  1381, 1436,  1504,  1557, 
1792,  1799,  1806. 

Nice,  1705. 

Nieuport,  1745, 1794. 

Olivenza,  Jan.  22,  1811. 

Olmutz,  1768. 

Orleans,  1428,  1563. 

Ostend,  1701,  1706,  1746. 

Oudeuardo,  1708,  1746. 

Padua,  15u9. 

Pampclima,  Oct.  31.  1813. 

Paris,  1429.  1485.  1594. 

Parma,  1248. 

Pavia,  1525,  1655,  1796. 

Perpiguan,  1542,  1642. 

Philipville.  1578. 

Philipsburg.  1644,  1675,  1688, 
fir  A  experiment  of  firing  aHd- 
Ury  d-rieochet,  1734,  1796. 

Platt8burg.  Sept.  11.  1814. 

Pondicherry,  1748,  1792. 

Prague.  1741,  1748.  1744. 

QuoHnoy.  1794. 

Rennes,  13.'')7. 

Rhcims,  1369. 

Rhodes.  1522. 
*  Riga.  1700,  1710. 


Rochelle,  1573. 1687. 

Rome,  1527, 1798,  1849. 

Romorentin ;  artillery  firwt 
uaei  in  tieget. — VoLTAiafl, 
1356. 

Rosas,  1645,  1795,  1808. 

Rouen,  1449.  1562,  1591. 

Roxburgh,  1460. 

St.  Sebastian.  Obttinatdy  de- 
fended by  the  French  tiU  gen. 
Oraham  ordered  the  gum  to 
be  find  upon  the  curtain  over 
the  men'e  headi  <u  they  ad- 
vanced to  the  breach.  Sept  9, 
1813. 

Salamanca,  June  27, 1812. 

Salisbury,  1349. 

Sanigossa,  1710,  1808,  1809. 
The  two  Uut  were  drea4ful 
fieget.* 

Saveme,  1676. 

Sebastopol,  1854-5. 

Schweidnits :  fird  experiment 
to  reduce  a  fortreu  ty  epring' 
ing  globe*  of  compre$$ion, 
1762,  1807. 

Scio  (see  Oreeee\  1822. 

Seringapatam,  1799. 

Seville,  1096.  1247-8 ;  om  of 
the  moet  obstinate  lieges  vnen- 
tioned  in  Spanish  history. 

SUistria,  1864. 

Smolensko,  1611. 

Soissons,  1414. 

Stralsuud ;  the  method  of  throw- 
ing red-hot  balls  first  prac^ 
tised  with  certainty,  1676, 
1713,  1807. 

Tarifa,  Dec.  20,  1811. 

Tarragona,  May,  1818. 

Tomeswar,  1716. 

Thionville.  1643,  1792. 

Thorn,  1703. 

Thouars.  1372, 1793. 

Tortosa,  Jan.  2. 1811. 

Toulon.  1707,  1793. 

Toulouse,  1217. 

Toumay.  1340,  1352,  1681, 
1667.  1709  (this  was  the  bett 
d^ence  ever  drawn  from 
eowtter-minesX  1746,  1794. 

Treves,  1675. 

Tunis,  1270,  1635. 

Turin,  1640.  1706,  1799. 

Urbino.  1799. 

Valencia,  Dec  26,  1811. 

Valenciennes,  1677. 1793, 1794. 

Vannes,  1S43. 

Venloo,  1702,  1794. 

Vordun.  1792. 

Vienna,  1529, 1683. 

Wakefield.  1400. 

Warsaw,  Sept  8, 1881. 

Xaiiva,  1707. 

Xeres,  1262. 

Ypres,  1648,  1744,  1794. 

Zurich,  1544. 

Zutphen,  1672,  1536. 


SIERRA  LEONE.    DiscoTered  in  ad.  1460.    In  1786,  London  swarmed  with  free  negroes 
living  in  idlenees  and  want;  and  400  of  them,  with  60  whites,  mostly  women  of  bad 

*  Tn  the  fint  the  French  invested  nearly  half  the  town ;  and  kept  up  a  constant  fire  tram  mortait 
and  battering  cannon.  On  Aug.  4,  they  succeeded  in  forcing  their  way  into  the  central  street  They 
were  now  in  possession  of  nearly  half  of  the  place,  but  the  unconquemble  bravery  and  Intrepidity  of 
the  inhabitants,  both  sexes  taking  a  part,  arrested  their  further  progress,  and  obliged  them  to  retire 
on  the  14th  August,  1808. — ^The  second  siege  was  no  less  obstinate.  After  a  previous  Airious  attack, 
the  French,  on  January  10.  1809.  began  their  bombardment  which  continued,  almost  without  inter- 
mivion  for  six  weeks,  at  the  end  of  which  the  surviving  besieged,  being  quite  worn  out  by  fighting, 
famine  and  pestilence,  were  obliged  to  surrender. 


SIQ  598  8IL 

ohaneter  and  in  ill-health,  were  eent  out  to  Sierra  Leone,  at  the  charge  of  gOTenunent 
to  form  a  settlement,  Dec  9, 1786.  The  lettlement  attacked  by  tiie  Fraoch,  Sept 
1794 ;  by  the  natives  February,  1892.  Sir  Cbartee  Macarthy,  the  goTemor  of  the 
colony,  murdered  by  the  Aahantee  chief,  Jan.  21, 1824. — 16  ft  17  Vict  c  86,  relates 
to  the  govemmentk  fta  of  thia  colony.    It  \a  now  a  bishopric 

SIGNALS.  In  the  history  of  the  Punic  wars  Polybina  alludes  to  this  mode  of  oommoiii- 
cation*  In  the  naval  occurrences  of  modem  Europe,  mention  is  early  made  of  lignals. 
Elizabeth  had  instructions  drawn  up  for  the  admiral  and  general  of  the  ezpeditioa  to 
Cadiz,  to  be  announced  to  the  fleet  in  a  certain  latitude :  it  was  on  this  occasion  that 
we  meet  with  the  first  set  of  signals  and  orders  to  the  commanders  of  the  Eogliah 
fleet.  Signals,  as  a  system,  were  used  in  the  navy,  invented  by  the  duke  of  York,  ifter 
wards  James  II.  1665. — OiUhrie. 

SILISTRIA.  A  strong  military  town  in  Bulgaria,  European  Turkey.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Russians  in  1829,  after  nine  months'  siege,  and  held  some  years  by  them  aa  pledge 
for  the  payment  of  a  large  sum  by  the  Porte ;  but  was  eventually  returned.  la 
1854,  it  was  again  besieged  by  the  Russians,  30,000  strong,  under  prince  Pa^kiewitch, 
and  many  assaults  were  made.  The  Russian  general  was  compelled  to  return  in  con- 
sequence of  a  dangerous  contusion.  On  June  2,  Musaa  Pacha,  the  brave  and  skilful 
commander  of  the  garrison,  was  killed.  On  June  9,  the  Russians  stormed  two  forti, 
which  were  retaken.  A  grand  assault  took  place  on  June  IS,  under  prince  Qort- 
schakoff  and  general  S-^hUders,  which  wiw  vigorously  repelled.  On  the  15th.  the 
garrison  assumed  the  offensive^  crossed  the  river,  defeated  the  Russians,  and  destrojed 
the  siege  works.  The  siege  was  thus  raised,  and  the  Russians  oommenced  their  re* 
treat,  Omar  Pacha  drawing  near.  The  garrison  was  ably  aasisted  by  two  Britiah 
officers,  captain  Butler  and  lieutenant  Nasmyth,  the  former  of  whooo,  after  being 
wounded,  died  of  exhaustion.  To  them,  in  fact,  the  successfol  defence  is  attributed. 
They  were  highly  praised  by  Omar  Pacha  and  lord  Hardinge,  and  lieutenant  Kssmjth 
was  made  a  major. 

SILK.  Wrought  silk  was  brought /rom  Persia  to  Qreece,  825  B.a  Known  si  Rome  in 
Tiberius's  time,  when  a  law  passed  in  the  senate  prohibiting  the  use  of  plate  of  mssBj 

SAd,  and  also  forbidding  men  to  debase  themselves  by  wearing  silk,  fit  only  for  women, 
eliogabalus  first  wore  a  garment  of  ailk,  A.D.  220.  Silk  was  at  first  of  the  same  vslne 
with  gold,  weight  for  weight,  and  was  thought  to  grow  in  the  same  manner  as  cotton 
on  trees.  Silk-worms  were  brought  from  India  to  Europe  in  the  sixth  ceotury. 
Charlemagne  sent  Offi^  king  of  Meroia,  a  present  of  two  silken  vests,  a.i>.  780.  The 
manufiusture  was  encouraged  by  Roger,  king  of  Sicily,  at  Palermo,  1130,  when  the 
Sicilians  not  only  bred  the  silk-worms,  but  spun  and  weaved  the  silk.  The  manu&c- 
ture  spread  into  Italy  and  Spiin,  and  also  into  the  south  of  France,  a  little  before  the 
reign  of  Francis  L  about  1510;  and  Henry  IV.  propagated  mulberry-trees  and  silk- 
worms throughout  the  kingdom,  1589.  In  England,  silk  mantlea  were  worn  by  some 
noblemen*B  ladies  at  a  ball  at  Kenilworth  Castle,  1286.  Silk  was  worn  by  the  Engtith 
clergy  in  1534.  Manufactured  in  England  in  1604;  and  broad  silk  wove  from^raw 
silk  in  1620.  Brought  to  perfection  by  the  French  refugees  in  London  at  Spitalfieldd, 
1688.  A  silk-throwing  mill  was  made  in  England,  and  fixed  up  at  Darby,  hj  sir 
Thomas  Lombe,  merchant  of  London,  modelled  from  the  original  mill  then  in  the 
king  of  Sardinia's  dominions,  about  1714. 

SILVER.  It  exists  in  most  parts  of  the  worid,  and  is  found  mixed  with  other  ores  in 
various  mines  in  Great  Britain.  The  silver  mines  of  South  America  are  far  the  richest 
A  mine  was  discovered  in  the  district  of  La  Paz  in  1660,  which  was  so  rich  that  the 
silver  of  it  was  often  cut  with  a  chisel  In  1749,  one  mass  of  silver  weighing  870  lb. 
was  sent  to  Spain.  From  a  mine  in  Norway,  a  piece  of  silver  was  dug,  and  sent  to  the 
Royal  Museum  at  Copenhagen,  weighing  560  lb.  and  worth  16802.  In  England,  silver- 
plate  and  vessels  were  first  used  by  Wilfrid,  a  Northumbrian  bishop,  a  lofty  sod 
ambitious  man,  a.d.  709. — TyrtlCt  HitL  of  SnjUmd.  Silver  knives,  spoons,  and  eupS) 
were  great  luxuries  in  1300.    See  Mirrort. 

SILVER  COIN.  Silver  was  first  coined  by  the  Lydians.  some  say;  otheia,  by  Phidon  of 
Anifos,  869  B.O.  At  Rome  it  was  first  coined  by  Fabius  Pictor,  269  B.O.  Used  in 
Britain,  25  b.o.  The  Saxons  coiued  silver  pennies,  which  were  22^  c^os  weight  Is 
1302,  the  penny  was  yet  the  largest  silver  coin  in  England.  See  ShiUing»f  kc  and 
Coin.  From  1816  to  1840  iiicliisive,  were  coined  at  our  Mint  in  London,  ll,108,265iL  l^ 
in  silver,  being  a  yearly  averaj^  of  444,330^  The  total  amount  of  the  seniorage 
received  on  this  coin  was  616,747^.  8«.  2d. — Pari,  Rd,  In  the  ten  first  yeard  of  VietoriS) 


SIM  599  SLA 

from  1887  to  1847,  the  nmotiat  of  siWer  coined  waa  2,440.614/. — Idem.  For  the  amount 
coined  to  1853,  see  Coin  of  B^land,  It  is  supposed  that  there  are  in  the  world  about 
250  millions  of  silver  coin. 

SIMONIAN^S.  An  ancient  sect  of  Christians,  so  called  from  their  founder  Simon  Magus, 
or  the  Magician.  He  was  the  first  heretic,  and  went  to  Rome  about  a. d.  41.  His 
heresies  were  extravagant  and  presumptuous,  yet  he  had  many  followers,  a.d.  57. — A 
sect  called  St.  Simooians  sprung  up  in  France,  and  lately  attracted  considerable 
attention  in  that  country ;  and  the  doctrine  of  Simonianism  has  been  advocated  in 
England,  and  particularly  by  Dr.  Prati,  who  lectured  upon  it  at  a  meeting  in  London, 
held  Jan.  24, 1834. 

SIMPLON.  A  mountain  road  leading  from  Switzerland  into  Italy,  constructed  by 
Napoleon  in  1801-6.  It  winds  up  passes,  crosses  cataracts,  and  passes  by  galleries 
tlirough  solid  rock.  It  has  eight  principal  bridges.  The  number  of  workmen  employed 
at  one  time  varied  from  thirty  to  forty  thousand. 

SINGING.  See  Mtuie.  The  singing  of  psalms  was  a  very  ancient  custom  both  among 
the  Jews  and  Christians.  St.  Paul  mentions  this  practice,  which  was  continued  in  all 
succeeding  ages,  with  some  variations  as  to  mode  and  circumstance.  During  the 
persecution  of  the  orthodox  Christians  by  the  empress  Justina,  mother  of  the  then 
young  Valentinian  II.  ▲.D.  886,  ecclesiastical  music  was  Introduced  in  fiivour  of  the 
Arians.  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  refined  upon  the  church  music,  and  made  it  more 
exact  and  harmonious ;  and  that  it  might  be  general,  he  set  up  singing  schools  in 
Rome,  A.D.  602. 

SINKING  FUND,  first  projected  by  sir  Robert  Walpole,  whose  act  was  passed  in  1716. 
The  act  establishiog  the  celebrated  sinkine  fund  of  Mr.  Pitt  was  passed  in  March 
1786.  A  then  estimated  surplus  of  900,000/.  in  the  revenue  was  augmented  by  new 
taxes  to  make  up  the  sum  of  one  million,  which  was  to  be  invariably  applied  to  the 
reduction  of  the  national  debt. 

SINOPE  (Sino0b).  An  sncient  sea-port  of  Asia  Minor,  formerly  capital  of  the  kingdom 
of  Pontui,  said  to  have  been  the  birth-place  of  Diogenes,  the  cynic  philosopher.  On 
Nov.  80, 1858,  a  Turkish  fleet  of  7  frigates,  8  corvettes,  and  2  smaller  vessels,  wss 
attacked  by  a  Russian  fleet  of  6  sail  of  the  line,  2  sailing  vessels,  and  3  steamers, 
under  admiral  Nachimofi^,  and  totally  destroyed,  except  one  vessel,  which  conveyed 
the  tidings  to  Constantinople.  Four  thousand  lives  were  lost  by  fire  or  drowning, 
and  Osman  Pacha,  the  Turkish  admiral,  died  at  Sobastopol  of  his  wounds.  In  conse- 
qnenoe  of  this  event,  the  Anglo-French  fleet  entered  the  Black  Sea,  Jan.  8,  1864. 

SION  COLLEGE.  This  institution  is  situated  on  the  site  of  a  nunnery,  which,  having 
fallen  to  decay,  was  purchased  bv  William  Elsynge,  citizen  and  mercer,  and  converted 
into  a  college  and  hospital,  called  from  his  name  Elsynge  Spital;  but  in  1840  he 
changed  it  into  an  Austin  priory,  which  was  afterwards  granted  to  sir  John  Williams, 
master  of  the  jewel-office  by  Henry  VIII.  who,  with  sir  Rowland  Hay  ward,  inhabited 
it  till  its  destruction  by  firs.  In  1628,  Dr.  Thomas  White  having  bequeathed  8000/. 
towards  purchasing  and  building  a  college  and  almS'house  on  the  ancient  site,  his 
executors  erected  the  present  college.  It  is  held  by  two  charters  of  incorporation, 
6  Charles  1. 1630 ;  and  16  Charles  IL  1664. 

SIX-CLERKS.  Officers  of  the  Court  of  Chancetr,  who  were  tmcientl  j  CUn'cL  They 
should  conform  to  the  laws  of  celibacy,  and  forfeited  their  places  if  they  married,  but 
when  the  constitution  of  the  court  began  to  alter,  a  law  was  made  to  permit  them  to 
marry ;  statute  24  k  25  Hen.  VIIL  1583.  The  Six-Clerks  continued  for  many  ages 
officers  of  the  chancery  court ;  they  held  their  offices  in  Chancery-lane,  London,  where 
proceedings  by  bill  and  answer  were  transacted  and  filed,  and  certain  patents  issued. 
—Law  Diet,    The  Six-Clerks  were  disoontiuued  by  5  &  6  Vict  a  103,  1842. 

SKINS.  The  raw  skins  of  cattle  were  usually  suspended  on  stakes  made  use  of  instead 
of  kettles  to  boil  meat,  in  the  north  of  England  and  in  Scotland,  1  Edw.  III.  1327. — 
Leland,  About  five  millions  of  skins  of  oxen,  lambs,  kid,  &a  dressed  and  undressed, 
with  those  of  wild  animals,  are  imported  into  Great  Britain  annually. 

SLAVERY.  Slavery  has  existed  from  the  earliest  ages.  With  other  abominable  customs, 
the  traffic  in  men  spread  from  Chaldea  into  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  all  over  the  East,  and 
at  length  into  every  known  region  under  heaven.  In  Greece,  in  the  time  of  Homer, 
all  prisoners  of  war  were  treated  as  slaves.  The  Lacedemonian  youth,  trained  up 
in  the  practice  of  deceiving  and  butchering  slaves,  were  from  time  to  time  let 


SLA 


600 


SLA 


loo06  upon  them  to  show  their  proficiency  in  atratagem  and  maaB&ere ;  and  oooe,  for 
their  amusement  only,  they  murdered,  it  in  said,  3000  in  one  night. — Alexander,  when  be 
razed  Thebes,  sold  the  whole  people  for  slaves,  335  B.c.    See  Helota, 

SLAVERY  IN  ROME.  In  Rome  slaves  were  often  chained  to  the  gate  of  a  great  msn'i 
house,  to  give  admittance  to  the  guests  invited  to  the  feastb  By  one  of  the  lawi  of 
the  XIL  Tables^  creditors  could  seize  their  msolvent  debtors,  and  keep  them  in  their 
houses,  till  by  their  services  or  labour  they  had  discharged  the  sum  they  owed. 
C.  PoUio  threw  such  slaves  as  gave  him  the  slightest  offence  into  his  fish-ponds,  to 
fatten  his  lampreys,  42  b.c.    Csdlius  Isidorus  left  to  his  heir  4116  slaves^  12  B.& 

SLAVERY  m  ENGLAND.  Laws  respecting  the  sale  of  slaves  were  made  by  Alfred. 
The  English  peasantry  were  so  commonly  sold  for  slaves  in  Saxon  and  Normsn  timei. 
that  children  were  sold  in  Bristol  market  like  cattle  for  exportation.  Many  were  eent 
to  Ireland,  and  others  to  Scotland.  The  rebellion  of  Wat  Tyler,  1381,  srose  out  of 
the  evils  of  serfdom.  A  statute  was  enacted  by  Edward  VI.  that  a  runaway,  or  anj 
one  who  lived  idly  for  three  days,  should  be  brought  before  two  justices  of  the  iieaoe, 
and  marked  V  with  a  hot  iron  on  the  breast,  and  adjudged  the  slave  of  him  who 
bought  him  for  two  years.  He  was  to  take  the  slave,  and  give  him  bread,  water,  or 
small  drink,  and  refuse  meat,  and  cause  him  to  work  by  beating,  chaining,  or  other- 
wise ;  and  if,  within  that  epace,  he  absented  himself  fourteen  days,  was  to  be  marked 
on  the  forehead  or  cheek,  by  a  hot  iron,  with  an  S,  and  be  bis  master's  slave  for 
ever :  second  desertion  was  made  felony.  It  was  lawful  to  put  a  ring  of  iron  round  hii 
neck,  arm,  or  leg.  A  child  might  be  put  apprentice,  and,  on  nxnning  away,  become 
a  slave  to  his  master,  1547. 

SLAVERY  IN  UNITED  STATES.  Before  the  war  of  independence  all  the  statea  con- 
tained slaves.  In  1783  the  sUtement  in  the  Massachusetts  Bill  of  Righto,  **  All  men 
are  bom  free  and  equal,"  was  declared  in  the  supreme  court  at  Boston  to  bar  steve- 
holding  in  that  state.  Before  1790  the  furtlier  introduction  of  slaves  had  been  pro- 
hibited in  five  other  states.  In  July  13,  1787,  Congress  passes  unanimously  the  oele* 
brated  ordinance  *'  for  the  government  of  the  territory  to  the  N.  W.  of  the  Ohio," 
which  contained  an  "  untdterabU  "  article,  forbidding  slavery  or  involuntary  servitude 
in  the  said  state.  After  1800,  several  of  the  atates  prayed  without  effect  to  be  relieved 
from  this  prohibition.  In  1803  Louisisna  was  purchased,  which  act  was  considered 
by  many  as  fatal  to  the  constitution.  In  Feb.  1820.  the  celebrated  Mitaowi  Camfro' 
mile,  drawn  up  by  Mr.  Clay,  was  carried,  by  which  slavery  was  permitted  in  that 
state,  but  was  prohibited  in  all  that  part  of  it  to  the  north  of  36**  SO'  N.  Lat  In 
1845  a  fresh  contest  arose  between  the  slave-holders  and  their  opponents  at  the 
annexation^  of  Texas.  The  utmost  the  advocates  of  free<lom  could  obtain  wai  a 
aiinilar  division  to  that  of  Missouri,  Dec.  25, 1845.  In  1850  another  compromise  was 
effected  :  California  was  admitted  as  a  free  state  ;  but  the  Fugitive  Slave  Act  wai 
pamed  {which  He).  In  1854  the  Missouri  Compromise  was  abrogated  by  the  admiuioo 
of  Nebraska  and  Kansas  as  slave-holding  states ;  in  the  latter  of  which  civil  war 
ensued.     See  KantoM  ;  United  Stafet,  and  Democrat t. 


In  1790 
In  1810 


SIJiVIB  IN  THS  UKITBD  STATES  OF  AVnUCA. 

«97,8»7  I  In  1820  . 
.    .    1,191,364  I  In  1850      . 


2,009.031 
3,304,313 


In  elections  three  slaves  are  reckoned  as  two  free  men. — The  following  are  the 


WKKK  STATES. 


Maine. 

New  Hampshire. 

Vermont 

Mttasochnsettfl. 

Rhode  Island. 

Connecticut. 

New  York. 

New  Jersey. 


Pennsvlvania. 

Ohio. 

Michigan. 

Indiana. 

Illinois. 

Wiiicunsin. 

Iowa. 

California. 


8I.AVB  8TAT1 


Delaware. 
Maryland. 
Vir^nia. 
North  Carolina. 
Houth  Carolina. 
Geori^ 
Florida. 
Alabama. 


MissiflsippL 

IjOuiaiaoA. 

Texas. 

Arkani 

TemM 

Kentucky. 

MisBOorL 


SLAVE  TRADK  The  slave  trade  from  Congou  and  Angola  was  begun  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  1481.  Volumes  have  been  written,  confined  to  facts  alone,  describing  the 
horrors  of  this  trafiBa  The  commerce  in  man  has  brutalised  a  tract  fifteen  def^rees 
on  each  side  the  equator,  and  forty  degrees  wide,  or  of  four  millions  of  square  niilee ; 
and  men  and  women  have  been  bred  for  sale  to  the  Christian  nations  during  the  last 
250  years,  and  wars  carried  on  to  make  prisoners  for  the  Christian  market  The 
Abb4  Kaynal  com)>utes  that,  at  the  time  of  his  writing,  9.000,000  of  slaves  had  been 
oonsumed  by  the  fiuropeans.   '*  Add  1,000,000  at  least  more,  for  it  is  about  ten  ysan 


SLA.  601  SMI 

Binee,"  nays  Hr.  Cooper,  who  published  letters  on  this  subject  in  1787.  In  the  year 
1768,  the  slaves  taken  from  their  own  continent  amounted  to  104,100.  In  1786,  the 
annual  number  was  about  100,000;  and  in  1807  (the  last  year  of  the  English  slavo 
trade),  it  was  shown  by  authentic  documents,  produced  by  government,  that  from 
1792  upwards  of  3.500,000  Africans  had  been  torn  from  their  country,  and  had  either 
miserably  perished  on  the  passage,  or  had  been  sold  in  the  West  Indies.* — BmIUt. 

SLAVE  TRADE  op  ENQLAI^D.  Captain,  afterwards  sir  John  Hawkins,  was  the  first 
Englishman,  after  the  discovery  of  America,  who  made  a  traffic  of  the  human  species. 
His  first  expedition  with  the  object  of  procuring  negroes  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and 
conveying  them  for  sale  to  the  West  Indies,  took  place  in  October.  1568.  See  OwinetL 
In  the  year  1786,  England  employed  130  ships,  and  carried  off  42,000  slaves ;  and 
such  was  the  extent  of  British  commerce  in  human  flesh,  that  at  the  period  of  slave 
emancipation  in  the  British  plantations  in  1833,  the  number  of  slaves,  which  had 
previously  been  considerably  more,  yet  then  amounted  to  770,280.  The  slave  trade 
question  wss  debated  in  parliament  in  1787.  The  debate  for  its  abolition  lasted  two 
days  in  April,  1791.  The  motion  of  Mr.  Wilberforce  was  lost  by  a  majority  of  88  to 
83,  April  3,  1798.  After  several  other  efforts  of  humane  and  just  men,  the  question 
was  introduced  under  the  auspices  of  lord  Grenville  and  Mr.  Fox,  then  ministers, 
March  31,  1806;  and  the  trade  was  finally  abolished  by  parliament,  March,  25,  1807. 
The  illustrious  Thomas  Clarkson,  whose  whole  life  may  be  said  to  have  been  passed 
in  labouring  to  effect  the  extinction  of  the  slave  trade,  died  Sept.  1846,  aged  85. 

SLAVES,  EMANCIPATION  of.  Act  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  throughout  the 
British  colonies,  and  for  the  promotion  of  industry  among  the  manumitted  slaves, 
and  for  compensation  to  the  persons  hitherto  entitled  to  the  services  of  such  slaves, 
by  the  grant  from  pariiament  of  20,000,000/.  sterling,  parsed  8  &  4  Will.  IV.  Aug. 
28,  1833.  By  the  operation  of  this  act,  slavery  terminated  in  the  British  possessions 
on  Aug.  1,  1834,  and  770,280  slaves  became  free.    See  Somerut,  the  Block. 

SLUYS,  NAVAL  BATTLE  or.  In  this  battle  Edward  III.  gained  a  signal  victory  over 
the  French.  The  English  had  the  wind  of  the  enemy,  and  the  sun  at  their  backs, 
and  began  the  action,  which  was  fierce  and  bloody,  the  English  archers  galling  the 
French  on  their  approach.  Two  hundred  and  thirty  French  ships  were  taken: 
thirty  thousand  Frenchmen  were  killed,  with  two  of  their  admirals ;  the  loss  of  the 
English  was  inconsiderable  :  June  24, 1340. — Naval  Chron.;  Hume, 

SMALCALD,  TREATY  or,  iv  Franconia.  The  league  entered  into  between  the 
elector  of  Brandenburg  and  the  other  princes  of  Germany  in  favour  of  Protestantism, 
1529-30.  For  the  subscribing  to  this  memorable  treaty,  see  Protettantt.  The 
emperor,  apprehensive  that  the  kings  of  France  and  England  would  enter  into  this 
league,  was  induced  to  sign  the  treaty  at  Nuremberg,  allowing  liberty  of  conscience 
to  the  Luthemns.— i^enau/^ 

SMALL-FOX.    See  InocutatvM  and  Vaccination. 

SMITHFIELD,  WEST,  situated  in  what  may  be  called  the  heart  of  the  city  of  London, 
was  once  a  favourite  walk  of  the  London  citizens,  outside  the  city-wslls.  Sir  W. 
Wallace  is  said  to  have  been  put  to  death  here  in  1305,  and  other  executions  have 
taken  place  here;  On  June  15,  1381,  Wat  Tyler  was  met  by  king  Richard  II.  at  this 
place,  and  was  stabbed  by  Walworth  the  mayor.  Many  tournaments  also  were  held 
here.  In  the  reign  of  Mary,  277  persons  perished  by  fire;  the  last  sufferer  was 
Bartholomew  Leggatt,  in  1555.  Bartholomew  fair  was  held  here  till  1853. — This 
place  is  mentioned  as  the  site  of  a  cattle-market  as  far  back  as  1150.  The  space 
devoted  to  this  purpose  was  enlarged  from  about  three  acres  to  four  and  a  half,  and 
in  1884  to  six  and  a  quarter.  The  ancient  regulations  were  called  the  "statutes  of 
Smith  field.*'  In  one  day  there  were  sometimes  assembled  4000  beasts,  and  30,000 
aheep.  The  annual  amount  of  the  sales  amounted  to  about  7,000,000/.  In  1846 
there  were  sold  here  226,132  beasts,  1,593,270  sheep  and  lambs,  26,356  calves,  33,531 
pigs.    There  were  about  160  salesmen.     The  contracted  space  of  the  market^  the 

*  European  avarice  has  been  glutted  with  the  murder  of  180.000.000  of  our  fellow-creatures,  reeol- 
lecting  that  for  erery  one  nlave  procured,  ten  are  slaughtered  iu  their  own  laud  in  war,  and  that  a  fifth 
die  on  the  passage,  and  a  third  in  the  seasoning.— Coop«r'«  LeUen  on  ike  Slave  Trade.  The  trade  was 
abolished  by  Austria  in  1782.  By  the  French  convention  in  1794.  By  England  ($ee  above)  in  1807. 
The  Allies,  at  Vienna,  declared  against  it,  Feb.  1815.  Napoleon,  in  the  hundred  days,  abolished  the 
trade,  March  29,  1815.  Treaty  with  Spain.  1817;  with  the  Netherlands,  May  1818;  with  Braall, 
Not.  1820.  But  this  horrid  traffic  continues  to  be  encournged  in  several  states.  Its  revival  was 
proposed  in  the  Congross  of  the  United  states  of  America,  Dec.  14,  1856,  and  negatived  by  183  votes 
in  58.  In  June  1857,  the  French  government  gave  sanction  to  the  conveyance  otyW  negroes  from 
Africa  to  Quad-doupu  uud  Miirtiiiico. 


SMO  602  SOC 

slaughtering  plaoea  acyoining,  and  many  other  nuimnoes,  gave  ground  to  mach  dis- 
satis&otion,  and  after  parliamentary  inveetigation,  an  act  was  pasMd  on  Aogut  1 , 
1851,  appointing  metropolitan  market  commiasionerB  with  powari  to  provide  a  new 
market,  slaughtering  places,  &c. ;  and  to  close  the  market  at  Smithfield  (14  &  15 
Vict.  c.  61).  The  act  was  carried  into  efifect.  Smithfield  was  used  as  a  eatils 
market  on  June  11, 1855,  for  the  last  time :  and  the  new  market  in  Copenhagea*fielda 
was  opened  on  June  18.    See  Metropolitan  Market, 

SSiOKE  NUISANCE.  After  much  opposition  an  act  of  parliament  was  obtained  to 
abate  this  nuisance,  16  &  17  Vict.  c.  128  (1858),  proceeding  from  chinmey  ahafta  and 
steamers  above  London  Bridge.  In  1856  another  act  was  obtained  for  its  farther 
application  to  steamers  below  Loudon  Bridge,  and  to  potteries  and  glaaa-honaai 
previously  exempted.    This  act  is  inoperative  until  Jan.  1,  1858. 

SMOLENSKO,  BATTLE  of.  One  of  the  most  memorable  of  the  celebrated  Roarian 
campaign  of  1812,  between  the  French  and  Russian  armies.  The  French  in  this  most 
sanguinary  engagement  were  three  times  repulsed,  but  they  ultimately  succeeded, 
and,  on  entering  Smolensko,  found  the  city,  which  had  been  bombarded,  burning  and 
partly  in  ruins.  Barclay  de  Tolly,  the  Russian  oommander-in-ohief.  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  the  emperor  Alexander,  because  he  retreated  after  the  battle,  and 
Kutusoff  succeeded  to  the  command,  Aug.  17,  1812. 

SMUGQLERa  The  customs  duties  were  instituted  originally  to  enable  the  king  to 
afford  protection  to  trade  against  pirates;  and  they  afterwards  became  a  branch  of 
public  revenue.  The  act  so  well  known  as  the  Smugglers*  Act  was  passed  in  17S6. 
The  severity  of  thia  act  was  mitigated  in  1781,  and  new  provisions  were  made  in  1784. 
A  revision  of  these  statutes  took  place,  Jan.  5,  1826. 

SNEEZING.  The  custom  of  saying  **  Gk>d  bless  you"  to  the  sneezer,  originated,  aoo(nd* 
ing  to  Strada,  among  the  ancients,  who,  through  an  opinion  of  the  danger  attending 
it,  after  sneezing  made  a  short  prayer  to  the  gods,  as  *'  Jupiter  help  me."  Polydore 
Vergil  says  it  took  its  rise  at  the  time  of  the  plague  of  a.d.  558,  in  which  the  infected 
fell  down  dead  sneezing,  though  seemingly  in  good  health. 

SNUFF-TAKING.  This  practice  took  its  rise  in  Eujgland  from  the  captures  made  of 
vast  quantities  of  snuff  by  sir  George  Rooke's  expedition  to  Vigo  in  1702.  The  priie 
having  been  sent  home  and  sold,  the  snuff-taking  soon  became  general,  from  which  the 
revenue  now  draws,  with  tobacco,  considerably  more  than  3,000,00(U.  per  annum.  In 
1839  there  were  imported  1,622,493  Iba  of  snuff,  of  which  196,305  lbs.  were  entered 
for  home  consumption ;  the  duty  was  88,263/.    See  Tobacco, 

SOAP.  This  article  was  imperfectly  known  to  the  ancients.  The  first  express  mention 
of  it  occurs  in  Pliny  and  Galen ;  and  the  former  declares  it  to  be  an  invention  of  the 
Gauls,  though  he  prefers  the  German  to  the  Gallic  soap.  In  remote  periods  doth* 
were  cleaned  by  being  rubbed  or  stamped  upon  in  water.  Nausicaa  and  her  attendants, 
Homer  tells  us,  washed  theirs  by  treading  upon  them  with  their  feet  in  pits  of  water. 
— Odyuey^  book  vi.  The  manufacture  of  soap  began  in  London  in  1524,  before  wfaieh 
time  it  was  supplied  by  Bristol  at  one  penny  per  pound.  The  duty  upon  aoap,  aet 
down  by  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  (Mr.  Gladstone)  as  yielding  a  yearly  revenoe 
of  1,126,0002.  was  totally  abolished  in  the  session  of  1853  (16  &  17  Vict  c.  39). 

SOBRAON,  BATTLE  of;  India.  The  British  army,  35,000  strong,  under  sir  Hugh 
(now  viscount)  Gk>ugh,  attacked  the  Sikh  force  on  the  SuUej.  The  enemy  was  dis- 
lodged after  a  dreadful  contest,  and  all  their  batteries  taken ;  and  in  attempting  the 
passage  of  the  river  by  a  floating-bridge  in  their  rear,  the  weight  of  the  masses  that 
crowded  upon  it  caused  it  to  break  down,  and  more  than  10,000  Sikhs  were  killed, 
wounded,  or  drowned.    The  British  lo«s  was  2388  men ;  fought  Feb.  10, 1846. 

SOCIALISTS.  The  doctrines  of  socialism  were  advocated  in  London,  Jan.  24, 18S4.  bj 
the  celebrated  Robert  Owen,  who  is  the  founder  of  the  sect,  if  it  be  entitled  to  the 
name.  This  individual  has  been  labouring  indefatigably  since  that  time  to  propagate 
his  doctrines,  and  the  freedom  of  religious  thought  and  latitude  in  morals  sscribed  to 
the  socialists  have  served  to  iucrease  their  numbers.  The  French  sodalists,  termed 
Communitttf  became  a  powerful  political  body  in  that  country,  and  were  much  impU* 
cated  in  the  revolution  in  1848. 

SOCIETIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS,  Litbkart  and  Scibniifio,  in  Great  Britain.  Further 
details  of  many  of  these  will  be  found  under  their  respective  h«kls.  AH  in  the  liit 
below  are  in  London,  except  otherwise  stated.    An  act  was  prnwed,  Aug.  II,  l^H 

/ 


80C 


603 


SOL 


*to  afford  facilitiea  for  the  establtthment  of  Institutions  for  the  promotion  of 
Literature  and  Science,"  by  grants  of  land,  ftc. :  and  for  their  regulation.  The  Royal 
and  London  Institutions  are  exempted  from  the  operation  of  the  act. 


SOCIETIES,  INSTITUTIONS,  Ac. 


Boyal  Society  ....  Charter  1662 
Society  of  Antiquaries  (Charter  1751)  1717 
Society  of  Dilettanti  ....  1734 
Boyal  Society  of  BdinbiuiBrt>(^harter  1783)  1739 
Society  of  Arts  .  .  (Charter  1847)  1753 
Manchester  Lit.  Phil.  Society  .1781 

Royal  Irish  Academy  .  Charter  nw 

Linnean  Society  (Charter  1802)  1788 

Newcastle  Lit.  PhiL  Society  .  .  .  1793 
Royal  Institution  (Charter  1810)  1800 

Horticultural  Society  (Charter  1809)  1804 
MediooChirurgical  Society  (Charterl834)  1805 
Loudon  Institution  ....  1805 

Oeolofrical  Society  (Charter  1820)  1807 

Russell  Institution  .  .        .1808 

Lirerpool  Lit  PhU.  Society  .  .  .1812 
Newcastle  Antiquarian  Society  .  .  1813 
Institution  of  Civil  Bnginoeni 

(Charter  182S)  1818 
Leed?  Lit  PhiL  Society  .        .        .  1820 

Boyal  Society  of  Literature 

(Charter  1826)  1820 
Medico-Botanical  Society  .  1821 

Hull  Lit  Phil.  Society  ....  1822 
YorkAhire  Philosophical  Society  .  .  1H22 
Sheffield  Lit  Phil.  Society  .    .  1822 

Royal  Asiatic  Society  .  .  Charter  1823 
Iaw  Society   .  .    (Charter  1831)  1S23 

Mechanics'  Institution    ....  1823 

Athennum  Club 1824 

Western  Literary  Institution  .  1825 

Eastern  Literary  Institution      .        .     .  1825 

Zoological  Society 1826 

Aahmolean  Society.  Oxford  .  .  1828 
Royal  Geographic^  Society  .  .  1830 
Gaelic  Society 1»30 


1830 
1831 
1831 
1832 
18S3 
1834 
1S34 
1885 


United  Service  Institution 
Astronomical  Society 
British  Amocuktion 
Marylebone  Literary  In^tution 
Entomnlogical  Society    . 
Statistical  Society        .... 
Westminster  Literary  Institution  . 
Leicester  Lit  and  PhiL  Society . 
Royal  Institute  of  British   Architects 

(Charter  1837)  18S5 

Botanical  Society 1836 

"  ~  .    .  1836 

.  1837 

.    .  1837 

.  1838 

.     .  1838 

.  1839 

.     .  1839 

.  1839 

.     .  1840 

.  1840 

.     .  1840 

.  1840 

.     .  1841 

.  1841 

.     .  1842 

.  1842 

.     .  1843 

.  1843 

.     .  1843 

.  1843 

ao44 

.  1844 

.     .  1846 

.  1846 

.     .  1851 


Numismatic  Society 
Electrical  Society     . 
Omithologiciil  Society 
Royal  Agricultural  Society 
Camden  Society 
Royal  Botanic:U  Society 
Microscopical  Society 
Bcclesiological  Society     . 
Parker  Society     . 
Percv  Society 
London  Library  . 
Shakespeare  Society 
Chemical  Society 
Pharmaceutic-il  Society 
Philological  Society     . 
Dublin  Philosophical  Society 
Archiaological  Association 
Archsaological  Institute  . 
Sydenham  Society 
Ethnological  Society 
Syro-E^ptian  Society 
Rty  Society 
Cavendish  Society 
Uakluyt  Society 
I  Meteorolugical  Society 


SOCilS^IANS.  Persons  who  accept  the  opinions  of  Faustua  Socinus  (died  1562),  and 
his  nephew  Laolius  (died  1601),  Siennese  noblemen.  They  held — 1.  That  the  Eternal 
Father  was  the  ooe  only  God,  and  that  Jesus  Christ  was  no  otherwise  God  than  by  his 
saperiority  to  all  other  creatures ;  2.  That  Christ  was  not  a  mediator ;  8.  That  hell 
will  endure  for  a  time,  after  which  soul  and  body  will  be  destroyed ;  and  4.  That  it 
is  unlawful  for  princes  to  make  war. — Hook, 

SGDOlii  AND  GOMORRAH.  These  cities,  with  all  their  mhabitants,  were  destroyed  by 
fire  from  heaven,  1893  B.C.,  Oen,  xix. 

SODOR  AXD  MAN,  BISHOPRIC  of.  See  Man,  BUhopric  of.  Sodor  is  a  village  of 
loolmkilL  Dr.  Johnson  calls  it  "  the  luminary  of  the  Caledonian  regions,  whence," 
he  adds,  *'  savage  clans  and  roving  barbarians  derived  the  benefits  of  knowledge,  and 
the  blessings  of  religion."  The  bishop's  seat  was  at  Rushin,  or  Castletown,  in  the 
Isle  of  Man,  and  in  Latin  is  entitled  Sodoreiuit,  But  when  that  island  became 
dependent  upon  the  kingdom  of  England,  the  western  islands  withdrew  themselves 
from  the  obedience  of  their  bishop,  and  had  a  bishop  of  their  own,  whom  they  entitled 
also  Sodorensis,  but  commonly  bishop  of  the  Isles.  See  IsU».  Germanus  was  settled 
here  by  St.  Patrick  in  447.  The  bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man  is  not  a  lord  of  parliament. 

SOLAR  SYSTEM.  The  system  nearly  as  now  accepted,  after  the  investigations  and 
disooveries  of  many  enlightened  centuries  and  ages,  was  taught  by  Pythagoras  of 
Samos,  about  529  B.o.  In  his  system  of  the  universe  he  placed  the  sun  in  the  centre, 
and  all  the  planets  moving  in  elliptical  orbits  round  it — a  doctrine  superseded  by  the 
Ptolemaic  system  (u^iich  tee).  The  system  of  Pythagoras  was  revived  by  Copernicus, 
and  it  is  hence  called  the  Copernican  system.  Its  truth  was  fully  demonstrated  by 
air  Isaac  Newton,  in  1695. 

SOLEBAT,  NAVAL  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  fleets  of  England  and  France  on  one 
side,  and  the  Dutch  on  the  other,  the  former  commanded  by  the  duke  of  York, 
afterwards  James  II.  The  English  lost  four  ships,  and  the  Dutch  three ;  but  the 
enemy  fled,  and  were  pursued  by  the  British  to  their  own  coasts.     In  this  obstinate 


SOL  604  SOU 

and  bloody  engagement  the  earl  of  Sandwich  was  blown  up,  and  some  thounnd  men 
were  killed  and  wonnded,  May  28,  1672.    See  Naval  BatUet. 

SOLOMON'S  TEMPLE.  The  foundation  of  this  magnificent  pile  was  laid  at  Jeroaalem. 
480  years  after  the  deliverance  from  Egypt,  1012  B.C.  The  temple  solemnly  dedicated 
to  the  Lord  Jehovah,  on  Friday,  Oct.  80,  1004  B.a  being  1000  years  before  the  birth 
of  the  Redeemer. — Usher,  Lenglk,  Solomon  was  the  author  of  many  bookf,  of  which 
we  have  still  preserved  in  the  Bible  his  Proverbs,  the  Bodk  of  EccUnatUi,  the  CatUida 
or  Song  of  Songs,  and  the  7lBt  and  126th  Psalms. 

SOLWAT  MOSS.  Bordering  on  Scotland.  It  swelled,  owing  to  heavy  rains;  and  npwuds 
of  400  acres  rose  to  such  a  height  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  that  at  Isst  it  rolled 
forward  like  a  torrent,  and  continued  its  course  above  a  mile,  sweeping  along  with  it 
houses,  trees,  and  all  in  its  way.  It  covered  600  acres  at  Netherby,  and  deitrojed 
about  thirty  small  villages,  Nov.  13, 1771. 

SOMBRERO,  ISLAND  of.  On  this  desert  isle,  Robert  Jeffeiy,  a  British  man-ofwir'a 
man,  was  put  ashore  by  his  commander,  the  hon.  captain  W.  LiU^e,  for  the  offence  of 
having  tapped  a  barrel  of  beer  when  the  ship  was  on  short  allowance.  He  was  mira- 
culously saved,  after  sustaining  life  for  eight  days  on  a  few  limpets  and  rain-water,  by 
an  American  vessel  touching  at  the  rock,  Dec.  13,  1807.  Jeffery  returned  to  England; 
and  sir  Francis  Burdett  advocated  his  cause  in  parliament  The  sufferer  received 
as  a  compensation  from  captain  Lake  600/.,  who  was  tried  by  a  court-martial,  and 
dismissed  the  service,  Feb.  10,  1810. 

SOMERSET,  THB  BLACEu  The  memorable  case  of  this  slave  determined  by  the  jadg- 
ment  of  the  court  of  king's  bench,  at  the  instance  of  Mr.  Granville  Sharpe.  A  poor 
slave  named  Somerset,  brought  to  England,  was,  because  of  his  ill  state,  turned  adrift 
by  his  master.  By  the  charity  of  Mr.  Sharpe,  he  was  restored  to  health,  when  bia 
unfeeling  and  avaricious  master  again  claimed  him.  This  was  resisted,  and  a  suit  was 
the  consequence,  which  established,  by  its  result  in  favour  of  the  black,  the  great 
point,  that  slavery  could  not  exist  in  Qreat  Britain^  June  22,  1772. 

SOMERSET-HOUSE.  Formerly  a  palace,  founded  on  the  site  of  several  churches  and 
other  buildings  levelled  for  the  purpose  in  1549,  by  the  protector  Somerset,  wboee 
residence  fell  to  the  crown  after  his  execution.  In  this  palace  queen  Elinbeth  resided 
at  certain  times ;  Anne  of  Denmark  kept  her  court ;  and  Catherine,  queen  of  Charle«IL 
dwelt  during  a  portion  of  the  life  of  her  volatile  spouse,  and  continued  after  his  death, 
until  she  retired  to  her  native  country.  Old  Somerset-house, which  was  a  mixture  of 
Grecian  and  Gothic,  was  demolished  in  1775,  and  the  present  magnificent  edifice,  from 
a  design  by  sir  William  Chambers,  erected  for  the  accommodation  of  the  public  offices. 
The  Royal  Academy  of  Arts  first  assembled  in  the  apartments  given  the  monben 
by  the  king,  Ji«n.  17,  1771.  Large  suites  of  government  buildings  were  erected  in 
1774.  The  Navy-oflBce,  Pipe-office,  Victualling  and  other  offices,  were  removed  here 
in  1788,  and  various  government  departments  since.  The  east  wing,  forming  the 
King's  College  (see  Kin^s  OoHege),  was  completed  in  1833.  By  an  act  passed  in  1864, 
the  offices  of  the  duchy  of  Cornwall  are  to  be  transferred  to  a  building  to  be  erected 
at  Pimllco.    See  Boyal  Society. 

SONTHALS.  A  tribe  of  Northern  India  brought  to  Bengal  about  1880,  where  they 
prospered ;  till,  partly  from  the  instigations  of  a  fanatic,  and  partly  from  the  exac- 
tions of  money-lenders,  they  broke  out  into  rebellion  in  July  1855,  and  committed 
fearful  outrages.  They  were  quite  subdued  early  in  1856,  and  many  were  removed 
to  the  newly -conquered  proviuce  of  Pegu. 

SORBONNE.  A  society  of  ecclesiastics  at  Paris,  founded  by  Robert  de  Sorbon  in  1252. 
The  members  lived  in  common,  and  devoted  themselves  to  study  and  grataitous 
teaching.  They  attained  a  European  reputation  as  a  faculty  of  theology*  their  jadg- 
ment  being  frequently  appealed  to  from  the  14th  to  the  17th  centuriea  The 
influence  of  the  Sorbonne  was  declining  when  the  society  was  broken  up  in  1789. 

SORCERERS  and  MAGICIANS.  A  law  was  enacted  against  their  neductioDS,  S3 
Hen.  VIII.  1541 ;  and  another  statute  equally  severe  was  passed  5  Elis.  156S.  The 
pretension  to  sorcery  was  made  capital,  1  James  I.  1603.    See  Witchcraft, 

SOUDAN  OB  SOUJAH.  The  title  of  the  lieutenants-generals  of  the  caliphs,  which  they 
went  by  in  their  provinces  and  armies.  Theee  officers  afterwards  made  themselvei 
sovereigns.  Saladin,  general  of  the  forces  of  Noradine,  king  of  Damascus,  was  the 
first  thnt  took  upon  him  this  title  in  Egypt,  &.d.  1165.  after  having  killed  the 
caliph  Caymu 


sou  605  SOU 

SOULAQES  COLLECTION.  About  1827,  M.  Soulages  of  Thoulouse,  collected  790 
specimeoB  of  Italian  art  and  workmanship,  &&  These  were  bought  for  11,000/.  by 
73  English  gentlemen,  with  the  view  of  first  exhibiting  them  to  the  public,  and  after-' 
wards  selling  them  to  the  government.  They  form  part  of  the  "  Art  Treasures  "  now 
on  view  at  Manchester  (1857). 

SOUND.  Fewer  than  thirty  vibrations  !n  a  second  give  no  sound;  and  when  the 
vibrations  exceed  7520  in  a  second,  the  tones  cease  to  be  discriminated.  Robesval 
Btatas  the  velocity  of  sound  at  the  rate  of  560  feet  in  a  second ;  Qassendus  at  1473  ; 
I>erham,  at  1142  feet  At  Piaris,  where  cannon  were  fired  under  many  varieties  of 
weather,  in  1738,  it  was  found  to  be  1107.  The  fire  of  the  British  on  landuig  in 
Egypt  was  distinctly  heard  130  miles  on  the  sea.    See  Aevuttiet. 

SOUND  DUTIES.  Till  the  present  year  no  merchant  ship  was  allowed  to  pass  the 
Sound  (a  narrow  channel  separating  Zealand  from  Sweden)  without  cleariog  at 
Elsineur  and  paying  tolL  These  duties  had  their  origin  in  an  agreement  between  the 
king  of  Denmark  and  the  Hanse  towns  (a.d.  1348),  by  which  the  former  undertook 
to  maintain  lighthouses,  Ac,  along  the  Cattegat,  and  the  latter  to  pay  duty  for 
the  same.  The  first  treaty  with  England  in  relation  to  this  was  in  1450 ;  other 
countries  followed.  In  1S56  the  United  States  determined  to  pay  the  dues  no  more ; 
and  in  the  same  year  the  Danish  proposed  that  these  dues  should  be  capitalised ; 
which  was  eventually  agreed  to,  the  sum  agreed  on  being  30,570,698  rix-dollars.  In 
Auk.  1857,  the  British  paid  10,126,855  rix-dollars  (1,125.855/.)  to  the  Danes  as  their 
proportion.  — The  passage  of  the  Sound  was  effected,  in  defiance  of  strong  fortresses, 
by  sir  Hyde  Parker  and  lord  Nelson,  April  2,  1801.    See  £aUi4i  Sxpeditum. 

SOUNDINGS  AT  SEA  Captain  Ross,  of  H.M.S.  (Ediput,  in  1840,  took  extraordinaxy 
soundings  at  sea.  One  of  them  was  taken  900  miles  west  of  St.  Helena,  where  it 
extended  to  the  depth  of  5000  fathoms.  Another  sounding  was  made  in  the  latitude 
of  38  degrees  S.  and  longitude  9  degrees  W.  about  300  miles  from  the  Cape  of  Oood 
Hope^  when  2266  fiithoms  were  sounded ;  the  weight  employed  amounted  to  450  lb. 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  Was  discovered  by  capt.  Sturt  in  1830,  and  explored  shortly 
after  by  capt  Barker  and  Mr.  Kent,  the  former  of  whom  was  killed  by  the  natives. 
The  boundaries  of  the  province  were  fixed  by  4  &  5  Will.  IV.  c.  95  (1884) ;  and  it  was 
occupied  Dec.  26,  1836  by  capt  Hindmarah,  the  first  governor.  It  was  colonised 
according  to  Mr.  E.  Qibbon  Wakefield's  scheme,  which  was  carried  out  by  the  South 
Australian  Colonisation  Association.  The  colony  for  several  yearn  underwent  severe 
trials  through  the  great  influx  of  emigrants,  land-jobbing,  buildiug,  speculations  &a 
which  produced  almost  universal  bankruptcy  in  1839.  In  five  years  after,  the  energy 
of  the  colonists  had  overcome  their  difficulties  and  the  prosperity  of  the  colony 
appeared  fully  established.  In  1842  the  highly  productive  Burra  Burra  copper  mines 
were  discovered,  and  large  fortunes  were  suddenly  realised ;  but  in  1851  the  discovery 
of  gold  in  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria  almost  paralysed  this  province  by  drawing 
off  a  large  part  of  the  labouring  population.  Very  little  gold  was  found  in  South 
Australia ;  but  a  reaction  has  taken  place  in  favour  of  the  copper  mines  and  agriculture, 
&C.  Before  the  discovery  of  gold  little  trade  existed  between  Adelaide  (the  capital  of 
South  Australia)  and  Melbourne ;  but  in  1852  gold  was  transmitted  from  the  latter 
to  the  former  to  the  amount  of  2,215,167/.  principally  for  bread-stu£b,  farm  produce, 
&c.    The  bishopric  of  Adelaide  was  founded  in  1847. 

SOUTH  KENSINGTON  MUSEUM,  near  Brompton  old  church,  containing  the  pictures 
of  Mr.  Sheepshanks,  as  well  as  specimens  of  sculpture  and  art,  educational  collections, 
products  of  the  animal  kingdom,  &c.,  was  opened  on  June  24, 1857. 

SOUTH-SEA  BUBBLK  This  destructive  speculation  was  commenced  in  1710 ;  and  the 
company  incorporated  by  statute,  1716.  The  bubble,  which  ruined  thousands  of 
families,  exploded  in  1720,  and  the  directors'  estates,  to  the  value  of  2,014,000/.  were 
seized  in  1721.  Mr.  Knight,  the  cashier,  absconded  with  100,000/.;  but  he  com- 
pounded the  fraud  for  10,000/.  and  returned  to  England  in  1743.  Almost  all  the , 
wealthy  persons  in  the  kingdom  had  become  stockjobbers  and  speculators  in  this 
fatal  scheme.  The  artifices  of  the  directors  bad  raised  the  shares,  originally  of  100/., 
to  the  enormous  price  of  1000/.    See  Law*t  Bubble. 

SOUTHCOTT,  JOANNA.  A  fanatic  of  this  name,  bom  in  1750,  formerly  of  Exeter, 
came  to  London,  where  her  followers  at  one  period  amounted  to  many  thousands,  and 
among  whom  were  colonels  and  generals  in  the  army,  although  the  low  and  ignorant 


sou 


606 


SPA 


principally  were  her  dupes.  In  1792  she  announced  henelf  as  the  woman  spoken  of 
in  the  book  of  Reyelation ;  and  a  diaorder  of  rather  rare  occurrence  gave  her  the  out- 
ward appearance  of  pregnancy  after  she  had  passed  her  gnmd  climacteric,  &TOQriog 
the  delusion  that  she  would  be  the  mother  of  the  promised  Shiloh.  She  died  Dec  27, 
1814.     In  1851  there  existed  in  England  four  congregations^  expecting  her  retun. 

SOUTHWABK.  and  SOUTH WAEE  BRIDGE.  This  part  of  London  was  goremed  bj 
its  own  bailiffs  till  1327.  The  city,  howeTer,  found  great  inconyenieDoe  from  the 
number  of  malefactors  who  escaped  thither,  in  order  to  be  out  of  the  reach  and  cog- 
nisance of  the  city  magistrates ;  and  a  grant  was  made  of  Sonthwark  to  the  city  of 
London  by  the  crown,  for  a  small  annuity.  In  Edward  YL's  reign  it  was  formed  into 
a  city  ward,  and  was  named  Bridge- Ward  Without,  1560. — Southwark-bridge  wis 
begun  Sept.  23,  1814  ;  and  was  completed  March  26, 1819,  at  an  expense  of  800,000^ 
It  consists  of  three  great  cafet-irou  arches,  resting  on  massive  stone  piers  and  abutp 
ments ;  the  distance  between  the  abutments  is  708  feet;  the  centre  arch  is  240  feet 
span,  the  two  others  210  feet  each;  and  the  total  weight  of  iron  5308  tons. 

SOUTHWOLD  BAT,  Naval  Ekgagehent  off.    See  Sold>ay, 

SOVEREIQN,  Tbe  Coin.  The  name  of  an  ancient  and  modem  gold  coin  of  these 
realms.  In  Henry  I 's  reign,  a  coin  of  this  denomination  was  issued,  of  the  valae  of 
22#.  and  one  twenty-fourth  part  of  the  weight  of  a  pound  of  gold.  In  84  Henry  YllL 
sovereigns  were  coined  of  the  value  of  20s.  which  afterwards  (4  ft  6  Edw.  YI.)  passed 
for  24f.  and  80s.  By  56  Geo.  IIL  sovereigns  of  the  new  coinage  were  directed  to  paai 
for  20s.  and  were  issued  from  the  Mint  same  year,  1816.     See  Com  and  OoUL 

SPA-FIELDS  RIOTS.  Here  upwards  of  30,000  persons  assembled  to  vote  an  addreai  to 
the  Prince  Regent,  from  the  distressed  manufacturers,  Kov.  15,  1816.  Aaecoud 
meeting,  Dec.  2  following,  terminated  in  an  alarming  riot;  the  shops  of  several gnn* 
smiths  were  attacked  for  arms  by  the  rioters ;  and  in  the  shop  of  Mr.  Beokwith,  on 
Snowhill,  Mr.  Piatt  was  wounded,  and  much  injury  was  done  before  the  tumult  was 
suppressed.    For  this  riot,  Cashman  the  seaman  was  hanged,  March  12, 1817. 

SPAIN.  The  first  settlers  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  progeny  of  Tubal,  fifth  son  of 
Japheth.  The  Phcenicions  and  Carthaginians  successively  planted  colonies  on  tbe 
coasts  ;  and  the  Romans  possessed  the  whole  coimtry.  In  the  decline  of  theBomsn 
empire,  Spain  was  seized  by  the  Vandals,  Alans,  and  Suevi ;  afterwards  subdued  by 
the  Visigoths,  who  laid  the  foundation  of  tbe  present  monarchy. 


The  Vandals  and  Suevi  wrest  Spain  ttam 
the  Romans       ....        a.d.  412 

The  Visigoths  enter  Spain  under  their 
leader,  Euric 472 

The  Saracens  from  Arabia  invade  the 
country 71S,  el  teg. 

PelAgiua,  a  ro3ral  Visigoth,  proclaimed 
king  of  Asturifui, 718 

AlphoDBUs  II.  refusing  to  pay  tbe  Sara- 
cene  the  aunnol  tribute  of  100  vir:^pua, 
war  is  declared :  Alphoueus  is  victo- 
rious, and  obtains  too  apiicUation  of 
"the  Chaste"    ....    791,  et  teg. 

Inlgo,  first  king  of  Navarre.  &c.     .        .    880 

Fenllnand  I.  count  of  Castile,  takes  the 
tiUeofking 1020 

Union  of  Navarro  and  Castille  .  1031 

The  kingdom  of  Armgou  commenced 
under  Ramirea  1 10S6 


by 


io;j7 


1087 


9eq. 


Leon  and  Aaturiaa  united  to  Castile 
Portugal  taken  from  the  Si'racens 

Henry  of  Bourbon  .... 
Tho  Saracens,  beset  on  all  sides  by  the 
Christians,  call  in  the  aid  of  the  Moors 
fW>m  AfHca,  who  seise  the  dominiona 
tliey  came  to  protect,  and  subdue  the 
Saracens  ....  1091,  et 
The  Moors  defeated  in  several  battles  by 

Alphuusus  I.  of  Navarre  .        .1118 

Twelve  Moorish  kinss  overcome  in  one 

great  pitched  battle  .        .    .  1136 

University  of  Salamanca  foimded  .        .  1200 

Leon  and  Castile  rc-united         .        .    .  1226 

Cordova,    the    residence   of    the    frst 

Moorish  kinas,  taken  by  Ferdinand  of 

Castilo  and  Leon 1S36 


The  kingdom  of  Granada  begun  by  tlw 
Moors,  their  last  reftige  from  the  power 
of  the  Christiana    .        .       .       a.d.  123^ 

Reign  of  Alphonsus  the  Wise  •  1^* 

The  crown  of  Navanre  passes  to  the  rojal 
family  of  France J**"* 

200,000  Moors  invade  Spain    .       .      .  1S2T 

They  are  defeated  by  Alphoosiu  XI.  with 
great  slaughter 

The  infant  Don  Henriques,  son  of  John 
the  First  of  Castile,  first  had  the  title 
of  prince  of  Asturias  .      .   • 

Ferdmand  II.  of  Arragon  marries  Issr 
bella  of  Castile ;  and  nearly  the  whok 
Christian  dominions  of  Spain  sre 
united  in  one  monarchy 

Oranada  taken  after  a  two  yesn^ 
siege  ;  and  tho  power  of  the  Moon  is 
finally  extirpated  by  the  valour  d 
Ferdinand 

Columbus  is  sent  from  Spain  to  ezplon 
the  western  world 

Ferdinand  conquers  the  greatO'  paii  of 
the  kingdom  of  Navarre 

Accession  of  the  house  of  Austria  to  the 
throne  of  Spain 

Charles  V.  of  Spain  and  Germany  retiwi 
from  the  world ^'** 

Philip  II.  commences  his  bloody  perse- 
cution  of  the  Protestants        .  1«*| 

The  Escuriol  begun  building  .  •  ^^ 

Portugal  united  to  Spain    .        .       .   .  !«• 

The  Invincible  Spanish  Armada  de- 
stroyed. See  Armada  and  Xavol 
Battlea •  l* 

Philip  III.  banishes  the  Moon  and  tbsir 


1340 


13S8 


1474 


I49S 

149S 
1515 
151« 


SPA 


607 


SPA 


SPAIN,  eonti»ued. 

desoendants,  to  Ui«  number  of  900, 000, 

fromSpahi  ....  a.o.  1610 
Philip  IV.  loM8  Portugal  .1640 

Gibraltar  taken  Vy  Um  Bngliih  .        .    .  1704 
Philip  V.  invadM  Nanlea  .  1714 

Charlea  III.  king  of  the  Two  Sidliee, 

•ttcceeds  to  tho  erown  .    .  1760 

BatUe  of  Cape  St  Vincent       .    Feb.  14. 1707 
Spanish  treasure-ehipe,  valued  at  3,000, 000 

dcdlara,  seised  by  the  English,  Oct  20,  1804 
Battle   of  Trafdgar.       See   Tn/algar, 

Battle  of  ...  ,  Oct  21,  1806 
Sway  of  the  prinoe  of  Peace  .  .  1806 

TheFrench  enter  Spain  .    .  1807 

Conspiracy  of  the  prince  of  Astnrias 

against  his  &ther  .  .  July  26, 1807 
Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  .  .  Oct  27,  1807 
Tho  French  take  Madrid  March,  1808 

The  jninoe  of  Peace  dismissed  by  the 

king  of  Spain  March  18»  1808 

Abdication  of  Charles  IV.  in  fayour  of 

Ferdinand  March  19, 1808 

And  at  fiay  onne,  in  &vour  of  his  "  friend 

and  ally  "  Napoleon,  when  Ferdinand 

relinquished  the  crown  .  .  May  1,  1808 
Tho  Frnich  are  massacred  at  Madrid, 

May  2,  1808 
Asturias  rises  «n  maue  .  May  8,  1808 

Kiqwleon  assembles  the  notables  at  Bay- 

onno May  26,  1808 

Joseph  Bonaparte   enters    Madrid   as 

king  of  Spain        .  .    July  12,  1808 

He  retires  from  the  capital  .  July  29,  1808 
Supreme  Junta  installed  Sept  1808 

Madrid  retaken   by   the  French,   and 

Joseph  restored  .  Dec.  2,  1808 

The  royal  &mily  of  Spain  imprisoned  in 

the  palace  of  Chamoery  in  Savoy, 

Deo.  6, 1808 

[Spain  now  becomes  the  scene  of  the  late 
glorious  struggle  called  the  Peninsular 
War.  For  the  events  of  which,  see  the 
articles  severally.] 

The  Spanish  Cortes  assemble  Sept  24,  1810 
Constitution  of  the  Cortes  .  May  8.  1812 
Ferdinand  VII.  restored  May  14,  1814 

Spanish  revolution  began  .  .  Jan.  1,  1820 
l^rdinand  swears  to  tna  constitution  of 

the  Cortes  March  8.  1820 

Removal  of  the  king  to  Seville,   ana 

thence  to  Cadis  .         March  20, 1823 

The  French  enter  Spain  .  April  7,  1823 
They  invest  Cadiz  .        .  June  26,  1823 

Battle  of  the  Trocadoro        .        Aug.  31, 1823 
Despotism   resumed;    the   Cortes  dis- 
solved; executions        .  Oct  1823 
Riego  put  to  death       .        .      Kov.  27,  1823 
The  French  evacuate  Cbdis      .  Sept  21,  1829 
Cadiz  made  a  ft^  port         .        Feb.  24, 1829 
Salique  law  abolished               March  26,  1830 
Queen  of  Spain  appointed  resent  during 
the  king's  indisposition,  and  a  complete 
change  made  in  the  ministry,  Oct  26.  1832 
Don  Ctu'los  declares  himself  legitimate 
successor  to  his.brother's  throne  sb  ould 
the  king  die         ...    April  29, 1833 
Death  of  Charles  IV.    and  his  queen 
assumes  the  title  of  governing  queen, 
until  Isabella  II.  her  infant  daughter, 
attains  her  minority                Sept  29, 18S8 
The  royalist  volunteers  disarmed  with 

some  bloodshed  at  Madrid       Oct  27,  1888 
Don  Osrloe  lands  at  Portsmouth  with 

his  fiimily  .  June  IS,  1884 

He  suddenly  appears  among  his  adhe- 
rents in  Spain  .July  10, 1834 
The  peers  vote  the  perpetual  exclusion  of 
Don  Carlos  from  the  throne  .  Aug.  30,  1884 

[Here  commences  the  desolating  civil 


war,  in  which  the  British  auxiliaries 
take  the  side  of  the  queen.] 

Espartero  gains  the  battle  of  Bilboa,  and 
is  ennobled     ....   Dec.  26,1886 

General  Evans  retires  (Vt>m  the  com- 
mand of  the  auxiliary  le^on,  and  ar- 
rives in  London  after  having  achieved 
various  successes  in  Spain      June  20, 1887 

Madrid  is  declared  in  a  state  of  siege, 

Aug.  11, 1837 

[EqiMutero  and  other  Christina  generals 
engage  with  the  Carlists,  and  numerous 
conflicts  take  place  with  various 
success.] 

Madrid  is  again  declared  in  astate  of  siqpe, 

Oct  80,  1838 

The  Spanish  Cortes  dissolved   .  June  1,  1839 

The  Carlists  under  Marota  desert  Don 
Carlos        ....        Aug.  26.  1839 

Marota  and  Espartero  conclude  a  treaty 
of  peace        ....    Aug.  2V,  1839 

Don    Carlos  seeks   refuge   in   France, 

Sept  13, 1839 

Madrid  again  declared  in  a  state  of  detre, 

Feb.  23,  1840 

Surrender  of  Morello  .    May  28.  1840 

Cabrera,  the  Carlist  general,  unable  to 
maintain  the  war,  enters  France  with 
a  body  of  his  troops    .  July  7, 1840 

The  British  auxiliones  evacuate  St.  Se- 
bastian and  Passages  Auff.  25.  1840 

Revolutionary  movement  at  Madrid; 
the  authorities  triumphant  .    Sept.  1, 1840 

Dismissal  of  the  miniitry,  and  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Cortes  Sept  9,  1840 

Espartero  makes  his  triumphal  entry 
into  Madrid  Oct.  6, 1840 

The  queen  regent  appoints  a  new  minis- 
Uy,  who  are  nominated  by  Espartero, 

Oct.  6,  1840 

The  abdication  of  the  queen  regent  o 
Spain Oct  12,  1840 

[She  subsequently  leaves  the  kingdom ; 
visits  France ;  next  settles  in  Sicily ; 
but  returns  to  France.] 

Espartero,  duke  of  Victory,  expels  the 
papal  nuncio  Dec  29, 1840 

The  Spanish  Cortes  declare  Espartero 
regent  diuing  the  minority  of  the 
young  queen  .        .   April  12, 1841 

Queen  Christina's  protest  to  the  Spanish 
nation         ....        July  19,  1841 

Insurrection  in  favour  of  Christina  is 
commenced  at  Pampehina  by  general 
O'Donnell's  army       .  Oct  2,  1841 

It  spreads  to  Vittoria  and  other  parts  of 
the  kingdom  ....         Oct  1841 

Don  Diego  Leon  attacks  the  palace  at 
Madrid,  and  bis  followers  are  repulsed, 
and  numbers  of  them  slain  by  the 
queen's  guards  Oct  7, 1841 

Don  Diego  Leon,  having  been  seized,  is 
shot  at  Madrid  .        .  Oct  16,  1841 

Zurbano  captures  Bilboa  Oct.  21,  1841 

Rodil,  the  constitutional  general  enters 
Vittoria     .     •  .        .  Oct  21,  1841 

Montes  de  Oca  shot  Oct  21, 1841 

General  O'Donnell  takes  ref^ige  in  the 
French  territory      .        .    .     Oct.  21, 1841 

Espartero  decrees  the  suspension  of 
queen  Christina's  pension      .  Oct  26, 1641 

The  f\ieros  of  the  Basque  provinces  are 
abolished      ....        Oct  S9,  1841 

Borlo  and  Oobemado,  implicated  in  the 
Christina  plot,  are  put  to  death  at 
Madrid         ....        Nov.  9,  1841 

Espartero  makes  his  triumphal  entry 
into  Madrid    .  Nov.  28,1841 


SPA 


608 


SPA 


SPAIN,  eonlinued, 

Qenend  {Midoii  of  aU  penona  not  yet 
tried,  oottoemed  in  the  erentB  of  Octo- 
ber      Dec.  IS,  1841 

The  effective  strength  of  the  army  fixed 
at  130,000  men  .    June  28,  1842 

An  insurroction  breaks  out  at  Barcelona; 
the  national  guard  joins  the  populace, 

Nov.  13.  1842 

Battle  in  the  streets  between  the  national 
gusfd  and  the  troops ;  the  latter  loee 
500  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  retreat 
to  the  citadel     .  Nov.  15,  1842 

The  troops  evacuate  the  dtadel,  and 
retire  to  Montjuieh  .   Nov.  17.  1842 

The  port  of  Baroelona  blockaded ;  the 
British  oonsul  refuses  reftige  to  any  but 
British  subjects  on  board  British  ships, 

Nov.  2€,  1842 

The  regent  Espartero  arrives  before  Bar- 
celona, and  demands  its  unconditional 
snmmder  ....        Nov.  29,  1842 

Bombardment  of  Baroelona    .      Dec  3,  1842 

It  capitulates  .      Dec.  4,  1842 

The  disturbances  at  Malaga       If  a^.  25,  1843 

The  revolutionary  junta  is  re-established 
at  Barcelona  .    June  11, 1843 

[Corunna,  Seville,  Buigos,  Santiago,  and 
numerous  other  towns,  shortly  after- 
wards "pronotmoe"  sgidustthe  regent 
Espartero.] 

Arrival  of  general  Narvaex  at  Madrid, 

which  surrenders  .        July  15, 1843 

Espartero  bombards  Seville        July  21.  1843 
The  sioge  is  mised  .  July  27,  1843 

(The  revolution  is  completely  successful, 
and  Espartero  flies  to  Cadis,  and  em- 
barlcs  on  board  her  Majesty's  ship 
Ilatabar.] 

The  new  government  deprive  Espartero 
of  his  titles  and  rank  Aug.  10,  1843 

Espartero  and  his  suite  and  friends  ar- 
rive in  London  .  Aug.  23,  1848 

Reaction  against  the  new  government 
breaks  out  at  Madrid  .        .     Aug.  23, 1843 

The  young  queen  Isabella  1 1.  IS  years  old, 
is  deebuvd  by  the  Cortes  to  be  of  sgo, 

Nov.  8,  1843 

The  queen-mother,  Christina,  returns  to 
Spain       ....        March  23, 1844 

Zurbano's  insurrection,  Nov.  12.  1844  : 
he  is  shot  .    .  Jan.  21, 1845 

Don  Carlos,  f^m  Bourges,  formally  re- 
linquishes his  right  to  Uie  crown,  in 
favour  of  his  son   .  .    May  18,  1846 

Narvaes  and  his  ministry  resign,  Feb. 
12 :  they  return  to  power,  March  17 ; 
and  again  resign  March  28, 1846 

The  queen  is  publicly  afllanoed  to  her 
cousin,  Don  Francisco  d'Assiz,  duke 
of  Cadis         ....     Aug.  27. 1846 

Escape  of  Don  Carlos  and  others  from 
Prance  ....   Sept  14,  1846 

Marriage  of  the  queen;  and  marrisge 
also  of  the  infisnta  Louisa  to  the  duke 
de  Montpensier  Oct.  10, 1846 

[The  Montpensier  marriage  occasions  the 
displeasure  of  England,  and  disturbs 
the  friendly  relations  of  the  French 
and  English  governments.]  * 

Amnesty  gruxted  by  the  queen  to  poli- 
tical oflenders  .    Oct^  18, 1846 

Two  shots  fired  at  the  queen  by  an  as- 
sassin named  La  Riva  May  4, 1847 


He  is  sentenced  to  "death  hj  the  cord," 

and  is  executed      .  .  June  SB,  1847 

Espartero  restored  Sept  S»  1847 

Sir  Henry  Lytton  Bulwer,  British  envoy 
extraordinary,  ordered  to  quit  Spain 
m  48  hours  May  19,  1846 

Diplomatic  relations  between  the  two 
countries  were    not    restored    until 

April  18»  1850 
The  Queen  of  Spain  delivered  of  a  male 
child,  which  lives  but  ten  minutos, 

July  12;  1850 
The  American  expeditions  under  Lopes 
against  Cuba.  See  CW6a  and  the  C7atf«(l 
Statet       ....         1850  and  1851 
Resignation  of  Narvaes  .  Jan.  10,  1851 

Thelnfantodon  Henrique  permitted  to 

return  to  Spain  .   Feb.  2.  1851 

Madrid-Ara^fex  railway  opened,  Feb.  9,  1851 
The  queen  pardons  the  prisoners  taken 

in  tne  attempt  upon  Cuba  .    Dec.  11,  1851 
Her  Mi^esty  gives  birth  to  a  prifuxes, 

Dea  90,  1851 
Attempt  made  on  the  life  of  the  oneen  ; 
she  u  slightly  wounded  by  the  oa^^ger 
of  Merino,  a  Franciscan  Feb.  2,  1851 

Oen.  Castofioo,  duke  of  Baylen,renowned 
in  the  war  against  the  French,  dies  in 
his  96th  year    .  .        Sept  28,  185S 

Narvaes  exiled  to  Vienna  .  Jan.  1853 

Ministerial  changes — Lersundi  forms  a 

cabinet     ....        April  11.  1853 
Resignation    of     Lersundi— Sartorius's 

cabinet Sept  1853 

Birth  and  death  of  a  princess     .  Jsn.  5,  1854 
General  O'Donuell,  Concha,  and  others 

banished  ....         Jan.  18,  1854 
Disturbances  at  Soragossa,  Ac.    .    Feb.  1854 
Marriage  of  don  Francisco  (£sther  of  the 
king  consort)  with  an  ''unfortunate  ** 
woman  ....      March,  1854 

Military  insurrection  breaks  out  near 

Madrid      ....        June  28.  1854 
Revolution — ^the  movement  headed  by 
Espartero;  Baroelona  and  Madrid  pro- 
nounce against  the  government ;  bsr- 
ricades  in  Madrid  July  1—17,  1854 

Triumph  of  the  insurrection;  reaignatioa 
of  tne  ministry ;  the  queen  sends  for 
Espartero  ....  July  19,  1854 
Peace  restored  ;  the  degraded  generals 
reinstated,  &c. ;  Esptutero  forms  an 
administration  .  July  31,  1854 

Defiartiut)  of   the  queen  mother  fivm 

Sjnin Aug.  28,  1864 

Ministerial  crisis :  Espartero  resigns^  bat 

resumes  office  .  Nov.  21 — SO,  1854 

New  constitution  of  the  oortes  proposed, 

Jan.  IS,  1855 
The  cortes  vote  that  all  power  prooeedB 
from  the  people  ;  they  permit  liberty 
of  belief;  but  not  of  worship  .        Feb.  1855 
Don  Carlos  dies  March  10,  1855 

Insurrection  at  Valencia  April  6,  lb66 

Coup  d'Etat  at  Madrid,  gen.  O'Donnell 

dictetor    ....         July  14.  1850 
Opposition  to  him  subdued  I7  foroe  of 

arms July  28,  1650 

O'Donnell  compelled  to  resign  ;  Narvaes 

becomes  minister  Oct  IS,  1850 

Espartero  resigns  as  senator  .     Feb.  I,  1857 
Insurrection  in  Andalusia ;  quickly  sup- 
pressed; cruel  military  executions; 
98  insurgente  shot  (24  at  SevilleX 

June  and  July,  1857 


KINGS  OF  SPAIN. 

BUOlf  or  THE  OOTHfl. 


406.  AUuic,  king  of  the  Goths. 

411.  Ataulfo,  murdered  by  his  soldiers. 


415.  Bigerioo :  reigned  a  few  weeks  only. 
415.  vSL^orW^ia. 


SPA 


609 


SPA 


SPAIN,  eantinned, 

420.  Theodoric  I. :  killed  in  a  battle^  which  ho 

gained,  asainst  Attila. 
431.  Thoriamuncu  or  Tonrismund:   ossaasi- 

nated  by  his  ikvourite. 
453.  Theodoric  II. :  aaaaasinated. 
466.  Euric,  or  Evarico. 
484.  Alaric  IL  :  kiUed  in  Uttle. 
507.  Oeaalric ;  hia  bastard  sou. 

611.  Amalric,  or  Anudoric  :  legitimate  son  of 

Alaric. 
631.  Theudia,  or  Theodat :  aaaasBinated  by  a 

madman. 
MS.  Theudtaela»  or  Theodisele :  murdered  for 

female  Violation. 
£49.  AgiLi,  taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death. 
&34.  Atanagildo. 

507.  Liuva,  or  Levua  I. 

508.  Leuvigildo  :  associated  on  the  throne 

with  Liuva,  in  508 ;  and  sole  king  in 

672. 
585.  Recaredol. 
001.  liuva  II.  :  aosaasixuitod. 
603.  Vitericus:  also  murdered. 
610.  Oundemar. 

612.  Sudbut,  or  Sisebuth,  or  Sisebert 
621.  Recaredoll. 

621.  Baintila  dethroned. 

631.  Sisenando. 

640.  Tulga,  or  Tulca. 

641.  Cindasuinto :  died  in  052. 

619.  Boccsulnto :  associated  on  the  throne 

this  year,  and  in  652  became  sole 

king. 
672.  Yamba,  or  Wamba :  dethrcmod,  and  died 

In  a  monasteiy. 
680.  Ervigius,  or  Ervigio. 
637.  Egica,  or  Effixa. 
69i.  Vitizay   or  Witixa ;   associated  on  the 

throne ;  in  701  sole  king. 
711.  Bodrigo^  or  Boderic :  slain  in  battle. 

SBOOXD  MOVABCHr. 

718.  Pelagius,  or  Pelayo  :  overthrew  the 
Moors,  and  put  a  stop  to  their  con- 
quests. 

737.  Favila :  killed  in  hunting. 

7S9.  Alfonso  the  Catholic. 

757.  FroUa :  murdered  his  brother  Saraaran, 
in  revenge  for  which  he  was  mur- 
dered by  his  brother  and  successor. 

768.  Aurelius,  or  Aurelio. 

774.  Silo,  the  Saracen. 

7SS.  Mauregato,  the  Usurper. 

788.  Veremnndo  (BeiTDuda)  I. 

791.  Alfonso  II.  tne  Chaste.  Refyisinff  to  pay 
the  Saracena  the  annual  tribute  of 
100  virgins,  war  is  declared :  Alfonso 
is  victOTious,  and  obtains  the  appella- 
tion of  the  Chaste,  and  the  Victorious. 
—Rabbe. 

842.  Ramiro  I.  :  he  put  70,000  Saracens  to 
the  sword  in  one  battle. — Jlabbe. 

S50.  Ordogno,  or  Ordono. 

866.  Alfonso  III.  sumamod  the  Great:  re- 
linquished his  crown  to  his  son. 

010.  Oarcins. 

914.  Ordogno.  or  Ordono  II. 

928.  Froilall. 

935.  Alfonso  IV.  the  Monk  :  abdicated. 

927.  Ramiro  II. ;  killed  in  battle. 

950.  OrdognOk  or  Ordono  III. 

955.  Ordngno,  or  Ordono  IV. 

950.  Sancho  I.  the  Fat :  poisoned  with  an 
apple. 

967.  Ramiro  III. 

982.  Veremundo  II.  (Bermuda)  the  Gouty. 

999.  Alfonso  V.  :  killed  in  a  siege. 
1027.  Veremundo  III.  (Bermuda) :  killed. 

*«*  The  nboTo  were  kings  of  Asturias,  or 
Oviedo,  or  of  Leon. 


XIKOe  or  HAVAJIRC 

905.  Sancho  Gardaa :  a  renowned  warrior. 

926.  (3arciasl. 

970.  Sancho  II. 

994.  Oarcias  II.  sumamed  the  Trembler. 
1000.  Sancho  III.  sumamed  the  Great 
1035.  GarciasIIL 
1054.  Saiioho  IV. 

1076.  Sancho  Ramirez,  king  of  Arragon. 
1094.  Peter  of  Arragou. 
1104.  Alfonso  I.  of  Arragon. 
1134.  Garcias  Ramirez. 
1160.  Sancho  VI.  sumamed  the  Wise. 
1194.  Sancho  VII.  sumamed  the  Infirm. 
1234.  Theobald  I.  cotmt  of  Champagne. 
1253.  Theobakl  II. 
1270.  Henry  Crassus. 
1274.  Juanna :  married  to  Philip  the  Fair  of 

France,  1285. 
1305.  Louis  Hutin  of  France. 
1316.  John :  lived  but  a  few  days. 
1316.  Philip  V.  the  Long,  of  France. 
1322.  Charles  I.  the  IV.  of  France. 
1328.  Juanna  II.  and  Philip  count  d'Everoux. 
1843.  Juanna  alone. 

1349.  Charles  II.  or  the  Bad. 
1387.  Charies  III.  or  the  Noble. 

1425.  John  II.  afterwards  king  of  Arragon. 
1479.  Eleanor. 
1479.  Francis  Phoebus. 
1483.  Catharine  and  John  d'Albret. 
1512.  Navarre  conquered  by  Ferdinand  the 
Catholic. 

KINGS  OF  CAffnUE. 

1035.  Ferdinand  the  Great,  of  Leon  and  Castile. 
1065.  Sancho  II.  the  Strong,  son  of  Ferdiiumd. 

Alfonso  in  Leon  and  Asturias,  and 

Garcias  in  Galicla. 
1072.  Alfonso  VI.  the  Valiant,  king  of  Leon. 
1109.  Urraca  and  Alfonso  VII. 
1126.  Alfonso  VIII.  Baymond. 

1157.  Sancho  III.  sumamed  the  Beloved. 

1158.  Alfonso  IX.  the  Noble. 

[Leon  is  sepiratcd  from  Castile,  and 
Ferdinand  king.] 

1214.  Henry  L 

1217.  Ferdinand  III.  the  Saint  and  the  Holy. 
In  him  Leon  and  Castile  were  per- 
petually annexed. 

1252.  AUbnso  X.  the  Wise.  The  Alphonsine 
Tables  were  drawn  up  under  the  di> 
rection  of  this  prince. 

1284.  Sancho  IV.  the  Great  and  the  Brave. 

1294.  Ferdinand  IV. 

1312.  Alfonso  XL 

1350.  Peter  the  Ch-uol :  deposed.     Reinstated 

by  Edward  the  Black  Prince  of  Eng- 
land ;  afterwards  slain  by  his  natuxal 
brother  and  successor. 

1368.  Henry  II.  the  Gracious ;  poisoned  by  a 
monk. 

1379.  John  I. :  he  united  Biscay  to  Castile. 

1390.  Henry  III.  the  Sickly. 

1406.  John  II.  son  of  Henry. 

1454.  Henry  IV.  the  Impotent. 

1474.  Ferdinand  V.  the  Catholic,  in  whom, 
by  his  marriage  with  Isabella,  now 

2[ueen  of  Castile,  the  kingdoms  of 
hostile  and  Arragon  were  tmited. 
1504.  Joan,  or  Jane,  daughter  of  Ferdinand 
and  laabella,  and 
Philip  I.  of  Austria.  On  her  mother's 
death  Joan  succeeded.  Jointly  with 
her  husband  Philip ;  but  Philip  dying 
in  1506,  and  John  oeconiing  an  imbe- 
cile, her  father  Ferdinand  continued 
the  reign  ;  and  thtis  perpetuated  the 
union  of  (Castile  with  Arrngon. 

B  R 


SPA 


610 


SPA 


SPAIN,  continued, 

KtNOS  OF  ARIUOOy. 

1035.  Ramirol. 

1063.  Sancho  Ramirez. 

1094.  Peter  of  Navarre. 

1104.  Alfonso  the  Warrior,  king  of  Navarro. 

1184.  Ramiro  II.  the  Honk.  1508. 

1137.  Petronllla,  and  Raymond  count  of  Bar- 
celona. 

1163.  Alfonso  11. 

llOfl.  Peter  II.  1621. 

1213.  James  I. ;  succeeded  by  his  soil 

1276.  Peter  III.  This  prince  contrived  the 
horrible  massacre  known  as  the  Sici- 
lian Ve*pert,  in  1282.  1665. 

1235.  Alfonso  III.  the  Beneficent. 

1291.  James  11.  sumamed  the  Just 

1327.  Alfonso  IV.  1700. 

1336.  Peter  IV.  the  Ceremonious. 

1337.  John  I. 
1.396.  Martini. 
1410.  Qnterregnum.]  1724. 
1412.  Ferdinand  the  Just^  king  of  Sicily.  1724. 
1416.  Alfonso  V.  the  Wise.  1745. 
1458.  John  11.  king  of  Navarre,  brother  of 

Alfonso :  died  1479. 
1470.  Ferdinand  Y.  the  Catholic,   the  next    1759. 
heir;  bv  his  marriage  with  Isabella 
of  Castile,  the  kingdoms  were  tmltcd. 

SPAIN.  j^g3 

1512.  Ferdiuand  V.  the  Catholic.  This  prince 
having  conquered  Granada  and  Na- 
varre, became  king  of  all  Spain :  suc- 
ceeded by  his  grandson, 

1516.  Charles  I.  sou  of  Joan  of  Castile  and    ISOS. 
PhUip  of  Austria :  became  emperor 
of  Germany,  as  Charles  V.  in  1519 :    1S08. 
resigned  botii  crowns^  and  retired  to 
a  monastery.  1814. 

1556.  Philip  II.  bis  son,  king  of  Naples  and 

Sicily ;  a  merciless  bigot ;  married    1833. 
Mary,  queen-regnant   of   England  : 
died  a  most  dreadful  death,  being 


covered  with  uloera  fh>m  which  ver- 
min swarmed. 

[This  reign  is  made  memorable,  by  the 
Spsodsn  armament,  called  the  Ar- 
mada, designod  to  nduce  England.] 

Philip  III.  son  of  the  preceding :  he 
drove  all  the  descendants  of  Xhs 
Moors  from  Granada  and  the  adjacent 
provinces,  to  the  number  of  900,000. 

Philip  IV.  his  son ;  a  reign  of  nearly 
continuous  and  unfortunate  wars 
with  the  Dutch  and  France :  he  lost 
Portugal  in  1640. 

Charles  II.  son  of  Philip  IV.  the  last 
prince  of  the  Austrian  line:  nomi- 
nated, by  will,  as  his  successor, 

Philip  V.  duke  of  Aigou,  grandson  of 
liouis  XIV.  of  France  :  hence  arose 
the  war  of  the  succession,  terminated 
by  the  treaty  of  Utrocht  in  1713. 

Louis  I.  who  reigned  only  a  few  months. 

Philip  V. :  anin. 

Ferdinand  VI.  surnamed  the  Wise :  he 
distinguished  his  reign  by  acts  of 
liberality  and  beneficence. 

Charles  111.  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 
and  brother  of  Ferdinand  VI. :  on 
ascending  the  Simuish  throne  he  re- 
nounced the  Sicilies  to  his  third  son 
Ferdinand. 

Charles  IV.  son  of  Cliarles  III.  ;  the  in- 
fluence of  Godoy,  prince  of  Peace, 
reached  to  almost  royal  authority  in 
this  reign:  Charles  abaicatcd  in  favour 
of  his  son  and  successor, 

Ferdinand  VII.  whom  Napoleon,  of 
France,  also  forced  to  resifn. 

Joseph  Bonaparte,  brother  orNapolenn  : 
forced  to  abdicate. 

Ferdinand  VII. :  restored:  snocccddd  by 
his  daughter 

Isabella  II.  who  ascended  the  throne, 
Sept.  29.  The  present  (1857;  queen 
ofSiiain. 


SPANISH  ARMADA,  against  ENGLAND.    See  article  Armada. 

SPANISH  MARRIAQES.  These  were  the  marriages  of  Donna  Isabella  XL  queen  of 
Spain,  to  her  cousin  Don  Francisco  d'Aasiz,  and  of  her  majesty's  sister,  the  infanta 
Louisa  Maria,  with  the  young  duke  of  Montpensier,  son  of  Louis-Philippe,  king  of 
France,  celebrated  at  the  palace  of  Madrid,  on  Oct.  10,  1846.  The  latter  marriage 
gave  umbrage  to  England  and  other  powers,  as  it  manifested  a  dceign  on  the  part  of 
the  French  king  to  assure  the  inheritance  of  the  throne  of  Spain  to  his  own  fanulr, 
which  was  then  a  veiy  probable  contingency.  On  Sept  21,  preceding,  a  formal 
protest  was  presented  by  the  British  ambassador  at  Madrid  against  this  marriage, 
and  the  marquess  of  Normanby  presented  a  similar  protest  to  the  French  minister 
at  Paris,  on  the  24th ;  but  the  marriage  took  place. 

SPABTA.  The  capital  of  Laconia,  one  of  the  most  considerable  republics  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus, and  the  formidable  rival  of  Athena  Though  without  walls,  it  resisted  the 
attacks  of  its  enemies  by  the  valour  of  its  citizens,  for  eight  centuries.  The  epoch  of 
its  foundation  is  much  disputed.  Lelex  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  king.  From 
Lacedsemon  the  fourth  king,  and  his  wife  Sparta,  who  are  also  spoken  of  as  the  founders 
of  the  city,  it  obtained  the  names  by  which  it  is  most  known.  The  history  of  Ijice- 
daemon  may  be  divided  into  five  seras;  viz.  Ist.  Under  the  andent  kings,  from.  Lelex 
to  the  settlement  of  the  Heraclida),  comprising  about  four  hundred  and  twelve  years. 
2nd.  Under  the  Heraelidas  as  absolute  monarchs,  till  Lycurgus  instituted  a  senate,  by 
which  the  people  obtained  a  share  in  the  government,  including  about  two  hundred 
and  twenty  years.  Srd.  From  the  establishment  of  the  senate  to  the  introduction  of 
ephori,  or  five  inspectors,  by  Theopompus,  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-fbnr  years. 
4th.  From  the  appointment  of  the  ephori,  to  the  total  abolition  of  royalty,  about  &t€ 
hundred  and  forty  years.  5th.  From  the  abolition  of  the  monarchy,  to  the  subjugation 
of  the  country  by  the  Roman  power,  a  period  of  about  seventy-two  years,  117  b.o. 


SPA 


611 


SPA 


SPARTA,  amtinued. 

FIRST  RATS  OF  SPARTA 

Lelex  begins  the  kingdom  .B.C.  1510 

LAoedflomofn  marries  8part«  .     .  1490 

Sparta  founctod  (PatMaiticu)     .  .  1400 

S^ndams  marries  Leda ;  Helen  bom  .  *  *  * 
elcn  stolen  by  Theseus,  king  of  Athens, 

but  recovered  by  her  brothers  .  1213 

The  princes  of  Greece  demand  Helen  in 

marriage ;  she  makes  choice  of  Mene- 

laus,  oiMycenM 1201 

Paris,  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  carries 

off  Helen 1198 

The  Trojan  war  commences  to  avenge 

this  wrong 1193 

After  a  war  of  ten  years,  and  a  dteastrous 

voyage  of  nearly  eight,  Menelaus  and 

Helen  return  to  Sparta  .  1170 

Helen  is  banished  from  the  Peloponnesus 

forinfideUty ••• 

8C00HD  8TATX  OF  SPARTA. 

Reign  of  Orestes,  the  son  of  Agamemnon. 

— PauMtniat 1175 

The  kingdom  is  seUed  by  the  Heraclida;. 

—Lenotel 1104 

Sirth  of  Lycuzgiis,  the  son  of  Ennomus. 

— S«u^iu9 92C 

Rule  of  Lycurgus,  who  establishes  the 

Senate.— JFtf«e6itu 884 

THIRD  STATE  OF  SPARTA. 

CLarilaus  declares  war  against  Polymes- 

tor,  king  of  Arcadia  ....  848 
Alcamoues,  known  for  his  apophthegms, 

makes  war  upon  the  Messenians  .  .  813 
Xicandor  succeeds  his  &thor,  Charilaus ; 

war  with  the  Argivos  ....  800 
Theopompus  intnxluces  the  ephori  into 

the  government 700 

FOURTH  STATE  OF  SPARTA,   UNDER  TRB 

EPHORI,  cojoiurcss. 
War  declared  against  the  Messenians, 

and  Amphia  taken  ....  743 
War  with  the  Argives,  and  celebrated 

battle* 735 

The  progeny  of  the  Partheniie,  or  the 

sons  of  Virgins 733 

Battle  of  Ithomb 730 

Ithomd  taken  ;  the  Meseenians  become 

vassals  to  Sparta,  and  the  war  ends, 

which  had  lasted  nineteen  years  724 

Conspiracy  of  the  Parthenla)  with  the 

Helots  to  take  Sparta      .  .    .    707 

The  Messenians  revolt,  and  lea^e  with 

£li8^  Argoe,  and  Arcadia  against  the 

Lacedaemonians 685 

[This  war  lasts  fourteen  years.] 

Camion  festivals  instituted  .    .    675 

The  Messenians  settle  in  Sicily  .    660 

Tyranny  of  the  Pisistratidfe  ends  .  .  500 
Tne  States  of  Greece  unite  against  the 

Persians 482 

Leonidas,  at  the  head  of  800  Spartans, 

withstands  the  Persian  arms  at  the 

deflle  of  Thermopyku.    (See  Thamo- 

pjfloy  BattU  of) 480 

Persians  defeated  by  Pausanios  .    479 

His  treason ;  the  Grecian  armies  choose 

an  Athenian  general  .        .    .    474 

An  earthquake  at  Sparta  destroys  thirty 

thousand  persons         ....    466 

The  Laoednmonians  were  a  nation  of  soldiers.    They  cultivated  neither  the  arts, 

*  This  celebrated  battle  was  fought  between  800  select  heroes  of  each  nation,  and  all  perished  except 
two  Axgives  and  one  Spurton.  The  latter  remained  on  the  field,  whilst  the  two  former  repaired  to 
Argoe  to  announce  their  victorr.  Each  party  claimed  the  advantage  ;  the  Aiigives,  because  they  hod 
lost  the  fewest  men :  the  Locediemonians,  b^use  they  remained  masters  of  the  field.  A  second  battle 
wttB  fought,  in  which  the  Argives  were  beaten.— Pau«attta«. 

a  r2 


'  Platffia  taken  by  the  Spartans    .       B.a    428 

The  Spartans,  under  Agis,  enter  Attica» 
and  lay  waste  the  country  .  .    420 

;  Agis  gains  a  great  victory  over  the  Ar- 
gives and  Mantinseans  .    .    418 

The  LacedsBmonian  fleet,  under  Min- 
dorus,  defeated  at  Cyzicum,  and  Min- 
darus  slain  hi  the  battle  .        .410 

The  Spartans,  defeated  by  laud  and  at 
sea,  sue  for  peace,  which  is  denied  by 
the  Athenians 409 

Reign  of  Pausanios 408 

Athens  taken  by  Lysonder,  which  ends 
the  Peloponnesian  war    .  .    .    400 

Agesilaus  enters  Lydia 390 

The  Athenians,  Thebans,  Aleves,  and 
Corinthians  enter  into  a  league  against 
the  Spartans,  which  b^jius  the  Corin- 
thian war 895 

The  LooedsBroonian  fleet,  under  Lyflan- 
der,  defeated  by  Conon,  the  Athenian 
commander,  near  Cnidos;  Lysauder 
killed  in  the  engagement  .        .    394 

The  Thebans  drive  the  Sjiartaus  from 
Cadmea. — Lengia 878 

The  Spartans  lose  the  dominion  of  the 
seas ;  their  fleet  totally  destroyed  by 
Timotheus 870 

Epamlnondas,  heading  50,000  Thebans, 
appears  before  Sparta  ...    809 

Battle  of  Mautiniea :  the  Thebans  obtain 
the  victory.    See  Idantin<ga  .    363 

Battle  of  Arbela,  which  leaves  Alexander 
master  of  all  Asia 831 

Pyrrhus  invades  Sparta ;  is  defeated  be« 
fore  the  walls 294 

The  laws  of  Lycurgus  cease  to  bo  ob- 
served, about !244 

Loonidas  vacates  the  throne,  and  flies 
from  Sp.irta 243 

Ho  is  recalled,  and  becomes  sole  sove- 
reign ;  Agis  put  to  death  .    .     241 

Reign  of  Cloomenes  HI.  the  son  of  Leo^ 
nidas 235 

He  re-establishes  most  of  the  laws  of 
Lycuigiis 225 

Antigonus  meets  Cleomenes  on  the 
plains  of  Sellacla»  routs  his  army,  and 
enters  Sparta  as  conqueror .  .    222 

Cleomenes  retires  to  Egypt        .        .     .    222 

The  Spartans  murder  the  ephori    .        .    221 

FIFTH  8TATK  OF  SPARTA. 

Mcchanldas   ascends   the   throne,  and 

alx>lishes  the  ephori  .        .    .    210 

He  is  defeated  and  slain  by  Phllopoemcn, 

praetor  of  the  Achsoan  league  .     208 

Government  of  Nabis,  who  is  execrable 

for  his  cruelties 206 

The  Romans  besiege  Sparta,  and  the 

tyrant  sues  for  peace  ....  197 
Thu  iEtolians  obtain  Sparta  by  treachery : 

Nabls  is  assassinated  .    .    192 

The  laws  of  Lycuigus  abolished  .  .188 
Sparta,  under  the  protection  or  rather 

subjugation  of  Rome,  retains  its  autho- 

rity  for  a  short  time  ...    147 

Taken  by  Mahomet  II.    .        .        .  a.d.  1400 
Burnt  by  Sigismond  Malatesta  .        .     .  1403 
Rebuilt  OS  Misitra.  It  Is  now  called  Sparta, 
and  port  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece. 


SP£  612  SPI 

sciences,  commerce,  nor  agricultare.  All  their  laws,  all  their  institationi,  all  their 
education,  in  a  word,  the  very  constitution  of  their  republic,  were  calculated  to  mike 
them  warriors. 

SPEAKERS  OF  THE  HOUSE  ov  COMMONS.  Peter  de  Montfort,  afterwards  killed  tt 
the  battle  of  EveBham,  was  the  first  speaker,  45  Hen.  III.  1260.  But  sir  Petre  de  Is 
Mare  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  regular  speaker,  50  Edw.  IIL  1S76.  The  king 
refused  his  assent  to  the  choice  of  air  Edward  Seymour  as  speaker,  Maroh  6, 1678 ; 
when  Serjeant  William  Oregory  was  chosen  in  his  room.  Sir  John  Trevor  was  expelled 
the  chair  and  the  house  for  taking  a  gratuity  after  the  act  for  the  benefit  of  orpbaiu 
had  passed,  March  20,  1694. 

Rt.  hon.  Henry  Addington  (afterwards  i  Bt.  hon.  Charles  Manners  Sutton  (after* 

Tiact.  Sidmouth)  .  .    Jan.  22,  1801        wards  Tisct.  CanterbuTr)         June  I,  ISIT 

Sir  John   Mitford  (afterwards    baron  ;  Rt.  hon.  James  Abercromby  (afterwards 

Redeodale)  Feb.  11,  1801       boron  Dunfermline)     .       .   Feb.  19,  1S35 

Bt.  hon.  Charles  Abbot  (afterwards  lord  I  Rt.  hon.  Charles  Shaw  Leferre  (afler^ 

Colchester)    ....    Feb.  10,  1802       wards  viact.  ETsrsIey)    .        Hay  77.  1S39 

I  John  Ereljn  Denlson,  esq.     .  April  30,  1S57 

SP£AKIN(3-TRUMPET.  A  speaking-trumpet  is  said  (but  on  doubtful  authority)  to 
have  been  used  by  Alexander  335  b.o.  One  was  constructed  from  Kircher's  descriptioo 
by  Saland,  1652.  Philosophically  explained  and  brought  into  notice  by  Moreland,  1671. 
This  instrument  is  commonly  used  by  ships  at  sea  in  hailing  each  other.  It  is  made 
of  a  long  tin  tube,  and  increases  the  sound  of  the  human  voice  amazingly.— PanioM. 

SPECTACLES  and  READINQ-QLASSES.  See  Optict,  Spectacles  were  unknown  to 
the  ancients.  They  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  invented  in  the  13th  oeDtoir, 
by  Alexander  de  Spina,  a  monk  of  Florence,  in  Italy,  about  a.d.  1285.  They  were 
invented  by  Roger  Bacon,  our  own  illustrious  countryman,  according  to  Dr.  Plott. 
The  hint  was  certainly  given  by  Bacon  about  1280.  Some  affirm  that  the  real 
inventor  was  Sal  vino ;  and  Mr.  Manni  gives  proofs  in  favour  of  Solvino  in  his  Treatiie. 

SPHERES.  The  celestial  and  terrestrial  globes,  and  also  sun-dials,  were  invented  br 
Anaximander,  552  b.o.  The  armillory  sphere  is  said  to  have  been  inteoted  bj 
Eratosthenes  about  255  B.C.  The  planetarium  was  constructed  by  Archimedes  before 
212  B.O.  Pythagoras  maintained  that  the  motions  of  the  twelve  spheres  must  produce 
delightful  sounds,  inaudible  to  mortals,  which  he  called  the  music  of  the  spheres. 

SPINNING.  The  art  of  spinning  was  ascribed  by  the  ancients  to  Minerva,  the  goddes 
of  wisdom,  such  was  their  veneration  for  it.  Areas,  king  of  Arcadia,  taught  lus  subjects 
the  art  of  spinning  about  1500  B.c.  Lucretia  with  her  maids  was  found  spinning, 
when  her  husband  CoUatinus  paid  a  visit  to  her  from  the  camp.  The  wife  of  Tarqnin 
was  an  excellent  spinner;  and  a  garment  made  by  her,  worn  by  Servius  Tulliiu,  was 
preserved  in  the  temple  of  Fortune.  Augustus  Gnsar  usually  wore  no  garments  bat 
such  as  were  made  by  his  wife,  sister,  or  daughter.  The  spinning-wheel  was  inTSoted 
at  Brunswick,  about  A.D.  1530.  Till  1767,  the  spinning  of  cotton  was  performed  by 
the  hand  spinning-wheel,  when  Hargrave,  an  ingenious  mechanic,  near  Blackburn, 
made  a  spinning-jenny,  with  eight  spindles.  Haigrave  also  erected  the  first  cardiog- 
machine,  with  cylinders.  Arkwright's  machine  for  spinning  by  water  was  an  extension 
of  the  principle  of  Horgrave's ;  but  he  also  applied  a  large  and  small  roller  to  expand 
the  thread,  and,  for  this  ingenious  contrivance,  took  out  a  patent  in  1769.  At  fint 
he  worked  his  machinery  by  horses ;  but  in  1771  he  built  a  mill  on  the  stream  of  the 
Derwent,  at  Cromford.  In  1779,  Crompton  invented  the  mule,  which  is  a  further 
and  wonderful  improvement  of  this  art — Phillipt, 

SPIRES.  In  ancient  times  the  emperors  held  many  diets  at  Spires,  and  it  was  the  seat 
of  the  Imperial  chamber  till  1 689,  when  the  city  was  burnt  by  the  French,  and  not 
rebuilt  till  after  the  peace  of  Ryswick  in  1697.  The  diet  to  condemn  the  reformers 
was  held  at  Spires,  called  there  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  1529.    See  ProtaUnti. 

SPIRITS.  See  DtstilleUion,  In  all  nations  spirituous  liquors  have  been  considered  as  a 
proper  subject  of  heavy  taxation  for  the  support  of  the  state.  In  1840  England  made 
about  ten  millions  of  gallons  of  spirits,  Scotland  about  seven  millions  of  gallona,  and 
Ireland  about  nine  millions  of  gallons.  In  the  year  1851  the  number  of  gallons^ 
which  duty  was  paid  for  home  consumption  was  23,976,596.  The  total  amount  paid 
was  6,017,218/.  of  which  3.758,186/.  were  paid  by  England,  1,262,297/.  by  Scotland, 
and  1,006,735/.  by  Ireland :  the  total  duty  on  home  consumption  paid  in  1853  wtf 
6,760,422/.  In  1855  methylated  spirits  of  wine,  for  use  in  the  arts  and  sdeooes,  were 
made  duty  free  by  18  &  19  Vict  c.  38. 


SPI  618  ST  A 

SPITZBEROEN.  Discovered  in  1583,  by  Bir  Hugh  Willoaghby,  who  called  it  Greenland, 
■apposing  it  to  be  a  part  of  the  western  continent  In  1595  it  was  visited  by  Barentz 
and  Cornelius,  two  Dutchmen,  who  pretended  to  be  the  original  discoverers,  and 
called  it  Spitzbergen  or  sharp  mountains,  from  the  many  shorp-pointed  and  rocky 
mountains  with  which  it  abounds.    See  Phippi, 

SPORTS,  BOOK  OP.  The  JirH  "Book  of  Sports,"  under  the  title  of  "The  Kings 
Hajestie's  Declaration  to  his  Subjects  concerning  Lawful  Sports  to  be  used"  (viz.  on 
Sundays),  was  published  by  king  James  I.  May  24,  1618.  The  teeond  "Book  of 
SportS)"  with  a  ratification  by  his  majesty  Charles  L  is  dated  Oct.  18, 1638.  On  the 
publication  of  the  first  "  Book  of  Sports,"  there  arose  a  long  and  violent  controversy 
among  Kngliah  divines  on  certain  points.    See  Sabbaiariantf  Sunday,  Ac. 

SPURSL  Anciently  the  difference  between  the  knight  and  esquire  was,  that  the  knight 
wore  gilt  spurs  {eguea  auratui)  and  the  esquire  silver  ones.  Two  sorts  of  spurs  seem 
to  have  been  in  use  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  one  called  a  pryck,  having  only  a 
single  point,  the  other  a  number  of  points  of  considerable  size.  Spurs  near  to  the 
present  kind  came  into  use  about  a.d.  1400.    See  article  Plating, 

SPURS,  BATTLE  ov  the.  Henry  YIIL  of  England,  the  emperor  Maximilian,  and  the 
Swiss,  entered,  in  1513,  into  an  alliance  offensive  against  France.  Henry  YIII.  landed 
at  Calais  in  the  month  of  July,  and  soon  formed  an  army  of  30,000  men,  counting  the 
troops  he  had  brought  with  him.  He  was  joined  by  the  emperor  with  a  good  corps 
of  horse,  and  some  foot.  The  emperor  was  so  mean  as  to  act  as  a  nurcenary  to  the' 
king  of  England,  who  allowed  him  a  hundred  ducats  a  day  for  his  table  1  They  laid 
siege  to  Teroiienne,  investing  the  place  with  an  army  of  50,000  men ;  and  the  Due  de 
Longueville,  marching  to  its  relief,  was  signally  defeated :  the  French  were  every- 
where  routed  in  the  battle.  This  battle  of  Quinnegate  was  colled  the  battle  of  Spurt, 
because  the  French  used  their  tpurt  more  than  they  did  their  twordt.  It  happened  on 
the  18th  of  August,  and  the  place  surrendered  on  the  24th :  and  the  allies  not 
agreeing  as  to  which  of  them  should  keep  it,  razed  it  to  the  ground.  The  English 
king  then  laid  siege  to  Toxunay,  which  submitted  in  a  few  daya — HenauU, 

STAQE-COACHES.  So  called  from  the  stages  or  inns  at  which  the  coach  stopped  to 
refre^  or  change  horses. — BaUey,  The  stage-coach  duty  act  passed  in  1785.  These 
coaches  were  made  subject  to  salutary  provisions  for  the  safety  of  passengers, 
50  Geo.  in.  1809.  They  were  made  subject  to  mileage  duties,  55  Geo.  III.  1814. 
The  duty  upon  stage-coaches  was  about  half  a  million  sterling ;  latterly  much  less. 
See  Ooacha;  Hackney  Coachet;  Mail  Coaehet^  &c. 

STAMP-OFFICE.  The  first  mstitution  of  stamp-duties  was  by  statute  5  &  6  Will  and 
Mary,  June  23, 1694,  when  a  duty  was  imposed  upon  paper,  vellum,  and  parchment. 
The  stamp-duty  on  newspapers  was  commenced  in  1713,  and  every  year  added  to  the 
list  of  articles  upon  which  stamp-duty  was  made  payable.  The  American  Stamp  act, 
a  memorable  statute,  one  of  those  imposts  levied  by  the  Parliament  of  Great  Britain 
which  produced  the  American  war,  and  led  to  the  independence  of  that  country,  was 
passed  March  22,  1765.  Stamp-duties  in  Ireland  commenced  1774.  Stamps  on  notes 
and  bills  of  exchange  in  1782.  The  stamp-duties  produced  in  England,  in  1800,  a 
revenue  of  8,126,5352^;  in  1840,  for  the  United  Kingdom,  6,726,817^;  in  1850, 
6^67,54821 ;  and  in  the  yegr  ending  Jan.  5,  1853,  they  were  6,287,2612.  Many  altera- 
tions were  made  by  16  &  17  Vict  o.  59,  63,  71  (Aug.  1853).  By  an  act  passed  in 
June  1855,  the  stamp-duty  on  newspapers  as  such  was  totally  abolished :  the 
stamp  on  them  being  henceforth  for  postal  purposes  only.  In  July  and  Aug.  1854, 
19,115,000  newspaper  stamps  were  issued;  in  the  same  months,  1855,  only  6,870,000. 

STANDARD.  First  fixed  by  law  for  gold  and  silver  in  England,  a.d.  1300.  Standard 
gold  is  22  parts  out  of  24  of  pure  gold,  the  other  two  parts  or  carats  being  silver  or 
copper.  The  standard  of  silver  is  11  oz.  2  dwts.  of  fine  silver  alloyed  with  18  dwts.  of 
copper,  or  37  parts  out  of  40  of  pure  silver,  and  3  parts  copper.  In  a.d.  1300,  these 
12  oz.  of  silver  were  coined  into  20  shillings.  In  1412  they  were  coined  into  30 
shillings;  and  in  1527,  into  45  shillings.  In  1545,  Henry  YIII.  coined  6  oz.  of  silver 
and  6  oz.  of  alloy  into  48  shillings;  and  the  next  year  he  coined  4  oz.  of  silver  and 
8  oz.  of  alloy  into  the  same  sum.  Elizabeth,  in  1560,  restored  the  old  standiu*d  in 
60  shillings;  and  in  1601  in  62  shillings.  It  is  now  66  shillings.  The  average  pro- 
portions of  silver  to  gold  at  the  royal  mint  are  15^  to  1.  The  standard  of  plate  and 
silver  manufactures  was  affirmed,  6  Geo.  1. 1719  tt  uq.    See  Qold, 

STANDARD  MEASURES.    In  the  reign  of  Edgar  a  Uw  was  made  to  prevent  frauds 


STA  614  STA 

ariBing  from  the  diTendty  of  measures,  and  for  the  eetabliahment  of  a  legal  standard 
measure  to  be  used  in  every  part  of  his  domioions.  The  standard  yessels  made  bj 
order  of  the  king  were  deposited  in  the  city  of  Winchester,  and  hence  originated  the 
well-known  term  of  **  Winchester  measure."  The  bushel  so  made  is  still  presenred 
in  the  guildhall  of  that  city.  Henry  I.  also,  to  prevent  frauds  in  the  measurement 
of  cloth,  ordered  a  standard  yard  of  the  length  of  his  own  arm  to  be  made  and 
deposited  at  Winchester,  with  the  standard  measures  of  king  Edgar.  The  guildhall 
contains  the  standard  measures  of  succeeding  sovereigns. — Camden. 

STANDARDS.  See  Banners,  Flags,  &c.  The  practice  in  the  army  of  using  the  oron  on 
standards,  and  shields  arose  in  the  miraculous  appearance  of  a  cross  to  Constanfcine, 
previously  to  his  battle  with  Mazentiiis  ,*  this  &ct  rests  on  the  authority  of  Enaebiuf, 
who  states  that  he  had  received  it  from  the  emperor  himself,  a.d.  312.  For  the  cele- 
brated French  standard  see  AurifiamvM.  Standard  of  Mahomet  :  on  this  ensign  no 
infidel  dare  look.  It  waa  carried  in  procession  about  1768,  when  several  hundred 
Christians,  who  ignorantly  looked  upon  it,  were  massacred  by  the  Turkish  populace. 
The  Imperial  Standard  was  first  hoisted  on  the  Tower  of  London,  and  on  Bedford 
Tower,  Dublin,  and  displayed  by  the  Foot  Quards,  on  the  union  of  the  kingdoms, 
which  became  a  law,  Jan.  1, 1801. 

STANNARY  COURTS  of  Devon  and  Cornwall  for  the  administration  of  justice  amon^ 
the  tin  miners,  whose  privileges  were  confirmed  by  38  Edw.  I.  1305. — In  1855  an  act 
was  passed  to  amend  and  extend  the  jurisdiction  of  these  courts. 

STAR-CHAMBER,  COURT  of.  So  called  haply  from  its  roof  being  garnished  with 
stars. — Cckt.  This  court  of  justice,  so  tremendous  in  the  Tudor  and  part  of  the 
Stuart  reigns,  was  called  Star-chamber,  not  from  the  skirs  on  ita  roof  (which  were 
obliterated  even  before  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth),  but  from  the  Starra,  or  Jewish 
covenants,  deposited  there  by  order  of  Richard  I.  No  star  was  allowed  to  be  valid 
except  found  in  those  repositories,  and  here  they  remained  till  the  banishment  of  the 
Jews  by  Edward  I.  The  court  was  instituted  2  Hen.  VII.  1487*  for  trials  by  a  com- 
mittee of  the  privy  council  In  Charles  I.*s  reign,  it  exercised  its  power,  independent 
of  any  law,  upon  several  bold  innovators  in  liberty,  who  only  gloried  in  their  Buffer> 
ings,  and  contributed  to  render  government  odious  and  conteifiptible. — Qoidtmitk. 
It  was  abolished  16  Charles  1. 1641.  There  were  from  26  to  42  judges^  the  lord 
chancellor  having  the  casting  voice. — Oibbon, 

STARS,  THE  FIXED.  They  were  classed  into  constellations,  it  is  supposed,  about 
1200  B.C.  Hicetas,  of  Syracuse,  taught  that  the  sun  and  the  stars  were  motionleu, 
and  that  the  earth  moved  round  them  (this  is  mentioned  by  Cicero,  and  probably 
gave  the  first  hint  of  this  system  to  Copernicus),  about  844  B.C.  Job,  Hesiod,  and 
Homer  mention  several  of  the  constellations.  The  Royal  Library  at  Paris  contains  a 
Chinese  chart  of  the  heavens,  made  about  600  RC.  in  which  1460  stars  are  correctly 
inserted.  The  aberration  of  the  stars  discovered  by  Dr.  Bradley,  1727.  See  Aatromomy 
and  Solar  Syttem,  Maps  of  the  stars  were  published  by  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion 
of  Knowledge  in  1839. 

STARCHING  of  LINEN.  Starch  is  a  sediment  produced  at  the  bottom  of  vessels 
wherein  wheat  has  been  steeped  in  water;  is  soft  and  friable,  easily  broken  into 
powder,  and  is  used  to  stiffen  and  clear  linen,  with  blue ;  its  powder  is  employed  to 
powder  the  hair.  The  art  of  starching  linen  was  biHjught  into  England  by  Mrs. 
Dinghein,  a  Flemish  woman,  1  Mary,  1553.— ^ow. 

STATES-GENERAL  of  FRANCE.  An  ancient  assembly  of  France.  Previously  to  the 
Revolution,  it  had  not  met  since  a.d.  1614.  The  states  consisted  of  three  orden,  the 
nobility,  clergy,  and  commons.  They  were  convened  by  Louis  XVL  and  assembled 
at  VersEdUes,  May  5, 1789.  Here  a  contest  arose,  whether  the  three  orders  should 
make  three  distinct  houses,  or  but  one  assembly.  The  commons  insisted  upon  the 
latter,  and,  assuming  the  title  of  the  National  Assembly,  declared  that  they  were 
competent  to  proceed  to  business,  without  the  concurrence  of  the  two  other  orders,  if 
they  refused  to  join  them.  The  nobility  and  clei^  found  it  expedient  to  concede  the 
point)  and  they  all  met  in  one  halL    See  National  Assembly. 

STATIONERS.  Books  and  papers  were  formerly  sold  only  at  stalls,  hence  the  dealers 
were  called  stationers.  The  company  of  stationers  of  London  is  of  great  antiquity, 
and  existed  long  before  printing  was  invented;  yet  it  was  not  incorporated  until 
3  Philip  &.  Mary,  1555.    Their  old  dwelling  was  in  Patemoster-row. — Mortimer. 

STATUES.    See  Moulds,  Sculpture,  &c    Phidias,  whose  statue  of  Jupiter  passed  for  one 


STA 


615 


STE 


of  the  wobders  of  the  world,  was  the  greatest  statuary  among  the  aneientSy  440  B.C. 
He  had  previouBlj  made  a  statae  of  Minerva  at  the  request  of  Pericles,  which  was 
placed  in  the  Parthenon.  It  was  made  with  ivory  and  gold,  and  measured  39  feet  in 
height.  Acilius  raised  a  golden  statue  to  his  father,  the  firat  that  appeared  in  Italy. 
Lyaippus  invented  the  art  of  taking  likenesses  in  ploater  moulds,  from  which  he  after- 
wards cast  models  in  wnx,  326  B.o.  Michael  Angelo  was  the  greatest  artist  among  the 
modems.  The  first  equestrian  statue  erected  in  Great  Britain  was  that  of  Charles  L 
in  1678.*  Ify  17  &  18  Yict.  c  10  (July  10,  1854),  public  statues  are  placed  under  the 
control  and  protection  of  the  Board  of  Works.  Among  the  public  statues  erected  in 
the  London  squares  and  other  public  places,  are  the  following : — 


Achilles,  Hyde-park,  in  honour  of  the 
duke  of  WellixigtoD,  by  the  bidies  of 
Great  Britain  .        .  June  IS, 

Anne,  queen,  St.  Paul's  Church-yard 

Bedford,  duke  of,  Russell-square       .    . 

Canning,  Geoi^go,  Now  Palace-yard       . 

Ciirtwright,  m^or,  Burton  Crescent .    . 

Charles  I.  Cbaring-croes .... 

Charles  II.  Soho-square  .    . 

Cumberland,  duke  of,  Cavendish'-iquare 

Elizabeth,  queen,  St.  Dunstan's,  Fleet- 
street     

Fox,  Charles  James,  Bloomsbaiy-aquaro 

Georgre  I.  Grosvenor-squaro        .        .    . 

George  I.  Leicester  sqiiarc 


1822 
1711 
1809 
1832 
1831 
1678 

1770 

1586 
1816 
1726 
1726 


George  III.  Somerset-house  .  .  .  1788 
George  III.  Cockspur-street  .  .  .  1830 
Howard,  John ;  first  erected  in  St  Paul's  1796 

James  II.  Whitehall 1687 

Napier,  gen.  sir  Charles  J.  Trafolgar- 

sqiiare «       .  1856 

Nelson,  Trafalgar-square  ....  1843 
Pitt,  William,  Hanoyer-sauore  .  1831 

Peel,  sir  Robert,  Cheapsiao  .  .  .  1855 
Wellington,  duke  of.  Royal  Exchange  .  1844 
Wellington,  duke  of,  arch,  Hyde-jiark. 

comer 1846 

William  III.  St.  James's-square  .1717 

W^Uliam  IV.  King  WUUam  Street       . 
York,  duke  of,  Waterloo-place 


1845 
1834 


STATUTES.  The  foUoj^ing  are  among  the  most  celebrated  early  statutes : — Statutes 
of  Clarendon,  to  restrain  the  power  of  the  clergy,  enacted  10  Hen.  II.  1164.  Statutes 
of  Marlborough,  1267.  The  statute  of  Gloucester,  the  earliest  statute  of  which  any 
record  exists,  6  Edw.  I.  1277.  Stotute  of  Mortmain,  1279.  Quo  Warranto,  Oct  1280. 
Of  Winchester,  Oct.  1284.  Statute  forbidding  the  levying  of  taxes  without  the  consent 
of  parliament,  1297.  Of  Prromunire,  1306.  The  first  printed  bear  date  1483,  and  are 
in  English.  The  Statutes  of  the  Realm,  from  Magna  Charta  to  George  I.  wern 
printed  from  the  original  records  and  MSS.  in  12  toIs.  folio,  1811-1828,  by  con.- 
missioners  appointed  in  1801. — Many  obsolete  statutes  (from  1285  to  1777)  were 
repealed  in  1856  by  19  &,  20  Vict  c.  64. — The  statutes  passed  during  each  session 
are  now  printed  annually  in  a  4 to  and  an  8to  volume. 

STEAM  ENGINE  and  NAVIGATION.  This  is  the  most  important  prime  mover 
that  the  ingenuity  of  man  has  yet  devised.  The  first  idea  of  it  was  suggested  by  the 
marquess  of  Worcester,  in  his  Century  of  Inventions,  as  "a  way  to  drive  up  water  by 
fire,"  A.D.  1663.  It  does  not,  however,  appear  that  the  noble  inventor  could  ever 
interest  the  public  in  favour  of  this  great  discoveiy. 


Papin*8  dt(rf«<^  invented  .  a.d.  1G81 

Captain  Saveiy'a  engine  conatructed  for 
raising  water 160S 

Fapin'a  engine,  exhibited  to  the  Royal 
Society,  about 1699 

Atmospheric  engine  by  Savory  and 
Newcomen 1713 

First  idea  of  steam  navigation  set  forth 
in  a  patent  obtained  by  Jonathan 
Hulls 1736 

Watt's  invention  of  performing  conden- 
sation in  a  separate  vessel  from  the 
cylinder 1765 

His  first  patent 1769 

His  engines  upon  a  largo  scale  erected  in 
raaniifactories,  and  his  patent  renewed 
by  act  of  parliament  .        .    .  1775 

Thomas  Fame  proposed  the  application 
ofsteam  in  America     ....  1778 

Engine  made  to  give  a  rotary  motion    .  1778 

Watt's  expansion  engine    .       .        .    .  1778 

Double-action  engines  proposed  by  Dr. 
Falck  on  Newcomen's  principle  .        .  1779 

Watt's  double  engine,  and  his  first  patent 
for  it  granted 1781 


1789 

1791 
1801 

1802 
1802 


The  marquess  Joui&oy  constructed  an 
engine  on  the  Ba&no     ....  1781 

Two  Americans  published  upon  the 
steam-engine 1785 

W.  Symin^n  made  a  passage  on  the 
Forth  and  Clyde  canal .... 

First  steam-engine  erected  in  Dublin  by 
Henry  Jackson 

First  experiment  on  the  Thames   . 

The  experiment  of  Mr.  Symington  re- 
peated with  success 

Trevethick's  high-pressure  engine  . 

WoolTs  double  cylinder  expansion  engine 
constructed 1804 

Manufactories  warroerl  by  steam    .        .  1806 

Ftilton  started  a  sLcam-boat  on  the  river 
Hudson,  America 

Steam  power  to  convcry  coals  on  a  rail- 
way, employed  by  Blenkinsop    . 

Steam-vessels  first  commenced  plying 
on  the  Clyde 

Steam  appUed  to  printing  in  the  Timu 
oflSce.    See  Preu 

There  were  five  steam-vessels  in  Scotland 
(Farl.  RtturM)  in 1814 


1807 
18U 
1812 
1814 


*  This  statue  is  of  brass,  cast  by  Le  Sueur,  in  1633,  at  the  expense  of  the  Howard-Arundel  family. 
During  the  civil  war,  the  Parliament  sold  it  to  John  River,  a  brazier,  in  Holbom,  with  strict  orders  to 
break  it  to  pieces ;  but  he  conceded  it  imder  ground  till  the  Restoration,  when  it  was  erected  in  1678, 
on  a  pedestal  executed  by  Grinlin  Gibbons.  The  first  equestrian  statue  of  bronze,  founded  at  one  cast, 
was  that  of  Louis  XIV.  of  Franco,  a.d.  1609 :  it  was  elevated  about  1724. 


STE 


616 


STE 


STEAH  ENGINE  and  NAYIQATION,  continued. 


First  steam-vessel  on  the  Thames  brotight 
by  Mr.  Dodd  from  Glasgow 

The  first  steamer  built  in  Bngland 
(Pari.  RHuma) 

The  Savannah  steamer,  of  S50  tons,  came 
from  New  York  to  Liverpool  in  26  days, 

July  16, 

First  steamer  in  Ireland  .... 

Captain  Johnston  obtained  10,0001.  for 
making  the  firststeam  voyage  to  India, 
in  the  SnterprUe,  which  railed  (W>m 
Falmouth  .        Aug.  10, 


1815 
1815 


1819 
1820 


1825 


The  locomotive  steam-carriages  on  rail- 
ways, at  Liverpool  .  Oct 

The  railway  opened  (no  LiverpctI)    .    . 

The  Oreat  Western  arrives  from  Bristol  at 
New  York,  being  her  first  voyage,  in 
18  days  .....  June  17, 

War  steamers  built  in  England  .       .    . 

War    steamers    built    at   Biikenhesd, 
named   the    Nfmnis   and  PMtffethon^ 
carrying  each  two  thirty-two  pounden^ 
sent  by  government  to  China     . 
See  JVavy  and  Skipping. 


18t:9 

1S30 


ISSS 

1S3S 


1840 


STEAH  VESSELS  BSLONOING  TO  THE  BBITISH  EMPIRE  AT  THE  rOLLOWIKO  PEBIODBl— 


Tear. 

EofclaiiA. 

Sooilaad. 

Ireland. 

Depcndeneics. 

Total. 

1814 

0 

5 

0 

1 

6 

1815 

S 

fi 

0 

S 

10 

1820 

17 

14 

3 

9 

43 

1825 

112 

86 

8 

17 

168 

1830 

208 

61 

81 

20 

816 

1835 

344 

85 

68 

48 

545 

1845 

694 

139 

79 

69 

1001 

1850 

Belonging  to  the  United  Kingd 

om     . 

.    1181 

The  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Steam  Company  was  forme«l  in  1836.  The  Canard 
Steamers  began  to  sail  in  1840,  and  their  rivals  the  Collins  Steamers  in  1850.  The 
journey  from  America  to  England  is  now  sometimes  accomplished  in  10  day8.-pTh0 
Great  Eastern  Steamer  now  building  at  Millwall  for  the  Eastern  Steam  KavigatioD,  ii 
6S0  feet  long,  83  feet  wide;  tonnage  22,000.  It  is  expected  to  convey  between  four 
and  five  thousand  persons  to  Australia  (22,500  miles).  Its  engines  are  equal  to  1500  horse 
power.    It  was  designed  by  Mr.  I.  K.  Brunei,  and  built  by  Messrs.  Scott  Russell  k  Go. 


Great  Western 
Duke  of  Wellington 
British  Queen      . 
Oreat  Britain  . 


Lonp. 
236  feet 
240  feet 
275  feet 
822  feet 


Broad. 
35  feet 

60  feet 

61  feet 
51  feet 


Himalaya    . 
Persia 
Great  Eastern 


Lomg. 
370  feet 
890  feet 
680  feet 


Bnad. 
43  feet 
45  feet 
83  feet 


STEEL,  the  well-known  metal,  a  compound  of  iron  and  carbon,  exists  in  nature,  wd 
has  been  largely  fabricated  from  the  earliest  times.  A  maniifibctory  for  csst  steel  ib 
said  to  have  been  set  up  by  Benjamin  Huntsman  at  Handsworth  near  Sheffield  in  1740. 
The  manufacture  of  shear  steel  began  at  Sheffield  about  1800.  Oerman  steel  wu  made 
at  Newcastle  previously  by  Mr.  Crawley.  The  inventions  of  Mushat  (1800)  and  Luoi 
(1804)  were  important  steps  in  this  manufacture. 

STEEL  PENS.  Came  into  use  about  1820,  when  the  first  gross  of  three-slit  pens  iw 
sold  wholesale  for  7L  is.  In  1830  the  price  was  8«.,  and  in  1882  6*.  A  better  trticle 
is  now  sold  for  6d,  a  gross,  the  cheapest  sort  at  2d,;  Birmingham  alone  now  produce! 
about  1000  millions  pens  per  annum.  Women  and  children  are  principally  employe<l 
in  the  manufacture. 

STEEL-YARD,  and  STEEL- YARD  COMPANY.  A  most  ancient  instrument,  the  aame 
that  is  translated  balance  in  the  Pentateuch.  .  The  StaUra  Romano,  or  Roman  steci* 
yard,  is  mentioned  in  315  B.C.  The  Stbbl-Yard  Company  was  a  company  of  I«ojJ°° 
merdiants  who  had  the  steel-yard  assigned  to  them  by  Hepry  III.  a.d.  1232.  Tbey 
were  all  Flemings  and  Germans,  and  the  only  ezportei's,  for  many  years  after,  of  tne 
staple  conmiodities  of  England. — Andersim, 

STENOGRAPHY.  The  art  of  writing  in  short-hand  is  said  to  have  been  pracUsed  by 
most  of  the  ancient  nations.  It  is  said  to  have  followed  from  the  hieroglyphic  of  tbe 
Egyptians.  It  is  also  attributed  to  the  poet  Ennius,  improved  upon  by  Tyro,  ^^^\ 
freed-man,  and  still  more  by  Seneca.  The  An  Scribendi  CharaeUris,  printed  tboot 
A.D.  1412,  is  the  oldest  system  extant.  Peter  Bales,  the  famous  penman,  pabli8fi«a 
on  stenography  in  1690.  There  are  now  numerous  systems  of  it>  many  of  them  oi 
easy  acquirement  and  great  simplicity. 

STEREOMETER.  The  instrument  by  which  is  compassed  the  art  of  taking  the  eontcnli 
of  vessels  of  liquids  by  gauging,  invented  about  a.d.  1350. — Andervm* 


STE  617  8T0 

STEREOSCOPE  (from  9iert09^  nlid,  and  akqpein,  to  $ee),  an  optical  inatrument,  for  repre- 
aenting  in  apparent  relief  natural  objects,  &Cy  by  uniting  into  one  image  two  plane 
representationa  of  theae  objects  as  seen  by  each  eye  separately.  The  first  was  con- 
structed and  exhibited  by  professor  Charles  Wheatstone  in  1888. 

STEREOTYPE.  See  Printing.  It  is  said  that  stereotyping  was  known  in  1 711 ;  but  this 
is  doubted.  It  ii  said  to  have  been  suggested  by  Wm.  Qed  of  Edinburgh,  1786. — 
NiehoiM,  This  species  of  printing  is  ascribed  by  others  to  Mr.  Tilloch,  1779.  The 
invention  of  it  is  also  attributed  to  Francis  Ambrose  Diddt,  of  Paris,  about  that  year. 
— Ferguton.  But  stereotype  printing  was  in  use,  in  Holland,  in  the  last  centuiy ;  and 
a  quarto  Bible  and  Dutch  folio  Bible  were  printed  there. — PhUlipt,  Stereotyping 
was  introduced  into  London  by  Wilson,  in  1804. — Jdenu 

STIRRUPS.  Stirrups  were  unknown  to  the  ancients.  Gracchus  fitted  the  highways 
with  stones  to  enable  the  horsemen  to  mount.  Warriors  had  projections  on  their 
spears  for  the  same  purpose.  Stirrups  were  used  in  the  fifth  century,  but  were  not 
common  even  in  the  twelfth. 

STOCKHOLM.  See  Sweden,  Peace  of  Stockholm,  between  the  king  of  Great  Britain 
and  the  queen  of  Sweden,  by  which  the  former  acquired  the  duchies  of  Bremen  and 
Yerden  as  elector  of  Brunswick,  Not.  20,  1719.  Tbkatt  of  Stockholm,' between 
Sweden  and  Russia,  in  favour  of  the  duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  March  24,  1724. 
Tbeatt  of  Stockholm,  entered  into  between  England  and  Sweden,  March  8, 1818. 

STOCKINGS  of  silk  were  first  worn  by  Henry  II.  of  France,  1547.  In  1560  queen 
Elisabeth  was  presented  with  a  pair  of  black  knit  silk  stockings,  by  her  silk-woman 
Mrs.  Montague,  and  she  never  wore  cloth  ones  any  more. — Howdl.  He  adds, 
"Henry  YIII.  wore  ordinary  cloth  hose,  except  there  came  from  Spain,  by  gr^t 
chance,  a  pair  of  silk  stockings ;  for  Spain  very  early  abounded  with  silk."  Edward  YI. 
was  presented  with  a  pair  of  Spanish  silk  stockings  by  his  merchant,  sir  Thomas 
Gresham;  and  the  present  was  then  much  taken  notice  of. — Idem.  Others  relate 
that  William  Rider,  a  London  apprentice,  seeing  at  the  house  of  an  Italian  merchant, 
a  pair  of  knit  worsted  stockings  from  Mantua,  made  a  pair  like  them,  the  first  made 
in  England,  which  he  presented  to  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  1564. — Stow, 

STOCKING-FRAME.  The  art  of  weaving  stockings  in  a  frame  was  invented  in  England 
by  the  rev.  Mr.  Lee,  of  Cambridge,  in  1589,  twenty-five  years  after  he  had  first  learned 
to  knit  them  with  wires  or  needles. 

STOCEIPORT.  A  large  ancient  town  of  Chester,  which  has  latterly  risen  into  eminence 
on  account  of  the  cotton  trade.  Heaton  Norris,  in  Lancashire,  is  united  to  it  by  a 
bridge  over  the  river.  Here  was  a  serious  religious  riot,  when  two  Roman  Catholic 
chapels  were  destroyed,  and  the  houses  of  many  Roman  Catholics  were  gutted  and 
their  furniture  and  other  contents  smashed  or  burnt,  June  29, 1852.    See  Biot$, 

STOCKS.  The  public  funding  system  originated  in  Yenice,  and  was  introduced  into 
Florence  in  1840.  The  English  funding  system  may  be  said  to  have  had  its  rise  in 
1694.  The  act  to  prevent  stock-jobbing  passed  Maixh  1784.  The  foundation  of  the 
Stock  Exchange,  m  Capel-court^  was  laid  in  May  1800.  The  memorable  Stock 
Exchange  hoax,  for  which  Cochrane,  Johnstone,  and  others  were  convicted,  and  lord 
Cochrane  was  afterwards  expelled  the  house  of  commons,  Feb.  22,  1814.  Stock- 
exchange  coffee-house  destroyed  by  fire,  Feb.  11, 1816.  The  number  of  stock-holders 
in  1840  amounted  to  387,481.  The  number  in  1850  not  ascertained.  By  a  return  of 
the  average  price  of  the  public  funds  by  the  commissioners  for  the  reduction  of  the 
national  debt,  it  appears  that  Consols  averaged  in  the  year — 


1780   . 

.  £63  13  6 

1800   . 

.£C6  3  3 

1820   . 

.£68  12 

0  1845   . 

.£93  2  6 

1785  . 

.  68  6  6 

1805  . 

.  58  14  0 

1825  . 

.  90  0 

8  1848  . 

.  86  15  0 

1790   . 

.  71  2  6 

1810   . 

.  67  16  8 

1830   . 

.  89  15 

7  1850   . 

.  96  10  0 

1795  . 

.  74  8  e 

1815  . 

.  58  13  0 

1840  . 

.  89  17 

6  1852  . 

.  99  12  6 

STOICS.  Disciples  of  Zeno,  the  cynic  philosopher;  about  190  B.C.  They  obtained  the 
name  because  they  listened  to  his  instructions  in  a  porch  or  portico  at  Athens,  called 
in  Greek  Stoa*  2^o  taught  that  man's  supreme  happiness  consisted  in  living  agree- 
ably to  nature  and  reason,  and  that  God  was  the  soul  of  the  world. — Stanley, 

STONE  OPERATION.  The  operation  of  extracting  stone  from  the  bladder  was  first 
performed  by  Ammonius  of  Alexandria,  about  a.d.  240.  Cutting  for  the  stone  was 
first  peiformed  on  a  criminal,  at  Paris,  in  1474,  with  success.  A  remedy  discovered 
by  Mrs.  Stevens,  for  which  she  was  rewarded  by  government,  1739.    See  Lithotomy, 


STO  618  STO 

STONE  BUILDINGS,  kc.  Stone  buildings  were  introduced  iuto  England,  a.d.  670.  A 
stone  bridge  was  built  at  Bow,  in  1087,  and  is  accounted  the  first;  but  a  bridge  exUts 
at  Crowland,  which  is  said  to  have  been  buUt  in  860.  See  Bridgea,  The  fint  stone 
building  in  Ireland  was  a  castle,  1161.  See  Building.  Stone  china-ware  was  made  by 
Wedgwood  in  1762.  Artificial  stone  for  statnes  was  manufactured  by  a  Neapolitan, 
and  introduced  into  England,  1776.  Stone  paper  was  made  in  1796.  See  Btmtonu'i 
Art^/UitU  Stone, 

STONEHENGK  Among  the  most  celebrated  monuments  of  British  antiquity.  Said  to 
have  been  erected  on  the  counsel  of  Merlin  by  Aurelius  Ambrosius,  in  memoiy  of  4^0 
Britons  who  were  murdered  by  Hengist,  the  Saxon,  a.d.  475. — Otoffrey  ofMwm&utL 
Erected  as  a  sepulchral  monument  of  Ambrosius,  a.d.  500. — Polydort  Vergil,  An 
ancient  temple  of  the  Britons,  in  which  the  Druids  officiated. — Br,  SiuheUy.  The 
Britons  had  annual  meetings  at  Abury  and  Stonehenge,  where  laws  were  made,  ani 
justice  administered,  and  heinous  crimes  punished,  by  burning  alive  in  wicker-baskets. 

STORM,  THB  GREAT.    See  next  article,  year  1703,  and  Note. 

STORMS.  The  following  are  among  the  best  authenticated  and  most  memorable.  In 
London  a  storm  raged  which  destroyed  1500  houses,  a-D.  944.  One  Id  several  parts 
of  England,  the  sky  being  very  dark,  the  wind  coming  from  the  S.W. ;  many  churchei 
were  destroyed;  and  in  London  500  houses  fell,  Oct.  5,  1091.  One  on  the  coaatof 
Calais,  when  Hugh  do  Boauvais  and  several  thousand  foreigners^  on  their  voyage  to 
assist  king  John  agaiust  the  barons,  perished,  1215. — Holintiitd, 

It  thundered  15  dajra  suoceasively.  inth  torn-       atroyod,  and    1000   inhabitanir  pcrisbod, 
peats  of  rain  and  wind.  A.D.  1233.  |      Oct.  25.  IIG^.—Anmud  JUj/iiUr. 

A  storm,  with  Tiolont  li^htuing^ ;  ono  flash  ,  An  awful  storm  in  the  north  of  England  id 
passed  through  a  chamber  where  Edward  1.  ■      which  many  vessels  were  d««troycd,^d  4 
and  his  queen  were  couTorsingr,  did  them  no  '     Dublin  packets  foimdercd,  Oct  29,  ITTA. 
diimoge.  but  killed  two  of  their  attendants,  j  At  Suint,  in  the  Boat  Indies ;  destroyed  7«o 
US&.—Hovtden.  |      of  the  inhabitants,  April  22. 1782. 

A  violent  storm  of  hail   near  Chartrcs,  in  .  One   hundred    and  thirty-one  villages  ai>J 
France,  which  fell  on  the  army  of  Edward        fiunia  luid  waste  In  France,  1785. 
III.  then  on  its  march.    Tho'hail  was  no    One  general  throughout  Great  Britain :  sic- 
large  that  the  army  and  horses  suffered  very 
much,  and  Edward  was  obliged  to  conclude 
a  peace,  lSi9.— Matt.  Paris. 

When  Richard  II  's  queen  came  from  Bohemia, 


on  her  setting  foot  on  shore  on  awfUl  storm  |      Nov.  8,  1800 


verol  hundred  sou  of  shipping  destroyed  or 
damaged,  Oct.  6,  1794. 
One  which  did  vast  damage  in  London,  and 
throughout  almost  the  whole  of  Engbnd. 


A  tremendous  storm  th roughout Great  Bntain 
and  Ireland,  by  which  immense  damage^ 
done,  and  many  ships  wrecked,  Dec.  li^l'. 
1814.  ,      , 

An  awful  gale,  by  which  a  great  numwrw 


arose,  and  her  ship  and  a  number  of  others 
were  dashed  to  pieces  in  the  harboiur,  Jan. 

Richard's  second  queen  also  brought  a  storm 

with  her  to  the  English  coasts,  iu  wliich  the  „     ,     ., 

king's  baggage  was  lost,  and  many  ships  i      vetiaelB  wore  lost,  and  much  damage  ^ 

cast  away,  1380.— 7«i«>i.  I      done  to  the  shipping  in  general  oa  tM 

A  hurricane  throughout  Europe,  which  did  '      English  coasts,  K'og.  SI,  1816. 

very  considerable  damage ;  more  remarked    A  dr^ulful  hurricane,  which  ravaged  theLee- 

in  England,  hapnoning  Sept.  3,  1658,  the  ,     ward  Islands,  from  20th  to  22nd  Sept.  M!*- 

day  that  Cromwell  died.— ^orftmCT'.  {      At  the  Island  of  St.  Thomas  alone,  104  n»- 

A  storm  on  the  eastern  coasts  of  England  :  .     eels  were  last. 

200  colliers  and  coasters  lost,  with  most  of    A  great  storm  along  the  coast  from  Darbam 

their  crews,  169fl.  I      to  Cornwall,  in  which  great  numbers  oJ 

The  storm,  called  the  '*Gitat  Storm,"  one  of  |     vessels  were  lost,  Nov.  1821.  .      , 

the  most  terrible  that  ever  raged  in  Eng-  I  In  Ireland,  particularly  iu  the  vidatty  c 

land.    The  devasUition  on  land  was  im-        Dublin,  when  many  houses  trere  ^bro«^> 

mense  ;  and  in  the  harbours,  and  on  the       down,  and  vast  numbers  unroofed,  Dec.  i'-, 

coasts,  the  loss  in  shipping  and  in  lives  was 

still  greater.  Nov.  26-27,  1703.* 
A  snowHstorm  in  Sweden,  when  7000  Swedes, 

it  is  said,  perished  upon  the  mouutaius,  in 

their  march  to  attack  Drontheim,  1719. 
One  in  India,  when  many  hundreds  of  vcKsels 

wore  cast  away,  a  fleet  of  Indiamen  greatly 

damaged,  and  some  ships  Inst,  and  30,000 

persons  perished,  Oct  11,  1737. 
A  dreadful  nurricane  at  the  Havannah ;  many 

public  edifices  and  404S  houses  were  do- 


1822 
Awftil  storm  on  the  coast  of  England;  man^ 

vessels   lost,    and   13  driven  ashore  jn-i 

wrecked  in  Plymouth  alone,  Jan  12-13,  is.* 
At  GibralLir,  where  more  than  a  hundrtd 

vessels  were  destroyed.  Feb.  18, 18»- 
Dreadfiil  storm  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hop*. 

where  imjnense  property  was  lost,  July  if. 

1831.  .        .  , 

A  hiuricone  visited  London  and  lU  ncKH- 

bourhood,  wWch  did  great  damage  to  tLc 


fi^ 


•  The  loss  sustained  in  London  alone  was  calculated  at  2,000,00«.  sterling.    The  number  of  per* 
drowned  in  the  floods  of  the  Severn  and  Thames,  and  lost  on  the  coast  of  Holland,  and  in  abips  o.«^ 
from  tholr  anchors  and  never  heard  of  afterwards,  is  thought  to  have  been  8000.    Twelve  »»«^^**J; ,.' 
with  more  thon  1800  men  on  board,  wore  lost  within  sight  of  their  own  shore.    Trees  wei*  torn  "P  • 
the  roots,  17,000  of  them  in  Kent  alone.    The  Eddystone  light-houso  was  destroyed,  •o^ '^\„".i 
ingenious  contriver  of  it.  Winstanley,  and  the  persona  who  were  with  him.    The  bishop  o'  !»«  • 
WeUs  and  his  Uidy  were  killed  in  bed  in  their  palace  in  Somersetshire.    Multitudes  of  cattle  vtt«  >- 
lost :  in  one  level  15,000  sheep  were  drowned. 


STO  619  SUB 

STORMS,  eantinued. 

buUdinf^  but  without  the  dcstniction  of  |  places,  more  thou  200  boiuos  wcro  blown 
human  life,  thoup^h  many  serious  accidents  ,  down,  and  as  many  mora  wero  bivnt,  the 
occurred,  Oct.  28, 1S.')S.  I     wind  spreading  the  firoa.    Dublin  suffered 

Awful  hurricane  on  the  western  coast  of;  dreadfully ;  London  and  its  neighbourhoood 
England,  and  in  Ireland.  The  storm  raged  ■  scarcely  eustamed  any  damage,  Jan.6-7, 1839. 
through  Cheshire,  Staffordshire,  and  War-  [The  winter  of  1852-3  (Doe.  and  Jan.)  was  one 
wickshira ;  20  persons  were  killed  in  liver-  of  sUrms,  many  of  which  were  rery  de- 
pool,  by  the  falling  of  buildiogs,  and  100  '  structive,  particidarly  to  shipping.] 
wore  drowned  in  the  neighbourhood ;  the  Groat  storm  in  the  Black  sen,  Nov.  18-lG, 
coast  and  harbours  wore  covered  with  |  causing  much  loas  of  life,  shipping,  and 
wrecks ;  the  value  of  two  of  the  vessels  |  stores  for  the  allied  armies  in  the  Crimea, 
lost  being  nearly  half  a  million  sterling,  i  Great  storm  on  N.  coast  of  Europe,  tic , 
In  Limerick,  Oalway,  Athlone,  and  other  ,     Dec.  31,  1S.04. 

STOVES.  The  ancients  used  atoyes  which  concealed  the  fire,  as  the  Qerman  Btovefl  jet 
do.  They  lighted  the  fire  also  in  a  large  tube  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  the  roof 
being  open.  Apartments  were  warmed  too  by  portable  braziers.  Stoves  on  the  old 
principle,  improved,  continue  in  use  in  many  houses  and  public  establishments  in 
England,  and  still  generally  on  the  continent.    See  Chimneya,  and  CoUageii'$  Store. 

STRAND,  London.  Houses  were  first  built  upon  the  Strand  about  ▲.d.  1353,  at  which 
period  it  was  the  court  end  of  the  town,  or  formed  the  communication  between  tho 
two  cities  of  London  and  Westminster,  being  then  open  to  the  Thames  and  to  the 
fields.  Somerset  and  other  palaces  were  erected  in  1549. — Stow.  The  Strand  bridgo 
was  commenced  Oct.  11,  1811.  See  Waterloo  Bridge.  The  Strand  improvements 
were  commenced  in  1829. 

STRASBURO.  The  Roman  ArgentorcUum.  This  town,  formerly  imperial,  was  taken  by 
Louis  XIV.  in  1681.  The  citadel  and  fortifications,  which  he  constructed,  have  been 
so  much  augmented  that  Strasburg  may  be  considered  one  of  the  strongest  places  in 
Europe.  It  was  confirmed  to  France  by  the  peace  of  Ryswick  in  1697.  Strasburg  is 
remarkable  for  its  magnificent  cathedral  and  tower,  the  latter,  the  loftiest  in  the  world. 
An  attempt  at  insurrection  in  the  city  was  made  by  Louis  Napoleon,  afterwards 
president  of  the  French  republic,  and  now  emperor,  aided  by  two  officers  and  some 
privates,  but  it  was  instantly  suppressed  by  the  arrest  of  the  parties.  The  prince  was 
then  shipped  off  to  America  by  the  French  government,  Oct.  29, 1836.  He  made 
another  attempt  by  a  descent  at  Boulogne,  Aug.  6, 1840,  which  led  to  his  imprisonment 
at  Ham.     See  France, 

8TRATHM0RE,  COUNTESS  of.  Miss  Bowes  of  Durham,  the  then  richest  heiress  in 
Europe,  whose  fortune  was  1,040,000^.  with  vast  additions  on  her  mother^s  death,  and 
immense  estates  on  the  demise  of  her  uncle,  married  the  earl  of  Strathmore,  Feb.  25, 
1766.  Having,  after  the  earl's  death,  married  Mr.  Stoney,  she  was  forcibly  carried  off 
by  him  and  other  armed  men,  Nov.  10,  T786.  She  was  brought  up  to  the  King's 
Bench  by  habetu  eorpui  and  released,  and  he  committed  to  prison,  Nov.  23.  The 
lady  recoTered  her  estates,  which  she  had  assigned  to  her  husband  under  the  influence 
of  terror,  in  May  1788. 

STRATTON-HILL,  BATTLE  op,  in  Cobnwall.  Between  the  royal  army  and  the 
forces  of  the  parliament  headed  by  the  poet  Waller ;  in  this  battle  the  victory  was 
gained  oyer  the  parliamentarians,  who  lost  numbers  in  killed  and  wounded,  and 
Waller  was  obliged  to  fly  to  Bristol;  fought  May  16,  1643.  Waller,  who  was  most 
inconstant  in  his  principles,  was  the  nephew  of  the  great  Hampden. 

STUCCO-WORK.  The  art  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  was  much  prized  by  them, 
particularly  by  the  Romans,  who  excelled  in  it. — Abb€  LengUt.  It  was  revived  by 
D'Udine,  about  a.d.  1550 ;  and  lately  in  Italy,  France,  and  England. 

STYLE.  The  style  was  altered  by  Augustus  Caesar's  ordering  leap-year  to  be  once  in 
four  years,  and  the  month  Sextilia  to  be  called  Augustus,  8  B.C.  Again  at  Rome,  by 
taking  tw^ve  days  off  the  calendar,  a.d.  1 582.  See  Valendar.  Introduced  into  most  of 
the  other  states  of  Europe,  1710.  Act  passed  to  change  the  style  in  England  fiH>m  the 
Julian  to  the  Gregorian,  1751.    It  took  effect  Sept.  3,  1752.    See  New  Style  and  Tear, 

STYLE  ROYAL  of  the  KINGS  of  ENGLAND.    See  articles  Majesty  and  Tities, 

SUBMARINE  TELEGRAPH,  France.  See  Telegraph,  Professor  Charles  Wheatstone 
in  1840  drew  plans  of  a  projected  submarine  telegraph  between  Dover  and  Calais. 
In  1847  Mr.  John  Watkins  Brett  submitted  a  simikr  plan  to  Louis-PhUippe  without 
success ;  but  in  1850  he  obtained  permission  from  Louis  Napoleon  to  make  a  trial. 
This  took  place  on  Aug.  28, 1850.    The  connecting  wires  were  placed  on  the  govern- 


SUB  620  sue 

ment  pier  in  Dover  harbour,  and  in  the  Goliath  steamer  were  coiled  about  80  mileBin 
length  of  telegraphic  wire,  enclosed  in  a  ooTering  of  gutta  percha,  half  an  inch  in 
diameter.  The  uoliath  started  from  Dover,  unrolling  the  telegraphic  wire  as  it 
proceeded,  and  allowing  it  to  drop  to  the  bed  of  the  eea.  In  the  evening  the  steamer 
arrived  on  the  French  coast,  and  the  wire  was  run  up  the  cliff  at  cape  Grisncs  to  iti 
terminal  station,  and  messages  were  sent  to  and  fro  between  England  and  the  French 
coast.  But  the  wire,  in  settling  into  its  place  in  the  sea-bottom,  crossed  a  rocky  ridge, 
and  snapped  in  two,  and  thus  the  enterprise  for  that  time  failed.  New  arraDgements 
were  soon  made,  and  on  a  scale  of  greater  magnitude,  and  the  telegraph  was  opened, 
Nov.  13, 1851.  On  that  day,  the  opening  and  dosing  prices  of  the  funds  in  Paria 
were  known  on  the  London  Stock  Exchange  within  business  hours.  Ouns  were  fired 
at  Dover  by  means  of  electric  sparks  communicated  from  Calais.  In  May  1853  the 
Dover  and  Ostend  line  was  laid  down. 

SUBMARINE  TELEGRAPH,  Irblaitb.  A  submarine  telegraph  was  laid  down  aeroa 
the  Irish  Sea  from  Holyhead  to  Howtli,  near  Dublin,  a  direct  distance  of  aizty 
miles,  in  May  1852.  The  cable  was  shipped  on  board  the  Britamua  steamer,  the 
Admiralty  steamer  Protpero  being  in  company  to  render  aid.  In  the  first  attempt, 
some  mismanagement  caused  the  cable  to  break  when  only  four  miles  from  Holy* 
head ;  and  the  operations  had  to  be  suspended  for  the  repair  of  the  mischief  The 
second  attempt  was  quite  successful ;  the  two  vessels  devoted  eighteen  hours  to  the 
psssage,  proceeding  slowly  and  cautiously,  and  paying  out  the  enormous  cable  with 
great  judgment.  Only  65  milea  of  cable  were  used,  so  direct  did  the  veasels  proceed 
in  their  course.  On  arriving  at  Howth,  the  end  of  the  cable  was  put  in  oommunict- 
tion  with  a  loaded  cannon  on  board  the  Britannia;  the  signal  to  "fire"  was  tiau* 
mitted  to  Holyhead ;  the  operators  at  this  place  sent  &Lck  an  impulse,  and  the 
cannon  was  fired  off  Immediately — a  most  astoimding  feat»  were  it  not  that  inch 
feats  have  now  become  so  familiar  as  to  cease  to  astonish.  A  message  was  received 
in  London  at  10  o'clock,  dated  from  Dublin  at  8  o'clock,  June  1, 1852. 

SUBMARINE  TELEGRAPH,  ATLANTia  A  plan  to  unite  Europe  and  America  by  the 
electric  telegraph  was  entered  at  the  Government  registration  office,  in  June  1845, 
by  Mr.  J.  Watkins  Brett^  who  made  proposals  to  the  government,  which  were  not 
accepted.  This  plan  is  now  being  carried  out  by  a  company.  2600  miles  of  wire 
were  manufactured  and  tested  in  March,  1857.  The  laying  it  down  commenced  at 
Yalentia,  in  Ireland,  on  Aug.  5.  The  vessels  employed  were  the  Niagara  and  Siu^ 
hanna  (American  vessels),  and  the  Leopard  and  Agamemnon  (British  vessels).  After 
saying  a  few  miles  the  cable  snapped.  This  was  soon  repaired ;  but  on  Aug.  11,  after 
300  miles  of  wire  had  been  paul  out,  it  snapped  again,  and  the  vessels  returned  to 
Plymouth.  There  is  no  doubt  of  the  success  of  the  scheme  when  improvements  are 
made  in  the  machinery  to  be  employed. 

SUBSIDIES.  Subsidies  to  the  kings  of  England  formerly  granted  in  kind,  partieolirly 
in  wool ;  30,000  sacks  were  voted  to  Edward  IIL  on  account  of  the  war  with  F^oei 
1340. — Anderson.  Subsidies  raised  upon  the  subjects  of  England  for  the  last  time 
by  James  1. 1624,  but  they  were  contained  in  a  bill  for  the  redress  of  griefanoes, 
1639.  England  granted  subsidies  to  foreign  powers  in  several  wars,  particoUr) j  in 
the  war  against  the  revolutionists  of  France,  and  the  war  against  Bonaparte.  One  of 
the  most  remarkable  of  these  latter  was  June  20,  1800,  when  a  trea^  of  subsidies 
was  ratified  at  Vienna,  between  Austria  and  England,  stlpuUting  that  the  war  should 
be  vigorously  prosecuted  against  France,  and  that  neither  of  the  contracting  powers 
should  enter  into  a  separate  peace.  Subsidies  to  Austria,  Prussia,  Russis,  the  Porte, 
and  other  powers,  were  afterwards  given  by  England,  to  the  amount  of  many  tens  of 
millions  sterling. — PhUlipt, 

SUCCESSION,  ACT  of.  The  memorable  act  to  exclude  Roman  Catholics  from  aKcnd- 
ing  the  throne  of  these  realms  was  passed  1  Will.  &  Mary,  1689 ;  and  the  cro*|V^ 
England  was  settled  upon  the  present  royal  family  by  the  act  18  Will.  III.  I»aed 
June  12,  1701.  By  this  latter  act  the  succession  of  the  crown  of  England,  after  the 
demise  of  William  III.  and  of  queen  Anne,  without  issue,  was  limited  to  the  princeea 
of  Hanover,  and  to  her  heirs  being  Protestants,  she  being  the  grand-daughter  of 
James  L — See  ffanoverian  Succestion. 

SUCCESSION,  THB  WAR  of.  This  celebrated  war,  alike  distinguished  by  the  achieve 
ments  of  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and  the  earl  of  Peterborough,  and  its  bsrren  >od 
unprofitable  results,  arose  on  the  question  whether  an  Austrian  or  a  French  pii^ 
grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  should  succeed  to  the  throne  of  Spain.    Our  court  opposed 


sue  621  SUI 

Louis,  and  Marlborough  wos  victorious ;  but  the  allies  withdrew  one  after  another, 
and  the  French  prince  succeeded;  1702  to  1713.    See  Vir^ifU,  Peace  of. 

SUCCESSION  DUTT  ACT  (16  h,  17  Vict  c.  51),  after  much  discussion,  was  passed 
Aug.  4, 1853.    The  schedule  contains  tables  of  annuities. 

SUEZ  CANAL.  A  plan  for  a  canal  between  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Bay  of 
Pelosium  was  brought  forward  by  M.  De  Lesseps  in  1857.  The  Egyptian,  Turkish, 
Russian,  French,  and  Austrian  goyemments  are  in  favour  of  the  scheme,  which  is  at 
present  opposed  by  the  British.    The  cost  is  estimated  at  8,000,000^. 

STJGAR^  Sacckairum  officincamm.  Sugar  is  supposed  to  have  been  known  to  the  ancient 
Jews.  Found  in  the  East  Indies  by  Nearchus,  admiral  of  Alexander,  325  B.C. — Straho. 
An  oriental  nation  in  alliance  with  Pompey  used  the  juice  of  the  cane  as  a  common 
beverage. — Lwxm,  The  beet  susar  was  produced  in  India. — Pliny.  It  was  prescribed 
as  a  medicine  by  Gklen. — Eneydop,  Brought  into  Europe  from  Asia,  a.d.  625.  In 
large  quantities,  1150.  It  was  attempted  to  be  cultivated  in  Italy ;  but  not  succeed- 
ing,  the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  carried  it  to  America  about  1510.*  Our  chief 
importations  of  sugar  are  from  the  British  West  Indies,  the  East  Indies,  Mauritius, 
and  BraziL  The  previous  customs  duties  upon  sugar  were  repealed,  and  moderated 
duties  substituted,  by  the  act  9  &  10  Vict.  c.  63,  passed  Aug.  18,  1846,  by  which  act 
the  same  duties  were  levied  upon  the  sugar  of  foreign  countries  as  levied  upon  sugar 
the  produce  of  British  colonies,  annually  reduced  until  July  5,  1851.  The  importa- 
tions of  sugar  have  in  consequence  considerably  increased;  and  amounted  in  1852  to 
upwards  of  eight  millions  of  cwts.,  paying,  notwithstanding  the  reduction,  a  duty 
exceeding  four  millions  of  pounds  sterling.  In  1855,  the  duty  was  again  increased. t 
Sugar  was  first  taxed  by  name,  1  James  II.  1685. 

SUOAR-REFINING.  The  art  of  refining  sugar  was  made  known  to  the  Europeans  by  a 
Venetian,  A.D.  1508.  It  was  first  practised  in  England  in  1659,  though  some 
authorities  say  that  we  had  the  art  among  us  a  few  years  sooner.  Dr.  Scoffem's 
improved  processes  were  patented  in  1848-50. 

SUICIDK  The  first  instance  of  it  (passing  that  of  Samson)  recorded  in  Jewish  history, 
is  that  of  Saul,  1055  B.o. — ApoUodorus.  The  Greek  and  Roman  philosophers  deemed 
it  a  crime,  and  burned  the  offending  hand  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  body.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  Roman  history,  the  only  instance  recorded  occurs  in  the  reign  of 
Tarquin  I.,  when  the  soldiers,  thinking  themselves  disgraced  by  being  ordered  to 
make  common  sewers,  destroyed  themselves,  606  B.o.  Instances  afterwards  occurred, 
however,  of  illustrious  men  committing  suicide,  as  Cato,  4  5  B.O.  In  the  Roman  CAholic 
Church,  in  the  sixth  century,  it  was  ordained  that  no  commemoration  should  be  mode 
in  the  Eucharist  for  such  as  committed  self-murder.  This  ecclesiastical  law  continued 
till  the  Reformation,  when  it  was  admitted  into  the  statute  law  of  England  by  the 
authority  of  parliament,  with  the  confiscation  of  land  and  goods. 

A  r£W  OF  THE  MOST   MEMORABLE  LATE  OASES  OF  SUICIDE  IN  ENGLAND,  ETC. 

Qen.  Pichegru         .  April  7,  1804    Mr.  MontgomeTj  in  Newgate  (seo  Pnutie 

Hiss  Cbampanta  .  Aug.  15,  1804        Add) July  4,  1828 

Sellis,  valet  of  the  duke  of  Cumbemnd,  .  Mias  Charlotte  Both  Jan.  8,  1830 

May  31,  1810    Lord  Greaves        ....  Feb.  7,  1830 


Williams,  murderer  of  the  Marr  family, 

Dec.  15,  1811 
Lord  French  ....  Dec.  9,  1814 
Marshal  Berbhier        .  June  1,  1815 

Samuel  Whi  thread,  esq.  .  .  Sept  6,  1815 
Sir  Samuel  Romilly  .  .  .  Nov.  2,  1818 
Sir  Richard  Croft  .  .  .  Not.  0,  1818 
Christophe,  king  of  Hayti  .  .  Oct  8,  1820 
Adm.  sir  Oeoige  Campbell  .  Jan.  23,  1821 
Marquess  of  Londonderry  •  Aug.  12,  1822 
Hon.  colonel  Stanhope     .        .    Jan.  20,  1825 


Colonel  Brereton      .  .    Jan.  13,  1832 

Mi^or  Thompson  .       Juno  13,  1832 

Mr.  Simpson,  the  traveller  .  July  24,  1840 
Lord  James  Beresford  April  S7,  1841 

Qen.  sir  Rufane  Shaw  Donkin  May  1,  1841 
The  earl  of  Munster  .  .  March  20,  1842 
Lord  CoDgleton        .        .  June  8,  1842 

Laman  BUnchard  Feb.  15,  1845 

Colonel  Ourwood     .  .    Dec.  29,  1845 

Rear-admiral  CoUard  .  .  March  18,  1846 
Haydou,  the  eminent  painter,  June  22,  1840 


«  About  the  year  1138  the  sugar-cane  was  transported  f^om  Tripoli  and  Syria  to  Sicily,  thence  to 
Madeira,  and  ffnally  to  the  West  Indies  and  Amei-ica.  It  is  not  known  at  what  date  sugar  was  intro- 
duced into  England,  but  it  seems  to  have  been  prior  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VII  I.  Mr.  Whittaker,  in  the 
Hietory  of  ¥rhalley,  p.  109,  quotes  an  earlier  instance  in  1497.  A  manuscript  letter  from  sir  Edward 
Wotton  to  lord  Cobham,  dated  Calais,  6th  March.  1546,  advertises  him  that  sir  Edward  had  taken  up  for 
Ills  lordship,  twenty-five  sugar-loaves  at  six  shillings  a  loaf,  "  whiche  is  eighte  pence  a  poimde.'* 

t  In  1840,  the  importo  of  sugar  into  the  United  Kingdom  were  nearly  5.000,000  cwt  of  which  nearly 
four  mlUious  were  for  home  consumption ;  and  the  duty  amounted  to  about  five  millions  and  a  half 
sterling.  In  1850,  the  imports  were  8^285,734  cwts.  and  the  duty,  which  had  been  reduced,  amounted 
to  4,138,951L  ;  in  1853,  7,272,833  cwts.  were  retained  for  home  consumption,  and  the  duty  amounted 
to  4,088,8S6(. 


SUI  622  SUN 


SUICIDE,  eoTtUnued, 

OountBrMSon*               .  Nov.  2.  1847 

Colonel  King,  in  India        .        July  12,  1850 
Walter  Waits,   leasee  of  the  Olympic 
theatre July  18,  1850 


A.  Smart,  a  watchmaker,  threw  himself 
from  the  whiqierinj  gallery  in  8L 
Paul's       ....     March  Ul&y/ 
Charles  Russell,  esq.  late  chairman  of 
Hot.  Dr.  Rico    ■  .        .  Jan.  20,  1853  |      Great  Western  Railway       .    May  15,  1$:$ 

Lieut. -ooL  Layard    .  .    Dec.  27,  1853  ,  Hugh  Miller,  geologist,  author  of  The 


Rey.  T.  Robinson   (threw   himself  off 

Shakspeare's  Oiflf,  Dover)    .    Aug.  16.  1854 
Dr.  Franks,    late  editor  of  the  AUge- 

mdtu  Zeitunff,  after  killing  his  son, 

Nov.  3,  1855 
John  Sadleir,  M.P.,  found  dead  near  I     nervous  depression  while  on  the  ex- 

Prlmrose-hill.    (He  was  found  to  have  i     pedition  against  Penda;  see  Bukirt) 

been  guilty  of  enormous  frauds  upon  March  17,  lSo7 

the  Tipperax7  bank,  Ac.)     .    Feb.  25,  185C 


OUl  Red  Sandttojie  (through  overwork) 

Dec.  23,  1S56 
Mqior-gon.  Stalker,  C.B.  of  Indian  army 
(March  14X  and  commodore  Ethcnsey, 
of  the  Indian  navy.    (Both  through 


There  have  heeD  three  instances  of  self-destraction  by  fire ;  that  of  the  philosopher 
EmpedocleSy  who  threw  hunself  into  the  crater  of  Mount  Etna;  of  a  Frencbmui,  who, 
in  imitation  of  him,  threw  himself,  in  1820,  into  the  crater  of  Vesuvius;  and  of  in 
Englishman,  who  jumped  into  the  ftimaoe  of  a  forge  about  the  year  1811.  Plutarch 
relates  that  an  unaccountable  passion  for  suicide  seized  the  Milesian  virgins,  from 
which  they  could  not  be  prevented  by  the  tears  and  prayers  of  their  friends;  bat  a 
decree  being  issued  that  the  body  of  every  young  maid  who  did  self-murder  should 
be  drawn  naked  through  the  streets,  a  stop  was  soon  put  to  the  extraordinary  frepj. 
In  England,  the  body  was  buried  in  cross-roads,  a  stake  being  previously  drivcD 
through  it,  until  the  statute  of  i  Qeo.  IV.  1823. 

SULTAN.  A  Turkish  title,  from  the  Arabic,  signifying  king  of  Idngs,  and  given  to  the 
grand  signior  or  emperor  of  Turkey.  It  properly  signifies  king,  lord,  or  ruler,  and  it 
particularly  applied  to  the  grand  signior. — Pardon,  It  was  first  given  to  the  Tarkuh 
princes  Angrolipez  and  Musgad,  about  a.d.  1055. —  Vattier.  It  was  first  given,  accord- 
ing to  others,  to  the  emperor  Mahmoud,  iu  the  fourth  century  of  the  Hegira. 

SUMPTUART  LAWS.  Laws  to  restrain  excess  in  dress,  furniture^  eating,  ftc  Thoie 
of  Zaieocus  ordained  that  no  woman  should  go  attended  by  more  than  one  maid  in 
the  street^  unless  she  were  drunk ;  and  that  she  should  not  wear  gold  or  embroidered 
apparel,  imless  she  designed  to  act  unchastely,  450  B.C. — Diog,  Laert,  The  Ux  Ordia 
among  the  Romans  limited  the  guests  at  feasts,  and  the  number  and  quaUty  of  the 
dishes  at  an  entertainment ;  and  it  also  enforced  that  during  supper,  which  was  the 
cliLef  meal  among  the  Romans,  the  doors  of  every  house  should  be  left  open.  The 
English  sumptuary  laws  were  chiefly  in  the  reigns  of  Ednrard  IIL  and  Henry  VIIL 
See  Dreu,  Luxury,  &c. 

SUN.  Pythagoras  taught  that  the  sun  was  one  of  the  twelve  spheres,  about  529  b.c. 
The  relative  distances  of  the  sun  and  moon  were  first  calculated  geometricallj  bf 
Aristarohus,  who  also  maintained  the  stability  of  the  sun,  about  280  B.c.  Kameroa^ 
theories  were  ventured  during  fifteen  centuries,  and  astronomy  lay  n^lected  until 
about  A.D.  1200,  when  it  was  brought  into  Europe  by  the  Moors  of  Barbaiy  and 
Spain.  The  Copemican  system  was  made  known  in  1530.  See  Copemican  Sifitt» 
and  Solar  System,  QalUeo  and  Newton  maintiuned  that  the  sun  was  an  ign«0Qs 
globe.  Maculae  were  first  discovered  by  Chr.  Soheiner,  1611.  Transit  of  Hercuiy 
observed  by  Oassendi.  By  the  observations  of  Dr.  Halley  on  the  spot  which  da^en«d 
the  sun's  disc  in  July  and  August,  1676,  he  established  the  certainty  of  its  motion  round 
its  own  axis.  Parallax  of  the  sun.  Dr.  Halley,  1702.  A  macula,  three  times  the  mQ 
of  the  earth,  passed  the  sun's  centre,  April  21,  1766,  and  frequently  since.  Herrohel 
measured  two  spots  whose  length  token  together  exceeded  50,000  miles,  April  19, 1779. 

SUNCION,  TREATY  op.  Between  general  Urquiza,  director  of  the  Argentine  con- 
federation and  C.  A  Lopez,  president  of  the  Republic  of  Paraguay,  recogmsing  the 
independence  of  Paraguay,  July  15, 1852. 

SUN-DIALS.  The  sun-dial  was  mvented  by  Anaximander,  650  B.C.— P/my,  1,  2.  The 
first  erected  at  Rome  was  that  by  Papirius  Cursor,  at  the  temple  of  Quirinua,  when 
time  was  divided  into  hours,  293  B.O. — Agpin,  Sun-dials  were  first  set  up  in  ohurehei, 
▲.D.  613. — Abbi  Lenglet. 

SUNDAY,  OR  LORD'S  DAY.     Most  nations  have  counted  one  day  in  seven  holj. 

•  Count  Bresson  was  the  French  ambaasador  at  the  court  of  Madrid  during  the  negotiations  of  tbe 
Spanish  Marriages  (see  SpaniA  Marriagtt)  in  1846.  He  committod  suicide  by  catting  hia  throat  » 
Naplea^  where  he  had  Just  presented  hia  credentials  as  French  ambassador  to  the  Siciliiui  king. 


SUN  623  SUR 

Sunday  was  the  day  on  which,  anciently,  divine  adoration  was  paid  to  the  Sun. 
Among  Christiana  it  is  commonly  called  biea  Domintea  or  Lord's  ^y,  on  account  of 
our  Saviour's  appearance  on  that  day,  after  his  resurrection.  The  first  civil  law  that 
was  issued  for  the  observance  of  this  day,  combined  with  it  that  of  the  Seventh-day 
Sabbath  and  other  festivals. — Emebtut,  Life  of  Conttantine ;  and  it  was  followed  by 
several  imperial  edicts  in  favour  of  this  day,  which  are  extant  in  the  body  of  Roman 
law,  the  earliest  being  that  of  Constantino  the  Qreat,  dated  March  7,  321. — Corpus 
Juris  Cwilis.  The  council  of  Orleans  prohibited  country  labour,  which  that  decree 
had  allowed,  338.  The  Book  of  Innocent  Sunday  Sports,  authorising  certain  sports  and 
pastimes  after  divine  service  on  Sundays,  published  in  England,  15  James  I.  in  1618, 
was  violently  opposed  by  the  clergy  and  Puritans.  Its  sanction  by  the  unfortunate 
Charles  L  was  the  primary  cause  of  the  civil  war  which  ended  in  his  death.  This  book 
was  burnt  by  the  hangman,  and  the  sports  suppressed  by  order  of  parliament — Bapin. 
The  Sunday  act  was  passed  in  1781.  See  Sabbath;  Sabbath  Schools;  Sabbatarians; 
Sports,  Boot  of,  &a 

8UKDAT  SCHOOLS  were  first  established  in  England  in  or  about  the  year  1782,  by 
Boberfr  Raikes,  an  eminent  printer  of  Gloucester,  conjointly  with  Dr.  Stock.  See 
Ecbieation  and  Sabbath  Schools, 

SUPREMACY  OYER  the  CHURCH.  The  supremacy  of  the  king  over  the  Church,  as 
well  as  sovereignty  over  the  state,  whereby  the  king  was  made  the  head  of  the  Church 
of  England,  was  established  in  1534,  when  Henry  VIII.  ahook  off  the  yoke  of  Rome, 
and  settled  the  supremacy  in  himself.  Our  kings  have  from  that  time  had  the  title 
of  supreme  head  of  the  Church  conferred  upon  them  by  parliament  The  bishop  of 
Rochester  (Fiaher)  and  the  ex-lord  chancellor  (sir  Thomas  More)  were,  among  numerous 
others,  beheaded  for  denying  the  king's  supremacy,  1535. 

SUBAT.  Before  the  English  East  India  Company  obtained  possession  of  Bombay,  the 
presidency  of  their  affairs  on  the  coast  of  Malabar  was  at  Surat;  and  they  had  a  factory 
here  established  imder  captain  Best  in  1612.  The  Qreat  Mogul  had  then  an  officer 
who  was  styled  his  admiral.  Memorable  attack  of  the  Mahratta  chief  Sivagoe,  on  the 
British  factory,  defeated  by  sir  George  Oxenden,  1664.  The  English  were  again 
attacked  in  1670  and  1702,  and  often  subsequently.  The  East  India  Company,  in 
1759,  fitted  out  an  armament,  which  dispossessed  the  admiral  of  the  castle ;  and,  soon 
after,  the  possession  of  this  castle  was  confirmed  to  them  by  the  Court  of  DelhL 
Surat  was  vested  in  the  British  by  treaty  in  1800  and  1803.    See  India, 

SURGERY.  It  vras  not  until  the  age  of  Hippocrates  that  diseases  were  made  a  separate 
study  from  philosophy,  &c.  about  410  B.O.  Hippocrates  mentions  the  ambe,  the 
ancient  instrument  with  which  they  reduced  dislocated  bones.  Celsus  flourished 
about  A.D.  17;  Galen,  170;  ^tius,  500;  Paulus  ^gineta  in  640.  The  Arabians 
revived  surgery  about  900 ;  and  in  the  16th  century  sprung  up  a  new  era  in  the 
science :  between  these  periods  surgery  was  confined  to  ignorant  priests  or  barbers. 
Anatomy  was  cultivated  under  the  illustrious  Yesalius,  the  father  of  modern  surgery, 
in  1538.  Surgeons  and  doctors  were  exempted  from  bearing  arms  or  serving  on  juries, 
1513,  at  which  period  there  were  only  thirteen  in  London. 

SURGEONS,  COLLEGE  of.  The  first  charter  for  surgeons  was  granted  by  Henry  VIII. 
1540.  Formerly  barbers  and  surgeons  were  united,  until  it  was  enacted  that  "  no 
person  osing  any  shaving  or  barbery  in  London  shall  occupy  any  suigery,  letting  of 
blood,  or  other  matter  excepting  only  the  drawing  of  teeth."  The  surgeons  obtained 
another  charter  in  1745;  and  a  new  charter  in  1800.  Since  that  period,  various 
legislative  and  other  important  regulations  have  been  adopted  to  promote  their  utility 
and  respectability ;  and  no  person  is  l^;ally  entitled  to  practise  as  a  surgeon  in  the 
cities  of  London  and  Westminster,  or  within  seven  miles  of  the  former,  who  has  not 
been  examined  at  this  college.  The  college  in  LincolnVinn  Fields  was  remodelled  in 
1636,  and  the  interior  completed  in  1837.    The  premises  were  enlarged  in  1852-3. 

SURNAMES  first  began  in  Greece  and  Egypt,  as  Soter,  from  Saviour ;  Nicator,  conqueror; 
Euergetes,  benefactor;  Philopatar,  lover  of  his  father;  Philometor,  lover  of  his  mother, 
&0.  Strato  was  surnamed  Physieus,  from  his  deep  study  of  nature ;  Aristides  was 
called  the/«fl;  Phocion,  the  Oood;  Plato,  the  Athenian  Bee;  Xenophou,  the  Auic 
Muse;  Aristotle,  the  Slagyrite;  Pythagoras,  the  Samian  Sage;  Menedemus,  the 
Sretrian  Bull ;  Democritus,  the  Laughifig  Philofopher  ;  Virgil,  the  Mantuan  Swetin,  &c. 
Surnames  were  introduced  into  England  by  the  Normans,  and  were  adopted  by  the 
nobility,  a.d.  1100.    The  old  Normans  used  Fit:,  which  signifies  son,  as  Fits-herbert. 


SUR  €24  SWE 

The  Irish  used  0,  for  grandiOD,  as  O'Neal,  (TDonneL  The  Scottish  Highlandsn 
employed  Mac,  as  Maodonald,  son  of  Donald.  The  Saxons  added  the  word  son  to  the 
father's  name,  as  Williamson.  Many  of  the  most  oommon  surnames,  soch  as  JohoBon, 
Wilson,  Dyson,  Nicholson,  Slc  were  taken  by  Brabanteri  and  other  Fleming!,  who 
were  naturalised  in  the  reign  of  Heniy  YL  1435. 

SURPLICES.  First  worn  by  the  Pagan  priests.  Fint  used  in  churches,  a.d.  S16,  and 
generally  introduced  by  pope  Adrian,  786.  Every  minister  saying  public  prayers  shall 
wear  a  comely  surplice  with  sleeves,  Can,  58.  The  garb  prescrilMdby  stat  2  Ed.  TL 
1547;  again,  1  Eliz.  1558;  and  18  &  14  Chas.  II.  1662. 

SURREY  ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS  were  established  in  1881,  by  Mr.  Edwud  Croo, 
who  brought  hither  the  menagerie  formerly  at  Exeter  Change.  Yartous  picture 
models  have  been  exhibited  here  since  1837,  viz.  YesuTios,  loeland,  kc  aocompasied 
by  fireworks.  In  1856,  a  company  which  had  taken  the  gardens,  erected  a  large  yet 
elegant  building  for  concerts ;  the  architect  being  Mr.  Horace  Jones.  On  (^  19, 
1856,  when  the  hall  contained  about  9000  persons,  attending  to  hear  the  rev.  C.  H. 
Spuxigeon,  eight  were  killed  and  thirty  seriously  injured,  by  a  false  alarm  qf  fire. 

SUSPENSION  BRIDGES.  The  greatest  and  oldest  in  the  world  ia  in  China,  near  King- 
tung ;  it  is  formed  of  chains.  Rope  suspension  bridges,  from  rocks  to  rocks,  are  also 
of  Chinese  origin.  In  these  realms  chain  suspension  bridges  are  of  recent  constRtction. 
The  bridge  over  the  Menai  Strait  is  the  most  surprising  work,  every  way  oonaidered, 
of  modem  times.  The  Hungerford  (or  Charing  Cross)  suspension  bridge  was  opened 
May  1, 1845.  Parliament  empowered  the  oommissionerB  of  woods  to  erect  (amoog 
other  improvements  there)  a  suspension  bridge  at  Battersea,  Sept  1846;  and  eeverd 
bridges  of  similar  construction  have  been  lately  erected  in  Yarious  parts  of  the  kingdom. 
See  Menai  Sirait,  Hunfferford  Bridge,  Tubular  Bridge,  ^tc 

SUTLEJ,  BATTLES  of  the,  India.  A  division  of  the  British  army  on  the  SalJej, 
consisting  of  12,000  men,  with  82  guns,  under  the  command  of  sir  Harry  Smith, 
engaged  a  Sikh  force,  under  the  Sirdar  Runjoor  Singh,  mustering  24,000  strong,  and 
supported  by  a  park  of  artillery  of  68  guns.  The  battle  was  most  obstinate,  and  ended 
in  the  complete  rout  of  the  Sikhs,  who  lost  between  5000  and  6000  men,  many  of 
whom  were  drowned  in  the  Sutlej.  This  victory  was  named  after  the  village  of 
Altwal,  near  which  it  was  fought,  Jan.  28, 1846. — Again,  the  British  army  under  nr 
Hugh  Gough  attacked  the  Sikh  force,  numbering  35,000  men,  in  their  intrenched  oanp 
at  Bobraon,  on  the  Sutlej.  The  batteries  were  taken  after  an  obstinate  resistance  from 
the  enemy,  who  were  dislodged,  and  driven  to  attempt  the  passage  of  the  river  by  a 
floating  bridge  in  the  rear  of  their  position.  The  bridge,  unable  to  bear  the  weight 
of  the  masses  which  crowded  upon  it,  broke  down  and  precipitated  them  into  the 
river,  which,  in  consequence  of  a  sudden  rise  of  seven  inches,  was  hardly  fordable. 
Meantime  the  musketry  and  artillery  continued  to  make  a  fearful  carnage  amoog 
them.  The  loss  of  the  Sikhs  in  killed,  wounded,  and  drowned,  amounted  to  10,000; 
that  of  the  British  to  2388  in  killed  and  wounded.  Sixty-seven  pieces  of  cannon  aod 
several  standards  were  captured.  Prince  Waldemar  of  Prussia  was  present  at  this 
battle;  as  well  as  the  battles  of  Moodkee  and  Ferozeahah,  Feb.  10, 1846. 

SUTTEE|3,  OR  THS  BURNING  of  WIDOWa  This  custom  began  in  India  from  one  of 
the  wives  of  "  Bramah,  the  son  of  God,"  sacrificing  herself  at  his  death,  that  she  might 
attend  him  in  heayen.  So  many  as  seventeen  widows  have  burned  themselves  on  the 
funeral  pile  of  a  rajah ;  and  in  Bengal  aione,  700  have  thus  perished,  until  lately,  i& 
each  year.  Mr.  Hoi  well  was  present  at  many  of  these  sacrifices.  On  Feb.  4, 1743,  he 
saw  a  young  and  beautiful  creature,  only  seventeen  years  of  age,  the  mother  of  two 
children,  thus  sacrifice  herself,  with  a  fortitude  and  courage  that  astonished  everr 
witness  of  the  scene. — HolweU.  The  English  government  in  India  have  diaooora^ 
these  self-immolations^  while  yet  avoiding  any  undue  interference  with  the  religioo 
and  prejudices  of  the  natives.  Suttees  were  formally  abolished,  Dec.  7, 1829;  bat 
they  have  since  occasionally,  though  rarely,  taken  place. 

SWAN  RIVER  SETTLEMENT.    See  Wedem  AuttraUa. 

SWEABORG.  A  strong  fortress  in  Finland,  Si  miles  south  of  Helsingfors :  it  is  aitoated 
on  seven  rocky  islands.  The  fortifications  were  commenced  by  the  Swedes  in  lU^» 
and  were  not  completed  in  1789,  when  Finland  was  united  to  Rnsaia,  by  who* 
government  the  works  were  zealously  continued.  It  is  termed  the  Gibraltsr  of  tba 
north.  On  Aug.  7, 1855,  the  English  and  a  part  of  the  F^nch  fleet  anchored  off 
Sweaboig,  and  bombarded  it  by  mortar  and  gun-boats  from  the  9th  to  the  11th  init, 


SWE 


625 


SWE 


GaoBing  the  destructioxi  of  nearly  all  the  principal  baildinga,  including  the  dockyard 
and  arsenal.  There  were  but  few  casualties  and  no  loss  of  life  in  the  allied  squadron. 
The  success  could  not  be  pursued  for  want  of  mortars. 

SWEARING  ON  TBB  GOSPEL.  First  used  ▲.d.  528.  Introduced  in  judicial  proceedings 
about  600. — Bapin,  PBorAirB  Sweabiho  made  punishable  by  fine;  a  labourer  or 
servant  forfeiting  li.  others  2#.  for  the  first  offence;  for  the  second  ofifence,  4m.;  the 
third  offence,  6<.;  6  Wm.  III.  1695.    See  Oaths. 

SWEATING  SICKNESS.  An  English  disease,  which  caused  great  mortality  in  1485, 
soon  after  the  accession  of  Henry  YII.  It  raged  with  great  violence  in  London,  where 
two  mayors  and  six  aldermen  died  of  it  in  one  week ;  many  thousands  of  persons 
were  carried  off  by  this  complaint. — HedFt  Chronicle.  Again  in  1517i  when  it  carried 
off  the  afflicted  in  three  hours,  and  destroyed  one  half  of  the  inhabitants  in  many  parts 
of  England :  the  terms  were  obliged  to  be  adjourned  for  a  year.  —Salaum.  It  broke 
out  again  in  1528, 1529,  and  1551,  but  with  less  violence.  At  Oxford,  where  in  one 
month  510  persons  (all  men,  no  women)  died,  July  1575. — Coghlan, 

SWEDEN.  The  ancient  inhabitants  were  the  Fins,  now  the  modem  inhabitants  of  Fin- 
land, a  diminutive  race,  who  retired  to  their  present  territory  on  the  appearanoe  of 
the  Scandinavians  or  Gk>ths,  who  have  ever  since  been  masters  of  Sweden.  Hence 
the  country  was  comprehended  under  the  early  name  of  Scandinavia,  given  to  it  in 
common  with  other  northern  climes  that  were  peopled  by  the  same  race.  The 
internal  state  of  this  kingdom  is  little  known  previously  to  the  11th  century.  By  the 
union  of  Calmar  in  1397,  Sweden  became  a  mere  province  of  Denmark,  and  was  not 
rescued  from  this  subjection  until  1521,  when  Gustavus  Yasa  recovered  the  kingdom 
from  the  Danish  yoke.  For  this  he  was  raised  to  the  throne  in  1523,  and  the  crown 
made  hereditary  in  his  descendants,  who  successively  reigned  until  1809.  In  this 
year,  Gustavus  IV.  having  brought  the  nation  to  the  verge  of  ruin,  was  deposed  for 
miagovemment,  and  the  duke  of  Sudermania  became  king.  The  next  year  Bemadotte 
was  elected  regent  and  successor  to  the  throne,  which  he  ascended  in  1818. 


Gy  If  reigns  in  Sweden  .  b.o. 

During  this  i^iga,  Odin,  sunuuned  the 
Divine,  at  the  n^bd  of  a  swarm  of  bar- 
barians, fidls  upon  the  north  of  Europe, 
making  vast  conquests    . 

Tngo,  founder  of  the  Cunily  of  the 
Ynlingars,  reigns         .... 


67 


•  •• 


82 


kingdom  is 
fables   and 


[The  early  history  of  the 
altogether  involved  in 
obs^rity.]        *  ♦ 

Olif  the  Infiemt  is  baptised,  and  intro- 
duces Christianity  among  his  people 

about A.D. 

Gothland,  so  celebrated  for  its  warlike 
people  and  mvaoions  of  other  countries, 
u  annexed  to  Sweden  .... 

Waldemar  I.  of  Denmark  subdues  Rugen, 
and  destroys  the  pagan  temples     .    . 

Stockholm  fotmded 

Magnus  Ladelus  establishes  a  regular 
form  of  government         .        . 

The  crtiwn  of  Sweden,  which  had  been 
hereditarv,  is  made  elective ;  and 
Steenchel  Magnus,  sumamed  Smeek 
or  the  Foolish,  king  of  Norway,  is 
elected 

The  crown  made  elective    . 

Waldemar  lays  Gothland  waste 

Albert  of  Mecklenburg  reigns    .        .    . 

Treaty  or  union  of  Caunar  (which  tee) 

Sweden  united  to  the  crown  of  Denmark 
and  Norw^,  under  Margaret         .    . 

Uoiversity  of  Upaal  founded  . 

Christian  11.  "the  Nero  of  the  North." 
massacres  all  the  Swedish  nobility,  to 
fix  his  despotism 

The  Swedes  delivered  fVom  the  Danish 
yoke  by  the  valour  of  Gustavus  Vasa. 

Gustavus  Vasa  is  raised  to  the  throne    . 

He  makes  the  crown  hereditary,  and  in- 
troduces the  reformed  religion    . 

Titles  of  count  and  baron  iutruduoed  by 
Eric  XIV 


1000 


1132 

1168 
1260 

1379 


1318 
1320 
1361 
1865 
1394 

1394 
1476 


1620 

1621 
1623 

1644 

1661 


The  conquests  of  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
between  1612  and         .       .       .  ▲.]>.  1617 

He  is  slain  at  Lutzen 1688 

Rugen  ceded  to  Sweden  by  Denmark    .  1648 

Abdication  of  Christina  ...  1664 

Charles  X.  overruns  Poland    .  .  1657 

Arts  and  sciences  begin  to  flourish    .    .  1660 

University  of  Limd  founded  .  .  1666 

Charles  XII.  *'  the  Madman  of  the 
North,"  begins  hia  reign  .  .    .1609 

He  makes  himself  absolute ;  abolishes 
the  senate *  *  * 

Battle  of  Pultowa,  where  Charles  is  de- 
feated by  the  csar  of  Russia  (see 
PuUowa) 1700 

He  escapes  to  Bender,  where,  after  three 
vears  protection,  he  ia  made  a  prisoner 
by  the  Turks 

He  is  restored ;  and  after  ruinous  wars, 
and  fighting  numerous  battles,  he  iaat 
length  killed  at  the  siege  of  Fredericks- 
hall  (iriUcA  *te)  .        .        .        Dec.  11, 

Queen  Ubnca  Eleanor  abolishes  despotio 
government  ...... 

Royal  Academy  founded  by  Unntf,  after- 
wards called  Linnieus  .        .    . 

Conspiracy  of  counts  Brahe  and  Home, 
who  are  beheaded         «... 

Despotism  re-established   .  .    . 

Order  of  the  Sword  instituted 

Assassination  of  Gustavus  III.  by  count 
Ankerstrom,  at  a  ball,  March  16 :  be 
expired  the  29th 

The  regicide  was  dreadfully  soouiiged 
with  whips  of  iron  thongs  three  sue- 
cessive  davs :  his  right  hand  was  cut 
off,  then  his  heod,  and  his  body  im- 
paled       May  18. 

Gustavus  IV.  dethroned,  and  the  govern- 
ment assumed  by  his  undo,  the  duke 
of  Sudermania  .  .      March  13. 

Sweden  oedes  Finland  to  the  csar  of 
RuMsia Sept.  17, 

Marshal  Bemadotte,  the  prince  of  Poute 

sa 


1713 


1718 

1719 

1741 

1760 
1772 
1778 


1792 


1792 


1809 
1800 


SWE 


626 


SWE 


SWEDEN,  continued, 

Corvo  (one  of  Bonaparte's  groai«Bt 
generalsX  is  chosen  the  crown  prince 
of  Sweden  .       Aug.  21,  1810 

Gustavus  lY.  arrived  in  London, 

Nov.  12,  1810 

Swedish  Pomerania  seised  by  Napoleon 
Bonaparte        ....  Jan.  9,  181S 

Alliance  with  England    .       .    July  12,  1812 

Sweden  joins  the  grand  alliance  against 
Napoleon  ....      March  13,  1813 


Norway  is  ceded  to  Sweden  by  the  treaty 

of  Kiel Jan.  14.  18U 

Bemadotte  ascends  the  throne  of  Swedes 

as  Charles  John  XIV.  .  Feb  5,  1818 

Treaty   of  navigation    between  Great 

Britain  and  Sweden  .  .  May  19,  US6 
Death  of  Bemadotte,  whose  son,  Oeosr, 

ascends  the  throne  .  Karch  8.  1844 

Treaty  of  alliance  with  England  and 

France Nov.  21,  1855 


KINGS  OF  SWEDEN. 


1001. 


10S8. 

1061. 
1056. 
1066. 
1000. 
1112. 
1118. 
1129. 
1150. 
1162. 

1168. 
1198. 

1210. 
1220. 
1228. 
1261. 
1279. 
1290. 
1320. 
1S63. 


1307. 


1412. 
1441. 
1448. 
1470. 
1483. 
1602. 
1620. 


1628. 


Olaf  Shotkonunff,  or  Olif  Schostkonung ; 
the  Infant.  Christianity  iutroduoed 
in  this  reign. 

Edmund  Coibrenner. 

Edmund  Siemme. 

Stenkill  or  Stenchlll. 

Halstan. 

Ingo,  styled  the  Good. 

Philip. 

IngoII. 

Swerker  or  Snercher  I. 

EricX. 

Charles  YII. :  made  prisoner  by  his  suc- 
cessor. 

Canute,  son  of  Eric  X. 

Swerker  or  Sueroher  II. :  killed  in 
battle. 

Eric  XI. 

John  I. 

Brie  XII.,  U  Bigw. 

Waldemar. 

Magnus  I. 

Birger  II. 

Magnus  II. :  dethroned. 

Albert  of  Mecklenburg 
causes  a  revolt  of  his 


:  his  tyranny 
subjects,  who 


invito  Margaret  of  Denmark  to  the 
throne. 

[Union  of  Calmar,  by  which  the  three 
kingdoms  are  uiiited  under  one  sove- 
reign.] 

Margaret,  oueen  of  Sweden  and  Norwi^, 
now  also  Denmark,  and  Eric  XIII. 

Eric  XIII.  governs  alone  :  deprived. 

Christopher  III. 

Charles  VIII.  sumamed  Oanuteson. 

[Interregnum.  1 

John  II.  (I.  of  Denmark.) 

rinterregnumj[ 

Christiem  or  Cnristian  II.  of  Denmark, 
styled  the  **  Nero  of  the  North ;  '*  de- 
posed for  his  cruelties. 

Gustavus  Vasa:  by  whose  valour  the 
Swedes  are  delivered  trova  the  Danish 
yoke. 


1660. 


1692. 


1604. 


Eric  XIV.  son  of  Gustavus :  dethroned 

and  died  in  prison. 
1668.  John  III.  brother  of  Eric. 

Siglsmund,  king  of  Poland,  son  of  John 

ni. :  disputes  for  the  suooessiaii  con- 
tinued the  whole  of  this  reign. 
Charles  IX.  brother  of  John  IIL 
1611.  GusUvus  (Adolphus)II.  the  Great:  feD 

on  the  plains  of  Lntzen ;  suppoeed  to 

have  beien  treacherously  slain. 
1638.  [Intem^inum.] 
1633.  uhristina,  daughter  of  Otistavus  Adol- 

phus.      Resigned  the  crown  to  bcr 

cousin :  died  at  Rome  in  1689. 
1664.  Charles  X.  (GusUvusX   son  of  Jafan 

Casimir,  count  palatine  of  the  Rhine. 
1660.  Charles  XI.  sou  of  the  preceding ;  tlw 

arts  and  sciences  flourished  in  thii 

reign. 
Charles  XII.  styled  the  "Alexander." 

the  "  Quixote,^'  and  the  "  Madman  of 

the  North : "  killed  at  the  aicg«  d 

Frederickshall. 
Ulrica  Eleaoora,  his  sitter,  and  her  ««• 

sort  PitHlerick  I.    Uhica  reUnqoithei 

the  crown,  and  in 
Frederick  reigned  alone. 
Adolphua-Fn^lerick,  of  Holstein-Oot 

torp,  descended  ftom  the  family  of 

Vasa. 
Gustavus  (Adolphus)  IIL :  asMsrinaWd 

by  count  Ankerstrom  at  a  maaked 

UJL 
Gustavus  (Adolphus)  IV. ;  dethrooei 

and  the  government  assumed  by  au 

uncle,  the  duke  of  Sudennsnia 
Charles  XIII.  duke  of  Sudensania. 
[Twaty  of  Kiel,  by  which  Norway  Ub 

under  the  sovereignty  (tf  Sweden. J 
Charies  (John)  XIV.  Bemadotte.  the 

French  prinoe  of  Ponto  Ootto;  «» 

ceeded  by  his  son, 
1844.  Oscar,  who  ascended  the  throne,  Mar  ^ 

The  PBKBsnT  (1867)  king  of  Swedo 
and  Norway. 


1697. 

1719. 

1741. 
1761. 

1771. 
1792. 


1800. 
1814. 

1818. 


The  government  of  Sweden  is  a  limited  monarchy.  The  diet,  which,  bovcrer 
different  in  its  formation,  bears  in  its  object  a  great  resembknce  to  the  Britiu 
parliament,  consists  of  four  orders,  the  nobles,  the  clergy,  the  peasants,  ui<l  v« 
Durghers.  In  regard  to  the  ezecutiTe  administration,  the  king  is,  as  in  Britain,  tM 
head  of  the  whole.  The  revenue  of  Sweden  does  not  amount  to  two  millions;  vA 
as  it  never  was  greater,  the  military  force  has  at  no  time  been  so  large  as  migbt  b^ 
been  supposed  from  the  brilliancy  of  its  achievements.  There  are  two  univenitiea. 
Upeal  and  Lund ;  and  Sweden  can  boast,  among  its  great  men,  of  Linnvus,  Ceii^ 
Scheele,  and  Beigman.  Near  the  close  of  the  Russian  war,  a  treaty  was  coDdodAl 
between  EngUind,  France,  &a  and  Sweden,  Nov.  1855. 
SWEDKNBORGIANS.  A  sect  (calling  themselves  "  the  New  Churoh*  or  "the  Ke* 
Jerusalem  Church,")  which  holds  the  opinions  of  Baron  Emanuel  Swedeoboi^  (^ 
at  Stockholm,  1688;  died  at  London,  1772).  He  sUted  that  he  began  to  recA^e 
spiritual  manifestations,  correspondences,  &c.  in  1745,  of  which  an  account  i«  f^ 
in  his  numerous  works.*    The  sect  arose  about  1760,  and  began  to  spread  in  1  iS^ '° 

*  He  ooDsidered  the  New  Jerusalem,  foretold  in  the  Apocalypse,  to  he  a  church  now  nbou  U  ^ 
established,  in  which  will  be  known  the  true  nature  of  God  and  of  roan,  of  the  Word,  of  besTen  ^ 


SWE 


627 


6W0 


England,  where  there  were  50  congregatioDB  in  1851.  The  "  New  Church"  maintaiii« 
that  to  it  ia  reyealed  a  Bpiritoal  aense  of  the  words  of  Scripture,  not  revealed  to  other 
churchea.  It  oonaidera  the  laat  judgment  to  have  been  aocompliahed  in  1757 ;  it  doea 
not  receive  the  uaual  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  believing  that  the  three  Peraona  are  one 
in  Christ ;  it  rejecta  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone,  and  the  imputed 
righteouaneaa  of  Christ,  and  holds  that  aalvation  cannot  be  obtained  except  by  faith 
and  good  works.  It  aocepta  the  ordinances  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and 
makea  use  of  a  liturgy  and  hymns  in  public  worshipi 

SWEET-BAT,  Lmmu  nobilit,  was  brought  to  these  realms  from  Italy  before  1548.  The 
Launu  Jndica^  or  Royal  Bay,  was  brought  from  Madeira,  in  1665.  The  Sweet-Fern 
bush,  Comptonia  atpUnifoUa,  came  from  America,  1714.  The  Lawu9  aggregtUa,  or 
the  Glaucous  Laurel,  came  from  China  in  1806.  There  are  now  several  other  species 
of  these  plants  in  England. 

SWITZEBLAND.  The  ancient  Helvetians  were  a  Gaulish  people,  conquered  by  Julius 
GasAT,  and  afterwards  subject  to  the  Buigundisns  and  Germans.  Many  Franks  d"ff 
settled  here,  in  the  early  ages.  The  canton  of  Schweitz  was  peopled  by  the  Cimbrians, 
who,  leaving  their  original  habitation  in  Scandinavia,  invaded  Italy,  and  were  defeated 
by  the  Roman  general  Marius ;  after  which  they  fled  into  Helvetia,  about  100  B.a 
This  canton  has  given  name  to  the  whole  confederacy. 


The  HeWetians  converted  to  ChriatUmity 

by  Irish  miasioiuurieB   .  .  a.d.    612 

HelTstui  ravaged  by  tho  Hona  .  .  .  900 
Becomes  subject  to  Germany .  .  1032 

Fribourg  built  hv  Berthold  lY.  .    .  1179 

Tyranny  of  Qesxler,  which  occaslona  the 
memoruble  revolt  under  the  patriot 
WiUiam  TeU  (see  TeO)  ....  1306 
Swiss  independence    .  Nov.  7,  1807 

A  malignant  fever  carriea  ott,  in  the  can- 
ton of  Basle,  1100  souls  ....  1314 
Form  of  government  made  perpetual    .  1815 
Lucerne  Joins  the  confederacy        .        .  1385 
Tho  canton  of  Zurich  Joins,  and  becomes 

head  of  the  league 1350 

Berne,  Olarts,  and  Zug  Join  .  .  .  1361 
The  Orisons  league  (see  OauliUe) .  .  .  1400 
Second  league  of  the  Orisons  .  .  1424 

The  third  league  of  the  Grisous  .  .  1436 
Swiss  soldiers  first  enter  into  the  pay  of 

France,  under  Jiouie  XI.  .  1480 

Union  of  Fribouxg  and  Soleure  .  .  .  1481 
Maximilian  I.  emperor,  acknowledges 

Swiss  independence     ....  1499 
Sebaff  hausen  Joins  the  union  .    .  1501 

Tlie  Swiss  confederacy  acknowledged  by 

Prance  and  other  powers  .1616 

The  Reformation  begins  at  Basle ;  the 

bishop  compelled  to  retire  .    .  1619 

The  Onson  leagues  Join  the  Swiss  oon- 

fedsTBcy  as  ailiea 1644 

Appenzel  Joins  the  other  cantons      .    .  1597 
Charles  Emanuel  of  Savoy  attempts  Oe- 
t  neva  by  surprise,  scales  tho  walls,  and 
penetrates  the  town,  but  in  the  end  is 
defeated 1602 


[This  circumstance  gives  rise  to  an  an- 
nual  festival  commemorative  of  their 
escape  tram  tyranny.] 

Independence  of  Switsertand  recognised 
by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  (see  Wal- 
j^iaUa,  Peace  cf) 1648 

[From  this  period  until  the  French  revo- 
lution the  cantons  eqjoyed  tranquillity, 
disturbed  only  by  the  changes  arising 
out  of  their  various  constitutions.] 

Alliance  with  France  .    Uay  35,  1777 

Domestic  strife  In  Geneva,  between  the 
aristocratic  and  democratic  parties: 
France  inteifdres 1781 

1000  fugitive  Genevans  seek  an  asylum 
in  Ireland  (see  Oeneva) .... 

Swiss  guards  ordered  to  quit  France 

Helvetic  ooufederation  dissolved:  its 
sut^jugation  by  France    .  .    . 

The  number  of  cantons  increased  to  19: 
the  federal  government  restored ;  and 
a  landamman  appointed  by  J^mnoe, 

May  13, 

Uri,  Schweitz,  and  Underwald  separate 
fttmi  the  republic  .        July  13,  1803 

Switzerland  Joins  France  with  6000  men, 

Aug.  24,  1811 

The  allies  entered  Switzerland  in  the 
spring  of  1814.  The  number  of  cantons 
increased  to  23,  and  the  independence 
of  Switzerland  secured  by  the  treaty  of 
Vienna 1815 

Revolution  at  Geneva*  .  Oct  7,  1846 

Dispute  about  Neufch&tel,  wAieft  see. 


1783 
1702 

1798 


1808 


SWORDS.  They  were  formed  of  iron  taken  from  a  mountain  by  the  Chineae,  1879  B.O. 
— Univ,  BiaL  The  aword  is  one  of  the  earlieat  implementa  of  war.  The  Roman 
aworda  were  from  20  to  80  inches  long.  The  broadsword  and  scimitar  are  of  modem 
adoption.  The  sword  of  state  carried  at  an  English  king's  coronation  by  a  king  of 
Scotland,  1194.  Damascus  ateel  swords  are  the  most  prised ;  and  next,  the  swoid  of 
Ferrera  steel.    The  Scotch  Highlanders  were  accuston^ed  to  procure  the  latter  from 

hell— concerning  all  which  sutrjeots  error  and  ignorance  now  prevail,  and  in  which  church  this  know- 
ledge will  bear  its  proper  fVuits— love  to  tho  Lord  and  to  one's  neighbour,  and  pui-ity  of  life. 

*  liuceme  and  the  other  Roman  Catholic  cantons  had  Joined  in  a  league  to  carry  out  their  own 
views,  one  of  which  was  to  place  the  education  of  their  youth  in  the  bands  of  the  Jesuits.  The 
Protestant  cantons  took  steps  to  ojjposc  the  league  as  an  illegal  encroachment  on  the  general  con- 
federation, and  the  question  came  in  due  course  before  the  grand  council  of  Geneva.  The  council 
condemned  the  league,  but  declared  that  public  order  ought  to  be  maintained.  For  this  decree  the 
F1x>testants  o(  the  city  rebelled,  deposed  the  council,  and  established  a  provisional  government.  The 
city  was  the  scene  of  some  severe  fighting,  and  many  lives  were  lost  Eventually  tranquillity  was 
restored,  tho  IcMigued  cantons  having  sent  m  their  submission  to  the  diet 

88  2 


SYC  628  SYR 

the  celebrated  artifioer,  named  Andrea  di  Ferraniy  and  used  to  call  them  their  Andm 
Ferrarxu,    The  broad-sword  was  forbidden  to  be  worn  in  Edmburgh  in  1724. 

SYCAMORE  TREE,  called  by  some  the  Egyptian  fig-tree.  The  date  of  its  being  planted 
in  England  ia  not  known,  but  it  waa  very  early.  In  Mrs.  Jamieson's'^Memoin  of 
Female  SoTereigns,"  we  are  told  that  Mary  queen  of  Scots  brought  over  from  Fruce 
a  little  sycamore  tree,  which  she  planted  in  the  gardens  of  Holyrood,  and  that  £rom 
this  have  sprung  all  the  beautiful  groves  of  sycamore  now  to  be  seen  in  Sootiand. 

SYDNEY,  capital  of  the  province  of  New  South  Wales.  Founded  by  govenor  Phillip. 
on  a  cove  of  Port  Jackson,  in  1788,  as  a  British  settlement  for  the  colony  of  conyictB 
originally  intended  for  Botany  Bay;  now  the  principal  seat  of  the  government  of 
Australasia.  It  was  denominated  Sydney  in  compliment  to  lord  Sydney.  It  ia  now 
considerable  in  extent  and  population;  both  increased  by  vast  immigrationa  from 
Great  Britain  and  other  countries  of  Europe,  in  consequence  of  the  late  disooveriee  of 
the  gold  fields  of  Australia.  It  has  banks,  various  other  institutions,  and  a  legiaUtive 
council,  which  was  first  held  July  18, 1829 ;  the  university  was  opened  Oct  11, 1852. 
It  was  erected  into  a  bishopric  in  1836,  afterwards  into  an  srchbiahopric  See 
AuttraUa;  New  South  WaUt;  ConvieU,  &o. 

SYNAGOQUE.  This  word  sometimes  means  an  assembly  or  congregation  of  the  Jew, 
and  sometimes  the  place  where  such  assembly  is  collected  for  religious  purpoaei.— 
Pardon,  Authors  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  time  when  the  Jews  first  had  synagoguei 
Some  refer  it  to  the  time  of  the  ceremonial  law,  and  others  to  the  times  after  the 
Babylonish  captivity.  In  Jerusalem  were  480  synagogues.  There  are  in  London  aii 
synagogues,  of  which  one,  in  Duke's-place,  is  German. 

SYNOD.  The  first  general  synods  were  called  by  emperors,  and  afterwards  by  Chriatiaii 
princes;  but  the  pope  ultimately  usurped  this  power,  one  of  his  legstes  naoally 
presidiDg  (see  Couneut),  National,  were  those  of  one  nation  only.  The  fixst  of  this 
Idnd  held  in  England  was  at  Hertford,  ▲.D.  673  :  the  last  was  held  by  cardinal  Pole 
in  1555.    B£ade  imlawful  to  hold  synods  but  by  royal  authority,  25  Hen.  VIIL 1^- 

SYNOD  OF  DORT.  The  famoua  general  assembly  of  Dort  in  Holland,  to  which 
deputies  were  sent  from  England  and  all  the  reformed  churches  in  Europe,  to  aettle 
the  difference  between  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  Calvin,  and  Arminius,  prinoipalljupon 
the  points  of  j  uatification  and  grace,  161 8. — A  itzema.  The  Arminiana  being  excluded 
from  the  assembly,  and,  of  course,  not  allowed  to  defend  their  opinions,  were  declared 
guilty  of  pestilential  errors,  and  condemned.  In  1625,  however,  they  were  reitond 
to  their  former  reputation. — Butler. 

SYNOD  OF  THURLES,  Irblahd.  This  was  a  synod  of  the  Roman  Catholic  ardibiihopi, 
bishops,  inferior  clergy,  and  religious  orders,  assembled  in  Thuries  under  the  dinetioa 
of  archbishop  Cullen,  the  Roman  Catholic  primate,  Aug.  22,  1850.  It  closed  ita 
deliberations,  having  condemned  the  Queen's  Colleges,  and  recommended  the 
foundation  of  a  Roman  Catholic  university.  Sept  10,  following.  The  acts  of  this 
synod  were  forwarded  to  Rome  for  approval  of  the  pope,  Pius  IX. 

SYRACUSE.  Founded  by  Archies,  782  B.o.-^EuMAiut.  749  B.a— i7iw.  SitU  Tie 
siege  by  the  Athenians,  so  impressively  described  by  Thuoydides,  took  place  414  b.c. 
The  government  of  Dionysius  the  Elder,  and  Timoleon,  in  less  than  half  a  oeDtary 
after.  Taken  by  Marcellus,  when  Archimedes,  the  illustrious  mathematician,  waa  shin, 
212  B.C.  Syracuse  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  with  many  thousands  of  its 
inhabitants,  January  1693.  Again  nearly  destroyed,  Aug.  6, 1757.  In  the  late  war  a 
Italy,  Syracuse  surrendered  to  the  Neapolitan  troops,  April  8, 1849. 

STRIA.  Of  the  early  history  of  Ancient  Syria,  a  few  partioulan  are  gleaned  fioo 
Scripture ;  and  it  otherwise  affords  nothing  peculiar,  being  involved  in  the  hiaton* 
of  the  Assyrian,  Babylonian,  and  Persian  empires  {which  see).  The  capital  of  Sjna 
was  originally  Damascus ;  but  after  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  Seleucus  (the  chief  of  the 
Seleucidss)  founded  the  celebrated  city  of  Antioch. 

BeleucuB,  surnamed  Nieator,  i.  e.  Con-  i     eecret  being  discovered,  she  is  divoreed 

queror,  entera  Babylon  .   b.c.    812  (     by  the  father,  and  married  by  the  aon.    ^ 


jBraoftheSoleucidM(irAic*«««)     '    .'  !    812  |  Battle  of  Cyrop»dioa **' 

Seleucus  is  fouUyaasassinated  by  Oerao- 


Great  battle  of  Ipsus,  defeat  and  death 

of  Antigonus SOI 

Thecity  of  Antioch  founded  .    .    290 

Antiochus,  son  of  Seleucus,  (laJling  in 
love  with  his  fiber's  queeo^Stratonioe, 
he  pines  away  nearly  to  death ;  but  the 


nus. — UmfiH  ,     . 

Antibchus  defeats  the  Oauls.  and  takes 

the  naoie  of  StsUr^  or  Saviour  .       •    • 
Reign  of  AnUochus  II.  suniamed  by  the 
MUesians  rAsoc,  or  God !  . 


2<» 


SYR 


629 


TAL 


STRIA,  eantmvMl. 

Beleucus  II.  makes  a  treaty  of  alliance 
with  Smyrna  and  Magnesia    .        b.c.    243 

Reign  of  Beleucus  ill.  siuuamed  Oemu^ 
nu$f  or  Thunder 220 

Battle  of  Bapbia,  in  which  AntiochusIIL 
is  si^mally  defeated 217 

Antiochus'  conquest  of  Judea         .       .    204 

War  with  the  Romans  beffins     .        .    .    192 

Beign  of  Antiochus  IV.  who  assumes  the 
title  of  Tkeo»-Bpiphane$,  or  the  Illus- 
txiousGodl 176 

He  sends  ApoUonius  into  Judma :  Jeru- 
salem is  taken ;  the  temple  pillaged  ; 
40»000  inhabitants  destroyed,  and 
40,000  more  sold  ss  slaves  .    .    170 

Oeonatra,  the  queen,  murders  her  son 
Beleucus  with  her  own  hand  .124 

Reign  of  her  son  Antiochus  Orypus. 
whom  she  attempts  to  poison ;  but  he 
compels  his  mother  to  swallow  the 
deadly  draught  herself     .        ...    123 

Beign  of  Cyzicenus  at  Damascus,  a&d  of 
Orypus  at  Antioch        ....    Ill 

Defeat  of  Tigranes  by  Pompey.who  enters 
Byria^  ana  dethrones  Autiochui  Asiati- 
cus,  about 65 

Conquest  of  Byria    .  .  a.D.    070 

prhis  conquest  is  made  by  the  Fatimite 
caliphs,  who  rule  in  Bgypt.] 

Reroltofthe  emirs  of  Damascus  .  1067 

The  emirs  of  Aleppo  revolt  .    .  1U08 

The  crusades  from  Europe  commence 
(see  artiule  Cnuadui)     ....  1095 

[The  Christians  ultimately  conquer  that 

Krt  of  Byria  called  the  Holy  lAud. 
•  JenuaUm.l 

Noureddin  conquers  Syria  .  .  .  1166 
Baladin  puts  an  end  to  the  power  of  the 

Fatimite  dynasty 1171 

The  Tartan  overrun  all  Byria  .    .  1250 

Recovered  by  the  sultans  of  Egypt,  who 

expel  the  Crusaders      .  .        .1291 

Byria  overrun  by  Tamerlane      .        .    .  1400 

Conquered  by  the  Turks  under  Selim    .  1617 
*  •  •  •  • 

After  the  conquest  by  Belim,  Byria  con- 
tinued in  poflMsston  of  the  Turks  till 
the  invasion  of  Egypt  by  the  French, 

July  1,  1798 


Bonaparte  defeats  the  Hamelukee  with 

great  loss  ....  Aug.  0,  1708 

He  overruns  the  country,  and  takes  Gasa 

and  Jaffa 1798 

Siege  of  Acre  Karch  6  to  May  27, 1790 

Bonaparte  returns  to  Fiance  from  ISgjpty 

Aug.  23,  1790 
Egypt  is  evacuated  by  the  French  army, 

Sept.  10. 1801 
Mehemet  All  attacks  and  captures  Acre, 

and  overruns  the  whole  of  Byria  .  1881-1882 
Ibrahim  Pacha,  his  son,  defeats  the  aimy 

of  the  grand  signior  .  July  80, 1882 

[Numeroua  battles  and  conflicts  follow 
with  various  success.] 

Ibrahim  Pacha  defeats  the  Turkish  army, 
making  10,000  prisoners        .  June  26, 1880 

The  Turkish  fleet  arrives  at  Alexandria, 
and  places  itself  at  the  dispoeal  of 
Mehemet  All  July  14, 1880 

The  Five  Powers  propose  to  the  Porte  to 
negotiate  with  Mehemet  All     July  16, 1880 

DeaUi  of  the  celebrated  lady  Hester 
Stanhope       ....    June  23, 1840 

Treaty  of  London  (not  signed  by  offsnded 
France)       ....       July  16, 1840 

Capture  of  Bldon  (see  Sidan)  .    Sept  27, 1840 

Fall  of  Beyrout  (see  Beyraul)    ,    Oct  10, 1840 

FaU  of  Acre  (see  Acre)  .        .        Nov.  8,  1840 

[After  much  expostulation  with  the  sul- 
tan, the  four  powers,  England,  Austria, 
Russia,  and  Prussia,  prevail  upon  him 
to  make  the  pachalic  of  Egypt  heredi- 
tary in  the  fomily  of  Mehemet  All.  This 
result  conciliates  offended  Fiance.] 

Ibrahim  Pacha,  son  of  Mehemet  AH, 
visits  England  .    June  8, 1840 

He  embarlu  at  Portsmouth  for  Alexan- 
dria   July  16. 1846 

Ibrahim  Pacha  made,  by  the  sultan, 
viceroy  of  Egypt,  during  Mehemet 
All's  illness  .        Bcpt  1, 1848 

Death  of  Ibrahim  Pacha  Nov.  10, 1848 

Death  of  Mehemet  All,  in  his  80th  year, 

*  Aug.  2, 1840 

Abbas  Pacha,  nephew  of  Ibrahim  Pacha, 
succeeded  Ibrahim,  who  died  July  14, 
1864,  and  was  succeeded  by 

Bald  Pacha,  the  present  (1867)  viceroy 
of  Egypt 


T. 


TADMOR.    See  Palmyra. 

TAFFETT.  One  of  the  earliest  speciee  of  Bilken  manufacture,  more  prised  formerly 
than  now,  woven  very  amooth  and  glossy.  It  was  worn  by  our  elder  queena,  and  was 
first  made  in  England  by  John  Tyce,  of  Shoreditch,  London,  41  Eliz.  1598.— ^row^t 
Ckrcn,  Taffety  has  been  superseded  by  numerous  descriptions  of  manufacture  more 
esteemed  by  the  female  world. — Ashe, 

TAHITI.    The  French,  or  abbreviated,  name  for  Otaheite.    See  Otaheite. 

TALAVBRA,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  united  British  and  Spanish  armies  under  sfar 
Arthur  Wellesley  (19,000  British  and  80,000  Spaniards),  and  the  French  army  amount- 
ing to  47.000,  commanded  by  marshals  Victor  and  Sebastiani,  Jul^  27  and  28, 1809. 
After  a  battle  on  the  27th,  both  armies  remained  on  the  field  dunng  the  night,  and 
the  French  at  break  of  day  renewed  the  attack,  but  were  again  repulsed  by  the 
British  with  great  slaughter.  At  noon  Victor  charged  the  whole  British  line,  but  waa 
repulsed  at  all  points,  and  sir  Arthur  Wellesley  secured  the  victory,  the  enemy 
retreating  with  the  loss  of  10,000  men  and  20  pieces  of  cannon.    The  British  lost 


TAL  680  TAR 

800  killed,  and  4000  wounded  or  misaing.    Sonlt,  Ney,  and  Mortier,  being  in  the  nUf 
obliged  the  Britiah  to  retire  after  the  battle. 

TALBOTYPE.     See  Photography. 

TALLT  OFFICK  The  Tally  Court  in  the  Exchequer  took  ite  name  from  the  French 
word  tailler,  to  cut.  A  tally  is  a  piece  of  wood  written  upon  both  sideSy  containing  an 
acquittance  for  money  received ;  which  being  cloven  asunder  by  an  officer  of  the 
Exchequer,  one  part,  called  the  stock,  was  delivered  to  the  person  who  paid,  or 
lent,  money  to  the  government;  and  the  other  part,  called  the  counte^BU)ck  or 
oounter-foif,  remained  in  the  office,  to  be  kept  till  called  for,  and  j<»ned  with  the 
stodc.*  This  manner  of  striking  tallies  is  very  andent.  —  BeaUtm,  It  ii  now, 
however,  discontinued.    See  Exchequer, 

TALMUD.  There  are  two  books  of  the  doctrine  of  the  religion  and  morality  of  the 
Jews, — the  Talmud  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  Talmud  of  Babylon.  The  one  oompoeed 
by  the  Rabbi  Juda  Hakkadosh,  about  the  dose  of  the  second  century ;  the  second, 
being  commentaries,  &c.  by  succeeding  rabbis,  were  colleoted  by  Ben  Elieser,  about 
the  sixth  century.    Abridged  by  Maimonides  in  the  twelfth  century. 

TAMERLANE.  The  conqueror  of  Penia,  India,  and  Egypt,  and  plunderer  of  Bagdad, 
Delhi,  and  Cairo.  He  subdued  the  renowned  warrior  Bajazet,  sultan  of  the  Torfci, 
whom  he  exposed  in  a  large  iron  cage,  the  fate  the  latter  had  destined  for  hii  adTe^ 
sary  if  he  had  been  the  victor.  Bajazet  dashed  his  head  against  the  ban  of  this  prisoo, 
and  killed  himself,  UOd,^Chakondila*$  Hia,  Turc. 

TANDY,  JAMES  NAPPER,  his  ARREST.  This  celebrated  man  proposed  his  plan  of 
reform  in  1791.  In  the  French  expedition  sgainst  Ireland  he  aotea  as  a  general  of 
brigade,  Aug.  1798.  He  failed,  and  fled  to  Hambtirg,  and  there  was  delivered  up  to 
the  Engliih,  for  which  piece  of  treachery  Bonaparte  declared  war  upon  Hambai]^ 
Oct  15, 1799.    Napper  Tandy  was  liberated  after  the  peace  of  Amiens. 

TANQIERS.  Besieged  by  prince  Ferdmand,  who  was  beaten,  1437.  It  waa  takes  by 
the  Portuguese  in  1471,  and  given  as  a  dower  to  princess  Catherine,  on  her  marriige 
with  Charles  II.  of  England ;  but  he  did  not  think  it  worth  keeping,  and,  in  l^, 
caused  the  works  to  be  blown  up,  and  the  place  was  abandoned.  Tangiera  ^terwudi 
became  a  piratical  station ;  but  the  discontinuance  of  piracy  has  greatly  diminithM 
its  importance. 

TANISTRT.  Introduced  into  England  in  the  time  of  the  Saxons.  In  Ireland,  upon  tb« 
death  of  any  one,  his  land  was  divided  among  all  the  males  of  his  family,  l^gitimtte 
or  not ;  and  if  any  of  them  afterwards  died,  his  portion  was  not  shared  out  aiuong  hii 
sons,  but  the  ohieftain  or  tanist  made  a  new  partition  at  his  diicretioo  among  the 
surviving  brothers.    Abolished  1604. — Davies  on  Ird4xmd. 

TANNING.  The  process  of  tanning  leather  with  the  bark  of  trees  was  early  praetjied 
by  various  nations.  The  use  of  tan  was  introduced  into  these  oountriee  from  Holland 
by  William  III.  for  raising  orange-trees.  It  was  discontinued  until  about  1719,  when 
ananas  were  first  brought  into  Ehigland.  Since  then,  tan  has  been  in  geaeial  ueein 
gardening.    Great  improvements  were  made  in  tanning  in  1795  et  teq. 

TAPB3TRT.  An  art  of  weaving  borrowed  from  the  Saracens,  and  heneeita  ongM 
workers  in  France  were  called  Sarazinois,  The  invention  of  tapestry  hanginga  belongi 
[the  date  ia  not  mentioned]  to  the  Netherlands. — OukeiardinL  Manofactored  m 
France  under  Henry  lY.  by  artists  invited  from  Flanders,  1606.  The  art  «■« 
brought  into  England  by  William  Sheldon ;  and  the  first  manufactory  of  it  «** 
esUblished  at  Mortlake  by  sir  Francis  Crane»  17  James  1.  1619.— So/moa  Under 
Louis  XIV.  the  art  of  tapestry  was  much  improved  in  France.  See  Oobeli*  Tit^finf- 
Yery  early  instances  of  making  tapestry  are  mentioned  by  the  ancient  poets,  and  iw 
in  Scripture;  so  that  the  Saracens'  manu&cture  is  a  revival  of  the  art  Fortne 
tapestry  wrought  by  Matilda  of  England,  see  Bayettx  Tapatrp, 

TAR.  Liquid  pitch ;  the  turpentine  of  the  pine  or  fir  drained  out  by  ^n,—Speneer. 
The  chemist  Becher  first  proposed  to  make  tar  fix>m  pit-coal— the  earl  of  DoDdonala' 
patent,  1781.  The  mineral  tar  was  discovered  at  Colebrook-dale,  Shropahire,  1779; 
and  in  Scotland,  Oct  1792.  Tar-water  was  first  recommended  for  its  medicotfi 
virtues  by  the  good  Dr.  Berkeley,  bishop  of  Cloyne,  about  a.d.  1744. 

TARA,  BATTLE  or,  in  Irklamd.    This  was  a  memorable  battle  one  of  the  earlieit  in 


TAR  681  TAX 

the  rebellion  of  '98,  fought  between  the  royalist  troops,  only  400  strong,  and  the 
Insurgent  Irish,  then  in  rebellion  against  the  crown  of  England.  The  rebels  amounted 
to  4000  men,  yet  were  completely  defeated^  losing  500  killed,  May  26,  1798. 

TABBES,  BATTLE  op,  in  France.  The  French  army  under  marshal  Soult,  in  great 
strength,  was  forced  from  its  position  at  Tarbes,  with  considerable  loss,  by  the  British 
army  commanded  by  the  duke  of  Wellington,  March  20,  1814.  This  engagement 
shortly  preceded  the  great  battle  of  Toulouse^  the  final  battle  of  the  peninsular  army 
under  the  duke.    See  Touioute, 

TARENTUM,  WAR  of.  The  war  which  the  people  of  Tarentum  supported  against  the 
Romans,  assisted  by  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  which  had  been  undertaken  B.a  281,  by 
the  Romans,  to  avenge  the  insults  the  TarentineB  had  offered  to  their  ships  when  near 
their  harbours,  was  terminated  sfter  ten  years ;  300,000  prisoners  were  taken,  and 
Tarentum  became  subject  to  Rome. 

TARIFF,  a  book  of  rates  or  duties  chaiiged  on  eoode  exported  or  imported.  The  tariff 
of  this  country  in  1840  comprised  1042  articles;  the  number  was  reduced  to  446  (by 
■ir  Robert  Peel)  in  1848,  and  to  439  in  1857. 

TARRAGONA.  Occupied  as  a  naval  station  by  the  British  before  their  capture  of 
Oibraltar,  in  1704.  It  was  stormed  and  sacked  by  the  French,  and  the  inhabitants, 
man,  woman,  and  child,  put  to  the  sword — a  military  achievement  creditable  to  the 
talents,  but  most  dishonourable  to  the  character  of  marshal  Suchet ;  it  surrendered 
June  28, 1811.  Tarragona  was  besieged  by  general  sir  James  Murray,  in  May  1813 ; 
but  the  siege  was  soon  raised. 

TARTAN,  OR  HIGHLAND  PLAID.  This  drees  of  the  Scottish  Highlanders  is  said  to 
have  been  derived  from  the  ancient  Gauls,  or  Celt»,  the  Oalli  Non-braccfUi. 

TARTARIC  ACID  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  discovery  of  the  eminent  chemist, 
Seheele,  who  procured  it  in  a  separate  state,  by  boiling  tartar  with  lime,  and  in  deoom- 
posing  the  tartrate  of  lime  thus  formed,  by  means  of  sulphuric  add,  a.d.  1770. 

TARTART.  The  name  given  to  several  nations  of  the  East  The  Tartar  race  was 
known  and  celebrated  in  antiquity  under  the  name  of  Scythians.  It  was  during  the 
decline  of  the  Roman  empire  that  these  tribes  began  permanently  to  forsake  their  own 
plains,  in  search  of  more  fertile  regions ;  and  the  first  of  these  ravagers  whose  terror 
and  fame  reached  the  frontier  of  Italy  were  the  Htins,  the  ancestors  of  the  modem 
race  of  Mongols.  The  first  acknowledged  sovereign  of  this  vast  country  was  the 
famous  Genghis  Khan,  a.d.  1206.  His  empire  by  the  conquest  of  China,  Persia, 
and  all  Central  Asia,  became  one  of  the  most  formidable  ever  established ;  but  it 
was  split  into  parts  in  a  few  reigns.  Timur,  or  Tamerlane,  again  conquered  Persia, 
broke  the  power  of  the  Turks  in  Asia  Minor,  1402,  and  founded  a  dynasty  in 
India,  which  formed  the  most  splendid  court  in  Asia,  till  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century. 

TAVERNS.  In  this  country  were  places  of  entertainment,  under  various  names,  in 
ancient  times.  Taverns,  as  so  called,  may  be  traced  to  the  18th  century.  "In  the 
raigne  of  king  Edward  the  Third  only  three  tovenu  were  allowed  in  London :  one  in 
Cbepe,  one  in  Wal broke,  and  the  other  in  Lombard-street." — Sir  Henry  Spelman.  The 
Boar^e  Head,  in  Eastcheap,  existed  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV .  and  was  the  rendezvous 
of  prince  Henry  and  his  dissolute  companions.  Shakspeare  mentions  it  as  the  resi- 
dence  of  Mrs.  Quickly,  and  the  scene  of  sir  John  Falstaff's  merriment — Shaktpeare, 
Henry  IV.  Of  little  less  antiquity  is  the  WhiU  Hart,  Bishopsgate,  established  in  1480: 
this  house  was  rebuilt  in  1829.  Taverns  were  restricted  by  an  act  of  Edward  VI. 
1552,  to  40  in  London,  8  in  York,  4  in  Norwich,  3  in  Westminster,  6  in  Bristol,  8  in 
Lincolu,  4  in  Hull,  3  in  Shrewsbury,  4  in  Exeter,  3  in  Salisbury,  4  in  Gloucester,  4  in 
Chester,  3  in  Hereford,  3  in  Worcester,  3  in  Southampton,  4  in  Canterbury,  3  in 
Ipswich,  3  in  Winchester,  3  in  Oxford,  4  in  Cambridge,  8  in  Colchester,  4  in  New- 
castle-upon-Tyne.    Taverns  were  licensed  in  1752. 

TAXES.  The  first  levied  on  the  people  were  by  Solon,  the  first  Athenian  legislator, 
540  B.C.  The  first  class  of  citizens  paid  an  Attic  talent  of  silver,  about  55/.  of  our 
money.  The  next  was  by  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  which  was  a  land-tax^  by 
assessment,  and  deemed  so  odious  that  his  subjects  styled  him,  by  way  of  derision, 
Darius  the  Trader,  480  bo. — UEorit  Hittoire  dei  Finances,  Taxes  in  specie  were  first 
introduced  into  England  by  William  I.  1067,  and  he  raised  them  arbitrarily ;  yet 


leu.  Dttto  dltta i.ax.VH.  t(«atber. 

Tba  property-Ui  CMsadwith  181  £,  the  list  jcBroF  the  war.  The  naprodactimicaii  of 
the  utened  Uxea  In  IrelBnd,  and  tbe  diminntinn  in  amount,  yotr  after  jeu-,  of  thamB 
not  abolished  in  the  period  imiDediateljfol] owing  the  peace,  led  to  the  tntal  repeal  of 
the  direct  btiea  id  that  oountrj  in  1S23.  For  the  amount  of  the  geceral  taxation  of 
tbe  United  Kingdom,  see  Rrrenue  end  Ineont  Tax.% 

TCHERN ATA,  a  Rmn  in  tbe  Criuu.  On  Aug.  IB,  18G5,  the  linet  of  the  allied  armj 
at  thi>  place  were  attacked  by  50,000  RuMiaas  under  prince  OortBcbakoff  without 
RicceBB,  being  repulsed  with  the  lo«  of  3339  Blain,  16SS  wounded,  and  tiOO  prisooeia. 
The  brunt  of  the  attack  was  borne  by  two  French  regiments  under  general  D'Herbilloo. 
The  loai  of  the  alliea  was  about  1200 ;  200  of  these  were  from  the  Sanlinian  con- 
tingent, who  behiTed  with  great  gallantry  under  the  command  of  general  La  Hannmm. 
The  RuHiian  general  Read,  and  tbe  Sardinian  general  MontSTecchio.  were  kill«d. 
The  object  of  the  attack  was  the  relief  of  Sebastopol,  then  hotly  bedimed  bj  the 
Engliah  and  French. 

TE  DEUM.  A  kind  of  hymn  or  (ong  of  thankigiving  ased  in  the  Bomiih  and  Bngliah 
Church,  beginning  with  the  words  TeDeimt  towdanwu— We  praise  thee,  O  Ood.  It  ia 
generally  euppoaad  to  be  the  compoeitinn  of  Auguatin  and  Ambroae,  about  a.d.  SSO  ; 
and  ii  Btill  ning  in  the  Romiih  Church  with  sitrsordiuar;  pomp  and  lolemDitj  on 
Mms  happy  erent,  such,  for  inatanee,  aa  a  national  thanksgiving  for  a  great  Ttctotj, 
or  for  a  Ijountsous  harvest,  or  for  an  evil  averted. 

TEA.  First  known  in  Europe,  being  brought  from  India  by  the  Dutch,  1610.  It  is 
mentioned  as  having  been  used  in  England  on  very  rare  occasions  prior  to  16ST,  and 
Bold  for  il.  and  even  101.  the  pound.  In  1660  a  duty  of  8A  was  charged  upon  erery 
gallon  oftBamadeforsale(12Ch.  II.  c  13).  The  East  India  Company  firH  import«d 
it  in  1669.— It  wbb  brought  into  Kngland  in  1666,  by  lord  Osory  and  lord  Arlington, 
from  Holland  ;  and  being  admired  by  peTaons  of  rank,  it  was  imported  from  thenoa, 
and  generally  sold  for  00  shilliDga  per  pound,  till  out  Esst  India  Company  took  np 
the  trade. — jtnderjon.  Qreen  tea  began  to  be  used  in  171B.  The  doty  impond  on 
tea  in  America,  ITSV.  This  tax  occasioned  the  destruction  of  IT  chests  at  New 
York,  and  310  at  Boston.  Nov.  ITTS,  and  nttimately  led  to  the  American  war  (fw 
Batlon).  Tea^eilen  obliged  to  have  tign-boords  fixed  up,  announcing  their  sola  of 
tin,  Aug,  1TT9.  Commutation  act  for  reducing  the  duty  on  tea  from  60  to  12}  per 
— -  and  taxing  winrlowi  in  lieu,  June  1T84.      New  duties  were  charged,  1706.     The 


Txaa  mpOBTED  ii 


im  .'  .'  '.    1! 

7O0.«M)  1  ia',0            .   .iba.Taoooiiaii  .      .      ,ib.s«,SB^eoo 

000.000     180S    .        .         .       M,13S,O00     18M        -        .     .       it.^CH 

184,000 1  laio      .      .   .     M.in,ooo|isM  .      .      ,     n.so9.m 

1  Mr.  01sd.lPM,  cbaneeU 
Inoome-Ui  (oliluh  wu  miida 
yoia.  and  to  be  altogsttiDr 
various  of  the  ..d«  «nd  an 

D.  from  being  (wrtMlnlo'Sr«t 

TEA  633  TifiL 


TEA,  con/Mified. 


1830       .  .lb.  SO.  544, 404 
18S5  .  4I,S60,550 

1840    .    .  .   38, 0(38. 5  J5 


1845  .  ,1b.  51.056,979 
1848  .  .  .  65,6-i6,7rt5 
1850  .  53,460,751 


1852  .  .  lb  63,360,535 
1854  .  .  85,79*2.032 
lb56       .  .   86»  159,517 


The  daty  derived  from  the  import  of  tea  in  1850  amounted  to  5,471»64H. :  and  the 
amount  in  1852  was  5,902.433/.  The  quantity  of  tea  imported  in  this  last-mentioned 
year  (1852)  was  71,466,460  lb.  of  which  53,965,112  lb.  were  entered  for  home  con- 
sumption. The  duty  upon  tea  was  to  bo  reduced  from  2«.  2|cl.  to  one  shilling  only, 
per  pound,  according  to  the  announcement  of  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  his 
budget,  aeaion  of  1853.  "Millions  of  pounds'  weight  of  sloe,  liquorice,  and  ash-tree 
leaves,  are  every  year  mixed  with  Chinese  teas  in  England.** — R^ori  of  the  ffoute  of 
Oommantf  1818.  "  The  consumption  of  the  whole  civilised  world,  exclusively  of 
England,  is  about  22.000,000  of  pounds,  Ti^hile  the  annual  consumption  in  Great  Britain 
is  ZO,000,000:'Svi€Unce  in  Botue  of  ONnmoiu,  1880.  The  first  tea-sale  in  London 
on  the  abolition  of  the  exclusive  privil<»ge  of  the  East  India  Company  took  place  in 
Kincing-lane,  Aug.  19,  1834. 

TEA-TREE.  Thea  Bohea.  Brought  to  these  realms  from  China,  about  1768.  The  finest 
tea-plant  known  in  England  was  raised  in  Kew-gardens;  but  the  first  that  ever 
flourished  in  Europe  wa«  one  belonging  to  the  duke  of  Northumberland  at  Sion.  The 
attempts  to  cultivate  the  tea-plant,  however,  in  England,  indeed  in  Europe,  have 
altogether  failed. — Aahe, 

TEETOTALLER.  An  artisan  of  Preston,  in  Lancashire,  named  Richard  Tnmer,  in 
addressing  temperance  meetings  in  that  and  other  towns,  acknowledged  that  he  had 
been  a  hard  drinker  most  part  of  his  life ;  and  being  an  illiterate  man,  and  in  want 
of  a  word  to  express  how  much  he  then  abstained  from  malt  and  spirits,  used  to 
exclaim  "I  am  now  a  Teetotaller;"  and  hence  the  phrase;  about  1831.  See 
Temferanee, 

TELEGRAPH,  ELECTRIC.    See  article  Electric  Telegraph. 

TELEGRAPH,  SUBMARINE.    France,  and  Ireland.    See  Submarine  TeUffraph. 

TELEGRAPHS.  They  were  early  in  use.  Polybius  calls  the  difierent  instruments  used 
by  the  ancients  for  communicating  information  pyrn'cs,  because  the  signals  were 
always  made  by  fire.  The  most  ingenious  of  the  modems  had  not  thought  of  such  a 
machine  as  a  telegraph  until  1668,  when  the  plan  was  suggested  by  the  marquess  of 
Worcester.  The  first  idea  of  a  telegraph  on  the  modem  construction  wan  suggested 
by  Dr.  Hooke,  1684.  M.  Amontons  is  also  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  telegraphs 
about  this  period.  It  was  not  till  1798  that  the  instrument  was  applied  to  useful 
purposes:  M.  Chappe  then  invented  the  telegraph  first  used  by  the  French. 
Two  were  erected  over  the  Admiralty-office,  London,  1796.  The  Semaphore  was 
erected  there  1816.  The  navid  signals  by  telegraph  enabled  400  previously  concerted 
sentences  to  be  transmitted  from  ship  to  ship,  by  varying  the  combinations  of  two 
revolving  crosses;  and  also  to  spell  any  particular  words,  letter  by  letter.  See 
BUetric  and  Submarine  Telegraph, 

TELESCOPES.  This  invention  is  noticed  by  Leonard  Digges,  about  1571.  Roger  Bacon, 
about  A.D.  1250,  described  telescopes  and  microscopes  exactly,  and  yet  neither  were 
made  till  one  Metius,  at  Alkmaer,  and  Jansen,  of  Middleburgh,  made  them  about  the 
same  time  ;  the  latter  from  an  accidental  discovery  made  by  his  children,  15901609. 
Galileo  imitated  their  invention  by  its  description,  and  made  three  in  succession,  one 
of  which  magnified  a  thousand  times.  With  these  he  discovered  Jupiter's  moons 
and  the  phases  of  Venus.  Telescopes  became  very  popular,  and  were  improved  by 
Zucchi,  Huygens,  Gregory,  and  Newton;  and  finally  by  Martin,  Hall,  Dollond,  and 
Herechel.  The  reflecting  telescope  was  invented  by  Newton  in  1668.  Achromatio 
telescopes  were  made  by  More  Hall,  about  1723.  A  telescope  was  made  in  London 
for  the  observatory  of  Madrid  which  coat  11,000/.  in  1802;  but  the  Herschel  tele- 
scope, nude  1789-1795,  was  superior :  it  had  the  great  speculum  48  inches  diameter, 
84  inches  thick,  weighed  2118  lb.  and  magnified  6400  times.  See  Herechel  Teletcope, 
The  earl  of  Rosse  erected  on  bb  estate  at  Parsonstown,  in  Ireland,  the  largest  telescope 
ever  oonstmcted,  at  a  cost  exceeding  20,000/.  (1828-1845.)  This  wonderful  instrument 
is  7  feet  in  diameter,  and  52  feet  in  length ;  the  machinery  is  supported  on  massive 
walls,  and  notwithstanding  its  great  weight  and  size,  is  moved  with  the  utmost  ease, 
and  can  be  lowered  to  any  angle,  while  it  sweeps  the  horizon  by  means  of  wheels 


TEK  634  TES 

running  on  a  fn^duaiod  circla    One  of  gigantic  size,  85  feet  in  length,  wm  completed 
at  Wandaworth,  in  1852,  by  the  rev.  John  Craig.     It  was  yery  imperfect 

TEMPERANCE  SOCIETIES.  They  originated  with  Mr.  Calhoun,  who,  while  he  ma 
secretary  of  war  in  America,  in  onler  to  counteract  the  habitual  use  of  ardent  spiriu 
among  the  people,  had  them  prohibited  altogether  to  the  United  States  army,  1818. 
The  first  public  temperance  society  in  America  was  projected  in  1825,  and  formed 
Feb.  13,  1826.  Temperance  societies  immediately  afterwurds  spread  in  England  aod 
Scotland,  and  in  1831  there  were  1000  such  societies  in  the  United  States,  aod 
several  hundreds  in  the  latter  countries.  In  Ireland,  the  rev.  Mr.  Edgar,  of  Bel&st, 
published  upon  temperance  in  1829*31 ;  and  the  rev.  Father  Mathew,  a  Roman 
Catholic  clergyman,  had,  he  affirms,  in  1839, 1840,  and  1841,  made  more  than  a 
million  of  converts  to  temperance.*    See  Teetotaller. 

TEMPLARSb  The  first  military  order  of  Knights  Templars  was  founded  in  aJ).  1118, 
by  Baldwin  XL  king  of  Jerusalem.  The  Templars  were  numerous  in  sevend  oonntriei, 
and  came  to  England  in  1185.  The  order  was  auppressed  by  the  ooundl  of  Vienna, 
and  its  revenues  were  bestowed  upon  other  orders,  in  1812.  Numbers  of  the  order 
were  burned  alive  and  hanged,  and  it  suffered  great  peneeutions  throughoat  Europe, 
particularly  in  Franoe  in  the  reign  of  Philip  of  Valois,  1342.  They  were  Bereni 
times  suppressed  in  Englsnd,  and  finally  in  1340. 

TEMPLE,  London.  Thus  called  because  it  was  anciently  the  dwellxng-houae  of  the 
Knights  Templar.  At  the  suppression  of  that  order,  it  was  purchased  by  the  pro- 
fessors of  the  common  law,  and  converted  into  inns.  They  are  called  the  Inner  and 
Middle  Temple,  in  relation  to  Essex-house,  which  was  also  a  part  of  the  house  of  the 
Templars,  and  called  the  Outer  Temple,  because  it  was  situated  without  Temple  Bar. 
St  Mary's,  or  the  Temple  Church,  situated  in  the  Inner  Temple,  is  an  ancient  Gothic 
stone  building,  erected  by  the  Templars  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IT.  and  is  remarkable 
for  its  circular  veetibule,  and  for  the  tombs  of  the  Crusaders,  who  were  buried  here. 
The  Temple-hall  was  built  in  1572,  and  Temple-bar  in  1672.  The  churoh  wai 
recaeed  with  stone  by  Mr.  Smirke  in  1828. 

TEMPLES.  Tliey  originated  in  the  sepulchres  buUt  for  the  dead.— Sbueftisa  The 
Egyptians  were  the  first  who  erected  temples  to  the  Qod& — Herodotus,  The  fint 
erected  in  Greece  is  ascribed  to  Deucalion.— iij»o/fonti(t.  For  temple  of  Beloa.  aee 
BabeL  The  temple  of  Jerusalem,  built  by  Solomon,  1012  B.c.  Fired  by  Nebodiad* 
neszar,  587  ]i.a  Rebnilt»  536  B.O.  Pillaged  by  Antiochua,  170  ao.  KeboUt  hj 
Herod,  18  &a  Destroyed  by  Titus,  a.d.  70.— The  temple  of  Apollo,  at  Delphi, 
first  a  oottage  with  boughs,  built  of  stone  by  Trophonius,  about  1200  B.a  Burnt  b; 
the  Pisistratids,  548  ]i.a  A  new  temple  raised  by  the  family  of  the  Alcmaonidc, 
about  513  B.O. — ^Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesoa,  built  seven  times ;  planned  by  Cteaiphoo, 
544  B.O.  Fired  by  Brostratus,  to  perpetuate  his  name,  356  B.o.  To  rebuild  it» 
employed  220  years.  Destroyed  by  the  Goths,  A.D.  260.— The  Temple  of  Piety  wis 
built  by  Acilius,  on  the  spot  where  onoe  a  woman  had  fed  with  her  milk  her  aged 
father,  whom  the  senate  had  imprisoned,  and  excluded  from  all  aliments. — YoLMex, 
Temple  of  Theseus,  built  480  years  b.o.  is  at  this  day  the  most  perfect  ancient  edifice 
in  the  world. — Most  of  the  heathen  temples  were  destroyed  throaghout  the  Roman 
empire  by  Constantino  the  Great,  a.d.  331.    See  ffeathen  Tuples, 

TENERIFFE,  Canaries.  The  celebrated  Peak  of  Tenerifie  is  15,396  feet  aboTethe 
level  of  the  sea.  An  earthquake  in  this  island  destroyed  several  towns  sod  maoj 
thousands  of  people  in  1704.  In  an  unsucoessfiil  attack  made  at  Santa  Cms,  adminl 
(afterwards  lord)  Nelson  lost  hia  right  arm,  and  141  officers  and  men  were  killed,  July 
24, 1797.    For  the  particulars  of  this  heroic  affidr,  see  article  Santa  Cruz, 

TERMS  OP  LAW  aitd  YACATIONa  They  were  instituted  in  England  from  the 
Norman  usago,  the  long  vacation  being  suited  to  the  time  of  the  vintsge  in  Fraoee, 
14  Will.  I.  1079.— (XanvOZe  d€  Leg.  Anglic.  They  were  gradually  toTmoA,Spdma^ 
The  terms  were  fixed  by  statute  11  Geo.  IV.  and  1  WUl.  IV.  July  22,  1830;  Hilary 
Term  to  begin  Jan.  11,  and  end  Jan.  31 ;  Easter,  April  15,  and  to  end  May  S: 
Trinity,  May  22,  and  to  end  June  12 ;  Michaelmas,  Nor.  2,  and  to  end  Nov.  25.  Tbis 
act  was  amended  1  Will.  IV.  Nov.  15,  1830. 

TEST    ACT.      The  celebrated  statute  of  Charles  U.  directing  all  officers,  citiI  aod 

•  This  micceas  was  probably  owing  to  the  general  poverty,  as  the  nu^ority  of  the  converta  a»  rtitoj 
to  have  relapsed  on  the  return  of  pro«perity.  Father  Mathew  arriTed  In  America  in  July  1^ !  ^^ 
waa  not  ao  sucoessAil  there.     He  died  Dec.  6, 1850,  aged  60. 


TES  635  TEA 

military,  uader  goyemment,  to  receive  the  sacrament  according  to  the  forms  of  the 
Charch  of  England,  and  to  take  the  oaths  against  transubstantiation,  &c.  This 
statute  was  enacted  March  1673.  The  Test  and  Corporation  acts  were  repealed  by 
sUtute  9  Qeo.  IV.  c.  17,  May  9,  1828.  This  repealing  act  is  entitled,  "An  act  for 
repealing  so  much  of  several  acts  as  Impose  the  necessity  of  receiving  the  Sacrament 
of  the  Lord's  Supper  as  a  qualification  for  certain  offices  and  employments." 

TESTER.  Tutfme.  A  silver  coin  struck  in  France  by  Louis  XU.  1513;  and  also  in 
Scotland  in  the  time  of  Francis  II.  and  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  1559.  It  was  so 
called  from  the  head  of  the  king,  which  was  stamped  upon  it.  In  England,  the 
tester  was  of  12d.  value  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  and  afterwards  of  M,  The 
silver  sixpence  of  the  present  day  is  still  familiarly  called  a  tester. 

TEUTONI,  OR  TEUTONES.  A  people  of  Germany,  who  with  the  Cimbri  made  incur- 
sions upon  Gaul,  and  cut  to  pieces  two  Roman  armies.  They  were  at.  last  defeated 
by  the  consul  Marius,  and  an  infinite  number  made  prisoners,  101  b.c.  See  Cimbri, 
with  whom  authors  commonly  join  the  Teutones.  The  appellation  more  lately  came 
to  be  applied  to  the  German  nation  in  general. 

TEUTONIC  ORDER.  The  order  of  military  knights  established  in  the  Holy  Land 
towards  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  institution  arose  in  the  humanity  of 
the  Teutones  to  the  sick  and  wounded  of  the  Christian  army  in  the  Holy  Lttid  under 
the  celebrated  Guy  of  Lusignan,  when  before  Acre.  The  order  was  confirmed  by  a 
bull  of  pope  Cnlestine  III.  a.d.  1191.    See  Prustia,  kc 

TEWKESBURY,  BATTLE  of.  In  which  Edward  IV.  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the 
Lancastrians.  Queen  Margaret,  the  consort  of  Henry  VI.  aod  her  son  were  taken 
prisoners.  The  queen  was  conveyed  to  the  Tower  of  London,  where  king  Henrv 
expired  a  few  days  after  this  fatal  engagement;  being,  as  is  generally  supposed, 
murdered  by  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  afterwards  Richard  III.  The  queen  was 
ransomed  in  1475,  by  the  French  kiog,  Lewis  XI.  for  50,000  crowns.  This  was  the 
last  battle  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  May  4,  1471.     See  Jlotei. 

T£XEL,  BATTLES  off  the.  The  vicinity  of  the  Texel  has  been  the  scene  of  memo- 
rable naval  achievements.  An  engagement  of  three  days*  continuance,  between  the 
English  under  Blake,  Dean,  and  Monk,  and  the  Dutch  under  Van  Tromp  and  De 
Rayter,  in  which  the  latter  were  worsted,  and  admiral  Van  Tromp  was  killed,  1653. 
Again,  in  the  mouth  of  the  Tezel,  when  D'Etrees  and  Ruyter  were  signally  defeated, 
Aug.  11,  1678.  The  Dutch  fleet  gloriously  vanquished  by  lord  Duncan,  on  Oct.  11, 
1797.  See  Camperdown.  The  Dutch  fleet  of  twelve  ships  of  war  and  thirteen  India- 
men  surrendered  to  admiral  Mitchell,  who,  entering  the  Tezel,  possessed  himself  of 
them  without  firing  a  shot,  Aug,  28, 1799.    See  NavcU  BvUiUt, 

THAMES,  London.  The  richest  river  in  the  world.  It  has  been  erroneously  said  that 
its  name  is  Isis  till  it  arrives  at  Dorchester,  when  being  joined  by  the  Thame  or 
Tame,  it  assumes  the  name  of  Thames.  What  was  the  origin  of  this  vulgar  error 
cannot  now  be  traced:  poetical  fiction,  however,  has  perpetuated  the  error,  and 
invested  it  with  a  kind  of  classical  sanctity.  It  was  called  Tliames  or  Tems 
before  it  came  near  the  Thame. — Camden.  The  river  rose  so  high  at  Westminster 
that  the  lawyers  were  brought  out  of  the  hall  in  boats,  a.d.  1235.  Again  it  rose  to 
great  height,  1786,  1747,  1762,  and  1791.  The  conservation  of  the  Thames  was 
given  to  the  mayors  of  London,  1489.  The  Thames  was  made  navigable  to  Oxford, 
1624.  It  ebbed  and  flowed  twice  in  three  hours,  1658.  Again,  three  times  in 
four  hours,  March  22,  1682.  Again,  twice  in  three  hours,  Nov.  24,  1777.  See 
FroslSf  &c 

THAMES  TUNXBL.  Projected  by  Mr.  Brunei,  to  form  a  communication  between 
Rotherhithe  and  Wapping.  The  bill  received  the  royal  assent,  June  24, 1824.  The 
shaft  was  begun  in  1825 ;  the  first  brick  was  laid  by  Mr.  Smith,  March  2 ;  the  exca- 
vation commenced  April  1 ;  and  the  first  horizontal  excavation  in  Dec.  1825.  At  a 
distance  of  544  feet  from  the  shaft  the  first  irruption  took  place,  May  18,  1827.  The 
second  irruption,  by  which  six  workmen  perished,  Jan.  12, 1828.  The  length  of  the 
tunnel  is  1300  feet ;  its  width  is  35  feet;  height,  20  feet ;  clear  width  of  each  arch- 
way, including  footpath,  about  14  feet;  thickness  of  earth  between  the  crown  of  the 
tunnel  and  the  bed  of  the  river,  about  15  feet  The  tunnel  was  opened  throughout 
for  foot-passengers,  March  25,  1843. 

THANE.  A  title  much  in  use  anciently,  and  which  sometimes  signifies  a  nobleman, 
sometimes  a  freeman,  and  sometimes  a  magistrate;  but  most  properly  an  officer 


THE 


636 


THE 


under  the  king.  The  Saxons  had  a  nobility  called  thanea,  and  the  Soota  alao,  among 
whom  the  title  was  more  general,  particularly  in  the  time  of  Malcolm.  The  title 
was  abolished  in  England  at  the  Conquest,  upon  the  introduction  of  the  feudal 
system.  Abolished  in  Scotland  by  king  Malcolm  III.  when  the  title  of  earl  was 
adopted,  1057« 

THEATINES.  An  order  of  religious,  the  first  who  assumed  the  title  of  regular  cleiks. 
This  order  was  founded  by  Carafia,  bishop  of  Theate  in  Naples,  who  was  afierwarda 
pope  Paul  IV.  1524.  They  first  established  themselves  in  France,  according  to  the 
historian,  Henault,  in  Paris,  1644.  The  Theatines  endeavoured,  but  vainly,  to  revive 
among  the  clergy  the  poverty  of  the  apostles. — Athe, 

THEATRES.  That  of  Bacchus,  at  Athens,  built  by  Philoa,  420  B.a  was  the  first  erected. 
Marcellus*  theatre  at  Rome  was  built  about  80  b.o.  Theatres  were  afierwarda 
numerous,  and  were  erected  in  most  cities  of  Italy.  There  was  a  theatre  at  Pompeii, 
where  mosl  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  were  assembled  on  the  night  of  August  24, 
A.D.  79,  when  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius  covered  Pompeii.  Scenes  were  introduced  into 
theatres,  painted  by  Baltliazar  Sienna,  a.d.  16S3.    See  Drama,  Playa,  &c 


THEATRES  in  ENGLAND.  The  first  royal  licence  for  a  theatre  in  England  was  in 
1574,  to  master  Burbage  and  four  others,  servants  of  the  earl  of  Leicester,  to  act 
plays  at  the  Globe,  Bankside.  See  Olobe.  But  long  before  that  time,  miracle  plays 
were  represented  in  the  fields.  The  prices  of  admission  in  the  reign  of  queen  Eliza- 
beth were,  gallery  2d;  lords'  rooms  1$. — Diekesnt.  The  first  play-bill  was  dated 
April  8, 1668,  and  issued  from  Dmry-lane ;  it  runs  thus  :  "By  his  Majestie  his  oom- 
pany  of  Comedians  at  the  New  Theatre  in  Drury-lane,  will  be  acted  a  comedy  called 
the  Humwmma  Lievtenant.**  After  detailing  the  characters,  it  concludes  thus :  *'The 
play  will  begin  at  three  o'clock  exactly."  Lincoln's-inn  theatre  was  opened  in  16^5. 
The  licensing  act  (10  Geo.  II.  c.  28,  1785)  was  passed  in  consequence  of  the  perform- 
ance of  Fielding's  Pasquin  at  tbe  Haymarket  satirising  Walpole's  administnition. 
Marionettes  or  Puppets  were  produced  at  the  Adelaide  Gallery  in  1852.  See 
CovetU  Garden,  Drury  Lane,  Opera  Hmim,  Drama,  &o. 


DRURT  LANE. 

KQligfew's  patent  .    April  25, 1662 

Opened April  8, 166S 

Kell  Gwvnn  performed  .    1666 

Theatre  Dnmt  down  ...    1671 

Rebuilt  by  air  Christopher  Wren,  and 

opened        ....    Uarch  26, 1674 
Cibbcr,  Wilkee,  Booth      .  .        .1712 

Garrick's  ctAiU  here  .    .  1742 

Garrick  and  Lacy's  tenure  (Bevival  of 

Shakspeare) 1747 

Interior  rebuilt  by  Adams  .  .  .  1776 
Garrick'a  farewell  .  .  June  10,  1776 
Sheridan's  management  .  1776 

Theatrical  fund  Icnmded  by  Mr.  Ganick,  1777 
Mrs.  Siddons'  d/biut  as  a  «tor  .  Oct.  10,  1782 
Mr.  Kemble's  d/6til  as  JiatnUt  Sept.  80,  1783 
The  theatre  rebuilt  on  a  laifpe  scale,  and 

re-opened  .       .        March  12, 1794 

Charles  Kemble's  first  appearance  (as 

Malcolm  in  Macbeth)  April  21, 1794 

Dowton's  first  appearance  (as  Shtva,  in 

The  Jew)         ....    Oct.  11, 1796 
Hatfield  fired  at  George  III.  (see  Hatfkid) 

May  11,  1800 
The  theatre  burnt  Feb.  24, 1809 

Robiiilt  by  Wyatt,  and  re-opened,  with 

a  prologue  by  lord  Byron  .        Oct  12, 1812 
Mr.    Edmund   Kean's   appearance  (as 

Bh^ock)         ....    Jan.  26,  1814 
Mr.  EUiston,  lessee  .         Oct.  S,  1819 

Madame  Vestris;  her  first  apjiearance 

(aaZ«/o)         ....     Feb.  19,  1820 
Real  water  introduced  In  the  Cataract  qf 

thtOaitgei  .        .        Oct.  27,  1828 

Mr.  Price,  lessee  .  July,  1826 

Miss  Ellen  Tree's  appearance  (as  ViotanU) 
„    ^    ,  Sept.  28,  1826 

Mr  Charles  Kean's  appoarsnce  (as  Norval) 

*.       „,  ,  Oct  1.  1827 

Mrs.  Nisbet's  first  appearance  (as  the 
Widme  Cheerly)  ,    Oct  9.  1829 


Mr.  Alexander  Lee's  and  (Taptain  Pol- 
hill's  management       ....  1890 
Mr.  AliVed  Bunn,  lessee  .        1631 

Mr.  Forrest's  first  appearance  (as  Bpatta- 

eus) Oct  17,  1896 

Mr.  Hammond's  management  .  1899 

German   operas    commenced    at    this 

theatre    ....        March  1\  1841 
Mr.  Maoeady's  management  .    .  1641 

Mr.  Bunn  i^gain  lessee     ....  1849 
Miss  Clara  Webster  burnt  on  the  stage, 
Dec.  14 ;  and  died  on  the  next  day  bat 
one  ....        Dee.  16, 1844 

Mr.  Anderson's  management  .  1949 

Mr.  Macready's  lareweU  .  .  Feb.  26^  1851 
Mr.  Bunn,  lessee  and  manager  .  1852 

Mr.  E.  T.Smith  ....    18&9-7 

COVENT  GARDEN. 

Sir  William  Dayenant's  patent^  April  S5, 1662 
The  theatre  opened  by  Rich  .  Uec  7, 1792 
Beef-steak  Society,  founded  by  Rich  and 

Lambert 17S5 

Theatrical  Amd  instituted  .        .    .  1766 

Mr.  Harris's  tenure  ....  1767 
Lewis's  first  appearance  in  the  character 

otBdeour  ....        Sept  15,  1771 
Miss   Rear  kiUed  by  Mr.  Hackmaa. 

coming  from  the  house         .    April  7, 1779 
Jack  Johnstone's  first  appearance   in 

Irish  characters  Oct  ^  I7S3 

Muuden's  appearance      .  Dec.  %  1790 

Fawoett's  first  appearance  here  (as  Oalth) 

Sept  21. 1791 
G.  F.  Cooke's  appearance  (as  Rkhard  III ) 

Oct.  91, 1800 
Braham's  appearance  I>ec.  9, 1801 

Mr.  Kemble's  management  .    .  1802 

Appearance  of  Master  Betty,  tbe  Ii^fofU 

Xoeeiut         ....        Dec.  1,  1809 
Lewis's  last  appeanmee  (as  the  Copper 

Captain)    ....         May  28»  1806 


THE 


637 


THE 


THEATRES,  eontif^ued. 

Theatre  burnt  down  .  Sept.  80,  1808 

Rebuilt  by  R*  Smirke,  RA.  and  re- 
opened with  Macbeth  Sept.  18, 1800 

The  O.  P.  riot  (see  0.  P.  JUot)  fh>m  Sept. 
18  to  Dec.  10 1809 

Horaea  first  hitroduoed  here^  in  Jtitebmrd 

Feb.  18, 1811 

The  fiu«weU  benefit  of  Mrs.  Siddoos  (im- 
mense house)  .  June  20, 181S 

[Mn.  Biddons,  however,  performed  once 
sfterwuda*  in  June  1810,  for  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  C.  Kemble's  benefit] 

Miss   Stephens's    fixst  appeormnoe  (as 

JfomloJM)  ....  Sept  7, 1818 
Miss  Foote's  appeonnoe  here  (as  Amanr 

tkit) May  26   1814 

Miss  O'Nelli's  appearance  here  (as  Julid) 

Oct  6,  1814 
Miss  Kelly  fired  at  by  George  Bomet,  In 

the  house  ....  Feb.  7,  1818 
Mr.    Mscready's   first   appearance  (as 

Orttta)  ....  Sept  18,  1816 
Mr.  J.  P.  Kemble's  fkrewell  (as  Corio- 

t<miw)  ....  June  33,  1817 
Henry  Harris's  mansgement  .  1818 

Chariea  Kemble's  management  1823 

Miss  Fanny  Kemble's  appearance  (as 

Jiditi) Oct  6, 1820 

Mr.  Fawoett's  fiireweU  .  May  21. 1830 

Charles  Yommr's  fiurewell  .    May  SO,  1832 

Mr.  Mscready's  management  .  .  .  1837 
Madame  Vestris's  management  .    .  1839 

Miss  Adelaide  Kemble's  appearance  (os 

N<yrma)  ....  Nov.  2,  1841 
Charles  Kemble  again  Sept  10,  1842 

Mr.  Laurent's  management  .  Doc.  26,  1844 
Opened  for  Italian  Opera  April  6.  1847 

Deetroyed  \fy  fire  (during  a  bal  mosqutf) 

March  5, 1866 

ITALIAN  OPERA  HOUSE. 

Opera-house  opened.  — PtMuxiU.     (See 

Oprra  ffoMjr) 1705 

The  theatre  was  enlarged  .    .        1720 

Burnt  down         .  .        June  17,  1788 

Re-built  and  re-opened  .  .  Sept  22, 1791 
Exterior  improved  by  Mr.  Nosh  .  .  1818 
The  rdievo  by  Mr.  Bubb  ....  1821 
Madame  RaclierB  appearance  May  10, 1841 
Mr.  Lumlev's  management  1842 

Jenny  Lind's  first  appearance  .     May  4,  1847 
Association  formed  for  conducting  flnan- 
dal  aflbirs  of  the  house       .  .    1852 

HATMARKET. 

Built 1702 

Opeued  by  French  comedians     Dec.  29,  1720 

Beffgars'  Opera  1727 

Fielding's  Mogul  oomponv  1734-5 

A  Freuch  company  prohibited  from  act- 
ing by  the  andienoe      ....  1738 

MrTFoote's  patent 1747 

The  BotUe-coi^uror's  dupery  (see  BotUt 
eonjwor)       ....     Jon.  16,  1748 

The  theatre  rebuilt 1767 

Mr.  Colman's  tenure  .     Jan.  1, 1777 

Miss  Forren's  appearance   here  (after- 
wards oountess  of  Derby)    .  .  1777 
Royal   visit- great  crowd — ^16  persons 

killed  and  many  wounded  .  Feb.  3,  1794 
Mr.  Ellistou's  ditnU  here  .  June  24, 1796 
Vint  appearance  of  Mr.  Matthews  (as 

Lingo)  ....        May  16,  1803 

Mr.  Morris's  management  .    .  1805 

Appearance  of  Mr.  Listen  (as  Bheepfaet) 

Juno  8.  1805 
The  tailors'  riot  .  .  .  Au«f.  15,  1805 
Appearance  here  of  Mr.  Young  (as  Hamlet) 

Juno  22,  1807 


Of  Miss  F.  Kelly  (as  Florttta)  .  June  IS,  1810 
Theatre  rebuilt  by  Nash ;  opened  July  4,  1821 
Miss  Paton(Mrs.  wood);  herappeoranoe 

(as  Susannah)  Aug.  3, 1822 

Mr.  Webster's  mansgement        June  12, 1837 
Mr.  Charles  Kean's  appeoronoe  here         1889 
Mr.  Webster's  management  (16  years) 
terminates  with  his  farewell  apnear- 
ance        ....        Marcn  14,  1853 
Mr.  Buckstooe's  monosement  1858-7 

ENGLISH  OPERA-HOUSE,  oa  LYCEUM. 

Built  by  Dr.  Arnold  ....  1794^ 
Winsor  experiments  with  gas-lighting  1803-4 
Opened  as  the  Lyceum  in  ...  1809 

Appearance  of    Mr.  Wrench   here  (ss 

Bdeour)  ....  Oct  7, 1809 
Be-opened  with  an  address  spoken  by 

Miss  Kelly  .         June  15,  1816 

House  destroved  by  fire  .    Feb.  16,  1830 

Re-built ;  and  re-opened  .  July  14,  1834 
Equestrian  performances  Jan.  16,  1844 

Mrs.  Keeley's  maiuigement  .  April  8,  1844 
Madame  Vestris  and  Mr.  C.  Matthew's 

management  Oct  1847-56 

Retirement  of  Mr.  C.  Matthews  March,  1855 
Appearance  of  Madame  Ristori  .  June,  1850 
Taken  by  Mr.  Oye  for  Italian  OpeiB  for 

40  nighta  April  14,  1857 

Opened  for  English  opera  by  Miss  txmisa 

Pyne  and  Mr.  Harrison       .  Sept  21,  1857 

THE  ADELPHI  THEATRE. 

Formerly  called  the  Sant  PareiL  opened 
under  the  management  of  Mr.  and 
Miss  Scott  Nov.  27,  1806 

Under  Rodwell  and  Jones,  who  gave  it 
the  present  name    ....     1820-1 

Terry  and  Yatee 1825 

Messrs.  Matthews  and  Yates'  manage- 
ment, Join  (AfoKAcm  crt  fToiM)  .  1828 
New  front    .......  1840 

MadameCeleste's  management,  SeptJM),  1844 
Mr.  and   Mrs.  Barney  Williams  here, 

July.  1857 
Mr.  B.  Webster,  present  lessee  1844-57 

PRINCE'S,  LATE  ST.  JAMES'S. 

This  theatre  was  built  by,  and  opened 
imder  the  management  of,  Mr.  Brahom, 

Dea  14, 1835 
German  Operas  performed  here  under 

the  management  of  Mr.  Bunn  .  1840 

Mr.  MitcheTl's  tenure;  performance  of 
French  plays  .  Jan.  22,  1844 

Gorman  plays 1852 

Mrs.  Seymoxir's  tenure  .  Oct  2;  1854-56 
French  plays 1857 

PRINCESS'S  THEATRE,  OXFORD  ST. 

Fint  opened        - 1840 

Sold  for  16.4002.  Sept  9,  1841 

Mr.  Charles  Kean's  management  .  1850-5 
Mr.  Bartley's  fkrewell  here  .       Dec.  18,  1862 

OLYMPIC. 

Erected  by  the  late   Mr.  Astley,  and 

opened  with  horsemanship  Siept  18,  1806 
Here  the  celebrated  Elliston  (1813)  and 
afterwanls  Madame  Vostris,  had  ma- 
nagements ;  the  latter  until  .  .  1839 
Mr.  George  Wild's  tenure  ....  1840 
Miss  Davenport's  tenure  .  Nov.  11,  1844 
Mr.  Watts's  management  .  1848 

The  theatre  dostroyod  by  fire.  March  29, 1849 
Rebuilt  and  opened— Mr.  WatU  resumes 

his  mauagetuent  .        Dec.  26, 1849 

Mr.  William  Farren's  management        .  1850 


THB 


638 


THE 


THEATRES,  eoniinued. 


uid  Maxutger,  Mr.    A.   Wiffan, 

Oct.  17,  1853-7 
If  easn.  Bobaon  and  Emden's  manage- 
ment        Aug.  1857 

STRAND  THEATRE. 

Fiivt  opened— Mr.   Bayner  and   Mrs. 

Waylett 1831 

Mr.  William  Farren's  management  .  1849 
Proiiont  leaaee,  Mr.  F.  Alloroft ;  Manager, 

Mr.  T.  Payne 1855 


ASTLET'S   AMPHITHEATRE. 


1773 


Built  by  Philip  Axtlev,  and  opened 
Destroyed  by  firo,  with  numeroua  ndjh' 

cent  houaee  Sept  17, 1794 

Rebuilt 1795 

Burnt  again,  with  40  houaea  Sept.  9;  1803 
Ducrow  8  management  ....  1825 
Again  destroyed  by  fire  .  .  June  8,  1841 
Rebuilt  and  re-opened  by  Mr.  Batty, 

April  17, 1843 
Present   lessee  and  manager,    Mr.  W. 

Cooke 1855-7 


CIRCUS,  vow  SURREY  THEATRE. 

[Originally  devoted  to  equestrian  exer< 

clses.  under  Mr.  Hughos.J 
Ol)euea  for  performances 
Destroyed  by  fire 
Mr.  ElliatouVi  management 
Mr.  Elliatou  again 
Mr.  Davidge's  tenure 


Nov.  4.  1782 

Nov.  4,  1783 

Aug.  12.  1805 

.  1809 

June  4,  1827 

1833 


COBURO,  Kow  VICTORIA 

[The  erection  was  commenced  under 
the  tiatronage  of  the  late  princess 
Charlotte  and  the  prince  lieopold  of 
SazeCoburg.J 1818 

The  house  waa  opened  ...  1818 

Meaara.  Egerton  and  Abbott  had  the 
management  in 1833 

Mr.  Osbaldistou's  toDure     ....  1840 

SADLER'S  WELLS. 

Opened  as  an  orchestra  ....  1683 
Present  house  opeued  .        .        .    .  1765 

Eighteen  persona  trampled  to  death  on 

a  false  aoarm  of  fire    .  Oct.  15, 1807 

Management  of  Mrs.  Warner  and  Mr. 

Phelps May  20,  1844 

OTHER  THEATRES. 

Queen's  Theatre,  Tottenham-court  road  1828 
Oarrick  Theatre,  Qoodman's-fields  .  183U 
Bowery  Theatre,  Lambeth  .        ,  *»•* 

City  Theatre,  Norton-Folgate  .  .  .  1837 
Miss  Kelly's  Theatre        ....  1840 

Marylobone  opeued 1S42 

lU  stage  onlaiged  .        Oct.  7,  1854 

Pavilion  Theatre  burnt  Feb.  23, 1856 

DUBLIN  TBBATBSa. 

Werburgh-street  oommeucod  .  1685 

Orange-street,  now  Smock-alley  .  .  1662 
Aungier-street  (  Picfor)  ....  1728 
Ditto,  management  or  Mr.  Hitchcock  .  1733 
Crow  street  Music-hall  ....  1731 
Ralnaford-Btreet  Theatre  .  .  1782 

Smock-alley  Theatre,  rebuilt  .    .  1735 


Fishamble-street,  Muae-hall  .       .      .  1741 

Capel-etreet  Theatre ITti 

Crow-street,  Theatre  Royal  .  ITod 

Dittos  Mr.  Daly's  patent  .  '  .  .  .  1704 
Ditto,  Mr.  Fred.  Edw.  Jones's  |«tent  .  17M 
Peter-street,  Theatre  Royal    .  .1789 

Hawkina-stjeet,  Theatre  Royal  .  .  \ii\ 
Ditto,  Mr.  Abbott,  leasee  .  I$94 

Ditto,  Mr.  Bmm,  leoee  .  .  ..  1^:27 
Ditto,  Mr.  Calcraft,  lessee  .      .  1«30 

Queen'a  Theatre^  Bnmawick-itrBet  .    .  1844 


KDUTBUBOS 

Theatre  of  Music  .*  .  ICS 

Allan  Ramsay'a  ITM 

Tlieatre,  Shakapeare- square    .  .  ITiV 

The  Oaledonian  Theatre  ..!»:» 

Adelphx  theatre  burnt  down  .    May  S«,  18&S 

FISflT  OB  LAST  APPSaKAJlCia 

Quin's  first  appearance  ....  1716 
Mack]in'^  at  Lineohi's-Inn-fiekb  .  .  17S 
Oarrick's,  at  Ooodman*s-fieUU,as  Ridkori 

III. Oct  1»,  17U 

Miss   Farren    (afterwards  countess  of 

Derby)  first  appean  at  Liverpool      .  I77S 
Oarrick's  last  appearance       .    Jnae  10, 177S 
Mrs.  Robinson,  PerdUa  :  hm  last  appear- 
ance   Dec  24. 1779 

Braham's  firatappeaiance  atthe  Royalty, 

April  20, 1787 
Madame  Storace ;  her  first  appearance 

in  London  .  Nov.  S4, 17S9 

Miss  Mellon,  her  first  appearance  as 

Lydia  LangHitk  .  Jan.  SI,  I7M 

Romeo    Coatca;     hia    appearance,    as 

Lothario        ....    April  1",  1811 
Mrs.  Jordan's  last  appearance,  as  Lady 

TeaxU       ....  June  1, 1814 

Mr.  Macready's  first  appearance  at  Bath, 

uRotMO       ....      Dec.2»,lS14 


Booth's  first  appearance 
Munden's  last  appearance 
liston's  last  appearance  . 
Mrs.  Glover's  farewell 
Mr.  Bartley's  farewell 
Mr.  W.  Farren's  fiarowell 


ORAMDA. 


Feb.  1%  1817 
May  31,  ltt4 
May  31.  li^ 
Julyl'AKsM 
Dec.  IS.  1853 
Julyl7.1S» 


Mr.  Palmer  died  on  the  stage,  at  liter- 

pool Aug.  J,liW 

Bannister  retired  from  the  stage   .      .  1^1^ 

Talma  died  in  Paria If^f 

Weber  came  to  London                    Fe^  1^ 
The  Brunswick  Theatre  fell,  owing  to  the 
weight  of  a  newly-erected  roof,  and 
numbers  of  pei-sons  were  woundedand  

some  killed        .        .       .       Feb.  28^  18» 

Madame  MaUbran  died  at  Manchester, 

8ei>La,l»6 

Paganinidiod 

Power  loat  in  the   Prtridmt 

about  .... 
Elton  lost  in  the  Peganu  .  ~  .  -  .,, 
Theatrea'  Registry  act  passed,  Aus.  'ii,  \M 
MadUe.  Mara  dledf  at  Paris,  Maidi  83,  Wi 
Madame  Catalan!  died  at  Paris,  Juno  IS,  m 
Alexander  Lee  died  .     Oct  ^  lt»9 

Mrs.  Warner  died  Sept  4,  !»« 

C.  Kemble  died        .  .    Nov.  5,  LsM 

John  Braham  died  .        Feb  17, 

Madame  Vestiia  died 


Hsy  20, 1«40 
ateamer, 
March  IS,  IMl 
July  W,  18^5 


lii^ 


Aug.  8,  ^^ 

THEBES.  The  ancient  celebrated  city  of  Thebais  in  Egypt,  called  alao  Hecatompjlo* 
on  account  of  its  hundred  gates,  and  DiospoliB,  aa  being  sacred  to  Jupiter.  In  ^' 
time  of  its  splendour,  it  eUended  above  thirty-three  mUes,  and  upon  any  ^^^^^ 
could  send  into  the  field,  by  each  of  its  hundred  gates,  20,000  fighting  men  and  -OO 
chariots.    Thebes  was  ruined  by  Cambyses,  king  of  Persia,  and  few  traces  of  it  vc* 


THE  639  THI 

seen  in  the  age  of  Juveiud. — Plutarch,  AIbo  Thebee,  the  capital  of  the  conntry 
BucoeasiYely  called  Aonia,  Mesiapia,  Ogygia,  Hjantis,  and  Bcootia.  See  Baotici. 
Thebee  waa  called  Gadmeia,  from  Cadmus,  the  founder  of  the  city.  It  rose  to  a 
celebrated  republic,  styled  the  Theban,  about  820  B.a  It  was  dismantled  by  the 
Bomans,  145  B.O. — Livy;  Thucydidea, 

THEFT.  This  offence  was  punished  by  heavy  fines  among  the  Jews.  By  death  at  Athens, 
by  the  laws  of  Draco.  See  Draco.  The  Anglo-Saxons  nominally  punished  theft  with 
death,  if  abore  12d.  value ;  but  the  criminal  could  redeem  his  life  by  a  ransom.  In 
the  9th  of  Henry  I.  this  power  of  redemption  was  taken  away,  1103.  The  laws  against 
theft,  until  lately,  were  very  severe  in  England  :  they  were  revised  by  Mi*,  (afterwards 
air  Robert)  P^l's  acts,  9  ft  10  Geo.  IV.    See  Acts. 

THEISTS.    ITtiuU,  French.    A  kind  of  deists  about  1660.— Dean  Martin, 

THELLUSSON'S  WILL.  One  of  the  most  singular  testamentary  documents  ever 
executed.  Mr.  Peter  Isaac  Thellusson,  an  affluent  London  merchant,  left  100,000/.  to 
his  widow  and  children ;  and  the  remainder,  amounting  to  more  than  600,000/.  he 
left  to  trustees,  to  accumulate  during  the  lives  of  his  three  sons,  and  the  lives  of 
their  sons ;  then  the  estates  directed  to  be  purchased  with  the  produce  of  the  accu- 
mulating fund,  to  be  conveyed  to  the  eldest  male  descendant  of  his  three  sons,  with 
benefit  of  survivorship.  This  will  being  contested  by  the  heirs-at-law,  was  finally 
estabUshed  by  a  decision  of  the  house  of  lords,  June  25,  1805.  Mr.  Thellusson  died 
July  21,  1797,  and  from  that  time  the  stock  may  accumulate  to  a  period  of  about 
120  years,  and  amount  to  140,000,000/.  sterling.  Should  no  heir  then  exist,  the 
whole  is  to  be  applied,  by  the  agency  of  the  sinking-fund,  to  the  discharge  of  the 
national  debt. 

THERMOMETER.  The  invention  of  this  instrument  is  ascribed  to  several  scientifio 
persons,  all  about  the  same  time.  Qalileo,  1597. — Idbri,  Invented  by  Drebbel  of 
Alcmaer,  A.D.  1609. — Boerhaave,  Invented  by  Paulo  Sarpi,  1609.  —  Fulgentio. 
Invented  by  Sanctorio  in  1610. — Borelli.  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  was  invented 
about  1726;  and  the  scale  called  Reaumur's  soon  after,  1730.  The  mode  of 
construction  by  substituting  quicksilver  for  spirits  was  invented  some  years 
subsequently. 

THERMOPTL^,  BATTLE  of.  Leonidas  at  the  head  of  800  Spartans,  at  the  defile 
of  Thermopylae,  withstands  the  whole  force  of  the  Persians  during  three  days,  when 
Epbialtes,  a  Trachinian,  perfidiously  leading  the  enemy  by  a  secret  path  up  the 
mountains,  brings  them  to  the  rear  of  the  Greeks,  who,  thus  placed  between  two 
assailants,  devote  themselves  to  the  good  of  their  country,  and  perish  gloriously 
on  heaps  of  their  slaughtered  foes.  Of  the  800  heroes  who  engaged  in  this  confiiot 
with  hundreds  of  thousands  of  the  Persians  one  man  only  returned  home,  and  he 
was  received  with  reproaches  and  insults  for  having  fled  from  a  battle  in  which  his 
brave  companions  with  their  royal  leader  had  fallen.  Twenty  thousand  Persians 
perished  by  the  hands  of  the  Spartans,  Aug.  7,  480  B.C. 

TUESSALY.  This  country  is  much  celebrated  in  classical  history,  as  being  the  seat  of 
many  of  the  adventures  described  by  the  poets.  The  first  king  of  whom  we  have 
any  certain  knowledge  was  Hellen,  son  of  Deucalion,  from  whom  his  subjecte  were 
called  Hellenists,  a  name  afterwards  extended  to  all  Greece.  From  Thessaly  the 
most  powerful  tribes  of  Greece  derived  their  origin,  as  the  Achseans,  the  ^tolians, 
the  Dorians,  the  Hellenists,  &c.  The  two  most  remarkable  events  in  the  early 
history  of  this  country,  are  the  deluge  of  Deucalion,  1503  B.o.  and  the  expedition 
of  the  Argonauts,  1263  B.O.    See  them  severally. 

THIMBLE.  This  simple,  yet  useful,  and  now  indispensable,  appendage  to  the  ladies' 
work-table  is  of  Dutdi  invention.  The  art  of  making  them  was  brought  to  England 
by  John  Lofting,  a  mechanic,  from  Holland,  who  set  up  a  workshop  at  Islington, 
near  London,  and  practised  the  manufiaoture  of  them  in  various  metals  with  profit 
and  success,  about  1695. — An(Ur9on, 

THISTLE,  ORDER  of  thb,  in  SCOTLAND.  Founded  by  James  V.  1640.  It  con- 
sisted originally  of  himself  as  sovereign  and  twelve  knights,  in  imitation  of  Christ 
and  his  twelve  apostles.  Some  Scottish  historians  make  the  origin  of  this  order  very 
ancient.  The  abbot  Justinian  says  it  was  instituted  by  Achaius  I.  of  Scotland, 
A.D.  809,  when  that  monarch  made  an  alliance  with  Charlemagne,  and  then  took  for 
biB  device  the  thistle.    It  is  told  that  king  Hungus,  the  Pict,  had  a  dream,  in  which 


TUI  640  THR 

St  Andrew  made  him  a  midnight  visits  and  promised  him  a  sure  victory  over  his 
foee,  the  Northambriana ;  and  that  the  next  day  St  Andrew's  crosB  appeared  in  the 
air,  and  the  Northumbrians  were  defeated.  On  this  story,  it  is  said,  Achsios  fnmed 
the  order  more  than  700  years  before  James  V.  revived  it  In  1542,  James  died,  tnd 
the  order  was  discontinued.  This  was  about  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  when 
religious  disputes  ran  to  a  great  height,  and  it  was  deemed  impious  to  imitate,  in  in 
order  of  knighthood,  Christ  and  his  apostles ;  nor  was  this  honourable  order  thought 
of  till  king  James  VI L  of  Scotland  and  IL  of  England  renewed  it,  by  making  eight 
knights.  May  29,  l6S7.—BeaU<m,*$  PoliL  Index. 


George,  duke  of  Gordon. 

John,  marquees  of  AthoL 

James,  earl  of  Arran,  afterwards   duke  of 

Hamilton ;  killed  in  a  duel,  1712. 
Alexander,  earl  of  Moray. 


THE  ORIGINAL  KKIQHTB  OF  1687. 

James*  earl  of  Perth  ;  attainted. 
Kenneth,  earl  of  Seaforth;  attainted. 
George,  earl  of  Dumbarton. 
Jolm,  earl  of  Melford ;  attainted. 


THISTLKWOOD,  BRUNT,  INOS,  DAVISON,  and  TIDD.  The  principals  in  the 
mysterious  and  memorable  conspiracy  known  as  the  ^'CSato-street  conspiracy."  Theie 
criminals  were  arrested  Feb.  23, 1820 ;  their  trial  commenced  Monday,  Apiil  17 ;  lod 
being  conyicted,  their  execution  followed.  May  1,  1 820.  In  this,  as  in  some  other 
combinations  of  the  time,  the  accused  persons  attributed  the  origin  of  their  desperate 
project,  and  even  the  means  of  its  accomplishment,  to  a  supposed  ministerial  spy. 
See  Oaio-ttreet  Conspiracy, 

THOMITES.  The  name  given  to  a  body  of  enthusiasts  who  assembled  at  fioughton, 
near  Canterbury,  May  81, 1838.  A  lunatic  named  Thorn,  who  assumed  the  name 
of  sir  W.  Courtenay,  knight  of  Malta  and  king  of  Jerusalem,  having  been  released  from 
oonfinement,  attached  himself  to  the  lowest  rabble,  and  incited  them  against  the  Poor 
Law  Act.  On  this  day,  a  farmer  of  the  neighbourhood,  whose  servant  had  joined  the 
crowd  which  attended  this  sir  W.  Courtenay,  or  Thorn,  sent  a  constable  to  fetch  him 
back ;  but  on  his  arrival  on  the  ground  he  was  shot  dead  by  the  madman  Thorn.  On 
this  outrage  the  military  were  called  out,  and  lieut  Bennett  proceeded  to  take  the 
murderer  into  custody ;  but  Thom  advanced,  and,  firing  a  pistol,  killed  the  lieateoaot 
on  the  spot.  His  death  was  avenged  by  one  of  the  aoldiers,  who  fired  at  Thorn,  vA 
laid  him  dead  by  the  side  of  lieut.  Bennett.  The  pfiople  then  attacked  the  military, 
who  were  compelled  to  fire ;  and  it  was  not  untU  several  were  killed  that  the  mob 
dispersed.    Many  considered  Thom  a  saint. 

THORACIC  DUCT.  The  thoracic  duct  was  first  discovered  in  a  horse,  by  Eustachiiu, 
about  A.D.  1563.  It  was  discovered  in  the  human  body,  by  OL  Budbeo,  a  Swedish 
anatomist — Thonus  Bartholine,  of  Copenhagen,  and  Dr.  Joliffe,  of  England,  ilw 
discovered  it,  about  1654.    See  article  LacUaU. 

THRACE.  This  countiy  derived  its  name  from  Thrax.  the  son  of  Mars.— iipM.  Thracea, 
the  people,  were  descendants  of  Tiraa,  son  of  Japhet,  and  hence  their  name.  They 
were  a  warlike  people,  and  therefore  Mars  was  said  to  have  been  bom,  and  to  bare  M 
his  residence  among  them. — Ewripidu,  Thrace  was  conquered  by  Philip  ■^ 
Alexander,  and  annexed  to  the  Macedonian  empire  about  335  B.C.;  and  it  to  remaised 
till  the  conquest  of  Macedonia  by  the  Romans,  168  B.c.  Byzantium  was  the  capital 
of  Thrace,  on  the  ruins  of  which  Constantinople  was  built  The  Turks  took  the 
country  under  Mahomet  IL  a.d.  1453. — PriesUep. 

THRASHING-MACHINES.  The  flaU  was  the  only  instrument  formerly  in  om  for 
thrashing-corn.  The  Romans  used  a  machine  called  the  tribulnm,  a  idedge  loaded  mth 
stones  or  iron,  drawn  over  the  com-«heaves  by  horses.  The  first  machine  attempte<l 
in  modem  times  was  invented  by  Michael  Menzies,  at  Edinburgh,  about  1782;  Ui»laB 
invented  a  machino  in  1776. 

THRASYMENUS,  BATTLE  of.  A  most  bloody  engagement  between  the  Carthaginiaos 
imder  Hannibal  and  the  Romans  under  Flaminius,  217  B.a  No  less  than  15,000 
Romans  were  left  dead  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  10,000  taken  prisoners;  or  acooniiBg 
to  Livy,  6000;  or  Polybius,  15,000.  The  loss  of  Hannibal  was  about  1500  men.  About 
10,000  Romans  made  their  escape,  all  covered  with  wounds.— i^Vy;  Poli/buu,  On 
the  same  day  an  earthquake  occurred  which  desolated  several  cities  in  Italy. 

THREATENING  LETTERa  Sending  letters,  whether  anonymously  written,  or  tritbi 
fictitious  name,  demanding  money,  or  threatening  to  kill  a  porson  or  fire  his  hoitte> 
was  made  punishable  as  a  felony  without  benefit  of  clergy,  1730.    Penona  extort 


THU  641  TIM 

monej  by  threatening  to  accuse  others  of  such  offences  as  are  subjected  to  death,  or 
other  infamous  punishments,  were  to  be  adjudged  imprisonment,  whipping,  or  trans- 
portation, by  80  Geo.  IL  1766 ;  and  other  acts,  the  latest  10  k  11  Vict.  c.  66,  1847. 

THUMB-SCREW.  An  inhuman  instrument  which  was  commonly  used  in  the  first  stages 
of  torture  by  the  Spanish  inquisition.  It  was  in  use  in  England  also.  The  rev.  Wm. 
Carstairs  was  the  last  who  suffered  by  it  before  the  privy  council,  to  make  him 
divulge  secrets  intrusted  to  him,  which  he  firmly  resisted.  After  the  revolution  in 
1688,  the  thumb-screw  was  given  him  as  a  present  by  the  council.  King  William 
expressed  a  desire  to  see  it,  and  tried  it  on,  bidding  the  doctor  to  turn  the  screw ;  but 
at  the  third  turn  he  cried  out,  **  Hold ;  hold  /  doctor ;  another  turn  would  make  me 
confess  anything." 

THUROT'S  lyVASION.  An  enterprising  Irish  commodore  in  the  French  service,  named 
Thurot,  had  to  signalised  himself  by  his  courage  and  daring,  that  his  name  became  a 
terror  to  all  the  merchant-ships  of  this  kingdom.  He  had  the  command  of  a  small 
armament,  and  landed  1000  men  at  Carrickfergus  in  Ireland,  which  place  he  soon 
quitted,  after  having  plundered  the  town.  On  leaving  Ireland,  he  reached  the  Isle  of 
Man,  but  was  overtaken  by  Captain  Elliot,  with  three  frigates,  who  engaged  his  little 
squadron,  which  was  taken,  and  the  commodore  killed.  Thurot's  true  name  was 
O  Farrell ;  his  grandfather  had  followed  the  fortunes  of  James  II. ;  but  his  mother 
being  of  a  family  of  some  dignity  in  France,  he  had  assumed  her  name.  The  engage- 
ment was  fought  Feb.  28,  1760. — Bums. 

THURSDAY.  The  fifth  day  of  the  week,  derived  from  Thor,  a  deified  hero  worahipped 
by  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  northern  nations,  particularly  by  the  Scandinavians 
and  Celts.  The  authority  of  this  deity  extended  over  the  winds  and  seasons,  and 
especially  over  thunder  and  lightning.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  most  valiant  of 
the  sons  of  Odin.  This  day,  which  was  consecrated  to  Thor,  still  retains  his  name  in 
the  Danish,  Swedish,  and  Low-Dutch  languages,  as  well  as  in  the  English.  Thursday, 
or  Thorns-day,  has  been  rendered  into  Latin  by  diet  Jovit,  or  Jupiter's  day. 

TIARA.  The  triple  crown  of  the  pope,  indicative  of  his  civil  rank,  as  the  keys  are  of  his 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction;  and  on  the  death  of  a  pope,  his  arms  are  represented  with 
the  tiara  alone,  without  the  keys.  The  ancient  tiara  was  a  high  round  cap.  Pope 
Damasus  II.  first  caused  himself  to  be  crowned  with  a  tiara  a.d.  1053.  John  XIX. 
was  the  first  who  encompassed  the  tiara  with  a  crown,  1276.  Boniface  YIII.  added 
a  second,  1295 ;  and  Benedict  XII.  formed  the  tiara  about  1334. 

TICKETS  or  LEAVE.    See  Transportation  and  (Mme, 

TIDESb  Homer  is  the  earliest  profime  author  who  speaks  of  the  tides.  Posidonius 
of  Apamea  accounted  for  the  tides  from  the  motion  of  the  moon,  about  79  B.c. ;  and 
Ceesar  speaks  of  them  in  his  fourth  book  of  the  Gallic  War.  The  theory  of  the  tides 
was  first  satisfactorily  explained  by  Kepler,  a.d.  1598  ;  but  the  honour  of  a  complete 
explanation  of  them  was  reserved  for  sir  Isaac  Newton,  who  laid  hold  of  this  class  of 
phenomena  to  prove  universal  gravitation,  about  1683. 

TILES.  Tiles  were  originally  flat  and  square,  and  afterwards  parallelogrammic,  &c.  First 
made  in  England  about  a.d.  1246.  They  were  taxed  in  1784.  The  number  of  tiles 
taxed  in  England  in  1820  was  81,924,626;  and  in  1830,  97,318,264.  The  tax  was 
discontinued  as  discouraging  house-building  and  interfering  with  the  comfort  of  the 
people,  in  1833. 

TII^IT,  PEACE  OF.  The  memorable  treaty  concluded  between  France  and  Russia, 
when  Napoleon  restored  to  the  Prussian  monarch  one-half  of  his  territories,  and 
Russia  recognised  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  elevation  of  Napoleon's 
three  brothers,  Joseph,  Louis,  and  Jerome,  to  the  thrones  of  Naples,  Holland,  and 
Westphalia.    Signed  July  7, 1807,  and  ratified  July  19  following. 

TILTS  AKD  TOURNAMENTS.  Were  greatly  in  vogue  in  England  in  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries.  Notwithstanding  many  edicts  against  them,  and  anathemas  from 
Rome,  they  were  not  abolished  till  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  about  a.d.  1400. — Hapin. 
They  first  took  their  rise  in  Italy  upon  the  suppression  of  the  gladiators  in  the  fifth 
century.  They  were  suppressed  in  France  in  1560. —  Voltaire's  Ueneral  Hist.  For  the 
grand  fete  of  this  kind  recently,  in  Scotland,  see  TowmameiU. 

TIMBER.  The  annual  demand  of  timber  for  the  royal  navy,  in  war,  wos  60,000  load?,  or 
40,000  full-grown  trees,  a  ton  each,  of  which  thirty-five  will  stand  on  an  acre ;  in 
peace,  32,000  tons,  or  48,000  loads.    A  seventy-four  gun  ship  consumed  3000  loads, 

T  T 


TIM  642  TIT 

or  2000  tons  of  trees,  the  produce  of  fifty-seven  acres  in  a  century.  Hence  the  whole 
navy  consumed  102,600  acres,  and  1026  per  annum. — AUnui,  We  import  about  800,000 
loads  of  timber  annually,  exclusively  of  masts,  yards,  staves,  lathwood,  ftcL  together 
Avith  about  8,000,000  of  deals  and  deal-ends. — Pari.  Ret,  Iron  is  now  much  used,  in 
preference  to  timber. 

TIMBER-BENDING.  Apparatus  was  invented  for  this  purpose  by  Mr.  T.  Blancbard,  of 
Boston,  U.Sw,  for  which  a  medal  was  awarded  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1S55.  A 
company  was  formed  for  its  application  in  this  country  in  1856. 

TIME-MEASURE.  That  of  Seipio  Nasica  was  invented  159  ac.  Early  authors  inform 
US  that  Alfred's  time-keeper  was  six  large  wax  tapers,  each  twelve  inches  long ;  but  as 
they  burnt  unequally,  owing  to  the  wind,  he  invented  a  lantern  made  of  wood,  and 
thin  plates  of  ox-homs,  glass  being  a  great  rarity,  a.d.  887.  The  ancients  had  three 
time-measures :  hour-glasses,  sun-dials,  and  a  vessel  full  of  water  with  a  hole  in  its 
bottom.    See  Clodes,  Watcftes,  &a 

TIN.  The  Phoenicians  traded  with  England  for  this  article  for  more  than  1100  yean 
before  the  Christian  era.  It  is  said  that  this  trade  first  gave  them  commercial  import- 
anee  in  the  ancient  world.  Under  the  Saxons,  our  tin*mines  appear  to  have  been 
neg:leoted ;  but  after  the  coming  in  of  the  Normans,  they  produced  considerable 
revenues  to  the  earls  of  Comwadl,  particularly  to  Richard,  brother  of  Henry  III.;  a 
charter  and  various  immunities  were  granted  by  Edmund,  earl  Richard's  brother,  who 
also  framed  the  Stannary  laws  {which  see),  laying  a  duty  on  the  tin  payable  to  the 
earls  of  Cornwall.  Edward  IIL  confirmed  the  tinners  in  their  privileges,  and  erected 
Cornwall  into  a  dukedom,  with  which  he  invested  his  son,  Edward  the  Black  Prince^ 
1337.  Since  that  time,  the  heirs-apparent  to  the  crown  of  England,  if  eldest  sons, 
have  enjoyed  it  successively.  Tin-mines  were  discovered  in  Germany,  which  lessened 
the  value  of  those  in  EIngland,  till  then  the  only  tin-minea  in  Europe,  a.d.  1240. — 
Andenon.  Discovered  in  Barbary,  1640;  in  India,  1740;  iu  New  Spain,  1782.  We 
export  at  present,  on  an  average,  1500  tons  of  un wrought  tin,  besides  manuCactoied 
tin  and  tin-pktes,  of  the  value  of  about  400,000^. 

TINCHEBRAT,  BATTLE  of.  Between  Henry  X.  of  England,  and  Robert,  duke  of 
Normandy.  England  and  Normandy  were  re-united  under  Henry,  on  the  deceaae  of 
William  Rufus,  who  had  already  possessed  himself  of  Noi*mandy,  though  he  had  no 
other  right  to  that  province  than  by  a  mortgage  from  his  brother  Robert,  at  his  setting 
out  for  Palestine.  Robert,  on  his  return,  recovered  Normandy  by  an  accommodation 
with  Henry;  but  the  two  brothers  having  afterwards  quarrelled,  the  former  was 
defeated  by  the  latter  in  the  battle  of  Tinchebray  (a  large  town  in  Lower  Normandy), 
and  Normandy  annexed  to  the  crown  of  England ;  fought  1106. — ffenatUt, 

TITHES  AND  TENTHS.  Were  first  given  by  Moses  to  the  tribe  of  Levi,  1490  B.a— 
Josephtu,  For  the  first  800  years  of  the  Christiau  church  they  were  given  purely  as 
alms,  and  were  voluntary. —  Widdiffc  "  I  will  not  put  the  title  of  the  clergy  to  tithes 
upon  any  divine  right,  though  such  a  right  certainly  commenced,  and  I  believe  as 
certainly  ceased,  with  the  Jewish  theocracy." — BlachtUme.  The  first  mention  of  them 
in  any  English  written  law,  is  a  constitutional  decree  made  in  a  synod  strongly  enjoin- 
ing tithes,  AJ>.  786.  0&  king  of  Merda  gave  unto  the  church  the  tithes  of  all  his 
kingdom,  to  expiate  the  death  of  Ethclbert  king  of  the  East  Angles,  whom  he  had 
caused  to  be  basely  murdered,  a.d.  794. — Bum*8  Bedet,  Law.  Tithes  were  first  granted 
to  the  English  clergy  in  a  general  assembly  held  by  Ethelwold,  a.d.  844. — Semty't 
llitt,  of  Eng.  They  were  established  in  France  by  Charlemagne,  about  800. — HemoMlL 
Tenths  were  confirmed  in  the  Lateron  councils,  1215. — RaJinaUtL 

TITHES  IN  ENGLAND.  See  preceding  article.  The  amount  is  variously  stated  even 
in  parliamentary  documents,  owing  to  defective  returns.  Various  acta  have  been 
recently  passed  in  relation  to  tithes.  A  tithe  act  was  passed  3  Will.  lY.  Aug.  1832. 
Another  act,  5  Will  IV.  Aug.  1834;  and  again,  6  Will.  IV.  Sept.  1835.  The  important 
tithe  commutation  act  was  passed  6  ft  7  WilL  IV.  Aug.  13,  1836.  An  amendmect 
followed,  1  Vict.  July  15,  1837 ;  and  again,  3  Vict.  c.  15,  June  4,  1840.  "Hthe  amend- 
ment act,  9  k  10  Vict  c.  73,  Aug.  26,  1846.— Tithes  in  Ireland.  Sevend  acta  re- 
lating to  tithes  have  been  passed  during  the  last  ten  years,  for  altering  and  improvin  " 
the  tithe  system.  Act  for  the  relief  of  the  clergy.  2  WilL  IV.  June  1832.  Tithe  coo> 
position  act,  Aug.  16,  1632.  Act  to  abolish  composition,  and  to  substitute  rent-charges 
in  lieu  thereof,  2  Vict.  Aug.  1838.  Composition  arrears  act,  2  Vict  March  27,  1639. 
Amendment  act,  3  Vict  c.  13,  May  19,  1840.  Tithe  composition,  4  Viot  c.  5.  March 
30,1841.  ,«ir«. 


TIT  648  TOL 

TITHING.  The  number  or  compimj  of  ten  men  with  their  families  knit  together  in  a 
society,  all  of  them  being  bound  to  the  king  for  the  peaceable  and  good  behaviour  of 
each  of  their  society ;  of  these  companies  there  was  one  chief  person,  who,  from  his 
oflftce,  was  called  (toothingman)  tithingman;  but  now  he  is  nothing  but  a  constable, 
formerly  called  the  headborough. — Cowel, 

TITLES,  ROYAL.  The  following  is  the  succession  in  which  the  royal  titles  swelled  in 
England.  Henir  IV.  had  the  title  of  "Grace**  and  "  My  liege  "  conferred  upon  him, 
1399.  The  title  of  "Excellent  Grace"  was  conferred  upon  Henry  VL  1422. 
Edward  IV.  had  that  of  "  Most  High  and  Mighty  Prince/'  1461.  Henry  Yli .  had  the 
title  "Highness,"  1485 ;  and  Henry  YIII.  had  the  same  title,  and  sometimes  "Grace/' 
1509  et  seq.  But  these  two  last  wore  absorbed  in  the  title  of  "  Majesty,"  being  that 
with  which  Francis  L  of  France  addressed  Henry  at  their  memorable  interview  in 
1520.  See  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Odd.  Henry  YIIL  was  the  first  and  last  king  who  was 
styled  "  Dread  Sovereign."  James  L  coupled  to  "  Majesty  "  the  present  "  Sacred,"  or 
"  Most  Excellent  Majesty."  "  Migesty  "  was  the  style  of  the  emperors  of  Germany ; 
the  first  king  to  whom  it  was  given  was  Louis  XI.  of  France,  about  1463. 

TOBACCO.  Nicotiana  tabacum.  This  plant  received  its  name  from  Tabacco,  a  province 
of  Yucatan,  New  Spain.  Some  say  from  the  island  of  Tobago,  one  of  the  Caribbees ; 
others  from  Tobasco,  in  the  gulf  of  Florida.  It  was  first  observed  at  St.  Domingo, 
A.D.  1496 ;  and  was  used  freely  by  the  Spaniards  in  Yucatan  in  1520.  Tobacco  was 
first  brought  to  England,  7  Eliz.  1565,  by  sir  John  Hawkins ;  but  sir  Walter  Baleigh 
and  sir  Francis  Drake  are  also  mentioned  as  having  first  introduced  it  here.  It  was 
manufactured  only  for  exportation  for  some  years. — Siow^M  Chron.  The  Pied  Bull 
inn,  at  Islington,  was  the  first  house  in  England  where  tobacco  was  smoked.  In  1584 
R  proclamation  was  issued  against  it.  The  star'Chamber  ordered  the  duties  to  be 
C«.  lOd  per  pound,  1614.  Its  cultivation  was  prohibited  in  England  by  Charles  IL 
Act  laying  a  duty  on  the  importation  was  passed,  1684.  The  cultivation  was  allowed 
in  Ireland,  1779.  The  tax  was  increased  and  put  under  the  excise,  1789. — Andermn  ; 
Athe,  Various  statutes  have  passed  relative  to  tobacco.  Act  to  revive  the  act 
prohibiting  the  culture  of  tobacco  in  Ireland  passed  2  Will.  IV.  Aug.  1831.  Act 
directing  that  tobacco  grown  in  Ireland  be  purchased  in  order  to  its  being  destroyed, 
March  24, 1832.  The  quantity  consumed  in  England  in  1791  was  nine  millions  and  a 
half  of  pounds,  and  in  1829  about  fifteen  millions  of  pounds. — Chan,  of  the  Ex,  In 
1840  the  quantity  had  reached  to  forty  millions  of  pounds.  In  1850  the  quantity 
imported  was  43,551,954  lb.  of  which  1,905,306  lb.  were  manufactured.  In  1856  were 
imported  44,788,130  lb.,  of  which  1,885,104  lb.  were  manu&ctured. 

TOBAGO.  Settled  by  the  Dutch,  a.d.  1642.  Taken  by  the  English,  1672 ;  retaken 
1674.  In  1748  it  was  declared  a  neutral  island ;  but  in  1768  it  was  ceded  to  the 
English.  Tobago  was  taken  by  the  French  under  De  Grasse  in  1781,  and  confirmed 
to  them  in  1788.  Again  taken  by  the  English,  April  14, 1793,  but  restored  at  the 
peace  of  Amiens,  Oct  6,  1802.  The  island  was  once  more  taken  by  the  British 
under  general  Grinfield,  July  1, 1803,  and  was  confirmed  to  them  by  the  peace  of 
Paris  in  1814. 

TOKENS,  BANK  These  were  silver  pieces  issued  by  the  Bank  of  England,  of  the  value 
of  5«.  Jan.  1,  1798.  The  Spanish  dollar  was  at  first  impressed  with  a  small  profile  of 
Geoige  III. ;  it  was  stamped  on  the  neck  of  the  Spanish  king.  They  were  raised  to 
the  value  of  5«.  6c{.  Nov.  14,  1811.  Bank  tokens  were  also  current  in  Ireland,  where 
those  issued  by  tiio  bank  passed  for  6«.  and  lesser  sums  until  1817.  They  were  called 
in  on  the  late  revision  of  the  coinage. 

TOLERATION  ACT.  To  William  III.  is  due  the  honour  and  wisdom  of  the  first 
Toleration  act  known  in  the  history  of  this  country,  passed  in  1689.  The  dissenters 
have  ever  since  enjoyed  the  benefits  of  this  act  without  interruption,  though  their 
liberties  were  greatly  endangered  in  the  latter  end  of  queen  Anne's  reign.  Queen 
Anne  died  on  the  very  day  that  the  memorable  Sohism  bill  was  to  become  a  law, 
Aug.  1, 1714.    See  Tett  Act. 

TOLL&  They  were  first  paid  by  vessels  passing  the  Stade  on  the  Elbe,  a.d.  1109.  They 
were  first  demanded  by  the  Danes  of  vessels  passing  the  Sound,  1341.  See  iSoun^. 
Toll-bars  in  England  originated  in  1267,  on  the  grant  of  a  penny  for  every  waggon 
that  passed  through  a  certain  manor ;  and  the  first  regular  toll  was  collected  a  few 
years  cutter  for  mending  the  road  in  London  between  St  Giles's  and  Temple-bar. 
Gathered  for  repairing  the  highways  of  Holborn-inn-lane  and  Martin's  lane,  1846. 

vt2 


TON  en  TOU 

ToU-gates  or  turnpikes  were  used  in  1663.     A  few  toll-gates  still  remain  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  London,  against  which  an  agitation  arose  in  1857. 

TONNAQE  AKD  POUNDAGE.  These  were  ancient  duties  levied  on  wine  and  other 
goods,  imported  or  exported ;  they  commenced  in  England  about  21  Edw.  III.  1346. 
The  firat  was  granted  to  the  kings  of  England  for  life,  5  Edw.  IV.  1465.  The  second 
was  a  premium  or  reward  for  the  collection. — CanninghanCa  Hint,  Taxta, 

TONTINES.  Loons  given  for  life  annuities  with  benefit  of  survivorship,  so  cslled  from 
the  inventor,  Laurence  Tonti.  a  Neapolitan.  They  were  first  set  on  foot  at  Paris  to 
reconuile  the  people  to  cardinal  Maxarin's  government,  by  amusing  them  with  the 
hope  of  becoming  suddenly  rich,  a.d.  1653. —  Voltaire.  The  celebrated  Mr.  Jenningt 
was  an  original  subscriber  for  a  1 001.  share  in  a  tontine  company ;  and  being  the  last 
survivor  of  the  shareholders,  his  share  produced  him  30002.  per  aitnitai.  He  died 
worth  2,115,2441,  aged  103  years,  June  19, 1798. 

TOPLITZ,  BATTLES  or.  A  battle  was  fought  at  Toplits  between  the  Austriani  and 
Pntsdiana,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeated,  1762. — Battle  of  Toplits,  Aug.  30, 1813. 
Here  the  allied  sovereigns  had  their  head-quarters  a  considerable  time  in  this  latter 
year.  Treaty  of  Toplitz,  between  Rusata,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  Sept  9,  ISISL 
Treaty  of  Toplita^  between  Austria  and  Great  Britain,  Oct.  3,  same  year. 

TOROAU.  BATTLE  of.  Between  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  and  the  Austrians,  in  which 
the  former  obtained  a  signal  victory;  the  Austrian  general,  count  Daun,  being 
wouudcd,  Nov.  11,  1760.  Count  Daun,  a  renowned  warrior,  had,  in  1757,  obtaioed 
a  great  victory  over  the  Prussian  king,  and  had  been  disting^uished  by  his  seal  and 
glory  in  the  Austrian  service.    Torgau  was  taken  by  the  allies  in  1814. 

TORTURR  It  has  disgraced  humanity  in  the  earliest  ages  in  every  country.  It  ^u 
only  permitted  by  the  Romans  in  the  examination  of  slaves.  It  was  used  early  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  against  heretics.  Occasionally  used  in  England  so  late 
as  the  1st  Eliz.  1558  ;  and  in  Scotland  until  1690.  The  trial  by  torture  was  abolished 
in  Portugal  1776;  in  France,  by  order  of  Louis  XVI.  in  1780,  although  it  had  not 
been  practised  there  some  time  before.  Ordered  to  be  discontinued  in  Sweden  by 
Qustavus  IIL  17S6.    It  yet  continues  in  other  countries. 

TORT.  Various  authors  have  differently  described  this  term.  It  is  raid  to  be  derived 
from  an  Irish  word,  originally  signifying  a  savage,  or  rather  a  collector  of  tithes  and 
tHxes. — Enrydop,  The  names  of  Cavaliers  and  Rouod-heads,  which  existed  in  the 
time  of  Charles  I.  were  changed,  some  tell  us,  into  those  of  Tories  and  Whigs.  Ths 
Tories  were  those  who  vindicated  the  divine  right  of  kings,  and  held  high  notions  of 
their  prerogatives ;  while  "  the  Whigs"  denoted  friends  to  civil  and  religious  liberty. 
— Aake,  The  name  of  Tory  was  given  by  the  Country  party  to  the  Court  party,  com- 
paring them  to  popish  robbers ;  and  arose  out  of  the  Meal-tub  plot  {wkiA  tu),  in 
1679.  The  terms  are  defined  by  extreme  politicians,  as  of  two  parties  in  the  aristo- 
cracy :  the  Whigs,  who  would  curb  the  power  of  the  crown ;  and  the  Tories,  who 
would  curb  the  power  of  the  people.— PAtZ/tpi.    See  Whiga. 

TOULON,  Fbavcb.  In  1706  this  town  wtA  bombarded  by  the  allies,  both  by  land  and 
sea,  by  which  almost  the  whole  town  was  reduced  to  a  heap  of  ruins,  and  seveial  chips 
burned ;  but  they  were  at  last  obliged  to  raise  the  siege.  It  surrendered  Aug.  2S, 
1793,  to  the  British  admiral  lord  Hood,  who  took  possession  both  of  the  town  and 
shipping,  in  the  name  of  Louis  XVII.  under  a  stipulation  to  assist  in  restoring  the 
French  constitution  of  1789.  A  conflict  took  place  between  the  English  and  French 
forces,  when  the  latter  were  repulsed,  Nov.  15,  1793.  Toulon  was  evacuated  by  ths 
British,  Dea  19,  same  year,  when  great  cruelties  were  exercised  towards  such  of  the 
inhabitants  as  were  supposed  to  be  favourable  to  the  Briti&h. 

TOULON,  NAVAL  BATTLES  off.  A  memorable  battle  off  this  port,  between  the 
English  under  Mathews  and  Lestock,  against  the  fleets  of  France  and  Spain :  in  this 
engagement  the  brave  captain  Comewall  fell;  and  the  victory  was  lost  by  a  mia- 
understanding  between  the  English  admirals.  Mathews  was  afterwards  disnussed  by 
the  sentence  of  a  court-martial  for  misconduct;  fought  Feb.  10,  1744. 

TOULOUSE,  France.  Founded  about  615  B.a  A  dxy^adful  tribunal  was  estsbUshed 
here  to  extirpate  heretics,  a.d.  1229.  The  troubadours,  or  rhetoricians  of  Toulouse, 
had  their  origin  about  a.d.  850,  and  consisted  of  a  fraternity  of  poets,  whose  art  was 
extended  throughout  Europe^  and  gave  rise  to  the  Italian  and  French  poetiy.   See 


TOU  645  TOW 

Droubadours.  The  allied  British  and  Spanish  army  entered  this  city  on  April  12, 1814, 
immediately  after  the  memorable  batUe.    See  next  article. 

TOULOUSE,  BATTLE,  of.  The  final  battle  between  the  British  Peninsular  army  under 
lord  Wellington  and  the  French — one  of  the  most  bloody  that  had  been  fought  from 
the  time  lord  Wellington  had  received  the  command  of  the  troops  in  Portugal.  The 
French  were  led  by  marshal  Soult,  whom  the  victorious  British  here  forced  to  retreat 
after  twelve  hours'  fighting,  from  seven  o'clock  in  the  morniug  until  seven  at  night, 
the  British  forcing  the  French  intrenched  position  before  Toulouse.  The  loss  of  tlie 
allies  in  killed  and  wounded  was  between  4000  and  5000  men ;  that  of  the  French 
exceeded  10,000.  At  the  period  of  this  battle  Bonaparte  had  abdicated  the  throne  of 
France ;  but  neither  of  the  commanders  was  aware  of  that  fact,  or  of  the  close  of  the 
war  at  Paris.    Fought  April  10, 1814. 

TOURNAMENTS  or  JOUSTa  Some  authors  refer  them  to  Trojan  origin,  such  as 
Ascanius  instituted  among  the  Romans.  The  tournament  is  a  martial  sport  or  exer- 
cise which  the  ancient  cavaliers  used  to  perform,  to  show  their  bravery  and  address. 
It  is  derived  from  the  French  word  Ummer, ''  to  turn  round,'*  because,  to  be  expert 
in  these  exercises,  much  agility,  both  of  horse  and  man,  was  necessary.  They  were 
much  practised  a.d.  890 ;  and  were  regulated  and  countenanced  by  Henry  I.  emperor, 
about  919.  The  Lateran  council  published  an  aKicle  against  their  continuance  in 
1136.  One  was  held  in  Smithfield  so  late  as  the  twelfth  century,  when  the  taste  for 
them  declined  in  England.  Henry  11.  of  France,  in  a  tilt  with  the  count  de  Mont- 
gomery, had  his  eye  struck  out,  an  accident  which  caused  the  king's  death  in  a  few 
days,  June  29,  1559.  Tournaments  were  from  this  event  abolished  in  France. — A 
magnifioent  and  costly  feast,  and  splendid  tournament,  took  place  at  Eglintoun  castle, 
Aug.  29, 1839,  and  the  following  week :  many  of  the  visitors  assumed  the  characters  of 
ancient  knights,  lady  Seymour  being  the  **  Queen  of  Beauty,"  as  fairest  of  the  female 
throng.    But  this  festivity  is  not  likely  to  lead  to  a  revival  of  the  old  tournament 

TOURNAY.  Taken  by  the  allies  in  1709,  and  ceded  to  the  house  of  Austria  by  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht ;  but  the  Dutch  were  allowed  to  place  a  guardian  in  it,  as  one  of  the 
barrier  towns.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  under  general  Labourdonnaye,  Nov.  11, 
1792.  Battle  near  Toumay,  by  the  Austrians  and  British  on  one  side,  and  the  French 
on  the  other,  the  former  victorious.  May  8,  1793.  Another  battle  was  fought  between 
the  British  and  French,  when  the  latter  were  repulsed,  at  Rouslaer,  losing  200  men 
and  three  field-pieces.  May  6, 1794. 

TOURNIQUET.  An  instrument  for  trepanning,  invented  by  Morelli  at  the  siege  of 
Besan^on,  a.d.  1674.    Petit,  of  France,  invented  the  screw  tourniquet  in  1718. 

TOURS^  BATTLE  of.  One  of  the  glorious  victories  of  Charles  Martel,  and  that  which 
most  established  his  fame,  gained  over  the  Saracens  near  Tours,  and  from  which  he 
acquired  the  name  of  MarUf,  signifying  hammer.  We  are  told  by  some  of  the  French 
historians,  and  indeed  by  others,  it  must  be  acknowledged  with  some  probability,  that 
but  for  this  timely  victory  of  Charles  Martel,  all  Europe,  as  well  as  Asia  and  Africa, 
must  have  become  Mahommedan ;  fought  Oct.  10,  a.d.  732. 

TOWERS.  That  of  Babel,  the  first  of  which  we  read,  built  in  the  plains  of  Shinar 
(Geneait  xi.)  2247  b  c.  See  Bahel,  The  Tower  of  the  Winds  at  Athens,  built  5f'0  b.o. 
The  Tower  of  Pharos  (see  Pharos),  280  B.C.  Towers  were  built  early  in  England ; 
and  the  round  towers  in  Ireland  may  be  reckoned  among  most  ancient  curiosities. 
They  were  the  only  structures  of  stone  found  in  Ireland  before  the  first  arrival  of  the 
English,  except  some  buildings  in  the  maritime  towns  founded  by  the  Danes.  These 
towers  were  tall  hollow  pillars,  nearly  cylindrical,  but  narrowing  towards  the  top, , 
pierced  with  lateral  holes  to  admit  the  light,  high  above  the  ground,  and  covered  with 
conical  roofs  of  the  same  material.  Of  these  productions  of  old  Irish  masonry,  fifty- 
six  still  remain,  from  50  to  130  feet  high. 

TOWER  or  LONDON.  Anciently  a  royal  palace,  and  consisted  of  no  more  than  what 
is  now  called  the  White  Tower,  which  appears  to  have  been  firat  marked  out  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  a.d.  1076,  commenced  in  1078,  and  completed  by  his  fon, 
William  Rufus,  who,  in  1098,  surrounded  it  with  walls,  and  a  broad,  deep  ditch. 
Several  succeeding  princes  made  additions  to  it,  and  king  Edward  III.  built  the 
church.  In  1638  the  White  Tower  was  rebuilt;  and  since  the  restoration  of  king 
Charles  II.  it  has  been  thoroughly  repaired,  and  a  great  number  of  additional  buildings 
made  to  it.  Here  are  the  Armoui7,  Jewel-office,  and  various  other  divisions  and 
buildings  of  peculiar  interest ;  and  hero  were  many  executions  of  illustrious  persons. 


TOW  646  TRA 

and  many  murders.  See  England.  The  armoaiy  and  280,000  atand  of  uvls  &c. 
were  destroyed  by  fire,  Oct.  30,  1S41.  The  "New  BnildiDgs'*  in  the  Tower  were 
completed  in  1850. 

TOWTON,  BATTLE  of,  supposed  to  be  the  most  fieree  and  bloody  thai  erer  happened 
in  any  domestic  war.  It  was  fought  between  the  houses  of  Yovk  (Edward  IV.)  and 
Lancaster  (Henry  VI.)  to  the  latter  of  whom  it  waa  fatal,  and  on  whose  side  more  tbaa 
87,000  fell.  Edward  issued  orders  to  give  no  quarter,  and  the  moat  mercileaislanghter 
ensued.  Henry  was  made  prisoner,  and  confined  in  the  Tower ;  his  queen,  Msii^t, 
fled  to  Flanders.    Fought  March  29, 1461. 

TRACTARIANISM.  This  term  is  applied  to  certain  opinions  on  diurch  matten  pro- 
pounded in  the  "  Tracts  for  the  Times."  of  which  90  numbers  were  publi^ed,  183541. 
The  prinoipal  writers  were  the  reys.  Dr.  E.  Pusey,  J.  H.  Newman,  J.  Keble,  J.  F^ade. 
and  I.  Williams.    See  Puaeyum, 

TRADES'  MUSEUlkl.  The  formation  of  this  museum  was  undertaken  in  1S53,  jointly 
by  the  commissioners  of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851  and  the  Society  of  Arts.  The 
Animal  department  was  opened  >Iay  17, 1855,  when  a  paper  on  the  Mutual  Relatiooiof 
Trade  and  Manufactures  was  read  by  professor  E.  Solly.  The  contents  of  this  moeenm 
were  removed  to  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  which  was  opened  June  21, 1857. 

TRAFALGAR,  BATTLE  of.  The  most  glorious  naval  victory  ever  obtained  hy 
England,  fought  by  the  British,  under  Nelson,  against  the  combined  fleets  of  Frsnce 
and  Spain,  commanded  by  admiral  Villeneuve  and  two  Spanish  adminLL  The 
enemy^s  force  was  eighteen  French  and  fifteen  Spanish  vesseU,  all  of  the  line ;  that 
of  the  British,  twenty-seven  ships.  After  a  bloody  and  protracted  fights  admiral 
Villeneuve  and  the  other  admirals  were  taken,  and  nineteen  of  their  ships  c^tored, 
sunk  or  destroyed.  Nelson  lost  his  life  in  this  memorable  battle ;  and  admiral  CoIliDg* 
wood  suooeeded  to  the  command.  Ncslson's  ship  was  the  Victory;  and  his  last sigoal 
on  going  into  the  engogement  was,  "  England  expects  every  man  to  do  his  duty." 
Oct.  21,  1805.    See  NeU<m*s  Pmeral 

TRAGEDY,  A  dramatic  representation  of  some  mournful  event.  The  Tragedy  of 
Aloestis  was  the  first  represented  by  Thespis,  the  first  tragic  poet  at  Athens,  536  aa^- 
Arwud,  MarbUt,  Prizes  instituted,  and  the  first  guned  by  .^schylus,  486  KC—J^^ 
Another  prise  carried  by  Sophocles,  470  b.c. — Ibid.  Another  by  Euripides,  442  B.C. 
-^Ibid,  Another  by  Astydamas,  377  B.O. — Ibid.    See  Drama;  Playt;  Theatret. 

TRAINING  SCHOOLS.  The  first  of  these  useful  establishments  was  founded  at 
Battersea,  in  1840,  by  sir  J.  Kay  Shuttleworth,  and  Mr.  E.  C.  Tu&ell ;  the  latter, 
who  was  then  in  the  Poor  Law  Commission,  devoting  a  year's  salary  towards  the 
expenses.  Mr.  Mann  stated  (1855)  that  there  were  about  40  of  these  schools  in 
diffoi'ent  parts  of  the  country. 

TRAJAN'S  PILLAR  ix  Rome.  Erected  a.d.  114,  by  the  directions  of  the  emperor 
Trajan,  and  executed  by  Apollodorus.  The  column,  which  still  exists  at  Borne,  vas 
built  in  the  large  square  called  the  Forum  Bomanum;  it  is  140  feet  high,  of  the 
Tuscan  order,  and  commemorates  the  victories  of  the  emperor.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  monuments  that  have  descended  from  ancient  to  modem  Umes. 

TRANSFIGURATION,  The.  ^y  this  term  .is  meant  the  miraculous  change  of  Oar 
Saviour's  appearance  on  Mount  Tabor,  in  the  presence  of  Peter,  James,  and  Johnt 
when  ho  appeared  in  his  glory,  in  company  with  Moses  and  EUas,  a.d.  32  {MatL  xni). 
The  word  is  also  applied  to  a  feast  held  in  the  Romish  Church  on  the  6th  of  Aogucti 
in  commemoration  of  that  miracle. 

TRANSFUSION  or  the  BLOOD.    See  article  Blood. 

TRANSLATION  to  HEAVEN.  The  translation  of  Enoch  to  heaven  for  hispie^at 
the  age  of  865  years,  took  place  8017  B.C.  The  prophet  Elijah  was  translated  to 
heaven  in  a  chaiiot  of  fire,  896  B.C.— The  poasibility  of  translation  to  the  abode  of 
eternal  life  has  been  maintained  by  some  extravagant  enthusiasts.  The  um 
house  of  commons  expelled  Mr.  Asgill  from  his  seat  for  his  book  asserting  the 
possibility  of  translation  to  the  other  world  without  death,  1708. 

TRANSMARINE  TELEGRAPH.    See  Submarine  Telegraph. 

TRANSPORTATION  of  FELONa  The  first  criminals  were  ordered  for  trasspoitatioa 
instead  of  execution,  a.d.  1590;  but  banishment  for  lighter  offences  than  those 
a^ttdged  death  was  much  earlier.    England  is  reproached  abroad  for  transpoit^oS 


TRA  647  TRE 

peraoDS  whose  offences  are  comparatiyely  venial.  John  Eyre,  esq.  a  man  of  fortune, 
yns  sentenced  to  transportation  for  stealing  a  few  quires  of  paper,  Nov.  1,  1771. — 
PkUlipt,  More  recently,  the  reverend  Dr.  Halloran,  tutor  to  the  earl  of  Chesterfield, 
was  transported  for  forging  a  frank  (lOd  postage),  Sept.  9, 1818.  The  first  transpor- 
tation of  felons  to  Botauay  Bay  was  in  May,  1787 ;  they  arrived  at  the  settlement  in 
Jan.  1788.  Returning  from  transportation  was  punishable  with  death  until  5  Will. 
IV.  c.  67,  Aug.  1834,  when  an  act  passed  making  the  offence  punishable  by  transporta* 
tion  for  life.  The  discontinuance  of  transportation  to  Australia  was  announced  by 
lord  John  Russell,  in  the  house  of  commons,  as  determined  upon  by  government, 
Feb.  10,  1853.  In  consequence  of  the  recent  difficulty  experienced  in  transporting 
felons,  16  &  17  Vict.  c.  99  was  passed  to  provide  other  punishment,  namely,  penal 
servitude,  empowering  her  majesty  to  grant  pardon  to  offenders  under  certain  con- 
ditions, and  licences  to  others  to  be  at  large,  such  licences  being  liable  to  be  revoked 
if  necessary,  and  many  have  been.  These  licences  are  termed  "tickets  of  leave."  See 
Crime.    By  an  act  passed  in  1857,  transportation  to  Western  Australia  is  renewed. 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION.  The  pretended  miraculous  change  of  the  bread  and  wine 
in  the  Eucharist  into  the  very  flesh  and  blood  of  Christ  by  the  consecration.  Tho 
doctrine  was  broached  in  the  days  of  Gregory  III.  (a.d.  731),  and  accepted  by 
Amalarius  and  Radbertus  (about  840),  but  rejected  by  Rabanus  Maurus,  Johannes 
Scotus  Erigena,  Berengarius,  and  others.  In  the  Lateran  council,  held  at  Rome  by 
Innocent  III.,  the  word  "  transubetantiation"  was  used  to  express  this  doctrine,  which 
was  decreed  to  be  incontrovertible ;  and  all  who  opposed  it  were  condemned  as 
heretics.  This  was  confirmed  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  Jan.  18, 1562.  John  Huss, 
Jerome  of  Prague,  and  other  martyrs  of  the  reformation,  suffered  for  denying  this 
dogma,  which  is  condenmed  by  the  Church  of  England  (28th  Articlo)  and  all  pro- 
testant  dissenters. 

TBAPPISTS.  The  first  abbey  of  La  Trappo  in  Normandy  was  founded  in  1140  by 
Retrou,  count  de  Perche.  The  present  order  of  Trappists  owes  its  origin  to  the 
learned  Bouthillier  de  la  Ranc^  (editor  of  Anaereon  when  aged  14),  who,  from  some 
cause  not  certainly  known,  renounced  the  world,  and  sold  all  his  property,  giving  the 
proceeds  to  the  abbey  of  La  Trappe,  to  which  he  retired  in  1662,  to  live  there  in  great 
austerity.  After  several  efforts  he  succeeded  in  reforming  the  monks,  and  in 
establishing  a  new  rule,  which  commands  silence,  prayer,  reading,  and  manual  labour, 
and  which  forbids  study,  wine,  fish,  &c.    Rancd  was  bom  in  1620,  and  died  1700.* 

TRKAD-MILL.  An  invention  of  the  Chinese,  and  used  in  China  to  raise  water  for  the 
irrigation  of  the  fields.  The  tread-mill  lately  introduced  into  tho  prisons  of  Great 
Britain  is  of  a  more  complicated  construction.  It  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  Cubitt  of 
Ipswich.  The  first  was  erected  at  Brixton  gaol,  1817.  The  tread-mill  was  immediately 
afterwards  introduced  into  most  of  the  large  prisons. 

TREASON.  See  High  Treason.  It  was  punished  in  England  only  by  banishment  till 
after  Henry  I.— Boko's  Chronide.  Ascertained  by  law,  Edw.  III.  1349.  Trials 
regulated,  and  two  witnesses  required  to  convict,  1695.  The  laws  relating  to  treason 
are  numerous,  and  formerly  the  punishment  was  dreadful — hanging,  quartering, 
beheading,  ko.  and  even  burning  alive.  Mr.  Martin  brought  in  a  bill  for  the  abolition 
of  burning  alive  for  treason,  which  passed  both  houses  in  1788.  Petty  Treasoit  may 
happen  three  ways :  a  wife's  murder  of  her  husband ;  a  servant's  murder  of  his 
master ;  and  an  ecclesiastical  person's  murder  of  his  prelate  or  other  superior — ^so 
declared  by  statute  25  Edw.  III.  1350. 

TREASURER  of  the  CHAMBER.  Formerly  an  officer  of  great  consideration,  and 
always  a  member  of  the  privy  council.  He  dischai*ged  the  bills  of  all  the  king's 
tradesmen,  and  had  his  office  in  Cleveland-row,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  royal  palace. 
His  duties  were  transferred,  and  the  office  suppressed  at  the  same  time  with  the 
offices  of  master  of  the  great  wardrobe  and  cofferer  of  the  household,  in  1782.  Many 
distinguished  men  were  treasurers. — Beatstm, 

TREASURER,  LORD  HIGH,  of  ENGLAND.  The  thurd  great  officer  of  the  crown,  a 
lord  by  virtue  of  his  office,  having  the  custody  of  the  king's  treasure,  governing  the 

*  A  number  of  these  monks  driven  from  France  in  the  revoUitlon  in  1790,  wore  received  by  Mr. 
Weld,  of  Lulworth,  Dorsetshire,  who  gave  them  soma  land  to  cultivate,  luid  a  habitation,  where  they 
remained  till  1816.  This  order  wna  charged  with  rebellion  and  conspiracy  in  France,  and  sixtv-four 
English  and  Irish  Trappists  were  shipped  by  the  French  government  at  Paimboeuf,  Nov.  19,  and  were 
landed  fh>m  the  H^  French  frigate  at  Cork,  Nov.  SO,  1831.  They  have  established  themselves  at 
Mount  Melleray,  county  of  Waterford ;  but  do  not  maintain  there  the  extreme  rigour  of  their  order. 


TRE 


648 


TRE 


upper  court  of  exchequer,  and  formerly  BittiDg  judicially  among  the  barons.  The 
first  lord  high  treasurer  in  England  was  Odo,  earl  of  Kent,  in  the  reign  of  William  I. 
This  great  trust  is  now  confided  to  a  commission,  and  is  vested  in  five  persons,  odled 
Lords  Commissioners  for  executing  the  office  of  Lord  High  Tressurer,  snd  of  thcM 
the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  is  usually  one.  The  first  of  this  rank  in  Ireland  ma 
John  de  St.  John,  Henry  III.  1217.  William  Cheevors,  second  justice  of  the  king's 
bench,  first  held  the  office  of  yice-treasurer  for  Ireland,  22nd  Hen.  YI.  1443. 

TREATIES^  The  first  formal  and  written  treaty  made  by  England  with  any  foreign 
nation  was  entered  into  A.D.  1217.  The  first  commercial  treaty  was  with  tbe 
Flemings,  1  £dw.  1272 ;  the  second,  with  Portugal  and  Spain,  IZOS.—Anderpm,  The 
chief  ti'eaties  of  the  principal  civilised  nations  of  Europe  will  be  found  described  in 
their  respective  places :  the  following  forms  an  index.  See  CcnvenHotit ;  CoalUim  ; 
Zeaffuet,  &a 


Abo,  peace  of   . 
Adrionople   . 
Aiz-Ia-Chapelle 
Aix-la-Chapclle,  peace  of 
Akermann,  peace  of 
Alt  Radatadt 
America,  peace  with 
Amiens,  peace  of 


Sept.  14, 


Oct?, 


17« 
1829 
1608 
1748 
1826 
1706 
1783 
1802 

Armed  Neutrality IHOO 

Anas,  treaty  of 1436 

Arraa,  ditto 148S 

Aunburs,  league  of 1686 

Badeo,  peace  of 1714 

Balta  Liman  Aug.  16,  1838 

Barrier  treaty 1715 

Basle,  peace  of 1705 

Bassein,  India 1808 

Bayonne,  treaty  of 1808 

Belgium,  treaty  of  London      .  .  1839 

Belgrade,  peace  of 1799 

Berlin,  peace  of 174S 

Berlin  decree 1806 

Berlin  convention 1808 

Bejrara         ....        Aug.  31,  1839 

Breda,  peace  of 1667 

Bretigny,  peace  of 1300 

Bucharest,  treaty  of        ....  1812 

Cambray,  lcagu9  of 1508 

Gambray.  peace  of 1529 

Campo  Formic,  treaty  of    .  .    .  1797 

Garlowits,  peace  of 1699 

Carlsbad,  congress  of 1819 

Cateau-Cambresis,  peace  of    .        .        .  1559 

Chaumont,  treaty  of 1814 

Cbunar,  India 1781 

Cintra,  oonventiou  of 1808 

1757 
1702 
1799 
1805 
1806 
1809 
1813 


Closterseven,  convention  of 
Coalition,  flrst,  against  France  .        .    . 
Coalition,  second,  ditto    .... 
Coalition,  tblrd,  ditto  .... 

Coalition,  fourth,  ditto    .... 

Coalition,  fifth,  ditto 

Coalition,  sixth,  ditto      .... 
Commerce  (Great  Britain  and  Turkey^ 

Nov.  16, 
Commerce  (Great  Britain  and  the  Two 
Sicilies)  ....  June  25, 
Concordat  (tthieh  tee) 
Couflana,  treaty  of 
Constantinople,  peace  of  . 
Constantinople,  treaty  of  . 
Constantiuople,  treatv  of 
Copenhagen,  peace  of . 
Crassy  .... 
Dresden  .... 
Eliot  Convention 
Bvora  Monte 
Family  Compact 
Fontainebleau,  peace  of 
Fontainebleau,  treaty  of 
Fontainebleau,  concordat  at 
Friedwald,  treaty  of 
Fuessen,  peace  of 
Ghent,  padflc&tion  of 
Ghent,  peace  of  (America)  . 


Mays, 


April, 
MayS^ 


1839 

1845 
1801 
1465 
1712 
1833 
1854 
1660 
1544 
1745 
1835 
1834 
1761 
1679 
1786 
1813 
1651 
1745 
1576 
1814 


Golden  Bull 1356 

Grand  Alliance K^ 


Greece,  treaty  of  Iiondou 
Hague,  treaty  of  the 
Hague,  treaty  of  the 
Hslle,  treaty  of    . 
Hamburg,  peace  of  . 
Hanover  txvaty    . 
Hauover  and  England 


1832 

\em 

161« 

17« 

1725 

July  22,  1^ 


Holland,  peace  with 17S4 

Holy  AUlance 18U 

Hubertsberg,  peace  of        ....  Kh-l 

Interim  treaty 1^^ 

Jay's  treaty  .  Nov.  W,  1794 

Kaynardi,   or   Koutachouc  -  Kayoardp, 

July  21,  1774 

Kiel,  treaty  of 1»14 

Laybaob,  congress  of 1821 

League  .        .       •         ...  157iS 

Leipsic,  alliance  of      .  ...  I(i31 

Leoben,  peace  of 1797 

Lisbon,  peace  of 1^ 

London,  treaty  of  (Greece)  .  1^ 

London,  convention  of  (Turkey)       .    .  1^0 
London,    treaty   between    France  and 

England         ....  April  15,  1854 
Lubeck.  peace  of 1<(9 


Luneville,  peace  of 16^1 

Madrid,  treaty  of 15^ 

Methuen  treaty 17(0 

Milan  decree IM? 

Milan  (Austria  and  Sardinia)       Aug.  6,  1S49 

Munster,  peace  of IMS 

Nankin  (see  China) IMS 

Nantes,  edict  of 1^ 

Naumberg.  treaty  of  .       .    .  l&M 

Nice,  treaty  of WW 

Nimeguen,  peace  of 1^ 

Noyon,  treaty  of WW 

Nuremberg,  treaty  of         ....  153S 

oliva,  peace  of 1^ 

Paris,  peace  of  (see  Parit)  .  .    .  17(B 

Paris,  treaty  of 17«« 

Paris,  peace  of  (Sweden)  .    .  ISIO 

Paris,  capitulation  of       ...       .  l^H 

Paris,  treaty  of ISU 

Paris,  peace  of 18W 

Paris,  treaty  of 181T 

Paris,  treaty  of        .       .       .      April,  ]«« 

Partition,  first  treaty MM 

Partition,  second  treaty  .       .       .       '  1*00 

Paasarowitz,  peace  of 1718 

Passau,  treaty  of 1^- 

Persia,  treaty  with 1S57 

Petersburg,  St.  peace  of  .  .       •  1*^^ 

Petersburg,  St.  treaty  of    .  .    •  1  Til 

Petersburg,  St.  treaty  of  .  .  .  1809 
Petersburg,  St.  treaty  of  .  .  .  .  191<> 
Peterswald,  convention  of  .  .  •  181S 
Pilnitz.  convantion  of         .       .       .    .  ITVl 

Poland,  partition  of I'M 

Prsgraauc  Sanction 14W 

Pragmatic  Sanction  ....  171S 
Prague,  peace  of  .  .  .  IWS 
PrBsborg,  peace  of IM^ 


TRE 


649 


TBI 


TREATIES^  continued. 

Public  good,  leagtio  for  tbo  .    .  1464 

Pyrenees,  treaty  of  the    ....  1659 

Qoadruple  AlUuice 1718 

Bodstodt,  peace  of 1714 

Radstadt,  congress  of 1797 

Ratisbon,  peace  of 1630 

Ratisbon,  treaty  of 1806 

Beicheabach  treaties  June,  1813 

Relij;ion.  peace  of 15&5 

Rhine.  Coofederation  of  tbo    .  .  1806 

Ryswick,  peace  of 1697 

St.  Oermain's,  peace  of   .  .  1570 

Hi.  Oermain-en-Laye 1679 

St.   Ildefonso,  alliance   of    Spain  with 

Franco 1796 

SeTille,  peace  of 1792 

SiArOd,  peace  of 161S 

Sistowa         ....  Aug.  4,  1791 

Smalcald,  league  of 1.5*29 

Spain,  paurification  of  (London)  .        .    .  1S34 

Stettin,  peace  of 1570 

Stockholm 1630 

Stockholm,  peace  of        ....  1719 

Stockholm,  treaty  of 1724 

Stockholm,  treaty  of        ...        .  1813 
Stockholm,  treaty  of  (Sweden  and  allies) 

Nov.  21,  1856 
Suncion,  treaty  of  .        July  15,  1862 

Temeswor,  truce  of  ....  1664 

Teschen,  |ieace  of 1779 

Teiisin,  peace  of 169'S 

Tilsit,  peace  of 1807 

Tolentino.  treaty  of                                 .1793 
Toplitz,  treaty  of 1813 


Triple  Alliance 

Triple  Alliance  of  tbo  Hague  .    . 

Troppau,  ooiigrcss  of        ...        . 

Troves,  treaty  of 

Turkmaucbay,  peace  of  . 

Ulm,  peace  of 

Unkiiovkelessl         .       .  July  8, 

Utrecht,  union  of 

Utrecht,  peace  of 

Valen^ay,  treaty  of 

Verona,  congress  of 

Versailles,  peace  of 

Vienna,  treaty  of 

Vienna,  treaty  of  alliance   .        .        .    . 

Vienna,  definitive  1  eaco  . 

Vienna,  peace  of 

Vienna,  treaty  of 

Vienna,  treaty  of 

Vienna,  treaty  of 

Vienna  fAustria    and 
nxercial 

Vossem,  peace  of 

Warsaw,  treaty  of 

Warsaw,  alliance  of         .... 

Washington,  Reciprocity  treaty  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  re- 
spect ing  Newfoundland  fishery,  com- 
merce, Ac July  2, 

Westminster,  peace  of        .... 

Westminster  (with  Holland)  . 

Westphalia,  peace  of 

Wilna,  treaty  of 

Worms,  edict  of 

Wurtsburg,  treaty  of       ...        . 


U  arch  25, 

Hay  31. 

June  9, 

Prussia),  com- 

Feb.  19, 


1717 
i«ir.s 
1820 
1420 
1828 
1620 
1833 
1579 
1713 
1813 
1822 
178:1 
1725 
1731 
1737 
1809 
1815 
1815 
1815 

1853 
1673 
1768 
1683 


1854 
1674 
1716 
1648 
15rtl 
1521 
1610 


TRENT,  COUNCIL  of.  This  celebrated  council  is  reckoned  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  aa  the  eighteenth  or  last  general  council.  Its  decisions  are  implicitly  received 
as  the  Btandard  of  faith,  morals,  and  discipline  in  that  church.  The  first  council 
assembled  A. D.  1545,  and  continued  (but  with  interruptions)  under  pope  Paul  III. 
Julius  III.  and  Pius  IV.  to  1568,  when  the  last  council  under  this  name  was  held.* 

"TBJA  JUNCTA  IN  UNO."  Three  joined  in  one.  The  motto  of  the  knights  of  the 
military  order  of  the  Bath,  signifying  the  three  theological  virtues,  "  faith,  hope,  and 
charity."  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  first  used  by  Richard  II.  and  adopted  by 
Henzy  IV.  in  1399»  as  the  motto  of  this  order :  it  was  continued  when  the  order  was 
revived  by  his  majesty  George  I.  in  1725.    See  BoUh. 

TRIALS.  Alfred  the  Great  is  said  to  have  been  the  contriver  of  trial  by  jury ;  but 
there  is  good  evidence  of  such  trials  long  before  his  time.  In  a  cause  tried  at 
Hawarden,  nearly  a  hundred  years  before  the  reign  of  Alfred,  we  have  a  list  of  the 
twelve  jurors;  confirmed,  too,  by  the  fact  that  the  descendants  of  one  of  them,  of  the 
name  of  C!orbyn,  of  the  (late,  still  preserve  their  name  and  residence  at  a  spot  in  the 
parish  yet  called  the  Gate. — Phillips, 


REMARKABLE  AND   MEHORABLB  TRIALS. 

Of  the  infamous  colonel  Charteris,  for  the  rape  of  Ann  Bond Feb.  26, 

Of  captain  Porteous,  at  Edinburgh,  for  murder  (see  PorUous)        ....         July  6, 

Of  the  celebrated  Jenny  Diver ^  for  felony,  executed March  18, 

Of  William  Ducdl,  executed  for  murder  at  Tyburn,  but  who  came  to  life  when  about  under- 

-  "  Nov.  24. 

July  28. 

Oct.  7, 

March  9, 

July  9, 

Nov.  6. 

March  3, 

AprUll, 

Aug.  13, 


going  dissection  at  Surgeons'  Hall 
Of  Innu  Kilmarnock  and  Balmerino,  for  high  treason 
Of  Mary  H«ntlton,  for  marrying  with  her  own  sex,  14  wives 
Of  lord  Lovat,  80  years  of  age,  for  high  treason ;  beheaded 
Of  Frency,  the  celebrated  Irish  robber,  who  siurrendered  himself 
Of  Amy  Hutchinson,  burnt  at  B3y,  for  the  murder  of  her  husband 
Of  Miss  Blandy,  for  the  miuder  of  her  father ;  hanged 
Of  Ann  Williams,  for  the  murder  of  her  husband ;  burnt  alive 
Of  Eugene  Aram,  for  murder  at  York;  executed  ... 

Of  the  earl  Ferrers,  for  the  murder  of  his  steward;  executed April  16, 

Of  Mr.  Mac  Naughten,  at  Strabane,  for  the  murder  of  Miss  Knox  Dec  8» 

Of  Ann  Bedingfield,  for  the  murder  of  her  husband ;  burnt  alive       ....   Apnl  6, 


1780 
1786 
1740 

1740 
1740 
1746 
1747 
1740 
1760 
1762 
175S 
1759 
1760 
1761 
1703 


*  At  thia  council  was  decreed  with  anathemas :  the  canon  of  scripture  (including  the  apocrypha), 
and  the  chiuch  its  sole  interpreter ;  the  traditions  to  be  equal  with  scripture ;  the  seven  sacraments 
(baptism,  confirmation,  the  Lord's  supper,  penance,  extreme  unction,  oraer%  and  matrimony) ;  tron- 
■abstantiatlon ;  purgatory;  indulgences;  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  Ac 


TRI  650  TRI 

TRIALS,  continued. 

Of  Mr.  Wilkes,  the  celebrated  alderman  of  Locdon,  for  an  obaoene  poem,  called  an  *'  Eaaav  on 

Woman" Feb!  21.  lT'-4 

Of  the  rourderers  of  captain  OLw,  his  wife,  daughter,  mate,  and  paaeoigen,  on  board  the  i^  p 

Sari  of  Sandwich,  tit  Btfi March  ^  17<  6 

Of  the  celebrated  Elizabeth  Brownrigg,  for  the  murder  of  one  of  her  apprentices^  a  female : 

hanged Sept.  15.  i:*7 

Of  lord  Baltimore,  the  notorious  libertine,  and  his  female  accomplicea,  for  ntpo  Mandk  S8.  1~r  > 
Of  the  great  cause  between  the  famillos  of  Hamilton  and  Douglas       ....  Febi  S7.  IT-  :* 

Of  the  great  Valencia  cause  in  the  house  of  peers,  in  Ireland Ms>^  18,  ITTi 

Of  the  cause  of  Somerset  the  slaye,  establishing  tho  great  point  of  freedom  to  slaves  upon 

British  ground ;  judgment  given,  after  a  long  trial  (see  Souttnd  the  Btaet)    .        .  June  :^  1. .  2 

"  Slaves  cannot  breatlie  in  England ; 
They  touch  our  country,  and  their  shackles  falL** 

Of  Mrs.  Herring,  at  Dublin,  for  tho  murder  of  her  husband :  burnt  in  St.  Ste|then*8  Green, 

in  that  city       ....        * Oct.  84.  177 : 

Of  tho  two  brothers,  Messrs.  Perreau,  bankers  and  wine-merchant^  for  forgery ;  banged. 

(Bee  Forpejy) Jan.  17.  1,.-^ 

Of  tho  duchess  of  Kingston,  for  marrying  two  husbands ;  guilty  (see  Kingrton^  Jhtekeu  0/,  ktr 

Trial)  .        .- April  15,  1776 

Of  Dr.  Dodd,  for  forging  a  bond  of  i2O0L  in  the  name  of  the  earl  of  Chesterfield ;  found  guilty, 

Feb.  22  (see  Poroery);  executed June  t7.  ITT7 

Of  admiral  Ke[«pel,  by  coun-martial ;  honourably  acquitted Feb.  11.  ITT  j 

Of  Mr.  Hftc-ifiT^^n^  for  the  murder  of  Miss  Reay,when  coming  out  of  the  Theatre  Royal,  Cov«nt- 

gnrden -^E*^  ^^  ^^^ 

Of  lord  Geoive  Gordon  on  a  charge  of  high  treason  :  acquitted       ....  Feb.  5,  17-*^ 

Of  Mr.  Woodiall,  the  celebrated  printer,  for  a  libel  on  lord  Loughborough,  afterwards  lonl 

clumcellor Xov.  10,  17^: 

Of  lord  George  Gordon,  for  a  libel  on  the  queen  of  France;  guilty  ....  Jan.  28,  17n> 
Of  Mr.  Warren  Hastings ;  a  trial  which  lasted  seven  years  and  three  months  (see  HaMi»ff», 

Trial  qf)  commenced Feb.  1\  lTv<^ 

Of  The  Tiviu  newspaper,  for  a  libel  on  the  prince  of  Wales ;  guilty  ....  Feb.  S,  V:.*) 
Of  Ronwick  Williams,  called  the  Montltr,  for  stabbing  women  in  the  streets  of  London  (see 

Monger) July  8,  VT^) 

Of  the  celebrated  Barrington,  the  pick-pocket,  tho  most  extraordinary  adept  in  bis  art ; 

transported Sept.  22,  ITTO 

Of  Thomas  Paine,  the  celebiuted  political  writer  and  deist,  for  his  libels  in  tho  Rt*^»  of 

Man  :  guilty Dec.  Id,  17'.  t 

Of  Louis  XVI.  of  France :  began  December  11,  1792 :  condemned  Jan.  20 ;  and  beheaded  (see 

France) Jan.  21.  17:«  ? 

Of  tho  queen  of  France,  Marie  Antoinette,  consort  of  Louis  XVI. ;  guillotined  .  Ocrt.  Itf,  17iu 
Of  Arclilbald  Hamilton  Rowan,  for  libel;  imprisoned  and  fined  ....  Jan.  29,  17^4 
Of  madamo  Elisabeth,  of  France,  sister  to  the  king,  Louis  XVI. ;  beheaded  May  10,  17£'-l 

Of  Mr.  Purefoy,  for  the  murder  of  colonel  Roper,  in  a  memorable  duel ;  acquitted      Aug.  14,  17X 

Of  Mr.  Robert  Watt  and  Dowuie,  at  Edinburgh,  for  treason ^*!P^  ^  ^'*''* 

Of  Messrs.  Hardy,  Home  Tooke,  Thelwall,  and  Joyce,  for  high  treason ;  acquitted  (see  Arniy, 

and  also  Thdwtll) Oct.  S»,  1791 

Of  the  earl  of  Abingdon,  for  his  libel  on  Mr.  Scrman  ;  guilty Dec  «,  17S4 

Of  the  celebrated  mi^or  Semple,  alia*  Lisle,  for  felony Feb.  19,  17S0 

Of  Mr.  Redhead  Torke,  at  York,  for  a  seditious  libel  Not.  17.  179; 

Of  lord  Westmeath  v.  Bradshaw,  for  ertm.  eofi.  /  damages,  10,000^  March  4,  17!-  > 

Of  lord  Valentia  v.  Mr.  Gawler,  for  adultery  ;  damages  2000(,  ....  June  IS.  I7i^ 
Of  Daniel  Isaac  Eaton,  for  libels  on  kingly  government;  guilty  ....  July  {^  17:6 
Of  sir  OodfVey  Webster  V.  lord  Holland,  for  adultery ;  damages,  60001.  .    Fobc  ST,  I7v7 

Of  Parker,  the  mutineer  at  the  Nore,  odled  admiral  Parker  (see  Mvimu*)   .  June  27,  1797 

Of  Boddington  v.  Boddington,  for  erim.  con.:  damages,  10,0002 Sept.  5,  17i»7 

Of  William  Orr,  at  Canrickfergus,  for  high  treason  ;  executed       ....         Oct  1^  1797 

Of  Mrs.  Phepoe,  a/uM  Benson,  the  celebrated  murderess Dec  9,  Ki'T 

Of  the  murderers  of  colonel  St.  George  and  Mr.  Uniacke,  at  Cork         .  .        April  15,  179> 

Of  tho  celebrated  Arthur  O'Connor,  the  barrister,  and  O'Colgley,  at  Maidstone,  for  treason  ; 

the  latter  hanged May  Si.  179n 

Of  sir  Edward  Croabie  and  others,  for  hitfh  treason ;  hanged         ....  June  1,  17^^ 

Of  Beauchamp  Bagenal  Harvey,  at  Wexlord,  for  high  treason  ....    June  21,  17''^ 

Of  the  two  Messrs.  Sheares,  at  Dublin,  for  high  treason ;  executed  July  1^  ]7;ii.> 

Of  Theobald  WouUIb  Tone,  by  court-martial  (he  died  on  the  18th)  ....  Nov.  10.  17*.'^ 
Ofsir  Harry  Browne  Hayes,  for  carrying  off  Miss  Pike,  of  Cork     ....       Ai«nll3,  IH") 

Of  Hatfield,  for  shoothig  at  George  III.  (see  iTo'/e/i/) JtiuoSS,  1mv> 

Of  Mr.  Tigho  of  Westoieath  v.  Jones,  for  cnm.  con.  «•  damages  lO.OOOi.  .  .  Dec  ^  !:>.  i^ 

FROM  1800  TO  THE  TJEAR  1810. 

Of  the  mutineers  at  Bautry  Bay ;  hanged  (see  Bantry  Bay) Jaa.  8,  1^-^ 

Of  Charles  Hayes,  for  the  obscene  libel  The  Man  <\f  Fathion Jan.  9,  l<t : 

Of  governor  Wall,  for  cruelty  and  murder,  twenty  years  before  (see  Gm^)  Jan.  28^  1>*  - 

OfCrawley^for  the  murder  of  two  females  in  Peter's-row.  Dublin  ....  March  6,  IH*:! 
Of  colonel  Despard  and  his  associates,  for  high  treason ;  hanged  on  the  top  of  Horaemooger- 

lane  gaol  (see  lAetparc/)  Feb.  7,1^' > 

Of  M.  Peltier,  for  a  libel  on  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  then  first  consul  of  Ftmnce,  In  VAmingn  : 

fuUty Feb.  SI,  IS>:j 
Robert  Aslett,  cashier  of  the  Bank  of  England,  for  embeasloment  and  frauds ;  tho  loea  to 
the  Bank,  820,000{.;  found  no*  guUty,  on  aoooont  of  the  invaUdity  of  the  biUa       .     Jolj  1^  1S>«  1 


k 


TRI  Col  TRI 

TRIAI^,  ctyiUinued. 

Of  Robert  Eiumett,  at  Dublin,  for  high  treason  :  cxeetited  next  dny  Sept.  19,  1803 

Of  Keenan.  one  of  the  murdererv  of  lord  Kilwardcn ;  hanged    .      '.  Oct.  2,  1803 

Of  Mr.  Smith,  for  the  murder  of  the  euppoeed  Hammernnith  Ohoit  ....  Jan.  IS,  1804 
Of  liockhart  and  Laudoa  Oaudon,  for  carrying  oflf  Mn.  Lee      .        .  March  6,  1804 

Of  general  Moreau  and  others  for  conspiracy  in  France May  29,  1804 

Of  the  rev.  C.  Massy  v.  marquess  of  Ueadfort  for  crt9n.  con.;  damages  10,00(7.  .  July  27,  1804 
Of  William  Cooper,  the  Hactney  Motifttr,  for  oflenccs  against  females  .     April  17,  1805 

Of  Hamilton  Rowan,  in  Dublin  :  pleaded  the  king's  pardon July  1.  1805 

Of  judge  Johnson,  fur  a  libel  on  the  earl  of  Hardwicke  ;  guiltv  ....  Nov.  23, 1S05 
Of  general  Picton.   for  applying  the  torture  to  Louisa  Calderon,  to  extort  confession,  at 

Trinidad ;  tried  in  the  court  of  Ring's  Bench  ;  giiilty Feb.  21,  1806 

Of  Mr.  Patch,  for  the  murder  of  his  partner,  Mr.  Bligh April  0, 1806 

Of  lord  Melville,  impeached  by  the  house  of  oommous  ;  acquitted       •        .       .        .  Juno  12,  1800 

Of  the  Warrington  gang,  for  unnatural  offences ;  executed Aug.  23,  1806 

Of  Palm,  the  boolcseller,  by  a  Frouch  military  commission  at  Brennau  .    Aug.  20,  1806 

Of  lord  Cloncurry  v.  sir  John  B.  Piers,  lor  trim,  eon.;  damages  20,000^  .  Feb.  19,  1807 

Of  Hollowayand  Haggerty,  the  murderers  of  Mr.  Steele;  thirty  persona  were  crushed  to 

death  at  their  execution,  at  the  Old  Bailey Feb.  20, 1807 

Of  sir  Home  Popham,  by  court-martial;  reprimanded March  7,  1807 

Of  Knight  V.  Dr.  Wolcot,  o/toj  Peter  Pindar,  for  erim.  con. June  27,  1807 

Of  lieut.  Berry,  of  H. M.S.  ifaxarrf/  for  an  unnatural  offence Oct  2,  1807 

Of  lord  Elgin  v.  Ferguson,  for  crim.  evn.;  damages,  10,000{. Dec.  22,  1807 

Of  Simmons,  the  murderer  of  the  Boreham  fomily,  at  Hoddesdon  .  March  4,  1808 

Of  sir  Arthinr  Paget,  for  crim.  con.  with  lady  Borrington  July  14,  1808 

Of  major  Campbell,  for  killing  captain  Boyd  in  a  duel ;  hanged  ....    Aug.  4,  1808 

Of  Peter  Finnerty  and  others,  for  a  libel  on  the  duke  of  York  ....        Nov.  9,  1808 

Of  the  duke  of  York,  by  inquiry  in  the  house  of  commons,  on  charges  preferred  against  him 

by  colonel  Wardle from  Jan.  20  to  March  20, 1800 

Of  WeUesley  V.  lord  Paget,  for  mm.  con.  /  damages  20.000/. May  12,  1809 

Of  the  king  v  Valentine  Jones,  for  breach  of  duty  as  commissary-general  .  May  26,  1809 

Of  the  earlof  Leicester  V.  AfomtiiH7if«ra/<f,  for  a  libel;  damages,  1000/.      .  .    June  29,  1809 

Of  Wright  V.  colonel  Wardle,  for  Mra  Mary  Ann  Clarke's  furniture        .        .  July  1,  1809 

Of  W^iUmm  Cobbett,  for  a  libel  on  the  Oerman  legion ;  convicted  ....  July  9, 1809 
Of  the  hon.  captain  Lake,  for  putting  Robert  Jeffery,  a  British  seaman,  on  shore  at  Sombrero; 

dismissed  the  service  (see  Somtn'ero) Feb.  10, 1810 

Of  Mr.  Perry,  for  libels  in  the  Jtfominy  CAronic/e/  acquitted Feb.  24, 1810 

Of  the  Vere-street  gong,  for  imnatural  offences :  guilty Sept.  20, 1810 


Jan.  81, 1811 

Feb.  22,  1811 

March  7,  1811 

March  12,  1811 
June  16, 1811 
Juno  19,  1811 
June  28,  1811 
Nov.  21,  1811 
Nov.  20, 1811 

March  18,  1812 
May  15,  1812 


PROM  1810  TO  THE  TEAR  1820. 

Of  Peter  Finnerty,  for  a  libel  on  lord  Castlcreagh ;  iudgment 

Of  the  King  v.  Messre.  John  and  Leigh  Hunt,  for  libels ;  guilty 

Of  ensign  Hepburn,  and  White,  the  drummer ;  both  were  executed 

Of  Walter  Cbx.  in  Dublin,  for  libels ;  he  stood  in  the  pillory 

Of  the  king  v.W.  Cobbett^  for  libels;  convicted  .... 

Of  lord  Louth,  in  Dublin ;  sentenced  to  imprisonment  and  flnc 

Of  the  Berkeley  cause,  before  the  house  of  peers,  concluded 

Of  Dr  Sheridan,  physician,  on  a  charge  of  sedition ;  acquitted 

Of  Gale  Jones,  for  seditious  and  blasphemous  libels ;  convicted 

Of  Daniel  Isaac  Eaton,  on  a  chaive  of  blasphemy ;  convicted 

Of  Bellingfaam,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Perceval,  prime  minister 

Of  the  king  V.  Mr.  Lovell,  of  the  Srafeiman,  for  libel,  guilty  ....         Nov.  19,  1812 

Of  Messrs.  John  and  L«igh  Hunt,  for  libels  in  the  SSaminer  /  convicted  .      Dec.  9,  1812 

Of  the  marquess  of  Sligo,  for  concealing  a  sea-deserter  Dec  16,  1812 

Ofthe  murderers  of  Mr.  Horsfiill,  at  York;  executed Jan.  7,  1813 

Of  Mr.  Hugh  Fitspatrick,  for  publishing  Seullv's  Hutory  of  the  Penal  Law»  .  Feb.  6, 1818 

Ofthedivorcecauseagainst  the  duke  of  Hamilton,  for  adultery  ....  April  11,  1818 
Of  Mr.  John  Magee,  in  Dublin,  for  libels  in  the  Svening  PoHi  guilty    .  July  26,  1813 

Of  Nicholson,  the  murderer  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Bonar ;  hanged Aug.  21,  1813 

Of  Tuite,  the  murderer  of  Mr.  Oouldiug;  executed Oct  7,  1813 

Of  the  celebrated  Mary  Ann  Clarke,  for  a  libel  on  the  right,  hon.  Wm.  Vesey  Fitsgerald,  after- 
wards lord  Fitzgerald Feb.  7.  1814 

Of  admiral  Bradley,  at  Winchester,  for  frauds  in  ship  letters  ....  Aug.  18, 1814 
Of  lord  Cochrane,  Codirane  Johnstone,  Bcrenger,  Butt,  and  others,  for  frauds  in  the  public 

funds ;  convicted  (see  Stocks) Feb.  22,  1814 

Of  colonel  (^uontin,  of  the  10th  hussars,  by  court-martial Nov.  10,  1814 

Of  sir  John  Henry  Mildmay,  bart.  for  crim.  eon.  with  the  countess  of  Rosoberry;  damages 

15.000(. Dec.  6, 1814 

Of  Ctooige  Bamett,  for  shooting  at  Miss  Kelly,  of  Covent>garden  theati-e      .  .  April  8, 1816 

Of  captain  Hutchinson,  sir  Robert  Wilson,  and  Mr.  Bruce,  in  Paris,  for  aiding  the  escape  of 

eount  Lavalette  (see /o«oZ<f<e'«  Acape)        .  April  24,  1810 

Of  "captain  Grant,  "the  fiunous  Irish  robber,  at  Mary  borough  ....  Aug.  16,  1810 
Of  Vaughan,  a  police  officer,  Mackay,  and  Browne,  for  conspiracy  to  induce  men  to  commit 

felonies  to  obtain  the  reward ;  convicted Aug.  21, 1816 

Of  colonel  Stanhope,  by  court-martial,  at  Cambray,  in  France  ....    Sept.  23, 1816 

Of  Cashman»  the  intrepid  seaman,  for  the  Spa-fielda  riots»  and  outrages  on  Snow-hill ; 

convicted  and  hanged  (see  8pa-field») Jan.  20, 1817 

Of  count  Maubreuil,  at  Paris,  for  robbing  the  queen  of  Westphalia  .  May  S;  1817 
Of  Mr.  R.  G.  Butt,  for  a  libel  on  lord  chief-Justice  Ellenborough  ....  May  23,  1817 
Of  Mr.  WooUer,  for  libels  on  the  government  and  ministers June  0^  1817 


TRI  652  TBI 

TRIALS,  eontinued. 

Of  Thistlewood,  Dr.  Watson,  Hooper,  and  othen,  for  tmsoa June  9,  1>1T 

or  the  murderers  of  the  Lynch  family  at  Wildc^ooee-lodge,  Ireland  Jolj  19, 1^17 

Of  Mr.  Roger  O'Connor,  on  a  charge  of  robbing  the  mall;  acquitted  ...     Aug.  6,  1m  7 

Of  Brandretta;  Turner,  and  others,  at  Derby,  for  high  treaaon         ....         Ocu  15.  l!»I7 
Of  Hone,  the  bookseller,  for  porodiee;  three  trials  before  lord  EUenboroqgh ;  remarkable  for 

his  extemporaneous  and  sucoessful  defence Dec.  18,  19.  SO,  l^T  7 

Of  Mr.  Dick,  for  the  nbduction  and  rape  of  Mies  Croekatt March  il,  l'^i^ 

Of  the  memorable  appeal  of  murder  case.  Ashford,  the  brother  of  Mazy  Aahford,  against  her 

murderer,  Abraham  Ihomton  (see  Ai'tef,  Ifapifr  o/) ArrU  16,  1*^:>< 

Of  the  rev.  Dr.  O'Halloran.  for  foiging  a  frank  (see  Trangpariaiion)  .        8ept  9.  1^ .  ^ 

Of  Robert  Johnston,  at  Edinburgh ;  his  dreadful  execution Dec.  ^,  1  ^  1  ^ 

Of  sir  Manasseh  Lopez,  for  bribery  at  Orampound  (see  Bribery)  ....  March  18,  \^.'* 
Of  MosleT,  Woolfe,  and  others,  merchants,  for  conspiracy  and  firaud    .        .  April  SOi,  1:^:^ 

Of  Carlisle,  for  the  publication  of  Paine'8.<lp«o/J2m«on,  Ac. Oct.  IS,  l^iv> 

Of  Mr.  John  Soanlsii,  at  Limerick,  for  the  murder  of  Elllon  Hanly     .  .        March  14,  !>.» 

Of  sir  Francis  Burdett,  at  Leicester,  for  a  seditious  libel  ...  .    March  SS^  li^..\j 

Of  Mr.  Henry  Hunt  and  other*,  for  their  conduct  at  the  Manchester  meeting ;  oooTicted  (see 

Manfckefter  IMvrm  Mttnng) March  S7.  l^M 

Of  sir  Charles  Wolseley  and  roT.  Mr  Harrison,  for  sedition  ;  guilty        .  .      April  10,  l>Ji 

Of  Thistlewood,  Ings,  Brunt,  Davidson,  and  Tidd,  for  the  conspiracy  to  murder  the  king's 

ministers:  oommeuced  (see  ODito-«<rctf  Gimnyiraey) April  17.  I'^CO 

Of  Louyel,  in  Prance,  for  the  murder  of  the  duke  de  Berri Joiie  7,  I-ii> 

Of  lord  Olerawlev  V.  Mr.  John  Bum^for  crim.  eon June  1^  l'^?" 

Of  major  Cartwright  and  others,  at  Warwick,  for  sedition Aug.  a»  I's'^* 

Of  "Little  Waddington,'*  for  a  seditious  libel ;  aoouitted Sept.19,  ]>^> 

Of  lieutenant-colonel  French,  6th  dnkgoongtuax]a,Dv  court-martial  .  S^iC  )i^  Is::^* 

Of  Caroline,  queen  of  England,  before  the  house  of  lords,  for  adultery,  commenced  Auk.  1<(  : 

it  terminated  (see  Qieeen  Carolm^t  Trial)  Kov.  10^  IS.'t 

7R0H  1820  TO  THE   TEAR  1830. 

Of  the  female  murderers  of  Misa  Thompson,  in  Dublin ;  hanged  ....  May  1,  l^il 
Of  David  Ba^^rt,  an  extraordinary  robber,  and  a  man  of  singularly  crentiVil  life,  at  Ecua- 

burgh,  forthe  murder  of  a  turnkey Juiieft,  Ivn 

Of  Samuel  D.  Hay  ward,  the  favourite  man  of  fiuhion,  for  burglary  .  .  Oct.  S.  !*«-.! 
Of  the  murderers  of  Mrs.  Torrance,  in  Ireland  ;  convicted  and  hanged  .  .  Dec  17,  1>.l 
Of  Cusscn.  Leahy,  and  others,  for  the  abduction  of  Miss  Oould  ....  July  S9.  \^.,: 
Of  Barthoiomi,  in  Paris,  for  the  abduction  of  Elisabeth  Florence  .  .  .  Sept.  2S.  In.- 
Of  Cuthbert  v.  Browne,  singular  action  for  deceit       Jan.  28,  I'^u- 

Of  the  famous  "  Bottle  Conspirators,"  in  Ireland  by  ex-qffleio Fbb.  S3.  IM  . 

Oftheextraordinary  "earl  of  Portsmouth's  case,"  commenced  ....  March  IS,  UiJ 
Of  Probert,  Huut^  and  Thurtell,  the  murderers  of  Mr.  Weare ;  Probert  tuned  klng'a  evidenoe, 

but  was  aflerwards  hanged  (see  BxteutionM) Jan.  S^  1  Si4 

Of  Mr.  Henry  Faxmtleroy,  banker  of  London,  for  foi-gerv ;  hanged  ....  Oct.  SO,  IS. 4 
Of  F«.»ote  V.  Uayne,  for  breach  of  promise  of  marriage  ;  damages  SOOOl.  .  Doc  S^  Ui4 

Of  Mr.  Henry  Savary,  a  banker's  son  at  Bristol,  for  forgery April  i.  I'*:.! 

Of  O'Keefe  and  Bourke,  the  murderers  of  the  Franks  family Aug.  18,  ]<..s 

Of  John  GrossetMuirhead,  esq.  for  indecent  practices Oct.  21,  1<.S 

Of  the  case  of  Mr.  Wellesley  Pole  and  the  Misses  Long ;  commenced     .  Nor.  »,  IS. 3 

Of  captain  Bligh  V.  the  hon.  Wro.  Wellesley  Pole,  for  adultery  ,        ....    Not.  ts,  l^^.i 

Of  Fisher  V.  Btockdalo,  for  a  libel  in  Harruftc  VFOmw March  20.  l^.i 

Of  Edward  Gibbon  Wakefield  and  others,  for  abduction  of  Mi&s  Turner  March  9«.  H.7 

Of  the  rev.  Rolwrt  Taylor,  for  blasphemy ;  found  guilty Oct.  S4.  m7 

Of  Richmond  Seymour,  esq.  and  Macklin,  for  an  unnatural  crime       .  March  12,  ]&.< 

Of  Richard  Gillara,  for  the  miurder  of  Maria  Bagster,  at  Taunton  ....  April  8«  l%i> 
Of  Mr.  Moutgomeiy,  for  foiigery ;  he  committed  suicide  in  prison  on  the  morning  appointed 

for  his  execution July  4,  1>-^< 

Of  Brinklett.  for  the  death  of  lord  Mount  Sandford  by  a  kick  ....  July  16,  l^> 
Of  William  Corder,  for  the  murder  of  Maria  Marten;  executed         ....      Au^.  6i,  is.^ 

Of  Joseph  Hunton,  a  quakor  merchant,  for  forgery ;  hanged Oct.  SS,  !«>> 

Of  Burke,  at  Edinbiugh,  for  the  Bulking  murders ;  Hare^  his  aooomplioe,  became  amwover 

(see  Burkinff) D«c  S«.  l«*i 

Of  the  king  v.  Buxton  and  others,  for  a  fraudulent  marriage       ....         March  Si,  isf^ 

Of  Jonathan  Martin,  for  setting  fire  to  York  Minster March  31,  I^::<> 

Of  Stewart  and  his  wife,  noted  murderers,  at  Glasgow ;  hanged July  14.  l^:^** 

Of  Reinbauer,  the  Bavarian  priest^  for  his  murders  of  women  ....  Aug.  4,  1S-J-* 
Of  captain  Dickenson,  by  oourt-martial,  at  Portsmouth  :  acquitted  .    Aug.  ^  lv> 

Of  Mr.  Alexander,  editor  of  the  Morning  JounuUt  for  libels  on  the  duke  of  Wellington;  oooTictcd 

Feb.  10,  1«^> 
Of  Clime,  &c.,  at  Ennis,  for  cutting  out  the  tongues  of  the  Doylea  .       .        ManA  4,  IsO 

Of  Mr.  Comvn,  for  burning  his  house  in  the  county  of  Clare :  hanged  .     March  (S,  1%.^ 

Of  Mr.  Lambrecht,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Clayton,  in  a  duel        ....  April  2.  1^  •> 

Of  captain  Moir,  for  the  murder  of  William  Malcolm  ;  hanged  ....    Jvily  SO,  1m> 

Of  captains  Smith  and  Markham,  for  killing  Mr.  O'Orady  in  a  duel  .  Au^  94,  IS:  > 

Of  captain  Helsham,  for  the  murder  of  lieut.  Growther  in  a  duel  ....  Oct.  S,  1  <  .> 
Of  Mr.  St  John  Long,  for  the  manslaughter  of  Miss  Caahin  (see  Quada)  Oct.  SO,  is  » 

Of  Polignac,  Peyronnet»  and  others,  mmiaten  of  France  (see  .PWiNcO  .     Dec.  SI.  I<s»> 


TBI  653  TRI 

TRIALS,  c<nUinued, 

FSOM  1830   TO  THE  TEAR  18i0. 

Of  Carlisle,  for  a  MditiooB  libel,  inciting  to  A  riot;  fniilty Jan.  10, 1831 

Of  Mr.  D.  0'Ck>nneU.  for  breach  of  pmclamafcion ;  pleaded  guilty  ....  Feb.  12,  1831 
Of  St.  John  Long,  for  manslaughter  of  Mrs.  Llovcl  (sea  Qiiaclr«)  ....  Feb.  19,  1831 
Of  Mr.  Luke  Dillon,  for  the  violation  of  Miss  Frlzall ;  convicted  ....  April  14.  1831 
Of  major  Dundas.  for  the  seduction  of  Miss  Adams  ;  damages  30001.      .  .         Mav  26.  1831 

Of  Mr.  Cobbett,  for  a  seditious  libel ;  the  jury  could  not  agree July  7,  1831 

Of  the  rev.  Robert  Taylor  (who  obtained  the  revolting  distinction  of  "  the  D.'viVt  Chaplain  "X 

for  reviling  the  Rbobemer  ;  convicted July  6,  ISSl 

Of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Deaclev.  Mr.  Bingham  Baring,  M.P July  14,  1831 

Of  Bird,  a  boy  14  years  of  affe,  for  the  murder  of  a  child ;  hanged  .  Aug.  1,  1831 

Of  the  great  eause,  earl  of  Kingston  V.  lord  Lorton:  commenced  ....  Nov.  9,  1831 
Of  Bishop  and  Williams,  for  murder  of  the  Italian  boy  (see  J^urlrintr)  "Dec  3,  1831 

OftheearlofMarr,  in  Hcotland,  for  shooting  at  Mr.  Oldham Dec.  17,  1831 

Of  Elizabeth  Cooke,  for  the  murder  of  Mrs.  Walsh,  by  "  Burking  "...  JiUi.  6,  18:i2 

Of  colonel  Brereton,  by  court-martial,  at  Bristol  (see  J9ri<<oO Jan.  9,  1832 

Of  the  murderers  of  Mr.  Blood,  of  Applevale,  county  of  Clare  ....  Feb.  v8,  1832 
Of  William  Duggan,  at  Cork,  for  the  murder  of  his  wife  and  othera  .        .  March  26.  1832 

Of  Mr.  Hodgson  (son  of  the  celebrated  Miss  Aston)  v  Greene  ....  July  26.  1832 
Ofthemayorof  Bristol,  for  neglect  of  duty  in  the  Bristol  riots  ....  Oct.  2(>,  1832 
Of  rev.  Mr.  Irving,  bv  his  own  (the  Scots)  church,  for  heresy  ....  March  13,  1833 
OflordTeynhamandDonlan,  a  tailor,  for  swindling;  guilty    .....      May  10,  1833 

Of  Mr.  Baring  WaU,  M.P.  ;  modt  honourably  acquitted May  11,  1833 

Of  captain  Wathen,  16th  hussars,  by  court-martial,  at  Cork ;  honourably  acquitted ;  his  colonel, 

lord  Brudenell, removed  from  his  command Jan.  — ,  1834 

Of  the  proprietors  of  the  True  Sun,  for  libels  ;  guilty Feb.  6,  1834 

Of  Marv  Ann  Burdock,  the  celebrated  murderess,  at  Bristol April  10,  1835 

Of  sir  John  de  Beau  voir,  for  perjury ;  acquitted May  'i9,  1835 

Of  PieMchi,  at  Paris,  for  attempting  the  life  of  the  king,  Louis-Philippe,  by  exploding  an 

infernal  machine  (see /^iefrAt) Jan  30.  1836 

Of  the  hon.  O.  C.  Norton  i*.  lord  Melbourne,  in  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  forenin.  con.  with  the 

bon.  Mrs.  Norton  ;  verdict  for  the  defendant June  22,  1836 

Of  lord  de  Roos  v.  Gumming,  for  defiunation,  charging  lord  de  Rooe  with  cheating  at  cards ; 

verdict  for  Mr.  Gumming Feb  10,  1837 

Of  James  Oreenacre  and  Sarah  Oale,  for  the  mxirder  of  Hannah  Browne ;  Oreenacre  convict  d 

and  hanged:  Oale  transported April  10,  1837 

Of  Francis  Hastings  Modhurat,  esq.  for  killing  Mr.  Joseph  Alsop ;  guUty  .  April  IS,  1830 

Of  Bolam,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Millie ;  verdUct  manslaughter      ....       July  So,  1839 

Of  rev.  Mr.  Stephens,  at  Cliester,  for  inflammatory  language Aug.  15.  1839 

Of  John  Frost,  an  ex-magistrate,  and  others,  on  a  cha^e  of  high  treason ;  guilty :  sentence 

commuted  to  transportation  (see  Nev^port) Dec.  31,  1839 

Of  Courvoisier,  for  the  murder  of  lord  William  Russell ;  hanged  .        .      June  18.  20,  1840 

Of  Oonld,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Templeman;  transported June  2 j^  1840 

Of  Edward  Oxford,  charged  with  attempting  the  life  of  the  queen  :  a4judged  insane,  ami  con- 
fined in  Bethlehem-hospital  (see  Oa/ord) July  0,  10.  1840 

Of  madame  Lafaive,  in  France,  for  the  murder  of  her  husband ;  guilty         .  Sept..  2,  1840 

Of  prince  Louis  Napoleon,  for  his  descent  upon  France  (see  Franet)  .  .       Oct.  6,  1810 

Of  captain  R.  A.  Reynolds.  11th  hussars,  by  court-martial;  giiilty :  the  sentence  excited  great 

popular  displeasure  against  his  colonel,  lord  Cardigan Oct.  20,  1810 

FBOM  1840  TO  THE  TEAE  1850. 

Of  lord  Cardigan,  before  the  house  of  peers,  capitally  charged  for  wotmding  captain  Harvey 

Tucket,  in  a  duel ;  acquitted Feb.  16,  1811 

Of  the  Wallaces,  brothers,  merchants,  for  having  wilfully  caused^he  destruction  of  the  ship 

Dryad  at  sea,  to  deftaud  the  under writerj ;  transported March  4,  1841 

Of  Josiah  Mister,  for  attempting  the  life  of  Mr.  Mac  kreth:  guilty     .  March  23.  1841 

Of  Bartholomew  Murray,  at  Chester,  for  the  murder  of  Mrs  Cook  .  April  5,  1841 

Of  the  earl  of  Waldegrave  and  captain  Duff,  for  an  ognavated  assault  on  a  poUco  constable ; 
guiltv :  judgment^  six  months^  imprisonment  and  flues  of  200(.  and  20<.       .  May  3,  1841 

Of  maoame  Lafarge  again,  fur  robbeiy  of  diamonds Aug.  7,  1841 

Of  the  great  case,  AUen  Bogle  vtrnu  Mr.  Lawson.  publisher  of  the  Time*  newspaper,  for  an 
alleged  libel.in  stating  the  plaintiff  to  be  connected  with  numerous  bank  forgers  throughout 
Europe  in  their  schemes  to  defraud  Messrs.  Glynn  and  Company,  bankers  of  London,  by 
means  of  fictitious  letters  of  credit ;  damages,  one  farthing.    This  exposure,  so  honourable 

to  the  Timu,  led  to  the  Time*  TestitMnial Aug.  16,  1841 

Of  Mr.  Mao  Leod,  at  Utica,  America,  for  taking  part  in  the  destruction  of  the  Otrcline.  com- 
menced :  acquitted  afier  a  trial  that  lasted  etgnt  days Oct.  4,  1841 

Of  Robert  Blakesley,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Buraon.  of  Bastcheap  ;  hanged  Oct.  28,  1841 

Of  Mr.  Beaumont  Smith,  for  the  forgery  of  Exchequer  bills  to  an  immense  amount;  he  pleaded 

guilty,  and  was  sentenced  to  transportation  for  life Dec.  4,  1841 

OfSophia  Darbon  v.  Rosser;  breach  of  promise  of  marriage  ;  damages' 16001.  .  Dec.  8,  1841 

Of  Dr.  Webster,  for  bribery  at  an  election  of  St.  Albans ;  acqmtted  March  3,  1842 

Of  Mr.  John  Levick  and  Antonio  Mattel,  principcd  and  second  in  the  duel  in  which  Ueut. 

Adams  was  killed  at  Malta ;  both  acquitted March  10.  1842 

Of  Vivier,  courier  of  the  Ifomtn^  Herald,  at  Boulogne,  for  conveying  the  Indian  mail  through 

France,  for  that  journal,  contrary  to  the  French  regulations      ....       April  13,  1843 
Of  Daniel  Good,  for  the  murder  of  Jane  Jones ;  the  memorable  Roohampton  murder ;  found 
guilty,  and  sentenced  to  be  hanged May  IS,  1842 


TRI  654  TRI 

TRIALS,  continwd. 

Of  John  Francis,  for  attemptinfr  to  lusaffimate  the  Queen  (sec  article  Atmds)    .         Jane  17,  ISli 
Of  Thomas  Cooper,  for  the  murder  of  Daly,  the  policeman :  hanged  .  .       July  4,  1542 

Of  Nicholas  Smsse,  valet  of  the  late  marquess  of  Hertford,  at  the  prosecution  of  that  noble- 
man^s  executors,  charged  with  enormous  fVauds ;  acquitted       ....  July  0,  1849 

Aug.  8,  1S42 

Auff.  S4.  1S42 

Aug.  25,  1&42 

Oct.  1,  1S42 


Of  M'Oill  and  others,  for  the  abduction  of  Miss  Crellin ;  guilty 

Of  Nicholas  Suisse  again,  upon  like  charges,  and  again  acquitted    . 

Of  Bean,  for  pointing  a  pistol  at  the  Queen ;  18  mouths'  imprisonment 

Of  the  rioters  in  the  provinces,  under  a  special  commission  at  Stafford 

Of  the  Cheshire  rioters,  under  a  special  oommissiou,  before  lord  Abinger  .  .        Oct.  6|  1 S42 


Oct.  10.  1842 

Oct.  81,  1842 

Dec.  5,  IBii 


Of  the  Lancashire  rioters,  also  under  a  special  commission 

Of  Alice  Lowe,  at  the  prosecution  of  lord  Frankfort ;  acquitted 

Of  Mr.  Howard,  attorney,  v.  sir  WiUiam  Oosset,  sexjeant-atHums  .  »J^^^,.  »,  .^^^ 

Of  Mr.  Egan,  in  Dublin,  for  the  robbery  of  a  bank  parcel ;  acquitted  .        .      Jan.  17,  l&tS 

Of  the  rev.  W.  Bailey,  LL.D.  for  forgeiy ;  guilty ;  transportation  for  life  Feb.  1,  1S43 

Of  Mac  Naughten,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Drummond,  secretaxy  to  sir  Robert  Pei-l :  acquitted 

on  the  ground  of  iusauitv  March  4,  l.<43 

OftheBebeocaites,  at  Cardiff,  under  a  special  commiasion Oct.  27, 1S4S 

Of  Mr.  Samuel  Sidney  Smith,  for  foivery ;  sentenced  to  transportHtion  for  life  .  Nov.  29,  l^m 
Of  Edward  Dwyer,  for  the  murder  of  bis  child  at  Southwark ;  guilty    .  Dec  1.  li^i 

Of  Mr.  Holt,  of  the  Age  ;  libel  on  the  duke  of  Brunswick  ;  guilty  .  .      Jan  39,  1M4 

Of  lieut.  Grant,  second  to  Ueut.  Munro,  in  his  duel  with  colonel  Fawcett :  acquitted  Feb.  14.  1M4 
Of  Frasor  V.  Bogl^,  for  m»i.  eon.  ;  verdict  for  the  defendant  ....  Feb.  19.  l<44 
Of  lord  William  Paget  v.  earl  of  Cardigan,  for  crim.  con, :  verdict  for  defendant  Feb.  S(^  1<44 

Of  Mary  Furley,  for  the  murdra*  of  her  child  in  an  agony  of  despair  -^E      ^^*  ^^^ 

Of  the  will-foreers,  Wm.  Henry  Barber  (since  i>an£)ned),  Joshua  Fletcher,  Oooigiana  Dor^, 

Sanders,  and  Wm.  Susannah,  his  wife  ;  all  found  guilty,  April  15  ;  sontenoed      .    April  ^  1^44 
Of  Crouch,  for  the  miu^er  of  his  wife ;  found  firuilty.  May  8 ;  hanged    .  .  May  27,  l!H4 

Of  Messrs.  O'Gonnell,  sen.  O'Connell,  Jun.  Steele,  Ray,  Barrett,  Gray,  Duff^*  and  rev.  Thomas 

Tiemey,  at  Dublin,  for  political  conspiracy :  the  Ui&l  commenced  Jan.  16 ;  lasted  24  days ; 

all  the  traversers  were  found  guilty,  Feb.  12.    Proceedings  on  motions  for  a  now  trial.  Ibc, 

extended  the  case  into  Easter  term ;  and  sentence  was  pronounced  upon  all  but  the  dcr^gy- 

man,  on  whom  judgment  was  remitted May  30,  lS4-( 

Of  Augustus  Dalmas,  for  the  murder  of  Sarah  Macfiu-laue :  guilty  ....  Jtme  14,  1<44 
Of  Wm.  Burton  Newenham,  for  the  abduction  of  Miss  Wortham  ;  guilty  .        June  17,  1544 

Of  Bellamy,  for  the  murder  of  his  wife  byprussic  acid :  acquitted  ....  Aug.  21,  1^44 
Of  John  Ta well,  for  the  murder  of  Sarah  Hart ;  hanged  ....        March  13,  14,  1«^4S 

Of  Thomas  Henry  Hocker,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  James  Delarue      ....    April  11,  1M5 

Of  Joseph  Connor,  for  the  murder  of  Mary  Brothers M»r  1<1,  ISiS 

Of  the  Spanish  pirates,  for  the  murder  often  Englishmen  at  sea  ....  July  S^  1$45 
Of  rev.  Mr.  Wetnerell,  for  crim.  con,  with  Mrs.  Cooke,  his  own  daughter  .  .    Aug.  IG,  1(4S 

Of  capt.  Johnson,  of  the  ship  Torgt  for  the  murder  of  several  of  his  crew  Feb.  5,  li4*'> 

Of  Mats  M.  A.  Srnith  v.  earl  Ferrers ;  breach  of  promise  of  manriago        .  Feb.  18,  lb4t~> 

Of  lieut  Hawkey,  for  the  murder  or  Mr.  £eton.  in  a  duel ;  acquitted  .        .        .  July  16,  isjt; 

Of  capt.  Richardson,  railway  director,  for  fraud  and  foivery ;  biil  ignored  .  .  Sept.  23^  IMt* 
Of  Richard  Dunn,  for  peijuiy  and  attempted  fraud  on  Miss  A.  Burdett  Coutts  .  Feb.  27,  1^7 
Of  Bfitchell,  the  Irish  confederate ;  transported  for  14  years.  See /nrf aiuf.  .  .  May  26,  IMS 
Of  Wm.  Smith  O'Brien,  Meagher,  and  other  confederates  ;  sentenced  to  death ;  the  aeutenee 

afterwards  commuted  to  transportation  (pardoned  in  1856) Oct.  9,  IMS 

Of  Bloomfield  Rush,  for  the  muraer  of  Messrs.  Jermy,  at  Norwich,  hanged  March  29,  IS49 

Of  Gk>rham  v.  the  oishop  of  Exeter ;  ecdesiastical  case ;  Judgment  given  in  the  court  <i 

Arches  against  the  plaintiff.* Aug  2.  1$49 

Of  Manning  and  his  wife,  for  the  murder  of  O'Connor ;  guilty ;  death  .        .    Oct.  37,  IM^ 

Of  Walter  watts,  lessee  of  the  Olympic  theatre,  for  foi-gery,  Ac May  10,  1^^0 

Of  Robert  Pate,  a  retired  lieutenant,  for  an  assault  on  the  queen        ....   July  11,  1S50 

FBOM   1850  TO  TBE  FBEBENT  TIME. 

Of  the  Sloanes,  man  and  wife,  for  starving  their  servant,  Jane  Wilbred    .  Feb.  5.  iSol 

Of  the  Board  of  Customs  v.  the  London  Dock  Company,  on  a  chaxge  of  defhiudiug  tho  reroiue 

of  duties ;  a  trial  of  11  days  ended  in  a  virtual  acquittal Feb.  IS.  16:>1 

Of  Sarah  Cheaham,  for  the  murder  of  her  husband,  by  poison:  she  had  murdered  several  of 

her  children  and  others  by  the  same  means ;  hanged March  6,  is  SI 

Of  Thomas  Drory,  for  the  murder  of  Jael  Denny  ;  hanged Msurch  7,  1n51 

Of  Doyle  v.  Wright,  concerning  the  personal  custody  of  Miss  Augusta  Talbot,  a  Roman  Catbo- 

lie  ward  of  chancery,  before  the  lord  chancellor ;  protracted  case  March  22,  if- ^»1 

Of  the  murderers  of  the  rev.  Gtooige  Edward  Holiest^  of  Frimley,  Essex ;  guilty       March  SI,  1^31 

*  This  long-contested  case  created  much   sensation  at  the  time.     The  bislion  had  relbaed  to 
institute  the  rev.  Mr.  Gorham  in  the  living  of  Brampton-Speke,  in  Devonshire,  to  which  he  had  been 

E resented.  The  cause  of  the  bishop's  reftisal  was  alleged  want  of  orthodoxy  In  the  plainUff ;  Uw  court 
eld  that  the  charm  aoainst  the  plaintiff  of  holoung  &lae  doctrine  was  proved,  and  that  the 
bishop  was  justified  in  his  refViaai.  Mr.  Oorham  appealed  to  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  PHvy 
Council,  which  prouounoed  its  opinion  (March  %  1850)  that  **  the  doetrine  held  bv  Mr.  Oorbam  was 
not  contrary  or  repugnant  to  the  declared  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  Uiat  Mr.  Oorham 
ought  not,  by  reason  of  the  doctrine  held  by  him,  to  have  been  refused  admlBaion  to  the  Tioai-age  of 
Brampton-Speke."  This  decision  led  to  subseouent  proceedings  in  the  three  courts  of  law,  tnote^ 
sively,  for  a  rule  to  show  cause  why  a  prohibition  should  not  issue  directed  to  the  Jndffe  of  the 
Arches  Court,  and  to  the  archbishop  of  &uiterbuxy,  against  giving  effect  to  the  Judgment  of  her 
mi^esty  in  cotmcU.  The  rule  was  refused  in  each  court,  and  in  the  end,  Mr.  Gorham  waa  institoted 
into  the  vicarage  in  question,  August  7, 1850. 


TRI  655  TRI 

TRIALS,  continued. 

Of  Idler  V.  Aid.  Salomons,  M.P.,  for  voting  as  a  member  without  having  taken  the  required 

OAth :  verdict  against  the  defendant April  10,  1802 

Of  the  case  '*  Blbhop  of  London  v.  the  rev.  Mr.  Gladstone ;  '*  Judgment  of  the  Archea  court 

against  the  defenoant June  10,  1852 

Of  Achllli  V.  Newman,  for  libel ;  tried  before  lord  chief  Justice  Campbell  iu  the  Queen's 

B«ich:  verdict  for  the  plaintiff;  case  opened June  21,  1852 

Of  lord  FVsnkfort,  for  scandalous  and  dcfamatoi^  libels ;  guilty     ....         Doc.  S,  1852 

Of  Richwd  Bourke  Kirwan,  for  the  murder  of  his  wife ;  guilty Dec.  10,  1852 

Of  Mr.  Elliot  Bower,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Saville  Morton,  at  Paris;  acquitted    .        Dec.  28,  1852 
Of  Henry  Horler,  for  the  murder  of  his  wife ;  hanged  at  the  Old  Bailey    .  Jan.  15,  1853 

Of  James  Barbour,  for  the  murder  of  Robinson  ;  hanged  ut  York       ....    Jan.  15,  1853 
Of  George  Sparkes  and  James  Hitchcock,  for  the  murder  of  William  Blackmore  at  Exeter ; 

a  morbid  sympathy  existed  for  Bparkes ;  guilty March  19,  1853 

Of  five  Frenchmen  (principal  and  seconds)  for  the  murder  of  a  sixth  Frenchman  iu  a  duel  at 

Egham  ;  verdict,  manslaughter Miurh  21,  1853 

Of  Moore  and  Walsh,  for  the  murder  of  John  Blackburn  at  Stafford ;  haugoi    .        ^larch  21,  1853 
Of  Saunders,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Tolor;  hanged  at  Chelmsford  .  .    March  SO,  1853 

Of  the  Stackpole  family,  four  in  number ;  two  of  them  females,  and  wives  to  the  others,  for 

the  murder  of  their  relative,  also  a  Stackpole ;  hanged  at  Ennis        .        .  April  28,  185-3 

Case  of  Holy  Cross  Hospital,  Winchester,  accided  against  the  rev.  earl  of  Guildford,     Aug  1,  l{i53 
Ciise  of  Smvth  v.  Smyth,  ended  in  the  plaintilf  being  committed  on  a  charge  of  forging  the 

will  on  which  he  grounded  his  claim August  8, 9,  10,  1853 

The  Braintree  case  respecting  liability  to  church-rates,  decided  by  the  house  of  lords,  against 

the  rate August  12,  1853 

Case  of  Lumley  v.  Gyo,  respecting  Madlle.  Wagner ;  decided Feb.  22,  1854 

Mr.  Jeremiah  Smith,  mayor  of  Rye,  convicted  of  perjury March  2.  1854 

Duchess  of  Manchester's  will  caae April,  1854 

Of  Mr.  Garden,  for  the  abduction  of  Miss  £.  Arbuthnot,  and  assault  upon  John  Smith  wick; 

convicted Jul^  28,  29,  1854 

Of  3fary  Anne  Brough,  for  murdoriog  her  six  children ;  not  guUty,  on  ground  of  insanity 

Augusts,  1854 
Case  of  Pierce  Somerset  Butlor  v.  viscount  Mouut^rret ;  verdict  for  plaintiff,  who  thus  came 

into  a  peerage,  the  defendant  being  proved  illegitimate August*  1854 

Courts-martial  on  lieutenants  Perry  and  Greer  ;  sentences  revised  by  Lord  Hardinge, 

July  29— August,  1854 
Courts-martial  on  sir  E.  Belcher,  capt.  Mc  Clure,  &c.,  for  abandoning  their  ships  iu  the 

Arctic  rcwrions ;  acquitted October,  1854 

Of  Emanuel  Barth^lcmy,  for  murder  of  Charles  Collard  and  Mr.  Moore ;  (executed  Jan.  22; 

Jan.  4,  1855 
Of  Handcock  v.  Delacour,  otherwise  De  Burgh,  (cruelty  of  Mrs.  Handcock  iuid  charges  against 

lord  Clanricarde) ;  compromised Fob.  1855 

Of  earl  of  Sefton  V.  Hopwood  (will  set  aside) April  S- 10,  1855 

Of  Luigi  BaraueUi,  for  murder  of  Joseph  Latham  (or  Lambert);  (executed  April  SO)  April  12,  1855 

Of  Charles  King,  a  E^reat  thief-trainer ;  transported April  13,  1855 

Of  David  M.  Davidrou  and  Cosmo  W.  Gordon,  for  frauds  and  forgeries  of  securities,  &c. ;  con- 
victed          May  24,  1855 

Of  Wm.  Austin  (govemorX  for  cruelties  iu  Birmingham  gaol ;  acquitted  .  .      Aug.  S,  1855 

Of  Sir  John  Dean  Paul,  Wm.  Strahan,  and  Robert  M.  Bates,  bankers,  for  disposing  of  their 

ciutoroers' securities  (to  the  amount  of  113, 625^);  convicted         ....         Oct.  27,  1855 

Of  Joseph  Wooler,  on  charge  of  poisoning  his  wife  ;  acquitted Nov.  7,  1855 

Westerton  v.  Liddell*  (on  decorations,  Ac,  in  church  iu  Knightsbridge ;  decision  against 

them) Dec.  5,  1855 

Of  Wm.  Palmer.t  for  murder  of  J.  P.  Cook  by  poison  (executed)  .        .        May  14-27,  1856 

Of  Wm.  Dove,  for  murder  of  his  wife  (executed  Aug.  9) Jul^  19,  1856 

Of  Ditcher  v.  Archdeacon  Denison,  respecting  the  doctrine  of  the  euchorist ;  defendant  deprived, 

and  appeal  disallowed Oct.  23,  1856 

Of  Wm.  Kobeon,  for  frauds  on  Crystal  Palace  Companv  (transported  for  twenty  years)  Nov.  1,  1856 
EarlofLucan  e.  Daily  News,  for  libel:  verdict  for  defendant         ....  Dec.  3.  1856 

Of  Pearoe,  Buivess,  and  Tester  (see  Gold  Robbery) Jan.  14.  1857 

Of  Leopold  Redpath.   for  extensive  forgeries  upon  the  Groat  Northern  Railway  Company 

(transported  for  Ufe) Jan.  16,  1857 

Hiss  Madeline  Smith^  on  charge  of  poisoning  Emile  L'Angelier,  at  Glasgow ;  not  proven 

Jiiae  30— July  9,  1857 

Thoa.  Fuller  Baoon,  {  for  poisoning  his  mother ;  convicted July  25,  1857 

James  Spollen,  on  charge  of  murder  of  Mr.  Little,  near  Dublin ;  acquitted  .        .     Aug.  7-11,  1857 

See  Executions, 

TRIBUNES  OF  THE  PEOPLE.  Tnbuni  PUhis,  Magistrates  of  Rome,  first  chosen  from 
among  the  commons  to  represent  the  people,  i92  B.O.  at  the  time  tiie  people,  after  a 
quarrel  with  the  senators,  had  retired  to  Mens  Saoer.  The  first  two  were  C.  Licinius 
and  L.  Albinns;  but  their  number  was  soon  after  raised  to  five,  and  87  years  after  to 

*  Decided  again  by  privy  council,  partly  for  both  parties;  each  to  pay  his  own  costs ;  March  21, 
1857. 

t  He  was  executed  at  Stafford  on  June  14,  in  the  presence  of  60.000  persons.  If  he  had  been 
acquitted,  he  would  have  been  tried  for  the  murder  of  his  wife  ana  bn^er.  The  trial  in  every 
respect  wsa  the  most  remarkable  one  for  many  years. 

I  He  was  acquitted  on  a  charge  of  murdering  two  children  in  Ms^  13, 14,  same  year. 


TRI  656  TRI 

ten,  which  numher  remained  fixed.     Their  office  was  annual,  and  ai  the  fint  had  been 
created  on  the  4th  of  the  ides  of  December,  that  day  was  choaen  for  the  election. 

TRIE N NIAL  PARLIAMENTS.  Parliaments  every  three  years  were  established  shorilj 
after  the  period  of  the  Revolution.  The  bill  for  the  triennial  assembling  of  parlia- 
ment was  passed  6  William  k  Mary,  1694.  This  act  was  repealed,  and  septennial 
parliaments  were  voted,  which  have  ever  since  continued,  1  Geo.  L  1715.  See  Pariia- 
menu  and  Septennial  Parliament. 

TRINCOMALEK  Reckoned  the  finest  harbour  in  the  East  Indies.  Trincomalee  was 
token  from  the  Dutch,  by  the  English,  in  1782 ;  it  was  retaken  by  the  French  the 
same  year;  but  was  restored  to  the  Dutch  by  the  peace  of  1783.  It  surrendered  to 
the  Bntiah,  under  colonel  Stewart,  Aug.  26, 1795,  and  was  confirmed  to  England  by 
the  peace  of  Amiens,  in  1802.  See  Ceylon,  Of  a  series  of  actions  off  Trincomalee 
between  sir  Edward  Hughes  and  the  French  admiral  Suffrein,  one  waa  fought  Feb.  18, 
1782,  the  enemy  having  eleven  ships  to  nine.  On  April  12,  following,  thej  had 
eighteen  ships  to  eleven.  And  on  July  6,  same  year,  they  had  fifteen  ships  to  twelre. 
In  all  these  engagements  the  French  suffered  severe  defeata 

TRINIDAD.  This  island  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498,  and  was  taken  from  the 
Spaniards  by  su:  Walter  Raleigh  in  1595 ;  but  the  French  took  it  from  the  EngliBhin 
1676.  Taken  by  the  British,  with  four  ships  of  the  line,  and  a  military  force  under 
command  of  sir  Ralph  Abercromby,  to  whom  the  island  capitulated,  Feb.  21, 1797; 
they  captured  two,  and  burnt  three  Spaniah  ships  of  war  in  the  harbour.  Thia  ^ 
session  was  confirmed  to  England  by  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1802.  The  inffonectioD 
of  the  negroes  occurred  Jan.  4,  1832.    See  Coloniet, 

TRINITY  AND  TRINITARIANS.  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  generally  reoeiTed  by 
all  Christians.  Theophilus,  bishop  of  Antioch,  who  flourished  in  the  second  oentoiy, 
was  the  first  who  used  the  term  Trinity,  to  express  the  three  sacred  persona  in  the 
Qodhead.  His  Defence  of  Christianity  was  edited  by  Qesner,  at  Zurich,  in  1546.— 
Watkine,  An  order  of  the  Trinity  was  founded,  A.D.  1198,  by  John  de  Hatha  aod 
Felix  de  Valois.  The  Trinity  fraternity,  originally  of  fifteen  persons,  waa  instituted 
at  Rome  by  St.  Philip  Neri.  in  1548.  The  act  to  exempt  from  penaltiea  pereou 
denying  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  passed  in  1813. 

TRINITY  COLLEGES.  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  was  founded  by  Henry  Till. 
1 54 6.  Trinity  HoU,  Cambridge,  was  founded  by  William  Bateman,  biahop  of  Norwich 
(see  Cambtidge),  in  1 35  l.^Trinity  College,  Oxford:  founded  by  sir  Thomas  Pope, 
1554  (see  Ox/orf^.— Trinity  Collage,  Dublin,  called  the  university:  gruit  of  the 
Augustine  monastery  of  All  Saints  within  the  suburbs  for  erecting  thia  college, 
conferred  by  queen  Elizabeth,  1591.  First  stone  laid  by  Thomas  Smith,  major  of 
Dublin,  Jan.  1,  1593.  New  charter,  1637.  Made  a  barrack  for  soldiers^  1689.— 
Burnt,    The  principal  or  west  front  erected,  1759.     Library  erected,  1732. 

TRINITY  HOUSE,  Londox.  Founded  by  sir  Thomas  Spert,  a.d.  1512.  Itwasincor 
porMted  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1514,  and  reincorporated  in  1685.  The  preaent  Trioitr- 
house  was  erected  in  1795.  Trinity  Houses  were  founded  at  Deptfond,  at  Hull  and 
at  Newcastle  :  theae  three  societies  were  instituted  and  incorporated  by  Henrf  VIH- 
the  first  in  1512,  the  other  two  in  1537.  By  their  charter  they  had  the  power  of 
examining,  licensing,  and  regulating  pilots,  and  of  erecting  beacons  and  ligfathooses, 
and  of  placing  buoys  in  the  channels  and  rivers :  their  powers  and  privil^gea  hare 
been  greatly  augmented  by  succeeding  kings. — Oibton^a  Camden, 

TRINITY  SUNDAY.  The  festival  of  the  Holy  Trinity  was  instituted  hy  pope 
Qregoi-y  IV.  in  828,  on  his  ascending  the  papal  chair,  and  is  observed  hy  the  Latin 
and  Protestant  churches  on  the  Sunday  next  following  Pentecost  or  Whitauntide,  of 
which,  originally,  it  was  merely  an  Octave.  The  observance  of  the  festival  waa  first 
enjoined  in  the  council  of  Aries,  1260.  It  was  appointed  to  be  held  on  the  present 
day  by  pope  John  XX.  in  1334. 

TRIPLE  ALLIANCE.  This  celebrated  treaty  of  allianoe  waa  ratified  between  th« 
States-Oeneral  and  England,  against  France,  for  the  protection  of  the  SpaoiAO 
Ketherlands ;  Sweden  afterwards  joining  the  league,  it  was  known  as  the  Tiipl* 
Alliance,  Jan.  23, 1668. 

TRIUMPHS.  The  triumph  was  a  solemn  honour  done  generals  of  armies  after  thej 
had  won  great  victories,  by  receiving  them  into  the  town  with  great  magnificence  aad 
public  acclamations.    Amoqg  the  Romans  there  were  two  sorts — the  greati  that  vas 


TRI  667  TRU 

odled  the  triumph;   and  the  little,  styled  the  ovation.     They  also  diatingiiished 
triumphs  into  land  and  sea  triumphs.    See  Ovation, 

TRIUMVIRI.  Three  magistrates  appointed  equally  to  govern  the  Roman  state  with 
absolute  power.  These  officers  gave  a  fatal  blow  to  the  expiring  independence  of  the 
Roman  people,  and  became  celebrated  for  their  different  pursuits,  their  ambition, 
and  their  various  fortuoes.  The  first  triimivirate,  b.o.  60,  was  in  the  hands  of  Julius 
Csesar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus,  who  at  the  expiration  of  their  office  kindled  a  civil  war. 
The  second  and  last  triumvirate,  B.o.  43,  was  under  Augustus,  Mark  Antony,  and 
Lepidus,  through  whom  the  Romans  totally  lost  their  liberty.  Augustus  disagreed 
with  his  colleagues,  and  after  he  had  defeated  them,  he  made  himself  absolute  in 
Rome.    The  triumvirate  continued  for  about  twelve  years.    See  Borne, 

TROPPAU,  CONGRESS  of.  The  emperors  Francis  of  Austria  and  Alexander  of 
Russia  met  at  Troppau,  Oct.  20, 1820.  The  conference  between  them  and  the  king  of 
Prussia,  against  Naples,  took  place  Nov.  10;  and  the  congress  was  transferred  to 
Lay  bach,  as  nearer  to  Italy,  Dec.  17, 1820.    See  Laybtich. 

TROUBADOURS  or  JONGLEUHa  They  first  appeared  in  the  ninth  century,  and 
were  so  encouraged  by  the  patronage  of  the  court  of  Poitou,  and  by  several  powerful 
princes,  that  they  spread  in  process  of  time  throughout  Europe.  Tliey  cultivated 
poetry  and  music,  and  refinement  followed  in  their  steps,  greatly  improving  the  taste 
and  temper  of  the  times. 

TROT.  The  history  of  Troas,  or  Phrygia  Minor,  is  at  best  but  obscure,  and  more  parti- 
cularly BO  in  times  prior  to  the  reign  of  Dardanus,  who  came  hither  from  Italy  (or 
Crete)  about  the  year  1506  RC,  and  married  the  daughter  of  Teucer,  prioce  of  the 
country,  whom  he  succeeded.  Dardanus  built  a  city,  aud  named  it,  after  himself, 
Dardania  :  Troas,  the  second  in  succession  from  Dardanus,  changed  the  name  to  Troy  ; 
and  Dus,  his  successor,  converted  it  into  Ilium. 

Arrival  of  Scamondor  in  Phrygia  Minor.  i  War  of  Hercules  sod  Laomedon        b.o.  1224 

—Blair B.a  1546    Reign  of  Priam,  or  Pndaroes  .        .        .  1224' 

Teuoor  succeeds  his  father  .  .    .  1502    Rape  of  Helen,  by  Alexander  Paris,  son 

Dardanus  succeeds  Teucer,  and  builds  I     of  Priam,  20  years  before  the  sacking 

the  city  of  Dardania     ....  1480  •      of  Troy. — Homer's  Jliad,  book  xxiv.  hoe 

Reign  of  Ericthouius  .....  1449  j      964,  Pope's  edit 1-204 

Reign  of  Troas,  fW)m  whom  the  i>eopIe  |  Commencement  of  the  invasion  of  the 

are  called  Trojans 1374,      Greeks  to  recover  Helen  .  .    .  1193 


The  rape  of  Gauymede        .  .    .  1341 

llus,  sou  of  Troas,  reigns         .        .        .  1814 

Reign  of  Laomedon 1260 

Arrival  of  Hercules  in  Phrygia ;  He»ione 
delivered  from  the  soa-monjiter. — 
BUtir:  UtJier 1225 


Troy  taken  and  burned  in  the  night  of 
the  11th  of  June,  i.e.,  23rd  of  the  mouth 
Thargellon.  —  Parian  Marble*.  408 
years  before  the  first  Olympiad. — 
Apollodorua 1184 

^ueas  arrives  in  Italy. — Lenf^ .       .    .  1183 


Some  time  after  the  destruction  of  old  Troy,  a  new  city  was  built,  about  thirty  stadia 
distant  from  the  old  site ;  but  though  it  bore  the  same  name,  and  received  ample 
donations  from  Alexander  the  Great  in  his  Asiatic  expedition,  it  never  rose  to  much 
importance,  and  in  the  age  of  Strabo  was  nearly  in  ruins. — PriuUey, 

TROY  W£IQHT.  The  Romans  left  their  ounce,  now  our  avoirdupois  ounce,  in 
Britain.  The  present  ounce  of  this  weight  was  brought  from  Grand  Cairo  into  Europe, 
about  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  a  d.  1095.  It  was  first  adopted  at  Troyes,  a  city  of 
France,  whence  the  name ;  and  is  used  to  weigh  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones. 
The  Troy  weight,  Scots,  was  established  by  James  VL  (our  James  I.)  in  1618. 

T ROTES,  TREATY  of,  between  England,  France,  and  Burgundy,  whereby  it  was 
stipulated  that  Henry  V.  should  marry  Catherine,  daughter  of  Charles  YL,  be 
appointed  regent  of  France,  and  after  the  death  of  Charles  should  inherit  the  crown. 
May  24, 1420.  The  French  were  driven  from  Troyes  by  the  allied  armies,  Feb.  7  ; 
it  was.  retaken  by  Napoleon,  Feb.  23;  and  was  finally  re-occupied  by  the  allies^ 
March  4, 1814. 

TRUMPET.  Some  of  the  Greek  historians  ascribe  the  invention  of  the  trumpet  to  the 
Tyrrheoians,  and  others  to  the  Egyptians.  It  was  in  use  in  the  time  of  Homer,  but 
DOt  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war.  First  torches,  then  shells  of  fish  sounded  like 
trumpets,  were  the  signals  in  primitive  wars. — Potter,  The  speakiug>trumpet  is  said 
to  have  been  used  by  Alexander  the  Great  in  335  B.C.  Trumpets  were  first  sounded 
before  the  king  in  the  time  of  Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  a.d.  790.  Speaking-trumpets  were 
improved  by  Kircher  in  1652.    Made  by  Salland,  1654.    Philosophically  explained 

by  Moreland,  1671. 

u  u 


TRU  658  TUN 


TRUMPET-FLOWER,  Bigmmia  radicamM,  was  brought  hitber  bom  North  Amoio, 
about  1640.  The  Tmmpet  Honeysackle,  Lomietra  teaiperwitemM,  camB  frma  North 
America  in  1656.  The  Bigmania  capeiuU  was  broiu^t  to  EngUnd,  from  the  G»|w,  in 
1823.  The  Large-flowered  Trampet-flower,  or  Sugmmia  gramd^fara^  vm  brought 
from  China  in  1800. 

TUAM ,  ARCHBISHOPRIC  of.  St.  Jarlath,  the  son  of  Loga,  who  nt  in  ▲.!>.  501,  ■  lookcl 
upon  aa  the  flrvt  founder  of  the  cathedral  of  Tnam,  thoogh  the  abbey  i>  aid 
to  hare  been  founded  in  487.  The  church  was  aseientlj  called  Tmnm-dm^hoiaML 
In  1161,  Bdan  O'Hoisin  was  the  first  archbishop,  at  least  the  firat  who  bad  the  tne  of 
the  pall,  for  some  of  his  predeoessors  are  flometimes  ealled  bishops  of  Coimsiight,  and 
sometimes  archbishops,  by  Irish  historians.  The  see  of  Mayo  was  snaezed  lo  Tnua 
in  1559.  Tuam  is  Tidued  in  the  king^s  hooka,  by  an  extent  returned  oaao  S8  Qiz.  li 
50Z.  sterling  per  annum. — Beatmm.  It  ceased  to  be  archiepiacopal,  conformably  with  tb« 
statute  8  ft  4  Will  lY.  1833,  and  is  now  a  bishopric  only,  to  which  KilhJa  ud 
Achonry,  a  joint  see,  has  been  added.    See  ArMukopt, 

TUBULAR  BRIDGE,  or  BRITANNIA  TUBULAR  SUSPENSION  BRIDGE  The 
moat  wonderful  enterprise  in  engineering  in  the  world,  constructed  about  a  mile 
southward  of  the  Menai  Strait  Suspension  Bridge.*  At  this  spot  is  a  rock  called  the 
Britannia  rock,  near  the  centre  of  tiie  Menai  Strait,  the  surfaoe  of  which  is  aboot  ten 
feet  above  low-water  IotcI,  on  which  is  built  a  tower  two  hundred  feet  above  high 
water  (commenced  building,  May  1846),  and  on  which  rest  two  lines  of  tnbci  or 
hollow  girders  strong  enough  to  bear  their  weight  and  laden  trains  ia  addition,  tha 
ends  reating  on  the  abutments  on  each  shore ;  each  tube  being  more  than  a  qnaiier 
of  a  mile  in  length.  The  height  of  the  tube  within  is  thirty  feet  at  the  Biitumia 
tower,  diminishing  to  twenty-three  feet  at  the  abutments.  The  lifting  of  these  tabes 
to  their  places  is  regarded  aa  the  most  gigantic  operation  ever  successfully  performed, 
June  27,  1849.  The  first  locomotive  passed  through,  March  1850.  The  Codwsj 
Tubular  Bridge  (1846>8)  is  a  miniature  copy  of  the  Britannia,  and  therrfore  reqairei 
no  description.  The  principal  engineers  were  Mr.  Robert  Stephenson  and  Hr. 
Fairbaim.  At  Chepstow  is  a  railway  tubular  bridge,  which  was  partly  ruMd 
AprU  12, 1852.    See  Victoria  Bridge. 

TUESDAY.  The  third  day  of  the  week,  so  called,  as  is  supposed,  from  Tmd»,  Tur,  or 
TueMco,  a  Saxon  deity,  that  wss  particnlarlj  worshipped  on  this  day.  Tnisto  U 
mentioned  by  Tacitus.  Having  given  the  Saxons  laws  and  having  eitabliahed 
religious  ceremonies  among  them,  he  was  worshipped  at  his  death  as  a  god  Tuesdij* 
in  Latin,  JHa  Martit,  was  called  the  third  day  among  the  Jews.    See  Wede  Daf, 

TUILERIES,  Paris.  One  of  the  royal  palaces  of  that  city,  commenced  by  CatheriDe  de 
Medici,  after  the  plans  of  Philibert  de  Lorme,  ▲.D.  1564  ;  continued  by  Henry  IV.; 
and  finished  by  Louis  XIV.  This  palace  was  the  scene  of  great  eventB  daring  the 
two  memorable  revolutions,  particularly  the  revolution  of  1789.  The  Tuilerieaw 
ransacked  in  the  revolution  of  1848.    See  .Mtmce. 

TULIPS.  They  came  to  England  from  Vienna,  a..d.  1578,  and  have  always  been  amosg 
our  most  esteemed  flowers.  They  became  an  object  of  commerce  in  the  aixteeoth 
century,  and  it  is  recorded  in  the  register  of  the  city  of  Alcmaer,  in  Holland,  that  in 
the  year  1689, 120  tulips,  with  the  offsets,  sold  for  90,000  florins;  and  in  partieaUr, 
that  one  of  them  called  the  viceroy,  sold  for  4203  guilders  f  The  states  at  last  put  a 
stop  to  this  extravsgant  and  minous  traffic.  The  tulip-tree,  LiriodeiuUim  tdi^era, 
was  brought  to  these  realms  from  America,  about  1668. 

TUNBRIDQE- WELLS,  Kint.  The  celebrated  springs  here  were  first  discoTned,  it  is 
believed,  by  Dudley,  lord  North,  who,  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  had  retired  into  the 

*  The  Britannia  tubular  bridge  was  intended  to  aapply  the  pteoe  of— we  may  alao  tay  iaperwJ^ 
one  of  the  finest  bridges  in  the  Icingdom ;  and  the  railway  of  which  the  tubular  bridge  fens*  •  V^ 
is  In  like  manner  a  substitute  for  one  of  the  finest  mail-coach  roads  ever  oonstnicied.  ^'^.^^ 
from.  London  to  Holyhead  has  boon  long  regarded  aa  the  highway  from  the  British  metroiwu^  "> 
Dublin :  and  the  late  Mr.  Telford  was  applied  to  by  the  government,  to  periect  this  nmte  ^toe 
London  and  Holyhead  mail-coach  roiui,  which  he  did  by  erecting  a  beautiful  snspensiou  omvc 
over  the  river  Conway  and  over  the  Menai  Strait,  commenced  in  July  181s,  and  finished  ia  J'Jy  ^^p' 
When  Chester  became  a  centre  of  railway  communication,  a  few  years  since,  it  wss  cimriderw  «»»'  • 
through  mute  to  Holyhead  would  be  more  conveniently  established  from  that  point  than  fmiioai«|^ 
bury,  which  lies  in  the  route  of  Telford's  roiid.  Accordingly  the  Chester  and  Holyhead  IUUw»r  *» 
constriicted ;  and  in  its  course,  both  the  Conway  and  the  Menai  hod  to  be  eroaied ;  and  baoM  vv 
formed  the  present  tubular  bridges. 


TUN 


659 


TUB 


neighbourhood  in  the  laat  stage  of  consumption,  and  beoame  perfeotly  restored  to 
health  by  the  use  of  its  waters,  a«d.  1606.  The -air  of  this  district  is  ybtj  pure  and 
talubriouSy  and  adds  materially  to  the  benefit  derived  from  the  medicinal  quality  of 
the  waters. — ffooke.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  the  queen,  Henrietta-Maria,  came  here 
to  drink  the  water,  when  she  and  her  attendants  lodged  under  tents  on  the  adjoining 
down ;  but  many  dwellings  were  subsequently  erected,  and  after  the  restoration,  the 
wells  being  visited  by  the  queen  of  Charles  II.  and  many  personiiges  of  distinction, 
the  place  became  one  of  fashionable  resort,  which  it  has  continued  ever  since. 

TUNIS  AND  TRIPOLI.  The  former  stands  near  where  Carthage  was  built  The 
territories  of  both  formed  part  of  the  celebrated  Carthaginian  state,  and  were  entirely 
destroyed  by  the  Romans  after  the  third  Punic  war,  148  b.o.  Besieged  by  Louis  IX. 
of  France,  1270.  It  remained  under  African  kings  till  taken  by  Barbarossa,  under 
Solyman  the  magnificent.  Barbarossa  was  expelled  by  Charles  V. ;  but  the  country 
was  recovered  by  the  Turks,  under  Selim  II.  Taken,  with  great  slaughter,  by  the 
emperor  Charles  Y.  when  10,000  Christian  slaves  were  set  at  liberty,  1585.  The  bey 
of  Tunis  was  first  appointed  in  1570.  Tunis  was  reduced  by  admiral  Blake,  on  the 
bey  refusing  to  deliver  up  the  British  captives,  1656. 

TUNNELS.  The  earliest  tunnel  for  the  purpose  of  internal  navigation  was  executed  by 
M.  Riguet,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  at  Bezi^res  in  France.  The  first  in  England 
was  by  Mr.  Brindley,  on  the  duke  of  Bridgewaler's  navigation,  near  Manchester,  about 
1760.  ^ra  of  the  Oravesend  tnnnel,  1800— the  report  upon  it,  1801.  The  Thames 
tunnel  projected  by  Mr.  Brunei  in  1823.  This  last  wonderfal  midaKtaking  was  com- 
pleted and  opened  for  foot-passengers,  March  25,  1843.    See  TAamef  Twnnd. 

TURIN.  The  French  besieged  this  city  in  1706;  but  prince  Eugene  defeated  their 
army,  and  compelled  them  to  raise  the  siega  In  1798,  the  French  republican  army 
took  possession  of  Turin,  seized  all  the  strong  places  and  arseoals  of  Piedmont,  and 
obliged  the  king  and  his  fiimily  to  remove  to  the  island  of  Sardinia.  In  1799,  the 
French  were  driven  out  by  the  Austrians  and  Rtissians ;  but  shortly  afterwards  the 
city  and  all  Piedmont  surrendered  to  the  French.  In  1814,  it  was  delivered  up  to 
the  allies,  when  they  restored  it  to  the  king  of  Sardinia.    See  Sardinut, 

TURKEY.  The  Turks  themselves  were  originally  a  tribe  of  Tartars ;  but  by  reason  of 
the  number  of  people  whom  they  oonquered,  and  with  whom  they  became  incorporated, 
the  modem  Turks  must  be  regarded  as  a  mixture  of  many  races  of  men.  The  first 
notice  of  them  in  history  is  about  the  year  a.d.  800,  when  issuing  from  an  obscure 
retreat,  they  obtained  possession  of  a  part  of  Armenia,  called  from  them  Turoomania. 
They  afterwmrds  gradually  extended  their  power;  but  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
being  harassed  in  their  new  possessions  by  other  Tartar  tribes,  tbey  retreated  to 
Asia  Minor,  which  they  had  previously  conquered.  Their  dominions,  divided  for 
some  time  into  petty  states,  were  imited  under  Othman,  who  assumed  the  title  of 
Bultan,  and  established  his  empire  at  Prusa,  in  Bitbynia,  in  1298. 


Birth  of  Mahomet^  the  prophet,  at  Mecca 

^see  Mecca) a.o.    571 

His  imposture  coDimenced  (aee  Maho- 

metanifm) 604 

The  Korau  written  (see  Ki>ran)  .    610 

Flight  to  Medina  (see  Mtdina)    .        .    .    622 
iSra  of  the  HoKira(aee  tfej/im)        .        .    622 

Death  of  Mahumot 631 

Holy  wars  begin  (see  Onuadai)  .  1095 

The  Turkish  empire  flrst  formed  under 
Othroan  at   Bithynia  (henoe  called 

Ottoman) 1298 

The  Turks  penetrate  into  Thrace,  and 

take  Adrianople I860 

Amurath  I.  institutes  the  JanLBsaries,  a 

fnard  composed  of  Christian  slaves, 
red  Mahometans         ....  1862 

Baiazet  I.  overruns  the  provinces  of  the 
Eastern  empire        .  .      1389  d  teq. 

He  lays  siege  to  Constantinople ;  but  is 
at  length  taken  by  Tamerlane  (see 
Tamrrlane) 1403 

The  Turks,  invadlne  Hungary,  are 
repelled  by  Hunniodes    .        .        •    .  1450 

Constantinople  taken  by  the  Turks  under 
Mahomet  II.  which  ends  the  Eastern 
Roman  empire 1458 


Greece  made  subject  to  the  Mahometans 

(see  Greece)  ....  a.d.  1458 
The  Turks  penetrate  into  Italy,  and 
take  Otranto,  which  difiVises  terror 
throughout  Europe  ....  1480 
Selhn  I.  raised  to  the  throne  by  the 
Janissaries:  he  murders  his  father, 
brothers,  and  their  sons  .  .    .  1512 

He  takes  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago 
from  the  Christians      ....  1514 

He  overruns  Syria 1515 

Adds  Egypt  to  his  empire  .  1516 

Solyman  II.  takes  Belgrade  .    .  1521 

Rhodes  taken  from  the  knights  of  St. 

John,  who  go  to  Malta         .        .        .  1522 
Battle  of  Mohatz(wAicA«ee)  .    .  1526 

Solyman  II.   with  250,000  men,  is  re- 
pulsed before  Vienna    ....  1520 
(^rus  taken  from  the  Venetians      .    .  1571 
Great  battle  of  Lepanto,  which  puts  an 
end  to  the  fears  of  Europe  f^m  Turk- 
ish power  (see  Lt^Mnto)  .  1571 
Amurath  II.  ascends  the  throne ;  stran- 
gles his  five  brothers       .        ...  1574 

[DresdAil  persecutions  of  tlie  Christians 
during  tnis  reign.] 

U  T7  2 


TUR 


660 


TUR 


TURESY,  continued. 

The  Turlcfl  driven  out  of  PeraU  by  the 

fiunouB  Schah  Abbas    .        .        .  A.D.  1585 
Bloody  reign  of  Mahomet  III.    .        .    .  1505 

Beiguof  Achmetl 1603 

Great  fire  in  Constantinople  .  .  .  1606 
Beign  of  Amurath  IV.  who  strangles 

his  iather  and  four  brothers  .  1624 

The  Turks  defeat  the  Persians,  and  take 

the  city  of  Bsffdad 1639 

The  island  of  Candia,  or  Crete,  taken 

after  a  35  yeans'  siege  ....  1669 
Vienna  besieged  by  Mahomet  IV.  but 

relieved  by  John  of  Poland     .        .    .  1683 
Mahomet  lY.  deposed  by  Solyman        .  1687 

Peace  of  Carlovits 1699 

Mnstapha  III.  deposed  ....  1703 
The  Morea  retaken  by  the  Turks  .  .  1715 
Belgrade   taken    from    Austria ;    and 

Russia  relinquishes  Azof  .  1739 

Great  sea-fight  in  the  channel  of  Scio ; 

the  English  and  Russian  fleets  defeat 

the  Turkish 1770 

The  Crimea  falls  to  Russia  Jan.  1784 
Cession  of  Ocsacow 1701 

[This  ends  the  disastrous  war  with  Rus- 
sia and  Austria  (b^fun  in  1787X  the 
Turks  havixig  lost  more  than  200,000 
men. — A^.J 

War  against  Russia  .  .    Dec.  SO,  1806 

Passage  and  repassage  of  the  Darda- 
nelles oflfected  by  the  British  fleet,  but 
withgreatloes(see  IkirdaneUa)  Feb.  19,  1807 
Murder  of  Hali  Aga  .    May  25,  1807 

The  sultan  Selim  is  deposed  and  mur- 
dered, and  Mustapha  IV.  called  to  the 
throne       ....         May  29,  1807 
Treaty  of  Bucharest  (nhidi  »ee)    May  28,  1812 
A  caravan  consisting  of  2000  souls,  re- 
turning from  Mecca,  destroyed  by  a 
pestilential  wind  in   the   deserts  of 
Arabia :  20  only  were  saved,    Aug.  9,  1812 
Subjection  of  the  Wachabeee  .        .       .1819 
Ali  Pacha  of  Janina,  in  Greece,  declares 

himself  independent  .    .  1820 

Insurrection  or  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 

March  6,  1821 
The  Greek  patriarch  put  to  death  at 
Constantiuople         .        .       April  23,  1821 

[For  the  events  in  connection  with  the 
independence  of  Greece,  see  Greece.} 

Horrible  massacre  at  Sdo;  the  most 
dreadflil  in  modem  history  (see  note 
to  Greece)        ....  April  28,  1822 

8ea-6ght  near  Mitylene  .  Oct.  6,  1824 

New  Mahometan  army  announced  to  be 
organised      ....    May  29,  1826 

Insurrection  of  the  Janissaries  at  Con- 
stantinople .        .       Juno  14,  1826 

Firman  or  the  sultan  abolishing  the 
Janissaries    ....  June  16,  1826 

Fire  at  Constantinople ;  6000  houses  re- 
duced to  ashes  .  Aug.  30.  1826 

Battle  of  Navarino ;  the  Turkish  fleet 
destroyed  by  the  fleets  of  England, 
France,  and  Russia  (see  Ifavarvno)^ 

Oct.  20,  1827 

Banishment  of  132  French,  120  English, 
and  85  Russian  settlers,  from  the 
Tiurkish  empire    .        .        .      Jan.  5,  1828 

War  with  Russia .  April  26,  1828 

The  emperor  Nicholas  takes  the  field 
against  the  Turks         .        .May  20,  1838 

Capitulation  of  Brahilow    .        June  19,  1828 

Surrender  of  Anapa         .        .  June  23,  1828 

The  eminences  of  Schumla  taken  by  the 
Russians   ....        July  20,  1828 

The  Russian  emperor  arrives  before 
Varna Aug.  6,  1828 


Battle  of  Akhaldc  Aug.  S4,  1828 

Fortress  of  Be^aset  taken        .    BepL  9,  1828 
The  sultan   leaves  his  capital  for  the 
camp,  bearing  with  him  the  sacred 
standard   ....       Sept.  26.  183S 
Dardanelles  blockaded    .  Oct.  1,  1828 

Surrender  of  Varna     .        .         Oct.  15^  1828 
Russians  retreat  from  before  Schumla, 

Oct.  16^  18S 
Smrender  of  the  castle  of  the  Morea  to 

the  French    ....     Oct.  SO,  1628 
Siege  of  Silistria  raised  by  the  Russians, 

Nov.  10,  1828 
Victory  of  the  Buflaians  at  Kulertscha^ 

near  Schumla  .  .       June  11,  1829 

Battle  near  Brzeroum  July  t,  1829 

Adrlanople  is  entered  by  the  Russian 

troops       ....        Aug.  SO.  1829 
Armistioe    between   the   Russian    and 

Turkish  armies  .  Aug.  29.  189 

Treaty  of  peace  .    Sept.  14,  18:29 

Fire  at  Constantinople;  extinguished 
by  the  seamen  and  marines  of  H.  M.S. 

Blonde Jan.  22,  1830 

The  Porte  acknowledges  the  indepen- 
dence of  Greece        .        .       April  25,  1830 
Treaty  with  America  .      May  T,  1830 

St.  Jean  d'Acre  taken  by  Ibrahim  Facha^ 

son  of  Mehemet  Ali .  .  July  2;  18SS 

He  defeats  the  army  of  the  sultan  in 

Syria,  with  great  loss  .        .    July  30,  1832 
A  series  of  successes  brings  the  army  of 
Ibrahim  Pacha  within  eighty  leagues 
of  Constantiuople,  and  the  sultan  has 
recourse  to  the  aid  of  Russia    .    Jan.  1833 
A  Russian    force   enters  the  Turkish 

capital       ....         Aprils.  1SS3 
Treaty  with  Russia,   offensive  and  de- 
fensive   Julys,  1833 

Office  of  grand  vizier  abolished,  Mar.  30,  183S 
Tretty  of  commerce  with  England,  con- 
duded  by  lord   Ponsonby,    ratified, 

Aug.  16,  1838 

[For  the  events  of  1839  and  1840  in  rela- 
tion to  Syria,  see  ^pria.'^ 

[A  large  body  of  Himganan  and  Polish 
refugees,  fleeing  from  the  scene  of  the 
oivil  war  (see  HimffaryX  seek  the  pro- 
tection of  Turkey.] 

The  Turkish  government  refuses  to  sur- 
render them  on  the  joint  demand  of 
Russia  and  Austria      .        .  Sept.  16.  1849 

Russia  again  demands  the  expulsion  of 
the  Himgarian  refugees,  and  suspends 
intercoiurse  with  the  Porte     Nov.  12.  1849 

[The  Porte  (countenanced  by  England) 
firmly  resists  this  demand.] 

The  British  fleet,  under  air  W.  Paricer, 
anchors  in  Besica  bay  .       .    Nov.  18.  1849 

Diplomatic  •  relations  between  Russia 
and  the  Porte  resumed,  the  latter 
sending  the  refiigees  to  Koniah,  In 
Asia  Minor Jan.  1850 

Turkish  Croatia  in  a  state  of  rebellion 
and  anarchy     ....      Jan.  1851 

Prince  Menschikoff  repairs  to  Constan- 
tinople in  quality  of  Russian  nei^ro- 
tiator Feb.  28.  1S58 

His    peremptory    demands    r^ccted, 

April  19,  1853 

Reschid  Pacha  becomes  foreign  minis- 
ter; — the  ultimatum  being  rejected, 
Menschikoff'  quits  Constanlinople, 

May  SI.  1S53 

Hatti-sherif  issued,  confirmingthe  rights 
of  the  Greek  ChristLins        .     June  6^  1S53 

Russian    manifesto    against    Turkey, 

June  26.  1653 


TUB 


661 


TUR 


TURKEY,  continued, 

Russian  army  croflMfl  the  Prutb,  July  2,  18JS3 

Orand  national  council— war  to  be  de- 
clared if  the  principalities  are  not 
evacuated ....        Bopt.  2A,  1853 

War  declared  against  Russia  (see  Rutto- 
Turtvh  War)        .        .  Oct.  5,  1853 

Insurrection  In  Epirus  and  Albania, 
iavoured  by  the  Qreek  goYemment 
at  Athens  —  Hellenic  empire  pro- 
claimed    ....         Jan.  27,  1854 

Volunteers  from  Athens  join  insur- 
gents March  14  et  ieq.  1854 

Rupture  between  Greece  and  Turkey, 

March  28,  1854 

[Several  conflicts  ensue  with  variod  suc- 
cess.] 

Osman  Pacha  storms  Peta,  the  central 

point  of  the  insurrection      .  April  V5,  1854 
English  and  French  governments,  after 


many  remonstrances,  send  troops, 
which  arrive  at  the  i'ineus :  the  king 
of  Greece  submits,  and  promises  strict 
neutrality :  the  Greek  volunteers  are 
recalled ....       May  25,  28, 

Abdi  Pacha  and  Fuad  Effendi  take  the 
intrenched  camp  at  Kclampaka,  and 
the  insurrection  shortly  after  ceases, 

June  18, 

Reschid  Pacha,  having  retired  (J  un»SX 
resume  his  oittoe .  July  1, 

Convention  between  Turk^  and 
Austria     ....        June  14. 

The  Russians  retire  from  the  principali- 
ties, which  are  thereupon  occupied  by 
the  Austrians      Sept.  1854  tiU  March,  1867 

Misunderstanding    among    the    allied 
powers    respecting    Moldavian   elec- 
tions, which  are  annulled    .        July,  1857 
(See  Ruuo-Turkuh  War,) 


1854 


1864 
1854 


1864 


TURKISH  EMPERORa 


ISM. 

1326. 
1360. 

1889. 

1402. 

1410. 
1413. 
1421. 
1451. 

1481. 
1512. 
1520. 


1666. 
1574. 


1595. 

1608. 
1617. 


Othman,  or  Ottoman,  who  assumed  the 
title  of  Grand  tieignior. 

Orchim,  son  of  Othman. 

Amurath  I. :  stabbed  by  a  soldier,  of 
which  wound  he  died. 

Baiazet  I.  his  son ;  defeated  by  Tamer- 
lane, and  died  imprisoned. 

Solyman,  son  of  Bf\}azet :  dethroned  by 
his  brother  and  successor. 

Musa-Chelebi :  strangled. 

Mahomed  I.  alHo  son  of  Bigazet. 

Amurath  II.  succeeded  by  his  son. 

Mahomed  II.  by  whom  Constantinople 
was  taken  in  1453. 

Baiazet  II.  :  deposed  by  his  son. 

BeJim  I.  who  succeeded  him. 

Solyman  the  Magnificent,  son  of  the 
preceding ;  the  most  eventful  reign 
In  modem  Turkish  annals. 

Selim  II.  son  of  the  last. 

Amurath  III.  his  son:  on  his  accession 
he  caused  his  five  brothera  to  be  mur- 
dered, and  their  mother,  in  grief^ 
stabbed  herself  to  death. 

Mahomed  III.  son  of  Amurath  ;  com- 
menced hia  reign  by  strangling  all 
his  brothers,  and  drowning  all  his 
father's  wives. 

Ahmed,  or  Achmet,  his  son :  succeeded 
by  his  brother. 

Mustapha  I. :    deposed  by  the  Janis- 


saries,  and  imprisoned;   snoceaded 
by  his  nephew. 
1618.  Osman  I. :  strangled  by  the  Janissaries, 
and  his  uncle  restored. 

1622.  Mustapha  I.  again :  again  deposed,  sent 

to  the  Seven  Towers,  and  strangled. 

1623.  Amurath  IV. :  succeeded  by  his  brother. 
1640.  Ibrahim :  strangled  by  the  Janissaries. 
1640.  Mahomed  IV.  son  of  Ibrahim :  deposed, 

and  died  in  prison. 
1687.  Solyman  III.  his  brother. 
1661.  Ahmed  or  Achmet  II. :  succeeded  by 

his  nephew. 
1605.  Mustaplm  II.  eldest  son  of  Mahomed 

IV.  :    deposed ;    succeeded   by   his 

brother. 
1708.  Ahmed  or  Achmet  III. :  deposed,  and 

died  in  prison  in  1736. 
1730.  Mahmud  or  Mahomed  V.  succeeded  his 

uncle,  the  preceding  sultan. 
17M.  Osman  II.  brother  of  Mahmud. 
1757.  Mustapha  III.  brother  of  Osman. 
1774.  Abdul-Ahmed. 
1788.  Sclim  III. :  deposed  by  the  Janissaries, 

and  his  nephew  raised  to  the  throne. 

1807.  Mustapha  IV.  :  deposed,  and,  with  the 

late  sultan  Seliui,  murdered. 

1808.  Mahmud  II.  :  succeeded  by  his  son. 
1889.  Abdul-Me(^id,  the  pbxsknt  (1857)  sultan 

of  Turkey. 


TURKEY  TRADE.  This  trade,  one  of  the  most  lucrative  at  the  time,  and  for  ages 
afterwards  very  lucrative  to  England,  commenced  in  the  year  1550.  The  Turkey  or 
Levant  Company  of  London  was  instituted  by  charter  of  Elizabeth,  in  1579.  The 
Turkey  trade  (still  carried  on)  embraces  a  wide  field  of  commerce. — Anderton, 

TURKEYS  AND  GUINEA  FOWLS.  First  brought  to  England  a.d.  1523,  and  to 
France  in  1570.  Turkeys  are  natives  of  America,  and  were  consequently  unknown 
to  the  ancients.  Mr.  Pennant  has  established  this  fact  by  various  particulars  in  the 
history  of  these  birds;  evincing  that  they  are  natives  neither  of  Europe,  Asia,  nor 
Africa;  a  circumstance  since  placed  beyond  controversy,  by  the  researches  of  Mr. 
Beckmann. 

TURNING.  According  to  Pliny  this  art  was  known  to  the  ancients,  by  whom  articles 
of  wood,  ivory,  iron,  and  gold  were  formed.  The  precious  vases,  enriched  with 
figures  in  half  relief,  which  at  this  day  adorn  the  cabinets  of  the  antiquary  and  curious, 
were  produced  by  turning.  The  lathes  made  for  turnery  in  £!ngland  are,  many  of 
them,  wonderful  in  their  machinery;  and  in  some  of  our  dockyards,  blocks  and 
other  materials  for  our  ships  of  war  ore  now  produced  by  an»  almost  instantaneous 
process,  from  rough  pieces  of  oak,  by  the  machinery  of  Mr.  Brunei. 

TURNPIKES.  See  Tolls,  Turnpike  gates  for  exacting  tolls,  which  were  otherwise 
previously  collected,  were  set  up  in  the  reign  of  Charles  U.  1663. — Chalmeit, 


TOR  662  TYR 

TURPENTINE  TREE,  PiHacia  Terebinthinvs,  came  from  Barbary,  before  1656.  Tur- 
pentine is  a  sort  of  reainoua  gum,  usually  distilled  out  of  the  fir  and  other  trees,  and 
is  of  two  kinds,  common  and  Venetian. — Pardon,  Spirits  of  turpentine  were  fint 
applied,  with  succew,  to  the  rot  in  sheep :  one-third  of  the  spirit  diluted  with  two* 
thirds  water,  1772.— Annual  JtegitUr, 

TUSCAN  ORDER  of  Abchitecturb,  Ib  described  as  that  which  should  be  used  in  the 
erection  of  coarse  and  rude  buildings,  in  which  strength  is  principally  intended, 
without  regard  to  ornament  or  beauty.  It  is  the  least  artificial  of  any  of  the  orders. 
^—WUion,  The  base  and  capital  are  usually  seven  modules  in  leng^,  and  the  upper 
part  of  the  pillar  is  one-fourth  less  than  the  diameter  at  the  bottom. — Pardon,  It  is 
called  Tuscan  because  invented  in  Tuscany. — Bayley, 

TUSCANY.  Thia  country  was  created  into  a  dukedom,  ▲.d.  1580.  It  came  into  the 
Austrian  family  in  1787.  It  was  seised  by  the  French  in  March,  1799.  Ferdinand  lY. 
the  grand  duke,  was  dispossessed  by  France,  and  his  dominions  given  to  Louis^  son 
of  the  king  of  Spain,  with  the  title  of  king  of  Etmria,  Feb.  26,  1801.  He  died 
June  SO,  1808 ;  and  soon  afterwards  this  state  was  transformed  into  an  appendage  to 
the  crown  of  Italy;  but  was  restored  to  Austria,  in  1814.  The  present  grand-duke 
Leopold  II.  ascended  June  18,  1824.  Consequent  upon  the  late  civil  war  in  Italy 
the  grand-duke  fled  from  Sienna,  Feb.  7, 1849,  and  arrived  at  Qaeta,  Feb.  28,  following. 
An  Austrian  force  entered  Tuscany,  May  5,  1850 :  and  he  returned  to  his  states, 
July  23,  same  year.* 

TWELFTH-DAY.  The  church  festival  called  the  Epiphany,  or  manifestation  of 
Christ  to  the  Qentiles.  See  Epiphany.  The  custom  of  drawing  king  and  queen 
on  this  day  was  borrowed  from  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  who,  on  the  tabernacle 
or  Christmas  festivals,  drew  lots  for  kings,  by  putting  a  piece  of  money  in  the 
middle  of  a  cake,  and  whoever  found  the  money  in  his  slice  was  saluted  as  Ung. 

TYBURN,  London.  The  ancient  place  in  London  for  the  execution  of  maleffihctora. 
Formerly  Oxford-road,  now  Oxford-street»  had  trees  and  hedges  on  both  sides ;  and 
beyond  all  was  country,  both  northward  and  westward  :  at  &e  west  end  of  Oxford- 
road  Tyburn  turnpike  stood.  In  1778,  a  German  writer,  describing  the  metropoUs, 
and  speaking  of  Tyburn,  the  place  for  executing  criminals  at  that  time,  mentions  it  as 
being  *'  distant  from  London  about  two  English  miles." 

TYLER,  WAT,  bis  INSURRECTION.  It  arose  in  the  opposition  of  the  people  to  the 
poll-tax,  which  was  levied  in  1878.  Owing  to  the  indecent  rudeness  of  one  of  the 
collectors  to  Tyler's  daughter,  with  a  view  to  prove  her  of  sufficient  age  (fifteen)  to 
pay  the  tax  (l^ler  striking  him  dead  for  the  offence),  the  provoked  populace 
gathered  upon  Blackheath  to  the  number  of  100,000  men.  The  king,  Richard  IL, 
invited  Tyler  to  a  parley  at  Smithfield,  where  the  latter  addressed  the  king  in  a  some- 
what menacing  manner,  now  and  again  lifting  up  his  sword.  His  insolence  nused  the 
indignation  of  the  mayor,  Walworth,  who  stunned  Tyler  with  a  blow  of  his  maoe,  and 
one  of  the  knights  attending  the  king  despatched  him.  The  death  of  their  leader 
awed  the  multitude,  to  whom  Richard  promised  a  charter,  and  they  dispersed,  1381. 

TYRK  This  great  city  was  first  built  by  Agenor.  Another  city  was  built  1257  B.C.  It 
was  besieged  by  the  Assyrians,  719  B.c.  and  they  retired  from  before  it,  after  a 
siege  of  upwards  of  five  years,  713  b.g.  Taken  by  Nebuchadnezsar,  572  b.c.  and  the 
city  demolished,  when  the  Tyrians  removed  to  an  opposite  island,  and  boilt  a 
new  and  magnificent  city.  It  was  taken  by  Alexander  with  much  difficulty,  and  only 
after  he  had  joined  the  inland  to  the  continent  by  a  mole,  after  a  siege  of  seven  months, 
Aug.  20,  882  B.C. — Straho,  Two  of  the  most  atrocious  acts  in  the  history  of  human 
crimes  were  the  siege  and  destruction  of  Tyre  by  Alexander,  and  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus. 

T7RB,  ERA  of.  Began  on  the  19th  of  October,  125  B.a  with  the  month  of  Hyperberateos. 
The  months  were  the  same  as  those  used  in  the  Grecian  era,  and  the  year  is  similar  to 
the  Julian  year.  To  reduce  this  era  to  ours,  subtract  124 ;  and  if  the  given  year  be 
leas  than  125,  deduct  it  from  125,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the  year  bofors  Christ 

*  Much  interast  and  syinpathy  were  excited  in  England,  and  other  Protestant  ooimtriee  of  Ewttpe, 
by  the  impriMonment  at  Florence  of  the  Uadiai  (busband  and  wife),  who  had  embraced  the  b^gltth 
reformed  religion,  and  read  the  Bible  in  due  conformity  with  the  teaching  of  their  new  fiutU.  For  tbk 
**  crime  '*  they  wore  sepiUlttely  incarcerHted  in  loathsome  dungeona,  and  subjected  to  all  the  rigoun  of 
the  Romiah  ecclesiastical  law.  A  Protestant  deputation  from  Bn^and,  headed  br  the  earis  r4 
Bhaaesbury  and  Roden,  proceeded  to  Florence  in  October,  1862,  with  the  view  to  theu:  ivleaee  fWwa 
confinement :  but  the  grand-duke  refused  to  reoeive  it.  However,  after  some  months*  captiTilj,  fbcy 
were  set  at  liberty.  If  arch  1855.    An  annuity  of  lOOL  was  provided  for  them  by  subaeriptioo. 


UBI  603  UNI 


u. 

UBIQUARIANS.  A  sect  of  LuthenuiB,  which  arose  and  spread  through  Germany  and 
other  eountries,  and  who  believed  the  natural  body  of  Christ  to  be  everywhere  present. 
Hub  sect  began  under  Brentius,  about  a.d.  1540.  The  sect  was  called,  also,  Ubiqui- 
tarians     It  was  at  no  time  very  numerous. — AAe. 

UKRAINE.  The  name  signifies  a  frontier.  By  a  treaty  between  Russia  and  Poland,  these 
Btates  divided  the  Ukraine  in  1693 ;  Poland  having  the  west  side  of  the  Dnieper,  and 
Russia  the  east.  But  the  whole  country  (the  holders  of  Poland,  Russia,  and  Little 
Tartary)  was  assigned  to  Russia  by  the  treaty  of  Partition  in  1795. 

ULM,  PRACE  OF,  by  which  Frederick  Y .  lost  Bohemia  (having  been  driven  from  It  pre- 
viously), July  8, 1620.  Ulm  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1796.  Great  battle  between 
the  French  and  Austrians,  in  which  the  latter,  under  general  Mack,  were  defeated 
with  dreadful  loss,  by  marshal  Ney,  whose  victory  was  consummated  by  the  surrender 
of  Ulm,  and  86,000  men,  the  fiower  of  the  Austrian  army,  Oct.  17, 19,  1805.  From 
this  time  the  ruin  of  the  confederates,  and  the  power  of  Napoleon,  had  their  date. 

UMBRELLA  Described  in  early  dictionaries  as  "  a  portable  pent-house  to  carry  in  a 
person's  hand  to  screen  him  from  violent  rain  or  heat."  Umbrellas  are  very  ancient : 
it  appears,  by  the  carvings  at  Persepolis,  that  umbrellas  were  used  at  very  remote 
periods  by  the  Eastern  princes.  Niebuhr,  who  visited  the  southern  part  of  Arabia, 
informs  us  that  he  saw  a  great  prince  of  that  country  returning  from  a  mosque,  pre- 
ceded by  some  hundreds  of  soldiers,  and  that  he  and  each  of  the  princes  of  his  nume- 
rous family  caused  a  lai^e  umbrella  to  be  carried  by  his  side.  The  old  chinaware  in 
onr  pantries  and  cupboards  show  the  Chinese  shaded  by  an  umbrella.  It  is  said  that 
the  first  person  who  used  an  umbrella  in  the  streets  of  London  was  the  benevolent 
Jonas  Hanway,  who  died  in  1786.* 

UNCTION,  EXTREMK  Unction  was  frequent  among  the  Jews  and  early  christians, 
Janui  V.  14.  At  their  feasts,  and  other  times  of  rejoicing,  they  anointea  sometimes 
their  whole  body,  and  at  other  times  their  head  or  feet  only :  their  kings  and  high- 
priests  were  anointed  at  their  inauguration ;  they  also  anointed  the  vessels  of  the 
temple  to  consecrate  them.  None  of  the  emperors,  it  is  said,  were  anointed  before 
Justioian,  Aug.  1,  a.d.  527.  As  a  religious  rite,  extreme  unction  was  in  common  use, 
▲.D.  550.  St.  Asaph  was  the  first  who  reoeived  unction  from  the  pope,  590. — Bayle, 
It  Ss  administered  in  dying  cases  as  extreme  unction.    See  Anuiniing, 

UNIFORMITY,  ACT  of.  One  passed  1  Ells.  1559.  But  the  statute  known  as  the  Act 
of  Uniformity  waa  passed  13  &  14  Chaa.  II.  1661-2.  It  enjoined  uniformity  in  matters 
of  religion,  and  obliged  all  clergy  to  subscribe  to  the  thirty-nine  articles,  and  use  the 
same  form  of  worship,  and  same  book  of  common  prayer.  This  act  caused  upwards 
of  2000  conscientious  ministers  to  quit  the  church  of  England,  and  tdte  their  lot 
among  the  dissenters,  who  thereby  received  so  lai^  an  addition  to  their  numbers  that 
they  may  be  considered  as  the  fathers  of  the  dissenting  interest. 

UNIFORMS.  Military  uniforms  were  first  used  in  France,  "  in  a  regular  manner,"  by 
Louis  XIV.  1668.  In  England  the  uniform  was  soon  afterwards  adopted  in  the 
military  service,  but  with  little  analogy  to  the  modem  dress  of  our  military. — Adu* 
For  an  account  of  naval  uniforms,  see  Naval  UfUformi, 

UNION  OF  THB  CROWNS  akd  KINGDOMS  of  England  and  Scotland  by  the  accession 

*  For  a  long  while  it  was  not  u«ual  for  men  to  cany  them  without  incurring  the  brand  of 
effeminacy.  At  Ant,  a  single  umbrella  eeems  to  have  been  kept  at  a  coffee-house  for  extraordinary 
oocajrions — ^lent  as  a  coach  or  chair  in  a  heavy  shower,  but  not  commonly  carried  by  the  walkers.  The 
FemaU  Tatier  advertises :  "  The  young  gentleman  belonging  to  the  CXistom- house,  who,  in  fear  of  rain, 
borrowed  the  wmUrdla/rom  WUks's  Cofftchouny  shall  the  next  time  be  welcome  to  the  maid's  pattmMJ* 
As  late  as  1778,  one  John  Hacdouald,  a  footman,  who  wrote  his  own  life,  informs  us,  that  he  had  "  a 
fine  silk  iimbrelli^  which  he  brought  ttoxa.  Spain ;  but  he  could  not  with  any  comfort  to  himself  use  it» 
tbe  people  calling  out '  Frenchman  1  wliy  don't  you  get  a  coach? ' "  The  <act  was,  the  hackney-coach- 
men and  chairmen,  Joining  with  the  true  uprit  at  corpt,  were  clamorous  against  their  portentous  livaL 
The  footman,  in  1778,  gives  us  some  farther  information.  "At  this  time  there  were  no  umbrellas  worn 
in  London,  except  in  noblemen's  and  gentlemen's  houses,  where  there  was  a  large  one  hung  in  the 
ball  to  hold  over  a  lady  if  it  rained,  between  the  door  and  her  carriage."  Tltis  man's  sister  was  com- 
pelled  to  quit  bis  arm  one  day  from  the  abuse  be  drew  down  upon  himself  and  his  umbrella.  But  he 
adds,  that,  '*  he  pexsiKted  for  three  mouths,  till  they  took  no  further  notice  of  this  novelty.  Foreigners 
began  to  use  theirs,  and  then  the  English.  Now  it  is  become  a  great  trade  in  London."— 2fcw  Monthly 
Jloffatiiu, 


UNI  664  UNI 

of  James  VI.  of  Scotland  as  James  T.  of  England,  March  24,  1603.  The  Icgid&tiTo 
union  of  the  two  kingdoms  was  attempted  in  1604,  but  the  project  failed.  It  ma 
again  attempted,  but  again  failed,  in  1670.  In  the  reign  of  Anne  it  was  once  more 
tried,  and  in  the  end  with  better  success.  Commissioners  were  appointed,  the  articles 
discussed,  and,  notwithstanding  a  great  opposition  made  by  the  Tories,  erery  article 
in  the  union  was  approved  by  a  great  majority,  first  in  the  house  of  commonti,  and 
afterwards  by  the  peers,  July  22, 1706,  and  ratified  by  the  Scottish  parliament^  Jan.  16, 
1707.    It  became  a  law,  May  1,  same  year. 

UNION  WITH  IRELAND.  The  Union  of  Oreat  Britain  and  Ireland,  proposed  in 
the  Irish  parliament,  Jan.  22, 1799.  Rejected  by  the  commons  of  Ireland,  Jan.  24,  the 
votes  being  105  for,  to  106  against  the  union.  The  English  house  of  commona  on  the 
same  question  divided,  140,  141,  and  149  for  the  union;  against  it,  15,  25,  aQd2S, 
respectively.  Lord  Castlereagh  detailed  his  plan  of  the  union,  in  the  Irish  house  of 
lords,  founded  on  the  resolutions  of  the  British  parliament  thereon,  Feb.  5,  ISOO. 
Votes  of  the  commons  agreeing  to  it,  161  against  115,  Feb.  17;  and  again,  152  against 
108,  Feb.  21.  The  houses  of  lords  and  commons  wait  on  the  lord-lieutenant  with 
the  articles  of  union,  March  27.  The  act  passed  in  the  British  parliament,  July  2, 
1800.  The  imperial  united  standard  was  first  displayed  upon  Bedford  Tower,  Dublin 
Castle,  in  consequence  of  the  act  of  legislative  union  becoming  an  operatiTc  lav, 
Jan.  1, 1801. 

UNION  JACK.  The  original  flag  of  England  was  the  banner  of  St  George,  t.e.,  white 
with  a  red  cross,  which,  Apnl  12,  1606  (three  years  after  James  L  ascended  the 
throne),  was  incorporated  with  the  banner  of  Scotland,  t.e.,  blue  with  a  white  diagonal 
cross.  This  combination  obtained  the  name  of  **  Union  Jack,"  in  allusion  to  the  union 
with  Scotland,  and  the  word  Jack  may  be  considered  a  corruption  of  the  word"  Jacque^** 
or  James.  This  arrangement  continued  until  the  union  with  Ireland,  Jan.  1, 1801,  when 
the  banner  of  St.  Patrick,  ie.,  white  with  a  diagonal  red  cross,  was  thus  amalgainated 
with  it,  and  forms  the  present  Union  flag. 

UNION  REPEAL  ASSOCIATION,  Ireland.    See  Repeal  oftht  Uniwi, 

UNITARIANS.  This  sect  began  a.d.  1550.  Their  tenets  are  different,  but  aomewhat 
similar  to  those  of  the  Arians  and  Socinians,  M}hidi  eee.  The  Unitarians  believe  in  and 
worship  one  only  self-existent  Ood,  in  opposition  to  those  who  worship  the  Trinitj  in 
unity.  They  consider  Christ  to  have  been  a  mere  man.  They  do  not  admit  the  need 
of  an  atonement,  or  the  complete  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures.  They  arose  under 
Servetua  This  learned  man,  excited  by  the  discussions  of  the  reformers,  began  to 
read  the  Scriptures,  and  conducted  his  researches  with  so  free  a  spirit,  that  he  printed 
a  tract  in  disparagement  of  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  In  1553,  proceeding 
to  Naples  through  Geneva,  Calvin  induced  the  magistrates  to  arrest  him  on  a  chaige 
of  blasphemy  and  heresy :  and  refusing  to  retract  his  opinions,  be  was  oondeouied  to 
the  flames,  which  sentence  was  carried  into  execution,  Oct.  27,  1553.  Servetua  i« 
numbered  among  those  anatomists  who  made  the  nearest  approach  to  the  doctrine  of 
the  circulation  of  the  blood,  before  Harvey  established  that  doctrine.  Many  of  the 
original  English  Presbyterian  churches  became  Unitarians  about  1730.  There  weie 
229  congregations  in  England  in  1851.  They  were  not  included  in  the  Toleiation  act 
till  181  £    The  Unitarian  marriage  bill  was  passed,  June  1827. 

UNITED  KINGDOM  or  GREAT  BRITAIN  and  IRELAND.  England  and  Wales 
were  united  in  1283.  Scotland  to  both  in  1707 ;  and  the  British  realm  was  named 
the  United  Kingdom  on  the  union  with  Ireland,  Jan.  1,  1801,  when  a  new  imperial 
standard  was  hoisted  on  the  Tower  of  London  and  Caetle  of  Dublin.    See  (hioh. 

UNITED  PROVINCES,  the  SEVEN.  Established  by  throwing  off  the  Spanish  yoke, 
A.D.  1579.  The  revolted  states,  with  William,  prince  of  Orange,  at  their  head,  afUr 
long  deliberations  at  the  Hague,  published  an  edict  excluding  king  Philip  from  any 
sovereignty,  right,  or  authority  over  the  Netherlanda  The  deputies  from  the  pro* 
vinces  of  Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Friesland,  Groningen,  Overyssell,  and  Guelder 
land,  met  at  Utrecht,  Jan.  23,  1579;  signed  a  treaty  for  their  mutual  defence; 
appointed  the  prince  of  Orange  as  their  stadtholder ;  and  formed  the  alliance  erer 
since  known  as  the  "  Union  of  Utrecht,"  the  basis  of  the  commonwealth  so  renowned 
by  the  appellation  of  the  "Seven  United  Provinces."  Their  independence  was 
acknowledged  in  1609.  United  to  France  in  1796.  Louis  Bonaparte  was  crowned 
king  by  the  authority  of  Napoleon,  June  5.  1806.  Louis  abdicated,  July  1,  191<)* 
Restored  to  the  house  of  Orange,  and  Belgium  annexed,  Nov.  18,  1813.    Belgium 


UNI 


665 


UNI 


separated  from  Holland,  and  Leopold  of  Saxe-Cobni*g  elected  king;  July  12,  1881. 
See  Holland  and  Belgium, 

UNITED  STATES  of  AMERICA.  A  great  part  of  North  America  was  colonised  by 
British  Btibjects,  and  till  the  first  and  disastrous  American  war,  formed  part  of  the 
British  empire.  The  first  colonists,  to  avoid  civil  and  religious  tyranny,  fled  from  the 
cultivated  plains  of  England,  the  comforts  of  civilised  life,  and  the  stronger  attachment 
of  kindred  and  habits,  to  take  refuge  in  the  woods  and  marshes  of  America.  The 
revolted  provinces  from  the  sway  of  Great  Britain  were  first  styled  the  United  States 
by  a  resolution  of  congress,  Sept.  9, 1776.  Their  flag  was  declared  to  be  thirteen 
stripes,  alternately  red  and  whito,  and  thirteen  stars  in  a  blue  field,  corresponding 
with  the  then  number  of  states  of  the  union,  June  20, 1777.  The  independence  of 
the  United  States  was  acknowledged  by  France,  Feb.  6,  1778.  Recognised  by 
Holland,  April  19,  1782 ;  and  by  Great  Britain  in  the  treaty  of  Paris,  Not.  30,  same 
year.*    See  America,  and  Slavery  in  America, 


Act  of  the  British  parliament,  imposinff 
new  and  heavy  duties  on  imported 
merchandise .  March  11,  17C4 

Obnoxious  stamp  act .        .      llarch  22,  1765 

First  American  congress  held  at  New 
York June?,  1765 

British  act,  levying  duties  on  tea,  paper, 
painted  gLus,  Ae.     .  June  14,  1767 

340  chests  of  tea  destroyed  by  the  popu- 

17  chests  at  New 


1773 
1774 

1774 


1775 
1776 


laoe  at  Boston,  and 

York Nov. 

Boston  Fort  Bill .  .      Mai-ch  25, 

Deputies  from  the  States  meet  at  Phila- 
delphia   Sept  5. 

First  action  between  the  British  and 
Americans,  at  Tjexington        April  19,  1775 

Act  of  perpetxial  union  between  the 
States May  20, 

George  Washington  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief June  16, 

America  declared  "free,  aovereigu,  and 
independent"  .      Jiily4,  1776 

[For  the  various  actions  fought  with  the 
British,  see  JBattleg.] 

Surrender  of  lord  Corawallis  and  his 
whole  army  of  7000  men  to  generals 
Washington  and  Rochumbeau,  at  York- 
town         ....         Oct  19,  1781 

Arrival  of  sir  Guy  Carleton  to  treat  for 
peace May  5,  1782 

Provisional  articles  signed  at  Paris  by 
commifwioners .  Nov.  30,  1782 


Definitive  treaty  of  peace  signed  at 
Paris Sept.  8,  1783 

Ratified  by  congress   .  .  Jan.  4,  1784 

John  Adams,  first  American  ambassador, 
had  his  first  interview  with  the  king 
of  England    ....     June  2,  1785 

New  American  constitution  proposed  to 
the  SUtes        .  .       Sept  17,  1787 

The  quakera  of  Philadelphia  emancipate 
their  slaves   ....      Jan.  1,  1788 

New  government  for  theStates  oraanised 
at  New  York    .  ]£irch  4,  1789 

General  Washington  declared  to  be  first 
president       ....    April  6, 

Dank  instituted ;  the  capital  10,000,000 
dollars       ....  June  7, 

Choice  made  of  Washington  as  the  capi- 
tal of  the  States    .  July  8, 

Re-election  of  General  Washington  as 
president  ....       March  4, 

He  resigns  the  presidency      .  Sept  17, 

Mr.  Adams  elected  March  4, 

General  Washington  dies  amid  universcu 
sorrow Dec.  14, 


1789 

1791 

1792 

1793 
1796 
1797 


1799 


[The  seat  of  government  now  removed 
to  Washington.] 

American  embargo  laid  .  Dec.  9, 

War  with  Great  Britain  .        .  June  18, 

Action  between  the  American  ship  Con- 

Btitvtion  and  the  British  frigate  Ouer- 

rUre,  an  unequal  contest  (see  Naval 

BattUs)      ....        Aug.  19» 


1807 
1812 


1812 


The  following  thirteen  states  formed  the  union  at  the  declaration  of  independence  in  1776 : — 


New  Hampshire. 
Massachusetts. 
Rhode  Island. 
Connecticut. 


New  York. 
New  Jersey. 
Pennsylvania. 


Delaware. 
Maryland. 
Virginia. 


North  Carolina. 
South  Carolina. 
Georgia. 


The  following  have  been  added : — 


1791 
1706 
1796 


Vermont  (from  New  York) 

Tennessee  (from  North  Carolina)       .    . 

Kentucky  (from  Virginia) 

Colombia  district  (under  the  immediate 
government  of  congress)  contains 
Washington,  the  seat  of  government  . 

Ohio  ^created) 

Louisiana  (bought  from  France  in 
1803)      

Indiana  (created) 

Mississippi  (from  Georgia) 

Illinois  (created) 1818 

Alabama  (from  Georgia)  ....  1819 

Maine  (from  Massachusett'^)  .    .  1820 

Missouri  (from  Louisiana)  .        .  1821 


1800 
1802 

1812 
1816 
1817 


Michigan 

Arkansas  . 

Florida 

Iowa 

Texas    .... 

Wisconsin . 

New  Mexico 

California 

Oregon  (territory) 

Minnesota  (territory) 

Utah  (territory)    . 

Washington  (territory) 

Kansas  (territmy) 

Nebraska  (territory) 

[See  Slavery  in  Amirica.} 


1836 
1836 
1845 
1846 
1846 
1846 
1848 
1848 
1850 
1849 
1850 
1863 
18M 
1854 


The  senate  is  composed  of  62  members,  2  %r  each  state,  elected  for  6  years. 

3 1^1 


The  representatives  in 
congress  are  elected  in  the  ratio  of  1  in  03,423^r8onH  (5  slaves  are  counted  as  3  persons). 

Revenue.— The  totel  receipts,  July  1,  1854,  to  June  30,  1855   .     .  86,341,898  dollars. 
Expenditure  ditto  ditto  .        .  66,209,922  dollars. 

In  1855,  Army,  11,668.    Militia,  1,873,658.    Fleet,  72  vessels  (2290  guns). 


UNI 


666 


UNI 


UNITED  STATES  or  AMERICA,  eontinned. 

Fort  Detroit  Ukon  .  .   Aug.  21,  181 S 

The  British  aloop  FroUe  taken  by  the 
American  shin  Watp       .         Oct  18,  1812 

The  ship  United  State*  of  M  guns,  great 
calibre  (commodore  Decatur),  captures 
the  BritUh  frigate  Mactdonian,  Oct.  25,  181S 

Battle  of  Frcnchtown .  Jan.  22,  181S 

The  Hornet  captures  the  BritUh  sloop  of 
war  Peacock  .    Feb.  25,  1818 

Fort  Erie  and  Fort  George  abandoned 
by  the  British  .  May  27,  1813 

The  American  frigate  (^iapeake  cap- 
tured by  the  Shannon  frigate,  captain 
Broke June  1,  1818 

Battle  of  Burlington  Heights ;  the  Ame- 
ricans defeated  .  June  6,  1818 

H.M.  sloop  Pelican  takes  the  American 
sloop  Arjpu  ....    Aug.  14^  1818 

Bufialo  town  taken  by  the  British  and 
burnt Dec.  9,  1818 

American  frigate  Suez  taken  by  the 
Phcebe  and  Ckemb  March  29,  1814 

The  British  defeat  the  Americans  in  a 
severe  conflict  ....  July  2,  1814 

[Several  engagements  with  various  suc- 
cess now  followed.] 

Alexandria   capitulates  to  the  British 

forces Aug.  17,  1814 

•  The  city  of  Washington  is  taken  by  the 

British  forces,  and  the  public  edifices 
and    offices    are   reduced   to  ashes, 

Aug.  24.  1814 

The  British  sloop  of  war  Avon,  of  small 
sisa,  sunk  by  the  American  sloop 
Wct^ Sept  8,  1814 

The  British  squadron  on  lake  Chximplain 
captured  ....       Sept  11,  1814 

Attack  on  Baltimore  by  the  British; 
general  Ross  killed  .  Sept  12,  1814 

Treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain 
signed  at  Ghent       .  Dec  24,  1814 

The  British  ship  Bndymiion  captures  the 
FreiidetU       ....    Jan.  15,  1815 

The   Ghent   treaty   of  peace   ratified, 

Feb.  17.  1815 

Centre  foundation  of  the  capitol  of 
Washington  Lud  .  .   Aug  24,  1818 

S])ain  cedes  Florida  to  the  United 
States        ....         Oct.  24,  1820 

The  States  acknowledge  tbe  independ- 
ence of  South  America         .  March  8,  1828 

Treaty  with  Colombia  .  Oct.  S,  1824 

Mr.  Adams  elected  president        Feb.  4,  1825 

Death  of  the  two  ex- presidents,  Adams 
and  JelTerson,  on  the  50th  anniversary 
of  the  independence  of  the  American 
Stetes July  4,  1826 

Convention  with  Great  Britain  concern- 
ing indemnities    .        .        .   Nov.  13,  1826 

American  Tariff  Bill    .        .         May  IS,  1828 

General  Jackson  president      .    Feb.  16.  1829 

Treaty  between  the  United  States  and 
Ottoman  Porte        .  .  May  7,  1830 

Porta  re-opened  to  British  commerce; 
the  restriction  ceases  .  Oct.  5,  1880 

New  tariff  laws    .  .        July  14.  1832 

Great  fire  at  New  York,  647  houses  and 
many  public  edifices  burnt ;  loss  esti- 
mated at  20,000,000  dollars  (see  ^(t0 
Tort) Nov.  15,  1885 

In  the  Canadian  insurrection,  many  of 
the  American  people  sssist  the  insur- 
gents .      Oct  Nov.  and  Dec  1837 

The  American  steam-boat  Caroline  is  at- 
tacked and  burnt  by  the  British,  near 
Schlosser,  to  the  eaat  of  the  Niagara, 
on  the  territory  of  the  United  States 

Dec.  29,  1837 

Proclamation  of  the  president  against 


American  dtisens  ^ding  the  Caaut- 
dians  against  Great  Britain       Jan.  5^  1^39 

The  Great  Western  staam-ship  fint 
arrives  at  New  York    .        .   June  17,  1838 

The  American  banks  suspend  their  cash 
payments  Oct  14,  1839 

Anair  of  Mr.  Mac  Leod,  charged  with 
aiding  in  the  destruction  of  the  Caro- 
line :  true  bill  found  against  him  for 
murder  and  arson  Feb.  t,  IStl 

The  United  States  bank  again  suspends 
payment Feb.  7,  Iftil 

Election  of  general  Harrison  as  presi- 
dent        March  4,  1841 

Mr.  Fox,  British  minister,  demands  the 
release  of  Mr.  Mac  Leod  .      March  IS,  1811 

General  Harrison  dies  a  month  after  his 
inauguration  .    April  4,  1841 

Tbe  presidency  devolves  on  the  vios-pre- 
sideutk  John  Tyler,  who  is  sworn  mto 
office  next  day .        .       .        April  A.  1641 

The  case  of  Mac  Leod  is  removed  by 
habeae  eorpue  to  the  supreme  court  at 
New  York     ....      May6w  1841 

A  party  of  British  volunteers  cross  the 
frontier  &t>m  Canada  and  carry  off 
oolouel  Grogan  Sept  9,  1841 

Resignation  of  all  the  United  States 
ministers,  with  the  exception  of  Mr. 
Webster        ....  Sept  11,  1841 

President's  proclamation  against  lawleaa 
attempts  of  Americsn  citiaens  to  in- 
vade British  possessions,  and  to  sup- 
press secret  lodges,  dubs^  and  associ- 
ations       ....       Sept  25,  1841 

Trial  of  Mac  Leod  oommenoes  at  Utica, 
supreme  court  .      Oct  4,  184 1 

Grogan  is  given  up  to  the  American 
government      ....  Oct  4,  1841 

Acquittal  of  Mac  Leod  after  a  trial  of 
eight  days     ....    Oct  IS,  1841 

Colossal  statue  of  Washington  placed  in 
the  capitol  at  Washington       .  Dec  1,  1841 

Afisir  of  the  Creole^  which  leads  to  a  dis- 
pute with  England  Dec.  1841 


[This  vessel,  an  Americsn,  was  on  her 
voyage  to  New  Orleans  with  a  cargo 
of  slaves;  they  mutinied,  murdered 
the  owner,  wounded  the  captain,  and 
compelled  the  crew  to  take  the  ship 
to  Nsssau,  New  Providence,  where 
the  governor,  consideriz^  them  as 
passengers,  allowed  them,  against  the 
protest  of  the  American  consul,  to  go 
at  liberty.] 

Announcement  of  lord  Ashburton's  mis- 
sion to  the  United  SUtes        .  Jan.  1,  184S 

Arrest  of  Hogan,  implicated  in  the 
CaroHne  aflair  Feb.  2,  184S 

The  WartpU*^  with  lord  Aahburton  on 
board,  arrives  at  New  York     Apiil  1,  184S 

Wsshington  treaty,  defining  ths  Doun- 
daries  between  the  United  States  and 
the  British  American  possessions,  and 
for  suppressing  the  slave  trade,  and 
giving  up  fugitive  criminals;  signed 
at  Wsshington,  by  lord  Ashburton  and 
Mr.  Webster.  .     Aug.  9,  1S4S 

The  tariff  bill  is  passed  Aug.  10,  1843 

Lord  Ashburton  leaves  the  United  States 
Sept.  5  :  arrives  hi  Enj^d,  Sept  23^  1842 

Doatn  of  Dr.  Channing       .        .  Oct  2,  ld4t 

War  declared  against  the  United  States 
by  Mexico     ....     June  4,  1845 

[Several  actions  are  fought  between  the 
belligerents,  adverse  to  Mexico.] 

Resolution  of  ths  senate  and  bouse  of 


UNI 


667 


UNI 


UNITED  STATES  of  AMERICA,  continued, 

representatiTM  for   termiiuiting  the 
Joint  ooouponcy  of  Oregon      April  20,  1M6 
Annexation  of  New  Mexico  to  the  United 

Statee,  after  a  protracted  war,  Aug.  23,  1846 
Trcatv  fixing  the  north-wcet  boundary 
of  the  U.  8.  at  the  49th  parallel  of  lati- 
tude, and  giTing  the  British  poaaeasion 
of  Vancouver's  Islaud,  the  free  naviga- 
tion of  the  Colxunbia  river,  iic.  signed 

June  12,  1846 
Battle  of  BuenoTista  .  .  Feb.  28,  1847 
The  Mexicans  defeated  by  general  Taylor 

at  Bueno  Vista  Feb.  23,  1847 

Vera  Crux  taken  by  storm,  the  Mexicans 
everywhere  wonted.    Great  battle  of 
Sierra  Oorda;  the  Mexicans  signally 
defeated        ....  April  18,  1847 
Gen.  Bcott  defeats  the  Mexicans,  taking 

6000  prisoners  .  .       April  18,  1847 

Treaty  Dctween  Mexico  and  the  United 

States  ratified  .    Hay  19,  1848 

Park  theatre  destroyed  by  fire   Bee.  16l  1848 
Kiot  at  the  theatre  K ew  York,  occasioned 
by  the  dispute  between  Mr.  Forrest 
and  Mr.  Macready  .     May  10,  1849 

Proclamation  of  the  president  against 
the  marauding  expedition  to  Cuba,* 

Aug  11,  1849 
The  French  ambassador  dismissed  ftom 

Washington  ....  Sept.  14,  1849 
Death  of  Mr.  Calhoun  .  March  81,  1850 
Destructive  fire  in  Philadelphia,  July  9,  1860 
Bill  to  admit  Califomia  a  member  of  the 

states  passes  the  senate  .  Aug.  15,  1850 
Previdcnt  Fillmore  issues  a  second  pro- 
clamation against  the  promoters  of  a 
second  expedition  to  Cuba,  and  the 
ship  CleoiMtra,  freighted  with  military 
stores   destined   for   that   island,    is 

seised April  25,  1851 

Census  of  the  United  States  taken  ;  the 
population  ascertained  to  amount  to 
23,847,884.  in  the  whole  union,  June  16^  1851 
Death  of   Ueniy  Clay,   the  American 

roiuister,  aged  75  .  .  Juue  29,  1851 
Failure  of  the  second  expedition  against 
Cuba  by  Lopez  and  his  lollowt;rB ;  they 
are  all  defeated  and  taken ;  51  are  shot 
by  the  Cuban  authorities,  Lopez  is 
garrotted,  and  the  rest  are  sent 
prisoners  to  Ui^oin,  where,  after  some 
negotiation,  they  are  mercifully  set  at 
liberty.    Bee  Cuba  Aug.— Sept.  1851 

Death  of  Cooper,  the  American  novelist, 

Sept.  17,  1851 
The  president  issues  a  proclamation 
agamst  the  sympathisers  with  the  revo- 
lutionary movement  in  Mexico  Oct.  22.  1851 
Part  of  the  capitol  of  Washington  and 
the  whole  of  the  library  of  the  United 
States  congress  destroyed  by  fire 

Dec.  24,  1851 
M.    Kossuth,    the    Hungarian     chief, 
arrives  at  Washington,  on  the  invita- 
tion of  the  United  States  legislature 

Dec.  SO,  1851 
Publication  of  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin," 

by  Mrs.  Stowe  .  .      March  20,  1852 

The  dispute  vtrith  England  relating  to 
the  Fisheries  occurs  about  this  time, 
Mr.  Webster's  note  uiion  the  subject 

July  14,  1852 
Lone  Star  Society  (see  L(m€  Star)  .  Aug.  1852 


The  United  States  ship  Oretcent  CUg 
boarded  at  Havannah,  and  not  allowed 
to  land  her  mails  or  passengers  Oct.  S,  1852 

Death  of  Daniel  Webster,  the  most  emi- 
nent statesman  of  the  Union,  in  his 
70th  year  ....  Oct.  24,  1852 

Address  to  the  women  of  America  on 
slavery,  adopted  by  the  duchess  of 
Sutherland  and  other  ladies  (signed 
afterwards  by  576,000  Englishwomen) 

Nov.  26,  1852 

Afiair  of  Koszta  at  Smyrna  (see  Komta) 

Juue  21,  1853 

Crystal   palace   opens    at    New   York 

July  14.  1853 

Duel  between  M.  Soul^ (American  minis- 
ter at  Madrid)aud  M.  Turgot,  Deo.  18,  1853 

Great  fire  at  New  York—Ortal  ReptMie 
clipper  destroyed  .        .    Dec.  26,  1853 

Astor  library.  New  York,  opened  for 
the  public         ....  Jan.  9,  1864 

Wm.  Walker  proclaims  republic  of 
Sonora  divided  into  two  states— Sonora 
and  Lower  California   .        .    Jan.  18,  1854 

American  steamer  Jttadt  Warrior  seized 
at  Cuba  ....    Feb.  28,  1864 

[After  prolonged  negodationa,  the 
Spanisn  government  remitted  the  fine 
but  considered  the  stsizure  legal]  A  pril,  1854 

Commercial  treaty  concluded  between 
Japan  and  United  States  by  Commo- 
dore Perry  (sent  there  for  the  purpose) 

March  23,  1864 

Captain  HoIIins,  in  American  sloop 
Cyane,  bombards  San  Juan  de  Nica- 
rsjBfiu Jul^  1),  1864 

Reciprocity  treaty  between  OreatBntain 
and  United  States  (respecting  New- 
foundland fishery,  intematiouu  trade, 
Ac.)  ratified  Aug.  2,*  1864 

Negotiation  for  the  annexation  of  the 
Stndwich  Islands  .        .  Oct.  1854 

Dreadful     election     riots    in    Kansss, 

March  and  April,  1866 

War  with  the  Indians,  who  are  defeated, 

April  25,  29,  1856 

Dispute  with  British  government  on  en- 
listment (see  Foreign  Legion)  .     July,  1866 

Qeu.  Harney  gains  a  victory  over  the 
Sioux  Indians  Sept  3,  1856 

Senator  Charles  Sumner  savagely  as- 
saulted by  senator  Preston  Brooks  in 
the  senate-house  for  speaking  against 
slavery May  2,  1856 

Mr.  Crampton,  the  British  envoy,  dis- 
missed   May  28,  1860 

John  C.  Fremont  nominated  the  *'  Re- 
publican" candidate  for  the  presidency 

Jime  17,  1856 

James  Buchanan  elected  president  Nov.  1856 

The  AetoltUe  presented  to  Queen  Victoria 
(see  Franklin)  .  Dec.  12,  1856 

Lord  Napier  appointed  British  envoy  to 
United  States  (Jan.  16) ;  warmly  re- 
ceived   ....         March  18,  1857 

Centml  America  question  settled  March,  1857 

Judgment  given  in  the  "Dred  Scott" 
case  in  the  supreme  court  He  was 
claimed  as  a  slave  in  a  free  state :  8 
Jud^  declare  for  his  freedom,  6 
against  it,  which  causes  great  dissatis- 
faction throughout  the  free  states.  Mar.  1867 


*  This  expedition,  notwithstanding,  under  a  Spanish  adventurer  named  Lopes,  landed  000  men  at 
Cuba.  After  a  short  but  obstinate  struggle  they  took  the  town  of  Cardenas.  Theso  buccaneers  shortly 
afterwards  had  a  land  engagement  with  some  Spanish  soldiers  marched  against  them,  in  which  many 
of  them  were  killed  or  taken  prisoners ;  the  others  then  embarked  with  Lopez  in  the  OreoU  steamer, 
and  thus  escaped  from  a  Spanish  war  steamer,  the  Pitarro,  May  1850.  The  second  Expedition  of 
Lopez,  in  Aug.  1861,  was,  however,  fotal  to  him  and  his  followen,  as  above  related. 


UNI 


668 


UNI 


UNITED  STATES  of  AMERICA,  amiinuid, 

DivoT^gnnlsod  state  of  Utah ;  troops 
march    to    support    Dew    goTemor, 

May  and  June, 

Serious  riots  iu  Washing^u  against  Irish 
electors June  1, 


1857 


1857 


And  in  New  York  on  account  of  cliangea 

in  the  police  arrangements  .  June,  1867 
Insurrection  in  Kansas  quelled  Julj,  IhST 
Commercial  panic  in  New  York       Au^.  18^7 


PRESIDENTS  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 


1789. 

1793. 
1797. 
1801. 
1809. 
1818. 
1817. 
1821. 
1826. 
1829. 
1833. 
1837. 


Qeneral  Geoi^  Washington,  first  preai- 

dent.    Elected  April  6. 
General  Washington  again.    March  4. 
John  Adams.    March  4. 
Thomas  Jefferson.    March  4. 
James  Maddison.    March  4. 
Mr.  Maddison.    Re-elected  March  4. 
James  Monroe.    March  4. 
Mr.  Monroe.    Reelected  March  4. 
John  Quincey  Adams.    March  4. 
General  Jackson.    March  4. 
General  Jackson.    Re-elected  March  4. 
Martin  Van  Buren.    March  4. 


1841. 


1845. 
1849. 

1850. 

1853. 
1857. 


General  Wm.  Heniy  Hairlson.  March  4. 

Died  a  month  after,  April  4. 
John  Tvler.    April  4. 
James  Knox  Polk.    March  4. 
GenemlZachaiy  Taylor.  Mairhi.  Died 

July  9,  1850. 
Millard   FUlmore.     Bwcmi  into   office 

next  day,  July  10. 
General  Franklin  Pieroe.    March  4. 
James  Buchanan.  March  4.  The  present 

President  of  the  United   States  U 

America. 


The  government  of  the  United  States  is  a  pure  democracy.  Each  of  the  states  has  a 
separate  and  independent  legislature  for  the  administration  of  its  local  affidi-By  but  all 
are  ruled  in  matters  of  imperial  policy  by  two  houses  of  leg^lature,  the  senate  and  the 
house  of  repi'esentatives,  to  which  delegates  are  sent  from  the  different  membera  of 
the  confederacy.     The  president  is  elected  by  the  free  voice  of  the  people. 


UNIYERSALISTa  Those  who  believe  in  the  final  salvation  of  all  men.  Sects  of 
Universalists  existed  in  various  countries  and  ages.  The  learned  and  celebrated 
Dr.  Tillotson  appears  from  some  of  his  sermons  to  have  adopted  the  opinion  of  this 
universal  salvation. — Johnson,  Certain  it  is,  about  1691,  he  entertain^  a  design  for 
forming  a  new  book  of  homilies ;  and  a  sermon  which  he  preached  before  the  queen 
(Mary)  against  the  absolute  eternity  of  hell  torments,  involved  this  doctrine.  This 
sect  is  numerous  in  America. 

UNIVERSITIES.  They  sprang  from  the  convents  of  the  regular  clergy,  and  from  the 
chapters  of  cathedrals  in  the  Church  of  Rome.  The  most  ancient  universitiee  in 
EiiA>pe  are  those  of  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Paris,  Salamanca^  and  Bologna.  In  old 
Aberdeen  was  a  monastery,  in  which  youth  were  instructed  in  theology,  the  canon 
law,  and  the  school  pbilonophy,  at  least  200  years  before  the  University  and  King's 
College  were  founded.  The  British  universities  were  vested  with  the  lands  of  ex- 
Roman  Catholics,  and  permitted  to  send  members  to  parliament,  by  James  I.  The 
following  are  the  principal  universities.    For  other  particulars,  see  them  severally. 

enlarged  . 


Aberdeen  founded    .  .        .  a.d.  1494 

Abo.  Finland 1640 

Aix,  1409 ;  re-established  .        .  1603 

Alba  Julia,  Transylvania    ....  1629 

Altof»  Frauconia 1681 

Andrew's,  St.  Scotland  .    .  1411 

An^rs,  chiefly  law 1398 

Anjou,  1349  ;  enlai^ged  .    .  1864 

Ayignon,  France 1388 

Bamberger 1585 

Basle,  Switzerland 1468 

Beriin 1812 

Besan^on,  Burgundy        ....  1564 

Bologna,  Italy 423 

Bruges,  French  Flanders  .        .  1605 

Caen,  Normandy,  1452 ;  rerived        .    .  1803 
Cambridge,    began,   626— according  to 

others,  in  915.    (See  Cambridpe.) 
Cambridge,  New  England,  projected      .  1630 
Cologrne  in  Germany,  re-fotmded       .    .  1889 

Coropoetella,  Sjiain 1617 

~  ~  .  1391 

.  1539 
.  968 
.  1402 
.  1T22 
.  1565 
.  1426 
.  1562 
.  1694 
.  1591 
.  1582 


Erftirt*  Thi 

Evora,  Porti 

Florence,  Itafy,  enlaiged 

Frankfort-on-the-Oder 

Fribourg,  Germany 

Geneva 

Glasgow    . 

Gotti 


AD. 


Coimbra,  Portugal 

Copenhagen,  1497 ;  enlaxged  . 

Cordova,  Spain    .... 

Cracow,  Poland,  700;  enlarged 

D^on,  France      .... 

Dilliugeii,  Swabla  *. 

Dole,  Burgundy  .... 

Douay,  French  Flanders 

Dresden,  Saxony 

Dublin.    (See  Trinity  CcUegt) . 

Edinburgh,  founded  by  James  VI. 


1390 
1633 
1438 
1506 
14M 
1365 
1450 

iingen 1734 

Granada,  Spain 15S7 

Gripewald 1547 

Groningen,  Friesland  .1614 

Halle,  Saxony 1694 

Heidelberg 1346 

Ingoldstaot,  Bavaria 1573 

Jena,  or  Sala,  Thuringia ....  1548 

Kiel,  Holstein 1665 

King's  College,  London  (vhiA  eet) .        .  1S29 

Konigsbeiig.  Prussia 1544 

Leipsic,  Saxony        .....  1409 

Leyden,  Holland 1575 

Lima,  in  Peru 1614 

Lisbon,  1290;  removed  to  Coimbra  .    .  1891 
London  University  (tekteh  tee)  .  18^ 

Louvaino,  Flanders,  926 ;  enlaz^ged   .    .  14S7 

Lyons.  France 830 

llechlin,  Flanders 1440 

Mentz 1483 

Montpelier 1198 

Moscow,  1754 ;  again       ....  1803 

llunster 1491 

Naples 1218 

Orleans,  France 1312 


UNI 


669 


URS 


UNIVERSITIES,  eontinwid. 

O-xtord  (aee  Oa/ord) ,       .        .        .  A.r*.    886 

Paderbom 1592 

Piidua»  Italy 1179 

Palenza,  1209 ;  romoTed  to  8.ilaroaDca  .  1249 

Paris,  792 ;  renovated 1100 

Parma 1599 

Pavia,  791 ;  enhuiefed 1599 

Perpkpan 1S49 

Perugia,  Iialj 1307 

Petersburg:.  St.  1747 ;  again    .        .        .  1802 

Pisa,  1839  ;  enlai^ged 1552 

Poictien 1430 

Pra^e 1348 

Rhetma,  1145  ;  enlarged  ....  1560 

Rome,  Sapietua 1303 

Hoatock,  Mecklenburg    ....  1419 

Salamanca 1240 

Balcnio 1233 

Salzburg 1623 

SatAgoaBJL,  Arragon 1474 


SeyUle a  v.  1531 

Sienna 1387 

BiKuensa,  Bpaiu 1517 

Sorboane,  France 1263 

StFBflbouig 1538 

Toledo.  Spain 1518 

Treves,  Germany 1473 

Tubingen,  'Wirtemberg   ....  1477 

Turin 1405 

Upsal,  Sweden 1477 

Utrecht,  Holland 1636 

Valence,  Dauphin^ 1475 

Valencia,  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

Valladolid 1346 

Venice 1592 

Vieona 1236 

Wirtembeig 1602 

Wittenberg 1502 

Wurtzburg 1403 


UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE,  London.    See  London  Uaiversity  College. 

UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE,  Oziobd.  The  foundation  of  this  colle;;o  continaes  to  be 
erroneously  ascribed  to  Alfred ;  but  it  was  founded  in  1249,  by  William,  archdeacon 
of  Durham,  by  whom  300  marks  per  annum  were  left  to  the  chancellor  and  univer- 
sity of  Oxford,  to  purchase  rents  for  the  support  of  ten,  twelve,  or  more  masters,  at 
the  time  the  highest  academical  title,  and  the  first  purchase  was  made  in  1258.  The 
library,  which  contains  a  valuable  collection  of  MSS.  was  completed  in  1660. 

UNIVERSITY,  LONDON,  Somerset  House.  Instituted  by  charter  granted  Nov.  28, 
1836;  but  a  second  charter  was  bestowed  Dec.  5, 1837,  which  revoked  the  former, 
and  several  of  its  details  were  modified.  Its  objects  are,  the  advancement  of 
religion,  the  promotion  of  knowledge,  and  giving  encouragement  for  a  regular  counse 
of  education,  by  conferring  academical  degrees.  The  seuate  consists  of  a  chancellor, 
a  vice-chancellor,  and  thirty-six  fellows;  and  examiners  grant  the  several  degrees  in 
arts,  law,  medicine,  &a  When  the  number  of  fellows  shiJl  be  reduced  below  twenty- 
five,  the  members  of  the  senate  may  elect  twelve  more  to  complete  thirty-six :  the 
queen  is  visitor. 

UNKNOWN  TONGUE  A  disturbance  in  the  rev.  Mr.  Irving's  chapel,  in  London, 
occasioned  by  a  Miss  Hall  interrupting  a  discourse  on  prophecy,  by  holding  forth  in 
what  was  denominated  the  ''  Unknown  Tongue,**  She  was  removed  to  the  vestry. 
On  the  same  evening,  a  Mr.  Taplin  rose,  and  commenced,  with  the  permission  of 
Mr.  Irving,  a  violent  harangue  iu  the  same  unknown  language.  A  scene  of  most 
alarming  confusion  ensued,  the  whole  congregation  rising  from  their  seats  in  affright, 
and  the  females  screaming,  while  Mr.  Irving  listened  with  the  most  profound  atten- 
tion to  the  ravings  of  the  inspired  teacher,  Oct.  16, 1831.  From  this  period  much  of 
the  same  mummery,  followed  by  a  translation  into  English  rhapsody,  was  played  ofif ; 
and  large  crowds  assembled,  not  on  Sundays  only,  but  as  early  as  six  o'clock  on  the 
mornings  of  week-days  also. — Ann.  Regitter.    See  Irvingitea, 

URANUS.  This  planet,  with  its  satellites,  was  discovered  by  Herschel,  by  whom  it  was 
called  the  Geoi^gion  Planet,  in  honour  of  his  majesty  George  III.  The  name  of 
Herschel  is  also  given  to  it,  in  compliment  to  its  illustrious  discoverer,  by  the 
astronomers  of  Great  Britain ;  but  by  foreigners  it  is  usually  called  Uranus.  It  is 
about  twice  as  distant  from  the  sun  as  the  planet  Saturn ;  and  was  discovered  on 
March  13,  1781.    See  PlaneU, 

URIM  AND  THUMMIM.  Light  and  Perfection.  Much  dispute  has  existed  among 
the  learned  as  to  what  this  ceremony  was  among  the  ancient  Jews ;  but  no  certainty 
has  been  hitherto  arrived  at.  It  is  conjectured  to  have  been  some  means  of  inducing 
an  answer  from  God  upon  extraordinary  occurrences.  The  high-priest  was  the 
officiating  minbter,  and  whenever  the  ceremony  was  performed,  he  dressed  in  all 
his  richest  pontificals,  and  wore  the  most  costly  ornament^*.  It  was  never  used  for  a 
private  person  or  occasion,  but  only  for  the  king,  the  president  of  the  sanhedrim,  the 
general  of  the  army,  &c.  and  always  upon  something  relating  to  the  common  welfare 
of  the  church  or  state. — Aahe^  and  Huit.  of  the  Ancient  Jews. 

URSULINE  nuns  a  sisterhood  in  church  history,  being  an  order  founded  originally 
by  St.  Angela,  of  Brescia ;  and  so  called  from  St.  Ursula,  to  whom  they  were  dedi- 


USH  670  VAQ 

cated. — Athe,  They  governed  themaeWes  by  the  Augustine  nilai. — MtmatL  HiA 
SeTeral  oommnnities  of  Ureulme  nuiiB  have  ezuted  in  England;  and  aoma  com- 
munities of  them  exist  in  Ireland. 

USHANT,  NAVAL  BATTLE  or.  Between  the  British  and  French  flaeta»  when,  after 
an  indeciuTe  action  of  three  hoursy  the  latter,  under  cover  of  the  night,  withdrew  io 
a  deceptive  manner  to  the  harbour  of  Breat.  The  brave  admiral  Keppel  commaoded 
the  English  fleet ;  the  count  d'Orvilliers  the  French.  The  failure  of  a  complete 
victory  was  by  many  attributed  to  sir  Hugh  Palliser's  con-complianoe  with  tbe 
admiral*s  signals.  This  gentleman,  who  was  vice-admiral  of  the  blue,  preferred 
articles  of  accusation  againat  his  commander,  who  waa  in  consequence  tried  hj  a 
court-martial,  but  acquitted  in  the  moat  honourable  manner,  and  the  chaiige  agalost 
him  declared  by  the  court  to  be  "  malicious  and  ill-founded,"  July  27, 1778.— Lord 
Howe  signally  defeated  the  French  fleet,  taking  six  ships  of  the  line,  and  smking  ooe 
of  large  force,  and  several  others,  4th  June,  1794.  While  the  two  fleets  were  engaged 
in  this  action,  a  large  fleet  of  merchantmen,  on  the  safety  of  which  the  French  natioa 
depended  for  its  means  of  prosecuting  the  war,  got  safely  into  Breat  harboar,  which 
gave  occasion  to  the  enemy  to  claim  the  laurels  of  the  day,  notwithstanding  their 
loss  in  ships,  and  in  killed  and  wounded,  'jrhich  was  very  great 

USCTRT.  Forbidden  by  parliament,  1341.  Two  shillinga  per  week  were  given  for  the 
loan  of  twenty,  in  1260.  This  was  at  the  rate  of  43Z.  6i.  Sd.  per  annum  for  lOOi: 
which  was  restrained  by  an  act,  1275,  against  the  Jews.  Until  the  fifteenth  century, 
no  Christians  were  allowed  to  receive  interest  of  money,  and  Jews  were  the  only 
usurers,  and  therefore  often  banished  and  persecuted  (see  Jewt),  By  the  S7th  of 
Hen.  VIII.  the  rate  of  interest  was  fixed  at  10  per  cent.  1545.  This  statate  was 
repealed  by  Edward  VI.  but  re-enacted  13th  Elis.  1570.    See  Interett, 

UTRECHT.  TREATY  of,  &a  The  union  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces  began  here 
(aee  United  Provincei),  a.d.  1579.  The  celebrated  treaty  of  Utrecht,  which  termi- 
nated the  wars  of  queen  Anne,  waa  signed  by  the  ministers  of  Great  Britain  toA 
France,  aa  well  as  of  all  the  other  allies,  except  the  ministers  of  the  empire.  The 
most  important  stipulations  of  this  treaty  were  the  security  of  the  Protestant  sQooea- 
aion  in  England,  the  disuniting  the  French  and  Spanish  crowns,  the  destruction  of 
Dunkirk,  the  enlargement  of  the  British  colonies  and  plantations  in  America,  and 
a  full  aatisfoction  for  the  claims  of  the  allies,  April  11, 1713.  Utrecht  surrendered  to 
the  Prussians,  May  9, 1787 ;  and  was  possessed  by  the  Frenoh,  Jan.  18, 179& 

V. 

VACCINATION,  Variola  vaccina,  discovered  by  Dr.  Edward  Jenner.  He  made  the 
first  experiment  in  vaccination,  by  tranaferriug  the  jme  from  the  pustule  of  a  milk- 
maid who  had  caught  the  cow-pox  from  the  cowa,  to  a  healthy  child,  in  Uaj  1796. 
Dr.  Jenner  aubaequently  published  the  result  to  the  world,  and  Taocioation  became 
general  in  1799,  having  been  introduced  Jan.  21  in  that  year.  Tho  genuine  cow-pox 
appears  in  the  form  of  vesicles  on  the  teats  of  the  cow.  Dr.  Jenner  received  10,000^ 
from  parliament  for  the  discovery,  June  2, 1802 ;  and  the  fimt  national  iuatttution 
for  the  promotion  of  vaccination,  called  the  Royal  Jennerian  Institution,  was  foanded 
Jan.  19, 1803.  The  emperor  Napoleon  valued  this  service  of  Dr.  Jenner  to  mankind 
so  highly,  that  he  liberated  Dr.  Wickham,  when  a  prisoner  of  war,  at  Jenner'a  request, 
and  subsequently  whole  families  of  English,  making  it  a  point  to  refuse  him  nothing 
that  he  asked.  Vaccination  was  practised  throughout  all  Europe  previously  to  18i& 
The  important  Vaccination  Act,  3  &  4  Vict  passed  July  23, 1840.  Vaccination  wtf 
made  compulsory  by  16  &  17  Vict  a  100,  passed  Aug.  20, 1858.  See  /soceMw; 
SmaWpox,  &a 

VAORANTa  After  being  whipped,  a  vagrant  was  to  take  an  oath  to  return  to  the 
place  where  he  was  bom,  or  had  last  dwelt  for  three  years,  22  Hen.  VIII.  1530.^  A 
vagrant  a  second  time  convicted,  to  lose  the  upper  part  of  the  gristle  of  his  rig^^ 
ear,  27  Hen.  VIII.  1535 ;  and  a  third  time  convicted,  death.  By  1  £dw.  lU-  > 
vagabond  to  be  marked  with  a  V,  and  be  a  alave  for  two  yeara.  Vagranta  were 
punished  by  whipping,  gaoling,  boring  the  ears,  and  death  for  a  second  offence, 
14  Eliz.  1571.  The  milder  statutes  were  those  of  17  Geo.  II.;  32,  35,  and  59  Geo.  HI- 
The  lawa  against  vagrancy  are  still  very  severe  in  England,  and  operate  unequally  w 
respecta  the  character  of  the  offender. 


VAL  671  VAR 

VALKNCAY,  TREAT^T  ot.  Bnterod  into  between  l<apoleon  of  France  and  Ferdinand 
YIL  of  Spain,  whereby  the  latter  waa  put  in  foil  poaaeeaion  of  the  kingdom  of  Spain, 
on  his  agreeing  to  maintain  ita  integrity.    Thia  treaty  waa  signed  Deo.  8, 1818. 

VALENCIA,  Spain.  The  Valentia  Edetanorum  of  the  Romanai  Ita  univeraity  waa 
founded,  it  ia  aaid,  in  the  ISth  century,  and  waa  revived  in  1470.  Valencia  waa  taken 
by  the  earl  of  Peterborough  in  1705,  but  waa  aoon  loat  again,  for  it  waa  obliged  to 
Bubmit  to  the  Bonrbona  after  the  unfortunate  battle  of  Almanza,  in  1707.  It 
reaiated  the  attempta  made  on  it  by  marshal  Monoey,  but  waa  taken  from  the 
Spaniarda  with  a  garriaon  of  more  than  16,000  men,  and  immenae  stores,  by  the 
FVench  under  Suchet,  Jan.  9, 1812. 

VALENCIENNES,  SIEOE  of.  This  city  waa  besieged  fh>m  May  23  to  Ausr.  IS,  when 
the  French  garriaon  surrendered  to  the  alliea  under  the  duke  of  York,  1793.  It  waa 
retaken,  together  with  Cond^,  by  the  French,  on  capitulation,  the  garrison  and  1100 
emigrants  made  prisoners,  with  immense  stores,  riz. — 200  pieoea  of  cannon,  one 
million  pounda  of  gunpowder,  eight  milliona  of  florins  in  specie,  six  millions  of 
livres,  1000  head  of  cattle,  and  vast  quantities  of  other  provisions,  Aug.  80, 1794. 

VALENTINE'S  DAT.  The  practice  of  "choosing  a  valentine,"  as  it  is  called,  on  thia 
day,  ia  too  well  known  to  need  explanation.  The  origin  of  the  custom  has  been 
much  controverted  ;  it  ia  indisputably  of  very  ancient  date.  Valentine  was  a  bishop 
of  the  Romish  church,  who  suffered  martyrdom  under  Claudius  II.  at  Rome,  a.d.  271. 
It  is  said  that  on  this  day  the  birds  ohoose  their  mates ;  whence,  probably,  came  the 
cuatom  of  young  people  choosing  Valentines  or  particular  firienda  on  the  feast  of 
St.  Valentine. 

VALENTINIANS.  This  sect  of  enthusiasts  were  followers  of  Valentine,  a  priest,  who, 
upon  his  being  disappointed  of  a  bishopric,  forsook  the  Christian  faith,  and  published 
that  there  were  thirty  gods  and  goddesses,  fifteen  of  each  sex,  which  he  called  uEones, 
or  Ages.  He  taught  in  the  second  century,  and  published  a  gospel  and  psalms :  to 
these  his  followers  added  several  other  errors,  declaring  there  was  no  obligation  to 
suffer  martyrdom;  some  declared  against  baptism,  and  others  praotiaed  it  in  a  peculiar 
manner,  and  all  indulged  in  licentiousness. 

VALTELINE,  Switzerlaitd.  Here  took  place  a  general  and  horrid  massacre  of  the 
Protestants  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  July  20, 1620.  It  began  at  Tirani;  extended  to 
all  the  towns  of  the  district,  and  lasted  three  days,  neither  man,  woman,  nor  child 
being  spared  in  this  slaughter,  called  in  history  the  Massacre  of  Valteline. — ^AiAe. 

VALVASOR.  The  first  name  of  dignity  next  beneath  a  peer,  was  anciently  that  of 
vidamet,  vicedomini,  or  valvcuor,  Valvasors  are  mentioned  by  our  ancient  lawyers  aa 
viri  magna  dignUatU,  and  air  Edward  Coke  speaks  highly  of  them.  Tet  the  distinction 
is  entirely  out  of  use  at  present ;  and  oar  legal  antiquaries  are  not  agreed  upon  even 
the  original  or  ancient  office  of  valvasors.  Now,  therefore,  the  first  personal  dignity 
after  the  nobility  is  a  knight  of  the  order  of  St  Geoiige  or  of  the  Qarter,  first  instituted 
by  Edward  IIL—Blachttone. 

VANCOUVER'S  VOTAOE.  CapUin  Vancouver  served  as  a  midshipman  under  capUin 
Cook ;  and  a  voyage  of  discovery,  to  ascertain  the  existence  of  any  navigable  com- 
munication between  the  North  Pacific  and  North  Atlantic  oceans  being  determined 
on,  he  was  appointed  to  command  it.  He  sailed  in  1790,  and  returned  Sept  24, 1795. 
He  compiled  an  account  of  this  voyage  of  survey  of  the  North-west  coast  of  America, 
and  died  in  1798. 

VANDALS.  The  Vandal  nations  began  their  ravages  in  Qermany  and  Gaul,  a.d.  406-414 ; 
their  kingdom  in  Spain  was  founded  in  411.  They  invaded  and  conquered  the  Roman 
territories  in  Africa,  imder  Gtonseric,  who  took  Carthage,  Oct.  24,  439.  lliey  were 
driven  out,  and  attacked  in  turn  by  the  Saracen  Moors.  The  Vandals  overran  a  vast 
portion  of  Europe,  and  spread  devastation  wherever  they  appeared. 

VAN  DIEMEN'S  LAND.  This  country  was  discovered  by  Tasman  in  1633.  It  was 
visited  by  Fumeaux  in  1773;  by  Captain  Cook  in  1777;  and  was  deemed  the  south 
extremity  of  New  Holland  (now  Australia)  until  1799.  A  British  settlement  was 
established  on  the  south-east  part,  within  the  mouth  of  the  Derwent^  in  1804,  and 
named  Hobart  Town,  or  Hobarton,  now  the  seat  of  government  This  island  waa 
made  a  Convict  colony  of  Qreat  Britain,  whither  many  of  our  remarkable  transports 
have  been  sent 

V ARENNES.    Thia  town  of  France  ia  celebrated  by  the  arreat  of  Louia  XVI.    Here  he. 


TAB  672  VEH 


his  queen,  Mter,  and  two  duldien  were  airerted  in  their  fliglit  firom  tbe  Tiuleries  on 
the  21«tJaiie^  and  were  tekea  on  the  22iid,  and  coodncted  back  to  Pkiu.  1791.  Drooet, 
the  postmaster  at  aa  intermediate  town,  diaeorered  the  king.  He  immediatelj 
informed  the  monicipalitj,  who  despatched  mcaaengera  to  Varennea.  Drouei  vent 
first,  and  seeing  a  waggun  laden  with  liimitare  upon  the  bfidge,  oroset  it;  thu 
obstrocted  the  paasage  of  the  king  and  his  soitc^  who  were  forthwith  arreBked. 

VARXA.  A  fortified  town  and  seaport  in  Bulgaria,  Eoropean  Tuikej.  A  grest  btttie 
was  foogfat  near  this  place,  Nor.  10,  1444,  between  the  Tarks  under  Amunth  11.  aod 
the  Hoogarians  under  their  king^  1^Aiml»nm^  aad  John  Hunniadea.  Tbe  lalter  were 
defeated  with  great  sUoghter :  tbe  king  was  kiUed,  and  Hunniades  made  prisoDcr. 
The  Christians  had  previouAly  broken  a  recent  truce. — ^The  emperor  Nidiolai  of 
Roasia  arrired  before  Varna,  the  head-quarters  of  his  armj,  then  beaieging  the  plsoe, 
Ang.  5, 1828.  The  Turkish  garrison  made  a  Tigoroos  attack  on  the  beoegen^  Aog.  7; 
aad  another  on  the  2l8t,  but  were  repulsed.  Varna  surrendered,  after  a  nDgoinary 
conflict,  to  the  Russian  arms,  Oct  1, 1828.  It  was  restored  at  the  peace  io  l!}29,  iu 
fortificationa  were  dismantled,  but  have  since  hem  restored. — ^The  allied  armies 
disembarked  at  Varna,  May  29,  1554,  and  remained  there  till  thej  nOed  for  tLe 
Crimea,  Sept  3,  following.    While  at  Varna  they  suffered  severely  from  cholenL 

VASSALAGE.  See  Femdal  Lawt  and  Ft  Utmage.  Vaaaalage  was  introduced  by  the  Ssxou, 
and  its  slavery  increased  under  William  L  Under  the  Norman  princes  there  vcre 
vassal  boors  and  free  boors ;  those  who  were  sold  with  the  land,  and  those  who  wen 
free  io  dioose  an  employer.  To  this  day  the  distinction  prarails  in  some  coantxiM^ 
and  particalariy  in  Russia,  where  the  Tassal  boors  are  divided  into  daaei;  as  boon 
belonging  to  the  sovereign ;  mining  boors,  who  are  sold  with  the  property ;  snd  prififie 
boorsy  who  belong  to  the  nobility,  and  perform  the  labour  on  their  estates.  Io  England, 
a  vassal  did  houuM^  to  a  lord  on  account  of  land,  &c  held  of  him  in  fee.  Vaaslage 
was  abolished  in  Hungary  in  October,  1785 ;  in  Holsteln,  in  Hay,  1797 ;  and  in  Cou^ 
land,  in  September,  lbl8. 

VATICAN.  The  maguificent  palace  of  the  pope  at  Rome,  said  to  contain  7000  rooms. 
In  this  palace,  the  library,  founded  a.d.  1443,  is  so  beautiful  a  fabric,  that  it  is  ssid  it 
will  admit  of  no  improvement :  and  it  is  also  the  richest  in  the  world,  both  in  printed 
books  snd  manuscripts. — ^The  phrase  "Thunders  of  the  Vatican"  was  firit  used  \ij 
Voltaire,  1748.     Pistolessrs  Description,  with  numerous  plates,  was  published  182$-3i 

VAUXHALL  BRIDGE.  Originally  projected  by  Mr.  R.  Dodd,  but.  In  consequeooe  of 
some  disagreement  he  waa  sucoeieded,  first  by  Mr.  Rennie,  and  afterwaids  bj  Mr. 
Walker,  under  whose  direction  the  present  elegant  fabric  was  constructed,  si  sn 
expense  of  about  150,000^  which  is  to  be  defrayed  by  a  tolL  The  first  stone  vu 
laid  May  9,  1811,  by  prince  Charles,  the  eldest  son  of  the  duke  of  Brunswick;  sad  the 
bridge  was  completed  and  opened  in  July  1816.    It  is  of  inm,  of  nine  equal  srehes. 

VAUXHALL  GARDENS,  Loxdox.  It  is  denominated  from  tbe  manor  of  Vanzhsll,  or 
Fankeahall ;  but  the  tradition  that  this  house,  or  any  other  adjacent^  was  the  property 
of  Guy  Fawkes,  is  erroneoua  The  premises  were,  in  161 5,  the  property  of  Jsne  Vsax, 
and  the  mansion-house  was  then  called  Stockden'a  From  her  it  passed  thrt>ugh 
varioua  hands,  till,  in  1752,  it  became  the  property  of  Mr.  Tyers.  There  is  do  oertsin 
account  of  the  time  when  these  premises  were  first  opened  for  the  entertainmeDt  of 
the  public ;  but  the  Spring  Gardens  at  Vauxhall  are  mentioned  in  the  Spedai^r  ss  ft 
place  of  great  resort.  Some  writers  of  accounts  of  London  suppose  1780  to  be  the 
first  year  of  the  opening  of  Vauxhall  Gardens,  which  succeeded  Ranelagh  gaideni. 
The  greatest  season  of  Vauxhall  was  in  1823,  when  133,279  persons  visited  the  gtfdeos, 
and  the  receipts  were  29,590/L  The  greatest  number  of  persons  in  one  mghtmi 
Aug.  2,  1833,  when  20,137  persons  paid  for  admission.  The  number  on  the  /s>< 
nighty  Sept  5,  1839,  was  1089  penoQa.—Bankr»pi^  Reports.  Vauxhall  was  sold  by 
auction,  Sept.  9,  1841,  for  20,200/. 

VEGETABLES.  Our  chief  table- vegetables  were  brought  from  FUnders  in  the  rei^n  of 
Henry  VII L  about  1520  ei  teq.    See  Botany ,  Ourdmng,  &c. 

VEHMIC  TRIBUNALS.  Secret  tribunals  esUblished  iu  WestphalU  to  maintuo  religion 
and  the  public  peace.  Their  proceedings  were  enveloped  in  a  profound  mysteit. 
They  had  their  origin  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne;  but  became  importsnt  about  11$^ 
when  Westphalia  became  subject  to  the  archbishop  of  Cologne.  These  courts  beam* 
very  troublesome,  persons  of  the  most  exidted  rank  being  subjected  to  their  dedaioi^ 


VEL 


678 


VEN 


The  emperors  endeavoured  to  suppress  them,  but  did  not  succeed  till  the  16th  century. 
Sir  W.  Soott  has  described  them  in  "Anne  of  Geierstein." 

YELLORE,  India.  Residence  of  the  family  of  the  late  sultan  of  Mysore,  strongly 
garrisoned  by  English  troops.  Revolt  aftd  massacre  of  the  Sepoys,  in  which  the 
£unily  of  the  late  Tippoo  took  an  active  part,  July  10, 1806.  The  insurgents  were 
subdued,  and  mostly  put  to  the  sword,  by  Colonel  Gillespie :  800  Sepoys  were  killed 
before  the  mutiny  was  suppressed.    See  India, 

YELOGIPEDEa  Vehicles  of  German  construction.  They  first  appeared  in  England  in 
April  1818.  and  obtained  the  name  from  being  impelled  by  the  feet  with  great  celerity, 
the  mover  of  the  vehicle  sitting  astride  upon  it  as  upon  a  rocking-horse.  Though  at 
firit  a  very  fashionable  amusement^  they  seem  to  have  fallen  into  disuse. 

VENEREAL  DISEASE.  Imes  Vmerta,  Morbut  Gallicu$.  This  disease  is  said  to  have 
broken  out  in  the  French  army,  at  the  siege  of  Naples,  in  1494 ;  whence  the  French 
term  it  mcd  de  NapUt,  In  the  Netherlands  and  England  it  obtained  the  appellation 
of  fMtl  de  France;  though  in  the  latter  countiy  it  waa  known  so  early  as  the  twelfth 
century.  About  the  same  period,  too,  at  Florence,  one  of  the  Medici  family  died  of 
it.  Most  writers  suppose,  that  the  followers  of  Columbus  brought  the  disorder  with 
them  from  the  new  to  the  old  world,  1493  :  others  maintain  that  it  prevailed  among 
the  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  and  their  descendants,  long  before  the  discovery  of 
America. 

VENEZUELA.  When  the  Spaniards  landed  here  in  1499,  they  observed  some  huU  built 
upon  piles,  in  an  Indian  village  named  Cora,  in  order  to  nuse  them  above  the  stagnated 
water  that  covered  the  plain ;  and  this  induced  them  to  give  it  the  name  of  Venezuela, 
or  little  Venice.  This  state  declared  in  congressional  assembly  the  sovereignty  of  its 
people,  in  July  1814,  and  was  recognised  in  1818.  It  formed  part  of  the  republic  of 
Colombia  till  1831,  when  it  separated  from  the  federal  union,  and  declared  itself  sole 
and  independent  The  president,  general  D.  T.  Monagas,  was  elected  in  1855.  See 
Colombia. 

YEN  I,  VIDIf  VICI^  "  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered."  This  well-known  sentence  formed 
the  whole  of  Caesar's  despatch  to  the  Roman  senate  when  he  vanquished  Pharnaces, 
king  of  the  Cimmerian  Bosphorus,  47  B.c.  This  despatch,  says  Tacitus,  is  the  shortest 
and  most  energetic  upon  record.    See  Zda,  Battle  of, 

VENICE.  So  called  from  the  Venetii  who  inhabited  its  site,  when  it  was  made  a  kingdom 
by  the  Gauls,  who  conquered  it  about  356  B.a  Marcellus  conquered  it  for  the  Roman 
republic,  and  slew  the  Gaulish  king,  221  B.O. 


The  present  dty  founded  by  fiEunilies 
from  Aquileia  and  Padua  fleeing  ftx>m 
Attila,  about         .        .        .        .  a.o.    452 

First  doge  (or  duke)  chosen,  Anafesto 
Bftululio 097 

Venice  becomes  independent  of  the 
eastern  empire,  and  acquires  the  mari- 
time cities  of  Dalmatia  and  Istria       .    WJ 

Its  navy  and  commerce  increases  .  1000-1100 

I>efeaU  the  fleet  of  Frederic  Barbarossa  1177 

Helps  in  the  Latin  conquest  of  Constan- 
tinople, and  obtains  power  in  the 
East  (1204 j^  for  which  it  contends  with 
Genoa 1350-81 

War  with  the  Turks ;  Venice  loses  many 
of  its  eastern  possessions     .  1461-77 

Helps  to  overcome  Charles  VIIX.       .    .  1495 

Injured  by  the  discoTcry  of  America 
(14P2X  and  the  passage  to  the  Indies  .  1497 

Subdued  by  the  league  of  Cambray       .  1508 


The  Turks  take  Cyprus  .      A,n.  1571 

AndCandia 1669 

Venice  recovera  part  of  the  Morea     .  1683-99 

But  loses  it  again 1739 

Venice  occupied  by  Bonaparte,  who, 
by  the  treaty  of  C^mpo  Formio,  gives 
part  of  its  territory  to  Austria,  and 
annexes   the   rest   to   the   Cisalpine 

republic 1797 

The  whole  of  Venice  annexed  to  the 
kingdom  of  Italy  by  the   treaty  of 

Presburg 1805 

All  Venice  transferred  to  the  empire  of 

Austria 1814 

Venice  declared  a  ft-ee  port     .    Jan.  24,  1830 
Insurrection— the  city  surrenders  to  the 
Austrians  after  a  long  siege        .        .  1848 

Venice  has  had  122  doges :  Anafesto,  ▲.d.  697, 
to  Louis  Marini,  1797. 


YENTILATORSw  Invented  by  the  rev.  Dr.  Hales,  and  his  account  of  them  read  to 
the  Royal  Society  of  London,  May  1741.  The  ventilator  for  the  use  of  the  king's 
men-of-war  was  announced  in  London  by  Mr.  Triewald,  in  November^  same  year. 
The  marquess  of  Chabanne*8  plan  for  warming  and  ventilating  theatres  and  houses 
for  audiences  was  applied  to  those  of  London  in  1819.  The  systems  of  Dr.  Reid  and 
others  followed.    Dr.  Amott's  work  on  this  subject  was  published  in  1838. 

VENTRILOQUISM.  Persons  who  had  this  art  were  by  the  Latins  called  Ven- 
triloqut,  and  by  the  Greeks,  Engastrimythoi,  i.e.  people  that  speak  out  of  their 
bellies^  or  who  have  the  art  of  throwing  out  the  voice  in  an  eztraordinsry  manner. 

XX 


VEN  674  VES 

Exhibitors  of  this  kind  have  appeared  ia  England  in  Tarioaa  ages,  but  some  of 
extraordinary  capabilities  in  their  art  exhibited  in  the  last  century.  Mr.  Thomu 
King  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  man  whose  experimental  philosophy,  shown 
in  this  line,  excited  great  wonder,  abaut  1716.  Nearly  all  the  fashionable  vorld 
attended  to  hear  him  imitate  the  "killing  a  calf."  One  of  the  most  accompliaheii 
professors  of  ventriloquism  that  ever  appeared  in  France  or  England,  was  M.  Alexandre, 
about  1822. 

TENUS,  THB  PLANET.  This  planet's  transit  over  the  sun,  it  was  ascertained  by 
Horrox,  in  1633,  would  take  place  Nov.  24,  1639.  He  was  the  first  who  predicted,  or 
rather  calculated,  this  passage,  from  which  he  deduced  many  useful  obaervatiooB. 
Maskelyne  was  sent  to  St.  Helena  to  observe  her  transit,  in  Jan.  1761.  Capt  Goolc 
made  his  first  voyage  in  the  Endeavour,  to  Otaheite,  to  observe  a  transit  of  Venus,  in 
1769.  See  note  to  article  Cook's  Voyages.  The  diurnal  rotation  of  Venus  waa  dis- 
covered by  Casaini  in  1712. 

VERNEUIL,  BATTLE  op.  Fought  Aug.  17,  1424,  between  the  Bui^gundtsns  and 
English  under  the  regent  duke  of  Bedford,  and  the  French,  assisted  by  the  Scot*,  com- 
manded by  the  count  de  Narbonne,  the  earls  of  Douglas  and  Buchan,  Ac.  The  PreDch 
at  first  were  successful,  but  some  Lombard  auxiliaries,  who  had  taken  the  English 
camp,  commenced  pillaging,  and  left  the  field,  as  if  the  day  were  over.  Two  thousand 
English  archers  came  then  fresh  to  the  attack,  and  the  French  and  Scots,  in  spite  of 
their  utmost  valour,  were  totally  defeated,  and  their  leaders  killed. 

VERSAILLES,  PALACE  op.  In  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  Versailles  was  only  a 
small  village,  in  a  forest  thirty  miles  in  circuit;  and  here  this  prince  built  a 
hunting-seat  in  1630.  Louis  XIV.  in  1687  enlaiiged  it  into  a  magnificent  palace,  which 
was  finished  in  1708,  and  was  the  usual  residence  of  the  kings  of  France  till 
1789,  when  Louis  XVI.  and  his  £unily  were  removed  from  it  to  Paris.  It  was  tlta- 
wards  the  residence  of  Louis-Philippe,  and  is  still  a  royal  palace. 

VERSAILLES,  PEACE  oP.  The  definitive  treaty  of  peace  between  Great  Britsin  and 
British  North  America,  signed  at  Paris ;  when  the  latter  power  was  admitted  to  be  a 
sovereign  and  independent  state.  On  the  same  day  the  definitive  treaty  was  aigneil 
at  Versailles  between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain,  Sept.  3, 1783.  In  pursuance 
of  the  treaty  of  Versailles,  Pondicherry  and  Carical,  with  the  former  posaeniooB 
in  Bengal,  wore  restored  to  France.  Trmcomalee  at  the  same  time  was  restored  to 
the  Dutch. 

VERSE.  See  Poetry,  First  known  in  Thrace,  1249  b.o.  It  is  uncertain  what  species 
of  poetry  was  first  cultivated  in  Greece.  Homer  shone  as  the  first  epic,  and  Pind^r 
was  the  prince  of  lyrio  poets. —  Vouitu,  The  father  of  pastoral  poetry  was  Theo- 
critus, who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Hiero,  about  265  B.O. — Fabric.  Bibl,  Gr^- 
Ennius,  one  of  the  elder  Roman  poets,  first  produced  satire,  about  200  B.a  Aft«r 
the  barbarous  nations  had  conquered  Rome,  modem  poetry  or  rhyme  sprune  from 
the  Arabs  or  the  Goths.  Hilary,  bishop  of  Poictiers,  and  St.  Ambrose,  were  the  6^^t 
who  composed  hymns,  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century.  Poetry  was  introduced 
into  England  by  Aldhelme,  first  bishop  of  Sherborn,  about  A.D.  700.  The  minstreb 
of  Provence  first  introduced  metrical  tales  or  ballads.  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  was  the 
first  who  introduced  Italian  numbers  into  English  versification. 

VERSE,  BLANK.  BlAnk  verse  and  the  heroic  couplet,  now  used  for  grave  or  e1ent«d 
themes,  are  both  of  comparatively  modem  date.  Surrey  translated  part  of  Viryitt 
jBneid  into  blank  verse,  which  is  the  first  composition  of  the  kind,  omitting  trai^yr 
extant  in  the  English  language;  and  the  other  measure  was  but  little  affected  till  the 
reign  of  Charles  IL  The  verse  previously  used  in  our  grave  compositions  was  the 
stanza  of  eight  lines,  the  oUava  rima,  afl  adopted  with  the  addition  of  one  line  by 
Spenser  (in  his  Fairy  Queen),  who  probably  borrowed  it  from  Ariosto  and  Tasso,  the 
Italian  langusge  being  at  that  time  in  high  repute.  Boccaccio  first  introduced  it  into 
Italy  in  his  heroic  poem  La  Teteide,  having  copied  it  from  the  old  French  ckaMom.— 
Metropolitan,  Trissino  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  introducer  of  blank  vene  amorv; 
the  modems,  about  ISOS.-^VotHua.  The  Orave,  by  Blair,  is  the  finest  specifflen  of 
blank  verse  in  the  English  language,  next  to  that  of  Milton. — Dr.  Johnnn, 

VESPERS,  THE  SICILIAN.    See  SicUian  Vegpert. 

VESPERS,  THE  FATAL.  In  the  house  of  the  French  ambassador  at  Blackfrisrs.  in 
London,  a  Jesuit  was  preaching  to  upwards  of  three  hundred  persons  in  an  upr<r 
room,  the  floor  of  which  gave  way  with  the  weight,  and  the  whole  oongregation  w 


VES  675  VIC 

precipitated  to  the  street^  and  the  preacher  and  more  than  a  hundred  of  hie  auditory, 
chiefly  penona  of  rank,  were  killed.  This  eataatrophe,  which  was  known  aa  Uie 
Fatal  Vespers,  occurred  Oct  26, 1628.— iStow'f  Chrwk 

YESTA^  The  planet  Vesta  (the  ninth)  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Olben,  of  Bremen,  on 
March  28, 1807.  She  appears  like  a  star  of  the  sixth  magnitude.  Vesta  is  considered 
to  be  about  225  millions  of  miles  from  the  Sun,  around  which  it  revoWes  in  1325 
days,  or  in  three  years,  seven  months  and  a  half— moving  at  the  rate  of  44,000  miles 
in  an  hour.  Some  have  estimated  its  diameter  at  276  miles,  and  if  so,  it  will  contain 
229,000  square  miles  on  its  surface,  but  it  is  probable,  from  a  variety  of  circumatances, 
that  it  is  considerably  larger  in  size  than  what  is  here  stated. 

VESTALS.  Priestesses  of  the  goddess  Vesta,  who  took  care  of  the  perpetual  fire 
consecrated  to  her  worship.  This  office  was  very  ancient,  as  the  mother  of  Romulus 
was  one  of  the  Vestals.  JBneas  is  supposed  to  have  first  chosen  the  Vestals.  Numa, 
in  710  B.O.  first  appointed  four,  to  which  number  Tarquin  added  two.  They  were 
always  chosen  by  the  monarchs ;  but  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins,  the  high- 
priest  was  entrusted  with  the  care  of  theuL  As  they  were  to  be  virgins,  they  were 
chosen  young,  from  the  age  of  six  to  ten ;  and  if  there  was  not  a  sufficient  number 
that  presented  themselves  as  candidates  for  the  office,  twenty  viigins  were  selected, 
and  they  upon  whom  the  lot  fell  were  obliged  to  become  priestMses.  Minutia  was 
buried  alive  for  violating  her  virgin  vow,  337  B.a  Sextilia,  274  B.C. ;  and  Cornelia 
Maximiliana,  a.d.  92. 

VESUVIUS,  MOUNT.  The  dreadful  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  when  it  emitted 
such  a  quantity  of  flame  and  smoke  that  the  air  was  darkened,  and  the  cities  of 
Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  were  overwhelmed  by  the  burning  lava,  a.d.  79.  More  than 
250,000  persona  perished  by  the  destruction  of  those  cities;  the  sun's  light  was 
totally  obscured  for  two  days  throughout  Naples;  great  quantities  of  ashes  and 
sulphureous  smoke  were  carried  not  only  to  Rome,  but  also  beyond  the  Mediter" 
ranean  into  Africa;  birds  were  suffocated  in  the  air  and  fell  dead  upon  the  ground, 
and  the  fishes  perished  in  the  neighbouring  waters,  which  were  made  hot  and  infected 
by  it.  This  eruption  proved  fatal  to  Pliny  the  naturalist  Herculaneum  was  dis- 
covered in  1737,  and  many  curious  articles  have  been  dug  from  the  ruins  since  that 
time;  but  everything  combustible  had  the  marks  of  having  been  burned  by  fire. 
Numerous  eruptions  have  occurred,  causing  great  devastation  and  loss  of  life.  In 
1631  the  town  of  Torre  del  Oreco,  with  4000  persons,  and  a  great  part  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  were  destroyed.  One  of  the  most  dreadful  eruptions  ever  known 
took  place  ■uddenly,  Nov.  24,  1759.  The  violent  burst  in  1767  was  the  34th  from 
the  time  of  Titus,  when  Pompeii  was  buried.  One  in  1794  wa«  most  destructive :  the  lava 
flowed  over  5000  acres  of  rich  vineyards  and  cultivated  lands,  and  the  town  of  Torre 
del  Oreco  was  a  second  time  burned ;  the  top  of  the  mountain  fell  in,  and  the  crater 
is  now  nearly  two  miles  in  circumference.  There  have  been  several  eruptions  since ; 
the  latest,  in  May  1855,  caused  great  destruction  of  property. 

VICE,  Thb.  An  instrument  of  which  Archytas  of  Tarentum,  disciple  of  Pythagorss^  is 
said  to  have  been  the  inventor,  along  with  the  pulley  and  other  articles,  420  B.a 

VICECHANCELLOR  of  ENGLAND.  An  equity  judge,  appointed  by  act  of  parliament, 
and  who  first  took  his  seat  in  the  court  of  chancery,  May  5,  1813.  A  handsome  new 
court  was  erected  about  1816,  contiguous  to  Lincoln's-inn-hall ;  but  in  term-time  this 
judge  sat  at  a  court  erected  in  1823,  at  Westminster-hall.  Two  additional  judges, 
also  styled  vice-chancellors,  with  the  addition  of  their  surnames,  were  appointed  under 
act  5  Vict  Oct  184 1.  The  office  of  vice-chancellor  of  England  ceased  in  August  1850, 
and  a  ^ird  vice-chancellor  was  appointed  under  act  14  Vict  c.  4, 1851 ;  and  by  the 
act  of  14  &  15  Vict  c.  83,  same  year,  two  equity  judges,  styled  lords  justices^  were 
appointed.    See  LordM  Jtutices  and  Lord  Chancellors. 

VICTORIA  Stbau-Packet.  Sailed  from  Hull,  for  St  Petersburg,  on  Nov.  1, 1852,  and 
having  encountered  a  dreadful  gale  of  wind,  in  which  she  damaged  her  machinery  and 
rigging,  was  obliged  to  return  to  Hull,  where  her  injuries  were  repaired,  and  whence 
she  again  sailed  on  the  7th  of  same  month.  But  she  had  scarcely  put  to  sea  when 
another  storm  arose,  more  violent  than  the  first  whereby  she  was  a  second  time 
severely  crippled,  and  in  that  state,  the  tempest  continuing  to  rage  with  unabated 
fury,  she  neared  the  Wingo  Beacon,  off  Qottenburg,  on  the  rocks  round  which  she 
struck,  and  was  instantly  wrecked.  Many  of  the  crew  and  passengers  were  drowned ; 
the  remainder  with  difficulty  saved  their  lives,  Nov.  8-9,  1852.    She  was  a  splendid 

XX  2 


VIC  676  VIC 

ship,  and  her  disastrous  fate  excited  the  deepest  sorrow  and  sympathy  in  England, 
Qottenbnii^,  and  St  Petersburg.  The  storm  in  which  this  Teasel  was  lost,  was  peirhapa 
the  most  terrible  of  the  many  that  made  the  winter  of  1852-3  memorable^ 

VICTORIA,  DuBUN  AND  LiYKBFOOL  Stbam-Packkt.    See  Qmten  Vietoria  SUam-PadbeU 

VICTORIA,  OR  PORT  PHILLIP,  in  Australia,  situated  between  New  South  Wales 
and  South  Australia,  the  most  successful  colony  in  that  region.  In  1798,  Baas,  in  his 
whale-boat  expedition,  visited  Western  Port,  one  of  its  harbours;  and,  in  1802, 
Flinders  sailed  into  Port  Phillip  Bay.  In  1804,  colonel  Collins  landed  with  a  party 
of  convicts  with  the  intention  of  founding  a  settlement  at  Port  Phillip,  but  after- 
wards removed  to  Van  Diemen's  Land.  In  1824,  Messrs.  Hume  and  Hovell,  two 
stockowners  from  Kew  South  Wales,  explored  part  of  the  country,  but  did  not 
discover  its  great  advantages.  In  1834,  Mr.  Henty  imported  some  sheep  from  Van 
Diemen's  Land;  and,  in  May  1885,  Mr.  John  Batman  entered  between  the  heads 
of  Port  Phillip  and  took  up  a  position,  and  purchased  a  large  tract  of  land  from  the 
aborignes  for  a  few  gewgaws  and  blankets.  He  shortly  after,  with  fifteen  associates 
from  Hobarton,  took  possession  of  600,000  acres  in  the  present  Qeelong  oonntry. 
In  1835,  thtf  Launceston  Associates  and  Mr.  John  Pasooe  Fawkener  ascended  the 
Tarra-Yarra  (or  ever-flowing)  river,  and  encamped  on  the  site  of  Melboome.  The 
colony  made  rapid  progress.  In  1887,  the  colonists  (450  in  number)  posaeesed 
140,000  sheep,  2500  cattle,  and  150  horses.  In  1837,  sir  B.  Bourke,  governor  of 
New  South  Wales,  visited  Uie  colony,  determioed  the  sites  of  towns,  and  caused  the 
land  to  be  surveyed  and  re-sold,  setting  aside  many  contending  claims.  He  appointed 
captain  Lonsdale  chief-magistrate.  (See  Melbourne.)  In  1839,  the  prosperity  of  the 
colony  brought  great  numbers  to  it,  and  induced  much  speculation  and  consequent 
embarrassment  and  insolvency  in  1841-2.  In  1839,  Mr.  C.  J.  Latrobe  was  appointed 
lieutenant-governor  under  sir  G.  Gipps,  which  office  he  still  retains.  In  1851, 
the  province  was  declared  independent  of  Kew  South  Wales.  In  the  same  year  a 
reward  of  2001.  was  ofifered  for  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Victoria,  which  was  soon 
after  found  near  Melbourne,  and  was  profitably  worked  in  August.  In  Oct.  7000 
persons  were  at  Ballarat,  and  in  Nov.  10,000  round  Mount  Alexander.  FVom 
Sept.  80  to  Dea  81, 1851,  80.811  ounces  of  gold  were  obtained  from  Ballarat;  and 
from  Oct  29  to  Dec.  81,  94,524  ounces  from  Mount  Alexander — total,  124,835  ounces. 
Immense  immigration  followed  in  1852.  See  Melbourne.  In  1855,  a  representative 
constitution  was  granted  to  this  colony.  Population  of  the  colony  in  1836,  224 ;  in 
1841, 11,738;  in  1846,  32,879;  in  1851,  77,345;  Deo.  31,  1852,  about  200,000;  in 
March  1857  Uiere  were  258,116  males  and  145,403  females. 

VICTORLi.    See  ffang  K<mg. 

VICTORIA  CROSS.  A  new  order  of  merit  instituted  to  reward  the  gallantry  of  non- 
commissioned officers  in  the  army  and  navy,  Feb.  5, 1856.  It  is  a  Maltese  cross,  made 
of  RussLsn  cazmon  from  SebastopoL  The  queen  conferred  the  honour  on  62  peiBons 
(of  both  services)  on  Friday,  June  16,  1857. 

VICTORIA  PARK,  Lohdon.  This  park  was  originated  by  an  act  passed  4  &  5  Vict, 
c.  27,  June  21,  1841,  which  enabled  her  majesty's  commissioners  of  woods  and 
forests  to  purchase  certain  lands  for  a  royal  park,  with  the  sum  of  72,000iL  raised 
by  the  same  act,  by  the  sale  of  Tork-house  to  the  duke  of  Sutherland.  The  act 
described  the  land  to  be  so  purchased,  containing  290  acres,  situate  in  the  parishea  of 
St  John,  Hackney,  St.  Matthew,  Bethnal-green,  and  St.  Mary,  Stratford-le-Bow,  at  the 
east  end  of  London.    The  park  was  completed,  and  opened  to  the  public  in  1845. 

VICTORIA  RAILWAY-BRIDGE,  over  the  St  Lawrence,  Montreal,  now  erecting.  li 
will  be  tubular,  like  the  Britannia.  The  length  will  be  10,284  feet,  about  100  yar^ 
less  than  two  English  miles ;  the  height  will  be  sixty  feet,  between  the  summer  level 
of  the  river  and  the  under  surface  of  the  central  tube.  The  estimated  cost  is 
1,400,000/. ;  on  Jan.  5, 1855,  the  bridge  was  carried  away  by  floating  ice,  but  the  ston^ 
work  remained  firm. 

VICTORIA  REGIA,  the  magnificent  water-lily,  brought  to  this  country  from  Guiana  by 
sir  Robert  Schomburgk,  in  1838,  and  named  after  the  queen.  Fine  specimens  are  at 
the  Botanic  Gardens  at  Kew,  Regent's  Park,  &c.  It  was  grown  in  the  open  air  in 
1855  by  Messrs.  Weeks  of  Chelsea. 

VICTORY,  MAN-OF-WAR,  of  100  guns,  the  finest  first-rate  ship  in  the  navy  of  England, 
was  lost  in  a  violent  tempest  near  the  race  of  Aldemey,  and  its  admiral,  Balchan, 


VIC  677  VIE 

aiid  100  gentlemen's  sons,  and  the  whole  crew,  consifiting  of  1000  men,  perished, 
October  8,  1744.  The  flsg-ship  of  the  immortal  Nelson  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar  was 
also  called  the  Victory,  and  is  kept  in  fine  preservation  at  Portsmouth,  where  it  is 
the  flag-ship  in  ordinary,  and  is  visited  daily  by  numbers  of  persons  anxious  to  see  the 
spot  where  the  hero  fell,  Oct.  21,  1805. 

VICTUALLERS,  akd  LICENSED  VICTUALLERS.  The  trade  of  victualler  in  Engknd 
is  traced  to  very  early  times,  but  under  this  particular  name  no  date  can  be  assigned 
to  it;  it  was  early  under  the  regulation  of  statutes.  The  Vintners'  Company  of 
London  was  founded  1437;  their  hall  was  rebuilt  in  1823.  The  Licensed  Victuallers' 
School  was  established  in  1803 ;  and  the  Licensed  Victuallers'  Asylum,  Feb.  22, 1827. 
It  was  enacted  that  none  shall  sell  less  than  one  full  quart  of  the  best  beer  or  ale 
for  Id.  and  two  quarts  of  the  smaller  sort  for  Id,  James  I.  1603.  The  power  of 
licensing  public-houses  was  granted  to  sir  Giles  Mompesson  and  sir  Francis  Mitchel 
in  1621.  The  number  in  England  then  was  about  13,000.  In  1790,  there  were  in 
Great  Britain  about  76,000.  There  were,  in  1850  :  England,  59,335 ;  Scotland,  15,081 ; 
Ireland,  14,080  ;  total,  88,496.  Of  persons  licensed  to  sell  beer  (England  only)  to  be 
drunk  on  the  premises,  34,800;  not  to  be  drunk  on  the  premises,  3270. — Official 
Rttunu.  See  Publican*,  Porter,  Beer,  Ac — Public-houses  were  allowed  to  be  open  on 
Sundays  from  the  hour  of  half-past  twelve  till  half-past  two  in  the  day-time,  and  from 
six  till  ten  in  the  evening  by  11  &  12  Vict.  c.  49, 1848 ;  and  17  &  18  Vict  c.  7,  1854. 
In  1855,  a  committee  was  appointed  to  examine  into  the  operation  of  these  acts,  and 
the  above  time  prescribed  by  them  was  enlarged  by  an  act  passed  in  accordance  with 
the  report  of  the  committee. 

yiCTUALLING  OFFICE,  London.  The  business  of  this  office  is  to  manage  the 
victualling  of  the  royal  navy,  and  its  first  institution  was  in  December,  1663. 
Originally  the  number  of  commissioners  was  five,  afterwards  seven,  and  then  reduced 
to  six.  This  office  has  undergone  various  modifications ;  its  various  departments  on 
Tower-hill,  St.  Catherine's,  and  Rotherhithe  were  removed  to  Deptford  in  Aug.  1785, 
and  the  office  to  Somerset-house,  1783. 

VIENNA.  The  former  capital  of  the  German  empire,  and  from  1806  the  capital  of  the 
Austrian  dominions  only.  Vienna  was  made  an  imperial  city  in  1186,  and  was 
walled  and  enlarged  with  the  ransom  paid  for  Richard  I.  of  England,  40,000^.  in  1194. 
Besieged  by  the  Turks  under  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  with  an  army  of  300,000  men; 
but  he  was  forced  to  raise  the  siege  with  the  loss  of  70,000  of  his  best  troops,  1529. 
Again  besieged  in  1688,  when  the  siege  was  raised  by  John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland, 
who  totally  defeated  the  Turkish  army  of  100,000,  which  had  cannonaded  the  city 
from  July  24  to  the  beginning  of  November.  Vienna  was  taken  by  the  French,  under 
prince  Murat,  Nov.  14,  1805;  and  evacuated  Jan.  12  following.  They  again  captured 
it,  May  13,  1809 ;  but  restored  it  once  more  on  the  conclusion  of  peace  between  the 
two  coun^es,  Oct.  14,  same  year.  Conference  of  the  ministers  of  the  allies  and 
France,  Sept  28,  1814.  Congress  of  sovereigns,  Oct»  2,  1814.  See  next  articles.  In 
the  Hungarian  war  of  1848-9,  in  an  insurrection  here,  count  Latour,  minister  of  vrar, 
was  assassinated ;  Vienna  was  in  the  hands  of  the  insux^ents,  and  the  emperor  fled, 
Oct  6,  1848.  The  imperialists  under  prince  WindiKhgratz,  amounting  to  75,000  men, 
commenced,  Oct.  28  following,  an  attack  on  the  city,  which  continued  until  Nov.  1, 
when  they  recovered  possession  of  it,  totally  defeating  the  Hungarian  army. 

VIENNA,  TREATY  of,  with  Spain.  The  celebrated  treaty  signed  between  the 
emperor  of  Germany  and  the  king  of  Spain,  by  which  they  confirmed  to  each  other 
such  parts  of  the  Spanish  dominions  as  they  were  respectively  possessed  of,  aod  by  a 
private  treaty  the  emperor  engaged  to  employ  a  force  to  procure  the  restoration  of 
Gibraltar  to  Spain,  and  to  use  means  for  placing  the  Pretender  on  the  throne  of  Great 
Britain.    Spain  guaranteed  the  Pi-agmatic  Sanction,  April  30, 1725. 

VIENNA,  TREATY  of  ALLIANCE,  between  the  emperor  of  Germany,  Charles  VI., 
George  II.  king  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  states  of  Holland,  by  which  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction  was  guaranteed,  and  the  disputes  as  to  the  Spanish  succession  terminated 
(Spain  acceded  to  the  treaty  on  the  22nd  of  July) ;  signed  March  16, 1731. 

VIEN  NA,  TREATY  of,  with  France.  A  definitive  treaty  of  peace  between  the  emperor 
Charles  VL  of  Germany,  and  the  king  of  France,  Louis  XV.  by  which  the  latter  power 
agreed  to  guarantee  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  Lorraine  was  ceded  to  Fnnoe; 
signed  Nov.  18, 1738.    See  Prugmatic  Sanction, 

VIENNA,  TREATY  of,  between  Napoleon  I.  of  France  and  Francis  (IL  of  Germany)  I. 


VIE  678  VIM 

of  Aiutiia.  By  this  treaty  Aiutria  ceded  to  France  the  Tyrol,  Dalmatia,  and  other 
territories,  ^hich  were  shortly  afterwards  declared  to  be  united  to  France  under  the 
title  of  the  lUyrian  Provinces,  and  engaged  to  adhere  to  the  prohibitory  syitem 
adopted  towards  England  by  France  and  Russia,  Oct  14,  1809.' 

VIENNA,  LATER  TREATIES  of.  The  treaty  of  Vienna  between  Great  Britain,  Austria, 
Russia,  aud  Prussia^  confirming  the  principles  on  which  they  bad  acted  by  the  treaty 
of  Chaamont,  March  1,  1814  ;  signed  March  23, 1815.  The  treaty  of  Vienna  between 
the  king  of  the  Low  Countries  on  the  one  part,  and  Great  Britain,  Russia,  Auatna, 
and  Pruaaia,  on  the  other,  agreeing  to  the  enlargement  of  the  Dutch  territories,  and 
vesting  the  sovereignty  in  the  house  of  Orange,  May  31,  1815.  The  treaty  of 
Vienna :  Denmark  cedes  Swedish  Pomerania  and  Rugeu  to  Prussia,  in  exchange  for 
Lauenburg,  June  4, 1815.  The  federative  constitution  of  Germany  signed  at  VieDDi* 
June  8, 1815.  Commercial  treaty  for  12  years  between  Austria  and  Prussia^  signed 
at  Vienna,  Feb.  19, 1853. 

VIENNA,  CONFERENCES  at.  After  the  Russians  had  passed  the  Pruth,  in  July  185S, 
a  conference  of  the  four  great  powers,  England,  France,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  «u 
held  at  Vienna,  July  24,  when  a  note  was  agi'eed  on  and  transmitted  for  acceptance 
to  St.  Petersburg  and  Constantinople,  July  81.  This  note  was  accepted  by  the  cstr, 
Aug.  lOy  but  the  sultan  required  modifications  which  were  rejected  by  Russia,  Sept  7. 
On  Dec.  5,  the  four  powers  transmitted  a  collective  note  to  the  Porte  deploring  the 
war  and  requesting  to  know  on  what  terms  the  sultan  would  treat  for  peaoei  The 
sultan  replied  in  a  note,  dated  Dec.  31,  containing  four  points :  1.  The  promptest 
possible  evacuation  of  the  principalities;  2.  Revision  of  the  treaties ;  3.  Maintenance  of 
religious  privileges  to  the  communities  of  all  confessions  ;  4.  A  definitive  settlement 
of  the  convention  respecting  the  holy  places.  These  puints  were  approved  by  the 
four  powers,  Jan.  15,  1854,  and  the  conferences  closed  on  Jan.  16  following.  On 
April  9,  1854,  a  treaty  was  signed  at  Vienna  by  the  representatives  of  England, 
France,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  for  the  maintenance  of  Turkey,  evacuation  of  the  prin- 
cipalities, &c. — A  new  conference  was  proposed  in  Jan.  1855,  which  met  in  March,  con- 
siatiug  of  plenipotentiaries  from  Great  Britain  (lord  John  Russell),  France  (M.  Droaia 
de  THuys),  Austria  (count  Buol),  Turkey  (Arif  Effendi),  and  Russia  (count  Gortocha- 
koflP).  Two  points,  the  protectorate  of  the  principalities,  and  the  Aree  navigation  of  the 
Danube,  were  agreed  to ;  but  the  proposals  of  the  powers  as  to  the  reduction  of  the 
Russian  power  in  the  Black  Sea  were  rejected  by  the  czar,  and  the  conference  was 
again  closed  June  5,  1855.  The  English  and  French  envoys'  assent  to  the  Austrian 
propositions  was  not  approved  of  by  their  respective  governments,  and  they  both 
resigned  their  official  positions. 

VIGO,  Spain.  Sir  Geoige  Rooke,  with  the  combined  English  and  Dutch  fleets,  attacked 
the  French  fleet  and  the  Spanish  galleons  in  the  port  of  Vigo,  when  several  men-of*war 
and  galleons  were  taken,  and  many  destroyed,  and  abundance  of  plate  and  other 
valuable  effects  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors,  Oct  12,  1702.  Vigo  was  taken 
by  lord  Cobham  in  1719,  but  relinquished  after  raising  oontributiona,  It  was  taken 
by  the  British,  March  27, 1809. 

VILLA  FRANCA,  BATTLE  of,  in  PORTUGAL.  Engagement  here  between  the  Britiih 
cavalry,  under  sir  Stapleton  Cotton,  and  the  French  cavalry  of  marshal  Soult^  vhich 
ended  in  the  defeat  and  flight  of  the  latter,  April  10, 1812.  The  next  day  the  whole 
province  of  Estremadura  was  freed  from  the  enemy.  When  Bonaparte  heard  of  this 
battle  he  is  said  to  have  reproached  Soult  for  the  first  time  in  his  life. 

VILLAIN.  The  name  of  a  vassal  under  our  Norman  princes,  his  hard  labour  being  the 
tenure  by  which  he  lived  upon  the  land.  Of  and  pertaining  to  the  viU  or  lordship. 
A  villain  was  a  servant  during  life,  and  was  devisable  as  chattels  in  the  feudal  times. 
Queen  Elizabeth  gave  the  principal  blow  to  this  kind  of  severe  service,  by  ordering 
her  bondsmen  of  the  western  counties  to  be  made  free  at  easy  ratesj,  ▲.!).  1574.— 
jStow^f  Chron. 

VIMEIRA,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  British  under  sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  and  the 
whole  of  the  French  and  Spanish  forces  in  Portugal,  under  noarshal  Jimoty  duke  of 
Abrantes,  whom  the  British  signally  defeated,  Aug.  21,  1808.  The  enemy's  force 
was  14,000  men,  of  whom  1600  were  cavidry;  they  attacked  the  English  in  the 
position  of  Vimeira  early  in  the  morning.  The  principal  assault  was  upon  the 
British  centre  and  left,  with  a  view,  acconUng  to  a  favourite  French  expression  in 
those  times,  of  "  driving  the  English  into  the  se%"  which  was  dose  in  their  rear.  'ThM 


Vm  679  VIR 

attack  was  made  with  great  bravery,  but  was  as  gallautly  repulsed;  it  was  repeatetl 
by  KeUerman  at  the  head  of  the  Freoch  reserve,  which  was  also  repulsed ;  and  the 
French,  being  charged  with  the  bayonet,  withdrew  on  all  points  in  confusion,  leaving 
many  prisoners,  among  them  a  general  officer,  and  li  cannon,  with  ammunition,  &c., 
in  the  hands  of  the  British.  The  loss  of  the  French  in  killed  and  wounded  was 
estimated  at  1800;  that  of  the  British  was  720.  Only  about  one-half  of  the  British 
force  was  actually  engaged. — Sir  W.  P.  P.  Napier. 

VINE.  The  yine  was  known  to  Noah.  A  colony  of  vine-dressers  from  Phocea^  in  Ionia, 
settled  at  Marseilles,  and  instructed  the  South  Qauls  in  tillage,  vineHlressing,  and 
commerce,  about  600  b.o.  Some  think  the  vines  are  aborigines  of  Lianguedoc,  Pro- 
yence,  and  Sicily,  and  that  they  grew  spontaneously  on  the  Mediterranean  shores  of 
Italy,  France,  and  Spain.  The  vine  was  caiiied  into  Champagne,  and  part  of 
Germany,  a.d.  279.  The  vine  and  sugar-cane  were  planted  in  Madeira  in  1420.  It  was 
planted  in  England  in  1552 ;  and  in  the  gardens  of  Hampton-court  palace  is  an  old  and 
celebrated  vine,  said  to  surpass  any  known  vine  in  Europe.    See  Orapes  and  Wine. 

VINE  DISEASE.  In  the  spring  of  1845,  Mr.  £.  Tucker,  of  Margate,  observed  a  fungus 
(since  named  Oidium  Tuckeri)  on  grapes  in  the  hot-houses  of  Mr.  Slater,  of  Margate. 
It  is  a  whitish  mildew,  and  totally  destroys  the  fruit.  The  spores  of  this  o'idium  were 
found  in  the  vineries  at  Versailles  in  1847.  The  disease  soon  reached  the  trellised 
vines,  and  in  1850,  many  lost  all  their  produce.  In  1852,  it  spread  over  France,  Italy, 
Spain,  Syria,  and  in  Zante  and  Cephalouia  attacked  the  currants,  reducing  the  crop  to 
one- twelfth  of  the  usual  amount.  Through  its  ravages  the  wine  manufacture  in  Madeira 
ceased  for  several  years.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the 
disease,  but  without  much  effect   It  has  abated  in  France,  but  not  in  Portugal  (1857). 

VINEGAR.  Known  nearly  as  early  as  wine.  The  ancients  had  several  kinds  of  vinegar, 
which  they  u<ed  for  drink.  The  Roman  soldiers  were  accustomed  to  take  it  in  their 
marches.  The  Bible  represents  Buaz,  a  rich  citizen  of  Bethlehem,  as  providing  vinegar 
for  his  reapers,  into  which  they  might  dip  their  bread,  and  kindly  inviting  Ruth  to 
share  with  them  in  their  repast  (b.c.  1312) :  hence  we  may  infer  that  the  harvesters, 
at  that  period,  partook  of  this  liquid  for  their  refreshment ;  a  custom  still  prevalent 
in  Spain  and  Italy. 

VINEQAR-HILL,  BATTLE  of,  iv  Ireland.  Between  the  British  troops  and  the  Irish 
insurgent  forces,  in  the  memorable  rebellion  of  1798.  This  was  an  obstinate  conflict, 
in  which  much  blood  was  shed  on  both  sides,  and  the  rebels  suffered  a  severe  defeat, 
though  they  claimed  the  victoiy  from  their  having  killed  so  many  of  the  king's  troops; 
fought  June  21  in  that  year. — Sir  R.  Mtugrave. 

VIOL  AMD  VIOLIN.  As  the  lyre  of  the  Qreeks  was  the  harp  of  the  modems,  so  the 
viol  and  vielle  of  the  middle  ages  became  the  modern  violin.  The  viol  was  of  various 
sizes  formerly,  as  it  is  at  present,  and  was  anciently  very  much  in  use  for  chamber 
airs  and  songs.  That  of  three  strings  was  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  jugglers  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  The  violin  was  invented  towards  the  close  of  the  same 
century. — Abbe  Lenglet.  It  is  mentioned  as  early  as  a.d.  1200,  in  the  legendary  life 
of  St.  Christopher.    It  was  introduced  into  England^  some  say,  by  Charles  II. 

VIRQIN,  Thb.  The  Assumption  of  the  Virgin  is  a  festival  in  the  Qreek  and  Latin 
churches,  in  honour  of  the  miraculous  ascent  of  Mary  into  heaven,  according  to  their 
belief,  Aug.  15,  a.d.  45.  The  Presentation  of  the  Vii'gin  is  a  feast  celebrated  Nov.  21, 
said  to  have  been  instituted  among  the  Qreeks  in  the  eleventh  century ;  its  institution 
in  the  West  is  ascribed  to  Gregory  XL  1372.  A  distinguished  writer  says  :  "The 
Indian  incarnate  god  Chrishna,  the  Hindoos  believe,  had  a  virgin-mother  of  the  royal 
race,  and  was  sought  to  be  destroyed  in  his  infancy,  about  900  years  B.o.  It  appears 
that  he  passed  bis  life  in  working  miracles  and  preaching,  and  was  so  humble  as  to 

,  _  wash  his  friends'  feet :  at  length  dying,  but  rising  from  the  dead,  he  ascended  into 
heaven  in  the  presence  of  a  multitude.  The  Cingalese  relate  nearly  the  same  thing  i 
of  their  Budda." — Sir  William  Jones. 

VIRGINIA,  daughter  of  the  centurion  L.  Virginius.  Appius  Claudius,  the  decemvir, 
became  enamoured  of  her,  and  attempted  to  remove  her  from  the  place  where  she 
resided.  She  was  claimed  by  one  of  his  fitvourites  as  the  daughter  of  a  slave,  and 
Appius,  in  the  capacity  and  with  the  authority  of  judge,  had  pronounced  the  sentence, 
and  delivered  her  into  the  hands  of  his  friend,  when  Virginius,  informed  of  his  violent 
proceedings,  arrived  from  the  camp.  The  father  demanded  to  see  his  daughter,  and 
when  this  request  was  granted,  he  snatched  a  knife  and  plunged  it  into  Virginia's 


VIR  680  VOL 

breast,  exclaiming,  "  This  is  all,  my  daughter,  I  can  give  thee  to  preeerve  thee  from 
the  lost  of  a  tyrant.**  No  sooner  was  the  blow  given  than  Virginius  nn  to  the  eamp 
with  the  bloody  knife  in  his  hand.  The  soldiers  were  astonished  and  incensed,  not 
against  the  murderer,  but  the  tyrant,  and  they  immediately  marched  to  Rome.  Appiiu 
was  seized,  but  he  destroyed  himself  in  prison,  and  prevented  the  execution  of  the 
law.  SpuriuB  Oppius,  another  of  the  decemvin,  who  had  not  opposed  the  tjrut's 
yiews,  killed  himself  sdso ;  and  Marcus  Claudius,  the  favourite  of  Appius,  was  pat  to 
death,  and  the  deoem viral  power  abolished,  449  B.O. 

VIRGINIA,  America.  Discovered  by  John  Cabot,  in  1497.  It  was  taken  poeseaaon  of, 
and  named  by  Raleigh,  a^er  the  virgin-queen  Elizabeth,  July  13,  1584.  Attempt! 
were  made  to  settle  it  in  1585.  Two  colonies  went  out  by  patent  in  1606,  and  others 
in  1610.  In  1626,  it  reverted  to  the  crown ;  and  a  more  permanent  colony  was  esti- 
blished  soon  afterwards.  This  was  the  first  British  settlement  in  North  America 
See  Coloniei  and  United  States, 

VISCOUNT.  Anciently  the  name  of  an  office  under  •an  earl,  Vice  OomeM,  who  being 
oftentimes  required  at  court)  was  his  deputy,  to  look  after  the  afiairs  of  the  coontj ; 
but  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  it  became  a  degree  of  honour,  and  was  made 
hereditary.  The  first  viscount  in  England  created  by  patent  was  John  lord  Bean- 
mont,  whom  Henry  ci-eated  viscount  Beaumont,  giving  him  precedence  above  all 
barons,  1489,  Feb.  1440.— iiMmo^.  This  title,  however,  is  of  older  date  in  Ireland 
and  France.  John  Barry,  lord  Barry,  was  nuide  viscount  Buttevant,  in  Ireland, 
9  Rich.  II.  1385.— ^eatfon. 

VISIER,  GRAND.  An  officer  of  the  Ottoman  Porte,  first  appointed  in  1370.  Formerly 
this  officer  governed  the  whole  empire  immediately  under  the  grand  seignior;  he  ii 
sometimes  called  the  grand  seignior's  lieutenant,  or  vicar  of  the  empire;  at  hii 
creation,  the  prince's  seal  is  put  into  his  hand,  upon  which  is  engraven  the  emperor's 
name,  which  he  places  in  his  bosom,  and  carries  away  with  him. — KnolUi, 

VISIQOTHa  Valens  admitted  these  barbarians  into  the  Romsn  territories  upon  tbe 
condition  of  their  serving  when  wanted  in  the  Roman  armies ;  and  Theodosius  the 
Ghreat  permitted  them  to  form  distinct  corps  commanded  by  their  own  offioers ;  to 
impolitic  measure,  which  separated  their  intereste  from  those  of  the  state  at  lai}ge, 
and  enabled  them  upon  every  occasion  of  real  or  supposed  offence  to  sbske  the  empin 
to  ite  centre.  See  Rome,  They  began  their  kingdom  of  Toulouse  a.d.  414 ;  and  con- 
quered the  Alains,  and  extended  their  rule  into  Spain,  417;  they  expelled  the  Bomaot 
^m  Spain  in  468 ;  and  finally  were  themselves  conquered  by  the  Saracens  under 
Mu9a,  SepL  8,  713,  when  their  last  king,  Roderic,  was  defeated  and  slain  in  aa 
obstinate  engagement. 

VITTORIA,  BATTLE  of.  One  of  the  most  brilliant  victories  recorded  in  the  annali  of 
Eugland,  obtained  by  tbe  illustrious  Wellington  over  the  French  army  commandeil 
by  Joseph  Bonaparte,  king  of  Spain,  and  marshal  Jourdan,  fune  21,1813.  The  hoitiI« 
armies  were  nearly  equal,  from  70,000  to  75,000  each.  After  a  long  and  fearful 
battle,  the  FVench  were  driven,  towards  evening,  through  the  town  of  Vitteria,and  in 
their  retreat  were  thrown  into  irretrievable  confusion,  being  followed  after  dait  by 
the  allied  British,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese.  The  British  loss  was  twenty-two  officers, 
479  men  killed,  and  167  officers,  and  2640  men  wounded.  Marshal  Jourdan  lost  151 
pieces  of  cannon,  451  waggons  of  ammunition,  all  his  baggage,  provisions,  cattle,  and 
treasure,  with  his  bftton  as  a  marshal  of  Stance.  Continuing  the  pursuit  on  the  25tu, 
Wellington  took  Jourdan's  only  remaining  gun. 

VIVARIUM.    See  A  quavivarium. 

VOLCANOEa  In  different  parte  of  the  earth's  surface  there  are  above  200  voleanooi, 
which  have  been  active  in  modem  times.  The  eruptions  of  Mount  Etna  are  recorded 
as  early  as  784  bo.  by  authentic  historians.  See  Etna,  The  fint  eruption  of  VessTii^ 
was  in  a.d.  79.  See  Vetuviue,  The  first  eruption  of  Hecla  is  said  to  have  occuitn 
A.D.  1004.  For  an  account  of  the  awful  eruption  of  this  volcano  in  1788,  see  ^^^^ 
In  Mexico,  a  plain  was  filled  up  into  a  mountain  more  than  a  thousand  feet  in  height 
by  the  burning  lava  from  a  yolcano,  in  1759.  A  volcano  in  the  isle  of  Ferro  broke 
out  Sept.  13,  1777,  which  threw  out  an  immense  quantity  of  red  water,  that  dM- 
coloured  the  sea  for  several  leagues.  A  new  volcano  appeared  in  one  of  the  Aiore 
islands,  May  1,  1808. 

VOLTAIC  PILE,  OB  BATTERY.  Discovered  in  1800  by  Aleesandro  Volts,  of  Cojpo, 
for  thirty  years  professor  of  natural  philosophy,  at  Pavia,  who  was  made  an  Italim 


VOL  681  WAG 

ooant  and  a  senator  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  and  was  otherwise  honoured  for  his 
many  discoyeriea  in  galvanism  or  animal  electricity,  to  which  science  he  had  par- 
ticularly directed  his  attention.     He  died  in  1826,  aged  81.    See  EUetrieUp. 

VOLUNTARY  CONTRIBUTIONS.  Public  contributions  for  the  support  of  the  British 
government  ogainst  the  policy  and  designs  of  France :  they  amounted  to  two  millions 
and  a  half  sterling  in  1798.  About  200,000^  were  transmitted  to  England  from  India 
in  1799.  Sir  Robert  Peel,  of  Bury,  among  other  contributions  of  equal  amount,  sab- 
■eribed  lOfiQOL-^Annual  Beguter.    See  Patriotie  Fund. 

VOLUNTEERS.  This  species  of  force  armed  in  England,  in  apprehension  of  the 
threatened  invasion  of  revolutionary  France,  1794.  Besides  our  large  army,  and 
85,000  men  voted  for  the  sea,  we  subsidised  40,000  Germans,  raised  our  militia  to 
100,000  men,  and  armed  the  citizens  as  volunteers.  Between  the  years  1798  and 
1804,  when  this  force  was  of  greatest  amount,  it  numbered  410,000,  of  which  70,000 
were  Irish.  The  English  volunteers  were,  according  to  official  accounts,  841,600  on 
Jan.  1,  1804.    See  Naval  Coait  VolunUen. 

VOLUNTEERS,  thx  IRISH.  The  first  regiment  of  Irish  volunteers  was  formed  at 
Dublin,  under  command  of  the  duke  of  Leinster,  Oct.  12,  1779.  They  armed 
generally  to  the  amount  of  20,000  men,  and  received  the  unanimous  thanks  of  the 
houses  of  lords  and  commons  in  Ireland,  for  their  patriotism  and  spirit,  for  coming 
forward  and  defending  their  country.  At  the  period  when  the  force  appeared,  Irish 
mffiiirs  bore  a  serious  aspect;  manufiustures  had  decreased,  and  foreign  trade  had 
been  hurt  by  a  prohibition  of  the  export  of  salted  provisions  and  butter.  No  notice 
of  the  complaints  of  the  people  had  been  taken  in  the  English  parliament,  when, 
owing  to  the  alarm  of  an  invasion,  ministers  allowed  the  nation  to  arm,  and  an 
immense  force  was  soon  raised.  The  Irish  took  this  occasion  to  demand  a  free 
trade,  and  government  saw  there  was  no  trifling  with  a  country  with  arms  in  its 
bauds.  The  Irish  parliament  unanimously  addressed  the  king  for  a  free  trade,  and 
it  was  granted,  1779. 

VOSSEH,  PEACE  of.  This  was  the  celebrated  treaty  of  peace  entered  into  between  the 
elector  of  Brandenbui^  and  the  king  of  France ;  by  this  trt-aty  the  latter,  Louis  XIV. 
engaged  not  to  assist  the  Dutch  against  the  elector,  which  was  the  chief  object  of  the 
treaty.    It  was  signed  June  16,  1673. 

VOUGLE,  OB  V0UILL£,  BATTLE,  of.  Fought  with  a  vast  army  on  each  side, 
between  Alaric  II.  king  of  the  Visigoths,  and  Cluvis,  king  of  France,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Poictiers,  a.d.  507.  By  this  battle,  in  which  Alaric  was  overthrown  and 
slain,  Clovis  immediat^y  after  subdued  the  whole  country  from  the  Loire  to  the 
Pyrenees,  and  his  kingdom  became  firmly  established.  A  peace  followed  between  the 
Franks  and  the  Visigoths,  who  had  been  settled  above  a  hundred  years  in  that  part 
of  Gaul,  called  Septimaoia.  Clovis  soon  afterwards  made  Paris  the  capital  of  his 
kingdoDL — BenauU, 

VOYAGES.  The  first  great  voyage,  or  voyage  properly  so  called,  was  by  order  of 
Pharaoh-necho,  of  Egypt,  when  some  Phoenician  pilots  sailed  from  Egypt  down  the 
Arabian  Gulf,  round  what  is  now  called  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  entered  the  Mediter- 
ranean by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  coasted  along  the  north  of  Africa,  and  at  length 
arrived  in  Egypt,  after  a  navigation  of  about  three  years,  604  B.O. — Blair;  Heivdotus. 
The  first  voyage  round  the  world  was  made  by  a  ship,  part  of  a  Spanish  squadron 
which  bad  been  under  the  command  of  Magellan  (who  was  killed  at  the  Philippine 
Islands  in  a  skirmish)  in  1519-20.  The  era  of  voyages  of  discovery  was  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.    See  Circwnnavigat&n,  and  Nor^  West  Paatage, 


W. 

WADHAM  COLLEGE,  Oxford.  Founded  by  Nicholas  Wadham,  esq.  of  Edge  and 
Merrifield,  in  Somersetshire,  and  Dorothy,  his  wife,  in  a.d.  1611-12.  It  was  in  this 
college,  in  the  chambers  of  Dr.  Wilkins,  that  the  Royal  Society  frequently  met  prior 
to  1658 :  their  meetings  were  held  in  a  chamber  immediately  over  the  gateway  of  the 
college.     See  Roifol  Society. 

WAGER  OF  BATTEL.  The  trial  by  combat  anciently  allowed  by  law,  whereby  the 
defendant  in  an  appeal  might  fight  with  the  appellant^  and  make  proof  tliereby  whether 


WAO  682  WAK 

he  was  guilty  or  innooent  of  the  crime  charged  agBinst  him.  Repealed  by  atatato 
69  Qeo.  III.  1819.  For  the  remarkable  caae  of  Abnham  ThomtoD,  the  murderer  of 
Mary  Aahford,  which  led  to  the  repeal  of  thia  act,  see  Appeal. 

WAQES  IN  ENGLAND.  The  wages  of  sundry  workmen  were  first  fixed  by  act  of 
parliament,  25  Edw.  III.  1350.  Haymakers  had  but  one  penny  a  day.  Master 
carpenters,  masons,  iylers,  and  other  coverers  of  houses,  had  not  more  thin  3d.  per 
day  (about  9d.  of  our  money);  and  their  servants,  l{d. —  Vina^t  SltUuUt,  By  tlie 
28rd  Henry  VL  1444,  the  wages  of  a  bailiff  of  husbandry  was  23s.  id.  per  annum,  aod 
clotbiDg  of  the  price  of  5t.  with  meat  and  drink ;  chief  hind,  carter,  or  shepherd,  2U«. 
dothing,  is. ;  common  servant  of  husbandry,  15s.  clothing,  iOd.;  woman-serrant.  Ilk 
clothing,  it.  By  the  11th  Hen.  YIL  1495,  there  was  a  like  rate  of  wagee^  only  with 
a  little  advance :  as,  for  iuetanoe,  a  free  mason,  master  carpenter,  rough  masoo. 
bricklayer,  master  tvler,  plumber,  glazier,  carver,  or  joiner,  was  allowed  from  Eaatir 
to  Biiohaelmas  to  take  6a.  a  day,  without  meat  and  dnnk ;  or  with  meat  and  drink, 
id. ;  from  Michaelmas  to  Easter,  to  abate  Id,  A  master  having  under  him  six  loeii 
was  allowed  1(2.  a  day  extra.    The  following  were  the 

WAGES   OF   HARVEST-MSN  IN   ENGLAND  AT  DIFFERENT  PERIODS:— 


Tear. 

t. 

d. 

Tear. 

«.  d. 

Tear. 

n  d 

InlS60 

per  diem 

0 

In  1710 

per  diem 

0    9 

In  1794 

per  diem 

1   « 

luUOO 

ditto 

0 

2 

In  1740 

ditto 

0  10 

In  1800 

ditto 

2  0 

In  1568 

ditto 

0 

4 

In  1760 

ditto 

1    0 

In  1850 

ditto 

S   0 

In  ltf3> 

ditto 

0 

0 

In  1788 

ditto 

1    4 

In  1857 

ditto 

5  0 

In  1088 

ditto 

0 

8 

WAQQONS,  ftc.  Those  of  the  description  now  going  out  of  London  from  the  earners' 
inns  were  rare  in  the  Inst  century.  Joseph  Brasbridge,  writing  in  1824,  aayi:  "I 
recollect  the  first  large  broad-wheeled  waggon  that  was  used  in  Oxfordshixv^  and  a 
wondering  crowd  of  spectators  its  vast  sise  attracted.  I  believe  at  the  time  then 
was  not  a  post-coach  in  England,  except  two-wheeled  ones.  Lamps  to  carrisgea  vn 
also  a  modem  improvemenL  A  shepherd,  who  was  keeping  sheep  in  the  vicinity  of  a 
village  in  Oxfordshire,  came  running  over  to  say,  that  a  frightful  monster,  with  saucer- 
eyes,  and  making  a  great  blowing  noise,  was  coming  towards  the  village.  Tbii 
monster  turned  out  to  be  a  post-chaise  with  lamps."  Waggons,  together  with  cirti, 
vans,  &C.  not  excepting  those  used  in  agriculture,  were  taxed  in  1783.  The  oarrieis' 
waggons  are  now  nearly  altogether  superseded  by  the  railways. 

WAQHORN'S  NEW  OVERLAND  ROUTE  to  INDIA.  Lieut.  Waghoni,  a  most  enter 
prising  naval  officer,  devoted  a  large  portion  of  his  valuable  life  to  connect  our 
possessions  in  India  more  nearly  in  point  of  time  with  ^the  mother  couutry.  Co 
Oct.  81,  1845,  he  arrived  in  London,  by  a  new  route^  with  the  Bombay  mail  of  tlid 
1st  of  that  month.  His  despatches  reached  Suez  on  the  19th,  and  Alexandria  oa 
the  20th,  whence  he  proceeded  by  steam-boat  to  a  place  twelve  miles  nearer  London 
than  Trieste.  He  hurried  through  Austria,  Baden,  Bavaria,  Prussia,  and  Belgiufflf  sod 
reached  London  at  half-past  four  on  the  morning  of  the  first-mentioned  day.  The 
authorities  of  the  different  countries  through  which  he  passed  eagerly  facilitated  ha 
movements.  The  ordinary  express,  vid  Marseilles,  reached  London,  Nov.  2,  following.* 
Mr.  Wagbom  subsequently  addressed  a  letter  to  The  THmet  newspaper,  in  which  he 
stated  that  in  a  couple  of  years  he  would  bring  the  Bombay  mail  to  Loudon  in  21 
days.    Death,  however,  put  a  period  to  his  patriotic  career,  January  8, 1850. 

WAQRAM,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  Austrian  and  French  armies,  in  which  the  latter 
army  was  completely  victorious*  and  the  former  entirely  overthrown.  ThesIaugliteroD 
both  sides  was  dreadful ;  20,000  Austrians  were  taken  by  the  French,  and  the  defeated 
army  retired  to  Moravia,  July  5,  1809.  This  battle  led  to  an  armistic,  aigned  on 
the  12th ;  and  on  Oct  24,  to  a  treaty  of  peace,  by  which  Austfia  ceded  all  her 
sea-coast  to  France,  and  the  kingdoms  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria  were  enlarged  at  her 
expense.  The  emperor  was  obliged  also  to  yield  a  part  of  hia  {Sunder  of  PoUn.l 
in  Qallida  to  Russia.  The  emperor  also  acknowledged  Joseph  Bonaparte  as  king  of 
Spain. 

WAKEFIELD,  BATTLE  of.  Between  Margaret,  the  queen  of  Henry  VI.  and  the  duk« 
of  York,  in  which  the  latter  was  slain,  and  8000  Yorkists  fell  upon  the  field.  Tb« 
death  of  the  duke,  who  aspired  to  the  crown,  seemed  to  fix  the  good  foriose  of 

*  The  Overland  Mail,  which  had  left  Bombay  on  the  1st  of  December,  1846,  axrived  eariy  on  theSCA 
in  London,  bv  way  of  Maraeillea  and  Paris.  This  speedy  arrival  was  owing  to  the  great  exertiOM  na^ 
by  the  Freucn  government  to  show  that  the  route  through  Fnance  was  the  ahorteat  aud  best 


WAL  683  WAL 

Mai^fpu^t;  but  the  earl  of  Warwick  espoused  the  cause  of  the  duke's  son,  the  earl  of 
March,  afterwards  Edward  IV.,  and  the  civil  war  that  was  continued  from  that  time 
derastated  all  England.    This  battle  was  fought  December  81,  1460. 

WALBROOK  CHURCH,  London.  Famous  all  over  Europe,  and  justly  reputed  the 
masterpiece  of  sir  Christopher  Wren.  It  is  more  celebrated  on  the  continent  thau 
the  Cathedral  of  St.  Paul's  or  Westminster  Abbey.  Perhaps  Italy  itself  can  produce 
no  modem  building  that  can  vie  with  this  in  taste  or  proportion.  There  is  not 
a  beauty  which  the  plan  would  admit  of,  that  is  not  to  be  found  in  perfection.  There 
was  a  church  in  this  parish  as  early  as  1135.  A  new  church  was  erected  in  1429. 
The  first  stone  of  the  present  church  was  laid  in  1672 ;  and  the  edifice^  as  it  now 
stands,  was  completed  in  1679. 

>VALCHER£N  EXPEDITION.  The  unfortunate  expedition  of  the  British  to  Walcheren 
in  1809  consisted  of  35  ships  of  the  line,  and  200  smaller  vessels,  prlDcipally  transi- 
porta,  and  40,000  land  forces,  the  latter  under  the  command  of  the  earl  of  Chatham, 
and  the  fleet  under  sir  Richard  Strahaa.  For  a  long  time  the  destiaation  of  this 
expedition  remained  secret;  but  before  July  28, 1809,  when  it  set  saO,  the  French 
journals  had  announced  that  Walcheren  was  the  point  of  attack.  Perbape  a  more 
powerful  and  better  appointed  armament  had  never  previously  left  the  British  ports, 
or  ever  more  completely  disappointed  public  expectation.  Flushing  was  invested  in 
August,  and  a  dreadful  bombtfdment  followed ;  but  no  suggestion  on  the  part  of  the 
naval  commander,  nor  urgency  on  the  part  of  the  officers,  could  induce  the  earl  to 
Tigorous  action,  until  the  period  of  probable  success  was  gone,  and  necessity  obliged 
him  to  return  with  the  troops  that  disease  and  an  unhealthy  climate  had  spared.  The 
place  was  completely  evacuated,  Dec.  23,  1809.  The  houde  of  commons  instituted  an 
inquiry,  and  lord  Chatham  resigned  his  post  of  master-general  of  the  ordnance,  to 
prevent  greater  disgrace ;  but  the  policy  of  ministers  in  planning  the  expedition  was, 
nevertheless,  approved. 

W  ALDENSES.  The  persecution  of  this  sect  in  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century 
led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Holy  Office  or  Inquisition.  Pope  Innocent  III.  had 
commissioned  some  monks  to  preach  against  the  heresies  of  the  Waldenses  in  Nar- 
bonne  and  Provence  ;  but  the  Romish  bishops  were  at  first  jealous  of  this  mission, 
armed  as  it  was  with  great  power,  and  the  feudal  chiefs  refused  to  obey  the  orders  of 
the  legates,  a  d.  1203-4.  One  of  the  monks,  the  first  inquisitor,  Peter  Chateaimeuf, 
having  been  assassinated,  the  aspiring  pontiff  called  on  all  the  neighbouring  powera 
to  march  into  the  heretical  district.  Ail  obstinate  heretics  were  placed  at  the  dii^- 
poaal  of  Simon  de  Montfort,  commander  of  this  crusade,  and  the  whole  race  of  the 
Waldenses  and  Albigenses  were  ordered  to  be  pursued  with  fire  and  sword.  Neither 
sex,  age,  nor  condition  was  spared ;  the  country  became  a  wUderness,  aud  the  towns 
heaps  of  smoking  ruios.  Such  was  the  era  of  the  Inquisition.  Dominic  de  Qusmau 
waa  constituted  first  inquisitor-general,  1208. 

WALES.  After  the  Roman  emperor  Honorius  quitted  Britain,  Yortigem  was  elected 
king  of  South  Britain,  and  he  invited  over  the  Saxons,  to  defend  his  country  against 
the  J^cts  and  Scots ;  but  the  Saxons  perfidiously  sent  for  reinforcements,  consisting 
of  Saxons,  Danes,  and  Angles,  by  which  they  made  themselves  masters  of  South 
Britain,  and  most  of  the  ancient  Britons  retired  to  Wales,  and  defended  themselves 
against  the  Saxons,  in  its  inaccessible  mountains,  about  a.d.  447.  In  this  state 
Wales  remained  unconquered  till  Henry  II.  subdued  South  Wales  in  1157 ;  and  in 
1282  Edward  I.  entirely  reduced  the  whole  country,  putting  an  end  to  its  independ- 
enoe  by  the  death  of  Llewelyn,  the  last  prince.  The  Welsh,  however,  were  not 
entirely  reconciled  to  thid  revolution,  till  the  queen  happening  to  be  brought  to  bed 
of  a  son  at  Caernarvon  in  1284,  Edward  with  great  policy  styled  him  prince  of  Wales, 
which  title  the  heir  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain  has  borne  almost  ever  since. 
Wales  was  united  and  incorporated  with  England  by  act  of  parliament,  27  Hen.  VIII. 
1535.    See^ri^ain. 


The  supreme  authority  in  Srilannia  Se- 
cunda  is  intrusted  to  Suetonius  Pauli- 
nus A.D.      68 

Conquests  by  Julius  Frontinus  .        .    .      70 


The  ancient  Britons  defend  themselves 
af^inst  the  Saxons  .  a.d.    447 

Defeat  of  the  northern  barbarians  by 
the  ChristiAU  Britons   ....    448 


The  Silures  totally  defeated    ...      70    The  renowned  Arthur  elected  king        .    617 
Tbe  Roman,  Julius  Agricola,  commands  Reign  of  Roderic  the  Great  .    .    848 


in  Britain 78 

Bran  ab  Llyr,  sumamed  the  Blessed, 

dies  about 80 

Reifni  of  Caswallon 44S 


[He  tmites  the  petty  states  of  Wales  into 
one  principality.] 

Death  of  Roderic  the  Groat     .  .877 


WAL 


684 


WAL 


WALES,  eontimied. 

Division  of  Wales        .       .  a.d.    877 

The  Danes  land  in  Anglesey    .  .    900 

Descent  of  the  Irish 913 

Ravages  of  North  Wales  by  the  chieft 

Javav  and  lago 949 

Great  battle  between  the  sons  of  Hywel 

Dda  and  the  sons  of  Edwal  Voel ;  the 

latter  victorious 95S 

Another  descent  of  Irish  marauders  on 

Anglesey 966 

Danes  again  invade  Wales  .  .  .  .  969 
They  lay  Anglesey  waste  .        .    979 

Invasion  of  Alfk^ 982 

New  Danish  invasion  ....  987 
Devastations  committed  by  Edwin,  the 

son  of  Eineou 900 

The  country  reduced  by  Aedan,  prince 

of  North  Wales 1000 

Aedau,  the  usurper,  slain  in  battle  by 

liewelyu 1015 

Bhun,  the   fieroe   Soot,  defeated  near 

Caermarthen 1020 

The  joint  Irish  and  Scots  forces  defeated 

with  great  slaughter  ....  1021 
Jestin  dofoated  and  slain  .  ...  lObl 
Part  of  Wales  laid  waste  by  the  forces  of 

Harold 1055 

Rhys  overthrown  and  slain  .  .  .  1056 
Rhys  ab  Owain  slain  ....  1074 
The  invasion  of  the  earl  of  Chester,  and 

his  ravages 1079 

Invasion  of  the  Irish  and  Scots  .1080 
Battle  of  Llechryd 1087 

[In  this  conflict  the  sons  of  Bleddyn  ab 
Cynvyn  wore  slain  by  Rhys  ablewdwr, 
the  reigning  prince.] 

Rhys  ab  Towdwr  slain  ....  1087 
The  formidable  insurrection  of  Payne 

Tubervllle 1094 

Invasion  of  the  English  under  the  earls 

of  Chester  and  Shrewsbuij .  .  1096 

The  settlement  in  Wales  of  a  colony  of 

Flemings 1106 

Violent  seixure  of  Nest,  wife  of  Gerald 

de  Windsor,  by  Owain,  sou  of  Cadw- 

ganab  Bleddyn 1107 

[This  outrage  entailed  droadftil  retribu- 
tion on  Cadwgan's  fkmily.] 

Cadwgan  assassinated     ....  lllO 
Grufiydd  ab  Rhys  lays  claim  to  the  sove- 
reignty      Ills 

Another  body  of  Flemings  settle  in  Pem- 
brokeshire      Ills 

[The  posterity  of  these  settlers  are  still 
distinguished  from  the  ancient  British 
population  by  their  language,  man- 
ners, and  customs.  J 

Revolt  of  the  Welsh  on  the  death  of 
Henry  1 1135 

Part  of  South  Wales  laid  waste  by  Owain 
Gwynedd  and  Cadwaladr  .    .  1136 

Strongbow,  earl  of  Pembroke,  invested 
with  the  powers  of  a  count  palatine  in 
Pembroke 1138 

Henry  II  invades  Wales,  which  he  sub- 
sequently subdues 1157 

Complete  defeat  of  the  English  fleet  off 
Anglesey 1157 

Confederacy  of  the  princes  of  Wales  for 
the  recovery  of  their  lost  rights  and 
inde|)endence 1164 

Anglesey  devastated       ....  117^ 

The  crusades  preached  in  Wales  by  Bald- 
win,  anrhbishop  of  Canterbury       .    .1188 

Powys  castle  besieged     .  .1191 


The  earl  of  Chester  makes  an  inroad  into 
North  Wales  .ad. 

Invasion  of  North  Wales  by  king  John 
of  Bngtaud 

Ring  John  again  invades  Wales,  Ujiog 
waste  a  great  part  of  the  prindpalities 

Revolt  of  the  FleminBS   .... 

Llewelyn,  prince  of  North  Wales,  com- 
mits great  ravages  

Death  of  Haelgwy  ab  Rhys    . 

Powys  castle  taken  by  Llewelyn  ab  lor- 
werth's  forces 

William,  earl  of  Pembroke,  slain  . 

Invasion  of  Heury  III 

Anglesey  again  devastated 

The  English  army,  under  Henry,  van- 
quished by  the  Welsh  .       .   . 

Convention  of  the  Welsh  nobility  against 
the  English 

Hay  and  Brecknock  castles  taken  by 
prince  Edward  .       ,       .   . 

Invasion  of  Edward  I 

Edward  encamps  a  powerftil  srmy  oa 
Saltney  marsh  

The  sons  of  Gnifydd  trcacheroosly 
drowned  in  the  river  Dee,  by  the  eari 
Warrenne  and  Roger  Mortimer  . 

Hawarden  castle  ie^en  by  surprise  by 
Llewelyn 

Great  battle  between  Llewelyn  sb  Gra- 
Qrdd,  the  last  native  prinoe.  and  the 
English;  Llewelyn  slain,  after  the 
battle,  by  Do  Fraucton       .    Dec  10. 

Wales  entirely  and  finally  subdued  by 
Edward  I.  

The  first  English  prince  of  Walo^  son 
of  Edward,  bom  at  Caernarvon  cssUe. 
See  WaUi,  Prince  of     .        .  April  2&. 

The  insurrection  of  Madoc;  suppreswd 
by  Edward  I 

Foimidable  rebellion  excited  bylieweljn 

Bren      .        .        .        .       .       •      • 

Great  rebellion  of  Owain  Glyndwr,  or 
Owen  Glendower,  commences       .    • 

Radnor  and  other  places  taken  by  Owain 
Glyndwr 

He  Msieges  Caernarvon  ... 

And  seizes  Harlech  castle 

Harlech  castle  retaken  by  the  English 
forces 

Owain  Glyndwr  dies        .       .       •      • 

Margaret  of  Anjou,  queen  of  Heniy  YI. 
takes  reAige  in  Harlech  castle       .   • 

Town  of  Denbigh  burnt  .       .       .      • 

The  earl  of  Richmond,  afterwards  Heo^ 
VII.,  lands  in  Pembroke,  and  is  skWl 
by  the  Welsh         ...        Aug- 

Palatine  jurisdiction  in  Wales  abdiiahed 
by  Henry  VIII • 

Monmouth  made  an  English  ooonty  by 
the  same  king 

The  counties  of  Brecknock,  Denbigh, 
and  Radnor  formed 

Act  for  "  laws  and  iustioe  to  be  admi- 
nistered in  Wales  in  same  fonn  as  in 
England,"  27  Heniy  VIII.   .       .      • 

Dr.  Ferrara,  bishop  of  St.  David's,  borat 
at  the  stake  for  neresy    .       .      •    • 

Lewis  Owain,  a  baron  of  the  exchequer, 
attacked  and  miirdered  while  on  his 
assise  tour     ....       • • 

First  congregation  of  dissenters  assem- 
bled in  Wales ;  Vavasour  Powel  appre- 
hended while  preaching 

Beaumaris  castle  garrisoned  for  tang 
Charles  I.  ....       •   • 

Powys  castle  taken  by  sir  Thomas  Hyd- 
delton    .....        ^^^ 

Dr.  Laud,  formerly  bishop  of  St  ^^^*; 
beheaded  on  Tower-hill    .       J«l  *♦'• 


IflO 

1!1I 

1?15 
12.V 

1^ 
1*33 
1245 

12M 

12W 

1265 
12T7 


1277 

ISSl 
12SS 

12SS 
ISS 

13S4 

im 

1S15 

14O0 

1401 

14M 

140$ 
1416 

1459 
1460 

1485 

1535 
1535 
li35 

1533 
1555 

1565 

1«0 
164! 
1044 
1S45 


WAL 


685 


WAL 


WALES,  eontinned. 

Borrender  of  Hawundan  oastlo  to  the  por- 

Uam«nt  general  Xytton  .  1M5 

Charies  I.  takes  reAige  in  Denbigh     .    .  1645 
Rhuddlan  castle  sarrendera     .  .  1645 

Harlech  castle  surrenders  to  Cromwell's 

army  under  Xytton         ....  1647 
Battle  of  St.  Pagan's ;  the  Welsh  totally 


Cromwell's 
Maya, 
surrenders  to  Crom- 


defeated  by  col.  Horton, 

lieutenant 
Beaumaris  castle 

well's  arms  .... 

Colonel  Poyer  shot;  his  fate  decided  by 

lot* April  25, 


1648 
1648 
1640 


SOVEREIGNS  OF  WALE& 


IdwaHo. 

Rhodri,  or  Roderic. 
Conan,  or  Cynan. 
Mervyn,  or  Merfyn. 
Boderic,  sumamed  the  Great. 

FBIWCBB  or  NORTH  WAXJB8. 

Anarawd. 

Bdwal  Voel. 

Howel  Dha,  or  Hywel  Dda,  sumamed 

the  Good,  prince  of  all  Wales. 
Jevaf  or  Jevav,  and  lago. 
Howel  ap  Jevaf,  or  Hywel  ab  Jevav. 
Cadwallon  ab  Jevaf. 
Meredith  ap  Owen  ap  Howel  Dha,  or 

Meredydd  ab  Owain  ab  Hywel  Dda. 
Edv^l  ab  Meyric  ab  Edwal  Voel. 
Aedan,  a  usurper. 
Llewelyn  ab   Sitsyllt,    and  Angharad 

his  wife, 
lago  ab  Edwal  ab  Meyric. 
Gnifith,  or  Qruiydd  ab  liewelyn  ab 

Sitsyllt. 
Bleddyn  and  Rygwallon. 
Trahaem  ab  Caradoc. 
Griffith  apConan,  or  Grufydd  ab  Cynan. 
Owain  Gwynedd. 
David  ab  Owain  Gwsmedd. 
Leolinus  Magnus. 
David  ab  Llewelvn. 
Llewelyn  ap  Griffith,  or  Grufydd,  last 

Srinoe  of  the  blood :  slain  after  bat- 
ie,  in  1282. 

PRIKCEB  or  SOUTH  WALES. 

877  Cadeth,  or  CadelL 

907.  Howel  Dha,  or  Hywel  Dda,  the  Good, 

prince  of  all  Wales. 
048.  Owen  ap   Howel  Dha,  or   Owain  ap 

Hjrwel  Dda,  his  son. 


688. 

720. 
755. 
818. 
813. 


877. 
913. 
938. 

948. 
972. 
984. 
985. 

992. 

998. 

1015. 

1021. 
1038. 

1061. 
1073. 
1079. 
1137. 
1169. 
1194. 
1240. 
1246. 


987. 


Meredith  ^>  Owen,  or  Meredydd  ab 

Owain ;  all  Wales. 
Lfewelyn  ap  Sitsyllt,  and  Angharad  his 

wife 
Ryiherch,    or   Rhydderch  ab  Jestyn; 

a  usurper. 
Hywel  and  Meredvdd. 
Rhydderch  and  Knys,  the  sons  of  the 

usurper. 
Meredydd  ab  Owain  ab  Edwyn. 
Rhvs  ab  Owen,  or  Owain,  and  Rhyd- 
derch ab  Garadoc. 
1077.  Rhva  ab  Tewdwr  Mawr. 
Oadwgan  ab  Bleddyn. 
Griffith,  or  Grufvdd  ab  Rhys. 
Rhys  ab  Grufydd,  or  Griffith,  called  the 

lord  Rhvs. 
Grufydd  ab  Rhys. 
Rhys  ab  Grufydd. 
Owain  ab  Grufvdd. 
Meredith,  or  Meredydd  ab  Owain;  he 

died  in  1267. 


998. 

1021. 

1031. 
1042. 

1061. 
1078. 


1092. 
1115. 
1137. 

1196. 
1202. 
1222. 
1235. 


miNCES  AND  LORDS  07  FOWTS-LARD. 

877.  Merfyn,  or  Mervyn. 

900.  Cadeth,  or  Cadell ;  also  prince  of  South 

Wales. 
927.  Howel  Dha,  or  Hywel  Dda,  the  Good, 

prince  of  Wales. 

«  •  «  •  • 

985.  Meredydd  ab  Owain. 

•  •  «  •  • 

1061.  Bleddyn  ab  Cynvyn. 
1073.  Meredydd  ab  Bleddyn. 
1087.  Cadwgan  ab  Bleddyn. 
1132.  Madoc  ab  Meredydd. 

1160.  Griffith,  or  Grufydd  ab  Meredydd. 

«  •  •  •  • 

1256.  Gwenwinwin,  or  Gwenwynwyn. 
1256.  Owain  ab  Grufydd. 

[See  Atgland.] 


WALES,  PRINCE  of.  The  first  prince  of  this  title  wBa  Edward,  the  Bon  of  Edward  I. 
who  was  bom  in  Caernarvon  caatle  on  the  25th  April,  1284.  Immediately  after  hia 
birth  he  was  presented  by  his  father  to  the  Welsh  chieftains  as  their  future  soToreign, 
the  king  holding  up  the  royal  infant  in  his  arms,  and  saying,  in  the  Welsh  language, 
''Bieh  Dyn;*  literally  in  English,  "  This  is  your  man,"  but  signifying  "This  is  your 
ooimtryman  and  king."  These  words  were  afterwards  changed,  or  corrupted,  as  some 
historians  assert,  to  **I(^  Dien,**  which  is  the  motto  attached  to  the  arms  of  the 
princes  of  Wales  to  this  day.  Owing  to  the  premature  death  of  his  elder  brother,  this 
prince  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England,  by  the  title  of  Edward  XL  in  1807> — 
Myryrtan  ArchoMlogy,  Hist.  Walea.  For  another  and  yery  different  account  of  the 
origin  of  the  motto  **  Ich  Dien*"*  see  the  article  imder  that  head. 

WALES,  PRINCESS  or.  This  title  was  held,  some  authors  say,  during  the  earlier 
period  of  her  life,  by  the  princess  Mary  of  England,  eldest  daughter  of  Henry  VIII. 

*  At  the  commencement  of  the  civU  war  of  the  17th  oentuij,  Pembroke  castle  was  the  only  Welsh 
fortresB  in  the  posaeseion  of  the  parliament,  and  it  waa  intrusted  to  the  command  of  Colonel  Langhame. 
In  1647,  this  officer  and  colonels  Powel  and  Poyer  embraced  the  cause  of  the  king,  and  made  Pembroke 
their  head-quarters ;  and  aiter  their  disastrous  defeat  at  the  battle  of  St.  Pagan's,  they  retired  to  the 
castle,  followed  by  an  army  led  by  Cromwell  in  person.  Here  they  were  besieged,  and  at  length 
capitulated,  the  garrison  having  endured  great  sufferings  f^om  want  of  water.  Langhame,  Powel,  and 
Poyer  were  tried  by  a  court-martial,  and  condemned  to  death  ;  but  Cromwell  having  been  induced  to 
spare  the  Iive«  of  two  of  them,  it  was  ordered  that  they  should  draw  lots  for  the  favour,  and  three 
papers  were  folded  up,  on  two  of  which  were  written  the  words,  "  Life  given  by  God,"  and  the  third 
was  left  blank.  The  latter  was  drawn  by  colonel  Poyer,  who  was  shot  accordingly  on  the  above  day. 
— PtnnaM,    HUH.  Cif  Pembroke. 


WAL  686  WAN 

and  afterwards  queen  Mary  I.  She  was  created,  they  state,  by  her  father  prinoeas  of 
Wdes,  in  order  to  conciliate  the  Welsh  people  and  keep  alive  the  name,  and  was,  they 
add,  the  first  and  only  princess  of  Wales  in  her  own  right ;  a  rank  she  enjoyed  iintS 
the  birth  of  a  son  to  Uenry,  who  was  afterwards  Edwuti  VI.  bom  in  1537.  This  is, 
however,  denied,  upon  better  authority,  that  of  Banlct, 

WALKING,  kc  FEATS  nr.  Captain  Barclay's  celebrated  match  against  time  has  till 
lately  been ' accounted  the  most  wonderful  performance  upon  record.  See  Bardatf. 
In  May,  1758,  a  young  lady  at  Newmarket  won  a  wager,  having  undertaken  to  rifU 
1000  miles  in  1000  hours,  which  feat  she  performed  in  little  more  than  two-thirds  of 
the  time.  Richard  Manks,  a  native  of  Warwickshire,  imdertook  (in  imitation  of  captain 
Barclay)  to  walk  1000  miles  in  1000  hours :  the  place  chosen  was  the  Barrack  tavern 
cricket-ground,  in  Sheffield ;  he  commenced  on  Monday,  June  17, 1850,  and  completed 
the  1000  miles,  July  29  following,  winning  a  oonsiderable  sum. 

WALLACHIA.    See  Banubian  Principalities, 

WALLIS*S  YOYAQK  Captain  Wallis  set  saU  from  England  on  his  voyai^  round  the 
world,  July  26, 1766;  and  accomplishing  his  voyage,  he  returned  to  England,  May  20, 
1768,  a  period  of  less  than  two  years.    See  Circumnavigatan. 

WALLOONS.  The  people  who  fled  to  England  from  the  persecution  of  the  cruel  duke 
of  Alva,  the  governor  of  the  Low  Countries  for  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  On  account  of  the 
dake's  religious  proscriptions,  those  countries  revolted  from  Pliilip,  1566. — Mariama't 
JffisL  of  Spain.  The  Walloons  were  well  received  in  England.  A  lai^  protestant 
church  was  given  to  them  by  queen  Elizabeth,  at  Canterbury,  and  many  of  their 
posterity  still  remain  in  this  part  of  England. — Pardon, 

WALNUT-TREK  This  tree  has  existed  a  long  time  in  England.  Near  Welwyn,  in 
Hertfordshire,  there  was  the  largest  walnut-tree  on  record ;  it  was  felled  in  1627,  and 
from  it  were  cut  nineteen  loads  of  planks :  and  as  much  was  sold  to  a  gunsmith  in 
London  as  oost  10/L  carriage;  besides  which  there  were  thirty  loads  of  roots  and 
branches.  When  standing,  it  covered  76  poles  of  ground ;  a  space  equal  to  2299  square 
yards  statute  measure.  A  sitting-room  twelve  feet  in  diameter  was  lately  shown  in 
London,  hollowed  from  an  American  walnut-tree,  80  feet  in  the  trunk,  and  150  feet  in 
the  branches.  The  black  walnut-tree  {Juglam  nigra)  was  brought  to  these  countries 
from  North  America  before  1 629. 

WALPOLE*S  ADMINISTRATIONa  Mr.  Walpole  (afterwards  sir  Robert,  and  earl  of 
Orford)  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  1715. 
He  resigned,  on  a  disunion  of  the  cabinet,  in  1717,  bringing  in  the  sinking-fund  bill 
on  the  day  of  his  resignation.  Resumed  as  head  of  the  ministry,  on  the  earl  of  Sun- 
derland retiring,  in  1721.  His  latter  administration  consisted  of  (besides  himself,  as 
first  lord  of  the  treasury),  Thomas,  lord  Parker,  created  earl  of  Macclesfield,  lord 
chancellor;  Henry,  lord  Carleton  (succeeded  by  William,  duke  of  Devonshire),  lord 
president ;  Evelyn,  duke  of  Kingston  (succeeded  by  lord  Trevor),  privy  seal ;  Jamesi, 
earl  of  Berkeley,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty ;  Charles,  viscount  Townshend,  and  John, 
lord  Cartaret  (the  latter  succeeded  by  the  duke  of  Newcastle),  secretaries  of  state ; 
duke  of  Marlborough  (succeeded  by  the  earl  of  Cadogan),  ordnance ;  right  hon.  Oeoi^ 
Treby  (succeeded  by  right  hon.  Henry  Pelham),  secretary -at- war;  Yiscount  Torring- 
ton,  &c    He  continued  as  premier  until  1742. 

WANDERING  JEW.  The  following  is  the  strange  account  given  of  this  personage  : — 
His  original  name  was  CalaphiluB,  Pontius  Pilate's  porter.  When  they  were  dragging 
Jesus  out  of  the  door  of  the  Judgment-Hall,  he  struck  him  on  the  back,  saying,  **  Go 
faster,  Jesus  !  go  faster;  why  dost  thou  linger?"  Upon  which  Jesus  looked  on  him 
with  a  frown,  and  said,  " I  am  indeed  going;  but  thou  shalt  tarry  till  I  come.**  Soon 
after  he  was  converted,  and  took  the  name  of  Joseph.  He  lives  for  ever ;  but  at  the 
end  of  every  hundred  years  falls  into  a  fit  or  trance,  upon  which,  when  he  recovers, 
he  returns  to  the  same  state  of  youth  he  was  in  when  our  Saviour  suffered,  beicg 
about  thirty  years  of  age.  He  always  preserves  the  utmost  gravity  of  deportment 
He  was  never  seen  to  smile.  He  perfectly  remembers  the  death  and  resurrection  of 
Christ.— Ccrfmrt't  Bi»t.  of  the  Bible, 

WANDSWORTH,  near  London.  In  this  village  was  established  the  first  place  of 
worship  for  dissenters  in  England,  Nov.  20,  1572.  It  was  called  Wandsworth 
meeting-house.  And  in  Gkirrett-lane,  near  this  place,  a  mock  election  was  formerh 
held,  after  every  general  election  of  parliament,  of  a  mayor  of  Garrett ;  to  which 
Foote's  dramatic  piece,  Itie  Mayor  of  Qarrattf  gave  no  small  celebrity. 


WAR 


687 


WAR 


WARUEUK'S  INSURRECTION.  Perkin  Warbeck,  the  son  of  a  Fioreutine  Jew,  to  whom 
£dward  IV.  had  stood  godfather,  was  persaaded  by  Margaret,  duchesa  of  Burgundy, 
sister,  to  Richard  III.  to  personate  her  nephew,  Richard,  Edward  Y.'s  brother,  which 
he  did  fir«t  in  Ireland,  where  he  Unded,  1492.  The  imposture  was  discovered  by 
Henry  VIL  1493. 


Mode  an  attempt  to  land  at  Kent  with  flOO 
men,  whan  150  were  taken  priionen  and 
executed.  1495. 

Recommendod  bv  the  king  of  France  to 
James  IV.  of  Scotland,  who  gave  him  hii* 
kinswoman,  lord  Hontley'e  daughter,  in 
marriage,  the  same  year.  Jamos  IV.  in- 
▼adod  England  iu  hie  nivour,  14^6. 

Left   SoDtland,  and  went  to  Bodmin,  in 


Comwall,  where  8000  joined  him,  and  he 
took  the  title  of  Richard  IV.  1497. 

Taken  priMnerby  Henry  VII.  1498. 

Set  in  the  stocks  at  Westminster  and  Cheap- 
side,  and  sent  to  the  Tower,  1499. 

Plotted  with  the  earl  of  Warwick  to  escape 
out  of  the  Tower,  by  murdering  the  lieutenant, 
for  which  he  was  hanged  at  ^bum,  1499. 


WARDIAN  CASEa  In  1829  Hr.  N.  R  Ward  observed  a  small  fern  and  grass  growing 
in  a  closed  glass  bottle  in  which  he  had  placed  a  chrysalis  covered  with  moist  earth. 
From  this  circumstance  he  was  led  to  construct  his  well-known  dotely  gkued  cases, 
which  afford  to  plants  light,  heat,  and  moisture,  and  which  exclude  deleterious  gases, 
smoke,  ftc  They  are  particularly  adapted  for  ferns.  In  1833  they  were  employed 
for  the  transmission  of  plants  to  Sydney,  &a,  with  great  success.  Mr.  Faraday 
lectured  on  thia  subject  in  1838. 

WARRANTS,  GENERAL.  WarranU  that  did  not  specify  the  name  of  the  accused. 
They  were  declared  to  be  illegal  and  unconstitutional  by  lord  chief  justice  Pratt, 
the  question  having  been  raised  upon  the  seizure  and  committal  of  Mr.  Wilkes  to  the 
Tower  for  a  libel  on  the  king.  The  question  also  gave  rise  to  some  stormy  debates  in 
the  house  of  commons.  After  the  decision  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  in  favour 
of  Wilkes,  he  brought  an  action  against  lord  Halifax,  then  secretary  of  state,  and 
recovered  4000/.  damages  for  having  been  imprisoned  upon  an  illegal  warrant :  Wilkes 
laid  his  damages  at  20,000/.     Nov.  10, 1796.— -Annual  Jiegister. 

WARS.  War  is  called  by  Erasmus  "  the  malady  of  princes.**  Scriptural  writers  date 
the  first  war  as  having  been  begun  by  the  impious  son  of  Cain,  3563  B.O.  Osymandya^ 
of  Egypt  was  the  first  warlike  king ;  he  passed  into  Asia,  and  conquered  Bactria, 
2100  B.C. — Uther,  He  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  Osiris  of  the  priests.  The  most 
famous  siege  recorded  in  the  annals  of  antiquity  was  that  of  Troy,  1193 — 1184  b.c. 
The  longest  siege  was  that  of  Azotb,  647  B.o.  It  is  computed  that  to  the  present  time, 
no  less  than  6,860,000,000  of  men  have  perished  in  the  field  of  battle,  being  more  than 
six  times  as  many  of  the  human  species  as  now  inhabit  our  whole  earth. 

WARS,  CIVIL,  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN.  The  most  remarkable  civil  wars  of  Great 
Britain  were  the  following: — The  war  of  the  barons  against  Henry  III.  1265 ;  of  the 
usurpation  of  Henry  IV.  1400;  of  the  White  and  Red  Roses,  or  houses  of  York  aud 
Lancaster,  from  1452  to  1471.  The  war  between  Richard  III.  and  Henry  VII.  1485. 
The  war  against  Charles  I.  from  1642  to  1651.  The  Scottish  civil  war  under  the 
Pretender,  1715-16  ;  that  under  the  Toung  Pretender,  1745.  In  Ireland,  that  upder 
Tyrone,  1599 ;  under  O'Neil,  1641 ;  and  the  great  rebellion,  1798.    See  RebtUumB,  &c. 

WARS,  FOREIGN,  of  GREAT  BRITAIN.  The  wars  in  France,  in  which  England 
was  involved  fur  nearly  two  centuries,  arose  from  the  dukes  of  Normandy  being 
kings  of  England.  They  held  Normandy  as  a  fief  of  the  crown  of  France ;  and  when 
AVilliam  I.  conquered  England,  it  became  an  English  province,  but  was  lost  in  the 
reign  of  king  John,  1204.  Our  wars  with  France  were  many  :  the  English  princes 
gained  great  and  memorable  victories  at  Cressy,  Poictiers,  and  Aginoourt ;  but  they 
were  finally  driven  out  of  France  in  the  reign  of  our  Henry  VI.  and  lost  Calais  by 
surprise  in  the  reign  of  Mary.    See  the  countries  respectively,  BatUet,  &c. 


FOREIGW  WARS 

OF  ORF.A1 

'  BRITAIW 

SINCE  THE  OC 

^NQUES 

T. 

War  with  Scotland, 

1068 

Peace 

1092 

War  with  France, 

1868 

Peace        1420 

France, 

1116 

1118 

France, 

1422 

1471 

Scotland, 

1138 

1139 

France, 

1498 

„    same  yr. 

France, 

1161 

1186 

France, 

1512 

1514 

France, 

1194 

1195 

Prance, 

1522 

1527 

France, 

1201 

1210 

Scotland, 

1522 

1542 

France, 

1224 

12:i4 

ScotlAiid, 

1542 

1546 

Franc-e, 

1294 

I2m> 

Scotland, 

1547 

„             1550 

Scotland, 

121)6 

ia2a 

France, 

1549 

1550 

Hc<itland, 

1.327 

1828 

France, 

1557 

1550 

France, 

1830 

1360 

Scotland, 

1557 

IW 

WAR 

688 

WAR 

WARS,  FOREIGN,  of 

ORBAT  BRITAIN,  eontintusd. 

War  with  Franoo, 

1562 

Peaoo 

1564 

War  with  Fnuice, 

1666 

Peace 

IWi 

>• 

BpaiD, 

1588 

1604 

Denmark, 

1666 

1<^ 

*» 

gpain, 
i'TBmoe. 

1624 

1629 

Holland, 

1666 

l«6>i 

II 

1627 

1620 

Algiers, 

1669 

1671 

f» 

HolLind, 

1651 

1654 

Holland, 

167S 

16T4 

ti 

Bpaiii, 

1665 

1660' 

France^ 

1689 

1697 

The  (TBneral  peace  of  Ryswick  betweoi  England,  Oennanj,  Holland,  France;  and  Spain,  was 
signed  bj  the  ministers  of  these  powers,  at  the  palace  of  Byswick,  Sept  20, 1607.  It  ooDdaded 
this  last  war. 

THI  ORBAT  MODEBN  AVD  EXPEiraiYB  WARS  OF  OBEAT  BRITAIV. 

War  of  the  SuecemiM,   commenced   May  4,  ,  War  with  ^lain,  April  17, 17S0.    Closed  meat 
1702.    Peace  of  Utrecht,  March  13, 1718.        I     Ume.  Jan.  20.  1783. 


War  with  Spain,  Dec.  16,  1718.    Peace  con 

eluded,  1721. 
War;  the  SpanUh  War,  Oct.  23, 1739.    Peace 

of  Aixla-Chapelle.  April  80,  1748. 
War  with  France,  March  31,  1744.      aosed 

also  on  April  80,  1748. 
War  :   the  Seven   Jeari  War,  June  9,  1756. 

Peace  of  Paria.  Feb.  10,  1768. 
War  with  Sfmin,  Jan.  4. 1762.  General  peace, 

Feb.  10,  1763 
War  with  America,  July  14,  1774.    Peace  of 

Paris,  Nov.  30,  1782. 
War  with  France.  Feb.  6*  1778.      Peace  of 

Paris.  Jan.  20.  1783. 


War  with    BoUand.    Dec.   21,  1780.     Pe»oe 

aigoed.  Sept.  i.  1783. 
War  of  the  RevolHtion,  Feb.  1, 1703.    Peace  of 

Amiens,  March  27,  1802. 
War  offainM  Bonaparte,  April  29, 1803.  FiiuDr 

dosed,  June  18,  1815. 
War  with  America,  June  18»  18I&    Peaoe  of 

Ghent,  Dec  24,  1814. 
War  with  Russia,  March  27.  1854.    Peaoe  of 

Paris,  March  31,  1856. 
For  the  wars  with  India,  China,  and  Perai«, 

see  those  oountries  respectiTely. 


In  the  war  against  Bonaparte,  the  g^reat  powers  of  Europe  leagued  aometimes  with, 
and  aometimes  against  Oreat  Britain.  England  spent  65  years  in  war,  and  62  in 
peace,  in  the  127  years  previous  to  the  close  of  the  war  in  1815.  In  the  mur  of 
1688,  we  spent  36  millions  sterling ;  in  the  war  of  the  Spanuk  Suoetmtm^  62 
millions;  in  the  Spaniak  war,  54  millions ;  in  the  Sevtn  Ytari  var,  112  millions;  in 
the  American  war,  136  millions;  in  the  war  of  the  Frtn<^  JtevoltUicn,  464  milliooa; 
and  in  the  war  againd  Bonaparte^  1159  millions ;  thus  forming  a  total  ezpenditare 
for  war,  in  127  years  (from  the  Revolution  in  1688  to  the  donfall  of  Napoleon  in 
1815).  of  2023  millions  of  pounds  sterling.  M.  de  Pradt  estimates  the  loss  of  life 
sustiuned  by  the  French  forces  in  the  six  campaigns  of  the  Peninsular  war  at  600,000 
men.  The  loss  sustained  by  the  Spaniards  and  their  allies  was  probably  ss  great. 
During  the  war  many  districts  of  the  Peninsula  were  from  time  to  time  laid  waste 
by  the  contending  armies,  and  the  inhabitants  were  victims  to  all  the  calamities  snd 
horrors  thus  produced.  The  total  destruction  of  human  beings  in  this  war  must  hiTe 
amounted  to  one  million  two  hundred  thousand.    See  Rvuao-Twrkigk  War. 

WAR  AFFAIRS.  On  account  of  the  war  with  Russia,  a  secretaxy  for  war  affiiin  was 
first  appointed  as  a  cabinet  minister,  June  9,  1854.  in  the  person  of  the  duke  of 
Newcastle,  previously  colonial  secretary ;  colonial  and  war  affairs  having  been  pre- 
viously placed  under  one  minister.    See  Secretaries, 

WARSAW.  Late  the  metropolis  of  Poland.  The  diet  was  transferred  to  this  dty  from 
Cracow  in  1566.  Warsaw  surrendered  to  Charles  XII.  in  1703.  It  has  been  a  ^reat 
prey  to  war  of  late  years.  In  the  beghining  of  1794,  the  empress  of  Russia  pats 
garrison  into  this  city,  in  order  to  compel  the  Poles  to  acquiesce  in  the  usurpi^ons 
she  had  in  view ;  but  this  garrison  was  expelled  by  the  citizens,  with  the  loss  of 
2000  killed  and  500  wounded,  and  36  pieces  of  cannon,  April  17,  1794.  The  king  oi 
Prussia  besieged  Warsaw  in  July  1794,  but  was  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  in 
September,  same  year.  It  was  taken  by  the  Russians  in  the  November  following. 
See  nrxt  article.  Warsaw  was  constituted  a  duchy  and  annexed  to  the  house  of  Saxony 
in  August  1807;  but  the  duchy  was  overrun  by  the  Russians  in  1813,  and  soon 
afterwards  Warsaw  again  became  the  residence  of  a  Russian  viceroy.  The  late  Polish 
revolution  oommenc^  here,  Nov.  29, 1830.    See  Poland, 

WARSAW,  BATTLES  of.  The  Poles  suffered  a  great  defeat  in  a  battle  with  the 
Russians,  Oct.  10,  12,  1794  ;  and  Suwarrow  the  Russian  general,  after  the  siege  sod 
destruction  of  Warsaw,  cruelly  butchered  30,000  Poles,  of  all  ages  and  conditions,  in 
cold  blood,  Nov.  8, 1794.  The  battle  preceding  the  surrender  was  very  bloody  j  of 
26,000  men,  more  than  10,000  were  killed,  nearly  10,000  were  made  prisoners,  snd 
2000  only  escaped  the  fury  of  the  merciless  conqueror.  Battle  of  Growchow,  near 
Warsaw,  in  which  the  Russians  were  defeated,  and  forced  to  retreat  with  the  loss  of 
7000  men,  Feb.  20, 1831.    Battle  of  Warsaw,  when,  after  two  days'  hard  fighting,  the 


WAR  689  WAT 

city  capitulated,  and  was  taken  posseaaion  of  by  the  Ruaaiana.  Qreat  part  of  the 
Polish  arm  J  retired  towards  Plock  and  Hodlin.  This  last  battle  was  fought  Sept.  7 
and  8,  1831. 

WARSAW,  TREATIES  or.  The  treaty  of  alliauce  of  Warsaw,  between  Austria  and 
Poland,  afl^inst  Turkey,  in  pursuance  of  which  John  Sobieaki  aaaisted  in  raising  the 
siege  of  Vienna  (on  the  18th  of  September  following),  signed  March  81, 1688.  Treaty 
of  Wanaw,  between  Russia  and  Poland,  Feb.  24, 1768. 

WASHINGTON.  The  capital  of  the  United  States,  founded  in  1791,  and  first  made  the 
seat  of  gOTemment  in  1800.  The  house  of  representatives  was  opened  for  the  first 
time,  May  30, 1808.  Washington  was  taken  in  the  late  war  by  the  British  forces 
under  general  Ross,  when  all  its  superb  national  structures  were  conaumed  by  a 
general  conflagration,  the  troops  not  sparing  even  the  national  library,  Aug.  24, 1814. 
General  Ross  was  soon  afterwards  killed  by  some  American  riflemen,  in  a  desperate 
engagement  at  Baltimore,  Sept.  12  following. — Part  of  the  capitol  and  the  whole  of 
the  library  of  the  United  States'  congress  were  destroyed  by  fire,  Dec.  24, 1861.  See 
United  Siatei, 

WASTE  LANDS.  The  indoBure  of  waste  lands  and  commons,  in  order  to  promote 
agriculture,  first  began  in  England  about  the  year  1547,  and  gave  rise  to  Ket'a 
rebellion,  1549.  Indosures  again  promoted  by  the  authority  of  parliament,  1785. 
The  waste  lands  in  England  were  estimated  in  1794  to  amount  to  14  millions  of 
acres,  of  which  there  were  taken  into  cultivation,  2,887,476  acres  before  June,  1801. 
There  are  now  about  6,700,000  acres  of  waste  land,  of  which  more  than  half  is 
capable  of  improvement*    See  AgriaiUure, 

WATCH  or  LONDON.  The  nightly  watch  of  London  was  first  appointed  38  Hen.  III. 
1253.  This  species  of  protection  was  not  thought  of  previously  to  that  year. — Slow*$ 
Chron,  Watchmen  were  first  appointed  in  London  with  a  bell,  with  which  they 
proclaimed  the  hour  of  the  night  before  the  introduction  of  public  clocks. — Hardie, 
The  old  watch  was  discontinued,  and  a  new  force  of  numbered  policemen  on  duty 
day  and  night  commenced.  Sept*  29,  1829.    See  Police, 

WATCHES.  They  are  said  to  have  been  first  invented  at  Nuremberg,  a.d.  1477, 
although  it  is  affirmed  that  Robert,  king  of  Scotland,  had  a  watch  about  ▲.D.  1310. 
Watches  were  first  used  in  astronomical  observations  by  Purbach,  1500.  Authors 
assert  that  the  emperor  Charles  Y.  was  the  first  who  had  anything  that  might  be 
called  a  watch,  though  some  call  it  a  small  table-dock,  1530.  Watches  were  first 
brought  to  England  from  Germany  in  1577. — Hume,  Spring  pocket-watchea 
(watches  properly  so-called)  have  had  their  invention  ascribed  to  Dr.  Hooke  by  the 
English,  and  to  M.  Huygens  by  the  Dutch.  Dr.  Derham,  in  his  Art\/ieial  Clods- 
maker,  says  that  Dr.  Hooke  was  the  inventor;  and  he  appears  certainly  to  have 
produced  what  is  called  the  pendulum  watch.  The  time  of  this  invention  was  about 
1658 ;  as  is  manifest,  among  other  evidences,  from  an  inscription  on  one  of  the 
double-balance  watches  presented  to  Charles  II.,  viz.  "Rob.  Uooke,  inven.  1658. 
T.  Tompion  fecit,  1675.  Repeating  watches  were  invented  by  Barlowe,  1676. 
Harrison's  time-piece  was  invented  in  1735;  improved,  1739,  1749,  and  1753.  In 
1759  he  made  the  time-piece  which  procured  him  the  reward  of  20,000t  offered  by 
the  Board  of  Longitude,  1763.  Watches  and  docks  were  taxed  in  1797.  The  tax 
was  repealed  in  1798.    See  Clock*, 

WATER.  Thalea  of  Miletus,  founder  of  the  Ionic  sect,  looked  upon  wrater  (as  also  did 
Homer,  and  several  of  the  ancient  philosophers)  as  being  the  original  prindple  of 
everything  besides,  about  594  B.o. — Stanley.  In  the  Roman  church  water  was  first 
mixed  with  the  sacramental  wine  ▲.o.  122. — Lenglet, 

WATER  iw  LONDON.  Water  was  first  conveyed  to  London  by  leaden  pipes, 
21  Hen.  III.  1237. — Stow.  It  took  near  fifty  years  to  complete  it;  the  whole  being 
finished  and  Cheapside  conduit  erected,  only  in  1285.  The  New  River  water  was 
brought  to  London  from  Am  well  in  Hertfordshire,  at  an  immense  expense,  by  sir 
Hugh  Middleton,  in  1613.  The  city  was  supplied  with  its  water  by  conveyances  of 
wooden  pipes  in  the  streets  and  small  leaden  ones  to  the  houses,  and  the  New 
River  Company  incorporated,  1620.  So  late  as  queen  Anne's  time  there  were  water- 
carriers  at  Aldgate  pump.  London  is  now  supplied  by  eight  companies.  The 
water- works  at  Chelsea  were  completed,  and  the  company  incorporated,  1722. 
London-bridge  ancient  water-works  were  destroyed  by  fire,  Oct.  29, 1779.    An  act  to 

T  T 


WAT  690  WAT 

supply  the  metropolis  with  water,  15  &  16  Vict  c.  81,  was  p— ed  July  1, 1862.    The 
supply  is  now  considered  to  be  much  improTed.* 

WATER-CLOCKS.  The  first  instruments  used  to  measure  the  lapse  of  time,  inde- 
pendently of  the  sunshine,  were  cUptydra,  or  water-clocks.  These  were,  most 
probably,  vessels  of  water,  with  a  small  hole  through  the  bottom  :  through  this  hole 
the  water  ran  out  in  a  certain  time,  possibly  an  hour  ,*  after  which  the  Teaael  was 
again  filled,  to  be  emptied  as  before.  This  invention  was  a  manifi«t  impioTemeiit  on 
the  old  sun-dials,  whose  perpendicular  gnomon  gave  houn  of  different  length  ai  the 
various  seasons  of  the  year.  Something  similar  to  the  hour-glass  was  oocasionaUy 
used :  and  our  Alfred,  probably  ignorant  of  theae  methods,  adopted  the  burning  of  a 
taper  as  a  measure  of  time. 

WATER-COLOUK  PAINTINa  has  been  raised  from  the  hard  dry  style  of  the  last 
century  to  its  present  brilliancy  by  the  efforts  of  Nicholson,  Copley  Fielding,  Variej, 
and  the  great  Turner;  Pyne,  Cattermole^  Frout^  &a,  within  the  preaent  oentory. 
The  exhibition  was  founded  in  1805. 

WATER-MILLS.  Used  for  grinding  com ;  invented  by  Belisarius,  the  general  of  JnatiniaB, 
while  besieged  in  Rome  by  the  Qoths,  A.D.  555.  The  anoNitii  pardied  their  com,  and 
pounded  it  in  mortark  Afterwarda  milla  were  invented,  which  were  turned  by  dmu 
and  bsaats  with  great  labour ;  and  yet  Pliny  mentions  wheels  turned  by  waAer. 

WATER  TOFANA,  ob  WIVES'  POISON.    See  article  Poiaonrng. 

WATERFORD.  Originally  buUt  ad.  879,  was  totally  destroyed  by  fire  i&  Ml. 
Rebuilt  and  considerably  enlarged  by  Strongbow  in  1171,  and  still  further  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.  who  granted  considerable  privileges  to  the  citiaena.  Richard  IL 
landed  and  was  crowned  here  in  1899  ;  in  1690,  James  II.  embarked  from  henoe  for 
France,  tSter  the  battle  of  the  Bovne ;  and  William  III.  resided  hers  twice,  and 
confirmed  its  privileges.  Memorable  storm  here,  April  18,  1792.  The  interior  of  the 
cathedral,  organ,  ftc  destroyed  by  fire,  OcL  25, 1815. 

WATERFORD,  BISHOPRIC  OF.  The  cathedral  of  Waterford  is  dedicated  to  the 
blessed  Trinity,  and  was  first  built  by  the  Ostmen,  and  by  Malchus,  the  first  bishop  of 
Waterford,  after  his  return  from  England  from  his  consecration,  ▲.!>.  1096.  This  aee 
was  united  with  that  of  Lismore  in  1863.  It  was  valued  in  the  king's  books,  by 
an  extent  returned  29  Henry  YIII.  at  72L  Sm,  Id.  Irish  per  annum.  By  stat^  3  &  4 
Will.  IV.  the  see  of  Waterford  and  Liimore  was  united,  by  the  Irish  Church  Taanpo- 
ralities  act  with  the  see  of  Cashel  and  Emly,  Aug.  14, 1883. 

WATERLOO,  BATTLE  or.  On  the  18th  June,  1815,  the  French  army,  of  71,947  men 
and  246  guns,  under  Napoleon,  was  signally  overthrown  by  the  AUiea,  commanded 
by  the  duke  of  Wellington;  who,  with  67,661  men  and  156  guns,  resisted  the  variooa 
attacks  of  the  enemy  from  nine  in  the  morning  until  five  in  the  afternoon.  About 
that  time,  16,000  Prussians  reached  the  field  of  battle  ;  and  by  seven,  the  force  under 
Blucher  amounted  to  above  50,000  men,  with  104  guns.  Wellington  then  moved 
forward  his  whole  army.  A  total  rout  ensued,  and  the  carnage  was  immense.  Of 
the  British  (23,991),  93  officers,  1916  men  were  killed  and  misaing,  and  363  ofl&oera, 
and  4560  men  wounded ;  total  6932.  And  the  total  loss  of  the  allied  army  amounted 
to  4206  killed,  14.589  wounded,  and  4231  missing,  making  22.976  kon  de  combai. 
Napoleon,  quitting  the  wreck  of  his  flying  army,  returned  to  Paris ;  and,  fin^b^  it 
impossible  to  raise  another,  he  abdicated  the  throne  of  France. — P,  AmAoJoc.  See 
Bonapairt^$  Empire  in  France,  and  Franc^^f 

WATERLOO  BRIDGE,  London.  The  erection  of  a  bridge  over  this  part  of  the  Thames 
was  repeatedly  suggested  during  the  last  century,  but  no  actual  prepsrationa  to  oany 
it  into  effect  were  made  tUl  1806,  when  Mr.  O.  Dodd  procured  an  act  of  paiHamenti 
and  gave  the  present  site,  plan,  and  dimensions  of  the  bridge;  but^  in  conaeqnenea 
of  some  disagreement  with  the  committee,  he  was  superseded  by  Mr.  Bennie, 
who  completed  this  noble  structure.    It  was  commenced  Oct.  11, 1811,  and  finadied 


*  In  Jan.  1857,  a  company  was  formed  to  carry  out  Dr.  Normandy's  patent  for  oonvartlng  sslt 
into  treBh. 

t  It  ia  an  historical  fiict,  that  the  British  forces  have  been  twice  signally  suooeaiftil  oror  tboee  of 
France  on  the  same  ground— Waterloo ;  and  that  by  the  aide  of  the  very  chapel  of  Waterloo,  which  was 
remarked  for  being  uniz^ured  by  shot  or  shdl  on  Uie  memorable  18th  of  June,  181&,  did  Itarlbofaui^ 
cut  off  a  large  division  of  the  French  forces  opposed  to  him  on  the  17th  of  August,  1705.  It  is  no  lem  a 
fact,  that  the  conquerors  of  each  of  thone  days,  on  the  same  field,  are  the  only  commandars  in  tlie 
British  senrice  whose  military  career  brought  them  to  the  summit  of  the  peerage— to  duhedc 


WAT  691  WEE 

June  I8p  1817,  on  the  anniTenary  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  when  the  prince  regent, 
duke  of  Wellington,  and  other  dietinguished  peraonages  were  present  at  the  opening. 
Its  length  withm  the  abutments  is  1242  feet ;  ita  width  within  the  boluatradea  is  42 
feet»  and  the  span  of  each  arch,  of  which  there  are  nine,  is  120  feet 

WATERSPOUT.  Whirlwinds  and  waterspouts  proceed  from  the  same  cause,  the 
only  dilTerenoe  being  that  waterspouts  pass  over  the  water,  and  whirlwinds  over  the 
land. — Dr,  Franklin,  Two  waterspouts  fell  on  the  Olatz  mountains  in  Germany,  and 
caused  dreadful  devastation  to  Hautenbach,  and  many  other  villages ;  a  prodigious 
number  of  houses  were  destroyed,  and  many  persons  perished,  July  13,  1827.  A 
waterspout  at  Qlanflesk,  near  Killamey,  in  Ireland,  passed  over  a  farm  of  Mr.  John 
liacarthy,  and  destroyed  his  cottage,  two  other  nrmhouses,  and  other  buildings, 
of  which  not  a  vestige  remained.  In  this  catastrophe  seventeen  persons  periahedi 
Aug.  4, 1881. 

WAWZ,  BATTLE  or.  The  Poles  under  Skrayneoki  attacked  the  Russians  at  Waws,  and 
after  two  days'  hard  fighting,  all  the  Russian  positions  were  carried  by  storm,  and 
they  compelled  to  retreat  wil^  the  loss  of  12,000  men  snd  2000  prisoners.  The  Polish 
loss  was  comparatively  small,  March  81, 1881.  But  the  triumph  of  the  Poles  in  this 
battle  was  afterwards  followed  by  defeat  and  ruin. 

WAX.  This  substance  came  into  use  for  candles  in  the  twelfth  century;  and  wax 
candles  were  esteemed  a  luxury  in  1800,  being  but  little  used.  In  China,  candles  of 
vegetable  wax  have  been  in  use  for  oenturies.  See  CandUberry.  Wax  caudles  are 
made  very  cheap  in  America,  from  the  berry  of  a  particular  species  of  myrtle,  which 
yields  excellent  wax,  of  a  green  colour.  Sealing-wax  was  not  brought  into  use  in 
England  until  about  1656.  The  wax-tree,  Li^utrwn  lucidum,  was  brought  from 
China  before  1794. 

WR  The  common  langusge  of  kings  is  we,  which  plural  style  was  begun  with  King 
John,  A.D.  1199. — C7(Mbe*«  Inttit,  Before  this  time  sovereigns  used  the  singular  person 
in  all  their  edicts. — Idem.  The  Qerman  emperors  and  French  kings  used  the  plural 
about  A.D.  1200. — HenavU.    It  is  now  the  style  royal  of  all  monarchs. 

WE  AVI  NO.  The  art  of  weaving  appears  to  have  been  practised  in  China  from  the 
earliest  antiquity — ^more  than  a  thousand  years  before  it  was  known  in  Europe  or 
Asia.  Poets  assign  the  art  to  the  spider.  Women  originally  spun,  wove,  and  dyed ; 
and  the  origin  of  these  arts  is  ascribed,  by  ancient  nations,  to  different  women  as 
women's  arts.  The  Egyptians  ascribed  it  to  Isis;  the  Greeks  to  Minerva;  and  the 
Peruvians  to  the  wife  of  Manco  Capac.  In  most  eastern  countries  the  employment 
of  weaving  is  still  performed  by  the  women.  Our  Saviour's  vest,  or  coat,  had  not 
any  seam,  being  woven  from  the  top  throughout,  in  one  whole  piece.  Perhaps,  says 
Dr.  Doddridge,  this  curious  garment  might  be  the  work  and  present  of  some  pious 
women  who  attended  him,  and  mimstered  unto  him  of  their  substance,  Zttix  viii.  8. 
The  print  of  a  frame  for  weaving  such  a  vest  may  be  seen  in  CcUmefi  DicUonary,  under 
the  word  VaimenU, 

WEAVING  nr  ENGLAND.  Two  weavers  from  Brabant  settled  at  York,  where  they 
manufiictured  woollens,  which,  says  king  Edward,  "  may  prove  of  great  benefit  to  us 
and  our  subjects,"  1381.  Flemish  dyers,  cloth  drapers,  linen-makers,  silk-throwsters, 
fta,  settled  at  Canterbury,  Norwich,  Colchester,  Southampton,  and  other  places,  on 
aoooont  of  the  duke  of  Alva's  persecution,  1667. 

WEDGWOOD  WARE.  A  fine  species  of  pottery  and  porcelain,  produced  by  Mr.  Josiah 
Weilgwood,  of  Staffordshire,  in  1762.  The  manufactories  for  this  ware  employ  10,000 
families  in  this  country.  Previously  to  1768,  most  of  the  superior  kinds  of  earthen- 
wares were  imported  from  France. 

WEDNESDAY.  The  fourth  day  of  the  week,  so  called  from  the  Saxon  idol  Woden  or 
Odin,  by  some  supposed  to  be  Mars,  worshipped  on  this  day.  "  Woden  was  the 
reputed  author  of  magic  and  the  inventor  of  all  the  arts,  and  was  thought  to  answer 
to  the  Mercury  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans." — BuUer, 

WEEK.    The  space  of  seven  days,  supposed  to  be  first  used  among  the  Jews,  who 

observed  the  sabbath  every  seventh  day.    They  had  three  sorts  of  weeks,  the  first 

the  common  one  of  seven  days,  the  second  of  vears,  which  was  seven  years,  the 

third  of  seven  times  seven  years,  at  the  end  of  which  was  the  jubilee.    All  the  present 

English  names  are  derived  from  the  Saxon : — 

tt2 


WEE 


692 


WEL 


WEEK,  continued. 

Latin. 
Dies  Batumi, 
DiM  Bolis, 
Dies  LuniB, 
Dies  Mnrtis, 
Dies  Mercurii, 
Dies  Joyis, 
Dies  Veneris, 


BngKA. 
Saturday, 
Sunday, 
Monday, 
Tuesday. 
Wednesday, 
Thursday, 
Friday, 


Baterue's  day. 
Bun's  dav. 
Moon's  day, 
Tiw's  day. 
Woden's  oay, 
Thor's  day, 
Friga's  day. 


Prtdded  9war  bjf 
Batum. 
The  .Sun. 
The  Moon. 
Mars. 
Mercury. 
Jupiter. 
Venus. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.  These,  and  the  stamping  of  gold  and  silver  money,  were 
invented  by  Pheidon,  tyrant  of  Argos,  S95  B.a  et  teq. — AnmdeUan  MarUu,  Weights 
were  originally  taken  nrom  grains  of  wheat,  the  lowest  being  stiU  called  a  grain. — 
Chalnun.  The  standard  measure  was  originally  kept  at  Winchester  by  the  law  of 
king  Edgar,  A.D.  972.  Standards  of  weights  and  measures  were  provided  for  the 
whole  kingdom  of  England  by  the  Bheri&  of  London,  8  Rich.  L  1197.  A  pablie 
weighing-machine  was  set  np  in  London,  and  all  commodities  ordered  to  be  weighed 
by  the  city-officer,  called  the  weigh-master,  who  was  to  do  justice  between  bayer  and 
Bellery  stat  8  Edw.  II.  1309. — Stovf.  The  first  statute,  directing  the  use  of  avoirdapois 
weight,  is  that  of  24  Hen.  YIIL  \bZ2,'-Phil(mpktcal  TrantactioAM,  vol.  65,  art.  S.  The 
French  adopt  the  m^tre  of  8*28084,  or  the  10  millionth  part  of  the  distance  from  the 
Pole  to  the  Equator,  as  the  standard  of  measure ;  and  the  kilogramme,  equal  to  2'255 
pounds  avoirdupois,  as  the  standard  of  weight.  Weights  and  measures  were  ordered 
to  be  examined  oy  the  justices  at  quai'ter  sessions,  35  Geo.  IIL  1794.  Again  regulated, 
1800.  Statute  for  establishing  a  uniformity  of  weights  and  measures,  Jane  17, 1824. 
This  equalisation  took  place  throughout  the  United  Kingdom,  Jan.  1, 1820.  The  new 
acts  relating  thereto  are  4  &  5  Will.  lY.  1834,  and  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  1835,  and  18  &  19 
Yiot.  c  72, 1855.— 16  &  17  Yict  c  29  (June  14, 1853)  regulates  the  weights  to  be  used 
in  the  sale  of  bullion,  and  adopts  the  use  of  the  Troy  ounce. 

WELLINGTON,  DUKE  of,  his  ADMINISTRATION.  His  grace,  first  loni  of  the 
treasury;  Mr.  Gk)ulbum,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer;  earl  Bathurst,  president  of  the 
council ;  lord  Ellenborough,  privy  seal ;  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Robert)  Peel,  earl  Dudley, 
and  Mr.  Huskisson,  home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries ;  viscount  Melville,  board 
of  control;  Mr.  Charles  Grant,  board  of  titule;  lord  Palmerston,  seeretary-at-war; 
Mr.  Harries,  master  of  the  mint ;  earl  of  Aberdeen,  duchy  of  Lancaster ;  Mr.  Ari>uthnot, 
Mr.  Yesey  Fitzgerald,  kc.  Lord  Lyndhurst,  lord  chancellor,  Jan.  1828.  Mr.  Hoskiaeonv 
earl  Dudley,  viscount  Palmerston,  and  1^.  Grant  quitted  the  ministry,  and  varions 
changes  followed.  The  earl  of  Aberdeen  and  sir  George  Murray  became,  respectively, 
foreign  and  colonial  secretaries;  sir  Heniy  Hardinge,  secretary  at  war;  Kr.  Veeey 
Fit^erald,  afterwards  lord  Fitagerald,  India  board ;  lord  Lowther,  first  oommiasioncr  c^ 
land  revenues,  &c  May  and  Jane,  1 828.    Terminated  Nov.  1 830.    See  A  drntHutraiiotu. 

WELLINGTON,  DUKE  of,  his  PUBLIC  FCJNERAL.  The  duke  of  Wellington  died 
full  of  honours  and  years  Sept  14,  1852,  at  Walmer  Castle,  where  the  body  lay  in 
private  state  until  the  10th  November,  when  it  was  removed  for  public  state  to 
Chelsea  Hospital  until  the  17th.  On  November  17,  it  was  taken  to  the  Horse  Onardfl^ 
and  the  funeral  took  place  on  the  18th,  the  following  day.  A  public  fdneral  at 
St  Paul's  cathedral  had  been  decreed  to  the  duke  by  the  houses  of  lords  and  commons, 
with  the  concurrence  of  the  queen  and  the  whole  British  people,  and  never  was  a 
similar  ceremonial  so  grand,  solemn,  and  gorgeous.  A  multitude  of  all  ranks,  esti- 
mated at  a  million  and  a  half  of  persons,  were  congregated  in  the  line  of  roate,  a 
distance  of  three  miles,  to  witness  and  share  in  the  sacred  and  imposing  spectacle. 
The  duke  lies  interred  under  the  great  dome  of  the  cathedral,  and  beside  the  remains 
of  the  immortal  Nelson.* 

WELLS,  BISHOPRIC  of.  United  with  that  of  Bath,  wAte^  tee.  The  bishop's  seat  m  at 
Wells,  whose  cathedral  church  was  built  by  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  aj>.  704, 
and  by  him  dedicated  to  St  Andrew.    Several  other  of  the  West  Saxon  kings  endowed 

*  The  military  oonsieted  of  the  botuehold  reglmento  of  borae  and  foot  guards,  the  3iid  battalion  ot 
the  Rifles,  the  let  battalioa  of  the  Royal  Marines,  thu  33rd  regiment  the  17th  Lsncers,  and  the  Ifrth 
Light  Dragoons,  with  the  regiment  of  8oota  Oreya  There  were,  besides,  a  body  of  ChelMa  penaloaen, 
and  men  of  different  arms  or  the  East  India  Company.  The  bo^y,  which  had  lain  the  last  night  the 
17th,  in  the  duke's  chamber  at  the  Horse  Gusros,  was  placed,  early  in  the  morning  of  Um  IWh.  bf 
means  of  machinery,  upon  a  lofly  and  sumptuous  fbneral  car  (which  science  had  contribatad  to  coi& 
pleteX  drawn  by  twelve  horses  nehly  caparisoned,  and  the  coffin  was  thus  seen  by  tba  whole  of  the 
sorrowftil  snd  saxious  crowd.  The  procession  moved  about  seven  o'clock,  and  it  was  three  o'clock 
before  the  body  was  lowered  into  ttie  tomb.  In  1857  a  number  of  models  for  his  tomb  were  exhiUted 
in  Westminster  Hall. 


WES  693  WES 

it,  and  it  was  erected  into  a  biehopric  in  905,  during  the  reign  of  king  Edward  the 
Elder.  The  present  church  was  begun  by  Robert,  the  18ih  bishop  of  this  see,  and 
completed  by  his  immediate  successor.  The  first  bishop  of  Wells  wss  Adelmus  (after- 
wards archbishop  of  Canterbuxy),  905. — Beatton. 

WESLEY  AN  METHODISTS.  A  large  body  of  Christians,  whose  Beet  was  founded  by 
John  Wesley  (bom  1708,  died  1791)  and  his  brother  Charles^  who  in  1727  with  a  few 
other  students  formed  themselves  into  a  small  society  for  the  purpose  of  mutual 
edification  in  religious  exercises.  On  account  of  their  strictness  of  life  they  were 
called  MethodiiU.  Mr.  Wesley  went  to  Georgia  in  America,  in  1785,  with  a  view  of 
converting  the  Indians.  On  his  return  to  England,  in  1738,  he  commenced  itinerant 
preacher,  and  gathered  many  followers ;  but  Uie  churches  being  shut  against  him,  he 
built  spacious  meeting-houses  in  London,  Bristol,  and  other  places.  For  some  time' 
he  was  united  with  Mr.  Whitefield ;  but  differences  arising  on  account  of  the  doctrine 
of  election,  which  Wesley  rejected,  they  separated.  (See  Whitefidd.)  In  1741  Wesley 
was  indefatigable  in  his  labours,  and  almost  continually  engaged  in  travelliog  over 
England,  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  His  society  was  well  organised,  and  he 
preserved  his  influence  over  it  to  the  last.  "His  genius  for  government  was  not 
inferior  to  that  of  Richelieu.'* — Maeavtlay.  In  1851  there  were  428  circuits  in  Great 
Britain,  with  between  13,000  and  14,000  local  or  lay  preachers,  and  about  920 
itinerant  preachers,  and  6579  chapels.* 

WEST  AUSTRALIA,  formerly  called  Swan  Ritsr  Skttlbment,  which  was  projected  by 
colonel  Peel  in  1828.  Regulations  issued  from  the  Colonial-office,  and  captain  Stirling 
appointed  lieutenant-governor,  Jan.  17,  1829;  arrived  at  the  appointed  site  in  August 
following.  The  three  towns  of  Perth,  Freemantle,  and  Guildford,  were  founded  same 
year.  In  March  1850,  fifty  ships  with  2000  emigrants,  with  property  amounting  to 
1,000,000^  had  arrived  before  hardly  any  dwellings  had  been  erected  or  land  surveyed. 
The  more  energetic  settlers  left  for  home  or  the  neighbouring  colonies,  and  the 
colony  languished  for  twenty  years  for  want  of  suitable  inhabitants — the  first  settlers 
from  their  previous  habits  and  rank  in  life,  proring  unable  for  the  rough  work  of 
colonisation.  In  1848  the  colonists  requested  that  convicts  might  be  sent  out  to 
them,  and  in  1849  a  band  arrived,  who  were  kindly  received  and  well  treated.  The 
best  results  ensued.  By  1 858,  2000  had  arrived,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Perth  have 
requested  that  1000  should  be  sent  out  annually. — The  settlement  at  King  George's 
Sound  was  founded  in  1826  by  the  government  of  New  South  Wales.  It  was  used  as 
a  military  station  for  four  years.  In  1830,  the  home  government  ordered  the  settle- 
ment to  be  transferred  to  Swan  river.  Since  the  establishment  of  steam  communi- 
cation, the  little  tovm  of  Albany  here,  emploved  as  a  coaling  station,  has  become  a 
thriving  sea-port.  It  possesses  an  excellent  harbour,  used  by  whalers.  A  journal, 
called  Uie  Preema'niU  GazdU,  was  published  here  in  March  1831. 

WEST  INDIES.  Discovered  by  Columbus,  St.  Salvador  being  the  first  land  he  made  in 
the  New  World,  and  first  seen  by  him  in  the  night  between  the  11th  and  12th  Oct 
1492.    See  the  Islands  retpectivdy, 

WEST  SAXONS.  The  kingdom  of  the  West  Saxons  contained  the  counties  of  Cornwall, 
Devon,  Dorset,  Somerset,  Wilts,  Hants,  and  Berks.  It  was  commenced  by  Cerdicus, 
or  Cherdick,  in  a.d.  519.  The  first  Christian  king  of  this  branch  of  the  Heptarchy 
was  Kingil,  or  Cynegils,  who  reigned  in  611.  The  West  Saxon  kingdom  terminated 
with  Egbert,  its  18th  king,  and  the  first  king  of  the  whole  Heptarchy,  in  828. 

WESTERN  EMPIRE.  The  Roman  empire  was  divided  into  Eastern  and  Western  by 
Valentinian  and  Yolens,  of  whom  the  former  had  the  western  portion,  or  Rome, 
properly  so  called,  a.d.  864.  Odoacer,  a  chief  of  the  Heruli,  entered  Italy,  defeated 
Orestes,  took  Rome  and  Ravenna,  deposed  Augustulus,  and  assumed  the  title  of  king 
of  Itidy,  Aug.  23,  which  ended  the  Western  empire,  507  years  after  the  battle  of 
Actium,  A.D.  476.    See  Baatem  Empire. 

*  The  Ocmfertnee,  the  highest  Wenleyan  court,  is  compoeed  of  100  ministers,  who  meet  annually.  It 
was  instituted  by  John  Wesley  in  1784.  At  the  centenarv  of  the  existence  of  Methodism,  216,000{.  wore 
collected  to  be  expended  in  the  objects  of  the  society. — Out  of  the  original  oonneotion  have  seceded : — 


Chapel*  in  1861. 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Association  (1834) .  829 
Wcsleyan  Methodist  Reformers  (1840)  .  8000 


Chapeli  in  1851. 
New  Connexion  (in  1706)  .  .  .301 
Primitive  Methodists  (1810)  .    .2871 

Bible  Christians,  or  Biyanltes  (1815)      .    408 

The  last  arose  out  of  the  publication  of  "  Fly  Sheets,"  advocating  reform  in  the  body.  The  suspected 
authors  and  their  friends  were  expelled.  By  these  disruptions  the  main  body  is  thought  to  have  lost 
100,000  members. 


WES 


694 


WES 


WESTERN  EMPIRE,  eaniinued, 

RULERS  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


864.  Valentinian.  son  of  Onitian,  takes  the 
Western,  and  his  brother  Valens,  the 
Easiem,  Empire. 

807.  Gratlan,  a  youth,  son  of  Valentinian, 
made  a  colleague  in  the  government 
by  his  father. 

875.  Valencioian  II.,  another  son,  also  very 
young,  is,  on  the  de>ith  of  his  father, 
assocuted  with  his  brother  in  the  em- 
pire. Qratian  is  assassinated  by  his 
general,  Audragathius,  in  383  :  Valen- 
tinian murdered  by  one  of  his  officers, 
Arb<^g:a8tes,  in  S92. 

89i.  Eugenius,  a  usurper,  assumes  the  impe- 
rial dignity:  he  and  Arbogastes  are 
defeated  by  Theodoeius  the  Great, 
who  becomes  sole  emperor. 

[Audragathius  throws  himself  into  the 
sea,  and  Arbogastes  dies  by  his  own 
band.] 

895.  Honorius,  son  of  Theodosius,  reigns,  on 
his  father's  death,  in  the  West,  and 
his  brother,  Arcadius,  in  the  East. 
Honorius  dies  in  428. 

[Usurpation  of  John,  the  Notary,  who  is 
defeated  and  slain,  near  Bavenna.] 

425.  Valentinian  III.  son  of  the  empress 
Placidia,  daufl^ter  of  Theodosius  the 
Great:  murdered  at  the  instance  of 
his  successor, 

455.  Maximus :  he  marries  Eudozia,  widow 


of  Valentinian,  who,  to  avengv  the 
death  of  her  iirst  husband  and  the 
guilt  of  her  second,  invites  the  Africaa 
Vandals  into  Italy,  and  Borne  la 
sacked.    Uazimns  stoned  to  death. 

456.  Marcus  Ma^cUiusAvitus:  forced  ii>rBsigBi, 

and  dies  in  his  flight  towards  the  Alpsw 

457.  Julius  Valerius  M^Jurianus:  murdereaat 

the  instance  of  his  minister,  Ricimer^ 
who  raises 

461.  Idbius  Bevenis  to  the  throne,  bat  holds 
the  supreme  power.  BeTerus  is  poi- 
soned by  Ricimer. 

465.  [Interregnum.  Ricimer  retains  the  au- 
thority, without  assuming  tha  titles  of 
emperor.] 

467.  Anthemius,  chosen  by  the  joint  wnttngeB 
of  the  senate  and  army:  mardaredty 
Ricimer,  who  dies  soon  after. 

473.  Flavins- Anicius  Olvbrius :  slain  by  the 

Goths  soon  after  his  acoeeston. 
478.  Glycerins:    forced   to  abdicate  hj  fala 
successor, 

474.  Julius  Nepos :  deposed  by  his  genoTal, 

Orestes,  and  retires  to  Saknue. 

475.  Romulus  Angustulus,  son  of  Orsates. 

Orestes  is  slain,  and  the  emperor 
deposed  by 

476.  OdoBcer,  king  of  the  Herull,  who  takes 

Rome,  assumes  the  stvle  of  king  of 
Italy,  and  oompletea  tne  fall  of  the 
Western  Empire. 

See  Jtome. 


WESTMINSTER.  This  city  is  so  called  on  nceonnt  of  its  western  Bitoatioa  in  respect 
to  St  Paul's  cathedral  in  particular,  or  of  London  in  general,  there  being  in  ibnner 
days  a  monastery  on  the  liill  now  called  great  Tower-hill,  named  Eastminster.  Where 
the  bounds  of  this  city  eastward  end,  those  of  London  begin,  riz.  at  Temple-bar. 
Formerly  Westminster  was  called  Thomey,  or  Thomey  Island  :  and  in  ancient  times 
Canute  had  a  palace  here,  which  was  burnt  in  1263.  Westminster  and  London  were 
one  mile  asunder  so  late  as  1608,  when  the  houses  were  thatched,  and  there  were 
mud  walls  in  the  Strand :  the  great  number  of  Scotsmen  who  came  over  after  the 
accession  of  James  I.  occasioned  the  building  of  Westminst^v  *^^  united  it  with 
London. — ffoweVt  LomUnopoUt. 

WESTMINSTER  ABBEY.  As  regards  this  magnificent  cathedral,  the  miraculous  stories 
of  monkish  writers  and  of  ancient  historians  have  been  questioned  by  sir  Christopher 
Wren,  who  was  employed  to  survey  the  present  edifice,  and  who,  upon  the  nicest 
examination,  found  nothing  to  countenance  the  general  belief  that  it  was  erected  on 
the  ruins  of  a  pagan  temple.  Historians,  agreeably  to  the  legend,  have  fixed  the  en 
of  the  first  abbey  in  the  sixth  century,  and  ascribed  to  Sebert  the  honour  of  erecting 
it.  The  church  becoming  ruinous,  it  was  splendidly  rebuilt  by  Edward  the  Confeasor, 
between  a-D.  1055  and  1065;  and  he  stored  it  with  monks  from  Exeter.  Pope 
Nicholas  II.  about  this  time  constituted  it  tiie  place  for  the  inauguration  of  the  kingis 
of  England.  The  church  was  once  more  built  in  a  magnificent  and  beautiful  a^le  by 
Henry  III.  In  the  reigns  of  Edward  II.  Edward  III.  and  Richard  II.  the  great 
cloisters,  abbot*s  house,  and  the  principal  monastic  buildings  were  erected.  The 
western  parts  of  the  nave  and  aisles  were  rebuilt  by  successive  monarcfas,  between 
the  years  1840  and  1488.  The  west  front  and  the  great  window  were  built  by  those 
rival  princes,  Richard  III.  and  Henry  VII.;  and  it  was  the  latter  monarch  who 
commenced  the  beautifid  chapel  which  bears  his  name,  and  the  first  stone  of  which 
was  laid  Jan.  24,  1502-8.  The  abbey  was  dissolved,  and  made  a  bishopric,  1541; 
and  was  finally  made  a  collegiate  church  by  Elizabeth,  1560.  Made  a  barrack  for 
soldiers,  July  1648. — Mereuriut  RuMticuM.  The  great  west  window,  and  the  western 
towers  rebuilt  in  the  reigns  of  Oeorge  L  and  II.  The  choir  injured  by  fire,  July  9, 
1808.  Mr.  Wyatt  commenced  restoring  the  dilapidated  parts  in  1809,  at  an  expense 
of  42,0002.    A  fire,  but  without  any  serious  injuiy  being  done,  occurred  April  27, 1829. 

WESTMINSTER,  BISHOPRIC  and  DEANERY  of.  At  the  dissolution  of  monasteries, 
Westminster  Abbey  was  valued  at  89772.  per  annum;  king  Hepry  VIIL  in  1689, 


WES  695  WES 

erected  it  into  a  deanery;  and  in  1541  he  erected  it  into  a  biBliopric,  aud  appointed 
John  Thirleby  prelate.  But  he,  having  wasted  the  patrimony  allotted  by  the  king  for 
the  support  of  the  see,  was  translated  to  Norwich,  and  with  him  ended  the  bishoprio 
of  Westminster.  This  dignity  continued  only  nine  years ;  and  Middlesex,  which  was 
the  diocese,  was  restored  to  London.  The  dean  continued  to  preside  until  the 
Booession  of  Mary,  who  restored  the  abbot ;  but  Elizabeth  displaced  the  abboti  and 
erected  the  abbey  into  a  collegiate  church  of  a  dean  and  twelve  prebendaries,  as  it 
still  continues.  On  the  revival  of  the  order  of  the  Bath,  in  1725,  the  dean  of  West- 
minster was  appointed  dean  of  that  order;  which  honour  has  been  continued  to  his 


WESTMINSTER  BRIDGE,  LoNDOir.  Accounted,  on  its  first  erection,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  structures  of  the  kind  in  the  known  world.  It  vras  begun  after  a  design  of 
M.  Labelye,  Sept  18,  17S8;  and  the  first  stone  laid  Jan.  29,  1788-9.  Opened  for 
passengers,  Nov.  17, 1750;  cost  426,6502.  It  is  built  of  Portland  stone,  and  crosses 
the  river  where  the  breadth  is  1228  feet  On  each  side  was  a  stone  balustrade,  6  feet 
9  inches  in  height,  with  places  of  shelter  from  the  rain ;  the  width  is  44  feet  The 
bridge  consists  of  14  piers,  and  18  large  and  two  small  arches,  all  semi-drcular,  that 
in  the  centre  being  76  feet  wide,  and  the  rest  decreasing  4  feet  each  from  the  other, 
so  that  the  last  two  arches  of  the  18  great  ones  are  each  52  feet :  the  width  of  the 
two  small  arches  at  the  abutments  is  about  20  feet  Owing  to  the  sinking  of  several 
of  its  piers,  most  of  the  balustrade  on  either  side  was  removed,  to  relieve  the  structure 
of  its  weight — By  16  ft  17  Vict,  c;  46  (Aug.  4, 1853),  the  estates  of  its  commissioners 
were  transferred  to  her  majestv's  commissioners  of  works,  who  are  empowered  to 
remove  the  present  bridge,  and  build  a  new  bridge  (near  the  old  one),  which  was 
shortly  after  begun.  The  contract  required  the  completion  of  the  works  by  June  1, 
1857.  The  temporary  works  for  the  service  of  the  bridge  were  commenced  May  1854, 
(insisting  of  platforms  on  the  Surrey  side  of  the  river,  at  Bridge  wharf,  and  two 
large  pla&orms  on  the  north  and  south  of  the  blocked-up  arches.  The  driving  of  the 
first  elm  pile  commenced  on  July  8,  and  the  driving  oi  the  iron  piles  and  plates  in 
September.    The  works  are  now  suspended. 

WESTMINSTER  HALL,  Lovdov.  One  of  the  most  venerable  remaius  of  English 
architecture,  first  built  by  William  Rufus  in  1097>  for  a  banqueting-hall ;  and  here  in 
1099,  on  his  return  from  Normandv,  **  be  kept  his  feast  of  Whitsuntide  very  royally." 
The  hall  became  ruinous  before  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  who  repaired  it  in  1397, 
raised  the  walls,  altered  the  windows,  and  added  a  new  roof,  as  well  as  a  stately  porch 
and  other  buildings.  In  1236,  Henry  III.  on  New-year^s  day  caused  6000  poor  persons 
to  be  entertained  in  this  hall,  and  in  the  other  rooms  of  bis  palace,  as  a  celebration  of 
queen  Eleanor's  coronation.  And  here  Richard  II.  held  his  Christmas  festival  in 
1897,  when  the  number  of  the  guests  each  day  the  feast  lasted  was  10,000. — Siofp. 
The  courts  of  law  were  eatablished  here  by  king  John. — Idem.  Westminster-hall  is 
universally  allowed  to  be  the  largest  room  in  Europe  unsupported  by  pillars :  it  is 
270  feet  in  length,  and  74  broad.  The  hall  underwent  a  general  repair  in  1802. 
Ck>neurrently  with  the  erection  of  the  palace  of  Westminster,  many  improvements 
and  alterations  have  lately  been  made  in  this  magnificent  Hall. 

WESTMINSTER,  PALACE  of.  (Houses  of  Parliament).  See  Pakux  of  Westmintter  and 
ParliameiU. 

WESTMINSTER  SCHOOL,  London.  Founded  by  queen  Elizabeth  in  1560,  for  the 
education  of  forty  boys,  denominated  the  Queen  s  Scholars,  who  are  prepared  for  the 
univereity.  It  is  situated  within  the  walls  of  the  abbey,  and  is  separated  into  two 
schools  or  divisions,  comprising  seven  forms  or  classes.  Besides  the  scholars  on  the 
foundation,  many  of  the  nobility  and  gentry  send  their  sons  to  Westminster  for 
instruction,  so  that  this  establishment  vies  with  Eton  in  celebrity. 

WESTPHALIA.  This  duchy  belonged  in  former  times  to  the  dukes  of  Saxony.  On 
the  secularisation  of  1802,  it  was  made  over  to  Hesse  Darmstadt;  and  in  1814,  was 
ceded  for  an  equivalent  to  Prussia.  The  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  one  of  tbe  tempo- 
rary kingdoms  of  Bonaparte,  composed  of  conquests  from  Prussia,  Hesse-Caasel, 
Hanover,  and  the  smaller  states  to  the  west  of  Elbe,  was  created  Dec.  1,  1807,  and 
Jerome  Bonaparte  appointed  king.  Hanover  was  annexed  March  1,  1810.  This 
kingdom  was  overturned  in  1818. 

WESTPHALIA,  PEACE  of.  Signed  at  Munster  and  at  Osnaburg,  between  France,  the 
emperor,  and  Sweden ;  Spain  oontinuing  the  war  against  France.  By  this  peace  the 
principle  of  a  balance  of  power  in  Europe  was  first  recognised :  Alsace  given  to 


WHA  696  WHI 

France^  and  part  of  Pomennia  and  some  other  distriets  to  Sweden ;  the  Elector 
Palatine  restored  to  the  Lower  Palatinate ;  the  cxvtI  and  political  rights  ai  the  Gennaii 
States  established ;  and  the  independence  of  the  Swisa  Confederation  recognised  bj 
Ovrmany,  Oot  24, 1648. 

WHALE-FISHERT.  This  fishery  was  first  carried  on  bj  the  Korweg&sna  so  early,  it  is 
said,  as  a.d.  837. — Lntgld.  Whales  were  killed  at  Newfoundland  and  Iceland  for 
their  oil  only  till  1578 ;  the  use  of  their  fins  and  bones  was  not  yet  known,  oonae- 
quently  (a  writer  quaintly  adds)  do  stays  were  worn  by  the  ladies.  The  Kngliwh 
whale-fishing  commenced  at  Spitzbergcn  in  1598 ;  but  the  Dutch  had  been  previously 
fishing  there.  The  fishery  was  much  promoted  by  an  act  of  parliament  passed  in  1749. 
From  1800  to  2000  whales  have  been  killed  annually  on  the  coast  of  Greenland*  Ac 
The  quantity  of  whale-oil  imported  in  1814  was  33,567  tuna  The  quantity  in 
1826,  when  gas-light  became  general,  was  reduced  to  25,000  tuns;  so  that  the 
consumption  of  oil  had  become,  on  this  account,  greatly  diminished*  In  1840  the 
quantity  waa  about  22,000  tuns ;  and  in  1850,  it  was  21,328  tuna. 

WHEAT.  The  Chinese  ascribe  to  their  emperor  Ching-Noung,  who  succeeded  Fohi,  the 
art  of  husbandry,  and  method  of  making  bread  from  wheat,  about  2000  years  before 
the  Christian  era.  Wheat  was  introduced  into  Britain,  in  the  sixth  century,  by 
CoUap  Coll  Frewi — Robert's  Bist.  Ane,  Brit,  Bread  is  mentioned  in  several  passages 
of  the  Scriptures,  as  also  the  wheat-harvest  The  first  wheat  imported  into  England 
of  which  we  have  a  note,  was  in  1847.  Various  statutes  have  r^ulated  the  sales  of 
wheat,  and  restrained  its  importation,  thereby  to  encourage  its  being  raised  ai  home. 
By  the  act  to  amend  the  laws  relating  to  the  importation  of  com,  passed  9  Geo.  IT. 
July  15, 1828,  wheat  was  allowed  to  be  imported  on  paying  a  duty  of  11.  5a.  &/.  per 
quarter,  whenever  the  average  price  of  all  England  was  under  62«. ;  from  62<.  to  6Sil 
1^.  4«.  8ci. ;  and  so  gradually  reduced  to  1m.  when  the  average  price  was  73«l  and 
upwards.  This  was  called  the  "Sliding  Scale."  The  second  "Sliding  Scale"  act 
was  pained  April  29,  1842.  The  great  Com  Importation  bill  passed,  9  &  10  Yict 
c.  22,  June  26,  1846.    See  Com  BWt. 

WHEEL,  BREAKING  ON  THE.  This  barbarous  mode  of  death  is  of  great  antiquity. 
It  was  used  for  the  punishment  of  great  criminals,  such  as  assassins  snd  panicidea, 
first  in  Germany ;  it  was  also  used  in  the  Inquiaition,  and  rarely  anywhere  else,  until 
Francis  I.  orderad  it  to  be  inflicted  upon  robbers,  first  breaking  their  bones  by  strokes 
with  a  heavy  iron  club,  and  then  leaving  them  to  expire  upon  the  wheel,  a.d.  1515. 
See  JtavaiilaCt  ftc. 

WHEELrWOBK.  Curious  works  of  this  kind  will  be  found  mentioned  under  the  head 
of  Automaton  Figures.  Cotton-spinning  machinery,  and  manufacturing  machinery  in 
general,  are  merely  varieties  of  the  inventions  of  Androides  and  toy-makeia;  a 
central  power,  with  axles,  wheels,  cogs,  ketches,  ratchets,  straps,  lines,  levers,  screws, 
&o.  &o.  variously  combined,  constitute  the  wonders  of  Lancashire^  Yorkshire,  and 
Warwickshire.    See  Spinning. 

WHIG  AVD  TORT.  See  article  Tory.  Numerous  authors  trace  the  origin  of  these 
designations  to  various  occasions  and  various  epochs.  Referring  to  what  is  stated 
under  the  head  Tory,  it  may  here  be  added,  that  we  are  told  Uie  name  Whig  wss  a 
term  of  reproach  given  by  the  court  party  to  their  antagonists  for  resembling  the 
principles  of  the  Whigs,  or  fanatical  conventiclers  in  Scotland ;  and  the  other  waa 
given  by  the  country  party  to  that  of  the  court,  comparing  them  to  the  Tories,  or 
Popish  robbers  in  Ireland. — Baker.  This  distinction  of  parties  arose  out  of  the 
discovery  of  the  Meal-Tub  plot  (which  see).  Upon  bringing  up  the  Meal-Tub  plot 
before  parliament,  two  parties  were  formed :  the  one,  who  called  the  truth  of  the 
whole  plot  in  question ;  and  this  party  styled  those  who  believed  in  the  plot,  Whigs. 
The  other  party,  crediting  the  truth  of  the  plot,  styled  their  adversariee,  Tories. 
But  in  time  these  names,  given  upon  this  occasion  as  marks  of  opprobrium,  became 
distinctions  much  boasted  of  by  the  parties  bearing  them. — Bume.  The  Whig  Club 
was  established  by  Charles  James  Fox ;  one  of  its  original  and  most  distinguished 
members  was  the  great  and  good  Francis,  duke  of  Bedford,  who  died  in  1802. 

WHISKY.  The  distilled  spirit  produced  from  malt  and  other  com  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  and  of  which  about  eight  millions  of  gallons  are  distilled  annually  in  the 
former,  and  upwards  of  nine  millions  of  gallons  in  the  latter.  The  duty  upon  this 
article  has  produced  an  annual  revenue  of  about  three  millions.  The  distillation  of 
whisky  in  these  countries  is  referred  to  the  16th  century ;  but  some  aathon  state  it 
to  have  been  earlier.    See  JHUilltUion. 


WHI  697  WHI 

WHITEB0Y8.  A  dangerous  bodj  of  peraona  in  Ireland,  ao  called  on  account  of 
their  wearing  linen  frocks  over  their  ooats;  and  who,  with  the  levellers,  excited 
insurrection  in  Ireland.  They  committed  dreadful  outrages  in  1761 ;  but  were  sup- 
pressed by  a  military  force  and  the  ringleaders  executed  in  1762.  They  rose  into 
insurrection  sgain,  and  were  suppressed,  1786-7.  Whiteboys  have  appeared  at  various 
times  since,  marking  their  steps  by  the  most  frightful  crimes. 

WHITEFIELD,  Gkoroe,  the  founder  of  the  **  Cfalvinisiie  MetkodistM,"  was  the  son  of  an 
innkeeper  at  Gloucester,  where  he  received  his  first  education.  He  was  admitted  a 
aervitor  at  Oxford  in  1732,  and  became  a  companion  of  the  Wesleys  there,  and  aided 
them  in  establishing  Methodism.  He  parted  from  them  in  1741,  on  account  of  their 
rejection  of  the  doctrine  of  election.  He  was  the  most  eloquent  preacher  of  his  day. 
His  first  sermon  was  preached  in  1786  ;  and  he  commenced  field-preaching  in  1739. 
He  is  said  to  have  delivered  18,000  sermons  during  his  career  of  34  years.  His 
followers  are  termed  '*  the  Countess  of  Huntingdon's  connexion,"  from  his  having 
become  her  chaplain  in  1748.  There  were  109  chapels  of  this  connexion  in  1851; 
but  many  of  his  followers  have  joined  the  Independents.  He  was  bom  in  1714,  and 
died  in  1770. 

WHITE  FRIARS.  These  were  an  order  of  Carmelite  mendicants,  who  took  their 
name  from  Mount  Carmel,  lying  south-east  of  Mount  Tabor,  in  the  Holy  Land. 
They  pretended  that  Elijah  and  Elisha  were  the  founders  of  their  order,  and  that 
Pythagoras  and  the  ancient  Druids  were  professors  of  it.  At  first  they  were  very 
rigid  in  their  discipline,  but  afterwards  it  was  moderated,  and  about  the  year  1540 
divided  into  two  sorts,  one  following  and  restoring  the  ancient  severities,  and  the 
other  the  milder  regimen.  They  had  numerous  monasteries  throughout  England ; 
and  a  precinct  in  London  without  the  Temple,  and  west  of  Blackfriars,  is  called 
Wkiufiian  to  this  day,  after  a  community  of  their  order,  founded  there  in  1245. 

WHITEHALL,  Lokdon.  Originally  built  by  Hubert  de  Burgh,  earl  of  Kent,  before  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century.  It  afterwards  devolved,  by  bequest,  to  the  Black  Friars 
of  Holbom,  who  sold  it  to  the  archbishop  of  York,  whence  it  received  the  name  of 
York-place,  and  continued  to  be  the  town-residence  of  the  archbishops  till  purchaaed 
by  Henry  YIII.  of  Cardinal  Wolaey,  in  1580.  At  this  period  it  became  the  residence 
of  the  court.  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  died  at  Richmond,  was  brought  from  thence  to 
Whitehall,  by  water,  in  a  grand  procession.  It  was  on  this  occasion,  Cahdkk  informs 
us,  that  the  following  quaint  panegyric  on  her  majesty  was  written  : 

*'  The  queen  was  brought  bv  water  to  Whitehall, 
At  every  stroke  the  oars  aid  tMVM  let  falL 
More  chxDg  about  t^e  barge ;  fish  under  water 
Wept  out  their  eyet  of  pearl,  and  swam  blind  after. 
I  think  the  baigeiuen  might,  with  easier  thighs, 
Have  rowed  her  thither  In  her  people's  eyes ; 
For  howsoe'er,  thxis  much  my  thoughts  have  soann'd. 
She  had  come  by  water,  had  she  oome  by  land." 

In  1697,  the  whole  was  destroyed  by  an  accidental  fire,  except  the  banqueting-house, 
which  had  been  added  to  the  palace  of  Whitehall  by  James  I.,  according  to  a  design 
of  Inigo  Jones,  in  1619.  In  the  front  of  Whitehall,  Charles  I.  was  beheaded,  Jan.  80, 
1649.  George  L  converted  the  hall  into  a  chapel,  1728-4.  The  exterior  of  this  edifice 
underwent  repair  between  1829  and  1888. 

WHITE  PLAINS,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  revolted  Americans  and  the  British  forces 
imder  sir  William  Howe.  This  was  the  most  serious  of  the  early  battles  of  the  war, 
and  terminated  in  the  defeat  of  the  Americans,  who  suffered  considerable  loas  in 
killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners;  fought  Nov.  80, 1776. 

WHITE  ROSES.  The  insignia  of  the  houae  of  York,  in  contradistinction  to  Red  roses, 
the  aymbol  of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  during  the  intestine  wars  that  prevailed, 
particularly  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  YI.  and  Edward  lY.  and  between  the  years  1455 
and  1471.  The  union  of  the  two  houses,  consummated  in  the  marriage  of  Henry  YIL 
with  the  princess  Elizabeth  of  York,  shortly  after  the  battle  of  Bosworth,  which  was 
fought  in  1485,  put  a  final  termination  to  those  wars,  which  had  so  long  devastated 
the  whole  kingdom,  and  during  which  the  scaffold  as  well  as  the  field  streamed  with 
the  noblest  blood  of  England.—  Hume. 

WHITE  TOWER,  London.  The  keep  or  citadel  in  the  Tower  of  London,  a  laxige  square, 
irregular  building,  erected  in  1070,  bv  Gkndulph,  bishop  of  Rochester.  It  measures 
116  feet  by  96,  and  is  92  feet  in  height ;  the  walls,  which  are  11  feet  thiok^  having  a 


WHI  698  WIO 

winding  stairoase  continued  along  two  of  the  aides,  like  that  in  Dover  Gaatlei.  It 
contains  the  sea  armouTjy  and  the  volunteer  armoury — the  latter  for  80,000  men. 
Within  this  tower  ia  the  ancient  chapel  of  St.  John,  originally  used  by  the  Kngliah 
monarchs.  The  turret  at  the  N.B.  angle,  which  is  the  highest  and  largest  of  the  four 
by  which  the  white  tower  is  surmounted,  was  used  for  astronomicid  purpoass  by 
Flamsted,  previously  to  the  erection  of  the  Boyal  Observatoiy  at  Oreenwioh. 

WHITSUNTIDE.  The  festival  of  Whitsuntide  is  appointed  by  the  CSiureh  to  eom- 
memorate  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  upon  the  apostles :  in  the  primitive  Church, 
the  newly  baptised  persons,  or  catechumens,  used  to  wear  white  garments  on  Whit' 
Sunday.  This  feast  is  movable,  and  sometimes  falls  in  May  and  sometimes  in  June ; 
but  is  always  exactly  seven  weeks  after  Easter.  Rogation  week  is  the  week  before 
Whitsunday ;  it  is  said  to  have  been  first  instituted  by  the  bishop  of  Yienne  in  France, 
and  called  Rogation  week  upon  account  of  the  many  extraordinary  prayers  and  pre- 
paratory petitions  made  for  the  devotion  of  Holy  Thursday  for  a  blessing  on  the  ftriits 
of  the  earth,  and  for  averting  the  dismal  effects  of  war  and  other  evils. 

WHITTINQTON'S  CHARITIEa  Sir  Richard  Whittington,  a  citizen  and  merc«r  of 
London,  served  the  office  of  lord  mayor  three  times,  the  last  time  in  1419.  Bat  the 
marvellous  stories  connected  with  his  name  are  totdly  destitute  of  truth.  His  muni- 
ficent charities  are  little  known  and  seldom  praised,  yet  no  man  previous  to  the  time 
in  which  he  lived  had  been  a  greater  benefiictor  to  the  metropolis.  He  founded  his 
college,  dedicated  to  the  Holy  Ghost  and  Virgin  Mary,  in  1424;  and  his  alms-hooses 
in  1429 ;  the  latter  stand  on  Highgate  Hill,  and  near  them  was  the  fiunous  stone  whidi 
commemorates  **  his  return  to  London,  after  leaving  it  in  despair,  the  ohnrdi  bells 
chiming  him  back  by  the  promise  of  his  future  greatness." 

WICKLIFFITES.  The  followers  of  John  WicklifiW,  a  professor  of  divinity  in  the 
university  of  Oxford  and  rector  of  Lutterworth  in  Leicestershire.  He  was  the  lather 
of  the  Reformation  of  the  English  church  from  popery,  being  the  first  who  opposed 
the  authority  of  the  pope,  transubstantiation,  celibacy  of  &e  clergy,  ^^  ia  1377. 
Wickliffe  was  protected  by  John  of  Gaunt,  Eidward^s  son  and  Richard's  undey  yet 
virulently  persecuted  by  the  church,  and  rescued  from  martyrdom  1^  a  paralytic 
attack,  which  caused  his  death,  December  81,  1384,  in  his  60th  year.  The  council  of 
Constance  in  1423  decreed  his  bones  to  be  disinterred  and  burnt,  which  was  done  by 
the  bishop  of  Lincoln,  and  his  dust  was  cast  into  the  river  SwifL 

WlDOWSw  For  the  burning  of  widows  in  India,  see  Sutieea.  In  numerous  countries 
widows  are  devoted  to  great  privations  from  the  time  their  husbands  die ;  and  at  the 
isthmus  of  Darien,  when  a  widow  dies,  such  of  her  children  as,  from  tender  age^ 
cannot  provide  for  their  own  subsistence,  were  buriod  in  the  same  grave  with  lier. — 
Abbs  Baynal.  Among  the  numerous  associations  in  London,  for  the  relief  of  widows, 
are,  one  for  the  widows  of  musicians,  instituted  in  1788 ;  one  for  widows  of  naval  men, 
founded  in  1739;  for  widows  of  medical  men,  1788 ;  law  society,  for  widows  of  pro- 
fessional gentlemen,  1817 ;  and  for  artists'  widows,  1827.  There  are  various  simUar 
institutions.  Widowers  were  taxed  in  England,  as  follows  :  a  dnke^  12L  lOi.;  lower 
peers,  smaller  sums;  a  common  person  U.;  7  WilL  IIL  1695. 

WIGAN,  BATTLES  of.  In  the  civil  war,  between  the  king's  troops  commanded  by  the 
earl  of  Derby,  and  the  parliamentary  forces  under  sir  John  Smeaton ;  the  former 
defeated  and  driven  from  the  town,  1648.  The  earl  was  again  defeated  by  oolonel 
Ashton,  who  rased  the  fortifications  of  Wigan  to  the  ground,  same  year.  The  eari 
of  Derby  was  once  more  defeated  here  by  a  greatly  superior  force  commanded  by 
colonel  Lilbume^  1651.  In  this  last  engagement,  sir  Thomas  Tildesley,  an  ardent 
royalist  partisan,  was  slain ;  a  pillar  was  erected  to  his  memory  in  1679. 

WIGHT,  ISLE  OF.  This  isle  is  called  Veda,  or  VecHs,  in  the  writings  of  the  Roman 
historians,  who  inform  us  that  it  was  conquered  by  YespasiBn  in  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Claudius.  In  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  the  islaod  was  conquered 
by  the  Saxons.  It  was  captured  in  787  by  the  Danes,  and  again  in  1001,  when  they 
held  it  for  several  years.  It  was  taken  by  the  French,  July  18, 1877,  and  has  sevecal 
times  suffered  from  invasions  by  that  people.  In  the  year  1442,  Henry  VI.  alienated 
the  isle  of  Wight  to  Henry  de  Beauchamp,  first  premier  earl  of  England,  and  then 
duke  of  Warwick,  with  a  precedency  of  all  other  dukes  but  Norfolk,  and  lastly 
crowned  him  king  of  the  isle  of  Wight,  with  his  own  hands ;  but  this  earl  dying 
without  heiri  male,  lus  regal  title  died  with  him,  and  the  lordahip  of  the  ialo  rotuned 
to  the  crown.  Charles  L  after  his  flight  from  Hampton-court^  was  a  prisoner  in 
Oarisbrook  castle,  in  1647.    In  the  time  of  Charles  IL  timber  was  so  plentiful,  that, 


WIL 


699 


WIL 


it  IS  nid,  a  squirrel  might  have  travelled  on  the  tope  of  the  trees  for  many  leagues 
together ;  but  it  is  novr  much  reduced,  firom  supplying  the  dockysrds  for  the  British 
navy.    The  queen  has  a  marine  residence  here  called  Osborne. 

WIIiKES'  NUMBER.  The  deeignation  given  to  the  45th  number  of  a  paper  styled  the 
/forth  BrUtmt  published  by  Mr.  Wilkes,  an  alderman  of  liondon.  He  commenced  a 
paper  warfare  against  the  earl  of  Bute  and  his  administration,  and  in  this  particular 
copy,  printed  April  23,  1763,  made  so  free  a  use  of  royalty  itself,  that  a  general 
warrant  was  issued  against  him  by  the  earl  of  Halifax,  then  secretary  of  state,  and  he 
was  committed  to  the  Tower.  His  warfare  not  only  deprived  him  of  liberty,  but 
exposed  him  to  two  duels ;  yet  he  obtained  4000iL  damages  and  full  costs  of  Buit  for 
the  illegal  seisure  of  his  papers.  He  further  experienced  the  vengeance  of  the  court 
of  Kin^s  Bench,  and  both  houses  of  Parliament,  fo^  the  libel,  and  for  his  obscene 
poem,  *'  An  Essay  on  Woman ; "  and  was  expelled  the  commons  and  outlawed  :  he 
was,  however,  elected  a  fifth  time  for  Middlesex  in  Oct.  1774,  and  the  same  year 
served  the  office  of  lord  mayor ;  but  was  overlooked  in  a  subsequent  general  election, 
and  died  in  1797.    See  North  Briton,  and  also  Warranis^  OeneruL 

WILLIAM  AVD  MARY  PACKET.  This  packet,  regularly  plying  between  Bristol  and 
Waterford,  struck  on  the  rocks  called  the  Willeys,or  Wolvers,  about  three  miles  N.W. 
of  the  Holmes  lighthouse,  on  the  English  coast^  and  sunk  in  about  fifteen  minutes. 
Nearly  sixty  persons  unhappily  perished.  Many  ladies  of  fortune,  beauty,  and  accom- 
plishments lost  their  lives :  the  misses  Barron,  four  young  ladies,  sisters,  were  among 
«the  drowned,  and  sunk  in  a  group  in  each  others  arms.  Nine  persons  (being  most 
of  the  crew,  and  two  passengers)  were  saved,  Oct  24, 1817. 

WILLS,  LAST,  AKD  TESTAMENTa  Wills  are  of  very  high  antiquity.  See  OenetU, 
o.  xlviii.  Solon  introduced  them  at  Athens,  678  B.C.  There  are  many  r^ulations 
respecting  wills  in  the  Koran.  The  Romans  had  this  power,  and  so  had  the  native 
Mexicans ;  so  that  it  prevailed  at  least  in  three  parts  of  the  globe.  Trebatius  Testa^ 
the  civilian,  was  the  first  person  who  introduced  codicils  to  wills  at  Rome,  81  b.o. 
The  power  of  bequeathing  lands,  by  the  last  will  and  testament  of  the  owner,  was 
confirmed  to  English  subjects,  1  Henry  I.  1100;  but  with  great  restrictions  and 
limitations  respecting  the  feudal  system ;  which  were  taken  off  by  the  statute  of 
82  Hen.  VUI.  1641. — £laekgUme*a  Commtntaria,  The  first  will  of  a  sovereign  on 
record  is  stated  (but  in  error)  to  be  that  of  Richard  II.  1399.  Edward  the  Confessor 
made  a  will,  1066.  The  following  are  extracts  from  the  will  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 
He  died  May  5,  1821,  eleven  days  after  he  had  signed  these  documents.  The  original 
in  French  occupies  about  26  pages  in  Peignot's  "  Testamens  Remarquablee^"  1829. 

LAST  WILL  or  KAPOLBOV,  LATX  THK  BMPKBOR  OF  FBANOI.* 


"This  day,  April  S4,  1821,  at  Longwood,  in 
the  IsUndof  Bt.  Helena.  This  is  my  testament, 
or  act  of  my  last  will : 

"Heave  to  the  oomtodeMontholon.  3,000,000 
fhuics,  as  a  proof  of  my  aatisfoction  for  the 
attentions  he  has  paid  to  me  for  these  six 
years,  and  to  indemniiy  him  for  the  losses 
which  mv  residence  in  St.  Helena  has  occa- 
sioned him.  I  leave  to  the  comte  Bertrand 
600.000  ft*ancs.  I  leave  to  Marchand,  my  first 
valet-de-chambre,  400.000  firancs ;  the  services 
he  has  performed  for  me  are  those  of  a  friend. 
I  desire  that  he  may  marry  a  widow,  sister, 
or  daughter  of  an  officer  or  soldier  of  my  old 
guard.  To  Bt  Denis,  100,000  francs.  To 
Novarre,  100,000  francs.  To  P^enm,  100,000 
francs.  To  Arobamhaiid.  60,000  francs.  To 
Cuvier,  60,000  francs.    To  Chandelle,  idem. 

**To  the  ahbtf  Vignali,  100.000  francs.  I 
desire  thai  he  may  build  his  house  near  Ponte 
Novo  de  Kossino.  To  the  oomto  Las  Cases, 
100,000  francs.  To  comto  Lavalette,  100,000 
francs.  To  the  surgeon  in  chief,  Larrey, 
100,000.  He  is  the  most  virtuous  man  I  have 
known.    To  general  Braver,  100,000  francs. 

"To  general  Lefevre  uesnouettes,  100,000 
fhmcs.    To  general  Drouet,  100,000  fhrncs. 


To  general  Cambronne^  100,000  francs.  To 
the  children  of  general  Uuton  Duvemais, 
100.000  francs.  To  the  children  of  the  biuve 
LabMoyfa^  100,000  francs.  To  the  children  of 
general  Oirard,  killed  at  Ligny,  100,000  francs. 
To  the  children  of  senenil  Chartrand,  100,000 
francs.  To  the  children  of  the  virtuous  general 
Travoet,  100.000  francs.  To  general  Lalle- 
mand,  the  elder,  10u,000  francs.  To  general 
Clausal,  100,000  francs.  To  Costa  Bastilica, 
also  100,000  francs.  To  the  baron  de  Mene- 
valle,  100,000  francs.  To  Arnault,  author  of 
JfaHio,  100,000  francs. 

"  To  colonel  Marbot,  100,000  firancs :  I  re- 
quest him  to  continue  to  write  for  the  defence 
and  glory  of  the  French  armies,and  to  confound 
the  calumniators  and  the  apostates.  To  the 
baron  Bignon,  100.000  francs :  I  request  him  to 
write  the  history  of  French  Diplomacy  from 
1792  to  1816.  To  Poggi  de  lUaro,  100,000 
francs.  To  the  surgeon  Emmeiy,  100,000 
francs. 

"These  sums  shall  be  taken  from  the  six 
millions  which  I  deposited  on  leaving  Paris  in 
1816,  and  from  the  interest  at  the  rate  of  6 
per  cent,  since  July  1816;  the  account  of 
which  shall  be  adjusted  with  the  bankers  by 


*  These  docamenta,  dated  from  April  16-84.  which  had  been  deposited  sines  1821  bi  England,  have 
been,  at  the  request  of  the  French  government,  given  up  to  the  authorities  at  Paris,  to  be  deposited 
among  the  archives  of  that  capitaL 


WIL  700  WIN" 


WILLS,  continued, 

the  counts  Kontholon  and  Bertrand,  and  by 
Karcfaand. 

"These  legacies,  in  case  of  death  shall  be 
paid  to  the  widows  and  children,  ana  in  their 
default,  shall  revert  to  the  capital.  I  institute 
the  oounts  Montholon,  Bertnuid  and  Marchand 


my  testamentary  executors.  This  present 
testament,  written  entirely  by  my  own  band, 
is  signed  and  sealed  with  my  arms 

"  NAPOLEOy. 


'*  April  24,  1821,  Longwood.** 
The  following  are  part  of  the  eight  CodiciU  to  the  preceding  will  of  the  emperor  :— 


cent.  CantiUon  had  as  much  right  to  i 
sinate  that  oligarch,  as  the  latter  had  to  mimI 
me  to  perish  on  the  rock  of  Bt.  Helena,'* 
Ac  Ac 


LSTTBR  TO  M.  lAVITTB. 

"MoNBiKUB  LAnm,— I  remitted  to  you 


**  On  the  liquidation  of  mv  olTil  list  of  Italy 
— such  as  monev,  Jewels,  plate,  linen  coffers, 
osskets,  of  which  the  viceroy  is  the  depositary, 
and  which  belong  to  me,  I  dispose  of  two 
millions,  which  I  leave  to  rsty  most  faithftil 
servants.  I  hope  thst  without  their  showing 
any  cause,  my  son  Eugene  Napoleon  will 

SS'J^^mSJ?  wh^ih^i  wt  ^S^Wn'FTi    In  1815.  at  the  moment  of  my  departuie  from 

Italy,  or  by  the  right  (ponv*)  of  his  mother's  ,  ^^^"1^^^  ^^  ^  double  xeceipt.    I  have  cm- 

^•Fromlhe  Mnds  remitted  in  gold  to  the  >  oeUe3  one  ofthesereceiots.  and  I  have  charged 
"r  -uyjJrZ^^r^Z^^^^lJAJ^^A^J^r    comte  de  Montholon  to  present  to  you  the 

SJrST-^^i^J^lSL  i7i8T/^ir  Ji  <^»»««-  "<«ip«J  ^  o^i"  that  you  may,  after 

beloved  spouse,  f*  pXjj*"^  j^^J^i**  ^^f^^J^  my  death,  aeliver  to  him  the  said  sum  with 

miUn  due  to  me  twompiions,  which  I  dispose  J^,^^^^  ^^  ^he  mte  of  five  per  e^„  from  the 

of  by  the  present  codicil,  in  order  to  recom-  ^^  ^^  J  .      1816.  deducUiT  Se  Wmentt 

KS?«  ^mml„?*S^l«'t;XSi«rn?"Li  withwhicf  you  have  been  fhar^^fiirirtue 

H^^tiI3??^fi^     T  wl/^S^S^£»^n«SJ  «'  ™y  orderi"  I  have  also  nsmltted  to  y«i « 

dear  Maria  Ixjuiaa.     I  leave  200,0W)  f^a  to  box  containing  my  medallion.    IbegyouwUl 

count  Montjiolon.  100.000  ftjn«  of  which  he  ^^^^^  itto  wmtJ^Sbol^.     ^ 

SSir^r  ".?;L'^1?  ™;^L*SS'Swi^  '  •*  ™« ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  other  ol^ect,  I  pray 
Casas)  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  above,  to  .  q^  Monsieur  lAflttS.  that  he  may  live  you 
be  employed  according  to  my  dispositions,  in    ^^  ^j,  ^^^    ^^  worthy  keepinr^ 

••NAPOLEON. 

"Longwood,  in  the  island  of  St  Heleiuk 
April  25,  1&21." 


legacies  of  conscience. 

*' 10,000  fi«ncs  to  the  sub-officer  CantiUon, 
who  has  undergone  a  proeecution.  being 
accused  of  a  desire  to  assassinate  lord  Wel- 
lington, of  which  he  has  been  declared  inno- 


Various  laws  have  regulated  the  willa  and  testaments  of  British  subjects.  The 
sUtutes  of  32,  84,  35  Hen.  VIII.;  10  Charles  L;  all  the  statutes  relating  to  wills  of 
Charles  II. ;  the  statute  7  Will.  III.  and  yarious  statutes  of  Anne  and  Geoiige  11. 
were  repealed  by  the  statute  1  Yict  a  26, 1837,  and  the  laws  with  relation  to  wills 
thereby  amended.* 

WILMINGTON,  EARL  of,  ADMINISTRATION.  Earl  of  WUmington,  first  lord  of 
the  treasury ;  lord  Hardwicke,  lord  chanoellor ;  earl  of  Harrington,  president  o(  the 
council;  earl  Oower,  lord  privy  seal ;  Mr.  Sandys,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer;  lord 
Carteret  and  the  duke  of  Newcastle,  secretaries  of  state ;  earl  of  Winchilsesy  first  lord 
of  the  admiralty ;  duke  of  Argyll,  commander  of  the  forces  and  master-general  of  the 
ordnance ;  Mr.  Henry  Pelham,  paymaster  of  the  forces ;  with  several  of  the  bouiehold 
lords,t  Feb.  1742.  In  Aug.  1743,  Mr.  Pelham  became  minister  on  lord  Wilmingtons 
death,  and  in  Nov.  1744,  he  formed  the  "Broad-bottom"  administration,  lokiek  tte, 

WINCHESTER.  A  most  ancient  city,  whose  erection  may  reasonably  be  ascribed  to 
the  Celtic  Britons,  though  the  alleged  date  of  its  foundation,  892  B.a  ii  msnifefltl/ 
unworthy  of  attention.  During  the  contests  of  the  Britons  and  the  Saxons  it  became 
the  capital  of  the  West  Saxon  kingdom ;  and  under  the  rule  of  Egbert,  it  became  tb« 
metropolis  of  England.  In  the  reign  of  the  conqueror,  though  Winchester  was  ^ 
a  royal  residence,  London  began  to  rival  it,  and  acquire  the  pre-eminence;  but  hiUt 
the  destruction  of  its  religious  houses  by  Henry  YIII.  it  contained  scarcely  aoytbisg 
more  than  a  mere  shadow  of  its  former  grandeur.  Winchester  has  been  the  Bceneof 
many  memorable  events  in  English  history.  Several  kings  resided,  and  many  psrl>*' 
ments  were  held  here.    Memorials  of  its  ancient  superiority  exist  in  the  DStioi»l 

«  By  this  act  the  testator  must  be  above  21,  not  a  lunatic  or  Idiotj  not  deaf  and  dumU  not  <^'^!L£^ 
the  time  of  signing,  not  an  outlaw  or  unpardoned  felon.  All  kinds  of  property  may  be  denwd.  TM 
will  must  be  written  legibly  and  intelligibly,  and  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  his  direction.  i°  ^m 
presence  of  two  or  more  witnesses,  who  also  must  sign.  A  married  woman  may  only  bequests  bff 
pin-money  or  senarate  maintenance  without  the  consent  of  the  husband.  .^^^ 

t  The  great  household  officers  were  at  this  period  always  in  what  was  called  the  cabinst;  wen 
were,  usually,  the  lord  chamberlain,  the  lord  steward,  the  master  of  the  hone,  and  the  keeper  ta  w 
great  wardrobe.  The  cofferer,  and  sometimes  others,  if  of  the  oouncU,  were  also  catonet  mii^^***> " 
of  the  administration. — £4frd  Bentp'B  Memoirt, 


WIN  701  WIN 

I  -  -  -  ■■ 

denomiDation  of  measures  of  quantity,  as  Winchester  ell,  Wiochester  bushel,  ftc.  the 
use  of  which  has  but  recently  been  replaced  by  imperial  measures. 

WINCHESTER,  BISHOPRIC  or.  This  see  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  has  always  con- 
tinued in  this  place,  which  was  the  capital  of  the  West  Saxon  kingdom.  The 
cathedral  church  was  first  founded  and  endowed  by  Eingil  or  Keneg^ilaus,  the  first 
Christian  king  of  the  West  Saxons.  The  church  first  built  becoming  ruinous,  the 
present  fabric  was  begun  by  Walkin,  the  81th  bishop,  1073  ;  but  not  finished  till  the 
time  of  William  of  Wykeham,  1405.  The  church  was  first  dedicated  to  St  Amphi- 
balus,  then  to  St.  Peter,  and  afterwards  to  St.  S within,  once  bishop  here.  St  Birine 
was  bishop,  a.d.  636.   The  see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  27932.  4«.  2d.  annually. 

WINDMILLS.  Thoy  are  of  great  antiquity,  and  some  writers  state  them  to  be  of 
Roman  invention ;  but  certiunly  we  are  indebted  for  the  windmill  to  the  Saracens. 
They  are  said  to  have  been  originally  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  knights  of 
St  John,  who  took  the  hint  from  what  they  had  seen  in  the  crusades. — Baker, 
WindmiUs  were  first  known  in  Spain,  France,  and  Germany,  in  1299. — Andenon. 
Wind  saw-mills  were  invented  by  a  Dutchman,  in  1633,  when  one  was  erected  near 
the  Strand,  in  London. 

WINDOWS.  See  OUua.  There  were  windows  in  Pompeii,  a.d.  79,  as  is  evident  from 
its  ruins.  It  is  certain  that  windows  of  some  kind  were  glazed  so  early  as  the  third 
century,  if  not  before,  though  the  fiishion  was  not  introduced  until  it  was  done  by 
Bennet,  a.d.  633.  Windows  of  glass  were  used  in  private  houses,  but  the  glass  was 
imported,  1177. — Anderaon,  In  England  in  1851  about  6000  houses  had  fifty  wmdows 
and  upwards  in  each ;  about  275,000  had  ten  windows  and  upwards ;  and  725,000 
had  seven  windows,  or  less  than  seven.  The  window-tax  was  first  enacted  in  order 
to  defray  the  expense  of  and  deficiency  in  the  re-coinage  of  gold,  7  Will.  III.  1695. 
The  tax  was  increased  Feb.  5, 1746-7 ;  again  in  1778 ;  and  again,  on  the  commutation- 
tax  for  tea,  Oct  1,  1784.  The  tax  was  again  increased  in  1797,  1S02,  and  (48 
Geoi^  III.  c.  55)  1808;  and  was  reduced  in  1823.  The  revenue  derived  from 
windows  was,  in  1840,  about  a  million  and  a  quarter  sterling ;  and  in  1850  (to  April  5) 
1,832,684/.  The  tax  upon  windows  was  repealed  by  act  14  &  15  Vict.  c.  36,  July  24, 
1851,  which  act  imposed  a  duty  upon  inhabited  houses  in  lieu  thereof. 

WINDS.  When  the  wind  blows  strong  or  flies  swift,  it  is  called  a  high  wind,  and  moves 
above  fifty  miles  an  hour.  In  one  of  Dr.  Lind's  experiments  he  found  that  the  velocity 
of  the  wind  was  ninety-three  miles  an  hour;  a  swiftness  of  motion  which,  since 
M.  Ghumerin's  aerial  voyage  to  Colchester,  must  be  considered  within  the  limits  of 
probability. 

WINDSOR  CASTLE.  A  royal  residence  of  the  British  sovereigns,  originally  built  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  but  enlarged  by  Henry  I.  The  monarchs  who  succeeded 
him  likewise  resided  in  it,  till  Edward  III.,  who  was  born  here,  caused  the  old 
building,  with  the  exception  of  three  towers  at  the  west  end,  to  be  taken  down,  and 
re-erected  the  whole  castle,  under  the  direction  of  William  of  Wykeham.  He  likewise 
built  St  George's  chapel.  Instead  of  alluring  workmen  by  contracts  and  wages, 
Edward  assessed  every  county  in  England  to  send  him  so  many  masons,  tilers,  and 
carpenters,  as  if  he  had  been  levying  an  army.  Several  additions  were  made  to  this 
pile  of  bttilding  by  Henry  YIlL  The  Cottage,  Windsor,  first  built  1543.  Queen 
Elizabeth  made  the  grand  terrace  on  the  north  side;  and  Charles  II.  thoroughly 
repaired  and  beautified  it,  1680. — Camden;  Mortimer.  The  chapel  was  repaired  and 
opened,  Oct.  1790.  The  castle  was  repaired  and  enlarged,  1824-8;  and  his  majesty 
George  IV.  took  possession  of  it,  Dec.  8,  in  the  latter  year.  It  continues  to  be  the 
chief  royal  residence  of  our  sovereigns,  and  extensive  improvements  have  since,  from 
time  to  time,  been  made.  A  serious  fire  oonirred  at  the  ca<itle,  in  the  prince  of 
Wales's  tower,  owing  to  some  defect  in  the  heating  apparatus,  March  19,  1853. 

WINDSOR  FOREST.  This  forest,  situated  to  the  south  and  west  of  the  town  of 
Windsor,  was  formerly  120  miles  in  circumference;  but  it  is  at  present  reduced  in 
its  bounds  to  about  fifty-six  miles.  On  the  south  side  is  Windsor  Great  Park,  which 
was  fourteen  miles  in  circumference,  but  it  has  been  much  enlai^ged  by  the  Indosure 
act ;  it  contains  about  3800  acres.  The  Little  Park,  on  the  north  and  east  sides  of 
the  castle,  contains  about  500  acres.  The  gardens  are  elegant,  and  have  been 
considerably  improved  by  the  addition  of  the  house  and  gardens  of  the  duke  of 
St  Alban  8,  purchased  by  the  crown.  The  prospects  from  the  castle,  bounded  by 
the  wild  and  picturesque  scenery  of  the  forest,  are  as  extensive  as  beautiful.  See 
preceding  twiide^ 


WIN  702  WIR 

WINES.  The  produodon  of  wine  ia  ascribed  to  Noah. — Abbi  LemgUk  The  art  of  mntJTig 
wine  from  rice  ia  ascribed  by  the  Ghineee  to  their  king,  Ching-Noong,  about  1998  b.c. 
— UfUv.  Biti.  The  art  of  making  wine  waa  brought  from  India  b^  Racohua>  aa  other 
authorities  have  it.  Hosea  speaks  of  the  wine  of  Lebanon  aa  bemg  very  fragrant.— 
ffoiea  xiy.  7.  Our  Saviour  changed  water  into  wine  at  tihe  marriage  of  Cuia  ia 
Qalilee. — John  ii.  3, 10.  No  wine  was  produced  in  France  in  the  time  of  the  Romans. 
— BittsueL  Spirits  of  wine  was  known  to  the  alchemists. — Idem^  Ck>noemlii^  the 
acquaintance  which  our  progenitors  had  with  wine,  it  has  been  conjectured  that  the 
PhoBnicians  might  possibly  nave  introduced  a  small  quantity  of  it ;  but  this  liquor 
was  very  little  known  in  our  island  before  it  waa  conquered  by  the  Romans.  Wine 
was  sold  in  England  by  apothecaries  as  a  cordial  in  a.d.  1300,  and  so  oontina«d  for 
some  time  after,  although  there  is  mention  of  "wine  for  the  king"  so  early  as  1249  ; 
and  we  are  even  sent  to  a  much  earlier  period  for  its  introduction  and  uae  in  Britain. 
In  1400  the  price  waa  twelve  shillings  the  pipe.  A  hundred  and  fifty  batts  and  pipes 
condemned,  for  being  adulterated,  to  be  staved  and  emptied  into  the  channels  of  the 
streets,  by  Raanwell,  mayor  of  London,  6  Hen.  VL  1427.— SItoto'e  Cknm.  The  first 
importation  of  claret  wine  into  Ireland  waa  on  June  17,  1490.  The  first  act  for 
licensing  sellers  of  wine  in  England  passed  April  25, 1661.  Wine  duties  to  be  2c  9dL 
per  gallon  on  Cape  wine,  and  5f.  ^d,  on  all  other  wines,  2  WilL  lY.  1^1. 

WINES,  IMPORTATION  of.  Our  importations  of  wine  have  of  late  years  very  much 
increased.  We  take  the  quantities  from  Official  Betums,  In  1800,  England  imported 
3,807,460  gallons  of  all  kinds  of  wine.  In  1815,  the  United  Kingdom  imported 
4,306,528  gallons.  In  1880  were  imported  6,879,558  gallons ;  and  in  the  year  ending 
Jan.  5,  1840,  were  imported  9,909,056  g^lons,  of  which  7,000,486  were  for  home  coo- 
sumption.  In  the  year  1850  were  imported  9,304,312  gallons;  6,487,222  gallons  were 
retained  for  home  consumption.  In  1851,  the  importations  of  wine  very  dightJy 
fluctuated;  they  have  been  for  some  years  under  10,000,000  gallons,  producing  a 
revenue  of  nearly  two  millions  sterling.  The  import  of  French  wines,  however, 
increased  in  the  last-mentioned  year.  In  1854, 11,030,708  gallons  were  imported,  and 
7,197,572  retained  for  home  consumption. 

WINIFRED'S  WELL,  QpLTWELL.  At  this  place  is  a  well  mentioned  as  early  a»  a.o.  660. 
It  is  an  extraordinary  natural  spring,  of  which  popish  superstition  has  availed  itsel£ 
The  rook  from  which  it  flows  discharges  20  tons  a  minute ;  and  the  water,  in  two 
miles,  falls  into  the  Dee,  and  in  the  intermediate  space  turns  many  water-wheels  con- 
nected with  some  large  manufactories.  The  well  is  the  drainage  of  three  stupendous 
hills  which  lie  above  it.  St  Winifred  was  niece  to  St  Bruno,  who  flourished  in  the 
seventh  centuiy;  her  martyrdom  is  commemorated  on  June  22 ;  her  "translation  to 
heaven "  on  Nov.  8.  St  Bruno  is  said  to  have  re-united  her  head  to  her  body,  from 
which  it  had  been  stmck  off  by  a  sword. 

WIRE.  The  invention  of  drawing  wire  is  ascribed  to  Rodolph  of  Nuremberg,  aj>.  1410. 
Mills  for  this  purpose  were  first  set  up  at  Nurembex^  in  1568.  The  first  wire  mill  in 
England  was  erected  at  Mortlake  in  1663. — Mortimer.  The  sstonishing  duetihty 
which  is  one  of  the  distinguishing  qualities  of  gold,  is  no  way  more  conspicuous  than 
in  gilt  wire.  A  cylinder  of  48  ounces  of  silver,  oovered  with  a  ooat  of  gold  weighing 
only  one  ounce,  is  usually  drawn  into  a  wire  two  yards  of  which  only  wMgh  one 
grain ;  so  that  98  yards  of  the  wire  weigh  no  more  than  49  grains,  and  one  single 
grain  of  gold  covers  the  whole  98  yards ;  and  the  thousandth  part  of  a  grain  is  above 
one-eighUi  of  an  inch  long. — HaUey.  Eight  grains  of  gold  covering  a  cylinder  of 
silver  are  commonly  drawn  into  a  wire  18,000  feet  long;  yet  so  perfecUy  does  it  cover 
the  silver,  that  even  a  microscope  does  not  discover  any  appearance  of  the  silver 
undemeaUi. — Bo/y^ 

WIRTBMBERO.  One  of  the  most  ancient  states  of  Germany,  and  moat  populous  for 
ita  extent  The  dukes  were  Protestants  until  1772,  when  the  reigning  prince  became 
a  Roman  CathoUc.  Wirtembeig  has  been  repeatedly  traversed  by  hostile  armiee, 
particularly  since  the  revolution  of  France.  Moreau  made  his  celebrated  retreat, 
Oct  23,  1796.  The  prince  of  Wirtembeig  married  the  princesa  royal  of  England, 
daughter  of  Qeoige  III.  May  17,  1797.  Thia  state  obtained  new  acquisitions  in 
territory  in  1802  and  1805.  The  elector  assumed  the  title  of  king,  Dec.  12, 1805^  and 
was  proclaimed  Jan.  1,  1806.  His  nugesty,  as  an  ally  of  France,  lost  the  flovrer  of  his 
army  in  Russia,  in  1812.  The  kingdom  obtained  a  firee  constitution  in  1819.  William  L 
the  present  king  (1857),  succeeded  his  fiither  fVederick,  Oct  30, 1816. 

WIRTEMBERa,  HOUSE  or.    The  house  of  Wirtembeig  is  very  aneient»  and  amongst 


WIT  708  WIT 

the  most  powerful  of  the  (German  prinoes.  They  have,  like  mtnj  others,  suffered 
much  from  the  oppressions  of  the  house  of  Austria,  who  form  pretensions  to  the  sue- 
ceaaioo  of  their  dominions  on  the  eztinotion  of  the  heirs-male ;  and  this  for  no  other 
reason  than  that  of  the  emperor  Charles  Y.  having  turned  the  duke  Ulrich  out  of  his 
dominions  in  1519,  and  having  afterwards  s«zed  them ;  although  he  was  restored  to 
them  in  1584,  not  through  any  good  will  of  the  emperor,  but  by  the  assiBtanoe  the 
duke  had  obtained  from  &e  king  of  France  and  the  landgrave  of  Hease-GssseL  See 
preceding  articU^ 

WITCHCRAFT.  The  punishment  of  witchcraft  was  first  conntenanced  by  the  Church 
of  Bome ;  and  persons  suspected  of  the  erime  have  been  subjected  to  the  most  cruel 
punishments.  In  tens  of  thousands  of  cases,  the  victims,  often  innocent*  were  burnt 
alive,  while  others  were  drowned  by  the  test  applied;  for  if^  on  being  thrown  into  a 
pond,  they  did  not  sink,  they  were  presumed  witches,  and  either  killed  on  the  spot, 
or  reserved  for  burning  at  the  stake.  Five  hundred  witches  were  burnt  in  Geneva,  in 
three  months*  in  1515b  One  thousand  were  burnt  in  the  diocese  of  Como  in  a  year. 
An  incredible  number  in  France,  about  1520,  when  one  sorcerer  confessed  to  having 
1200  associates.  Nine  hundred  were  burnt  in  Lorraine,  between  1580  and  1595.  One 
hundred  and  fiftj-seven  were  burnt  at  Wurtzburg,  between  1627  and  1629,  old  and 
youngs  clerical,  learned  and  ignorant.  At  Lindheim,  thirty  were  burnt  in  four  years, 
out  of  a  population  of  600 ;  and  more  than  100,000  perished,  mostly  by  the  flames,  In 
(Germany.  Orandier,  the  parish  priest  at  Loudun,  was  burnt  on  a  charge  of  having 
bewitched  a  whole  convent  of  nuns,  1684.  In  Bretagne,  twenty  poor  women  were 
put  to  death  as  witches,  1654.  Disturbances  commenced  on  charges  of  witchcaft  in 
America,  at  Ifaraaohusetts,  1648-9;  and  persecutions  raged  dreadfully  in  Pennsylvania 
in  1688.  Maria  Renata  was  burnt  at  Wurtzbei^  in  1749.  At  Kalisk,  in  Poland,  nine 
old  women  were  charged  with  having  bewitched,  and  rendered  unfruitful,  the  lands 
belonging  to  that  palatinate,  and  were  burnt*  Jan.  17,  1775. — Atm.  Reg,  Five  women 
were  condemned  to  death  by  the  Brahmina,  at  PAtna*  for  sorcery,  and  executed, 
Dec.  15, 1802.— /c2eii». 

WITCHCRAFT  and  CONJURATION  in  ENGLAND.  Absurd  and  wicked  laws 
were  in  force  against  them  in  these  countries  in  former  tipies,  by  which  death  was 
the  punishment,  and  thousands  of  persons  suffered  both  by  the  public  executioner 
and  the  hands  of  the  people.  A  statute  was  enacted  declaring  all  witchcraft  and 
sorcery  to  be  felony  without  benefit  of  deigy,  88  Hen.  YIII.  1541.  Again  5 
Elix.  1562,  and  1  James,  1608.  Barring^n  estimates  the  judicial  murders  for  witch- 
cnft  in  England  in  200  yean  at  80,000.  The  English  condemned  and  burnt  the 
beautiful  and  heroic  Joan  of  Arc,  the  maid  of  Orleans,  as  a  sorceress,  aj>.  1481. 
See  Joan  of  Arc  Sir  Matthew  Hale  burnt  two  persons  for  witchcraft  in  1664. 
Three  thousand  were  executed  in  England  under  the  long  parliament.  Northamp- 
tonshire and  Huntingdon  preserved  the  superstition  about  witchcraft  later  than  any 
other  counties.  Two  pi-etended  witches  were  executed  at  Northampton  in  1705, 
while  the  Spectator  was  in  course  of  publication  in  London,  and  five  others  seven 
years  affcerwarda  In  1716,  Mrs.  Hicks,  and  her  daughter,  aged  nine,  were  hanged 
at  Huntingdon.  In  Scotland,  thousands  of  persons  were  burnt  in  the  period  of  about 
a  hundred  years.  Among  the  victims  were  persons  of  the  highest  rank,  while  all 
orders  in  the  state  concurred.  James  I.  even  caused  a  whole  assize  to  be  prosecuted 
for  an  acquittal.  The  king  published  his  JHaloguet  of  Jkemonologie  first  in  Edinburgh, 
and  afterwards  in  London.*  The  last  sufferer  in  Scotland  was  in  1722,  at  Dornoch. 
The  laws  against  witchcraft  had  laid  dormant  for  many  years,  when  an  ignorant 
person  attempting  to  revive  them,  by  finding  a  bill  against  a  poor  old  woman  in 
Surrey  for  the  practice  of  witchcraft,  they  were  repealed,  10  Geo.  IL  1786. — Viner*$ 
Abridgment. 

WITENA-MOT,  ob  WITENA-GEMOT.    Among  our  Saxon  ancestors,  this  was  the  term 

*  All  penons  at  oourt  who  aonght  the  fkvour  of  James,  pralaad  his  Jkemcnoloait :  and  parliament, 
to  flattsr  him,  made  its  twelfth  law  against  witchcraft  in  1003.  By  this  statute  death  was  Inflicted  on 
soroerera  in  theee  words :  **  If  anv  perdon  shall  use  any  invocation  or  conjuration  of  any  evil  or  wicked 
spirit,— shall  entertain,  employ,  feed,  or  reward  any  evil  or  cursed  spirit,— take  up  any  dead  hody  to 
employ  in  witchcraft,  sorcery,  or  enchantment^— or  shall  practise,  or  shall  exercise,  any  sort  of  witch- 
craft, sorcery,  Ac.  whereby  any  person  shall  be  killed,  wasted,  consumed,  pined,  or  lamed."  This 
being  the  law  of  the  land,  no  person  presumed  to  doubt  the  existence  of  witchcraft ;  hence  Shakspeare 
gave  oountehance  to  the  error,  and  the  learned  bishop  Hall  mentions  a  place  where,  he  said,  there 
were  mors  witches  than  houses.  Allaying  of  ffhosts,  driving  out  evil  spirits,  snd  abjuring  witches, 
became  in  consequence,  for  a  century,  a  profitable  employment  to  the  clergy  of  all  denominations. 
Witch-finders  existed,  too,  as  public  officers ;  and  b«ddes  the  public  executions  which  diegnoed  every 
— JTiOfi,  multitudes  of  accused  were  destroyed  by  popular  resentment. — PhUUf. 


WIT  704  WOO 

which  was  applied  to  their  deliberationB,  and  which  literally  ugnified  the  a—eniblipg 
of  the  wise  men  in  the  great  coancil  of  the  nation.  A  witena-mot  was  called  in 
London,  a.d.  833,  to  oonsmt  on  the  proper  means  to  repel  the  Danes.  This  name  was 
dropped  about  the  period  of  the  Norman  Conquest^  and  that  of  parliament  adopted. 
See  ParliamenL  » 

WITEPSK,  BA.TTLE  of.  Between  the  Frenoh  army  under  marshal  Victor,  duke 
of  Belluno,  and  the  Bussian  army  commanded  by  general  Wittgenstein.  The 
French  were  defeated  after  a  desperate  engagement,  with  the  loss  of  3000  men, 
Nov.  14,  1812. 

WITNESSES.  The  evidence  of  two  witnesses  required  to  attaint  for  high  treason,  25 
Edw.  III.  1852.  In  civil  actions  between  party  and  party,  if  a  man  be  subpcenaad  as 
a  witness  on  a  trial,  he  must  appear  in  oourt  on  pain  of  100/L  to  be  forfeited  to  the 
king,  and  102.  together  with  damages  equivalent  to  the  loss  sustained  by  the  want  of 
his  evidence  to  the  party  aggrieved.  Lord  Ellenborough  ruled  that  no  witness  is 
obliged  to  answer  questions  which  may  tend  to  degrade  himself,  Dea  10, 1802.  New 
act  relating  to  the  examination  of  witnesses  passed  18  Oeo.  III.  1773.  Act  to  enable 
courts  of  law  to  order  the  examination  of  witnesses  upon  interrogaUons  and  other- 
wise, 1  Will  IV.  March  30, 1881. 

WIVES'  POISON,  OB  Watbb  Topano.    See  article  Pomming, 

WOLVES.  These  animals  were  Tery  numerous  in  England.  Their  heads  were 
demanded  aa  a  tribute,  particularly  800  yearly  from  Wales,  by  king  Edgar,  aj>.  961, 
by  which  step  they  were  totally  destroyed. — Carte.  Bkiward  I.  issued  his  mandate 
for  the  destruction  of  wolves  in  several  counties  of  England  a.d.  1289.  Ireland  was 
infested  by  wolves  for  many  oenturies  after  their  extirpation  in  England ;  for  there 
are  accounts  of  some  being  found  there  so  late  as  1710,  when  the  last  presentment 
for  killing  wolves  was  made  in  the  county  of  Cork.  Wolves  still  infest  Fnmoe,  in 
which  kingdom  884  wolves  and  cube  were  killed  in  1828*9.  When  wolves  croes  a 
river,  they  follow  one  another  directly  in  a  line,  the  second  holding  the  tail  of  the 
first  in  its  mouth,  the  third  that  of  the  second,  and  so  of  the  rest  This  figure  was, 
on  this  aooounti  chosen  by  the  Oreeks  to  denote  the  year,  composed  of  twelve  months 
following  one  another,  which  they  denominated  Lycabtu,  that  is,  the  march  of  the 
wol  ves» — A  bhS  Pluch  e. 

WON  DEBS  of  thk  WOBLD,  the  Sevbn.  These  were  :— 1.  The  pynmids  of  Egypt 
2.  The  mausoleum  or  tomb  built  for  Mausolus,  king  of  Caria,  by  Artemisia,  bis 
queen.  8.  The  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  4.  The  walls  and  hanging-gardens  of 
the  city  of  Babylon.  5.  The  vast  brazen  image  of  the  sun  at  Bhcdes,  called  tlie 
Colossus.  6.  The  rich  statue  of  Jupiter  Olympus.  7.  The  pharos  or  watch-tower, 
built  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  king  of  Egypt    See  them  eevendly, 

WOODCUTS,  OR  WOOD  ENQBAVING.  See  article  Engraving  on  Wood,  The  inven- 
tion is  ascribed  by  some  to  a  gunsmith  of  Florence ;  by  others,  to  Reuss,  a  German, 
A.D.  1460 ;  but  it  has  an  earlier  origin,  as  shown  in  the  article  referred  to.  Brought 
to  perfection  by  Durer  and  Lucas.  Brought  to  great  perfection  by  Bewick,  Nesbett, 
Anderson,  &c.  in  1789-99 ;  and  more  recently  by  Cruikshank,  Branston,  and  others. 

WOOD'S  HALF-PENCE.  Wood's  celebrated  patent  for  coming  halfpnce  for  circu- 
lation  in  Ireland  and  America,  passed  9  Qeo.  I.  1722-3.  Against  this  projector,  Dr. 
Jonathan  Swift  appeared  in  the  character  of  the  Draper^  and  his  letters  raised  such 
a  spirit  against  him,  that  he  was  efiectually  banished  the  kiugdom. — Bumf. 

WOODEN  PAVEMENT.  This  is  a  new  description  of  pavement,  which,  notwith- 
standing its  expensiveoess,  and  the  employment  of  so  valuable  and  perishable  a 
product  as  wood,  seemed  likely  to  supersede  every  other  species  of  pavement  in  the 
principal  streets  and  great  thoroughfares  of  London.  A  wooden  pavement  was  laid 
down  at  Whitehall  in  1839;  and  it  was  followed  by  similar  paving  in  Oxford-street, 
part  of  the  Strand,  Cheapeide,  High-street,  Holbom,  the  Old  Bailey,  Coven  try -etre«t 
LincolnVinn,  the  Admiralty,  and  various  other  streets  and  places.  This  parement 
did  not  answer  the  expectations  of  its  advocates,  and  has  been  nearly  all  taken  up. 

WOODSTOCK.  In  Woodstock,  now  Blenheim-pork,  originally  stood  a  royal  palace,  the 
favourite  retreat  of  several  of  the  kings  of  England,  till  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  when 
it  was  almost  wholly  in  ruins.  King  Kthelred  held  a  parliament  at  Woodstock 
palace;  and  there  Alfred  the  Qreat  translated  BoeUut  de  Ooneotaiume  Philo9ophur. 
Henry  I.  beautified  the  palace ;  and  here  resided  Roasmond,  mistress  of  Henry  II. 


woo 


705 


WOO 


1191.  Edmund,  second  eon  of  Edward  I.  was  bom  at  this  palace  ;  also  Edward, 
eldest  son  of  Edward  III.  1331 ;  and  here  the  princess  Elizabeth  was  confined  by  her 
sister  Mary,  1554.  A  splendid  mansion,  built  at  the  expense  of  the  nation,  for  the 
duke  of  Marlborough,  was  erected  here  to  commemorate  the  victory  he  obtained  at 
Blenheim  in  1704.  At  that  time  every  trace  of  the  ancient  edifice  was  removed,  and 
two  elms  were  planted  on  its  site.     See  Rosamond. 

WOOL.  From  the  earliest  times  down  to  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth  the  wool  of  Qreat 
Britain  was  not  only  superior  to  that  of  Spain,  but  accounted  the  finest  in  the 
universe;  and  even  in  the  times  of  the  Romans  a  manufacture  of  woollen  cloths  was 
established  at  Winchester  for  the  use  of  the  emperors. — Dr.  Anderton.  In  later 
times,  wool  was  manufactured  in  England,  and  is  mentioned  in  a.d.  1185,  but  not 
in  any  quantity  until  1331,  when  the  weaving  of  it  was  introduced  by  John  Kempe 
and  other  artisans  from  Flanders.  This  was  the  real  origin  of  our  now  unrivalled 
manufacture,  6  Edw.  III.  ISSl^—Rymer'a  Fadera,  The  exportation  prohibited,  1887. 
Staples  of  wool  established  in  Ireland,  at  Dublin,  Waterford,  Cork,  and  D^ogheda, 
18  Edw.  III.  1348.  Sheep  were  first  permitted  to  be  sent  to  Spain,  which  has  since 
injured  our  manufacture,  1467. — Stow.  First  legislative  prohibition  of  the  export  of 
wool  from  Ireland.  1521.  The  exportation  of  English  wool,  and  the  importation  of 
Irish  wool  into  England,  prohibited  1696.  Bill  to  prevent  the  running  of  wool  from 
Ireland  to  France,  1738.  The  duty  on  wool  imported  from  Ireland  taken  oflf,  1789. 
The  export  forbidden  by  act  passed  1718.  Wool-combers'  act,  85  Geo.  III.  1794. 
The  non -exportation  law  was  repealed,  5  Geo.  IV.  1824.  In  1851,  we  imported 
83.311,975  lbs.  of  wool  and  alpaca;  in  1856,  116,211,392  lbs.;  from  Australia,  in 
1842,  12,979,856  lbs. ;  in  1856,  56,052,139  lbs. 

WOOLLEN  CLOTH.  The  manufacture  of  cloth  was  known,  it  is  supposed,  in  all 
civilised  countries,  in  very  remote  ages,  and  probably  of  linen  also.  Woollen 
cloths  were  made  an  article  of  commerce  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caspar,  and  are  fami- 
liarly alluded  to  by  him.  They  were  made  in  England  before  a.d.  1200,  and  the 
manufacture  became  extensive  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  1331.  They  were  then 
called  Kendal  cloth,  and  Halifax  cloth.  See  preceding  articU.  Blankets  were  first 
made  in  England,  about  a.d.  1340. — Camden,  No  cloth  but  of  Wales  or  Ireland 
to  be  imported  into  England,  1463.  The  art  of  dyeing  brought  to  England,  1608. 
See  article  Dijeing,  Medleys,  or  mixed  broad-cloth,  first  made,  1614.  Manufiwture 
of  fine  cloth  began  at  Sedan,  in  France,  under  the  patronage  of  cardinal  Mazarine, 
1646.  British  and  Irish  woollens  prohibited  in  France,  1677.  All  persons  obliged  to 
be  buried  in  woollen,  and  the  persons  directing  the  burial  otherwise  to  forfeit  5Z. 
29  Chaa.  II.  1678.  The  manufacture  of  cloth  greatly  improved  in  England  by 
Flemish  settlers,  1688.  Injudiciously  restrained  in  Ireland,  11  WilL  III.  1698.  The 
exportation  from  Ireland  wholly  prohibited,  except  to  certain  ports  of  England, 
l7ol.  English  manufacture  encouraged  by  10  Anne,  1712,  and  2  Geo.  I.  1715. 
Greater  in  Yorkshire  in  1785  than  in  ail  England  at  the  Revolution.—  Chalmen, 

qUANTITT  AND  DECLARED  VALUE   OF  CLOTHS  EXPORTED  FROM  GREAT  BRITAIN 

IN  THE   FOLLOWING  TBAR9  : — 


QuMitity. 

laoo. 

ims. 

1800. 

i<Mo.             i»a 

Pieces    , 

Yards                .    . 

Declared  value 

1,022,888 

4,213.677 

£8,914,661 

1,741.983 

7.798,610 

£6,194,926 

1.747,036 

6,661,877 

£4,608,692 

2,148.796         8,665.077 
8,170,642        11,840,038 

£6,921,116      £8.377,183 

1 

WOOL-COMBERS.  The  journeymen  wool-combers,  in  several  parts  of  England,  have  a 
grand  procession,  in  commemoration  of  the  renowned  bishop  Blaise.  This  bishop  is 
reported  to  have  discovered  the  art  of  combing  wool.  He  is  said  to  have  visited 
England;  and  St.  Blazy,  a  village  in  Cornwall,  is  celebrated  for  having  been  his 
landing-place,  and  from  him  it  derives  its  name.  He  was  bishop  of  Sebastia,  in 
Armenia,  adjacent  to  the  south-east  part  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  suffered  martyrdom, 
bv  decapitation  in  the  Diocletian  persecution,  in  the  year  289.  The  processions  take 
place  on  Feb.  8,  every  year. 

WOOLWICH.  Distinguished  for  the  most  ancient  military  and  naval  arsenal  in 
England,  and  for  its  royal  dockyard,  where  men-of-war  have  been  built  as  early  as  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  1512.  The  royal  arsenal  was  formed  about  1720,  on  the  site  of 
a  rabbit-warren;  it  contains  vast  magazines  of  great  guns,  mortars,  bombs,  powder, 

z  z 


WOR  70«  WOB 

Bod  other  warlike  stores;  a  foundry,  with  three  foroaoea,  for  easting  ordnanee;  and 
a  laboratory,  where  fireworks  and  cartridges  are  made,  and  grenadoa,  &c  charged  for 
the  public  service.  The  royal  military  aodemy  was  erected  in  the  royal  arseiMl,  but 
the  institution  was  not  completely  formed  until  19th  Geo.  II.  1745i  The  araenal, 
storehouses,  &c.  burnt,  to  the  yalue  of  200,000/.  May  20,  1802.  Another  great  fire 
occurred  June  30,  1805.  Fatal  explosion  of  gunpowder,  Jan.  20,  1813.  T%e  hemp- 
store  burnt  down,  July  8,  1813.    Another  explosion  by  gunpowder,  June  16,  1814. 

WORCESTER,  BISHOPRIC  of.  This  see  was  founded  by  Ethelred,  king  of  the 
Kerdans,  ii.D.  679,  and  taken  from  the  see  of  Lichfield,  of  which  it  composed  a  part 
The  married  priests  of  the  cathedral  displaced,  and  monks  settled  in  th<»r  stead,  964. 
The  church  rebuilt  by  Wolstan,  25th  bishop.  1030.  The  see  has  yielded  to  the 
church  of  Rome  four  saints,  and  to  the  English  nation  five  lord  ehanoellorB  and 
three  lord  treasurers.    It  is  valued  in  the  kingfs  books  at  1049^.  16t.  ^^<L  per  annum. 

WORCESTER,  BATTLE  of.  In  the  Civil  War,  fought  between  the  royalist  army  and 
the  forces  of  the  parliament,  the  latter  commanded  by  CromwelL  A  large  body  of 
Soots  had  marched  into  Englsnd  with  a  view  to  reinstate  Charies  IL  but  Cromwell 
signally  defeated  them;  the  streets  of  the  city  were  strewn  with  the  dead,  the 
whole  Scots  army  having  been  either  killed  or  taken  prisoners.  This  famous  battle 
alTorded  Cromwell  what  he  called  his  crnfwnimp  mercy,  Charles  with  difficulty  eecaped 
to  France.  More  than  2000  of  the  royalists  were  slain,  and  of  8000  prisoners,  most 
were  sold  as  slaves  to  the  American  colonies :  fought  Sept.  3,  1651. 

WORKING  MEN'S  COLLEGES.  The  first  was  established  in  Sheffield,  by  woiiLing  men. 
The  second,  in  London,  by  professor  Maurice,  as  principal,  in  Oct.  1854.*  A  third,  in 
Cambridge,  and  in  1855,  a  fourth  in  Oxford ;  all,  wholly  for  the  working  classes,  and 
undertaking  to  impart  snch  knowledge  as  each  man  feels  he  is  most  in  want  of.  The 
colleges  engage  to  find  a  teacher,  wherever  10  or  12  members  agree  to  form  a  class; 
and  ^80  to  have  lectures  given.    They  are  highly  successful. 

WORLD,  The.  According  to  Julius  Africanus,  as  quoted  by  Gibbon,  the  world  wss 
created  Sept  1,  5508  B.C.  Mo«t  chronologers,  however,  mention  the  year  4004  bc. 
as  the  period  of  its  first  existence.  See  Oreation.  The  Jews  celebrate  the  19th  of 
September  as  the  day  of  the  creation,  and  some  suppose  that  it  was  created  in  spring. 
Its  globular  form  was  first  suggested  by  Thales  of  Miletus,  about  640  ac.  The  first 
geographical  table  and  map  of  the  world  was  made  by  Anaximander,  about  560  B.c. 
— Piiny,  Discoveries  of  Pythagoras  and  his  system,  about  539  bc. — SKoaicy.  The 
magnitude  of  the  earth  calculated  by  Eratosthenes,  240  bo.  The  system  of  Copernicus 
promulgated,  a-D.  1530.  Map  of  the  world  on  Mercator's  projection,  1556.  The  notion 
of  the  magnetism  of  the  Earth  started  by  Gilbert,  1583.  The  magnitude  of  the  Earth 
determin^  by  Picart,  1669. 

WORMS,  DIET  OF.  The  celebrated  imperial  diet  before  which  Martin  Luther  wm 
summoned,  April  4.  1521,  and  by  which  he  was  proscribed.  Luther  was  met  by 
2000  persons  on  foot  and  on  horseback,  at  the  distance  of  a  league  from  Wormi*. 
Such  was  his  conviction  of  the  justice  of  his  cause,  that  when  SpaJatin  sent  a  mes- 
senger to  warn  him  of  his  danger,  he  answered  "  If  there  were  as  many  devils  in 
Worms  as  there  are  tiles  upon  the  roofs  of  its  houses,  I  would  go  on.'*  Before  the 
emperor,  the  archduke  Ferdinand,  six  electors,  twenty-four  dukes,  seven  margraves* 
thirty  bishops  and  prelates,  and  many  princes,  counts,  lords,  and  ambaassdors, 
Luther  appeared,  April  17th,  in  the  imperial  diet,  acknowledged  all  his  writings 
and  opinions,  and  left  Worms,  in  fact,  a  conqueror.  But  Frederick  the  Wise  advis^ 
him  to  seclude  himself  to  save  his  life,  which  he  did  for  about  ton  months,  and  his 
triumph  was  afterwards  complete. 

WORMWOOD,  OB  WORMSEED.  This  plant  and  its  seed  were  in  use.  on  account  of 
their  bitterness,  for  the  preservation  of  malt  liquors,  previously  to  the  virtues  of  bops 
becoming  known.  Wormwood  and  other  plants  are  mentioned  as  being  used  for  this 
purpose  so  late  as  a.d.  1 492.  It  is  or  was  used  for  various  medicinal  purposes,  parti- 
ealarly  for  worms. — Pardon. 

WORSHIP.  The  first  worship  mentioned  is  that  of  Abel,  B.a  8875,  Cfm.  iv.  "Men  be^an 
to  call  on  the  name  of  the  Lord,**  B.C.  8769,  Qm.  iv.  The  Jewish  order  of  worship 
was  set  up  by  Moses,  bo.  1490.  Solomon  conseerated  the  temple,  B.a  1004.  To 
the  corruptions  of  the  simple  worship  of  the  patriarchs  all  the  Egyptian  and  Greek 
idolatries  owe  their  origin. — ^Athotes,  son  of  Menes,  king  of  Upper  Egypt,  is  supposed 

*  The  cIbmm  in  1856  were  ttlevea.    Mr.  Buskin  gsTe  Isssous  in  drawing  in  that  yenr. 


50 
S2 

12,107 
9,305 

as 

7,487 

s 

291 

109 

85,210 

828 

198,242 

546 

105,657 

WOR  707  WRB 

to  be  the  Copt  of  the  Egyptiane,  and  the  Toth  or  Hermt$  of  the  Greeks ;  the  Mereurf 
of  the  LatiDB,  and  the  TeutcUtM  of  the  Celts  or  Qauls,  2112  B.o.—Uther. 

WOHSHIP  nr  ENGLAND.  The  Druids  were  the  priests  here,  at  the  invasion  of  the 
Romans  (b.c.  55),  who  eyentnally  introduced  Ghriatianity.  This  latter  was  almost 
extirpated  by  the  Tictorious  Saxons  (465-820>,  who  were  pagnna.  The  Roman  Catholic 
form  of  Christianity  was  introduced  by  Augustine,  596,  and  continued  till  the 
Reformation,  which  tee, 

PLACES  OF  WORSHIP  19   EITGLANO  AND  WALES  IN   1851. 

Ptmet*  tf  W«r»hip.  8ittiwffa.  Ptaeta  ^  Wmvkif.  mttingt. 

Church  of  Rnfrland      .        .14,077  5,317,915  New  Church  (Bwedenboxi^iAnB) 

Wesleyan  Methodisto      .     .     0,579  2.194,298  Moravians     .... 

IndependeuU                       .    8,214  1,067.760  Catholic     and     Apoetollc) 

Baptfate 2.789  752.343       Church  a  rvingitea)      .     / 

Roman  OathoUcfl                 .       570  186,111  Greek  Church 

Society  of  Frienda  .        .    .       871  91.669  Countess  of  Huntingdon's) 

Unitarians    .        .                .229  68,654       Connexion         .        .        f 

Scottish  Presbyterians    .     .       160  86,692  Welsh  Calvinlstic  Methodists 

Latter-day  Saints  (JlformonOet)  222  80,783  Various  small  bodies,  some  ) 

Brethren  (Plymouth)     .    .       132  (?)    18.529       without  names     .        .     ) 

J«'" M  8,438                gee  ITeWcyan  MetkodUU :  note. 

WORSTED.  A  species  of  woollen  fabric,  being  spun  wool,  which  obtained  its  name  from 
having  been  Brst  spun  at  a  town  called  Worsted,  in  Norfolk,  in  which  the  inventor 
lived,  and  where  manufactures  of  worsted  are  still  extensively  carried  on,  14  Edw.  III. 
1340. — Ander$on,  "A  Wonted-stocking  Knave'*  is  a  term  of  reproach  or  contempt 
used  by  Shakspeare. 

WORTHIES  ov  THE  WORLD,  the  NINR  Three  of  these  were  Jews,  vis. :  Joshua, 
David,  and  Judas  Maccabseus.  Three  were  heathens,  viz. :  Hector  of  Troy,  Alexander 
the  Great,  and  Julius  CsBsar.  And  three  were  Christianii,  viz. :  Arthur  of  Britain, 
Charles  the  Qreat,  or  Charlemagne,  of  France,  and  OeofFrey  of  Bouillon. — Bailtff. 

WOUNDING.  Malicious  wounding  of  another  was  adjudged  death  by  the  English 
statutes.  The  Coventry  act  was  passed  in  1671.  See  Coventry  Act,  By  the  statute, 
usually  called  Lord  EIlenborough*s  act,  persons  who  stab  or  cut  with  intent  to 
murder,  maim,  or  disfigure  another  are  declared  guilty  of  felony  without  benefit  of 
clergy.  Those  guilty  of  maliciously  shooting  at  another  in  any  dwelling-house,  or 
other  place,  are  also  punishable  under  the  same  statute  in  the  same  degree,  43  Geo. 
IlL  1802.  This  offence  is  met  by  some  later  statutes,  particularly  the  act  for  con- 
solidating and  amending  the  acts  relating  to  offences  against  the  person,  9  Geo.  lY. 
June,  1828.  This  last  act  is  extended  to  Irehmd  by  10  Geo.  lY.  1829.  Act  for  the 
prevention  of  malicious  shooting,  stabbing,  &c.  in  Scotland,  6  Geo.  lY.  1825 ;  amended 
by  10  Geo.  lY.  June  4, 1829.  16  ft  17  Yict.  c.  30, 1853,  was  passed  for  the  prevention 
and  pimishment  of  assaults  on  women  and  children. 

WRECKS  OF  SHIPPING.  The  loss  of  merchant  and  other  ships  by  wreck  upon  lee- 
#  shores,  coasts,  and  disasters  in  the  open  sea,  was  estimated  at  Lloyd's,  in  1800,  to 
be  about  an  average  of  365  ships  a  year.  In  1830,  it  appeared  by  Lloy^a  LuU,  that 
677  British  vessels  were  totally  lost,  under  various  circumstances,  in  that  year. 
By  official  returns,  the  number  of  British  vessels  wrecked  in  the  year  1848,  was,  sailing 
vessels,  501 ;  steamers,  13 ;  the  tonnage  of  the  whole  amounting  to  96,920,  all  being 
of  the  United  Kingdom.  In  the  year  1851  there  were  wrecked  611  vessels,  of  whioh 
number  eleven  were  steamers ;  the  tonnage  of  the  whole  being  111,976  tons.  The 
year  1852-3,  particularly  the  winter  months  (Dec.  and  Jan.),  was  very  remarkable  for 
the  number  of  dreadful  shipwrecks  and  of  fires  at  sea;  we  have  recorded  but  a 
fewofthem.  The  number  of  wrecks  in  1852  were  1015 ;  in  1853,832;  in  1854,  897; 
in  1855,  1141 :  of  these  last,  272  were  totally  lost.  In  1852,  the  number  of  British 
lives  lost  by  wrecks  were  920 ;  in  1853,  689 ;  in  1854, 1549 ;  in  1855,  469 ;  in  1856, 
1153.  It  is  estimated  at  Lloyd's  that  about  170  British  registered  vessels  are  annually 
lost ;  360  are  annually  rendered  unfit  for  service ;  and  1 100  experience  serious  damage 
requiring  extensive  repairs,  exclusively  of  the  ordinary  wear  and  tear. 

REMARKABLE  CASES  OT  BRITISH  VESSELS  WRECKED  OR  BURNT. 

Mary  Rote,  60  g\mB,  going  fW>m  Ports-  '  Royal  Sovereiffn^  100  guns  ;  hurnt  In  the 

mouth  to  Splthrad;  npaet  in  a  squall ;  Medwny     ....        Jan.  29,  If  00 

all  on  board  perished  July  20,  1645    StiHing  CaMU,  70  guna  ;  Mary,  70  gnxa  ; 

Coronation,  90  guns,  foundered  oil  the  Norfhwnbfrland,  70  guna :  loet  on  the 

Ramhead ;  crew  saved  :   Hartcieh,  70  I      Goodwin  ;   Vamntard,  70  gune,  sunk 

guns ;  wrecked  on  Mount  Edgcumbe ;  '      at  Chatham  ;  York,  70  gtuis,  lout  near 

crew  perished  .    Sept  1.  1691  i      Harwich ;  all  lost  but  4  men  ;  Rno- 

Z  Z  2 


WRE 


ro8 


WRE 


WRECEB  OF  SHIPPING,  ewtinued. 

luHofi,  60  guno,  oout  of  Boosex ;  2few- 
eattUy  60  gun8»  at  Spithead;  193 
drowned;  JRetfrve.  60  guna,  at  Yar- 
mouth ;  1T6  perislked.  m  the  night  of 

Nor.  26,  irOS 

Ai^ociation^  70  guna,  and  other  vesaela, 
lost  with  adrolnd  air  C.  Bhovel  off  the 
Bctlly  islea,  vhieh  h€  .    Oct.  22,  1707 

5o/06ay.  82  guns,  lost  near  Boston  neck  ; 
crew  perished    .        .  Dec  26.  1700 

Sdgar^  70  guns,  blew  up  at  Spithead ;  all 
on  board  {letiahed  .    Oct.  15,  1711 

Victory,  100  guns,  near  isle  of  Aldemej ; 
all  perished      ....    Oct.  6,  1744 

ColtKeMUr,  60  guns,  lost  on  Kentiah 
Knock ;  40  men  perished        Sept.  21,  1744 

Namur,  74  guns,  foundered  near  Port 
St  David,  East  Indies ;  all  perished, 
except  26  persons ;  Pembroke^  60  guns, 
near  Porto  Novo;  880  of  her  crew 
perished  ....       April  IS.  1740 

JnvincibU,  74  guns;  lost  upon  the 
Owers;  crew  saved      .        .    Feb.  10,  1768 

Prince  Otorge,  80  guns,  burnt  in  lat  48, 
N.,  on  way  to  Gibraltar;  about 400 
perished   ....        April  IS,  1768 

Uef^jMd,  60  guns,  lost  on  coast  of  Bar- 
bory;  ISO  of  the  crew  perished  Nov.  29,  1768 

Tilbury,  60  guns,  lost  off  Lotiisboui^, 
most  of  the  crew  perished  .    Sept.  26,  1769 

BaoUUion,  74  guns,  and  Stfex,  64  guns, 
lost  on  the  Four  Reef,  near  Quiberon ; 
crew  saved        .       .  Nov.  21.  1769 

JtamU'ieM,  90  guns,  lost  on  the  Bolt- 
head  ;  only  26  persons  saved :  Oon- 
aueror,  lo^t  on  St.  Nicholas's  Island, 
Plymouth     ....    Feb.  16.  1760 

Jhte  (VAquitaine,  64  guns,  and  Sunder- 
land,  60  guns,  lost  off  Pondioherry; 
all  perished  Jan.  1.  1761 

Aaw9nna6{e,  64  guns,  lost  at  the  attack 
of  Martinique  Feb.  S,  1762 

JUpuiM,  82  guns,  foundered  off  Ber- 
muda ;  crew  perished  .    1776 

Thunderer,  74  guns ;  Stiriinif  CoiOe,  64 ; 
Defiance,  64 ;  Phoenix,  44 ;  La  Blanche, 
82  :  Laurel,  28 ;  Shark,  28 ;  Andromeda^ 
28 ;  J)etU  Qutle,  24 ;  Penelope,  24  ;  Sear- 
horwtgh,  20 ;  Barbadoee,  14  ;  Cam^leon, 
14 ;  Budeavour,  14 :  and  Victor,  lOgtms; 
all  lost  in  the  same  storm,  in  the  West 
Indies,  in        ...        .         Oct.  1780 

OtMral  Barker,  East  Indianian,  off  Sche- 
veling        ....        Feb.  17,  1781 

Oroevenor  Indiaman,  on  the  coast  of  Caf- 
fraria Aug.  4,  1782 

Swan  sloop-of-war,  off  Waterford;  ISO 
persons  drowned        .        .      Aug.  4,  1782 

Boyal  Qtorge  {tirhieh  iee\  when  above  600 
liersous  perished  .  .    Aug.  29,  1782 

Cmtaur,  74  ffuns.  foundered  on  her  pas- 
sage from  Jamaica,  capt.  Inglefield  and 
11  of  the  crew  saved  Sent.  21,  1782 

Ramiliee,  74  guns,  off  Newfounaland; 
crew  saved  .  Sept.  21,  1782 

HecUtr  frigate,  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean; 
crew  SJived      ....    Oct.  5,  1782 

Ville  de  Parie,  of  104  guns,  one  of  admi- 
ral Rodney's  prizes,  the  Olorieux,  of 
74  guns,  lost  in  the  West  Indies,  Oct.  6,  1782 

Buperb,  74  gims.  wrecked  in  Tellichery 
roads,  East  Indies  Nov.  6,  1788 

Cato,  50  guns,  adm.  sir  Hyde  Parker,  on 
the  Malabar  coast ;  crew  perished      .  1783 

Count  Bflffioioeo  Indiaman.  off  Dublin 
Bay ;  147  souls  perished        March  IS,  1783 

Menai  ferry-boat,  in  passing  the  8tr«it  : 
60  drowned  .        .        Dee.  6,  1785 

ffaUewdl  East  Indiaman;  100  persons 
perished Jan.  6.  1786 


BdrtwtU  East  Indiaman,  with  imm«iiao 

wealth  on  board  May  S4,  17S7 

Chariemont  Packet,   from    Holyhead    to 

Dublin  :  104  drowned  .  Dec,  2S,  1790 

Pandora  frigate,  on  a  reef  of  rocks ;  1 00 

souls  perished  .  Aug-  28,  1701 

UhUm   packet   of  Dover.  lost    off  the 

port  of  Calais ;  a  similar  occurrence 

had  not  happened  for  105  years  before, 

Jan.  28.  1792 
WUUerton  E.  Indiaman ;  many  perished 

Aug.  20,  1792 
Seorpionf  74  guns,  burnt,  at  Leghorn, 

Nov.  20,  ITW 
hnpetueux,  74  guns,  burnt,    at    Porte- 
mouth         ....      Aug.  24,  1794 
Ardent,  64  guns,  burnt,  off  Corsica,  -A-pril,  1794 
Boyne,  by  fire,  at  Spithead,  (see  Boync) 

Mayl,  1795 
Courageux,  71  guns,  capt  B.  Hallowell, 

near   Gibraltar,    crew,    exoent    194, 

perished        ....    Dec  18,  1796 
La  Tribwnt,  36  guns,  off  Halilkx ;  SOO 

souls  perished  .  .        Nov.  16.  1797 

BjetiMance,  blown  up  in  the  Straits  of 

Banoa Julr  S4,  17»S 

Royal  CharioiU  East  Indiaman ;  blown 

up  at  Culpee      .        .  Au^.  1,  1793 

Coioegue,  74  guns,  wrecked  off  coast  of 

Scilly ;  crew  saved  .    Dec.  10.  1798 

Proterpine  frigate.  In  the  river  Elbe  ;  15 

lives  lost     ....         Feb.  1,  1799 
LuHne,  36  guns,  wrecked  off  the  Vlid 

island,  coast  of  Holland ;  only  2  men 

saved Oct.  9.  1799 

Impregnable,  98  guns,  wrecked  between 

Langstone  and  Chichester    .    Oct  19,  1799 
Sceptre,  64  guns,  wrecked  in  Table  Bay, 

Cape  of  Qood  Hope ;  291  of  the  crew 

perished 1799 

Nanmu,  64  guns,  on  the  Haak  Bank; 

100  perished  ....    Oct  25,  1799 
JUhalian  frigate,  88  guns,  on  the  Pen- 
marks    Dec.  24,  171K9 

Queen  transport,  on  Trefriais  Point ;  389 

souls  perished  .    Jan.  14,  1800 

Jf<uCi^gun-brig,  lost  on  the  Ooekle  Sands 

Jan.  19.  1800 
RepuUe,  64  gnns,  off  Ushant  .  March  10,  1800 
^Msm  ChariatU,  110   guns   {whitk  eee); 

March  17.  1800 
Queen  East  Indiaman,  by  fire,  on  onast 

of  Brazil      ....        July  9,  1800 
Marlborough,   74  guns,  near  Belle-isle; 

crew  saved     ....    Nov.  4,  1800 
InmncibU,   74   guna,    near   Yarmouth : 

crew,    except    126    souls,    perished 

March  16^  1801 
Margate,  Margate-hoy,  near  Reculver; 

23  persons  perished  Feb.  10,  1802 

Aseittance,  60  guns,  off  Dunkirk  ;  crew 

saved       ....       March  S9,  1802 
Bangalore  East  Indiaman,  in  the  Indian 

Sea       ...        .  April  12.  1802 

Melville,  Dutch  East  Indiaman,  <^  Dover 

Nov.  23,  1802 
Active  West  Indiaman,  in  Mai^te  Roads 

Jan.  10,  1803 
HindoHan  East  Indiaman.  went  to  pieces 

on  the  Culvers  Jan.  11,  1603 

La  DHemvnfe,  24  guns,  in  Jersey  Roads ; 

many  drowned  .  .    March  Sf .  1803 

BetxMance,  36  guns,  off  C^m  St  Vincent 

May  31,  1803 
Lady  Hobart  packet,  on  an  island  of  ice 

June  28,  1803 
Grille  frigate,  44  guns,  off  Schelling,  in 

Holland         ....    July  81,  1803 
Antdope,  capt  WUeon,  <iff  the    Pelew 

Islands        ....        Aug.  9,  1808 


WRE 


709 


WRK 


WRECKS  OF  SHIPPING,  continued. 

Vietory  Liverpool  ship,  at  Lirerpool ;  87 

drowned        ....  8ept.  30,  1808 
dree  ftigate,  32  guiu,  on  the  ooaat  near 

Yarmouth  .  "Sov.  16,  1803 

NaulUui  East  Indiaman,  on  the  lAdroues 

Nov.  18.  1803 
Fanny,  in  the  ChinMO   Soa;   46  souls 

perished        ....     Nov.  29,  1803 
BuffUante  aloop-of-war,  16  guns,  off  Cork 

harbour         ....    Dec.  25,  1803 
ApoUo  frigate,  on   coast  of    Portugal, 

April  1,  1804 
CumberUvtid    Packet,    on    the    coast   of 

Autigua,  Sept.  4,  1804 

Momney,  50  guns,  on  Haak  Bank,  Texel, 

Nov.  18,  1804 
FaurabU,  74  guns,  at  Torbay ;  lost  8  men 

Nov.  24,  1804 
Snem,    on    a    rock,    near    Orouville, 

Dec.  21,  1804 
J>oris  Mgate,  on   the   Diamond  rock, 

Quiberou  Bay    .  Jan.  12,  1805 

Jbtrffavmny  East  Indiaman,  on  the  Bill 

of  Portland;    the  aiptaiu  and  mure 

than  300  persons,  passengers  and  crow, 

perished  ....     Feb.  6,  1805 

Nuia$  trau^wrt,  on  the  coast  of  Nuw- 

foundland  .  Oct.  23,  1805 

^neaa  trumpori,  off  Newfoundland ;  340 

perished         ....    Oct.  23,  1805 
Aurora  transport,  on  the  Godwin  Hands ; 

800  perished     .  Dec.  21,  1805 

Kinff  Gtorge  packet,  from  Park-gate  to. 

Dublin,  lost  ou  the  Hoyle  Bank;  125 

persons,  passengers  and  crow,  drowned 

8ept  21,  1806 
Atkenien,  64  guns,  near  Tunis ;  347  souls 

perished         ....    Oct  27,  1806 
QUugow  packet,  off  Farm  Island ;  several 

drownud  .  Nov.  17,  1806 

Ftlix,  12  gims,  near  Bantander ;  70  souls 

lost Jan.  22,  1807 

,  BUnheim,  74  guns,  admiral  sir  T.  Trou- 

bridge,  and  Java,  32  guns,  fuxmdered 

near  isle  of  Rodriguez,  East  Indies, 

•Feb.  1,  1807 
AJax,  74  guns,  by  fire,  off  the  Island  of 

Teuedoe ;  260  perished    .         Feb.  14.  1807 
Blanche  frijgate,   on  the  French  coast; 

45  men  perished .        .  March  4,  1807 

Oanffet,  East  Indiaman,  off  the  Cape  of 

Ouod  Hope         .  .        May  29,  1807 

Prince  of  Walet  Park-gate  packet,  and 

MoclulaU  transport,  on  Dtmleary  point, 

near  Dublin;  nearly  300  souls  perished, 

Nov.  19,  1807 
Borea*  man-of-war,  upon  the  Uannois 

Rock  in  the  Channel        .        Nov.  28,  1807 
Anton,  44    guns,    wrecked  In  Mount's 

Bay  ;  60  lives  lost  .     Dec.  29.  1807 

Agatha,  near  Memel ;  lord  Boystou  and 

others  drowned        .        .  April  7,  1808 

Aitrea  frigate,  32  gims,  on  the  Auagada 

coast  ....     Muy  23,  1808 

Frith  passage- boat,  in  the  Frith  of  Dor- 
noch :  40  persons  drowned,    Aug.  18,  1809 
Foxhound,  18  fi^uns,  foundered  on  passage 

from  Halifax ;  crew  perished   Aug.  31,  1800 
Siriue,  36  guns,  and  Juagieienne,  36  gima, 

wrecked  when  advancing  to  attack 

the    French,    off    Isle    of    France, 

Aug.  23,  1810 
SatdlUe  sloop-of-war,  16  guns  upset,  and 

all  on  board  perished        .        Dec.  14,  1810 
lfino<aMrof74guns,  wrecked  on  the  Haak 

Bank ;  360  persons  perished    Dea  22,  1810 
BliMa,  East  India  ship  on  the  coast  of 

Dunkirk        ....    Dec.  27,  1810 
Pandora  sloop^f-war,  off  Jutland,  30 

persons  perished  .        Feb.  18,  1811 


AmethyH  frigate,  of  36  guns,  lost  in  the 
Bound Feb.  15,  1811 

Potnone,  38  guns,  on  the  Needle  rocks ; 
crew  saved       ....  Oct.  14,  1811 

ScUdanJia  frigate,  on  the  Irish  coast ;  300 
perished  .  Dea  4,  1811 

St.  George  of  98,  and  Jk/mce  of  74  gims, 
stranded  on  the  coast  of  Jutland,  and 
all  souls  perished,  except  18  seamen 

Dec  24.  1811 

Manilla  frigate,  on  the  Haak  Band,  12 
persons  perished        .        .       Jan.  iS,  1812 

British  Queen  packet,  from  Ostend  to 
Maraato,  wrecked  on  the  Oodwin 
Bands,  and   all   on   board   perished. 

Dec.  17,  1814 

Bengal  East  Indiaman,  lost  in  the  East 
Indies        ....         Jan.  19,  1815 

Jhtchees  of  ITeUtn^onat  Calcutta,  byfiw, 

Jan.  21,   1816 

Seahorse  transport,  near  Tramore  Bay ; 
365  perbous,  chiefly  soldiers  of  the 
69th  Reffiment,  and  meet  of  the  crew, 
dix>wuod         ....    Jan.  30,  1810 

Lord  Melville  and  Boadieea  transiwrts, 
with  upwards  of  200  of  the  82nd  Regi- 
ment, with. wives  and  children,  lost 
near  Kinsale;   almost    all  perished, 

Jan.  31,  1810 

Harpooner  transport,  near  Newfound- 
laud  ;  100  persons  drowned    Nov.  10,  1810 

WxUiam  and  Mary  packet,  in  the  Eng- 
lish  Channel;    many   drowned, 

Oct.  24,  1817 

Qvuten  Charlotte  East  Indiaman,  at  Ma- 
dias ;  all  ou  buard  perished    Oct.  24,  1818 

Ariel,  in  the  Persian  Gulf;  79  souls 
perished         .  March  18,  1820 

Barl  of  Moira,  on  the  Burbo  Bank,  near 
Liverpool ;  40  drowned  .        .  Aug.  8,  1821 

Blenden  Ball,  on  Inaccessible  Inland; 
many  peri<»hed  .        .        July  23,  1821 

Juliana  East  Indiaman,  on  the  Keutish 
Kuock ;  40  drowued  .    Dec.  26,  1821 

Thatnee  Indiumau,  off  Beachy  Head ; 
several  drowned       .  Feb.  8,  1822 

Brake,  10  gvcaa,  near  Halifax ;  several 
drowued    ....       June  20,  1822 

BtUsmere  steam-packet ;  11  souls 
perished         ....    Dec.  14,  1822 

Alert  Dublin  and  Liverpool  packet;  70 
souls  perished  .         March  26,  1825 

Robert,  from  Dublin  to  Liverpool;  60 
souls  perished    .  May  16,  1823 

Fannu,  in  Jersey  Roads;  lord  Harley 
aud  many  drowned        .        .    Jan.  1.  1828 

Stirling  steamer,  ou  the  Ardgower  shore, 
Scotland     ....       Jan.  17,  1828 

Venue  packet  from  Waterford  to  Dublin, 
near    Gorey ;    9   persons    drowned, 

March  19,  1828 

Nevry,  from  Newry  to  Quebec,  with  860 
passeugers ;  cast  away  near  Bardsey, 
about    40    persons    were    drowned, 

April  16,  18S0 

8t.  Otorgt  steam-packet;  wrecked  off 
Douglas,  Isle  of  Man  Nov.  19,  1880 

Rotheaay  Caetle,  near  Beaumaris.  (Bee 
Buthe»xy  vaetle).  .       Aug.  17,  1881 

Lady  Sherbrooke,  from  Londonderry  to 
Quebec;  lost  near  Cape  Ray;  273 
Boula  perished ;  82  only  were  saved, 

Aug.  19,  1881 

Experiment,  from  Hull  to  Quebec; 
wrecked  near  Calais  April  15,  1882 

Sari  qf  Wemyu,  near  Wells,  Norfolk: 
the  cabin  tilled,  and  11  ladies  and 
children  were  drowned ;  aU  on  deck 
escaped         ....   July  18,  1638 

AmphUrite  ship,  with  fomale  convict* 


WRE 


710 


WRE 


WRECKS  OF  SHIPPINQ,  evntinued. 

to  Now  South  Wiilea ;  lost  on  Boa- 
logne  Sftnds;  ojt  of  131  penoDS. 
thre«  only  were  sared.  (8eo 
AmpkitriU.)   ....  Aug.  80,  183S 

VniUd  Kingdom  W.  Indiaman.  with  rich 
cargo :  run  down  bv  th«  QitteA  of 
SeoOand  atoamer  off  Northfleet.  near 
OraveMod  ....        Oct.  15,  188S 

WaUneileh  steamor.oa  the  ooaat  of  Wex- 
ford ;  4  dn>wii«d    .  .  Dec.  18,  1883 

LadM  Munro,  from  Calcutta  to  Hydney  ; 
of  90  persons  on  board,  not  more  tiuui 
20wereaaved  Jan  9,  1834 

Cumdon  cutter :  run  down  off  Dover  by 
the  OoMor  frigate;  ISpereoue  drowned 

Aug.  27,  1884 

ApoUo  steamer ;  run  down  by  the  Mon- 
«nxk,  near  Northflect  Sept.  9,  1837 

KUlamey  steamer,  off  Gotk ;  29  perams 
perished  .Jan  26,  1838 

Forfarthire  steamer,  from  Hull  to  Dun- 
dee ;  38  persons  drowned.  Owing  to 
the  ooungo  of  Grace  Darling  and  ner 
&ther,  15  persons  were  saved.  (See 
Forfartktre.)  Sept  5,  1838 

ProUetoT  E  Indiaman,  at  Bengal:  of 
178  iienuns  on  board,  170  perished, 

Nov.  21,  1838 

irittiam/riMHsMm  steamer, between  Dub- 
lin and  Liverpool ;  93  passengers  saved 
by  captain  Clegg,  of  the  HwUlrrfJUAd^ 

Jan.  11,  1840 

Poland  from  New  Torlc;  struck  by  light- 
ning         May  16,  1840 

Lord  WiiUam  Bentinek,  off  Bombay ;  58 
recruits,  20  officers,  and  7  passengers 
perished :  the  Lord  CuttUrtitf^  also 
wrecked ;  most  of  her  crew  and  pos- 
sengemlost  June  17.  1840 

U.11.8.  Fairy t  captain  Hewitt;  sailed 
frt)m  Harwich  on  a  surveying  cruise, 
and  was  lost  next  day  in  a  violent  gale, 
off  the  coast  of  Norfolk    .        Nov.  13,  1840 

Cit^  qf  Bridol  steam-packet,  85  souls 
perished       ....    Nov.  18,  1840 

Tsatfw*  steamer,  captain  Oray,  from  Dub- 
lin to  Liverpool,  wrecked  off  St.  Ives ; 
the  captain  and  55  persons  {Mrished, 

Jan.  4,  1841 

Oovtmor  Fenrur,  from  Liverpool  for 
America;  run  down  off  Holyhead  by 
the  Nottingham  steamer  out  of  Dub- 
lin ;  122  persons  perished    .    Feb.  19,  1841 

Amelia  from  London  to  Liverpool ;  lost 
on  the  Heme  Sand    .  Feb.  26,  1841 

PrtHdmt  steamer  from  New  York  to 
Liveipool,  wiUa  many  passengers  on 
board;  sailed  on  March  11,  encoun- 
tered a  terrific  storm,  two  days  after- 
wards, and  has  never  since  been  he^d 
of March  13,  1841 

[In  this  vessel  were,  Mr.  Tvrone  Power, 
the  comedian ;  a  son  of  the  duke  of 
Richmond.  Ac] 

William  JBrovmt,  by  striking  on  the  ico  ; 
16  passengers  who  had  been  received 
Into  the  long  boat  were  thrown  over- 
board by  the  crew  to  lighten  her, 

April  19.  1841 

/soMto,  from  Ijondon  to  Quebec;  struck 
by  an  iceberg  May  9,  1841 

Solway  Ht«Miinor,  on  hor  passage  between 
Belfast  and  Port  Carlisle ;  crew  saved, 

Aug.  25,  1841 

AmandOt  off  Metis ;  29  passenfi^ers  and  12 
of  the  craw  lost  Sept.  26,  1841 

Jamtt  Cooke  of  limerick,  coming  from 
Hligo  to  OlAsgow  Nov.  21,  1841 

Viscount  Metbouitte,  E.  Indianuui  Feb.  5,  1842 


Medom,  West  India  steam-packet^  on 
Turk's  island     .  May  12.  1842 

Abereromlrie  Robimmm  and  Wataioo  trana- 
porta  in  Table  Bay,  Oh«  of  Guod 
Hope :  of  330  persons  on  board  the 
latter  veasel,  189,  prindpaJly  conncta, 
perished       ....    Aug.  28,  184'J 

Spi^/lre,  war  steamer,  oa  the  ooaat  o^ 
Jamaica    ....        SepL  10.  1843 

ReUoMee,  East  Indiaman.  from  China  to 
London,  off  Metiemont^  near  Boa- 
logne;  of  116  persons  on  board,  seven 
only  wore  saved  .    Nor.  IS.  1842 

BamilUm^  on  the  Gtxnfleet  sands,  near 
Harwich ;    11  of  the  crew   peiisiied 

Nov.  15,  184S 

Conqueror  East  Indiaman,  homeward 
bound,  near  Boulogne ;  crew  and  pa»- 
sengers  lost  Jan.  13;  184S 

Jeuie  LogoM  East  Indiaman,  on  the  Cor- 
nish coast ;  man^  lives  lost      Jan.  16^  1843 

Soivay,  royal  nuul  steamer,  near  Co- 
runna;  28  Uvea  lost^  and  the  miiil, 

April  7.  1843 

Qlfuen  Victoria  East  Indiaman,  from 
Bombay  to  Liverpool,  off  the  Rod- 
rigues  ....    Apnl7.  1843 

Catharine  trader,  blown  up  off  the  Islv 
of  Pines ;  moat  of  the  craw  were  mas- 
sacred by  the  native^  or  afkennvnls 
drowned  ....        April  12,  1843 

Amdia  JTiompion,  near  Madras,  |Mut  of 
crew  saved    ....     May  28,  1843 

H.M.8.  Fantonu  of  16  guns»  off  M<Mite- 
video         ....        Jnne2\  1843 

Albert  troop  ship,  from  Halifax,  with  the 
64th  Regiment  on  board,  which  was 
mhraouloualy  saved  .    July  IS.  Ib43 

Pegojnu  steam-packet,  from  Leith  ;  off 
the  Peru  Ldauds ;  of  59  porscMis.  7  only 
were  saved  July  19»  184i 

[Mr.  Elton,  a  ikvourite  actor,  was  among 
the  sufferers. 

Mi*m>uri  United  States  steam-frlgato  by 
fire Aug.  27.  1843 

Queen  steamer  ftt>m  Bristol,  with  many 
passengers  on  board ;  nearly  the  whole 
saved  ....       Sept.  1,  1643 

PtioeniXt  in  a  terrific  faiow-atorm,  off  the 
coast  of  NewfoundLoid;  many  lives 
were  lost  Nov.  26^  1843 

H.M.  frigate  WUler/oree,  on  the  coast  of 
Africa  ....        Feb.  2.  1844 

Stber/elUt  iron  steam  -  ship,  from 
Brielle  ....     Feb.  22.  1844 

Mancfutter  steamer,  from  Hull  to  Ham< 
burg,  off  the  Vogpl  Sands,  near  Cux- 
haven ;  about  30  lives  lost       June  16,  1844 

Margarett  Hull  and  Hambuxgh  steamer ; 
many  lives  lost  Oct.  23,  1846 

Oeyrey  H.M.  sloop  of  war,  off  New 
ZoGOand  March  11.  1846 

Great  Britain  iron  steam-ship ;  grounded 
in  Duudrum  Bay.  (See  Great  Britain,) 

Sept.  22.  1846 

[Recovered  by  Brunei,  Ac.  Atig.  27,  1847.] 

John  Llovd,  by  oolliaion,  in  the  Irish  sea ; 
several  lives  lost  Sept  25,  1846 

Tweed  West  India  nmil  packet ;  about 
90  souls  perished  .    Feb.  19,  1847 

Sxmovtk  emigrant  ship,  from  London- 
derry to  Quebec:  of  240  penons  on 
board,    nearly    all    were    drowned, 

April  28,  1847 

Ocean  Monarch,  by  fire.  (See  Ocean 
Monarch.)  .  Aug.  24,  1848 

CkUeb  Orim^Wf  emigrant  ship,  by  fire ; 
400   persona    miraouloualy    escaped, 

Nov.  12,  1849 


WKE 


711 


WKE 


WBECKS  OF  SHIPPING,  cotUinutd. 

Rojfdl  Addaide  steamor  off  MazsTftte.  (See 
Ro^  Addaidt.)  .    March  30.  1860 

Jiarjf  Florence,  from  London  to  Aden, 

June  3,  1860 

Orion  steam-ehiis  off  Portpatrick.  (See 
Orion.)       ....        June  18,  1860 

ManekesUr^  Ariadne,  and  Neriadn*,  three 
Indiameu,  July  or  August ;  date  uu- 
known 1850 

BotoUvtd,  ftt>m  Quebec;  a  number  of  the 
crew  drowned  .    Sept.  9,  1860 

La  PcUca  steamer,  off  St.  Hcliers.  Jersey  ; 
crew  aud  passengers  saved     Sept.  16,  185U 

Bdmund,  emip-ant  ship,  with  nearly  20u 
Dasaengera  from  Limerick  to  New 
York  (of  whom  more  than  one  half 
perished)  wrecked  off  the  western 
coast  of  Ireland  Nov.  12.  1850 

Amazon  West  India  mail  ateamer.  (See 
Amazon)  ....     Jan.  4,  1862 

Jfirtetifuad  troop-ahip.  (See  Birkenhead), 

Feb.  26,  1862 

JIarianna  Austrian  ship^  from  Venice 
to  Trieifte.  escortiug  the  VoUa,  the 
latter  haviof[^  the  emperor  of  Austria 
on  board.  A  violent  6ora  separated 
the  vessels ;  the  Votta  succeeded  with 
ffreat  difficulty  in  reaching  Rovigao ; 
out  the  MoTTianna  was  wrecked,  and 
every  soul  perished  March  4,  1862 

Victoria  steam- packet.  (See  Victoria 
steam-packet)  .     Nov.  8  and  9,  1862 

Xtfy,  stranded  and  blown-up  by  gun- 
powder, on  the  Colf-of-Man ;  by 
which  more  than  thirty  persons  lost 
their  lives      ....     Dec   224,  1862 

St.   Oeorge   steamer.     (See   St.   George.) 

Dec.  24,  1862 

Hht^en  Victoria  steam-ship.  (See  Queen 
Victoria.)  .        Feb.  16,  1863 

JntUpendence  with  a  host  of  passengers, 
on  the  coast  of  Lower  California,  and 
which  afterwards  tuok  fire ;  140  per- 
sons were  drowned  or  burnt  to  death, 
a  few  escaping,  who  underwent  the 
most  dreadful  additional  sufferings  on 
a  barren  shore  .        .    Feb.  16,  1863 

Puke  qf  SutherlandBtenmer  from  London 
to  Aberdeen :  wrecked  on  the  back  of 
the  pier  at  Aberdeen,  and  the  captain 
(Hoskins)  and  many  of  the  crew  and 
paaseugers  perished    .        .      April  2,  186S 

RdHcea,  on  the  west  coast  of  Van  Die- 
men's  Land.  The  captain  (Sbephard) 
aud  many  lives  lost  .  April  29,  1863 

William  and  Marj/,  an  American  emi- 
grant ship,  near  the  Bahamas.  She 
struck  on  a  sunken  rock ;  about  170 
persons  perished    .  .    May  3,  1863 

AurorOy  of  Hull ;  about  26  lives  lost, 
sailed  for  New  York,  April  26,  and 
foundered    ....      May  20,  1863 

Boume^^,  Australian  emigrant  vessel. 
Struck  on  a  roof  near  Torres  Straits. 
The  captain  (Bibby)  and  six  lives  lost. 

Aug.  3,  1863 

Annie  Jane^  of  Liverpool  an  emigrant 
vessel,  driven  on  shore  on  the  Borra 
Islands  on  west  ooast  of  Scotland ; 
about  348  lives  lost  .    Sept  29,  1863 

Haretpood,  brig,  by  collision  with  the 
Tridait  steamer,  near  the  Mouse  light 
near  the  Nore  :  foundered  with  six  of 
the  crow  who  perished  Oct  6,  1863 

J)alAou4ie.  Foundered  off  Beachy  Head. 
The  captain  (ButterworthX  the  iMssen* 


gen,  and  all  the  crew  (excepting  one), 
about  60  persons  in  all,  perished.  The 
cargo  was  valued  at  above  100, 0001. , 

Oct.  19,  1863 

MarduUlf  screw  steamer,  in  the  North 
Sea,  ran  into  the  barque  Woodhotue : 
about  48  persona  supposed  to  have 
perished        ....    Nov.  28,  1863 

Taylewr,  emigrant  ship,  driven  on  the 
rocks  off  Lambay  island,  north  of 
Howth  ;  about  380  lives  lost,  Jan.  20,  1864 

Arctic,  U.S.  mail>ateamer,  by  ooUliiiouin 
a  fog,  with  the  Veda,  French  steamer, 
off  Newfoundland;  above  300  Uvea  lost, 

Sept.  S7,  1864 

Favourite,  In  the  channel,  on  her  wi^ 
Irom  Bremen  to  Baltimore,  came  into 
violent  contact  with  the  American 
barque,  Heiper,  off  the  Start,  and  im- 
mediately went  down  ;  201  persons 
were  drowned        .        .  Anril  29,  1864 

Lady  Nugent,  troop  ship,  sailed  from 
Madras,  May  10,  1864:  foundered  in  a 
hurricane  :  360  rank  aud  file  of  the 
Ma<lras  light  infantry,  officers  and 
crew,  in  all  400  souls  oerished.     May,  1864 

Fortntmner,  African  mail  steamer,  struck 
on  a  sunken  rock  off  St  Lorenso, 
Madeira,  and  went  down  directly  after- 
wards ;  with  th9  total  loss  of  ship  and 
mails,  and  14  lives     .  Oct.  26,  1861 

Nile  iron  screw  steamer,  struck  on  the 
Qodevry  rocks,  St.  Ives'  Bay,  and  all 
on  board  perished  .  Nov.  80,  1864 

In  the  storm  which  raged  in  the  Block 
Sea,  Nov.  13 — 16,  1864.  eleven  trans- 
ports were  wrecked  ana  six  disabled. 
Tiie  new  steam-ship  Prinoe  was  lost 
with  144  lives,  and  a  cargo  worth 
600. 000^.  indispensable  to  the  army  in 
the  Crimea.  The  loss  of  life  in  the 
other  vessels  is  estimated  at  840. 

George  Canning,  Hamburg  and  New  York 
packet,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe ; 
96  lives  lost,  and  Statdy,  English 
schooner,  near  Neavrreek,  in  a  great 
storm Jan.  1,  1866 

Mercury,  screw  steamer,  by  collision 
with  a  French  ship :  passengers  saved, 

Jan.  11,  1866 

Jand  Bovdy  bark,  in  a  storm  off  Margate 
Sands ;  28  lives  lost  Jan.  20,  1866 

Will  o*  the  Wifp,  screw  steamer,  on  the 
Burn  Rock,  off  Lambay,  all  on  board, 
18  lives  lost    ....    Feb.  9,  1866 

Moma,  steamer,  on  rocks  near  the  Isle 
of  Man,  21  lives  lost  Fob.  25,  1866 

John,  emigrant  vessel  on  the  Mancles 
rocks  off  Falmouth;    200  lives  lost, 

Mayl,  1856 

Josephine  WUli»,  packet  ship,  lost  by  col- 
lision with  the  screw  steamer  Man- 
gerton,  in  the  channel ;  about  90  lives 
lost Feb.  8,  1866 

John  Ruiledffet  from  Liverpool  to  New 
York,  ran  on  an  iceberg  and  was 
wrecked  ;  many  lives  lost        Feb.  19,  1866 

Many  vessels  aud  their  crews  totally 
lost*      .  .         Jan.  1—8.  1867 

Viold,  royal  mail  steamer,  lost  on  the 
Goodwins:   many  persons  perished, 

Jan.  6,  1867 

Tyne,  royal  midl  steamer,  stranded  on 
her  vray  to  Southampton  fh>m  the 
Brasils      ....        Jan.  18,  1867 


*  A  large  American  vessel,  Norih/m  Belle,  was  wrecked  near  Broadstalrs.  The  American  Qovem- 
ment  sent  21  silver  medals  and  270<.  to  be  distributed  among  the  heroic  boatmen  of  tlM»  place  who 
saved  the  crew.    Jau.  6 — 6,  1867. 


Wlil  712  XEK 

WRITING.  Pictures  were  undoubtedly  the  first  essay  towards  writing.  The  most 
anoient  remains  of  writing  which  have  been  transmitted  to  us  are  upon  hard  sub* 
stances,  such  as  stones  and  metals,  used  by  the  ancients  for  edicts,  and  matters  of 
public  notoriety.  Athotes,  or  Hermes,  is  said  to  have  written  a  history  of  the 
Egyptians,  and  to  have  been  the  author  of  the  hieroglyphics,  2112  b.  a — UAfr. 
Writing  is  said  to  have  been  taught  to  the  Latins  by  Europa,  daughter  of  Agenor, 
king  of  Phcanicia,  1494  B.c. — Tkucydides.  Cadmus,  the  founder  of  Cadmea,  1493  B.O. 
brought  the  Phosnioian  letters  into  Greece.  —  Vomu9,  The  commandments  wa« 
written  on  two  tables  of  stone,  1491  B.c. — U$ker.  The  Greeks  and  Komaos  used 
waxed  table-books,  and  continued  the  use  of  them  long  after  papyrus  was  known.* 
See  Papynu,  Parchment^  Paper. 

WURTZBURG.  This  territory  was  formerly  a  bishopric,  and  its  sovereign  was  one  of 
the  greatest  ecclesiastic  princes  of  the  empire ;  but  it  was  given  as  a  principality  to 
the  elector  of  Bavaria,  in  1803;  and  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  in  1805,  it  was  ceded 
to  the  archduke  Ferdinand,  whose  electoral  title  was  transferred  from  Salsburg  to 
this  place.  In  1814,  however,  this  duchy  was  again  transferred  to  Bavaria,  in  exchange 
for  the  Tyrol ;  and  the  archduke  Ferdinand  was  reinstated  in  his  Tuscan  dominions. 
This  city  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1796,  and  again  in  1800. 

WURTZCHEN,  BATTLE  of.  One  of  the  most  bloody  and  fiercely  contested  battles 
of  the  campaign  of  1813  ;  fought  between  the  allied  Russian  and  Prussian  armies,  and 
the  French  army  commanded  by  Napoleon  in  person.  The  carnage  was  dreadful  on 
both  sides,  but  in  the  end  the  allies  retreated  from  the  field.  The  defeat  of  the  allies 
here,  and  in  the  equally  momentous  battle  of  Bautzen,  which  immediately  preceded, 
obliged  them  to  recross  the  Oder :  May  21, 1813.    See  Bautzen. 


X. 

XACCA.  The  first  founder  of  idolatry  in  the  Indies  and  eastern  countries :  the  history 
of  his  life  reports,  than  when  his  mother  was  enceinte  with  him,  she  dreamt  that  she 
brought  forth  a  white  elephant,  which  is  the  reason  the  kings  of  Slam.  Tonqxiin,  and 
China  have  so  great  a  value  for  them.  The  Brahmins  afiirm  that  Xacca  has  gone 
through  a  metempsychosis  80,000  times,  and  that  his  soul  has  passed  into  so  many 
different  kiuda  of  beasts,  whereof  the  last  was  a  white  elephant :  they  add,  that  after 
all  these  changes,  he  was  received  into  the  company  of  the  gods. 

XANTHICA.  The  festival  observed  by  the  Macedonians  in  the  month  called  Xanthicus, 
the  same  as  ApriL  It  was  then  usual  to  make  a  lustration  of  the  army  with  great 
solemnity  and  pomp ;  the  soldiery  were  freed  from  restraint,  and  had  mimic  battles, 
and  the  people  indulged  in  great  excesses  and  licentiousness ;  instituted  392  B.a 

XANTHUS,  SIEGE  of.  By  the  Romans  under  Brutus.  After  a  great  struggle,  and 
the  endurance  of  great  privations,  the  inhabitants,  being  no  longer  able  to  sustain 
themselves  against  the  enemy,  and  determined  not  to  survive  the  loss  of  their  Uberty. 
set  fire  to  their  city,  destroyed  their  wives  and  children,  and  then  themselves  perished 
in  the  conflagration.  The  conqueror  wished  to  spare  them,  but  though  be  offered 
rewards  to  his  soldiers  if  they  brought  any  of  the  Xanthians  into  his  presence,  only 
150  wore  saved,  much  against  their  will ;  42  b,c. — Plutarch. 

XANTHOXYLUM  CLAVA  HERCULIS,  or  Tooth-ache  tree.  It  was  brought  to  these 
countries  from  North  Carolina,  before  1736.  The  XantJionta  ajnifclia^  or  Yellow* 
root  was  brought  to  England  from  North  America  about  1766.  The  X}flomd%a^^  or 
Pear-fruited  pSant,  came  from  New  South  Wales  in  1789.    See  Flowen, 

XENOPHON.    See  Retreat  of  tkt  Oreeh. 

XERES  DB  LA  FRONTERA.  The  A$ta  Regia  of  the  Romans,  and  the  seat  of  the 
wine-trade  in  Spain,  of  which  the  principal  wine  is  that  so  well  known  in  England  as 
Sherry,  an  English  corruption  of  Xeros.  The  British  importations  of  this  wine  are 
now  immense  ;  in  the  year  1850  they  reached  to  8,826,785  gallons ;  and  in  the  year 
ending  Jan.  5,  1852,  they  amounted  to  8,904,978  gallons;   exceeding  the  quantity 

*  "  I  would  check  the  petty  vamty  of  those  who  sU^fht  good  peamannhip,  as  below  the  notice  of* 
•oholar,  by  reminding  them  that  Mr.  Fox  was  distinguished  by  the  clearncM  and  firmnen,  Mr.  Fro- 
fsMor  Ponoa  by  the  correctness  and  elegance,  and  air  William  Jones  by  the  ease  and  beauty  of  the 
cbaraoten  thoy  respectively  employed." — Dr.  Parr. 


XER  713  YEA 

imported  from  any  other  country,  not  excepting  the  wines  of  Portugal.    Zere»  is  a 
handsome  and  lai^e  town,  of  great  antiquity,  and  very  populous. 

XERXES'  CAMPAIGN  In  GREECE.  Xerxes  having  crossed  the  Hellespont,  (the 
strait  which  joins  the  Archipelago  and  the  sea  of  Marmora)  by  a  bridge,*  entered 
Greece  in  the  spring  of  480  B.C.  with  an  army,  which,  together  with  the  numerous 
retinue  of  servants,  eunuchs,  and  women  that  attended  it,  amoimted  according  to 
some  historians,  to  5,283,220  souls.  But  Herodotus  states  the  armament  to  have 
consisted  of  3000  sail,  conveying  1,700,000  foot,  besides  cavalry,  and  the  mariners, 
and  attendants  of  the  camp.  This  multitude  was  stopped  at  Thermopyle,  by  the 
valour  of  300  Spartans  under  Leonidas.  Xerxes,  astonished  that  such  a  handful  of 
men  should  oppose  his  progress,  ordered  some  of  his  soldiers  to  bring  them  alive  into 
bis  presence ;  but  for  three  succesttive  days  the  most  vaUant  of  the  Persian  troops 
were  defeated,  and  the  courage  of  the  Spartans  might  perhaps  have  triumphed 
longer,  if  a  base  Trachinian,  named  Ephialtes,  had  not  led  a  detachment  to  the  top  of 
the  mountain,  and  suddenly  fallen  upon  the  devoted  band.  The  battle  of  Thermopyle 
(which  ate)  was  the  beginning  of  the  disgrace  of  Xerxes,  Aug.  7,  480  b.c.  The  more 
he  advanced,  the  more  he  experienced  new  disasters.  His  fleet  was  defeated  at  Arte- 
miaium  and  Salamii,  and  he  hastened  back  to  Persia,  leaving  Mardonius,  the  best  of 
his  generals,  behind  with  an  army  of  300,000  men.  The  rest  that  had  survived  the 
ravages  of  the  war,  famine,  and  peatilence,  followed  Xerxes  on  his  route  home. 

XIMBRA,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  Spanish  army  under  the  command  of  general 
Ballasteros,  and  the  French  corps  commanded  by  general  Hegnier.  In  this  eugpge* 
ment  the  Spaniards,  after  a  hard  struggle,  defeated  their  adversaries,  but  the  loss  was 
yery  great  on  both  sides,  in  killed  and  wounded,  SepL  10,  1811. 


Y. 

YARD.  The  precise  origin  of  our  yard  is  uncertain.  It  is,  however,  likely  that  the 
word  is  (as  some  authorities  state)  from  the  Saxon  term  gyrd  or  girth,  being  anciently 
the  circumference  of  the  body,  until  Henry  I.  decreed  that  it  should  be  the  length 
of  his  arm.  There  has  been  no  alteration  made  in  the  length  of  the  yard  since  the 
reign  of  Henry  III.  who  altered  and  revised  moat  of  our  measures  and  weights.  It 
was  directed  that  the  old  standard  yard  of  a.d.  1760,  in  the  custody  of  the  clerk  of 
the  house  of  commons,  should  continue  to  be  the  standard  unit  of  extension,  or  lineal, 
superficial,  and  solid  measures;  statute  5  Geo.  IV.  June  17,  1824. 

YARMOUTH.  This  was  a  royal  demesne  in  the  reign  of  William  I.  as  appears  from 
Domesday  book.  It  obtained  a  charter  from  John,  and  one  from  Henry  IIL  In 
1348,  a  plague  here  carried  off  7000  persons;  and  that  terrible  disease  did  much 
havoc  again  in  1579  and  1664.  The  theatre  was  built  in  1778;  and  Nelson's  pillar, 
a  fluted  column,  140  feet  in  height,  was  erected  in  1817.  The  suspension  chain-bridge 
over  the  river  Bure  was  built  by  Mr.  R.  Cory,  at  an  expense  of  about  40002.  Owing 
to  the  weight  of  a  vast  number  of  persons  who  assembled  on  this  bridge  to  witness  an 
exhibition  on  the  wiiter,  it  suddenly  gave  way,  and  79  lives,  mostly  those  of  children, 
were  lo^t,  May  2,  1845. 

YEAR.  The  Egyptians,  it  is  said,  were  the  first  who  fixed  the  length  of  the  year.  The 
Roman  year  was  introduced  by  Romulus,  738  B.o. ;  and  it  was  corrected  by  Numa, 
713  B.C.,  and  again  by  Julius  Cesar,  45  b.o.  See  Calendar.  The  solar  or  astronomical 
year  was  found  to  comprise  865  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes,  51  seconds,  and  6  decimals, 
265  B.C.  The  sidereal  year  or  return  to  the  same  star,  is  365  days,  6  hours,  9  minutes, 
and  11  seconds.  A  considerable  variation  prevailed  generally  among  the  nations  of 
antiquity,  and  still  partially  prevails,  with  regard  to  Uie  commencement  of  the  year. 
The  Jews  dated  the  beginning  of  the  sacred  year  in  the  month  of  March;  the 
Athenians  in  the  month  of  June ;  the  Macedonians  on  the  24th  Sept ;  the  Christians 

*  It  was  formed  by  connecting  together  ships  of  different  kinds,  some  long  vessels  of  fifty  oars, 
others  three-bauked  galleys,  to  tbe  number  of  360  on  the  side  towardk  the  sea,  and  818  on  that  of  the 
Archipelago  ;  the  former  were  placed  transversely,  but  the  Litter,  to  diminish  tbe  strain  of  their  cables, 
in  the  direction  of  the  current,  all  secured  by  anchors  and  cables  of  great  strength.  Ou  extended 
cables  between  the  lines  of  shipping  were  laid  fast-bound  rafters,  over  these  a  layer  or  unwrought  wood, 
and  over  the  latter  was  thrown  earth  ;  on  each  side  was  a  fence,  to  prevent  the  horses  and  beasts  of 
burthen  fh>m  being  terrified  by  the  sea,  iu  the  passage  f^m  shore  to  snore.  This  wonderful  work  was 
completed,  it  Is  said,  in  ooo  week,  4b0  b.o. 


YEA 


714 


YEL 


of  Egypt  aod  Ethiopia  on  the  29th  or  SOth  of  August;  and  the  Vermnm  and 
Armenians,  on  the  11th  of  that  month.  Nearly  all  the  nations  of  the  Chriatian 
world  now  commence  the  year  on  the  Ist  of  Januaiy.  Charles  UL  of  Franee  in 
1564,  published  an  arrdt,  the  last  article  of  which  ordered  the  year  for  the  time 
to  come  to  be  constantly  and  universally  begun,  and  written  on  and  £iom  Januaiy  L 
See  Ntw  Style,  Plaitmic  Year,  SabbaXical  Year, 

YEAR  IN  ENGLAND.  The  English  began  their  year  on  the  25th  of  December,  until 
the  time  of-  William  the  Conqueror.  This  prinoe  having  been  ciowned  on  Jan.  1, 
gave  occasion  to  the  English  to  begin  their  year  at  that  time,  to  make  it  agree  with 
the  then  moat  remarkable  period  of  their  history. — Slow.  But  though  the  hislarical 
year  began  on  the  day  of  the  Circumcision,  yet  the  civil  or  legal  year  did  not  com- 
mence till  the  day  of  the  Annnndation,  namely,  the  25th  of  March.  Until  the  act 
for  altering  the  style,  as  kte  as  1752  (see  Style),  the  year  did  not  legally  and  genenJjy 
commence  in  England  until  the  last-mentioned  day.  In  Scotland,  at  that  period,  the 
year  began  on  the  let  of  January.  This  difference  caused  great  praotical  incoo- 
veniencea ;  and  January,  February,  and  part  of  March  sometimes  bore  two  dates,  as 
we  often  find  in  old  records,  1745-1746,  or  1745-6,  or  174|.  Such  a  reckoning  often 
led  to  chronological  mistakes;  for  instance,  we  popularly  say  "the  revohitioo  of 
1688,"  as  that  great  event  happened  in  February  of  the  year  1688,  according  to  the 
then  mode  of  computation :  but  if  the  year  were  held  to  begin,  aa  it  does  now,  on  the 
1st  of  January,  it  would  be  the  revolution  of  1689. 

YEAR,  LUNAR.  This  is  the  space  of  time  which  comprehends  twelve  lunar  months, 
or  854  days,  8  hours,  48  minutes,  and  was  in  use  among  the  Chaldeans,  Persians,  and 
ancient  Jews.  Ouoe  in  every  three  years  was  added  another  lunar  month,  so  as  to 
make  the  solar  and  the  lunar  year  nearly  agree.  But  though  the  mouths  were  lunar, 
the  year  was  solar ;  that  is,  the  first  month  was  of  thirty  days,  and  the  second  of 
twenty-nine,  and  so  alternately;  and  the  month  added  triennially  was  called  the 
second  Adar.     The  Jews  afterwards  followed  the  Roman  manner  of  comput*tiun. 

YEAR  OF  OUR  LORD.    See  Anno  Domini, . 

YEAR  OF  THE  REION.  From  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror,  ajx  1066,  the  year 
of  the  sovereign's  reign  has  been  given  to  all  public  instruments.  The  king's  pateota, 
charters,  proclamations,  and  all  acts  of  porlmmenti  have  since  then  been  generally 
BO  dated.  The  same  manner  of  dating  is  used  in  most  of  the  European  states  for  all 
ffiTFt^Kr  documents  and  records. 

YEAR,  SIBERIAN,  and  in  LAPLAND.  The  year  in  the  northern  regions  of  Siberia 
and  Lapland,  is  described  in  the  following  calendar,  as  given  by  a  recent  traveller: — 


June  28.  Snow  melts. 

July    1.  Hnowgone. 

July    9.  Fields  quite  OTeen. 

July  17.  Flanta  at  full  growth. 


July  85.  Plants  in  flower. 
Aug.    2.  Fruits  ripe. 
Aug.  10.  Plants  sined  their  seed. 
Aug.  18.  Suo«v. 


The  snow  then  continues  upon  the  ground  for  about  ten  months,  from  August  18th 
of  one  year  to  June  23rd  of  the  year  folio  wing,  being  S09  days  out  of  365 ;  so  that 
while  the  three  seasons  of  spring,  summer,  and  autumn  are  together  only  fifty-aix 
days,  or  eight  weeks,  the  winter  is  of  forty-four  weeks*  duration  in  these  countries. 

YEAR,  FRENCH  REPUBLICAN.    See  French  RtvoliUionary  Calendar. 

YE^VH  AND  A  DAY.  A  space  of  time  in  law,  that  in  many  cases  establishes  and  fixes 
a  right,  as  in  an  estray,  on  proclamation  being  made,  if  the  owner  does  not  daim  it 
within  the  time,  it  is  forfeited.  The  term  arose  in  the  Norman  law,  which  enacted 
that  a  beast  found  on  another's  land,  if  unclaimed  for  a  year  and  a  day,  belonged  to 
the  lord  of  the  soil.    It  is  otherwise  a  legal  space  of  time. 

YEAVERINQ,  or  OETERINOE,  Baitlb  or.  Between  the  Soots,  headed  by  sir  Robert 
Umfraville  and  the  earl  of  Westmorland.  In  this  memomble  encounter,  430  English 
discomfited  4000  Scots,  and  took  160  prisoners ;  fought  1415. 

YELLOW  FEVER.  This  dreadful  pestilence  made  its  appearance  at  Philadelphia, 
where  it  committed  great  ravages,  a.d.  1699.  It  appeared  in  several  islands  of  the 
West  Indies  in  1732,  1739,  and  1745.  It  raged  with  unpai-alleled  violence  at 
Philadelphia,  in  Oct.  1762;  and  most  awfully  at  New  York  in  the  beginning  of 
Aug.  1791.  This  fever  again  spread  great  devastation  at  Philadelphia  in  July,  1793; 
carrying  off  several  thousand  persons. — Bardie  $  Ann,  It  again  appeared  in  OcU 
1797 ;  and  spread  its  ravages  over  the  northern  coast  of  America,  Sept  1798.    It 


YEO  715  YOR 

reappeared  at  Philadelphia  in  the  summer  of  1802 ;  and  broke  out  in  Spain,  in 
Sept,  1808.  The  yellow  fever  was  verj  violent  at  Oibraltar  in  1804  and  1814;  in 
the  Mauritius,  July  1815;  at  Antigua,  in  Sept.  1816;  and  it  raged  with  dreadful 
conaequences  at  Cadiz,  and  the  Isle  of  St.  Leon,  in  Sept  1819.  A  malignant  fever 
raged  at  Oibraltar  in  Sept.  1828,  and  did  not  terminate  until  the  following  year. 

YEOMEN  or  the  QUARD.  A  peculiar  body  of  foot-guarda  to  the  king's  person, 
instituted  at  the  ooronation  of  Henry  YIL  Oct  30,  1485.  It  originally  consitited 
of  fifty  men  under  a  captain ;  they  were  of  latter  stature  than  other  guards,  being 
required  to  be  over  six  feet  in  height,  and  they  were  armed  with  arquebuses  and 
other  arms.  This  band  was  increased  by  the  royal  successors  of  Henry  to  one 
hundred  men,  and  seventy  supernumeraries ;  and  when  one  of  the  hundred  died,  it 
was  ordered  that  his  place  should  be  supplied  out  of  the  seventy.  They  were  clad 
after  the  manner  of  king  Henry  YIIL — AshmoWs  InstiL  This  is  said  to  have  been  the 
fint  permanent  military  band  instituted  in  England.  John,  earl  of  Oxford,  was  the 
first  captain  in  1 456. — ieatson's  Pol.  Index. 

YEW-TREE  {Taxtu).  The  origin  of  planting  yew-trees  in  churchyards  was  (these  latter 
being  fenced)  to  secure  the  trees  from  cattle,  and  in  this  manner  preserve  them  for 
the  encouragement  of  archery.  A  general  plantation  of  them  for  the  use  of  archers 
was  ordered  by  Richard  III.  1483. — Stow's  Chron,  Near  Fountains  abbey,  Yorkshire, 
were  lately  seven  yew-trees  called  the  Seven  Sisters,  supposed  to  have  been  planted 
before  a.o.  1088  :  the  circumference  of  the  largest  was  thirty-four  feet  seveu  inches 
round  the  trunk.  A  yew  is  now  growing  in  the  churchyard  of  Qresford,  North 
Wales,  whose  circumference  is  nine  yards  nine  inches.  This  is  the  largest  and 
oldest  yew-tree  in  the  British  dominions ;  but  it  is  affirmed  on  traditionary  evidence 
that  there  are  some  of  these  trees  in  England  older  than  the  introduction  of 
Christianity.  The  old  yew-tree  mentioned  in  the  survey  taken  of  Richmond  palace 
in  1649  still  exists. 

YEZDEQIRD,  or  PERSIAN  ERA.  It  was  formerly  univei^ly  adopted  in  Persia,  and 
is  still  used  by  the  Parsees  in  India,  and  by  the  Arabs,  in  certain  computations.  This 
era  began  on  tho  26th  of  June,  a.d.  632.  The  year  consisted  of  365  days  only,  and 
therefore  its  commencement,  like  that  of  the  old  Egyptian  and  Armenian  year, 
anticipated  the  Julian  year  by  one  day  in  every  four  years.  This  difference  amounted 
to  nearly  112  days  in  the  year  1075,  when  it  was  reformed  by  Jeloledin,  who  ordered 
that  in  future  the  Persian  year  should  receive  an  additional  day  whenever  it  should 
appear  neoeeeary  to  postpone  the  commencement  of  the  following  year,  that  it  might 
occur  on  the  day  of  the  sun's  passing  the  same  degree  of  the  ecliptic. 

YOKE.  The  ceremony  of  making  prisoners  pass  under  it,  was  first  practised  by  the 
Samnites  towards  the  Romans,  321  b.o.  This  disgrace  was  afterwards  inflicted  by 
the  Romans  upon  their  vanquished  enemies. — DufrtiStwy, 

YORE.  The  Bboracum  of  the  Romans,  and  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  England. 
Here  Severus  held  an  imperial  coiut,  a.d.  207 ;  and  here  also  Constautius  kept  his 
court,  and  his  son  Constantino  the  Qreat  was  bom,  in  274.  York  was  burnt  by  the 
Danes,  and  all  the  Normans  slain,  1069.  The  city  and  many  churches  were  destroyed 
by  fire,  June  3,  1137.  York  received  its  charter  from  Richard  II.  and  the  city  is  the 
only  one  in  the  British  kingdoms,  besides  London  and  Dublin,  to  whose  mayors  the 
prefix  of  lord  has  been  granted.  The  Guildhall  was  erected  in  1446.  The  castle  was 
built  by  Richard  IIL  1484,  and  was  rebuilt,  1701.  The  corporation  built  a  mansion- 
house  for  the  lord  mayor,  1728.  The  famous  York  petition  to  parliament  to  reduce 
the  expenditure  and  redress  grievances  was  gotten  up,  Dec.  1779.  This  act  was 
followed  by  various  political  associations  in  other  parts  of  England. 

YORK,  ARCHBISHOPRIC  of.  The  most  ancient  metropolitan  see  in  England,  being, 
it  is  said,  so  made  by  king  Lucius,  about  a.d.  180,  when  Christianity  was  fint,  although 
partially,  established  in  England.  But  this  establishment  was  overturned  by  the 
Saxons  driving  out  the  Britons.  When  Che  former  were  converted,  pope  Gregory 
determined  that  the  same  dignity  should  be  restored  to  York,  and  Paulinus  was  mado 
archbishop  of  this  see,  about  a.d.  622.  York  and  Durham  were  the  only  two  sees  in 
the  north  of  England  for  a  large  space  of  time,  until  Henry  I.  erected  a  bishopric  at 
Carlisle,  and  Henry  Y III.  another  at  Chester.  York  was  the  metropolitan  see  of  the 
Scottish  bishops ;  but  during  the  time  of  archbishop  Nevil,  4464,  they  withdrew  their 
obedience,  and  had  archbishops  of  their  own.  Much  dispute  arose  between  the  two 
English  metropolitans  about  precedency,  as  by  pope  Gregory's  institutions,  it  was 


YOB  716  ZAM 

thought  he  meant,  that  whichever  of  them  was  first  confirmed*  should  be  superior : 
appeal  was  made  to  the  court  of  Rome  by  both  parties,  and  it  was  determined  in 
favour  of  Canterbury ;  but  Tork  was  allowed  to  style  himself  primate  of  England, 
while  Canterbury  styles  himself  primate  of  all  England.  York  has  yielded  to  the 
church  of  Rome  eight  saints,  aud  three  cardinals,  and  to  England  twelve  lord  chan- 
cellors, two  lord  treasurers,  and  two  lord  presidents  of  the  north.  It  is  rated  in 
the  king's  books  39  Henry  YIII.  1546,  at  1609^  19<.  2d.  per  annum.— ^ealMm. 

YORK  CATHEDRAL.  This  majestic  fabric  v^as  erected  at  difierent  periods^  and  on  the 
site  of  former  buildings,  which  have  again  and  again  been  destroyed  by  fire.  The  first 
Christian  church  ei*ected  here,  which  appears  to  have  been  preceded  by  a  Roman 
temple,  was  built  by  Edwin,  king  of  Northumbria,  about  the  year  630.  It  was 
damaged  by  fire  in  741,  and  was  rebuilt  by  Archbishop  Albert,  about  780.  It  was 
again  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  year  1 069,  and  rebuilt  by  archbishop  Thomas.  It  was  onoe 
more  burnt  down  in  1137,  along  with  St.  Mary's  Abbey,  and  39  parish  churche«  in 
York.  Archbishop  Roger  began  to  build  the  choir  in  1171 ;  Walter  Gray  added  the 
south  titmsept  in  1227  ;  John  de  Romayne,  the  treasurer  of  the  cathedral,  built  the 
north  transept  in  12G0.  His  son,  the  archbishop,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  nave  in 
1291.  In  1330,  William  de  Melton  built  the  two  western  towers,  which  were  finished 
by  John  de  Birmingham  in  1342.  Archbishop  Thoresby,  in  1361,  began  to  rebuild 
the  choir,  in  accordance  with  the  mngnificence  of  the  nave,  and  he  idso  rebuilt  the 
lantern  tower.  And  thus  by  many  hands,  and  many  contributions  of  multitudes  on 
the  promise  of  indulgences,  this  magnificent  fabric  was  completed.  It  was  first  set  on 
fire  by  Jonathan  Martin,  a  lunatic,  and  the  roof  of  the  choir  and  its  interual  fittings 
destroyed,  Feb.  2,  1829;  the  damage  estimated  at  60,0002.  was  repaired  in  1832.  An 
accidental  fire  broke  out,  which  in  one  hour  reduced  the  belfry  to  a  shell,  destroyed 
the  roof  of  the  nave,  and  much  damaged  the  edifice^  May  20,  1840. 

YORK  AND  LANCASTER,  Wars  of  the  Hodses  of.  The  first  battle  between  these 
houses  was  that  of  St.  Alban's,  fought  May  22,  1455.  The  last  was  that  of  Tewkea* 
bury,  fought  May  12,  1471.  In  these  battles  the  Yorkists,  or  White  Rous,  were 
▼ictoriouB  against  the  house  of  Lancaster,  or  the  Red  Rosa.  But  in  the  sixteen  years 
between  these  two  dates  more  than  thirty  great  battles  were  fought  with  different 
success,  and  half  the  country  was  depopulated,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  nobility 
exterminated.     See  Roses. 

YORK,  Upper  Canada.  In  the  late  war  between  America  and  Great  Britain,  the  United 
States*  forces  made  several  attacks  upon  the  province  of  Upper  Canada,  aud  succeeded 
in  taking  York,  the  seat  of  the  government,  April  27>  1813 ;  but  it  was  soon  aftw> 
wards  again  possessed  by  the  British. 

YORK  TOWN,  British  Surrender  at.  Memorable  surrender  of  the  British  forces 
under  lord  Coin wal  lis  to  the  aiiny  of  the  revolted  colonies,  in  the  war  of  independ- 
ence. Lord  Cornwallis  had  taken  possession  of  York  town  in  Aug.  1781  ;  and  after 
sustaining  a  disastrous  siege,  was  obliged  to  surrender  his  whole  army,  conaisting  of 
about  7000  men,  to  the  allied  armies  of  France  and  America,  imder  the  command  of 
general  Washington  and  count  Rochambeau,  Oct  19,  1781.  This  mischance  was 
attributed  to  sir  Henry  Clinton,  who  had  not  given  the  gariison  the  necessary  suocour 
they  expected;  and  it  mainly  led  to  the  close  of  the  war. 

YYRES,  (now  Ivry)  BATTLE  of,  March  2.  1590,  between  Henry  lY.  of  France,  aided 
by  his  chief  nobility,  and  the  geneials  of  the  Catholic  league,  over  whom  the  king 
obtained  a  complete  victory.  This  success  enabled  Henry  to  blockade  Paris,  and 
reduce  that  capital  to  the  last  extremity  by  famine ;  but  the  duke  of  Panna.  by 
orders  from  Philip  of  Spain,  marched  to  the  relief  of  the  league^  and  obliged  the  king 
to  raise  the  blockade. 

Z. 

ZAMA,  BATTLE  or.  Between  the  two  greatest  commanders  in  the  world  at  the  time, 
Hazmibal  and  Scipio  Afrlcauus.  This  battle  has  been  called  the  most  important  that 
was  ever  fought ;  it  was  won  by  Scipio,  and  was  decisive  of  the  fate  of  Carthage ;  it 
led  to  an  ignominious  peace,  grant^  the  year  after,  which  closed  the  second 
Punic  war.  The  Romans  lost  but  2000  killed  and  wounded,  while  the  Carthaginians 
lost,  in  killed  and  prisoners,  more  than  40,000 ;  some  hiitorianA  make  the  I 
greater;  B.C.  202. 


ZAN  717  ZEN 

Z  ANTE.    One  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  which  see, 

ZANZALEENS.  This  sect  rose  in  Syria,  under  Zanzalee,  a.d.  535 ;  he  tanght  that  water 
baptism  was  of  no  efficacy,  and  that  it  was  necessary  to  be  baptized  with  fire,  by  the 
application  of  a  red-hot  iron.    The  sect  was  at  one  time  very  numerous. 

ZE,  ZOW,  ZIERES.  For  ye,  yow,  and  ymra.  The  letter  z  was  retained  in  Scotland,  an<T 
was  commonly  written  for  the  letter  y^BO  late  as  the  reign  of  queen  Mary,  np  to  which 
period  many  books  in  the  Scottish  language  were  printed  in  Edinbui^h  with  these 
words,  A.D.  1543.  , 

ZELA,  BATTLE  of.  In  which  Julius  Csssar  defeated  Phamaces,  king  of  Pontus,  son 
of  Mithridates.  Csosar,  in  announcing  this  victory,  sent  his  famous  despatch  to  the 
senate  of  Rome,  in  these  words :  ''  Veni,  vtdi,  vici" — " I  came, I  saw,  I  conquered," 
BO  rapidly  and  easily  was  his  triumph  obtained.  This  battle  ended  the  war; 
Phamaces  escaped  into  Bosphorus,  where  he  was  slain  by  his  lieutenant  Asander ; 
Pontus  was  made  a  Boman  province,  and  Bosphorus  given  to  Mithridates  of 
Pei^gamus,  i*i  b.o. 

ZELICHOW,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  Polish  and  Russian  armies,  one  of  the  most 
desperate  battles  fought  by  the  Poles  in  their  strugtele  for  the  freedom  of  their 
country.  The  Russians,  commanded  by  general  Diebitsch,  were  defeated,  losing 
12,000  men  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners ;  and  Diebitsch  narrowly  escaped  being 
taken  in  the  pursuit  of  his  flying  army,  April  6, 1831. 

ZELL,  CASTLE  of.  The  prison  of  the  queen  Matilda  of  Denmark,  sister  to  George  III. 
of  England.  A  new  ministry  in  Denmark,  headed  by  the  dowager-queen,  were  opposed 
in  their  policy  by  the  reigning  queen  Matilda,  and  counts  Brandt  and  Struensee,  now 
fiivourites  at  court.  The  king  had  displaced  several  of  the  queen-dowager's  friends, 
and  in  revenge  against  Matilda,  to  whom  these  ministers  paid  great  attention,  she 
insinuated  that  the  queen  had  condescended  to  have  an  intrigue  with  Struensee. 
This  unfounded  charge  was  steadily  persisted  in,  and  in  the  end  the  unfortunate 
Matilda  was  doomed  to  be  imprisoned  for  life.  His  Britannic  Majesty  so  far  interfered 
as  to  send  a  small  squadron  of  ships  to  convey  the  unhappy  princess  to  Qermany. 
The  castle  of  Zell  was  appointed  for  her  residence,  and  here  she  died  at  four-and- 
twenty  years  of  age,  denying  in  her  last  moments  that  she  had  ever  been  unfaithful 
to  the  king.    She  embarked  at  Elsinore,  May  10,  1772.* 

ZENO,  SECT  of.    See  Stoics. 

ZENOBIA,  Queen  of  the  East.  This  princess  was  as  distinguished  by  the  pre-eminent 
energy  of  her  character  as  by  the  vicissitudes  of  her  fortune.  She  wrested  Mesopo- 
tamia from  the  Persians,  defeated  Heraclianus,  the  Roman  general,  by  which  die 
rendered  herself  mistress  of  Syria,  subdued  Egypt,  and  the  greater  part  of  Asia-Minor, 
and  became  truly  the  Queen  of  the  East.  This  sudden  greatness  was,  however, 
speedily  succeeded  by  a  fall  as  remarkable.    The  warlike  Aurelian  carried  his  arms 

*  It  was  resolved  to  snrprifle  the  Ida)?  in  the  middle  of  the  night,  and  force  him  to  sign  an  order 
for  committing  the  roiniflters  to  sejtaFAte  prisons  ;  and  to  accuse  them  of  a  desif^  to  dethrone  and 
I>oi8on  the  king,  and  re^wrt  a  crimiual  correspondence  of  the  queen  with  her  favourite.  This  dedgn  was 
executed  on  the  night  of  Jan.  16,  1772,  when  a  masked  bull  was  given  st  the  palace.  The  queen  had 
danced  most  of  the  evening  with  Struensee,  and  had  retired  to  her  chamber  about  two  in  the  morning. 
About  four,  the  queen-dowager  and  i:er  party  entered  the  king's  chamber,  and  informed  him  that  the 
queen,  with  Struensee,  his  brother,  and  Brandt,  were  at  that  moment  busy  in  dmwiug  up  an  act  of 
renunciation  of  the  crown,  which  they  would  immediately  after  compel  him  to  sign,  and  they  there- 
fore demanded  their  arrest.  Christian,  through  importunities  and  threats,  consented,  after  some 
remonstrance,  to  this  scandalous  requUition,  and  count  Rautsau  was  des^tched  to  the  queen's 
apartments,  at  this  untimely  hour,  to  execute  the  king's  orders.  She  was  conveyed  to  the  castle  of 
Cronenburg.  and  Brandt  and  Struensee  were  also  seized  in  their  beds,  imprisoned,  and  piit  In 
irons.  The  queen-dowager  and  her  adherents  now  assumed  the  government.  Struensee  was  threatened 
with  tdrture,  and  to  avoid  it,  after  repeated  examinations,  confessed  that  he  had  conducted  a  criminal 
intrigue  with  Matilda,  and  nt  length  he  and  Brandt  were  beheaded,  April  28,  1772.  The  evidence 
against  the  qiieen  consisted  in  a  number  of  otrcumstancos,  all  of  them  susceptible  of  an  innocent 
explanation,  sworn  to  b^  her  attendants  who  were  employed  as  spies.  It  is  true  that  her  own  signa- 
ture affixed  to  a  confession  was  alleged  against  her ;  but  this  signature  proves  nothing  but  the  basene^^s 
of  her  enemiM,  and  their  malice.  Schock,  who  was  sent  to  interrogate  her  at  Cronenburg,  was 
received  by  Matilda  with  indignation,  when  he  spoke  of  her  connection  with  Struensee.  When  he 
showed  Struonsee's  confession  to  her,  he  artfully  intimated  that  the  fallen  minister  would  be  subjected 
to  a  cruel  death  if  he  was  found  to  have  falsely  criminated  the  queen.  "  What ! "  exclaimed  Matilda, 
"  do  you  think  if  I  were  to  confirm  his  declaration,  I  should  save  the  life  of  that  unfortunate  man  ?  '* 
Schack  answered  with  a  low  bow.  The  queen  took  a  pen,  wrote  the  first  svllable  of  her  name,  and 
tinted  away.  Schack  completed  the  signature,  and  bore  away  the  fotal  document  in  triumph. 
Btruensee's  confession  was  obtained  by  thr«^ats  of  torture,  facilitated  by  some  hope  of  life,  and  influenced 
by  a  knowledge  that  the  proceedings  against  the  queen  could  not  be  carried  beyond  a  divorce. 


ZEU  718  ZUI 

into  Asia,  defeated  her  armies,  recoTered  all  the  eaatern  provinces,  and  obliged  her 
to  shut  herself  up  in  her  capital,  Palmyra,  which  place  he  reduced  to  extremitj. 
Zenobia,  attempting  to  escape,  was  taken  prisoner  and  carried  a  captive  to  Rome, 
237  A.D.     See  Palmyra, 

ZEUTA,  BATTLE  of.  Fought  between  the  Qermans  under  prince  Eugene  against  the 
Turks,  and  memorable  for  the  prodigious  oTerthrow  of  the  latter,  a-d.  1697.  This 
Tictory  of  the  Austrian  arms  led  to  the  peace  of  Carlowitz,  negotiated  in  1698,  and 
ratified  in  January  of  the  following  year. 

• 

ZINC.  The  discovery  of  this  metal,  so  far  as  the  fact  is  known,  is  due  to  tiie  modemsL 
•  It  is  said  to  have  been  long  known  in  China,  however,  and  is  noticed  by  European 
writers  as  early  as  a.d.  1231 ;  though  the  method  of  extracting  it  from  the  ore  was 
unknown  for  nearly  five  hundred  years  after.  A  mine  of  einc  was  discovered  on  lord 
Ribblesdale's  estate.  Craven,  Yorkshire,  in  1809.  Zincography  vras  introduced  in 
London  shortly  after  the  invention  of  lithography  became  known  in  England,  in  1817. 
See  Lithography, 

ZINDIKITES.  These  are  a  description  of  Mahometan  heretics,  or  rather  atheists,  who 
neither  believe  in  a  providence,  nor  in  the  resurrection  of  the  dead ;  they  maintain 
that  there  is  no  god,  nor  other  eternity  than  the  four  elements ;  that  man  is  a  mixture 
of  these,  and  that  after  death  he  resolves  into  them ;  a.d.  950. 

ZJZYPHTJS  VULGARIS.  This  shrub  was  brought  to  these  oountries  from  the  south  of 
Europe,  about  a.d.  1640.     The  Zizyphu$  Paliwus  shrub,  better  known  as  the  Ckri$t'M 

Thorn,  was  first  brought  from  Africa,  before  1596.    See  Flotoen, 

• 

ZODIAC.  The  obliquity  of  the  sodiac  was  discovered,  its  twelve  signs  named,  and  their 
situations  assigned  them  in  the  heavens,  by  Anaximander,  about  560  B.a  The  GreekM 
and  Arabians  borrowed  the  Eodiao  from  the  Hindoos,  to  whom  it  has  been  known 
from  time  immemoriaL — Sir  WilHam  Jones. 

ZOE,  REIGN  OF.    See  Eatfem  Empire,  1028—1042. 

ZOLLYEREIN.  (Customs*  union,)  The  name  given  to  the  German  commercial  union, 
of  which  Prussia  is  the  head.  It  was  first  formed  in  1818,  and  was  gradually  joined 
by  nearly  nil  the  German  states,  except  Austria.  On  Feb.  19, 1863,  an  important 
treaty  of  commerce  and  navigation,  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  to  last  from  Jan. 
1854  till  Dec.  1865,  vnis  signed,  to  which  the  other  states  of  the  Zollverein  gave  in 
their  adhesion  on  April  5,  1853. 

ZOOLOGY.  The  animal  kingdom  was  divided  by  Ltnnssns  into  six  classes ;  rim. : — 
Mammalia,  which  includes  all  animals  that  suckle  their  young;  Ares,  or  birds; 
A mpliibiaf  or  amphibious  animals;  Pisces^  or  fishes;  /luecta,  or  insects ;  FeroMS,  or 
worms ;  a.d.  1741.  From  this  period  the  science  of  zoology  has  had  many  distin- 
guished professors,  the  most  illustrious  of  whom  was  the  baron  Cuvier,  who  died  in 
Paris,  May  13.  1832.  The  Zoological  Gardens  of  London  were  opened  in  April,  1827: 
the  society  was  chartered  March  27, 1829.  On  the  Demolition  of  Exeter  Change,  in 
1829,  the  menagerie  of  Mr.  Cross  wns  temporarily  lodged  in  the  King's  Mews,  whence 
it  was  removed  to  the  Surrey  Zoological  Gardens,  1832  {which  see).  The  Zoological 
Gardens  of  Dublin  were  opened  in  the  same  year. 

ZORNDORFF,  BATTLE  of.  Between  the  Prussian  and  Russian  armies,  the  former  com* 
manded  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  obtaining  a  memorable  victory  over  the  forces  of  the 
czarina,  whose  loss  amounted  to  21,529  men,  while  that  of  the  Prussians  did  not 
exceed  11,000.  Aug.  25,  and  26,  1758. 

ZOUAVES  AVD  FOOT  CHASSEURS.  When  the  French  established  a  regency  at 
Algiers,  they  hoped  to  find  the  employment  of  native  troops  advantageous,  and 
selected  the  Zooaouas,  a  congregation  of  Arab  tribes  famous  for  daring  and  skilfnl 
ooumge.  In  time  numbers  of  red  republicans,  and  other  •enthusiastic  Frenchmen, 
joined  the  regiments,  adopting  the  costume,  ftc.  and  eventuiJly  the  Africans  dtsi^)- 
peared  from  the  ranks,  and  no  more  were  added,  they  having  been  frequently  guilty 
of  treachery.  The  French  Zouaves  formed  an  important  part  of  the  army  in  the 
Crimean  war,  1854-5. 

ZUINGLIANS.  The  followers  of  Ulrious  Zuinglius.  This  zealous  reformer,  whUe  he 
ofilciated  at  Zurich,  declaimed  against  the  church  of  Rome  and  its  indulgences,  and 
effected  the  same  separation  for  Switzerland  from  the  papal  dominion,  which  Luther 
did  for  Saxony.     He  procured  two  assemblies  to  be  called;   by  the  first  he  was 


ZUR  719  ZUR 

authoiiBed  to  proceed,  and  by  the  second  the  ceremonies  of  the  Romish  church  were 
abolished,  1519.  ZuingliuB,  who  began  as  a  preacher,  died  in  arms  as  a  soldier;  he 
was  slain  in  a  skirmish  against  the  popish  opponents  of  his  reformed  doctrines,  in 
1531.     The  followers  of  Zuinglius  were  also  called  SacramentariansL 

ZURICH.  It  was  admitted  to  be  a  membei^  of  the  Swiss  confederacy,  of  which  this 
canton  was  made  the  head,  a.d.  1351.  Cession  of  Utznach,  1436.  This  was  the  first 
town  in  Switzerland  that  separated  from  the  church  of  Rome,  in  consequence  of  the 
opposition  given  by  Zuinghus  to  a  Franciscan  monk  sent  by  Leo  X.  to  publish  in- 
dulgences here,  1519,  et  Kq.  A  grave-digger  of  Zurich  poisoned  the  sacramental  wine, 
by  which  eight  persons  lost  their  lives,  and  many  others  were  grievously  injured. 
Sept  4, 1776.  The  French  were  defeated  here,  losing  4000  men,  June  4, 1799.  The 
Imperialists  were  defeated  by  Mossena,  the  former  losing  20,000  men  in  killed  and 
wounded.  Sept  24,  1799.     See  Swifzrland. 


INDEX.* 


Abba-Tbuixb:  Pelew  lalaiid* 

Abbot,  Chariea,  speaker 

AbdalU;  DelU 

Abdallah;  Morocco 

Abd-el-Kader ;  Alglen,  Moroooo 

Abol;  sacrifice 

Abercromby,  James,  speaker 

Abercromby,  sir  R. ;  Alexandria^ 
Trinidad 

Abingdon,  earl  of;  trials,  17M 

Abrnntes,  duke  of;  Junot 

Abubeker:  Ali 

Acbar;  India 

Acca  Laorentia ;  Alba 

Achsufi;  Aehaia 

Acbaius;  Thistle 

Achilli  9.  Newman;  trials^  1862 

Acilius ;  statues,  temples 

Ackermann ;  engraving 

Acron;  aromatics 

Aoton,  Mrs. ;  Royal  Institutioa 

Actuarius;  purgatives 

AHair,  seijeant ;  Junius 

Adalbert.  St;  Prussia 

Adams,  J.  C. ;  Neptune 

Adams,  Mr.  (architect);  Drury- 
Une 

Adams,  John ;  United  States 

Adams,  lieut. ;  duel 

Adams  V.  Dundas ;  trials,  1831 

Adderley,  Mr:  Birmingham 

Addison.  Joseph ;  administration, 
allegory,  Clio 

Adelaide ;  queens  (William  IV.) 

Adelais;  queens  (Henry  I.) 

Adelmus;  WeUs 

Adeodatus;  pope 

Adhelm,  St. ;  Salisbury 

Adhelme ;  ballads 

Adolpbus  Frederic ;  Sweden 

Adrian ;  Rome,  edicts,  perse- 
cutions 

Adrian  I.  pope 

Aedan,  prince ;  Wales 

Jidric  Streon ;  Alney 

iEgeus ;  Athens 

^genita,  Paulus ;  surgery 

iBi^thus;  Mycenas 

.£milianus;  Rome 

JEneas ;  Alba,  Orcooe 

JEropas;  Maoedon 

JBschvlus ;  costume,  tragedy 

.£scuUpitis ;  infirmaries 

iEsop;  fables 

Jfitoiits.  of  Elis;  Atolia 

Agamemnon;  Mycense 

Agapenor,  Arcadia 

Agatbocles;  Carthage 

Age,  proprietor  of.  trials,  1844 

Agesander;  LaoooOn 


Agesilaus;  Sparta 

Agis;  Sparta 

Agnew.  Mr.  Tans ;  India 

Agnodioe;  midwifery 

Agiioola;  Britain,  Tjaneaater,  (^> 
ledonia,  Roman  wall 

Agrlcola,  John ;  Antinomians 

Agrlppa ;  Rome.  Pantheon 

AboUab;  sculpture 

Airr,  O. ;  Greenwich,  pendulum 

Aislabie,  Mr;  administrations 

Alaric ;  Rome,  Fri^nee 

Albemarle,  lord ;  Cuba 

Albemarle,  Monk,  duke  of;  ad- 
ministrations 

Albert,  duke  of  Austria ;  Bohe- 
mia, Hungary 

Albert  II. ;  Austria,  Oermanv 

Albert  III.,  sumamed  Achilles; 
Prussia 

Albert  of  Brandenburg ;  Prussia 

Albert  (prince  consort) ;  England, 
1840,  regency  bill 

Albertus  Magnus;  automatons 

Alcamenes;  Hjiarta 

Alciblades;  Athens 

Alcippee;  Areopsgitao 

Alcock.  Mr. ;  duelling 

Aldebert;  impostorB 

Aldhelme ;  poetry 

Alectus;  Britain 

Alenfon,  due  d' ;  Affincourt 

Alen^on,  dued';  p<Miticlans 

Alcus;  Arcadia 

Alexander  of  Paris ;  Alexandrine 

Alexander  the  Great;  Arfoela, 
Egypt,  Granicus,  Greece, 
Issus,  Jerusalem,  Maoedon, 
Persia,  Gordian  knot,  slaves, 
Tyre 

Alexander;  Russia,  Austerlits, 
Leipsic 

Alexander ;  Scotland,  pope 

Alexander,  Mr.:  triala,  1830 

Alexander,  sir  w. ;  Nova  Scotia 

Alftvd  the  Great;  councils, 
crown,  England,  militia 

Alfined.  son  of  Ethelred  II. ;  (Tod- 
win 

Ali  Pacha ;  Rosetta 

Ali  Pacha,  of  Jauina;  Turkey, 
1820,  Albania 

Alibaud;  France 

Alley,  bishop ;  Bible,  France  18S8 

AUeyne,  Edward ;  Dulwich  college 

Almansor :  Bagdad 

Almeida,  L. ;  Mftdagascar 

Alphonsus;  Sicily 

Alphonsus  of  Arragon;  Spain, 
kings 


Alphonsus  XI. ;  the  Moors 

Alphonsus  of  Castile ;  Spain,  king 

Alphonsus;  Portugal 

Alphonsus  of  Spain,  the  Chaste, 
the  Wise,  Ac. 

Alpinus;  Dublin 

Alsop,  Mr.  Joseph ;  trials,  18S0 

Althorpe,  vise. ;  administrations 

Alva,  auke  of;  Antwerp 

Alvanley,  lord ;  duelling 

Alvinsy,  field-marshal ;  Areola 

Alyattes,  king ;  Lydia 

Alypius  of  Alexandria ;  dwarfs 

Amadeus,  Savoy ;  annunciation 

Ambrose.  St. ;  anthems,  Te  Jkum 

Amenophis;  £|typt 

Amerieus  Yespuciua;  America 

Amherst,  lord;  China  1816,  India 
1828 

Amontons,  M. ;  telegraphs 

Ampere;  electricity 

Amphictyon;  dreams 

Amullus;  Alba 

Amurath;  Turkey 

Amurath  IV. ;  Beyrout,  Turkey 

Amyntas;  Macedon 

Anadetus;  pope 

Anacliarsis ;  anchors,  bellowa 

Anastasia;  dwarfii 

Anastasius;  pope 

Anaxagoras;  earthquakes 

Anaximander;  maps 

Anaximenes  of  Miletus ;  air 

Ancaster,  duke  of;  administra- 
tions, Chatham,  Grafton, 
North 

Andrew;  St.  Andrew 

Andrews;  almanacs 

Andronlcus;  drama 

Andronious ;  Eastern  empire 

Angela,  8t ;  Ursuline  nuns 

Augerstein,  John  Julius;  Na- 
tional Gallery 

Angleeey,  Arthur,  earl  of;  admi- 
nistrations 

Anglesey,  marquess  of;  Ireland, 
lord-lieutenant 

Angus,  earl  of;  Idnlithgow 

All,  ou,  duke  of*  Jamao 

Ai\  ou,  first  earl  of;  Plantagenet 

An,  ou,  Charles  of ;  Naples,  Sicily 

Aiyo^  Manparet  of;  queens 
(Henry  VI.X  England,  Mar- 
garet of  Ai^ou 

Ankerstr&m,  count ;  Sweden 

Anna  Boleyn;  queens  (Henry 
VIII.) 

Anne ;  queens,  motto 

Anne  of  Britanny;  maida  of 
honour 


The  references  are  to  artidaa  in  the  body  of  the  work. 


8a 


722 


INDEX. 


Anne  of  Austria ;  iron  mask 

Anne  at  GleTos:  queens  (Hen. 
VIII.) 

Anne  Hyde  ;  queens  (James  II.) 

Anne ;  queens  (James  I.) 

Anne,  queen  of  Richard  11. 

Anne,  queen  of  Richard  III. 

Anson,  adml. ;  Acapulco^  naval 
battles. 

Anson,  gen. ;  India  1857 

Anthony,  St.  ;  monk,  anchorites 

Antigiinus;  Ipsus 

Antigouus;  Sparta 

Anttgonus;  profiles 

Antlochus  the  Oreat ;  Ammonites, 
Jews 

Antiochus,  Jews 

Antiochus;  Syria 

Antipater;  Cnuion 

Antiphiles;  painting 

Autipopes.    See  PoptM 

Antisthenes  ;  Cynic 

Antoninus  Pius;  Rome,  empe- 
rors, Roman  wall. 

Antony,  Mark ;  Actium,  Arme- 
nia, Egypt,  Fhilippi,  Rome 

Apsis;  Argos 

ApoUinariuB  ;  Apollinarians 

Apollo;  laurel,  lyre 

Apollodorus;  Tn^an 

Apollouius;  Svria 

Appius  Claudius  ;  aqueducts, 
decemviri 

ApplegHth ;  printing-machine 

Apries;  Egypt 

Apsley,  lora ;  administrations 

Aquiloia  ;  Rome,  Western  empire 

Amm,  Eugene ;  trials^  1750 

Arbaoes  ;  Media 

Arboffastee,  the  Oaul 

Arcadius  and  Honorius,  eastern 
and  western  empire 

Areas;  Arcadia 

Archelaua;  Cappadocia 

ArcholauB ;  Macedon 

Archemorus ;  Nemnan  games 

Archilochus ;  Iambic  verse 

4rcbimedes;  cranes,  mechanics, 
mensuration,  organs,  refleo- 
tors,  screw,  planetarium 

Archytas ;  automaton 

Arahytas;  pulley 

Ardesoif.  Mr.  ;  cock-fighUng 

Ardysus,  king ;  Lydia 

Arotwus :  blisters 

Aretin,  Oui ;  musical  notes 

Arfastus,  lord  chancellor 

Arfwedson,  Mr. ;  lithium 

Aiigyll.  duke  of;  Sheriflinuir, 
Dunblane 

Ariarathes;  CnpiMdoda 

Ariarathes ;  crucifixion 

Ariobtfzaues ;  Poutus 

Aris,  govemor ;  prisons,  globe 

Aristarohus.  of  Samos;  sun 

Aristwus  :  Cyrone,  conic  sections 

Ariatides  the  Just ;  Athens 

Aristippus  the  Elder ;  Cyrenaic 

Aristocrates ;  Arcadia 

Aristodemiis ;  biarchy 

Aristophanes:  rhetoric 

Aiistotle  (Alexander's  tutor) ; 
acoustics,  botany.  Macedon, 
mechanics^  metaphysics  phi- 
losophy 

Arius;  Anans 

Arkwright ;  cotton,  Manchester, 
spiuning 

Arlington,  brd;  administrations 

Arminius ;  Arminians,  Dort 

Arnold.  Mr.  ;  balloons 

Arnold;  Andntf 

Arsaces;  Parthia 


Artabazea ;  Pontns 
Artavasdea ;  Amieuia 
Artaxerxes;  Persia 
Artaxias;  Armenia 
Artemisia:  mausoleum 
Artemonea;  battering-ram 
Arthur;  Britain 
Artois,  count  d* ;  duel 
ArundeU  Henry,  earl  of;  admi- 
nistrations 
Aacanius ;  Alba 
Asdrubal;  Carthage 
Asellius ;  lacteals,  lymphatics 
Asgill,  Mr. ;  translation 
Ashburton,  lord  ;  United  States 
Aahe.  general ;  Briar'a  creek 
Ashfonl,  Mary;  appeal 
Ashley,  lord  ;  admiuistrationa 
Ashley,  sir  Arthur ;  cabbagea 
Ashton,  colonel ;  Wigan 
Ashur;  As^rian 
Asicus,  St.  ;  Elphia 
Aske ;  pilgrimage  of  grace 
Aslett,  Hob. ;  exchequer 
Asoph  ud  Dowlah ;  Benares 
Aster;  Amphi|tolBS 
Aston,  lord ;  Donnington 
Astydamus;  tragedy 
Assheton,  William ;  oloigymen 
Astley,  lord;  Nnseby 
Aston,  sir  A  .;  Drogheda 
Aston,  Mr.  Harvey;  duel 
Astyagea;  Media 
Athelstau,  admiral ;  mint 
Achenodorus ;  LaocoOn 
Atherton;  bishops  of  Ireland 
Athol,  duke  of;  Man 
Athol,  earlof;  Edinburgh 
Athol,  earl  of  (regicide) ;  Perth 
Athotbes;  hieroglyphics 
.A  toaaa ;  marriage  by  sale 
Attains,  Porgamus ;  parchment 
Auchmuty,  we  Samuel;  Batavia. 

Monte  Video 
Auckland,  lord ;  administrations, 

India 
Augustin,  St. ;  Cauterbuxy,  Ro- 
chester 
Auletas;  Egypt 
Auliana;  Dublin 
AumiUe,  duke  d' ;  France 
Aurelian ;  Alemanni,  Rome 
Aurelius ;  Ambrosius,  Stonehonge 
Aurelius  Cams  ;  Rome 
Aurelius,  Marcus ;  Rome 
Aurelius  Probua ;  Rome 
Aurungsebe;  India 
Austin,  St.  See  Av/ffudUi,,  8t, 
Austin,  capt.  ;  Franklin 
AusUn,  W.  trials  1855 
Austria,  don  John  of,  Lepanto 
Averani;  diamonds 
Avisa ;  queens 
An^  of  Eate ;  Brunawick 


Babbage,  C. ;  calculating  machine 
Baber ;  Afghaniatan,  India 
Babeuf,  agrarian  law 
Bachelier,  M  .;  encanatlc  painting 
Back,  capt  ;  North-weat  paaaage 
Bacon,  lord  Verulam;  lavryen, 

afironautics 
Bacon,  sir  Nicholas ;  administra- 

tiona  ;  baronet 
Bacon,  Roger ;  aacrology.  camera 
lucida,  loadstone,  magic-lan- 
tern,   magnet,    optica,  sx>ec- 
tacles 
Bacon,  T.  F.  ;  trials,  1857 


Baffin,  Wm. ;  Baffin's  bay 
Bagnal,  lieut. ;  duel 
Bagrutlon,  prince ;  Mobiknrs 
Bagster,  Mise  M.  ;  triaU  lSu8 
Bailey,  Rev.  W.  ;  trials,  1843 
Baillie,  colonel ;  Arcoc 
Baillie,  general ;  Alford 
Baines,  M.  T. ;  Pahnerston    ad- 

mmistmtioo 
Baiid,  air  David ;  Capo,  Seringa- 

patam 
Bidaxet;  Turkey 
BaJard,  M. ;  amyleoe 
Balchan,  adminu ;  Aldemey 
Baldwin  I. — V.  ;  Jerusalem 
Bales  P. ;  calligraphy 
Balfour,  John;  Scotland 
Baliol,  Edward,  king ;  ScoOand 
Baliol,  John ;  Oxford 
BalioU  John  ;  Dunbar,  Scotland 
Ballanit ;  Melbourne 
Ballasteroa;  Ximera 
Balmenno,  lord ;  rebeUlon,  Boot- 
land,  trials,  1746 
Baltimore,  lord  ;  iriaU,  1708 
Baltimore,  lord;  America 
Bannister,  Mr. ;  theatrea 
Bar,  due  de ;  Agiooourt 
Baradaeus ;  Eutychiana,  Jaoobitca 
Baranelli,  L. ;  trials  1856 
Barbaroasa;  Tunis 
Barber,  Fletcher,  Saundon^  and 

Dorey ;  trials,  1844 
Barberini :  Portland  vam 
Barbour.  J. ;  trials,  1853 
Barclay,  Captain  ;  pedestrianiani 
Barclay,  Robert,  ol  Ury ;  qiiaker» 
Barclay,  Perkins.  U  Co. ;   porter 
Barents ;  North-W.  pa  swage 
Barham,  lord  ;  admmistraticiis 
'Baring,  Alex.  ;  admintstrationa 
Baring,  air  Fr.  T. ;  adininistrationa 
Barker,  Robert ;  panoramas 
Barlow,  bishop ;  Bible 
Barlow;  clocks 
Barlowe,  William ;  oompaaa 
Barnard,  gen. ;  India  185T 
Bamett,  Geo. ;  trials  1816 
Barr^,  Isaac;  adminiatrattooa 
Barrett,  captain  ;  Cumberland 
fianie,  captain  ;  naval  battles 
Barrington,  Mr. ;  duel 
Barrington ;  triids  1700 
Barrv.    sir   Charles ;   palaee    of 

Weittminater 
Barth,  Dr. ;  Africa 
Barthd^my,  E. ;  trials  1*55 
Barton,  Dr. ;  insurance 
Barton,  Elisabeth :  impostor 
Baschi.  Matthew;  Capttclons 
Basil,  St.;  Baailianw 
Basil;  Ruaala 
Baailowits  John ;  Rnssia 
Bathurat;  adminiatrations 
Bathyllus :  pantomimes 
Batman,  J.  ;  Victoria 
Batthyani ;  Hungaiy 
Davana,  slector  of ;  Bamttlss 
Baxter,  O.  ;  printing  in  coloars 
Bayle  ;  dicti<»ary 
Bayley,  lieut  ;  dud 
Baynard,  Geoffrey ;  combttft 
Beaching,  J. ;  life-boat 
Bean  aims  at  the  queen  ;  trial*, 

1842 
Beau  Nssh ;  oeremoniea 
Beauchamp,  Henry  da ;  Wight 
Beauchamp,  John  de ;  barona 
Beauhamais     Eugene  ;      Italy. 

Mockeni 
Beaulieu,  general ;  Lodl 
Beaumont,  air  O. ;  Natl  Gallery 
BeaumoBt»  Mr.;  duel 


INDEX. 


723 


Baeramont,  viscount 

Beavuir,  cir  J.  do ;  irialB,  1836 

Bea/iey,  Mr. ;  tboatres 

Beckf.ird,  Mr.  ;  Fonthill  abbey 

Beck  with   Mr. :  Spa  fields  hi>t 

Bedfttrd,  duke  of;  duel,  Irt ;  Ire> 
Uuil,  lord  Ueuts.,  France, 
admiiiistratioiis,  admiraJty 

Bedforl,  Geo.  Neville,  duke  of; 
nobility 

Badingfteld.  Ann ;  trials,  1763 

Baeby,  William;  longuvity 

Behem*  Martin ;  Axures 

Behring ;  Behring's  straits 

Belasyse,  lord  J.;  odmiuistrations 

Belcher,  sir  Edward ;  his  expedi- 
tion, Franklin 

Belinus,  Billingsgate 

Belisanus ;  massacrai 

Bell,  Dr. ;  Lanca«terian  schools 

Bell,  prof  ;  London  uulverslty 

BelUmoDt,  lord;  duel 

Bellamy,  trial ;  44 

Bellingham ;  Perceval 

BelUngham,  sir  Daniel;  lord 
mayor  (of  Dublin) 

Belleislu,  marshal ;  Belleisle 

Bellot,  lieut. ;  Franklin 

BelochuA;  Assyria 

Bvliis ;  Babel 

Bern ;  Hungary 

Ben-Ashur;  Bible 

Benbow.  admiral ;  naval  battles 

Benedict,  Benedictines 

Beutham,  Jer. ;  savings'  banks 

Benciuck,  lord  W. ;  Assam,  India 

Bentinck,  lord  O.;  protectionists 

Berangarius ;  fit%  de  Duu 

Berenger,  Butt,  lord  Cochrane, 
and  others ;  trials,  1814 

Bereiigera ;  queeus  (Richard  I.) 

Berenihobaldus ;  Aohalt 

Bereaford,  lord ;  Albuera 

Beresford,  rt  hon.  William ;  ad- 
ministrations 

Beresford,  lord  J. ;  suicide 

Berkeley,  lord  ;  admiralty,  admi- 
nistretious 

Berkeley  cause ;  trials,  1811 

Berkeley,  lord ;  America,  Brest, 
Carolina 

Berkeley,  hon.  C. ;  duel 

Bermudjis ;  Juan 

Bern;  Cluny 

Bemadotte ;  Dennewitx,  Sweden 

Bemouilli;  acoustics 

Bernard,  sir  Thomas ;  British,  and 
Royal  Institutions 

Berrl,  Charles,  duke  of ;  Peronne 

Berri,  duke  and  duchess  de; 
France 

Berry,  lieut. ;  trials.  1807 

Bertliler,  Oen. ;  NeufchAtel 

BerthoUet;  bleaching 

Bertie,  lady  Qeoivina  G. ;  lord 
great  chamberudn 

Berwick,  duke  of;  Landen,  Al- 
manza,  Nowry 

Bessemer,  H. ;  iron 

BesBus  (assassin  of  Darius); 
Persia 

Best,  captain ;  duel,  Surat 

Bethenooiurt ;  Canaries 

Betterton;  drama 

Betty,  master;  theatres 

Bovem.  prince ;  Breslau 

Bewick  ;  wood  engraving 

Bexloy,  lord ;  admiuistratioDB 

Bezaleel;  sculpture 

Biela;  comet 

Big  Sam;  prince  of  Wales's 
porter,  giants 

Bingley,  lord;  administrationa 


Bird,  the  boy ;  trials,  1831 
Uiriuus,  St. ;  Dt>rche»tor 
Birkbeck,  Dr. ;  mtchanics'  insti- 
tutes 
Bishop,  the  murderer;  burking 
BlMck,  Dr. ;  duel 
Black,  Dr. ;  magnesia 
Blackatone;  tithes 
Blaeu,  Wm. ;  printing  press 
Blair,  Dr. ;  rhetoric,  veise 
Blake,  admiral;   Algiers,  Dover 
Straits^  Portland  i&lo,  Santa 
Crux 
Blakesley  Bob. ;  trials,  1841 
Blanchara,  madame ;  balloon 
Blanchard,  Laman;  suicide 
Blanchard,  T. ;  timber 
Blandy,  Miss;  trials,  1752 
Bledilyn  ab  Cynvyn  ;  Wales 
Bligh,  captain ;  bread-fruit  tree 
Bligh,  oaptaiu,  «.  Mr.  Weilesley 

Pole;  trials,  1825 
Bligh,  captain;  Adventure  bay, 

Botintv  mutiny 
Bligh,  Mr. ;  tiials,  1806 
Bloud;  Blood's  conspiracy,  orown 
Blood,  Mr. ;  trials,  1832 
Bloomer,  Mrs. ;  dress 
Blucher,    marshal ;    JanvillierSk 

Lig^y.  Waterloo 
Bluet,  bishop  Robert ;  Lincoln 
BlnudoU,  lieut ;  duel 
Boadice<i,  queen ;  Britain 
Boardman,  captain ;  duel 
Boddington ;  trials,  1797 
Boeticher ;  Dresden  china 
Bogle  V.  Lawson  ;  trials.  1841 
Bohemia,  king  of— "/cA  JHen,-*' 

Crcssy 
Boiroimhe,  Bryan,  king ;  Ireland 
Bois  de  Chtoe,  Mile. ;  beards 
Bol:4m.  Mr. ;  trials,  183'J 
Boldero,  captam ;  duel 
Boleslaus  I..  II.,  III.,  IV. ;  Poland 
Boleyn,  eari   of  WUtahire;   ad- 
ministrations 
Bolingbroke,    lord ;    administra- 
tions, deism 
Bolivar,  Columbia 
Bolton,  duke  of;  administrations 
Bonaparte.    8ee  Ifapolton 
Bonapiirte,  Jerome;  Westphalia, 

abdication 
Bonaparte,  Joseph;   abdication, 
heiffhts  of  Romainville,  Ma- 
drid, Naples,    bicily,  Spain, 
Wagram,  Vittoria 
Bonaparte,  Louis;  Holland 
Bonar,  Mr.  and  Mrs. ;  trials,  1818 
Bonaventura,  St  ;  conclave 
Bonavisa,  Anthony;  distaff 
Bon  i ;  magnetism 
Boniface,  of  Menta ;  antipodes 
Bonner,  bishop  of  London;  ad- 
ministrations 
Boon,  colonel ;  America 
Booth.  Mr. ;  theatres 
Booaey,  Mr;  copjrright 
Horde,  Andrew;   Meny-Andrew 
Botelli ;  mechanics 
Borgese,  H. ;  diamond 
Borowlaski,  count ;  dwarf 
Borringdon,  Isdv ;  trials,  1808 
Boscawen,  admiral;  Lagos 
Boswell,  sir  A. ;  duel 
Bothwell,  earl  of ;  Scotland 
Bottle  conspiratora ;  trials.  1830 
Bouchet,  Anthony ;  illuminatl 
Bougainville;  circumnavigation 
Bouul^  marquis  de ;  St.  Eustatia 
Boulton,  Matthew ;  Birmingham 
Boulton  and  Watt :  coinage 
Bourbon  &mily,  Fnmoe 


Bourgeois,  sir  Francis,  Dulwich 
Buurke,  air  R. ;   Victoria,  Aus- 
tralia 
Bourmont,  manhal;  Algiera 
Bourne,  Mr.   Slurgea;   adminis- 
trations 
Bousfield,  W.j  executions,  1856 
Bowor.  Mr.  Elliot;  trials.  1862 
Bowea,  Miss;  Strathmore 
Bowring,  sir  J. ;  Canton,  China, 

Siam 
Boyd,  captain ;  duel 
Boyd,  Hugh  ;  Junius 
Boydell,  alderman;   British  In- 

stitution 
Boyle,  earl  of  Orrery ;  orrery 
Boyle,  hon.  Robert ;  phosphorus, 

Roval  Society 
Boyle,  hon.  Henry;  administra- 

tions 
Brabant,  duke  of;  merchants 
Brackley,  vise. ;  sdministrations 
Bradbury,  H. ;  nature-printing 
Bradley;  astronomy,  Greenwich 
Bradley,  admiral ;  trials,  1814 
Bragansa,  John ;  Portugal 
Braham,  Mr. ;  theatres 
Brahe,  Tycho;  astronomy,  globe 
Brakespeare,  Nicholas ;  po^io 
Brands,  W.  T. ;  Royal  Institution 
Brandreth,  the  Luddite;  Derby 

trials 
Brandt,  count ;  Zell 
Brandt;  cobalt;  phoaphoms 
Bremer,  sir  Gordon ;  China 
Brendon,  St. ;  Clonfert 
Brenn,  captain  ;  Hibfntia 
Brennus ;  Britain 
Brent.  Foulke  de ;  conspiracies 
Brereton,  col. ;  Bristol,  suicide 
Bi*es8on,  count ;  suicide 
Brett.  J.    W. ;   submarine   tele- 

graph 
Brewster,  D. ;  kaleidoscope 
Brie,  Mr. ;  duel 
Bndgowater,  earl ;  admiralty 
Bridgewater,  duke  of;  canal 
Bridport,  loi-d ;  L'Orient 
Brienne,  M.  de ;  notables 
Bright,  Mr. ;  cor)>ulency 
Bright,  Mr. ;  peace  congress 
Briudiey,  Mr. :    tunnels,    Bridg- 
water canal 
BriuKlett;  trials,  1828 
BrinvilUers;  poisoning 
Briscoe,  Mr. ;  antarctic 
Bristol,  mayor  of;  trials,  1832 
Bristol,  John,  earl  of;  adminis- 
trations 
Britton,  T. ;  ventriloqnism 
Broadwood ;  piano  fortes 
Broke,  capt ;  CheaapeaJo* 
Brome,  Adam  de ;  Oriel 
Bromlejr,  sir  Thomas;   adminis- 
trations 
BixKjke,  sir  James  ;  Borneo 
Brough,  M.  A. ;  trialis  1854 
Brougham,  lord ;  lord  chancellor, 

impeachment 
Broughton,  Id. ;  administrations 
Brown,  gen. ;  Prague 
Brown,  K. ;  Independents 
Brown,  W.,  M.P.;  Uverpool 
Browne,  American  gen.;  Chip- 

pawa.  Fort  Krie 
Browne,     Hannah,     murdered, 

trials,  1837 
Browne,  Robert;  Brownists 
Browne,  George ;  Dublin 
Brownrigg.  EUz. ;  trials.  1767 
Brownrigg,  gen. ;  Candy 
Bruce;    AMca,     Bruce;     Nile, 
Palmyra 

8a2 


724 


INDEX. 


Bruce,    David;     DurbAm,     Ne- 

▼ill's  Croas 
Bruce,  Edward;    ArmBgh,    Bel- 
fast, Dundulk 
Bruce,    Robert ;    Bannockbum. 

Durham 
Bruce,  M. ;  Lavalette 
Bruce,  com. ;  Lagos 
Brucher,  Antonio ;  coinage 
Bnidenell ;  trials,  1834 
Bmeys,  admL  ;  Nile 
Brunei,  I.  K. ;  steam  nayigation, 

Thames  tunnel 
Brunetto ;  beUet  leUru 
Bruno ;  Cologne,  turnery 
Brunswick,     duke    of;    killed, 

Quatre-bras 
Brunt,  Davidson,  Thistlewood, 
Ings,  and  Tidd ;  Oato-street 
Brutus,  Lucius  Junius  ;  consuls 
Brutus  and  CassiuB  ;  Philippi 
Bryan  Boiroimhe ;  harp,  Cloutarf 
Bubb;  opem-bouse 
Buccleuch,  duke  of;  adxninlatra- 

tioiis 
Buchan,  M. ;  Buchanites 
Buchan,  capt ;  N.W.  passage 
Buchanan,  J. ;  U.  States,  1866 
Buokhurst,   Thomas,  lord ;    ad* 

ministrations 
Buckingham,  Stafford,  duke  of ; 

lord  high  constable 
Buckingham,  Villiers,  duke  of; 
administrations,  dress,  mur- 
dered, England,  1688 
Buckingham,  duke  of :  cabal 
Buckingham,  Sheffield,  duke  of; 

Buckingham  House 
Bnckinghana,  duke  of;  adminis- 

trauons 
Buckingham,  duke  of;  duel 
Buckingham,    marquess     of ; 

Ireland,  lord-lieutonant 
RiiftktnghRinahira,  earl   of;   ad- 
ministrations 
Bufidmaco;  caricatures 
Buffon ;  dog,  geology 
Bularchua;  pictures 
Bulkeley,  bishop ;  Bangor 
Bunn,  Mr.  AlfVed;  theatres 
Bun3ran ;  allegory 
Burbage,  James;  plays,  drama, 

English 
Burdett,    sir     F. ;    duel,    riots, 

trial,  1820 
Burdock,  Mary  Ann ;  trials,  1885 
Burdon,  Mr.,  murdered;  trials, 

1841 
Butigh,  Hubert  de ;  Whitehall 
Buigoyne,  gen. ;  Saratoga 
Burgundy,  duke  of;  R<nbaoh 
Burke,  Edmund ;  administration, 

Canada,  Junius 
Burleigh,  lord :  administrations 
Bumes,  sir  Alexander,  murdered, 

India 
Burnet,  Dr.  ;  antediluvians 
Burr,  colonel:  duel 
Bury,  Richard  de;  librariea 
Bute,  earl  of ;  administrations 
Buttevant,  viscount ;  viscounts 
Butler,  sir  Toby;  limerick 
Butler,  capt ;  Silistria 
Butt.  Mr. ;  trials.  1817 
Button,  sir  Thomas ;  N.W.  passage 
Buxton.  Mr. ;  trials,  1829 
Buxton,  sir  T.  F. ;  prisons 
Byng,  admiral ;  Qibraltar 
Byrne,  Miss ;  riot 
Byron ;  commodore 
Byron ;  port  Egmont 
Bsnron,  lord ;  Greece 
Bysse,  Dr. ;  musical  festivals 


C. 


Cabot,      Sebastian ;      America, 

Carolina,  Canada 
Cabml,  Alvarez  de  ;  Brazil 
Cabrera,  Carlist  general ;  Spain, 

1840 
Cade,  Jack ;  London,  Blaekheatb 
Cadmus ;  alphabet,  Bceotia 
Cadogan,  capt. ;  duel 
Cadwallader;  Britain 
Cadwgan;  Wales 
Cieeilius   Isidorus ;     slavery  in 

Rome 
Caesar  Julius  ;  Albion,  bissextile, 
ides.  Dover,  Pharsalia,  Zela 
Caesar,  Ootavius;  Actium,  mas- 
sacres, Phillpfd,  Rome,  em- 
peror 
Ciesalpiiuis ;  blood,  circulation 
Cailau;  Down 
Calaphilus ;  Wandering  Jew 
Calcraft  Mr. ;  theatres 
Calder,  sir  Robert ;  Ferrol 
Calepini :  dictionaries 
Calhoun,  Mr. ;  temperance  soe. 
Caligula  ;  Rome 
Calippus;  Calippic  period 
Galixtus,  pope ;  Cahxtins 
CallScratus;  calligraphy 
Callimachus ;   architecture,    Co- 
rinthian 
Callinlcus ;  Greek  fire,  wildfire 
Callisthenes ;  Chaldean,  Maoedon 
Oalonne;  notables  of  Erance 
Calthorpe,  lord ;  Birmingham 
Calverly,  Hugh ;  pressing  to  death 
Calvert  t  Co. ;  porter 
Calvin,  John ;  Oalvinism,  Dort 
Cambao^ite ;  directory,  French 
Cambyces;  Egypt 
Camden,  lord ;  lord  chancellor 
Camden,    earl    and    marquess ; 
administrations,  exchequer, 
Ireland,  lord-lteut. 
Camelford,  lord ;  duel 
Campbell,  lord ;  administrations, 
attorney-general,  lord  chan. 
ofIrelan<^  lord  chief  Justice 
Campbell,  m^jor  ;  trials,  lb08 
Campbell,  capt.;  marriagesforced 
Canuing,    George ;    acuninistra- 
tions,    duel,     grammarians, 
king's  speech 
Canning,  vise.  ;  administrations 
Cantillou,  wills  (Napoleon's) 
Canton,  J. ;    phosphorus,  msg- 

netism 
Canute ;  Alney 
Capel,  H  ;  admiralty 
Capet  family ;  France 
Capo    d'Istria,    count ;    Greece, 

burying 
Car,  the  king ;  augury 
Caracalla ;  Alemauni 
Coractacus;  Britain 
Caraffii,  bishop ;  Theatines 
Caranus;  Maoedon 
Carausitu ;  Britain 
Cardigan,  lord  ;  duel,  trials,  1841 ; 

Balaklava 
Carden,  Mr. ;  trials,  1864 
Cardwell,  right  hon.   Edward  ; 

administrations 
Carew,  sir  B.  H. ;  Rosas 
Carleton,  lord ;  administrations 
Carleton,  sir  Guy ;  U.  States 
Carlile  ;  atheist,  1819,  1831 
Carlisle,    earis    of;    administra- 
tions, Ireland 


Carlos,  Don;  Spain 
Carmarthen,  marquess  of ;  admi- 
nistrations 
Csroline,    queen    (Geoi^    II.)  ; 

parks 
CarcMine,   queen   (George    lY. ) ; 

Brandenburg-hoose,  delicate 

investigation 
C!arpenter,  general ;  Preston 
Oarr,  Holwell ;  National  Gallery 
Castaixa,  rev.  W. ;  thumbscrew 
Carter,  Richard ;  alchemy 
Carteret,  lord ;  administrationa 
Carteret ;  cireumnavigator 
(^uteret,  lord ;  administratlooa 
Carthage.  St. ;  Lismore 
Cartwrigfat,  nurfor ;  trials,  1820 
Garvilius,  Spurfus ;  divorces 
Oashin,  Miss ;  quaekery 
Cashman;  Spa-fields 
Cassimir;  Poland 
Cassander;  Maoedon 
OsMibelaunus ;  ehariota 
Gassiui,    astronomy ;     Bologiiay 

latitude,  Saturn 
Cassius;  Philippi 
Oastanos;  Spain 
Castel,  M. ;  Dartmouth 
Castlereagh,    lord :    administnt* 

tions,  duel,  union 
Gatesby,     Robert ;    gunpowder 

plot 
Cathcart,  lord ;  Copenhagen 
Cathcart,  general  ;  Kaflniria 
Catherine,  queen  (Charies  IT.) 
Catherine,  queen  (Henry  V.) 
Catherine,  queen  (Henry  YIIT.) 
Catherine  Howard,  queen  (Hetiry 

VIII.) 

Catherine  of  Russia;  Odeas^ 
Bobastopol 

Catullus ;  Gmbri 

Caulainoourt ;  Chatlllon 

Cautley.  sir  P. ;  Ganges 

Oavaigiiac,  general ;  France^  1648 

Cavalero^  BmiUo  de ;  opexm^  ra> 
dtative 

Cavanagh;  abstinenoe 

Cavenagh,  archdn. ;  Leighlin 

Cavendish ;  drcumnavi^tor 

Cavendish,  H. ;  aerooaatics,  elee- 
trlci^,  chemistrr 

Cavendiah;  nitric  add 

Cavendish,  col. ;  Lincoln 

Cavendish,  John  de ;  Judges 

Cavendish,  lord  JcAok ;  adminis- 
trations 

Caxton,  Wm. ;  printing 

Caylus,  count ;  painting 

Cedl,  sir  Wm. ;  administratloos 

Cecil,  lieut  ;  duel 

Cedl,  hon.  Rob. ;  administntlaBs 

CedUa,  St. ;  music 

Cecrops;  Athens 

Celeste,  madame ;  iheatns 

Celsus ;  midwifery,  ftc 

Cerdicus;  West  Saxon%  Garia* 
brook 

Geres;  com 

Cerinthus ;  apocalypse 

Chad,  St.  ;  baths 

Challoner,  T. ;  alum 

Chamber,  bishop ;  Peteiterooffh 

Chambem;  eneyclopgedla 

Chambora,  sir  WiUkm  ;  Bomei^ 
set-house 

Chang  and  Eng;  Siamese 

Changamier,  general ;  Fiaiuw 

Chappe,  M. ;  telegraphs 

Chares  of  lindus;  oolossos 

Charlemagne ;  academy,  oourietv. 


INDEX. 


726 


eagle,  France,Qenxuuiy,  Italy, 
Alx-le-cbapelle 

Charles  I.  ;  Ex^Iuud 

Charles  II. ;  England 

Charles  III. ;    Uermany,  axmo 
domini 

Charles  IV. ;  golden  bull 

Charles  IV. ;  Spain 

Charles  V. ;  AuBtria»  Germany, 
Spires 

Charles  V. ;  France ;  Baatile 

Chiirlea  VI. ;  Sicily 

Charles  VI. ;  France ;  picquet 

Charles  IX.  ;  France 

Charles  X. ;  France 

Charles  XII. ;  Sweden 

Charles  XIII. ;  Norway 

Charles,  archdake ;  Asperue,  Eck- 
mohL  Essling 

Charles  of  Anjou ;  Naples 

Charles  of  Lorraine ;  Lissa 

Charles  Emmanuel ;  Savoy 

Charles  Martel ;  mayor 

Charles  Stuart,  prince  ;  Culloden 

Charlotte,  queen  (Oeozge  III.) 

Charlotte,    princess    of   Wales; 
daremont 

Charteria,  ool. ;  trials,  1780 
Cbass^,  general ;  Antwerp 
Chatham,  earl  of;    administra- 
tions. Flushing,  Walcheren 
Chares,  marquess  (kT  ;  Portugal 
Cheevers,  Wm. ;  lord  treaburer 
Cherres ;  plagues  of  Egypt 
Chesham,  Sarah ;  trials,  1851 
Cheehire  rioters  ;  trial,  1842 
Chicheley,  sir  Thos. ;   adminis- 
trations 
Ching  Noung ;  China^  wine 
Chladni;  acoustics 
Cholmondeley,   general ;    horse- 
guards 
Chrislina;  virgin 
ChrisUao;  Deumark 
ChristLm;  Sweden 
Christina;  Spain 
Christophe ;  Bayti 
Christiipher,   Robt.  Adam ;   ad- 
ministrations 
Chulkhurat  (sisters) ;  Biddeuden 

tnaid^ 
Churchill,  C. ;  satires 
Cibber,  Colley ;  Inureate 
Cicero ;  Catiline,  Philipnics,  Rome 
Ciemond,  the  Fair ;  grist-mill 
Cimon;  Eurymedon 
Cinna,  895 

Clanny,  Dr.  Reid  ;  safety  lamp 
Clanricarde,  marq.  of;  adminis- 

tmtions 
Clare,  earl  of;  duel 
Clare,  earl  of;  lord  chaucellor 
Clarence^  duke  of ;  admiralty 
Clarence,  duke  of;  AnJou 
Clarence,  duke  of ;  Clarencieux 
Clarence   and   Warwick;   rebel- 
lions 
Clarendon,   Henry,  earl  of;  ad- 
ministrations 
Clarendon,  Hyde,  earl  of 
Clarendon,  earl  of ;  Aberdeen 
Clarke,  M.  A. ;  trials,  1814 
Clarke,  genend ;  Cape 
Clarkson,  Thomas ;  sLarery 
Claudiau;  archery 
Claudius ;  Rome,  Britain 
Claudius,     Appius ;     decemviri, 

Virginia 
Clausel,  marshal ;  Algfera 
Clauasen,  Chev. ;  flax 
Clay,  Mr. ;  slavery,  U.S. 
Clayton,  Mr. ;  duel 
Clayton,  Dr. ;  gas 


Cleisthenes;  ostradam 
Clemens  Romanua ;  Clementines 
Clement  IV. ;  conclave 
Clement  VII. ;  pontiff  benefiooe, 

Clementines 
Clement  VIII. ;  pontiff^  index 
Clement,  Jacques ;  Fnmoe 
Clement,  Julian ;  midwifery 
Cleombrotus ;  Sparta 
Cleomenes;  Sparta 
Cleopatra,  queen;   Egypt,  rose, 

Syria 
Clifford,  lord ;  Roman  Gtttholics 
Clifford,  sir  Thomas ;  afterwards 

lord ;  cabal 
Clmton,  sir  Henry ;  York  town 
Clinton,  Edward,  lord ;  adminis- 
trations 
Clinton,  Geoffrey  de;  Kenilworth 
Clive,  lord;  Arcot^  India,  Plas- 

sey 
Cloncurry,  lord,  v.  Piers ;  trials, 

1807 
Close,  Mr. ;  duel 
Clothaire;  France 
Clovis;    France,    Paris,    Clovls, 

Saiique,>l<-ur-d«-{i«,  Alemanni 
CItme,  Ac. ;  trials,  1830 
Glymer;  press 
Cobbett,  William ;   trials,    1809, 

1811,  1831 
Cobden,    Mr.  ;     Auti-com-law 

league,  peace  congress 
Cobham,  lord ;  roasting  alive 
Coburg,  prince  of :  Fleurus 
Cocceiufl,  John ;  Cocceians 
Cochrane,   lord  ;    Basque  roads, 

stock  fraud,  tiials,  1814 
Cochrane,  sir  A.  ;  Basseterre 
Cocking,  Mr. ;  balloons 
Codriugton,  adml. ;  Navarino 
Codrus;  Athens 
Coel ;  Britain 

Coffin,  capt. :  Siamese  twins 
Coke.  Dr. ;  niethodists 
Coke,  sir  John  ;  administrations 
Coke,  sir  Edward :  parliaments 
Colbert,  Mona  ;  tapestry 
Colbome,  sir  John  ;  Canada 
Colelough,  Mr. ;  duel 
Coleman,  St. ;  Cloyne,  Dromore, 

Rilmaoduach 
Coleman.  Mrs. ;  actresses 
Collard,  rear-admiral ;  suicide 
Collard;  piano-fortes 
ColUngwood,     lord ;     Trafalgar, 

naval  battles  (1809) 
Collins,  govr. ;  Hobart  Town 
Collinson.  capt. ;  Franklin 
Colman,  Mr. ;  theatres 
Colpoys,  admiral ;  mutineer 
Columhn,  St. ;  isles 
Columbiere ;  armorial  bearings 
Culimibus ;    America,    Baltama, 

Caracois,  St.  Domingo 
Columbus.  £^i-tbolomew ;  maps 
Colvillo,  sir  Charles  ;  Cambray 
Combe,  Delafield,  &  Co. 
Combermere,  lord ;  India 
Comniodus,  emperor;  December, 

Rome 
Comnenus ;  Eastern  empire 
(Tomnenus.     Angelus ;     Angelic 

knights 
Comnenus.  Alexis ;  Pontus 
Comvn,  Mr. ;  trials,  1880 
Conad,  Louis ;  Jamao 
C<>uflaus;  (^iberon 
Constans;  AouHeia 
Gonf^idus;  Cnina 
Congallus;  Scotland 
Congleton;  suidde 
Congreve,  six  Wm. ;  fireworks 


Gonon;  Sparta 

Conrad;  Germany 

Conrad  II. ;  Germany,  Burgundy 

Conradiu;  Naples 

Constantino ;    Scotland,    Brun- 

hards 
Constantino ;    Adrianople,   arus- 
picea.  banner,  Britain,  East- 
ern empire,  Rome,  York 
Constantine  II. ;  Aquileia 
Coustautine  XIII. ;  Eastern  em- 
pire 
Constantine  lY. ;  monasteries 
Constantius :  Rome 
Conway,    Edward ;    administra- 

tiuus 
Conway,  hon.  Henry  Seymour; 

administrations 
Cook.   capt. ;   Axistralia,    Cook's 
voyages,  Bo:any  Bay,  Flat- 
tery  Cape,    New   Hebrides, 
New  Zealand,  Norfolk  Island, 
Otaheite,     Owhyhee,     Port 
Jackson 
Cook,  capt. ;  KetU  Indiaman 
Cook,  Dr. ;  Scotland 
Cuok,  Mra.. murdered;  trials,  1841 
Cook.  J.  P.,  murdered ;  trials,  186tf 
Cooke,  sir  George ;  Chatham 
Cooke,  Elis.  ;  trials,  1882 
Cooke,  Geo.  Fred. ;  theatres 
Cooper,  Mr. ;  slave  trade 
Cooper :  trials,  1842 
Cooper ;  Hackney  monster.  1805 
Coote,  sir  Eyre ;   India,  Aroot, 

Camatic,  Cuddalore 
Cope,  sir  John;  Preston-pans 
Cofiemicus;   astronomy,  attrac- 
tion, solar  system 
Coram ;  Foundhng  Hospital 
Corbred;  Scotland 
Corday,  Charlotte ;  France 
Corder,  Wm. ;  trials,  18*28 
Corin ;  libertines 
CorinUiian  maid ;  models 
Coriolanus ;  Rome 
Cormac;  Cashel 
Cornelia  Maximiliana ;  vestals 
Cornelius;  Spitsbergen 
Comhlll,  Henry  ;  sheriff 
Cornwall ;  naval  battles 
Comwollis,     lord ;      admiralty, 

America 
Comwallis,      marquis ;      India, 
America,  Bangalore,  IreLiud 
Od.-lieut),  Seringapatam 
Coroebus ;  Olympiads 
Coropas ;  dwarf 
Corry ;  duel 
Cort,  H. ;  iron 

Cortereal ;  north-west  passage 
Cortes;  Mexico 
Coryate,  Thomas ;  forks 
Corselles;  Rome 
Cosmo  I.  ;  Port  Fem^o 
Cottetiham,    lord ;    administra 

tions,  Russell 
Cotter;  giants 
Cottington ;  administrations 
Cotton,  R.  ;  Cottotilun  library 
Cotton,  sirStapleton ;  Villa  fiYanca 
Couling.  W.  ;  agriculture 
Coulomb^  electridty 
Courcy,  str  John  de 
Courtanvaux ;  ether 
Courteuay ;  Canterbury,  Thomites 
Courtenay,  sir  Wm. ;  ISxeter 
Courtois,  M.  de :  iodine 
Courvoisier;  trials,  1840 
Coutt^  Miss ;  trials,  1847 
Coventry,  sir  John ;  Coven  txy  act 
Coventry,  rt.  hon.    sir  Henry  ; 
administrations 


726 


INDEX. 


CoTcntry,  sir  Thomas,  altarwardfl 
lord ;  administrations 

Coverdolo ;  Bible 

Cowper,  lord ;  administrations 

Cowper,  B.  ;  (vintiug  machine 

Cox  ;  lotteries 

Cux,  bishop ;  Bible 

Cox,  Walter ;  trials,  1811 

Coy>e,  Mr.  Bernard  ;  duel 

(^88^  ft*  bon.  Mr. ;  adminis- 
tnttions 

Cramptou,  Mr. ;  Un.  States,  166C 

Crane,  sir  Fi-ancis ;  tapestry 

Crautielii,  Lionel,  lord ;  adminis- 
trations 

Cranmer;  administrationfl,  Cran- 
mer,  homilie^  martyrdom 

Gran  worth,  lord;  lord  ohaucellor, 
lord  justice 

Crassus,  Marcus ;  OTation 

Cruterus;  Cmnon 

Crawfurd.  earlof;  Brechin 

Crawley,  Mr. ;  trials,  1803 

Crawley.  Mr. ;  steel 

Crellin,  Miss ;  trials,  1848 

Crespiguv,  Mr.  ;  duel 

Cnllun,  due  de ;  Oibrnltar 

Crispiauus.  St. ;  Crispin 

Crockatt,  Miss,  v.  Dick;  trials, 
1S18 

Crceeus;  Lydia 

Croft;  impostors 

Croft*  sir  Richard  ;  saicide 

Crofts.  Mr. ;  dwarfs 

CrolUus;  ailomel 

Cnimptou,  Mr. ;  cotton 

Cromwell,  Oliver ;  administra- 
tions, agitators,  common- 
wealth, England,  Drogbeda, 
mace,  Ireland,  MarstonMoor, 
Naseby,  Worcester 

Cromwell,  Richard;  administra- 
tions, England 

Cromwell,  lord  Essex  ;  adminis- 
trations, registers 

Crosbie,  sir  Edward ;  trial,  1798 

Cross,  E. ;  Surrey  gardens 

Crouch ;  trials,  1844 

Crowther,  Ueut. ;  duel 

Crozier,  eapt. ;  N.-W.  passage 

Cruden ;  Concordance 

Cruikshank  ;  wood-engraving 

Ctesias;  history 

Ctesibius ;  clock,  organ,  pump 

Ctesiphon ;  Ephesus 

Cubitt,  Mr.  ;  treadmill 

Cumberland,  duke  of;  Closter- 
Mvcn,  Culloden,  Fonteuoy 

Cummiug  v.  lord  de  Roos ;  trial, 
1837 

Curio;  amnhitheatrea 

Curran,  John  Philpot ;  duel 

Cursor,  Pnpirius ;  dials 

Curtius,  Marcus ;  earthquakes 

Cuthbert,  St.  ;  Carlisle 

Cuthbort,  copt.  ;  duel 

Cuthbertv.  Browne;  trial,  1829 

Cuvier ;  zoology 

CyriacuA ;  Abruhamites 

Cyrus  the  Great ;  Cyprus,  Jeru- 
salem, Media,  Persia 

Cyrus  the  yomiger ;  Xcuophon 

Cserni,  Qeorgo;  Qreece 


D. 

Bftcler ;  Delphin  classics 
D'Abriucis ;  palatiue 
Dtedalus ;  labyrinth,  axe 
Diigobert ;  St.  Denis 
Daguerre^  M. ;  photography 


Dahl,  professor :  dahllaa 
D'Alembert;  acoustics 
Dalhousie,  earl  of;   administra- 
tions^ India 
Dalmas,  A. :  trials,  1844 
Daliuatia.  duke  of ;  Soult 
Dalrymple,  sir  Hew ;  Cintrs 
Daniasus;  pontiff,  crown,  pope, 

tiam 
Damnoui,  the;  Ireland 
Datnpier;  circumnavigator 
Damremtiut,   marshal;    Algiers, 

Constautia 
Danaus ;  Greece,  ship 
Danby,  earl  of ;  administrations 
Dauby,  earl  of;  physic  garden 
Dangerfield ;  mMl-tub  plot 
Daniel ;  Jerusalem 
Daniel,  H. ;  poet-ltiureate 
Danuonberg,  gen. ;  Oltenitxa 
Uarbon  «.  Kosser ;  trials,  1841 
D'Arcon,  M.  ;  Gibraltar 
Dardanus,  IViam 
Darg:u),    Mr. ;    Ireland,    Dublin 

exhibition 
Darius ;  Peraia,  Greece 
Darling,  Grace ;  Forfarshire 
Darmes;  France  (184i') 
Damley,  lord ;  S<H>tland 
Dartmouth,  eari  of;  administra- 
tions 
Dartmouth,    Georg«,    earl    of; 

administrations 
Daahwood,  sir  Francis ;  adminis- 

tratious 
Dathy,  Achonry 
Daun,      count ;      Hochkirchen, 

Torgau 
Davenant^    air    Wm.  ;     dxwn% 

opera 
Davenport,  Miss ;  theatres 
David.  St. ;  St  David's 
David ;  haip,  Jerusalem 
David,  George ;  impostors 
David  I. ;  Scotland,  Carlisle 
Davidge,  Mr. ;  theatres 
Davidson,  D. ;  trials,  1856 
Davis,  Mr. ;  China 
Davis ;  N.-W.  passage,  qoadrant 
Davis  and  Sandya  bishops ;  Bible 
Davoust,  marshal ;  Krasnoi,  Mo- 

hilow,  Jena 
DavT,    sir    Humphiy ;    safety- 
lamp,     Royal     instituiion, 
phosphorus 
Da^ins;  Palmyra 
Day.  Mr.  ;  Faii-Iop  fair 
;  Deade V.Bingham;  Baring, trials, 
I83I 
Deane.  admL  ;  naval  battles 
De  Brosses ;  AnstralaKia 
De  Burgh.  Hubert;  Whitehall 
Do  Courcy.  baion  ;  peers 
Dee  ;  astrology,  Juau,  plague 
De  Foe,  Daniel 
De  Foix,  Gaston  ;  Ravenna 
De  Grtisse,  adml. ;   Chesapeake, 

naval  battles,  Tobago 
De  Grvy,  earl;  administrations, 

Ireland,  lord-lieutenant 
De  Haven ;  Franklin 
De  la  Clue,  admiral ;  l^igos 
De  la  Mere,  lord ;  administratloos 
De  la  Hue  ;  trials,  1846 
Do  la  Warr,  lord ;  America 
De  Leesops,  M.  ;  Sues 
De  Louudrea,  Henry ;  Dublin 
D'Estaign,    count ;     Benooolen, 

Georgia 
D'F^torre.  Mr.  ;  duel 
D'Etrees,  adml. :  Texel 
Demetrius;  Athens 
Demetrius;  Macedon 


Demetrius;  imp:)stors 
Demetrius  Nicaunr; 
Demetrius;  Rw«ia 
Demodocus ;  banls 
Dt;moBthcike« ;  Philippics 
Denis,  M.  ;  tran8f\iBaoa 
Denison,  archdeacon ;  trials,  1856 
Denison,  E.  B.  ;  bells 
Duuison,  J.  E  ;  speaker 
Denman,  lord;  att.-gen.,  king's 

bench 
Denmark,  prince  Gr^onre  ;  admi- 
ralty, queens  (Anue) 
Denny,  J. ;  tiiala,  1861 
Derby,  earl  of;  adniinistrmUons 
Derby,  earl  of;  Man,  Wigan 
Derby,  ouuutess  of;  theatrsa 
Derham ;  sound 
De  Rooa,  lord,  v.Ciunming;  triaU, 

1837 
De   Ruyter,   adml. ;    Chathaan, 

Texel 
Derwentwater,  earl  of;   Green- 

wioh 
Des    Cartes^    Rentf ;    cuteaian, 

ndubow 
Deseharges;  ship-buttdlng 
Desmona;  Ireland 
Despard,  ooL  ;  conspiracies,  De»- 

|iard 
Desaaix,  general ;  Marengo 
Deasalines ;  Bt.  Domingo^  Hayti 
Deucalion ;  delude 
De  Veres,  earls  of  Oxford  ;  Id.  gt. 

chamberlain,  marquess 
De  Vere,  Robert,  duke 
Deviiine,  Henrique;  billiards 
Deville.  M.  St.  Claire ;  alumininm 
Devoiiniiire,  duke  of;   adnunis- 

trations 
Do  Winter,  adml.  ;  Oamx>erdown 
De  Witt ;  chain.  Hogue 
Di  Bardi,  Donate ;  Mulptura 
Dibdin;  baUads 
Dibutadea;  models 
Dick,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1818 
Dickinson,  capt.  ;  trials,  18S9 
Dido,  {meen ;  Carthage 
Didot,  Frnnds;  sterootype 
Didot,  M. ;  paper-making 
Diebitsch,  general ;  Balkan,  Zali- 

chow 
Dieabach;  prossicadd 
DIgby,  sir  Evened ;  gunpowder 

plot,  optics 
Digges»  I^eonani ;  telesoopes 
Dillon,  Mr.  Luke  ;  trials,  18S1 
DlUou,  col.  Gamit ;  Limerick 
Dirosrlalc,  I^  ;  small-pox 
Diocletian:  Rome 
Diodorus  Siculus ;  Etna 
Diogenes;  anthropophagi 
Diouyaius;   Portugal,  anno  do- 

minl 
Dionvtiins ;  Sicily,  eatapultse 
Diophantus ;-  algeb«a 
DipR»uuM ;  sculpture,  marble 
Disraeli,  B. ;  administratJonB 
Diver,  Jenny  ;  trials,  1740 
Dixon,  eapt ;  Apalto  frigate 
Dockwra,  Mr.  ;  penny-po«t 
Do(id,  Mr. ;  steam  engine 
Dodd,  Mr.  G.  ;  Waterloo-bridge 
Dodd,  Dr. ;   Magdalene,  foigery, 

trials,  1777 
Doge  of  Venice ;  Adriatic 
DoUond;  teleacopes,  optica 
D^^roinic,  St. ;  Duminicaua 
Dom  Miguel ;  Portugal 
Donald,  lord  of  the  Isles ;  Harlaw 
Donald ;  Scotland 
Dunato  di  Bardi ;  scnJ^turv 
Donatua;  Donatiata 


INDEX. 


727 


DonCarloe;  Spaia 

Dunkin,  dr  Rufifme  8. ;  Buioido 

Donn;  Leighlin 

Dorey.  0«orgiaDA ;  trialB»  1844 

Dormer,  lord ;  Roman  Catholics 

Dorsetp  Edward,  earl  of;  admi- 
niatiations 

Dorset,  duke  of;  administrations 

D'Orvi  tilers,  count  de,  Ushant 

Dost  Mahomed ;  India 

Douglas,  earl  of :  Humelden 

Douglas,  sir  Johu;  delicate  In- 
vestigation 

Douglas,  sir  Wm. ;  Otterbum 

Dove,  W. ;  trixtls,  1856 

Dowdeswoll,  right  hon.  William  ; 
administrations 

Dowton,  Mr. ;  theatrse 

Doyle,  sir  John ;  Portugal 

Doyle,  J. ;  caricatures 

Doyle  V.  Wright;  trials,  1851 

Draco;  laws,  Draco 

Dralce,  sir  Francis;  Armada, 
Cadis,  California^  circumna- 
vigation, his  ship;  Drake's 
circumnavigation,  Deptford, 
New  Albion,  Armada 

Drebel ;  optics,  microscope,  ther- 
mometer 

Drochet ;  tticilian  Vespers 

Drouet;  Vareunes 

Drummond,  gen. ;  Cbippawa 

Dioimmoud,  Mr.;  murdered.tnals, 
1843 

Dryden;  poet-lauroate 

Duboscf},  M. ;  electricity 

DubriUu%  St. ;  LUudatf 

Du  Cauge ;  locks 

Ducas,  admiral ;  Saldanha 

Du  Casso,  admiral ;  Carthagena 

Duckworth,  sir  Juhu;  Daixia- 
nelles 

Ducruw,  Mr.  ;  theatres 

Dudley,  earl  of  Leicester ;  admi- 
nistrations 

Dudley,  lord ;  administrations 

Duell,  Wm.;  triala,  1740 

Dtifaye;  eleutricity 

Duff,  captain;  triius,  1811 

Dugdale;  parliaments 

Duggan,  Wm.;  trials,  1832 

Du  Uuesclin,  a. ;  Montiel 

Dumouries,  gen. ;  Jemmappes 

Dun,  John;  bailiff 

Duncan  I. ;  Scotland 

Duncan,  admiral,  lord ;  Camper- 
down,  Texel 

Duncannon,  visoount;  adminis- 
trations 

Dtmcombe,  sir  Francis;  sedan- 
chairs 

Dundiis,  Henry ;  savings'  banks 

Dtmdas,  rt.  hon.  Henry;  adminis- 
trations 

Dundas,  sir  David;  commander- 
in-chief 

Dunda.s,  ffoneml ;  Kiloullen 

Dundas,  liout.-col.  ;  Preac*jit 

Dundiis,  mi^or ;  trials,  1831 

Dundas,  sir  R. ;  Baltic 

Duudee,  Graham,  viscount ;  Kil- 

Dunn,  Richard;  trials,  1847 
Dunning,  Mr.  ;  Junius 
Dunstau ;  England,  coronation 
Duns  8cotus ;  burying  alive 
Dupetit-Tbouars ;  Oiaheite 
Dupont;  Bavlen 
Dunt.9,  Charles ;  Himgafy 
Durazzo,  Cliarles;  Naples 
Durer;  engraving 
Durham,  earl ;  administrations 
Durham,  lord;  Canada 


Durham,    William ;     Univerrity 

College 
D'Usson,  general ;  Limeriok 
Du  Val,  Claude ;  robbers 
Uwyer;  trials,  1843 
Dyer,  Mr.  Hamuel ;  Junius 
Dymocke  fiunily;  championship 


ESadbald;  convents 

Baton,  Daniel  Isaac ;  trials,  1796, 

1812 
Ebba ;  Coldingham,  charitv 

E^skmuhl,  prince  oC.    See  Aivoud 

E«iau,  HL  ;  Ferns 

Edgfar,  rev.  Mr. ;  temperance 

Edmuad,  St ;  Burv  St.  Edmund's 

Edmund     Ironside ;     England, 
Alney 

Ed  ward  the  Confessor;  Danegeld, 
Eneland 

Edward  the  Martyr ;  England 

Edward  L ;  England,  Lewes,  Scot- 
land 

Edward  II. ;  England,  59 

Edward  III. ;   England,  Cressy, 
Sluys,  Garter 

Edward  IV.  ;  England,  Bamet, 
Tewkesbury,  Towton 

Eiward  V. ;  England 

Edward  VI. ;  England,  age, 
Christ's  hospital 

Edward,  Black  Frinoe;  duke, 
Cressy,  Poitien^  England 

Edwardes,  lieut. ;  India 

Edwardes,  Mr. ;  coffee-houses 

Edwy:  England 

Egan,  Mr. ;  trials.  1843 

Egbert ;  Kigland,  king 

Egorton,  Mr. ;  theatres 

Egertou,  Mrs. ;  Frogmore 

Egerton,  sir  Thomas ;  lord  ehan. 

Eglinton,  earl  of ;  Ireland,  lord- 
Ueutenant;  tournament 

Egmont»  lord ;  administrations 

Egremontk  earl  of;  administra- 
tions 

Effvptus;  Egvpt 

Elaon,  lord ;  lord  chancellor,  ad- 
ministrations 

Eleanor,  queen  (Edward  I.) 

Eleanor,  queen  ?Henry  II.) 

Eleanor,  queen  (Henry  III.) 

Eleanor ;  JBordeauz 

Electryon;  Mycenao 

Elgin,  lord;  Elgin  marbles 

Elgin,  lord,  v.  Ferguson ;  trials, 
1807 

Eiyah;  Jews 

Elizabeth,  queen  (regnant)  ;  Eng- 
land, goose,  poor  laws,  Rich- 
mond 

Elizabeth,  Grey,  queen  (Edward 
IV.) 

Elizabeth,  queen  (Henrv  VII.) 

Eliziibeth ;  France,  trials,  1794 

Elizftbeth;  roses 

Elkington ;  gilding,  electrotype 

Ella;  Northumbria 

Ellice,  rt.  hon.  E. ;  administra- 
tions 

Ellenborough,  lord ;  attomey- 
genera^  king's  bench,  deli- 
cate investigation 

Ellenborough,  lord ;  administra- 
tions, iuiiia 

Ellesmere.  Thomas,  lord  ;  admi- 
nistmtions,  lord  chaucellota 

Elliot,  capttiiu ;  China 

Elliot^  general ;  Gibraltar 


Elliot^sir  OUbert ;  administrations 
Elliston,  Mr. ;  theatres 
Ellis,  Welbore;  Grey's  adminis- 
tration 
Elphiustone ;  Oape  of  Good  Hope, 

Saldanha 
Elsyuge,  William ;  Sion  College 
Elton.  Mr. ;  theatres 
Emmett.  Robert ;  rebellions,  con- 
spiracies, trials,  1803 
Emmett ;  Prm  newspajier 
Empedoeles;  suicide 
Engtuen,  duke  of 
England,  general;  India 
Eunius,  the  poet ;  stenography 
Enoch ;  translation 
Entiuopus:  Venice 
Epaminondas  ;     Leuctra,    Man- 
tinea,  Sparta 
Ephlaltos;  Tbermopyla 
Epicurus;  Athens 
Epimenides;  sleep 
Epiphanixis,  St. ;  abstinence 
Bpitus;  Arcadia 
Erasistratus :  anatomy 
Erasmus;   Greek  language,  Re- 
formation 
Eratosthenes ;     degree,     Diana, 

armillary  sphere 
Erchenwin ;  East  Saxons 
Erechtheus ;  Athens 
Eric;  Sweden 
Ericsson ;  caloric  ship 
Ericthonius;  Troy,  car 
Emley,  sir  Job ;  administrations 
ErroU,  earls  of:    lord  high  con- 
stable of  Scotland 
Erskine,  lord;   lord  chancellor, 

administrations 
Erskine,  gen. ;  In<iia 
Eapartero ;  Bilboa,  Spain 
EleMiez,  earl  of ;  administrations 
Eaaex,  earl  of;  Newbury 
Essex,  Devereux,  earl  of;  Eng- 
land 
Essex,  lord ;  Abingdon 
Este,  sir  Augustus  d' ;   marriage 

ac^  roy^ 
Este,  Frauds,  archduke  of;  Mo- 

dena 
Estrix,  John  de ;  dwarf 
Ethelbert ;  England,  Canterbury 
Etheldra,  Ely 
Ethelred  ;   England,  coronation 

feast,  Dane-geld 
Ethersey,  commodore ;  suicide 
Ethodius;  Scotland 
Eu,  William,  earl  of;  combat 
Euler;  acoustics 
Euchidas ;  pedestrianism 
Eudoxia;  Rome 
Eugenius;  Scotland 
Eugene,  prince ;  Belgrade,  Turin, 

Zeuta 
Eug^nie,'empre8s ;  France,  1853 
Eugenius ;  Aquileia 
Eumelus ;  Bosphorus 
Eumencs ;  parchment 
Eumolphus ;  Eleusiuian  myst. 
Eunan,  St. ;  Raphoe 
Euripides;  tra^dy 
Eurystoues ;  biarchy 
Eurystheus;  Mycena 
Eusden,  rev.  L. ;  poet  laurcat 
Eustachius;  thoracic  duct 
Enth:ilius ;  accents 
Evaldus,  bp.  ;  Argyle 
Evander ;  Circousian  games 
Evan%    gen.    de   Ltcy  ;    Spain, 

Irun,  St.  Sebastian 
Evelyn ;  horticulture,  lime-troe 
Evenus;  Scotland 
BxamituTf  the;  trials,  1812 


728 


INDEX. 


Exeter,  duke  of;  oonepirAciea 
Exeter,  duke  of;  reck 
Exmouth,  lord ;  AJgiere 
Eyre,  Jolm,  esq. ;  traaqtorted 
Biom;  Jenualem 


P. 


Fabiua,  Quintue ;  painting 

Ftichnan,  Bt,biaoop;  Kilfeoora, 
Roes 

Fahrenheit;  thermometer 

Fairbikim,  Mr. ;  engineer,  tubu- 
lar bridge 

Fair  Rosamond ;  Rosamond 

Fairfax;  Naseby 

Falck,  Dr. ;  the  steam-engine 

Faloonbridge ;  London 

Falkland,  yisoount ;  Newbury, 
admlralhr 

Falstaff,  sir  John;  taverns 

Fanoourt,  Samuel ;  circulating 
libraries 

Famday,  M. ;  Royal  Institu- 
tion, eleotridty,  magnetism, 
magneto-electricity,  wardian 


Farquhar,  Mr. ;  Fonthill  Abbey 

Farren,  Miss;  theatree 

FaUma^  daughter  of  Mahomet; 
Bophi 

Faulkner,  Oeo. ;  newspapers 

Fauntlerr.y,  H. ;  forK«ry 

Faust,  John ;  printing,  books 

Faustina;  October 

Faustulus ;  Alba 

Faux,  Ouy ;  gunpowder  plot 

Fawcett,  col. ;  duel 

Fawcett«  Mr. ;  theatres 

Fedorowits;  Russia 

Felix;  Norwich 

Felton  sssfts«inat4>B  Buoldugham ; 
Portsmouth 

Fanning,  Elisa;  axeoutions 

Ferdinand;  Austria 

Ferdinand;  Naples 

Ferdinand;  Portugal 

Ferdinand:  Sicily 

Ferdinand;  Spain 

Ferdinand;  Tuscany 

Ferdinand,  prince ;  Minden 

Fergtia ;  Scotland,  coronation 

Ferrers,  Dr  ;  St  David's 

Ferrers  and  Derby ;  Nottingham 

Ferrers,  earl;  trial,  1760 

Fleechi,  Franco 

Filhnore,  Millard ;  United  States 

Finnbar,  St ;  Cork 

Finch,  idr  John;  Id.  chancellor, 
administrations 

Finch,  D. ;  admiralty 

nndlator,  lord;  chancellor,  Scot- 
land 

Finiguerra;  enRraving 

Finian,  St. ;  Achonry 

Finnerty,    Peter;    trials,    1808, 
1811 

Finnts,  T. ;  lord  mayor 

Fisher,  bishOTt ;  administrations 

Fitcgerald,  H. ;  life  boat 

Fit^rald,  lord ;  atta'nder  act 

Fitcgerald,  lord,  v.  Mrs.  Clarke ; 
trials,  1814 

Fitigorsld  and  Vesey,  lord;  ad- 
ministrations 

Fitzherbert,  Mrs, ;  libeL 

Fits-Osbom ;  peers.  Justiciars 

Fitspatrick,  hon.   Richard;  ad- 
ministrations 

Fitspatrick,  Hugh;  trials,  1818 

Fitswaltsr,  Robert  de ;  Dunmow 


Fitswilliam,    earl ;    administra- 
tions, Ireland,  lord-lieut 
Flaminius;  Thrasymenus 
Flamsted;  astronomy,  Qroenwich 
Flannock;  rebelliniis 
Flavus,  Titus  IatUiu  ;  dictators 
Fletcher,  of  Saltoun;  ballads 
Fletcher,  will-forger ;  triaI^  18i4 
Flood,  Mr. ;  absentees 
Flood,  Warden ;  king^s  bench 
Florance,  Elia. ;  tri^  1822 
Floroventius,    Leonardius ;    an- 
thropophagi 
Fohi;  China 

Folengio,  Tbeop. ;  macaroni 
Follett,  sir  Wm. ;  att-gen. 
Folkestone,  lord ;  arts 
Footk  Ltmdy;  snuff 
Foots;  theatres 
Foote  V.  Hayne ;  trials,  1824 
Fori)es,  lord ;  horse-guards 
Forest,  Mr. ;  theatres 
Forster;  Prarton 
Forsyth,  cant ;  FMmklin 
Fortescue,  lord;  lord-Ueutenaat 

of  Ireland 
Fottrell,  capt ;  duel 
Foucault  M. ;  pendulum 
Fourdrinior,  M. ;  paper 
Fox    and    Henderson ;    ciystal 

palace 
Fox,  bishop  of  Winchester ;  ad- 
ministrations, privy  seal 
Fox,  Charles  Jamea;  duel,  ad- 
ministrations; India  bill 
Fox,  George ;  Quakers 
Fox,  rt  hon.  Henry;  adminis- 
trations 
Fox,  sir  Stephen ;  Chelsea 
Fox,  north-west  passage 
Franda,  Dr. ;  Parsguay 
Francis,  St ;  Cordelier|[ 
Francis  I. ;  Austria,  Gkn-inany 
Francis   I. ;     France,   duelling, 
cloth  of  gold,  Marignan,  lie, 
Pavia 
Francis  II. ;  Frsnoe,  SootUnd 
Francis;  Sicily 
Francis ;  trials,  184S 
Francis,  sir  Philip ;  Junius 
Francisco  d'Assia ;  Spain 
Franks,  Dr. ;  suicide 
Frankfort,  lord,  v.  Alice  Lowe ; 

trials,  1842 
Frankfort,  lord ;  trials,  1852 
Franklin,  B.;  electricity,  light- 
ning conductor 
Wanklin.  sir  John;  north-west 

pasaage^  search  for 
Pranks;  murdered;  trials,  1626 
Fraser,  gen. ;  Alexandria 
Fmser  v.  Bagley ;  trials,  1844 
Frosor,  Mr. ;  murdered,  India 
Frederick  I. ;  Prussia 
Frederick    II. ;      Hochklrchen, 

Torgau 
Frederick  III. ;  Prussia 
Frederick  IV. ;  Denmark,  globes 
Frederick  IV. ;  Nurembeiv 
Frederick  V. ;  Palatinate,  Prague 
Frederick,  prince;  Netherlands, 

Quesnoy 
Frederick-Wm. ;  Prussia 
Frederick-Augujstus ;       Poland, 

Alt-RauKtadt 
Frederick-Louis,  prince ;  England 
Fremont,  J.  C. ;  U.  States^  1850 
French,  col. ;  trials,  1820 
Freney ;  trials,  1749 
Friends ;  quakera 
Frivell,  Wm. ;  poet-office 
Frobisher,    sir   Martin;    north- 
west passage 


ForiU;  Spain 
Fromantil;  clocks 
Frost,  John ;  chartist  riota.  18S9 
Fuller,  J. ;  Royal  Institutioo 
Fuller,  Wm. ;  Ardfert 
Fulton;  stesm-eagine 
Furley,  Mary ;  trials.  1844 
Fumeanx.  capt ;  Adventure  Bi^, 
NawHoUand 


G. 


Oabara;  fiant 

Gabriel,  the  angel ;  annwnriatioo 

Qafnuius;  music 

Gage,  general;  Amerioa 

Game,  W. ;  paEohennt  paper 

Gale,  Uflut ;  balloons 

Gale,  Jones;  trials,  1811 

Gale,    Sarah,     and    Oreeoacre 
trials,  1BS7 

Galeaxio;  Milan 

Galen;  phyaic 

Galfacus;  Grampiana 

Galileo ;  acoustics,  aatreiMRny, 
falling  bodies,  harmooic 
curve,  ice,  iugxiiaitioa,  pla- 
nets, the  sun,  teleaoopca 

Galien;  balloons 

Gall;  CTuniology 

Galle,  Dr. ;  Neptune 

Gallienus;  Rome 

Galloping  Hop^an ;  lapparee 

GalluB  Hostihus ;  Rome 

Gulvani,  of  Bologna ;  galvanism 

Galway,  earl  of;  Almanaa 

Gambler,  lord;  Basque  Roads, 
Copenhagen 

Gandin,  M. ;  sapphire 

Ganganelli ;  popes 

GangeUnd,  Counna  da;  apoth»> 
cary 

Gardiner.biahop ;  administratians 

Gterdiner,  lieut  Alan ;  missions 

Gamerin,  M. ;  ballooDS 

Garnet,  Jesuit ;  gunpowder  plot 

Gamett,  Dr. ;  Royal  InstitoaQn 

Garrick;  theabvs,  Dnny-lane. 
JubUees 

Garrow,  air  William;  attorney- 
general 

Gar&,  Dr. ;  Kit-Oat  dob 

Gasparis;  planets 

Gassendl ;  sun,  sound 

Gatton  de  Foix ;  Ravenna 

Gatea,  gen. ;  Camden,  Saratoga 

Gaucour ;  Orleans,  siege 

Gaunt,  John  of;  Ghent,  i  iises,  w  sya 

Gausius,  painter ;  cauatic 

Gavestons;  rebellions 

Gay;  operas 

Gay-Lussac ;  baUoons 

Geo,  William ;  stereotype 

Oelasius ;  pall,  or  pallum 

Genghiakan;  see /eapAiaham 

George,  Darid;  &mily  of  love 

George,  St ;  England,  garter 
kiug«t-arms 

George  7. ;  accession 

Gcorgto  II. ;  Dettingen,  England 

George  III.  ;  Englaud 

George  IV. ;  England 

Georgi;  dahlia 

Geramb,  baron ;  aliens 

Gerard,  John  ;  physic  garden 

Germaine,  lord  George  SaekviUe 
Minden 

Germanus ;  Sodor  and  Man 

Gesler;  Switaerland 

Geta;  Rome 

Gibbhis,  Mr.,  kUled ;  riota 


INDEX. 


729 


OibboDO,  QrinllQ ;  atatuea 

Oibbs,  air  Vickery;  attomey- 
genonu 

Oiesmar.  Ruuian  general :  Praga 

Oiffonl.  lieut. ;  Kildjire 

Gilbert,  Dr. ;  electricity,  mag- 
neUam 

Gilbert,  gen. ;  India 

Gilchriat,  earl 

Gillam*  Rd. ;  triala,  1828 

Gilleapie,  coL  ;  Vellore 

Gillespie,  general ;  Kalunga 

Gillespie,  general ;  duel 

Oinckel,  seneral ;  Attilone,  A.i]gh- 
rim.  Limerick 

Gioja,  F. ;  oompaaa,  magnetism 

Gladstone.  Rev.  Mr. ;  trials,  1862 

Gladstone,  rt.  hon.  W.  E. ;  ad- 
ministrations 

Glas,  capt.  murdered ;  trials,  1706 

Glas.  John ;  Olasites 

Glolchen ;  marriages 

Olenelg.  lord  (late  sir  Charlea 
Grant);  administrationa 

Glendower,  Owen;  Walea,  Ban- 
gor 

Olerawley,  l<nrd,  v.  Bum  ;  triala, 
1820 

Gloucester,  duke  of;  marrixigo 
act 

Gloucester,  Humphrey,  duko  of; 
Greenwich 

Gobelin.  Gilea ;  tapestry 

Goderich,  vise  ;  admiuistrations 

Godira.  the  lady ;  Coventry 

Godolphin,  earl :  administrations 

Godwin,  W. ;  deism 

Godwin,  sir  G. ;  Pegu 

Gog  and  Magoe ;  Guildhall 

Goldschmidt ;  Jenny  Lind,  Night- 
ingale Hind 

Gonaaga,  Louis ;  Italy 

Good,  Dnniol ;  trials.  1843 

Goodrich ,  bishop;  administrationa 

Goodyear,  C.  ;  caoutchouc 

Gordian  ;  Rome 

Gordon,  lord  O. ;  riots,  libel,  trials, 
1781,  1788 

Gordons.  L  and  L. ;  trials,  1804 

Gdrgey;  Hungary 

Oorbam  v.  bishop  of  Exeter; 
trials,  1849 

Gortschakofi^  general;  Kala&t. 
Silistria.  Tchemaya 

Qortschakoff,  prince ;  Vienna 
conference 

Goasett,  sir  W.  ;  trial,  1842 

Qough,  sir  Hugh,  afterwards  via- 
count:  China,  India,  Gooje- 
rat,  Sobraon 

Goulboum.  rt.  hon.  H. ;  adml- 
niatrationa 

Gould,  Mine  ;  triala.  1822 

Gould,  murderer  :  trials,  1840 

Gourlay,  captain ;  duel 

Gower,  earl ;  administrations 

Gracchus;  stirrups 

Grafton,  duko  of,  administrations 

Graham  of  Claverhouse;  Killie- 
crankie 

Graham,  ^neral;  Barroaa,  St. 
Hebastian,  Bcrgen-op-Zoom 

Graham ;  magnetism 

Graham ;  St  Andrew's 

Graham,  R  ;  Perth 

Graham,  sir  James ;  administra- 
tions 

Grammont,  duke  of;  Dettingen 

Ormnard,  Arthur,   earl  of;    Kil- 

Qtanby.  marquess  of;  adminis- 
trations, commander-in-chief 
Grandlar;  witchcraft 


Granpree,  M.  de ;  duel 
Grant,  capt ;  cottagen'  atove 
Grant,  air  Colquhoim ;  duel 
Grant,  lieut  ;  triala,  1844 
Grant ;  robbers,  trials,  1816 
Grant,   rt    hon.  Charles  (after* 
wards  lord  Glendg);  admi- 
nistrations 
Grantham,  lord ;  administrationa 
Grantlev,  lord ;  attcmey*gen. 
Granville,  earl ;  administrationa 
Granville,  lord ;  adminiatrationa 
Gratian ;  canon  law 
Gratian ;  Rome,  massacres 
Grattan,  Henry ;  duelling 
Gray,  lord ;  Pomfret  casUe 
Greathead.  Mr. ;  Ufe-boaU 
Greatrakes,  VaL  ;  impostora 
Greaves,  lord ;  suicide 
Green,  general ;  Camden 
Green,  Mr.  ;  balloons 
Greenacre,  J. ;  trials,  1837 
Gr^gnire,  M. ;  national  convention 
Gregoxy  the  Great;    Aberdeen, 

chanting,  Christianity 
Gregoxy  VII.  ;  Italy,  287 
Gregory  XL,  pope ;  pallium 
Ore^ry  XIII. ;  calendar 
Greig,    Russian  admiral;    Bos- 

phorus 
Grenville,  rt  hon.  George :  ad- 
ministrations 
Grenville,  F.  :  British  Museum 
Granville,  lord;  administrations ; 

delicate  investigation 
Gresham,  sir  Thomas;  exchange, 

Gresham  college 
Gray,  Charles,  eaxi ;  administra- 
tions, raform  in  parliament 
Grey,  Henry,  eari ;  administra- 
tions 
Gray,     lady    Jane;      England, 

queens 
Gray,  sir  Charles;  administrations 
Grey,  sir  George ;  administrations 
Gray,  sir  O.,  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
Gray,  S. ;  electricity 
Griffith;  Wales 

Grindall.  bishop ;  Bible,  liturgy 
Grin  field,    general ;    Demerara, 

Tobago 
Grinnell,  Mr. ;  Franklin 
Orocvn,  Wm.  ;  Greek  language 
Grotius :  moral  philosophy 
Grove,  Mr.  ;  guu-cotton 
Growse,  Ellas ;  needles 
Grufydd  nb  Rhys ;  Wales 
Guelph.  Henry;  Bavaria 
Guencke,  Otto ;  air ;  electricity ; 

air-pumps 
Guildford,  earl  of,  trials,  18A3 
Guillotin.  Dr. ;  guillotine 
Guiscard ;  conspiracies 
Guise,    duke   of;    aaaaaalnated, 

France 
Guise,  Henry,  duke  of ;  Sicily 
Guizot,  M.  ;  France 
Gunilda  ;  masaacres 
Gumey ;  affirmation 
Guniey,  Russell ;  recorder 
Gurwood.  colonel ;  suicide 
Gustnvus  III. ;  Sweden 
Gustiivus  IV.  ;  Sweden 
Gustaviis  Adolphus;   Lippstadt, 

Sweden 
Gustavus  Vasa ;  Sweden 
Guter.  of  Nuremberg ;  air 
Guttenbofg,  J. ;  printing 
Guy  of  Luaignan ;  Teutonic  order 
Guy  Faux ;  gunpowder  plot 
Guy.  Thomas ;  Guy's  hospital 
Guzman.    Domlniok  de;   Black 
F(ian;  roaaiy 


Gwyune.  Nell ;  bells,  ringing 
Gyges;  Lydia 
Gylf ;  Sweden 


Hacbett^  Jeanne  de  la;  Beau- 

vais 
Hacho  of  Norway  ;  Scotland 
Hacker.  Ludwig ;  Sabbath  schools 
Hackett,  William;  fanatic,   im- 
postora 
Hackman,  Mr. ;  trial,  1779 
Haddington,    earl  of;   adminis- 
trations 
Hadley;  quadrant 
Haecker;  magnetism 
Haggart,  David ;  triala,  1821 
Haggartyand  Holloway;   triala. 

1807 
Hahnemann ;  homoeopathy 
Halea,  Dr. ;   nitric  acid ;  veuti- 

latora 
Hali.  Aga ;  Turkey 
Halifax ;  administrations 
Hall,  sir  B. ;  health.  Palmerston 
Hall,  Mr.  ;  telescope 
Halley,  Dr.  ;  astronomy 
Halloran.  Dr. ;  transportation 
Hamilcar;  Carthage 
Hamilton   and    lk>uglas  cause; 

trials,  1760 
Hamilton,  duke :  trials,  1818 
Hamilton,  duke  of;  duel 
Hamilton,  James,  marquess  of ; 

administrations 
Hamilton,  Joseph  ;  court  of  ho- 
nour 
Hamilton,  general ;  duel 
Hamilton,  Mary ;  trials,  1736 
Hamilton,  sir  William;   Hercu- 

laneum 
Hamilton.  W. ;  Juniua 
Hammond,  Mr. ;  tbeatrea 
Hammond.  Mr. ;  ambaaaador 
Hampden,    rt    hon.    Richard; 

adminiBtrationa 
Hampden ;     ahip-money,     Eng- 

land 
Hancock,  T. ;  caoutchouc 
Handcock ;  trials,  \B5b 
Handel ;  commemoration,  opera, 

Handel 
Hannibal ;  Rome,  Bernard,  Can- 
ne,    Carthage.    Saguntum, 
Thrasymenus,  Zama 
Hansom,  capt ;  duel 
Hanway,  Jonas ;  umbrella 
Haroourt,  ladv ;  fite  de  vertu 
Harcourt  lord ;  administrations 
Harcourt,  earl  of;    administra- 

tiohs 
Hardicanute,  England 
Harding ;  astronomy,  Juno 
Haidinge,  sir  Henry  (afterwards 
lord) ;  administrations,  com- 
mander of  the  forces.  India 
Hardinge,  Mr. ;  commons'  Jour- 
nals 
Hardwicke,  earl  of;  administra- 

trions,  lord  chancellor 
Hardwicke ;  Ireland,  lord-llent 
Hardwicke,  carl  of;  adminiatra- 

tions 
Hargrave,  Mr. ;  cotton  spinning 
Hargreaves»  Mr.  Edward;  Aus- 
tralia 
Harley;  Harielan  library 
Harley,  rt.  hon.  Robert ;  admi- 
nistrations 
Harley,  lord ;  wrecks 


780 


INDEX. 


Harney,  gva. ;  Un.  States.  1865 
Harold  IL ;  HaBtmn,  En^nd 
Harrington,  earl  of;  adnuniatra- 

tions 
Harris,  Mr. ;  theatres 
Harris;  organa 
Harris,  R. ;  docks^  apples 
Harris;  fluxions 
Harris,   sir    W.  8.  ;  electricity, 

lightning  conductors 
Harrison,  gen. ;  United  States 
Harrison;  Ids  time-piece,  longi- 
tude, Harrison 
Harmwby,  earl  of;   administra- 
tions 
Hartinger,  Mr. ;  duel 
Harclaud.  sir  R. ;  Madras 
Harvey,fi.BsffnaI;  Roes,  trial,  1798 
Hanrey,  Dr.  Wm. ;    blood,  ana- 
tomy, midwifery 
Harwood;  porter 
Hastings,  marquess  of;  India 
Hastings,  Warren;  India,  Cha- 

nar,  Hsstings 
Hastings,  sir  William;  sdminls- 

traiions 
Hatchell,  Mr. ;  duel 
Hattield    fires  at    Qeoxge  HI., 

trials,  1800 
Hat6eld;  executions,  1803 
Hatton,  sir  Christopher;  admi- 
nistrations, lora  high  chan- 
cellor, master 
Haay,  V. ;  blind 
Havelock,  gen.  ;  India,  1867 
Hawke,  adxniral ;  navid  battles^ 

administrations 
Hawlcesbury,  lord;   administra- 

tionsL  Azuieus 
Hawkosmoor,   Mr.  ;    Exchange, 

Royal 
Hawkey,  Ueut. ;  trial,  1846 
Hawkins,  sh*  Richard;  Port  Eg- 

mont 
Hawkins,   sir    John ;     Guinea, 
slave-trade,     potatoes,     to- 
bacco 
H»wse,    shr   Richard;    Pomf^t 

castle 
Hay,  lord  John ;  St.  Sebastian's 
Haydon,  the  painter ;  suicide 
Haydn,  Joseim ;  music 
Hayea^  Mr. ;  duel 
Hayes,  Charles;  trials,  1802 
Hayes,  sir  H.  B.  ;  trials,  1800 
Haynau.      Austrian      general ; 

Hungary,  London 
Haynes,  capt.  ;  Aden 
Hay  wiird,  the  "  Man  of  Fashion;** 

trials,  1821 
H.  B. ;  caricatures 
Head,  sir  Francis 
Hoadl'ort,  marquess ;  tri^l,  1805 
Heamo ;  nortii-west  passage 
Heberden,  Dr. ;  Royal  Humane 

Society 
Hector;  lYoy 
Hedges,  sir  Charles;  admlnistra- 

Uuus 
Hehl,  lEkther ;  animal  msgnetism 
Helen ;  Sparta 

Helena,  St. ;  Bethlehem,  cross 
Huliodorus;  romances 
Heliogabalus ;  Rome,  silk 
Hellon;  Thessaiy 
Uelsbam,  capt. ;  duel 
Hengist ;  octarch 
HeugiMt;  Salisbury  plain 
Henley;  orator 
Henley,  lord ;  administrations 
Henley,  Joseph  Warner;  admi- 

uiMtratiuus 
Hennis,  Dr. ;  duel 


Henrietta,  qoeen  (Chas.  L) 

Henrietta  Maria,  queen  (Chas.  II.) 
Henry  I.  ;  England,  Tinchebray 

Henry  II. ;  England 

Henry  III. ;  England 

Henry  lY. ;  Euffland 

Henry  V. ;  England,  Agincourt, 
France 

Henry  VI. ;  England,  North- 
ampton, Towton,  Roses, 
Tewkesbuxy 

Henry  VII.;  England,  Rich- 
mond, Milford,  Bosworth 

Henry  VIII.  ;  England,  age^ 
defender,  field,  mouasteriei^ 
spurs 

Henry  II. ;  France,  tourna- 
ments 

Henry  ill. ;  France 

Henry  IV. ;  France,  Nantes, 
Ravaillao,  Tvres 

Henry;  Germany 

Henxy  IV.  ;  Germany 

Henry;  Spain 

Henshaw,  Mr. ;  duel 

Hepburn,  eari  of  Bothwell ;  Soot- 
land 

Hepburn,  ensign ;  trials,  1811 

Hepburn,  John ;  Franklin 

Heraclius ;  holy  cross 

Herbert ;  adoihral ;  Bantry  Bay 

Herbert,  A. ;  admiralty 

Herbert,  hon.  Sydney ;  adminis- 
trations 

Hercules  Tyrius ;  purple 

Heremon;  Ireland 

Heigustus.  Picts,  hishops  of 
Scotland ;  St.  Andrew's 

Hermes,  E^yptiim ;  lyre 

Herod ;  Jerusalem 

Herodotus;  history 

Herophilus;  anatomy 

Herrias,  John  Charles ;  adminis- 
trations 

Herring,  Mrs. ;  trials,  1778 

Herschel ;  SaTum,  astronomy, 
telescope.  Sun,  Uranna 

Herschel,  J.  F.,  actlnometer, 
photography 

Hertford,  marquess  of;  his  exe- 
cuton  V.  Suisse,  trials,  1842 

Hertford,  earl  of;  achninistrations 

Hertford,  earl  of;  Pinkey 

Henrie,  Dr.  Heniy ;  Doctors' 
Commons 

Hesiod ;  chaos 

Hesione;  Troy 

Hevelius;  astronomy 

Heytesbuxy,  lord;  Ireland,  lord- 
lieut. 

Hicetas ;  stars 

Hicks,  Mrs  ;  witchcraft 

Hilorion;  anchorite 

Hilary ;  hymns,  anthems 

Hilkiah;  Jerusalem 

ii ill, lord;  administrations 

Hill,  Rowland;  post-office 

Hillsborough,  lord;  administra- 
tions 

Hind,  John  Russell ;  planets, 
comets 

Hindes,  lieut.;  duel 

Hipparchus;  astronomy,  Oanary, 
degrees,  latitude,  longitude 

Hippias;  ostracism 

Hippocrates;  anatomy,  surgery, 
loadstone 

Hippomenes;  Athens 

Hiram,  king  of  Tyre;  architec- 
ture 

Hoadley,  Dr.;  Bangorian 

Hoare,  Sir  R. ;   barrows 

Hubart,  lord ;  administrations 


Hobbes;  academies,  deism 
Hobhouse,  sir  John  Cam ;  admi- 
nistrations 
Hoche,  general ;  Dunkirk 
Hocker,  murderer;  trials,  1845 
Hodgson,  general ;  Belleisla 
Hodgson  V.  Greene ;  trials^  18S2 
Htigan,  arrest  of ;   United  States 
HoheniOhe,  prince ;  Jena 
Holcroft ;  deism,  meiodimma 
Holderuease,  earl   of;  adminis- 
trations 
Holkar;  India 

Holland,  H«ury,  lotd ;  adminis- 
trations 
HoUand,   Heniy  Richard,  Iwd ; 

adminMrations 
HoUand,  lord;  trials,  17»7 
Holiest,  murderers  of  rsr.  Mr.; 

trials.  1861 
Holmes,  admiral;    Cape  Coast, 

Qoree 
Holof«imes;  Assyria 
Holt,  sir  JUm.  cu.jost.  K.B. 
Holt;  trials,  1844 
Hoi  well,  Mr.;  suttees 
Homer;  cosmography 
Homer;  poetry 
Hompeseh,  baron ;  duel 
Hone,  the  bookseller;  triali^  1817 
Honey  aiid  Frauds ;  riots 
Honorius;  Rome 
Honorius,  archp. ;  paiiriisB 
Hood,  admiral ;  Madeira 
Hood,  admiral,  lord ;  Toulom 
Hooke,    Dr.;    boiUug,    camera, 

geology,   mechanies,   micro- 
scope, telegraphs 
Horace ;  acts,  saUros 
Uorler,  H.  ;  trials,  186S 
Hormisdas;  Persia 
Home,  bishop :  Bible 
Homo  Tooke,  John ;  Home 
Homor,  Mr. ;  Colosseum 
Homsby,  Dr. ;  Radohfie 
Horrebow;  astronomy 
Honrox ;  astronomy,  Fmua 
Horsfali,  Mr.  of  York,  murdered; 

trials,  1813 
Hors&U,  Messrs.;  cannon 
Hoaken,  capt. ;  GrmU  Briiam 
Hotham,  admiral :  naval  battleai 

1706 
Hotspur;  Otterbum 
Howard,  queen  Catherine ;  ptos 
Howard;  prisons^  potatoes 
Howard,  admiral  rnr   Edward : 

naval  battles,  1613 
Howard  of  Effingham,  lotd ;  the 

armada 
Howard    «.    air  Wm.    Gossatt; 

trials.  1842 
Howe,  sir  William ;  Long  island 
Howe,     lord ;    administration^ 

Brest,  Dshant 
Howick,  viscount;   administni- 

tions 
Howley,  Dr.  srchblshop  of  Oan* 

terbury;  Lambeth 
Hubert ;  Savoy 
Huason;  Hudson's  bay 
Hudson,  Jellery ;  dwarf 
Hugh  of  Burgundy ;  Ijinoola 
Hughes,    sir    Edward;    Truioo- 

malee 
Humbert,  general ;  Killala 
Humboldt;  guano 
Hume;  deum 
Humphrey,  duke  of  Glouoeatfar 

Bury,  Greenwich 
Hun^rus,  the  Pict;  thistle;  An- 
drew, St. 
Hunuiades;  Turkey,  Vanta 


INDEX. 


781 


Uunt»  Heniy,  reformer;  trials, 
1820,  Clerkouwell,  Manches- 
ter 

Hunt,  John  and  Leigh;  triaU, 
1»11, 1812 

Buntly,  carl  of;  Brechin 

Huut«r,  Robert ;  Siamese 

Huntou,  Joseph ;  furgery 

Huxkiason,  Yftn.  ;  administra- 
tious,  Liverpool  railway 

Huas;  irausubstAiitiation 

Hutchiuaon,  Amy;  trials,  1750 

Uutchiuaon,  John ;  liutchin- 
Boniaus 

Hutcluuson,  lord;  Alexandria 

Uutchiuson,  Mr.  J.  H.;  Lava- 
lette's  escape 

Button;  geology 

Huygeiis;  astronomy,  optici^ 
pendulums 

Hyacmthus;  hyacinths 

Hyagnis ;  flute  ;  music 

Uyci.en,  Dr.  William  ;  music 

Hyde,  sir  Edward;  lord  chan- 
cellor 

Hyde,  Laurence ;  administra- 
tions 

Hyder  All;  India^  Aroot,  Caiv 
natic 

Hyginus,  pope;  martyr 

Bymsu»us;  Hymen 

Hyperides,  the  orator ;  Cranon 

Hyjiermuestra ;  Argos 

Hypodicus ;  chorus 

Hyrcanus,  John ;  Samaritans 

HywelDha;  Wales 


I. 


lambe ;  iambic  verso 

Ibrahim  Pacha ;  Beyrout,  Greece, 

Byrla,  Turkey 
Iccelius;  indulgences 
Ilia;  Alba 
Hub;  Troy 
Impey,  msyor;  duel 
Inachus;  Argos 

Inglefield.capt ;  wrecks,  Franklin 
Inglis,  col. ;  Albuera 
Innocent  IIL  pope ;  confession, 

transubetantiation 
Irdng,    rev    Mr.  ;    trial,  1832; 

unknown  tongue ;  Irvingttes 
Isabella,  queen  (Edward  ll.> 
Isabella,  queen  (John) 
Isabella,  queen  (Hichard  II.) 
Isabella  (of  Castile) ;  Spain 
Isabella  II.,  Spain  ;  salique  law 
laaiah,  the  prophet ;  odes 
Isodorus,  Cm  cuius  ;  slaves 
Israelites;  Jerusalem 
Italus,  kiuff;  Italy 
Iturbide;  Mexico 


J. 


Jackson,  gen. ;  United  States 
Jackson,  C.  T. ;  ether 
Jackfeon,  J.   B. ;   printing   in 

colours 
Jacob,  i>r. ;  (Hirist's  Hospital 
Jacob! ;  Baltic,  note,  electrotype 
James  L;  £i)gland,  worship 
James  II.;  £iigland,  revolution 
James  I. ;  Scotland 
James  11. ;  Scotland 
James  III. ;  Scotland,  Edinburgh 
James  IV.;    Scotland,  Flodden 

Fiekl 


James  V. ;  Scotland 

James,  St., apostle;  affirmation, 


Jamiesou,  Mrs.;  sycamores 

Jane  Gray,  lady;  beheading, 
England 

Jane  beymour,   queen  (Henry 
Vlli) 

Jane;  Sicily 

Janseu;  optics 

JaL«beu,  Cornelius;  Jansenism 

Janus ;  New  Year's  Day ;  abo- 
rigines 

Jnrlain,  St.;  Tuam 

Jason;  naval  battles,  argo- 
nautic 

Jeffcott,  air  John  W.;  duel 

Jefferson,  Mr. ;  United  States 

Jeffery,  Robert;  Sombrero 

Jeffrey ;  Scotland 

Jeffreys,  sir  George,  fafterwards 
lord);  admiuifitratioua;  king's 
bench ;  lord  high  chaucetior 

Jeffreys,  judge ;   bioudy  assise 

Jellachich ;  Hungary 

Jenghis  Kban ;  Hungary,  India, 
Moguls,  Tartary,  Afghanis- 
tan 

Jenkins,  Henry ;  longevity 

Jezmer,  Dr.  ;  vacdnntion 

Jennings,  Mr. ;  tontiues 

Jemmgham,  Mrs. ;   blue-stock- 
ings 

Jerome  of  Prague;    Constance 
council,  reformation 

Jerome,  St  ;  ascension  day 

Jersey,  countess  of ;  dflicate  in- 
vesiigation 

Jervis,  sir  Jolm;  Cape  St.  Vin- 
cent 

JESUS ;  Jews 

Joacliim ;  Prussia 

Joachim  Ernest;  Anhalt 

Joan,  queen  (Henry  IV.) 

John,  St.;  baptism 

John,  St.,  tne  Evangelist;  ac- 
cusers, evsngelist^  gospels 

John  of  Austria ;  Lepanto 

John,  kinff ;  B<ihemia 

John  I. ;  Portugal 

John  IV. ;  Portugal 

John  of  CJastile 

John,  king;  England,  charter  of 
forosts,  magna  cAarto,  plural 
number"  We" 

John,  king;  Spain,  France^ 
Poitiers 

John,  king;  Sweden 

John  of  Leyden  ;  antibaptists 

John  o'GroMt 

Johnson,  Dr. ;  dictionary,  lite- 
rary societies 

Johnson, judge;  trials,  1805 

Johnson,  capt ;  trials,  1846 

Johuson,  tn^jor ;  murders 

Johnston,  admiral ;  St.  Jago 

Johnston,  capt. ;  steam-engine 

Johnston,  general ;  Ross 

Johnston,  Robert;  trials,  1818 

Johnston,  sir  John ;  hanged, 
marriages 

Johnstone,  Mr.  Cochrane ;  stock 
exchange  fraud 

Johufitoiie,  Jack;  theatres 

Joinville,  prince  de^  of  France ; 
ocean 

Jones,  colonel;  Dungan,  Rath- 
mines 

Jones^  F^ed.  Edw.;  riots 

Jones,  (3ale ;  trials,  1811 

Junes,  Jane,  murdered;  trials, 
1842 

Jonesy  Mr.  Todd;  duel 


Jones,  Owen ;  Alhambi* 

Jones,  sir  William ;  chess 

Jonson,  Ben ;  poet-laujieata 

Joquemin,  M. ;  pioqufct 

Jordan,  Mrs.;  theatres 

Joseph ;  Jews 

Joseph  of  Arhnathea;  embalm* 
iug 

Joseph,  emperor ;  Namur 

Joseph,  king ;  Portugal 

Jusephus;  Bible 

Joshua;  Jerusalem 

Jotham ;  fables 

Joubert,  gen. ;  Nov! 

Jourdan,     marshal ;      Cologne^ 
Fleunis,  Vittoria 

Jovian;  Rome 

Jubai;  music 

Judas  Hyrcanus ;  Jews 

Judas  Iscariot;  aceidama 

Judiih ;  Abyssinia 

Julian,    the    apostate;    Rome, 
edicto 

Julianus,  Salvius  ;  edicts 

Julius  II.;  pope  Bologna,  Lao- 
coOn 

Julius  Cnsar ;  see  ^mor,  JuUvu 

Jung  Bahadoor ;  Nepaulese 

Junot,  marshal;  Cintra,  Portu- 
gal, Vimiera 

Justin,  St.;  Rochester 

Justina;  singing 

Justinian ;  I^steru  empire 

Justin  Martyr ;  millennium 

Juvenal ;  satires 

Juxon,  Dr. ;  bishops,  adminis- 
trations 


K. 

Kane^  Dr.;  Franklin 
Kat,  Christopher;  Klt-Kat 
Kean,  Mr.  Cnarles ;  theatres 
Keane,  Mr.  Edmund ;  theatres 
Keane, lord;  India,  Ghisnee 
Keating,  colonel ;  Bourbon 
Keeley,  Mrs.;  theatres 
Keenan ;  his  trial,  1803 
Keith,  George ;  earl-marischal  of 

Sootlanc^  Aberdeen 
Keith,  QooTge ;  quakers 
KelletL  capt.;  Franklin 
KeUy,  Miss;  theatres,  trials,  1810 
Kemble,  Cliarles ;  theatres 
Kemble,  John ;  theatre 
Kemble,  Miss  A.;  theatres 
Kemble,  Miss  F. ;  theatres 
Kempe^  John ;  wool 
Kempeufeldt,adm. ;  Royal  Geoi^ 
Kennedy,  Mr.;  Franklin 
Kenneth  II. ;  CTaledouia,  Scotland 
Kenyon,  lord ;  atiozney-genei'al, 

king's  bench 
Kent,  Odo,  earl  of;  treasurer 
Kentigem,  St. ;  abstinence,  Glss- 

E}W,  St  Asaph 
r;   optics,    planetary  mo- 
'tions,   rainbow,  tides,    dye- 
houses 
Keppel,     admiral ;      Belle-Isle, 

Ushant,  trials,  1779 
Keppel,    Aug.   (afterwards   vis- 
countXaduninistrations^navid 
battles 
KMhin,  Chinese 
Killigrew,  Thos.;  drama 
Kilmarnock,     lord ;    rebellions, 

trials,  executions,  1746 
Kilwarden,  lord;  chief  Justice; 

trials,  1808 
King,  Thos. ;  ventriloquism 


732 


INDEX. 


King,  Mr    Locke,  11  P. ;  admi- 

nistratiooa  (1861) 
King,  Dr.;  GnBarian  opention 
King,  Colonel ;  suicide 
Kingil;  Winchester 
King,  C,  trials.  1855 
Kiugston,  duehess  of;  trials,  1776 
Kingston,  earl  of^  v.  lord  Lorton, 

trials,  1881 
Kingston,  Evelyn,  duke  of ;  Wal- 

pole 
Kirby  and  Wade,  capts. ;  sbot^ 

naval  battles  (note) 
Kircher;   jEolian  harp,  philoso- 
pher's stone,  trumpet 
Kirkman;  piano-fortti 
Kirwan,  Richard  Bourke ;  trials, 

1853 
Kirwan.  dean ;  ordination 
Knatchbull,  sir  Edward;  admi- 
nistrations 
Knight,  O. ;  magnetism 
Knight;  north-west  passage 
Knight,  Mr. ;  South-Sea  Bubble 
Knight,  Mr. ;  bribery 
Knight  V.  Wolcot ;  trialai  1807 
Knox,  John ;  Presbyterians 
Knox,  John ;  Scotland 
Knutxen,  Matthias ;  atheism 
KOnig.  M. ;  printing-machine 
Kosciusko ;  Poland,  Cracow 
Kossuth;  Hungary.  United  States 
Koster,  Lauronses  J. ;  printing 
Kotzebue;  north-west  passage 
Kotzebue,    aaaassiuated ;    Man- 

heim 
Koull    Khan;     Moguls^    India, 

Persia 
Kunckel :  phosphorus 
KutuAuff;  Russia,  Moskwa,  Smo- 

lensko 
Kyhl,  P.;  nature-printing 


L. 


Labelye,  M. ;  Westminster  br. 
Labouchore,  rt.  hoii.  Henry ;  ad- 
ministrations, Palmerston 
Labourdunnaye,  general;    Tour- 
nay 
Lacy,  gen.;  marches  to  Berlin, 

Trussia 
Lacy,  Henry  de ;  Llncoln's-lnn 
Lacy.  Huffh  de ;  Carrickfeigus 
Ladelus  Magnus ;  Sweden 
Ladislaos;  auagary 
Lafaige,  madame ;  trials,  1840 
Lafltte,  banker  of  France ;  will 

(Napoleon's) 
LagATa,  Ac. ;  execution,  1856 
La  Orange  ;  acoustics,  astronomv 
Lake,  general ;  Bhurtpore,  Delhi, 

Lincelles 
Lake,  hon.  captain  ;   Sombrero, 

trials,  1810 
Lamb,  Dr.  ;  killed,  riots 
Lamballe,  princess  de ;  France 

(note) 
Lambert,  Mr.  ;  corpulency 
Lambert,  ladv  Elizabeth 
Lambert  (Latnam).  J. ;  trials,  1656 
Lambrecht,  Mr. ;  trials,  1830 
Lambton,  Mr. ;  duel 
Lancaster,  capt. ;  Bantam 
Lancaster,  duke  of ;  roses 
Lancaster,  Joseph ;  Lancasterian 

schools,  education 
Lander,  Richard ;  Africa 
Lanfranc;  Canterbuxr 
Langara,    don,    adminl:    naval 
battles 


Langdale,  lord;  master  of  the 
rolls 

Langdale,  sir  Marmaduke ; 
Naseby 

lAnghame,  colonel ;  Wales 

Langtou,  bishop ;  Bible 

Lansdowne,  maiquess  of,  lateeari 
of  Shelbume ;  administra- 
tions 

Laodioe,  Pontus ;  (3^>padoclB» 
dreams 

Laomedon;  Troy 

lAserian,  St. ;  LeighUn 

Latimer,  bp. ;  Cranmer,  martyrs 

Latimer,  viscount;  administni- 
tlons 

Latinus,  of  Latium 

Laud,  archbishop ;  administra- 
tions, England 

Lauderdale,  ouke  of;  cabal 

Laura,  Petiurch 

Laurent,  Mr. ;  theatres 

Lavater;  physiognomy 

Lavoisier ;  mtric  add 

Lawless,  Mr. ;  riots 

Lawrence,  gen.  H. ;  India,  1867 

lAyard,  Mr. ;  Nineveh 

Layer;  his  conspiracy 

Laxarus,  St. ;  quarantine 

Leake,  admiral ;  admindty,  Oib- 
raltar,  Mediterranean,  Mi- 
norca 

Lechus  I. ;  Poland 

LeBrez;  candles 

Le  aere,  St  Agnes ;  baths 
Lee,  Alexander:  theatres 
Lee,  rev.  Mr. ;  stocking-frame 
Le  Boo,  prince ;  Pelew  Islands 
Leeds,  duke  of;  administrations 
Leeke,  H. ;  Bushire 
Leeuweuhoek;  animalculn,  po- 

lypus 
Lefevre,  G.  Shaw ;  speaker 
Le  Gros,  Raymond ;  Dublin 
Legge,  Henry  Bilson;  adminis- 
trations 
Leicester.   Dudley,  earl  of;  ad- 
ministrations 
Leicester,    earl   of^    «.    MamiMff 

Herald ;  trials,  1809 
Leicester,  earl  of;  Lewes 
Leigbton,   G.  C. ;    printing   In 

colours 
Leiuster,  duke  of;  volunteers 
Le  Jay;  polyglot 
Lelex ;  Sparta 
Le  Maira ;  circumnavigator 
Lenox,  colonel ;  duel 
Lenox,  earl  of;  Scotland 
Le  Notre ;  St.  James's  park 
LeoZ.,  pope  :  indulgences,  Italy 
Leon,  Don  Diego ;  Spain 
Leon,  Ponce  de ;  America 
Leonardo  of  Pisa ;  algebra 
Leonidas;  Thennopyle 
Leopold,  duke;  Moiigarten 
Leo|iold,  duke ;  Senipaoh 
Leopold,  emperor ;  Pilnits 
Leopold,  kixig;  Belgium 
Lcpidus ;  triumvir 
L'Epee,  abb^  de  ;  deaf 
Le  Pique,  M. ;  duel 
Le  Rot,  of  Paris ;  watch 
Leibnitz ;  fluxions 
Leacus ;  Poland 
Lostock,  admiral ;  Toulon 
L'Estrauge,    sir    Roger;    news- 
papers 
Lettsom,  Dr. ;  Roy.  Humane  Boc. 
Leuchtenbeiv ;  Portugal 
Lever,  sir  Asnton ;  museum 
Levenier,  M. ;  Neptune 
Levy,  Mr.  Lyon ;  monument 


Lewis,  Mr. ;  theatrss 
Lewisfaam,    viscount ;    adminis- 
trations 
Levboume,  WQliam  de ;  admiral 
Liddon,   lieutenant;  north- 


Lieber,  T. ;  enstianism 
Liebeg ;  agriculture,  chemistiy 
ligonier,  lord ;  Bute 
Lilbume,  odonel;  Wigan,  com- 
mander 
Lilly;  perfumery 
Lilly,  sir  William ;  astrology 
Lin;  China 
Linacre,    Dr. ;     gardening    lee- 

tures,  physicians 
Lincoln,  eui  of ;  adminiatratinns 
Und.  X)r. ;  anemometer,  wind 
Lindsay,  eari  of;  Kdgehill 
Lindsay,  sir  John ;  Madraa 
Linlitl:^iow,  lord ;  guards 
Unnaras;   botany,  entomology, 

Lmmean 
Linota,  admiral :  naval  batUea 
Lionel,  son  of  Edward  IlL 
Liprandi;  Balaklava,  Eupatoiria 
Lisle,  lord ;  administrationa 
Lisle,  viscount;  Portsmuupth 
Liston,  Mr. ;  theatres 
Little^oha;  Sherwood  forest 
Littleton,  Icoxl ;  lord  duinceDor 
Littleton,  Mr. ;  administrations 
liveipool,  earl  of;   adminiatna- 

tioos 
Livingston,  Dr.  ;  Africa 
Ueweilyu;  Wales 
Llewellvn.  Breu;  Wales 
Lloyd,  Mrs.  Catherine ;  quackary 
Lloyd,  Charles,  esq. ;  Junius 
Lloyd,  W. ;  Portland  vaae 
Locke,  J. ;  physica,  cartesiaD 
Locke,  W. ;  rsgged  schoola 
Lockyer,  mivf<'>'  i  <luel 
Lofting,  John ;  thimble 
Logeman ;  magnetism 
LoUard,  Walter ;  Lollards 
Lollia  Paulina ;  Jewellery 
Lombe,  sir  Thomas ;  silks 
London,  bishop  of ;  trials.  185S 
London  dock  company  ;    triaK 

1851 
LondoDderry,    lord,    see    QuOe- 

rtagk  ;  suicide 
Long,  Dr. ;  globe 
Long,   sir   Robert;   administra- 
tions 
Long,  the  Mines  Tilney ;  triaK 

1825 
Long,  St.  John  ;  quack ;   triab, 

18S0-1 
Longinus ;  ducat,  Rome 
Lonsdale,  earl  of;  duel 
Lonsdale,  eari  of ;  srtminlstrmtlops 
Lopez;  Cuba,  U.  Statea 
Lopez,    air    Manasaeh ;    Oram- 

pound,  trials.  1819 
Lorme,  PhiUbert  de ;  Tuileries 
Lorraine,  prince  (Thaa.  of;  Liasa, 

MohaU 
Lorraine,  Henry  of ;  Portugal 
Lorraine,  Ralph,  duke  of;  Cromy 
Losinga,  H. :  Norwich 
Lotharius;  Lorraine 
Loughborough;    att-gea.,  coali- 
tion 
Louis  I.  (2)A>&nnairt) ;  Vnaam 
Louis  v.,  poisoned ;  Franoe 
Louis  VII. ;  France 
Louis  IX.,  '*8t  Louis ;"  France 
LouisXII.p  "Christian;**  Fnnee; 

blood,  posts 
Louis  XIL  ;  France^  teeter 
Louis  ZIIL ;  Ftmnoe,  LintHd'vr 


INDEX. 


788 


Luuis  XIV. »  lo  Orond  ;  Franoe, 

Dieu-dountf,  Nantes 
Louis  XVI. :  France,  trials,  1798 
Louis  XVni. ;  France,  Hartwell 
Louis,  king:  Hungary,  Buda 
Louis,  king ;  Spain 
Louis,  prince  ofCondtf  ;  Jansae 
Louis-Bonaparto ;  Holland 
Louis-Napoleon;  France 
Luuis-Phflippe ;    Claremont, 

France 
Louisa-Maria,  infiinta ;  Spain 
Louise,  queen ;  Belgium 
Louth,  lord ;  trials,  1811 
LouTaln,  count  of;  Brabant 
Louvel ;  trials,  1820 
Louvat,  lord ;  consplraqr,  trials, 

1747 
Loavel,Mr.;  fifatemaan,  trials»1812 
Lowe,  Alice ;  trials.  1843 
Lowther.  Tise. ;  administrations 
Loyola,  Ignatius ;  Jesuits 
Lncan,  earl  of;  trials,  18JIHS 
Luoan,  put  to  death ;  Rome 
Lucas,  Mr. ;  steel 
Lucilius ;  satire 
Lucius,  king;  Britain 
Lucius  Sextus ;  Rome 
Lucretia ;  Rome,  spinning 
Lucullus;  luxury 
Lud ;  Ixtndon 
Ludlam;  Luddite 
Luke,  St.  evangelist ;  gospel 
Lullius ;  alchemy 
Lnlly,  Raymond  ;  nitric  add 
Lumley  v.  Oye ;  trials,  1854 
Lunardi,  M. ;  balloons 
Lutatius ;  naval  battles 
Luther,  Martin;   Dorl^  Protest- 
antism, Augsburg.  Calvinists, 
Lutberimism,  Worms 
Luxemburg,  marshal;  Enghien 
Lycaon;  Arcadia 
lyceus:  lyc4'um 
Lycurgus ;  Sparta,  adultery 
Lyudhurst,  lord ;  administrations 
Lynedoch,  lord ;   Barrosa,  Ber- 

gen-op-Zoom,  St.  Sebastian 
Lynch ;  trials,  1817 
Lynn,  capt. ;  north- west  passage 
Lyons,  John  ;  Harrow  school 
Lysander ;  Sparta,  iEgospotamoe 
Lysimachus ;  Ipsus 
Lysippus;  sculpture 
Lysistratus;  busts 
Lyttelton,  George,  lord ;  dreams 


M. 


Macarthy,   sir  Charles;    Sierra- 
Leone,  Ashantees 
Macartin.  St. ;  Clnghcr 
Macartney,  earl ;  China,  India 
Macaulay,  T.  B. ;  administrations 
Macbeth,  king;  Scotland,  Ihm- 

sinane 
MacCabe;  robbers 
Macclesfield,   earl;    administra- 
tions 
MacCormac  O'Conner ;  combat 
Macdonald,  marshal ;  Parma 
Macdonalds;  Glencoe 
Maoduif;  Scotland 
Macfarlane.  8. ;  trials,  1844 
Macham ;  Madeira 
Machanidas:  Achaia 
Machiavel ;  Machiavelian 
Mack,  general ;  Ulm 
Mackay,  gen. ;  Killieorankio 
Maokay  and  Vaughan ;  trials,  1816 
Maeklin;  theatres 
MaokUn ;  Bible,  books 


Mackreth,  Mr.,  wounded ;  trials, 

1K41 
Macleod,  Mr. ;  United  States 
MacMurrough  ;  Ireland 
Macnaghten,  sir  Wm. ;  Indies 
MacNamara.  captain ;  duel 
MacNaughten ;  trials,  1848 
M'Neill,  sir  J ;  Sebastopol 
Macready,  Mr. ;  theatres 
Macrinus,  emperor ;  Rome 
McCarty,  Gen. ;  Enniskillen 
McClintock,  capt. ;  Franklin 
McCrain.  Golour;  longevity 
MeGill,  Mr. ;  trials,  1842 
McKenzie,  Mr. ;  duel 
McNaughten,  Mr.;   trials,  1761, 

1843 
MKHure.  capt. ;  Franklin,  north- 
west passoge 
Madiai,  the ;  Tuscany 
Maddison,  James,  United  States 
Msdoc;  Wales 

MiBcenas;  dedications;  baths 
Maelgwyn  ab  Rhys ;  Wales 
Magee,  J. ;  trials,  1813 
MagelLin;  circumnavigation 
MsgelUn;  Philippine 
Magi ;  Epiphany,  fire  worshippers 
Magnus,  king ;  Sweden 
Magnus  Ladelns ;  Sweden 
Magog,  son  of  Japhet ;  Russia 
Maffiure;  Ireland 
Maguire,  capt. ;  Franklin 
Magus,       Simon ;       Simonians, 

heretics 
Mahmoud,  sultan 
Mahomet ;  Hogira,  Koran,  Maho- 
metaziism,    Mecca,    Medina, 
Turkey, 
Mahomet   II. ;    enstem  empire, 
Adrianople,    Constontinople, 
Albania 
MaiUard.  abbaye 
Maitlan<i  sir  Fred. ;  China 
Mainland,  capt. ;  Bona|iarte 
M^jocianus;  coronation 
Msjor;  (x>nchology 
MfMorianus;  Rome 
Malibran,  mnditme ;  theatres 
Malchua;  Waterford 
Malcolm  I. ;  Scotland 
Malcolm  II. ;  Scotland,  clanships, 

Alnwick 
Malcolm  IIL ;  Scotland,  Dunsi- 

nane 
Malroesbury,  lord;    administra- 
tions 
Manby,  capt. ;  life-preserver 
Manchester,  earl  of;  administra- 
tions 
Manchester ;  will,  trials,  1854 
Mandeville,    viscounty    adminis- 
trations 
Manes;  Manicheans 
Manks;  pedestrianism 
Manlius,  Cimbri 
Manlius,  Capitolinus ;  Rome 
Manasseh  Ben  Israel ;  Jews 
Manners,  lord  John  ;  administra- 
tions 
Manners,  Thomas,  lord;  Id.  h. 

chancellor 
Mannings,  the  murderers;  trial, 

1849 
Manny,  sir  Wm. ;  charter-house 
Mansell,  T. ;  executions,  1857 
Mansfield.  Id. ;  att.-gen.,  fictions 

in-law,  king's  bench 
Mar,  earl  of;  Harlaw 
Mar,  earl  of,  rMrent ;  Scotland 
Mar,  earl  of;  rebellion,  Dunblane 
Marat,  stabbed  l^  Charlotte  Cor- 
day;  Fhmoe 


Marbot,  colonel ;  will  (Napoleon's) 
Maroeliina,  St. ;  nunneries 
Marcellus ;  Rome,  Venice 
March,  Roger,  earl  of ;  rebellions 
Marcion ;  Marcionitea 
Marcus  Aurelius ;  Rome 
Marcus  Curtius ;  Rome 
Mardonius ;      Mycale,      Plataoa, 

Greece 
Maigaret;  queen  (Edward  L) 
Maigaret   of    Ai^ou   (queen    of 
Henry    VI.  X    Tewkesbury, 
Towton.  Wakefield 
Margaret,  oi  Norway ;  Calmar 
Margaret  (of  the  NetheriandsX 

beards 
Margraff;  beet-root- 
Maria  da  Gloria ;  Portt^pal 
Maria-Louisa ;    empress,     Bona- 
parte,    Parma,     will     (Na- 
poleon's) 
Maria-Therasa,    empress ;     Ger- 
many 
Maricis,    Geoffrey  de;    Ireland, 

ld.-lieut. 
Marie-Antoioette ;  France 
Marius ;       Ambrones,      CMmbri, 
temple  of  honour,  maraacre 
Mark,  St..  Gospel 
Marlborough,  duke  of;  adminis- 
trations 
Marlborough,  dnke  of;  com. -in- 
chief,    marahals,    Blenheim, 
Douay,    Li^ge,    Lisle,     Mal- 
plAquet.  Oudenarde,  Ramilies 
Marlborougn,  earl  of;   adminis- 
trations 
Marmont,  marshal ;  Salamanca. 
Ffere-charopenoiae,  heights  of 
Romalnville 
Marota ;  Spain 
Marr,  earl ;  trials,  1831 
Marshall,  Mr. ;  California 
Maryborough,  lord;  administra- 
tions 
Mars,  M.  de  St ;  iron-mask 
Martel,  Charles;  France,  mayor. 

Tours 
Marten.  Maria ;  murdered,  trials, 

1828 
Martin.  Rd. ;  animals 
Martin,  Jonathan ;  York  minster 
Martineau,  Messrs. ;  oil-gas 
Marvell,  A;  ballot 
Mary  I.,  queen ;  England,  Calais 
Mary  II.,  queen ;  England 
Mary,  queen ;  (Henry  IV.) 
Mary,  king,  Hungary 
Mary,  queen  of  Scots;  Carlisle, 
Edinburgh,  sycamore,  Foth- 
eringay.  Langside,  Lochleven 
castle.  Scotland 
Mary  Beatrice,  queen  (James  II.) 
Masaniello;  Naples 
Mask,  man  of  the  iron ;  see  Iron 
Maskelyne ;     Fmiu,    Greenwich, 

almanacs 
Massena ;      Almeida,      Busaco, 

Zurich 
Massey  v.  Headfort ;  trials,  1804 
Mssso,  sumamed  Finlguerra 
Mathew,  rev.  Mr. ;  temperance 
Mathews,  Mr. ;  theatres 
Mathias;  anabaptists 
Matilda  (empress) ;  queens 
Matilda,  queen  (Stepnen) 
Matilda,    queen    (William     I.); 

Bayeux  tapestry 
Matilda,  queen ;  Denmark 
Matilda;  luly 

Matthew.  St.  evangelist ;  Gospel 
Matthews,  admiral ;  Toulon 
Maud.    Bee  Matilda 


784 


INDEX. 


lUule,  Fox  (Id.  Panmura);  ad- 
minUtrntuma 

M aunaell,  ool. ;  meal-tub  plot 

Miupeiluis;  latitude 

Uaurice,  F.  D. ;  working-maa's 
college 

Mauiioe,  prince ;  Ifaaritiua 

Maurice  of  Naeaau.  prinoe 

If  auaolufl ;  mausoloiim,  wonden 

Maxentlus,  standarda 

Mazimus;  Britain 

Mazimua;  Home,  giants 

Maximin;  peraecutiona 

May,  dean ;  Utuivy 

Maaarin.  cardinala;  iontinea 

Mazaouli,  Fmnda ;  eugraviuff 

Mead.  Dr. ;  ijKiculatioa 

Meagher;  Ireland 

Mechanidaa;  Sparta 

Medhunt^  Fra.  Haatinga;  triala, 
18$9 

Medici ;  dake,  learning,  Medici 

Medlcia,  Catherine  de  ;  Bartho- 
lomew, 8t. 

Medicia,  Maryde';  France 

Medina-Sidonia,  dnke  of ;  armada 

Medon ;  Athena,  Turkey 

MehumQtAli;  Syria 

Melancthon ;  Augabuig^,  oon- 
feaaion 

Melanthua;  Athena 

Melaa,  Austrian  general ;  Ma- 
rengo 

Melbourne,  viBOount ;  adminia- 
tratiooa,  triala 

Mellon,  Miaa ;  theatrea 

Melville,  lord;  adminiatrationa, 
England,  impeachmttnt 

Mendea;  Abyaainia 

Mendosa,  Pedro  de;  Buenoa 
Ayraa 

Menelaua ;  Troian  war 

Menou,  genenu ;  Alexandria 

Menachikofi;  prince ;  Ruaaia, 
Alma,  Ruaao-Turkiah  war 

Menaiea.  Michael ;  £diuburgh 

Mercator;  charta 

Meredith,  prince;  Wales 

Merlin;  burda 

Mervyn ;  Walea 

Meraennck^Ptev ;  academies 

Meauer,  Fred  Ant;  meamerism 

Metellua;  Achaia 

Methuaelah ;  longevity 

Metiua:  teleeoopea 

Meton ;  sold,  number 

Meta,  M.  de;  reformatory 
aohoola 

Meunier;  France 

Meuz  and  Co. ;  brewers 

Meyer,  Simon ;  Saturn 

Meaentiua;  indietlon 

Michael  FedoroviU ;  Russia 

Middleaex,  earl  of;  administra- 
tions 

Middleton ;  north-west  pasasge 

Middleton,  sir  Hugh;  mines, 
New  River 

Middleton,  John ;  giants 

Micdalaa;  Poland 

Miguel,  dom ;  Portugal 

Mildmay.  air  J.  H. ;  trials,  1814 

Mlldmay,  sir  Walter;  adminis- 
trations 

Milfrids:  Hereford 

MiUer,  H. ;  suicide 

MiUie,  Mr. ;  triala,  18S9 

Miltiades:  Maiathon 

Miller  «.  Salomons;  trials^  1853 

Milton,  poet ;  allegory 

Mindaras;  Sparta,  CyKieum 

Minerva ;  acropoli%  spinning 

Minos;  Crete 


Mintot  sail  ci;  admlnistntioDS. 
India 

Minutia;  vestal 

Mirunda,  general :  Colombia 

Miater,  Josiah;  trials,  1^41 

Mitohel  air  F. ;  victuallera 

Mitchell,  D. ;  aqiuuium 

Mitchell,  admiral;  Bantry-bay 

Mitchell  Mr. ;  theatre 

Mitchell ;  Ireland,  IMS 

Mitford.  air  John;  att.-general, 
speaker 

Mithrtdaies;  Bosporus,  Pontus, 
comets,  electuary,  his  mas- 
sacra,  omens 

Mithridates,  Philopator;  Gappa- 
docia 

Misraim;  Egypt 

Moavia;  Rhodes 

Mohun,  lord ;  duel 

Moir,  capt ;  trials,  1830 

Moira.  earl  of;  administrations, 
Ireland.  India 

Mole,  count ;  France 

Molesworth,  sir  William ;  admin- 
istrations 

Molyneux,  Mr. ;  absentee  tax 

Mompesson,  Giles ;  victuallers 

Moltnua ;  (^uietiata 

Money,  miyor ;  balloons 

Monk,  general ;  administrations. 
Guards 

Monmouth,  duke  of;  England, 
rebellion,  Sedgemoor,  iron 
mask 

Moncey.  marahsls ;  Valencia 

Montacute,  eari  of  Sarum 

Montacute,  marqueaa  of;  Man, 
lale  of 

Montagu,  lord ;  adminiatrationa 

Montaj^  duke  of;  adminiatrs- 
tioua 

Montagu,  Edward;  adminiatra- 
tiona 

Montagu,  sir  Heniy;  adminis- 
trations 

Montagu,  air  James ;  exchequer 

Montsgu.  lady  M.  W. ;  inoculation 

Montague,  Mrs. ;  May-day 

Montanus;  Montanirts 

Montanus;  polyglot 

Montauaier,  duo  ds ;  <**ir^ii* 
olaaaica 

Monteverde:  opera 

Montferrat,  marquess  of;  sssas- 
sins 

Montfort,  Simon  and  Petre  de : 
commona,  Kenilworth,  lord 
high  steward,  speaker,  Eve- 
sham, Lewes 

Montfort,  Simon  de ;  Albigenaes 

Montgolfier,  M. ;  balloons 

Montgomery,  Mr. ;  auldde 

Montgomery,  coL  ;  duel,  killed 

Montgomery,  count  de ;  tour- 
naments 

Montholon,  count  de;  France, 
will  (Napoleon's) 

Montefiore,  sir  Moaea ;  Jewa 

Montmorenciea,  the;  Francs 

Montpenaler ;  France^  ^lanish 
marriaffe 

Montrose^  auks  of;  sdministim* 
tions 

Montrose,  marquess  of ;  Scotland, 
Alford 

Moore ;  murdered,  trials  1853 

Moore,  capt. ;  Franklin 

Mooro,  Thomaa;  poet 

Moore;  almanac 

Moore,  sergeant ;  leases 

Mooreb  Anne;  abstinence 

Moore,  air  John ;  Coronna 


Moore,  sir  Jonss ;  Greenwich 
Mordaunt    Charles,     viscount  ; 

admiuiatratiooa 
Mordaunt,  lord ;  admtniatrati'ms 
More,   sir  Thomaa;   administra- 
tiana,  lord  chanoellur,  supre- 
macy 
More,  RiJger;  rebellion 
Moreau.    gaueral ;    Alessandria, 

Aiigabuiv.  Wirtambers.  l>rea- 

den,  conapiracy 
Iforelaud ;  spesking^trmnp^fe 
Morelli;  tourniquet 
Morelln;  Spain 

Moreton,  John,  eari  of;  Ireland 
Morgan ;  buccaneer 
Maigan,  colonel ;  Lincoln 
Mominff  Pott :  libel 
JTomtiv  ChnmieU:  trials.  181  • 
Mvnking  Berald  :  triala,  1809 
Momington,  lord ;  India 
Morpeth,  visoount;  administra- 
tions 
Monitt  George;  flowers 
Morria,  Mr. ;  theatres 
Mortier,  mar. ;  Romainville 
Mortimer,  eari  of  March ;  Berkdcr 
Morton,  the  regent ;   SooUaDd. 

miUden 
Morton,  air  Albertos;  ndminia- 

tratlona 
Morton,  Thomas ;  ether 
Morton ;  trials,  1862 
Moryson,  Fynes;  Ibrks 
Moaely,  Wolf,  &a  ;  trials^  1S19 
Moaea ;  oraolea^  tithea,  adulterj , 

poetry 
Moaae,  Dr. ;  lyinip-in  hospital 
Mothe-GuyoD,  madame   da   la; 

Quletiats 
Mount-Sandford,    lord;     klQed, 

trial 
Mouiavieff ;  Ears 
Mourxoufle  ;        ConstaatliMJpIe, 

eastern  erapira 
Mosart;  music 
Mufisrleton;  Muggletoniaas 
Mulrhead,  J.  O. ;  triala,  \%t& 
Mulgrave,  eari  of;   adminJatra- 

tions 
Mulgrave,  earl ;  adminlsteations ; 

Ireland,  lord-lleul 
Mummiua,  L.  Corinth ;  paintinga 
Muncer;  levellers;  anaoaptiata 
Munchin,  St. ;  Limerick 
Mungo,  St. ;  abstinence 
Munich,  marshal ;  Perakop 
Munroe,  Mr. ;  United  SUtos 
Munroe,  lieut. ;  duel 
Munater,  eari  6i\  suicide 
Murat ;  Erfurth,  Naples 
Murdoch,  Mr. ;  gas 
Muredach.  St. ;  Killala 
Murillo;  Colombia 
Murray,  Mr. ;  penny-posi 
Murray,  sari  <»;  Sootiand 
Murray,  lady  Aug. ;  manlsge  act 
Munmy,  B. :  trialBh  1S41 
Murray,  sir  Jsmas ;  Tamgona 
Murray,  sir  George ;  sdaaLoistra- 

tlons 
Muflgrave.  air  Richard ;  dual 
Mu8hat»  Mr. ;  stssl 
Mustapha;  Turkey 
Mytton,  gensral :  Walss 


Nabis;  Sparta 
Nabonasaer;  astnmomT 
Nachimof^  admiral ;  Bmops 


INDEX. 


786 


Nadir  Shah  ;  Delhi.  Afghanistan 

Kapler,  admiral;  Portugal,  Bidoo, 
Baltic 

Napier,  of  Merchiston ;  loga- 
rithma;  Napier's  bonea 

Napier,  fen.  air  C. ;  Meeanee 

Napier,  lord ;  China 

Napier,  lord;  Edinburgh  Unir. ; 
United  States,  1866 

NapoleonBonaparte ;  France,  con- 
federation, legion  of  honour, 
roodela,  notables,  Cairo, 
B^ypt,  Elba,  Kontainebleau, 
Malta,  Mamelukes,  St.  He- 
lena. Bimploo,  vaccination 

Napoleon  Bonaparte  ;  baUU$  : 
Acre,  Areola,  Aspeme,  Au- 
erstadt,  Au^terlitz,  Bautzen, 
Borodino,  CasUglione,  Char- 
leroi,  Dresden,  Eckmuhl, 
Essling,  Eylau,  Friedlond,  ' 
Hanau,  Jena,  Ia  Rothi^ro, 
Leipsic,  Ligny,  Lodi,  Lutzen, 
Maran^,  Montereau,  Pul- 
tusk,  St.  Dizier,  Sixnplon, 
Tilsit,  Troyea,  Vienna,  Water- 
loo. Wurtzbuig,  Wurtzschen 

Napoleon,  king  of  Borne ;  Bona- 
parte, France 

Napoleon  III. ;  France,  Boulogne, 
Strasburg 

Narsoa ;  Goths.  Italy,  Rome 

Narvaez,  general ;  Spain 

Nash,  Mr. ;  theatres,  parks 

Nosmyth,  lieut. ;  SiUatria 

Nasr-ul-Din;  Peisia 

Nathan ;  foble 

Nathan,  rabbi ;  Bible 

Nathy.  or  David ;  Achonry 

Nausicaa;  soap 

Naylor,  James ;  impostor 

Nearchus;  sugar 

Nebuchadnezzar ;  Jews,  Tyre, 
Babylon 

Necho;  Egypt 

Nelson,  admiral  lord ;  Aboukir, 
Boulonie,  Cofienhagen,  Na- 
ples, Nile,  Rosetta,  Sauta 
Cruz,  Teneriffe,  Trafalgar, 
Nelson's  funeral 

Nemours,  due  de ;  Ravenna 

Nero;  Rome 

Nest,  wife  of  Gerald  do  Windsor ; 
Wales 

Nestorius;  Nestorians 

Newcastle,  marqueesof ;  Mmraton- 
moor 

Newcastle,  duke  of;  administra- 
tions 

Newcastle,  duke  of;  administra- 
tions ;  Aberdeen 

Newenham.  W.  B. :  trials,  1844 

Newman,  rev.  Mr.,  and  Achilli ; 
trials,  1852 

Newport,  sir  John ;  exchequer 

Newton,  sir  Isaac ;  air,  binomial, 
diamond,  astronomy,  royal 
society,  hydroBtatics,  gravi- 
tation, mechanics 

Ney,  marshal  ;  Dennewitz, 
France,  Quatre-Bras,  Ulm, 
Ney 

Nicauder;  Sparta 

Niecoli,  Nicholas;  libraries 

Nicholas;  Nicholaites 

Nicholas,  emperor ;  Russia 

Nicholas  VI. ;  St.  Peter's,  Rome 

Nicholls;  aU  saints 

Nicephorus;  comets 

Nioephori,  emperors;  east  em- 
pire 

Nichols,  colonel ;  New  Tork 

Nicholson ;  tzials,  1818 


NioodemuB,  embalming 

Niebuhr ;  umbrellaa 

Niepce;  photography 

Nightingale,  Miss  F. ;  Scutari 

Ninus;  Assyria 

Nisbet.  sir  John ;  sdvocates 

Noad,  H. ;  electricity 

Noah ;  ark,  Armenia 

Noailles,  marshal ;  Dettingen 

Noli,  Antonio  de ;  Oape  de  Verd 

Noradine;  Damascus 

Norfolk,  Thomas,  duke  of;  ad- 
ministrations 

Norman,  sir  J. ;  lord  mayor 

Norman.  Robert ;  magnet 

Normanby  and  Buckingham, 
duke  of;  administrations 

Normanby,  marquess  of;  admi- 
nistrations, Ireland ;  lord- 
lieutenant 

Normandy,  Rcdlo;  Normandy 

North,  sir  Francis  ;  king's 
cotmsel 

North,  Frederick,  lord ;  adminis- 
trations 

Northampton,  Henry,  eari  of; 
admmistrations 

Northington,  earl  of;  adminis- 
trations, lord  chancellor, 
Ireland 

Northumberland,  Algernon,  earl 
of;  administrations 

Northumberland,  Dudley,  duke; 
administ  rations 

Northumberland,  Hugh,  duke  of; 
Ireland,  lord-lieutenant 

Northumberland,  earl ;  coaches 

Northumberland,  earl  of;  Man 

Northumberland;  Otterbnm 

Norton,  sir  Fletcher ;  alt. -gen. 

Norton,  Joffery  de ;  recorder 

Norton  v.  lord  Melbourne ;  tria]s> 
1836 

Nostrodamus ;  almanacs 

Nott,  general ;  India,  Ghiznee 

Nottingham,  Charles,  earl  of; 
administrations 

Nottingham,  Danid,  earl  of;  ad- 
ministrations 

Numa  Fompilius;  Bome^  calen- 
dar 

Numitor;  Alba 

Nufiez,  A.  ;  Paraguay 

Nyctimiis;  Arcadia 


O. 

Oakley,  sir  Charles ;  Madras 
O'Brien,  king ;  Limerick 
O'Brien,  W.  U.  ;  Ireland 
O'Connell,    Mr.   Daniel :     duel, 

emancipation,   repeal,  trials 

(1831. 1844X  his  death,  Ireland 
O'Connell,  Mr.  Moiigan ;  duel 
O'Connor,  Arthur;   press,   xlot^ 

trials,  1798 
O'Connor,  Roger ;  trials,  1817 
O'Connor,   Teig  MacQilpatrick ; 

ooml»t 
Octavius;  Eg^t 
Odin,  the  Divine ;  Sweden 
Odo,  earl  of  Kent ;  treasurer 
Odoacer;  Rome 
O'DonneU,  general ;  Spain 
(Edipus;  Boeotia 
CEootrua;  Arcadia,  Greece 
Oersted ;  electricitv,  magnetism 
Ogle,  George ;  duel 
Oglethorpe,  gen. ;  Georgia 
O'Orady,  Mr. ;  duel 
Ogygos ;  Athens,  dolugB 


O'Halloran,  Dr. ;  trials,  1818 

O'Keefe ;  trials,  1826 

01am  Fodla;  Ireland 

Olbers,  M. ;  astronomy.  Gibers, 
planet,  Vesta 

Oldcastle,  sir  John ;  Lollards, 
roastmg  alive 

Oliphant,  sir  William ;  advocate 

O'Loghlen,  sir  Michael;  Roman 
catholics 

Omi^ ;  Otaheite 

Omar,  the  caliph;  Alexandria, 
Ali 

Omar  Pacha;  Citate,  Montene- 
gro, Oltenitsa,  Ingour,  Russo- 
Turkish  war 

Ommaney,  capt. ;  Franklin 

O'Moore,  Rory ;  Carlow 

O'Neil ;  rebellion,  massacre 

O'Ncil,  Miss ;  theatres 

Onslow,  sir  Richard ;  adminis- 
trations 

Orange,  William,  prince  of;  Hol- 
land ;  Maestricht,  revolution 

Orange,  prince  of,  Quatre-Bras 

Ordogno,  king ;  Spain 

Orellana;  Amazonia 

Orestes,  son  of  Agamemnon 

Orestes ;  M  vcenw,  Sparta 

Oxford,  earl  of;  admiralty 

Oxford,  Robert,  earl  of;  admiuis- 
trationn 

Origen ;  Origeniats 

Orleans,  due  de ;  Agincourt 

Orleans,  duke  of ;  Algiers,  killed, 
France 

Orloff.  count ;  diamonds 

Ormoud^  James^  duke  of;  Ire- 
land 

Ormond,  earl  of;  combat 

Ormond,  marq.  of;  Rathmines 

Orr,  Wm. ;  trials,  1797 

Orrery,  earl  of;  orrery 

Osbaldiston,  Mr. ;  theatres* 

Osbom,  Sherard ;  PUmter, 
Franklin 

Osborne,  sir  Thoa. ;  administra- 
tions 

Oscar;  Sweden 

Osgodeby,  Adam  de ;  master  of 
the  rolls 

Osman;  Turkey 

Onsory,  lord ;  tea 

Ostius;  parricide 

Osymandias;  Egypt*  observato- 
rioa,  painting 

O'Syth,  St  ;  Ailesbury 

Othroan ;  Ali,  OttomoA,  Turkey 

Otho,  king ;  Greece 

Otho;  Germany 

Otto,  M. ;  Amiens 

Ottoacre ;  Bohemia 

Otto  Guericke ;  electricity 

Oude.  nabob  of;  Chunar 

Oudiuot,  manhal ;  Polotsk, 
Rome 

Outram,  sir  J. :  Mohammerah 

Ovid ;  banished,  Rome 

Owaln,  Lewis;  Wales 

Owen  Glendower ;  Wales 

Owen,  Robert;  sodidists 

Oxenden,  sir  George  ;  Surat 

Oxford,  Edward ;  trials,  1840 

Oxford,  earl  of;  administrations 

Oxford,  John,  earl  of;  yeomen 


P. 

Paddon,  lieni ;  C«rb^ 
Paget,  lord :  duel 
Paget»  lord;  trials,  1800 


u 


lord  Vi 


iM4 


IVA 


'9      ~~ 

Fft.»>7,  Jvuk  :  Gretxa-«TeeB 

Pak:r,;ruic,  Kr  Join ; 
tarJcM 


Pk:s;.UMl>ac4c.-«:>>-;  trnU.  IMS 
P«:n»,  c»ri:rA:.  kbot ;  Boom 
P».<Der,Mr. 
Palaficr,  Xr 

oxobcl ;  dad 


Tar.irTZ,  A-  ;  ftit»fc  Xwhptuii 
Pijitfire,  lord :  aAs:.: 
P*-^  Pucal ;  Corsica 
Paf  Accan,  a.'is.ir^ ;  Saf 
Pfepk*:  diHti-iii-iaj 
P^  :. ;  %usun-tt,;nz0e 
txiZTzia  Cxmr:T ;  ran-dial 
^rac*^Kzs;  aI.rL«m]r 
Park.  U'2:lz3;  Africa 
Parker,  a^-r-iral ;  C 
Parser,  t«top ;  litunfy 
Patker  f  a,-xuiieer,  :  tziala^  1797 
Parker,  ca^  t.  ;  Bminrne 
Parker,  s:r  Peter ;  Beilaxr 
Paritcr,  arcbbtahop ;  antipories 
Parker.  Thr  maa,  Icrd ;  a^iniijui*- 

tTali<>Da,  lord  char.cel^jr 
ParkruTBt.  bishop;  Bi'oi« 
Parma,  dike  of ;  Trrea 
Pamxft.  prmoeof;  Antwerp 
Pam&«mo;  M«c««loEiia 
PariK.I,  rir  Bex.^;  admmistnr 

Parr,  Thomaa ;  lon^rrttj 
Parrfaaaos;  pai^t.^^ 
Pait\  ;  nnrth  west  pasiage 
Parfr'tu,  i^xuiij ;  Cock-kauB ghost, 

injt<«tors 
Pulhoiazu.  the ;  Irdand 
Paaml ;  air.  eak^l:\tmg  machine 
Paskiewitsch :  J^ilistria,  Bnnria 
Pa*}uiii :  pasqnisad<4 
Patch,  Mr.  :  tnala,  1S>A 
Pate,  lieot.  ;  tnala,  ISiO 
Paton,  Hiss ;  theatres 
PtOrick.  St.;   Arda^h.  Armagh, 

Dobtin,  isles,  ih«mrock 
FiKol;  anchorite 
Paal,  St. ;  Damaacos,  Rome 
Pan]  ;  hermha.  monks 
Panl  riather. ;  bkmd 
Paal  II. :  porple,  pope 
Paal.  sir  Jl,  Ac  ;  trUla,  1855 
Paulmtia ;  bella,  reformati<in 
Faull,  Mr. :  duel 
Paulalio.  Annfesto:  cloge 
Pauloa  .£inilius ;  Cannait 
Paolxia,  Marcus ;  oompitaB 
Paalos;  Abrahamites 
Fanaanias ;     Macedoo,    FlatsBSi, 

Sparto 
Faosiaa,  of  Sicron  ;  paintinsr 
Faxton,  ^  Joseph  ;  exhibition 

of  1S51 :  crystal  palace 
Payne,  Mr.  6. ;  duel 
Peace,  the  prince  of;  Spain 
Fearce,  toe. ;  gold  n^iery 
Pedro  ;  Fortngal,  Bxaafl    . 
Psel,  colonel ;  West  Anatnlis 


Botiewt ;  oottop  pmzs 
Feci.  Rr  Bobert:  »drrinastntaan 
Csie}.  acta  d  parinmrpl,  con- 
serratrre,  eora  btZ,  dcci.  iik- 
oaae-tax,  Ecs^aad.  tariff 
Feele,Jamea; 
Pckah.  kicf :  Ji 
Ptia^tas ;  Pelas-J 
Arcadia 


Ptr*iua.  UCrm:  dwarf 
PL:1'P,  Sc-  Sen: 
PLi.:p,  king ; 
Philip   II. ;   Biugmidr, 


PciLAm,  I«d; 

PelLeeier;  ciizine 

PeOev.  sir  i>dvard:  Barslfaattles 

Pehier.  M. ;  u'^el,  iriala.  1S.<5 

Fecbertoo,  sir  Praaeis;    kiag^s 

bench 
Pembroke,  esH  of; 


Philip  the  Good  ;  Hofland 
FhiLp;   Mapwhm,  Xbuln.  <r=j 


Te=- 


lin 


Fsmbrokc;  eail  of;  lotd  lieute- 
nant 

Pembroke,  carl  of;  linoofai,  peo- 
tect««ates 

Pembroke,  TLrtnas,  earl  of;  Salis- 
bury, adrniralty 

Penn,  ^inJral :  Jan:a>ca 

Pcx^n.  Wm. ;  F 
ker 

Pennant;  Fd 

Feonefeatbo; 
bench 

Peony,  cm^  ; 

Pcrarral,  h^«.  8f«T>eer;  att.- 
gcn.,  adnr.inistrayions,  aaaaa- 
sirist^.  En«rland 

Fercy.svmmned  Hcc^nr;  Otter- 
bam 

Percy,  iord ;  fHirltam,  Homctden 

Fer4:ocaa;  M*^edoD 

Perdita,  Mra.  Robniaon :  theatres 

Pettrire.  M.  :  credit  mobiljer 

p^re  la  Chaise ;  oemetexies 

Perides;  Athens 

Peri  .'.us :  brazen  baH 

Perkin  Warheck ;  rebd^ion 

Perkina  and  Heath  ;  engravtog. 
cropper-plate  priutii^ 

Pcioase,  La 

Perreaoj^  brothen ;  fSorgesy ; 
triala,  1776 

Peireira;  deaf  and  dontb 

Perring.  John  :  lord  maTor 

Perry.  Mr.  ;  Ifontta^  Ckromid*: 
trials.  ISIO 

Perry,  lieut ;  triala.  l&M 

Penens ;  Persia,  quoits 

Pervius;  satires 

Peter,  St.  ;  bishops 

Peter  and  FauJ ;  Bome,  coofirma- 
tion 
>  Peter  the  Cmel ;  Spain.  Montid 

Peter  the  Great ;  Kuania,  Petan- 
boTfr,  Narra,  Faltova 

Peter    the    Hermit ; 
chaplets 

Peter  the  Wild  Boy 

Petion;  Port-cn-Piince 

Petit;  optica 

Peto,  8.  M. ;  diovama 

Petrarch  and  Laura 

Petre,  air  William;  admimstia- 
tions 

Petronius;  Bthiopta 

Pettigrew.  T.  ;  epitaphs 

Petty,  lonl  Henry; 
tiona 

Petty,  sir  Wm.  ;  Roral  Society 

PhaLiria ;  brazen  bull 

FhanrooHod;  France 

Pharaohs;  Egypt 

Phamacea;  Pootos,  Oappadoda 

Fliauloon,  C. ;  Siau 


RCip, 

Pkiup,  &QC  d'OfUaai, 

FhLip  of  Vakaa; 

pSan 

Philip  II. ;  gagiMMl  SpalB 
Philippa,    quesa    (MW.     UL  ^ 

[KuLam 
PhiHip,    goremor;    3fr"  K«~r*. 


■  FUIIips ;  Sevport 
'  PLivjoeter;  ^gypt 


!  Philca ;  thea^ 
Fhipfi^ 


I 

Phipr«,  sir  Coostaotizw;    lord 
hi^cbaaoeUor 
:  PhocascempuoftheEaat 
;  Ireland 


laws 

,  PbctinaOalhiB:  rhetoric 

,  Phrynis;  lyre 

goldea  fleece,  Argo- 
aaatic 

Poland 
Piaxai.M.:  Ot«s 
Pleard;  Adamites 
Ficaro;  globe 
Picart;  astmsiomy 
Pichegra;  Maanheiin 
Pifdcard.  air  Henry ;  krd  mayor 

i  PSctoo.    general ;   Qoatre-Bnis  ; 

I         triala.  1806 
Pfetor.  Fabins;  coinage 
Pierte.  general ;  United  Btatea 
Pigot.  Band  Bidiard;  exchequer 
P^ot.lofd ;  India,  Fteoi  diamond 
Pigot,  nuyoTireB. ;  Malta 
Pike,  Misa ;  Cork,  triala.  ISOO 
FUkiagton.  hiabop ;  Utwfgy 
Pilpay;  fables 
Pindar.  FMer.  Dr.  Wakoi ;  trials. 

1807 
Ptesader;  nandbattks 
Plnstratas;  Athens,  lilsazy 

'  PStI;  diamond 

,  Pitt.  WiDiam ;  see  Omtham,  taH 

\  Ptttk  William ;   fdrnmH^mtitrnt, 
India  bai,  reform,  doel 

■  PfoB  YI^    pope ;    eodesiastkal 


Phis  VTL  ;  pope,  eoneoidat 
'  Flos  IX. ;  paiial 
I         eeptkm 


Plato;  academies^  anatomy,  an- 

tipodea,  names,  Sicily 
Flatt  Mr. ;  Spa-fidda*  rk>ts 
Platta,  John;  execationa 
Plaatitia;  BMtain 
Play&ir;  get^ogy 
.  Pliny,   the  nataialisi ;    pearls. 


Pliny,  Jnnior;  Bome 
■  Fhimer,  sir  Thomas  ;  attorney- 

general 
I  Plnuet,  lotd ;  rbanenllnr  of  Ir- 
I        had 


INDEX. 


787 


Pocock,  admiral ;   Cuba,   imTal 
battles 

PogaoD,  N.  ;  planets 

Poitevin,  M. ;  ballooua 

Poltien,  Roger  de  ;  Liverpool 

Pole,  Mr.  Weilesley  ;  adminiatra- 
tiona»  trialflk  1825 

Poleroon:  eclectics 

Polemon ;  Boephorus 

Poiignac,    prince    de ;    Fntuce, 
trials,  1830 

Polk,  Mr.  ;  United  States 

Pollio,  C. ;  slavery 

Pollock,  general ;  India 

Pollock,  sir  Frederick ;  attorney- 
ffenenU,  exchequer 

Polybius,  signals ;  telegraphs 

Polybius ;  Achaia,  physic 

Polydore  Vergil ;  sueesing 

Polydorus;  LaocoOn 

Pomare;  Otaheite 

Pompev;  Pharsalia 

Ponoe  ae  Leon ;  flowers 

Ponce,  Pedro  do ;  deaf  and  dumb 

Pond,  J.  ;  Greenwich 

Poiisonby,  George,  chancellor  of 
Ireland 

Ponte-Corvo :  Dennewits 

Pontique,  Camcleon ;  music 

Pontius,  C.  ;  Caudine  forks 

Pontius  Pilate ;  Jews 

Pope,    Alexander ;    alexandrine 
verse ;  satire 

Popham,    sir    Home ;    Buenos- 
Ayres,  Cape,  trials,  1S07 

Popham,  migor ;  India 

Poppssa,  wife  of  Nero ;  masks 

Porsenna;  labyrinth 

Person;  writing 

Porter,  sir  Charles ;  Limerick 

Portland,  duke  of;  Ireland, lord- 
lieutenant 

Portland,  earl  of;  administrations 

Portland,  duke  of;  Junius 

Portland,  duke  of;  administra- 
tions 

Portland,  Bichard,  earl  of;  ad- 
ministrations 

Portman,    sir    William ;    king's 
bench 

Portsmouth,  earl  of;  trials.  1828 

Posidonius;  atmosphere^  moon, 
tides 

Pottinger,  sir  H.  ;  China 

Powel.  Langhame,  and  Foyer, 
colonels ;  Wales 

Powell,  F. ;  pedestrian 

Power,  Mr. ;  wrecks 

Power,  Mrs.  Mary ;  longevity. 

Puwle^  sir  G. ;  Londonderry 

Poyer,  colonel ;  Wales 

Praxiteles;  mirrors 

Premislaus;  Poland 

Preston,  lord ;  conspiracy 

Pretender,  the ;   Culloden,  Fsl- 
kirk,  Preston-pans 

Pretsch,  P. ;  photography 

Prevost,  sir  Geoiige  ;  Flattsburg 

Priam ;  Ilium,  Troy 

Price,  Mr. ;  duel 

Price,  Mr. ;  theatres 

Price.  Dr. ;  alchemy 

Price ;  Agapemonians 

Price,  Charles ;  lord  mayor 

Price,  adm. ;  Petropaulovski 

Pricbard,  Dr. ;  ethnology 

Prlessnitz,  Vincents ;  hydropathy 

Priestley,  Dr. ;  earthquakes,  eu- 
diometer, nitrous  gas,  oxygen 

Pride,  coL  ;  Pride's  purge,  Rump 
parliament 

Probert;  trials,  1824 

Probus;  msssacre 


Prodes;  biarch 

Proctor,  gen.  ;  Canada 

Prodicus;  Adamite 

Psammetichus  ;  Egypt,  laby- 
rinth, language,  sieges 

Pseusennes;  Bgypt 

Ptolemy ;  Bible,  iSeptuaglnt 

Ptolemy ;  Ipsus 

Ptolemy  Epiphanes ;  Rosetta 

Ptolemy  Euergetes ;  Egypt 

Ptolemy  Philiulelphus ;  Egypt 

Ptolemy;  pharos 

Ptolemy  ;  arithmetic 

Ptolemy  Boter ;  academies 

Publius  Poethumius  Tubertus; 
ovation 

Puckeridge ;  harmonic  strings 

Puckering,  sir  John;  lord  high 
chancellor 

Pullen,  capt ;  Franklin 

Puteney,  rt.  hou.  Mr. ;  admini- 
strations 

Pulteney,  sir  Jsmes ;  Fenrol 

Purefoy ;  trials,  1794 

Pusey,  Dr. ;  Puseyism 

Pye,  Henry  James;  poet-lauveat 

Pyrrho;  sceptics 

Pyrrhus ;  Mooedon 

Pyrrhus;  E})iru8.  Tarentum 

Pythagoras  ;  acoustics,  astro- 
nomy, Egypt,  the  globe,  har- 
monic strings,  shoes,  solar 
system,  spheres 


Q. 


Quentin,  colonel ;  duel,  trials,  181 4 
Quickley,  Mrs.  ;  tavern 
Quin.  Mr. ;  theatres 
Quintilia  ;  Quintiliana 
Quintilius ;  Rome 
Quintin;  Libertines 
Quintus  Fabius ;  painting 
Qulros;  New  Hebrides 


R. 


Rabsbakeh :  Assyria  proper 
Rachel,  Madame ;  theatres 
Radcliffe,  Dr.  John  ;  library 
Radnor,  earl  of ;  administrations 
Rae,  Dr. ;  Franklin 
Raglan,  kL  ;  Busso-Txirkish  war 
Raikes,   Mr. ;     Sunday   schools, 

educatiOTu  infantidde 
Raleigh,  sir  Walter ;  dress,  Penn- 

grlvania,  Trinidad,  Vii^nia, 
nglaod 
Rsmage;  telescopes 
Ramesis;  Egypt 
Ramirez;  Spam 
Ramires  II. ;  Bemincas 
Rameses;  Egypt 
Ramsay,  David;  combat 
Ramsay,  sir -George;  duel 
Ranctf :  Trappists 
Randolph,  T. ;  postmaster 
Raphael;  cartoons 
Raphael*  Mr.  Alexander ;  Roman 

Catholics 
Rawdon,  lovd:  Camden 
Rawlinson,  coL;  Babylon,  Behis- 

tfin 
Rayhere,  Bartholomew,  St. 
Raymond,   lord  ;   king's  bench, 

chief  Justice 
Raymond,  lord ;  att.-gen.,  king's 

bench 
Read,  alderman ;  pressing 


Reaumur:  light 
Reay,  Miss,  killed ;  trials,  1779 
Reay,  lord ;  combat 
Rebeccaites;  trials,  1848 
Reoorda ;  binomial  root 
Redanies,  D. ;  execution,- 1867 
Redesdale.  lord;  att-gen.,  lord 

high  chancellor  of  Ireland 
Redpath.  L.  ;  trials,  1867 
Reece,  R  ;  bags 
Reeves,  Mr.  John :  levellers 
Regnier,     mneral  ;       KaUtsch, 

Maida,  Ximera 
Regulus ;  St  Andrew's,  bishops, 

Scotland 
Regulus,  Marcus  Attiliua  ;  Car- 
thage 
Reid,  gen. ;  India,  1867 
Reichenbach;  paraflSne 
Reichstadt,  duke  de ;  France 
Keinbauer, Bavarian  priest;  trials, 

1829 
Remigius  de  Fescamp ;   lincoln, 

bishopric 
Remy,  St  ;  Rbeims 
Renata  Maria ;  witchcraft 
Renaudot,  M. ;  newsptpers 
Renuie,  architect;    oreakwater, 
Vauxhall-bridge,    Waterloo- 
bridge 
Reschid  racha;  Turkey 
Reetitutus ;  London,  bishopric 
Reuss;  engraving 
Reynere,  Richard;  sheriff 
Reynolds,    sir    Joshua  ;    royal 

academy 
Reynolds,    admiral  ;     lost,    St. 

Qtorge 
Reynolds,  eapt ;  trials,  1840 
Reynolds,  capt.  ;  naval  action 
Reyn<4ds,  Geo.  Kugent ;  duel 
Rhys  ab  Owaiu ;  Wales 
Rhys  ab  Tewdwr ;  Wales 
Riall,  ^n. ;  Chippawa 
Rice,  it.  hon.  Spring ;  adminis- 
trations 
Rich,  Richard,  lord ;  lord  cihan- 

ceUor 

Richai-d  I. ;   England,  Acre,  As- 

calon,  ContT  de  Lion,  Dim  ft 

men  droit,  laws,  Oleron 

Richard  II.  murdered  ;  Eki^and 

Richard   III.;    Bosworth   field, 

England 
Richardson,  sfa*  John ;  Franklin 
Richardson.  H.;  life-boat 
Richelieu,  duke -of ;  Closterssven 
Richer,  M. ;  earth 
Ricfaman;  «]ectricity 
Richmond,   duke   of;    adnkinis- 

trations,  Ireland,  duel 
Richmond,  earl  of;  Richmond 
Ridel,  Stephen  ;  Id.  chancellor 
Rider,  William;  silk  hose 
Ridley,  bishop;  persecuUoos 
Riego^  put  to  death ;  Spain 
Riguet,  M. ;  tunnels 
Rinoelheim,    Sifroi,    count    of; 

Brandenburg 
Rinuocini,  Octavio ;  opera 
Rtpon,  earl  of;  administrations 
Rivers,  earl,  murdered ;  Pomftvt 
Rizzio,  David;  Scotland 
Robert;  Cistercians 
Robert  I.;  Scotland 
Robert  IL  ;  Scotland 
Robert,    duke    of    Normandy ; 

Tinchebrav 
Robert  II.    of  France;    pilgri- 
mages 
Robespierre ;  reign  of  terror  in 

France;  Franco 
Robin  Hood ;  robbers,  archery 
8  D 


788 


INDEX. 


BoblnaoD,  Mrs.  Marj,  Perdita; 

theatres 
Robinson  Crusoe  ;     Juan   7er- 

nandes 
RoUoson,  F. ;  admioistrations 
Bobinson,  James ;  ether 
RobiosoD,  Mr.R ;  Independents 
Robiuson,   TbonuM ;    Agapemo- 

niani 
Robinson,  air  Thomas ;  adminJa- 

tiations 
Robinson,  of  Toric,  murdered; 

trials,  1858 
Rofason.  W. ;  triala.  1856 
Rochambeau,     senersl  ;     T<nrk 

town.  United  States 
Rockingham ;  administrati<ma 
Rochester;  White  Tower 
Rochescer,  earl  of;   administra* 

tlons 
Rochester,  Robert,  Tisoonnt;  ad- 
ministrations 
Roohibrd,  earl  of;   administra- 
tions 
Roderick  the  Great ;  Walee 
Rodil,  gsneral ;  Spain 
Rodney ;  Bt.  Bustatia 
Rodolph,  of  Hapsbuifr :  Austria 
Rodolph,  of  Nurembunr :  Wire 
Roebuck,  Mr. ;   duel,  oiBoaatopoI 

(note) 
Roger,  king ;  Bldlr 
Rogers^  capt ;  Banamss 
Rogffewein  ;     eircumnaTigator, 

Baster  Island 
Romaiu,  M. ;  balloons 
Romilly,  sir  Samuel ;  suidde 
Romilly,  sir  J. ;  master  of  rolls 
Romulus ;  calendar,  Rome,  Alba, 

anispioes 
Romulus  Augustulus;    western 

empire 
Rooke,  admiral  sir  Gewge ;  snulf, 

Aldem^y,   Cadis,    Gape    la 

Hogne,  Gibraltar,  Cape  Bt 

Yineent,  Vigo 
Roper,  oolonel ;  duel 
Rons;  Buenos Ayres 
Rosebenr7,oountes8  of ;  tris]s,1814 
Rosene,  general;  Londondeiry 
Rosenhsgen,  rer.  J. ;  Junius 
Ross,  sir  J.;  Franklin,  north-west 


Ross,  colonel ;  dueUiug 
Ross,  general;  Baltimore,  Wash- 
ington 
Poaee,  earl  of;  tolesoopes,  Royal 

Bodety 
Bosser,  Mr.,  and  Miss  Darbon; 

trials,  1841 
Rossi,  count ;  murdered,  Rome 
Rosslyn.  lord :  administrations 
Rostoponin:  Moscow 
Roswell,  sir  H. ;  America 
Rothesay,  duke 
Rothschild,  baron ;  Jews 
Rowan,  Arohd.  Hamilton ;  trials, 

17M,  1805 
Rows,  Nicholas:  poot-laursat 
Rowley,  admiral;  Bourbon 
Rozana;  Maoedon 
Rozbuivh,  duke  of ;  Boocaoolo 
Rosier,  M. ;  balloons 
Rndbeok,  Ol. ;  thorsdo  duct 
Rudd,  cap.  Thoa. ;  engineers 
RumbokC  Mr.,  M.P. ;  adminJty 
Rui^eet  Sing ;  Aijghanlstan 
RuF«rt,  pruice;    election,    Bir- 
mingham. Bdgehill,MarBton- 
y.      moor,  Naseby,  Nawaric 
Bnrick ;  RuMla 
Rush,  Bloomfiald.  the  murderer; 
triam849 


Russell,  E.;  admiralty.  La  Hogue 

Russell,  adonel ;  Guards 

Russell,  lord ;  England 

Ruaiell,  C. ;  suicide 

Russell,  lord  John ;  Aberdeen, 
administratioDa,  reform  in 
parliament 

Rusaell,  J.  Soott;  fires,  steam- 
navigation 

Rus8ell,Tord  W. ;  triala,  1840 

Ruthren,  Mr. ;  duel 

Rutland,  duke  of;  administra- 
tions 

Rutland,  duke  of;  administra- 
tlona,  Ireland 

Ruyter ;  see  De  Ruyter 

Ryder,  hon.  RIohard;  adminis- 
trations 

Ryder,  air  Dudley;  king's  bench 


8. 


Sabatta  Levi ;  impostor 
SaoheTersl,  Dr.;    High  Church 

party 
SackTiUe.  lord  Gaoige ;  Minden 
Sadleir.  J. ;  suicide 
Sadler,  Mr. ;  balloons 
Sadler,  Mr. ;  Sadler's  Wells 
Sadler,  air  Ralph;    administra- 
tions 
Ssgarelli ;  Apcstolid 
St  John,  William;    lord  ohsn- 

cellor 
Bt  Amaud,    marshal ;     Russo- 

Turkish  war.  Alma 
Bt  Alban's.  duchees  of  (late  Miss 

MeUon);  theatres 
St  Charo ;  concordance 
St  Cyr,  marshal ;  Dresden 
St  CkKnge.  Mr. ;  trials,  1798 
St  John,  John  de ;  treasurer 
St  John  Long ;  quack 
Bt    John,     Henry,    afterwards 
lord  Bolingbroke;  adminis- 
trations 
St  Leonards,  lord;   administra 

tions,  lord  high  chancellor 
St  Mars,  M.  de ;  Iron  mask 
St  Ruth,  general ;  Aughrim 
St  Vincent  the  earl ;  admiralty, 

Gape  Bt  Vincent 
Saladin ;     AsoaLon,    Damaaoul^ 

"Egypt,  Syria 
Salomons,  D. ;  lord  mayor,  Jews 
Bale^  lady;  India 
Sale,  sir  Robert ;  Moodkea 
Salinei^  Margaret  de;  Gibraltar 
Salisbuiy,  bbhop  of;  assay 
Salisbuzy,  marquess  of;    admi- 
nistrations 
Salisbury,  Robert^  earl  of;  admi- 
nistrations 
Salisbury,  counteai  of;  garter 
Salisbury,  earl  of;  eoronets 
Salisbury,  earl  of;  Orieans 
Sallo,  Denis  de ;  critic^  magariaes 
Salt,  T. ;  Alpaca 
Salrinus  Armatus ;  n)ectad[ea 
Salrius  Jullanus ;  edicts 
Sampson,  Bt ;  Bt  Dttri4's  arch- 
bishop 
Baaballat;  Samaritans 
Saneho,  king;  Portugal 
Sancho.king;  Spain 
Sancrofb ;  bishops,  England 
Sanders,  will-forger ;  trials,  1844 
Sandwich,  earl  of;  administra- 
tions, nsTsl  battles.  Solebay 
Ssndwich,  earl  of;  aaministra- 
tiaD%  Aix-la-Chapelle 


As- 


Sandys,  bishop ;  Bible 

Sandya,  lord ;  administrationa 

Sandys,  Mr. ;  administratkna 

Sapor;  Persia 

Sapnho;  Sapphic  Texas 

Baroauapalus ;  Assyria 

Bardanapalus  IL  or  Bsimc; 
Syria 

Sarpi,  Paulo ;  thermometer 

Sarpi,  Peter;  blood,  droulatioo 

Saturn ;  aborigines 

Saul,  kinpi  Ammonites 

Saumares,  sir  James ;  AJgeslraa 

Saunders;  trials,  1853 

Saonden^  commander ;  Franklin 

Saunders,  sir  Charles;  adminis- 
trations 

Savage,  W. ;  printing  in  colours 

Savaiy;  tiisla,  1825 

Savery,  capt ;  steam-engine 

Savoy.  Baldwin,  duke  of ;  Malta, 
knights 

Bawtre,   sir   William;    baming 
alive;  Lollards 

Saxe,  count ;  Fontenoy 

Saxony,  king  of;  Leiptde 

Saye  and  Sele,  lord ;  administra- 
tions 

Saye,  lord,  beheaded ;  Cade 

Scanderbeg;  Alburn^ 

Scanlan,  Mr. ;  triala,  16S0 

Sehamyl;  Circssda 

Bohelling;  electricity 

Bchede;  nitrio  add,  oxygen, 
phosphomsy  pruasic  acid, 
tartaric  add,  pnotogr^>hy 

Bdseiner,     Ghristopber ;     helio- 


caleulating 


meter 
Scheuts,     Ml 
machine 
Schilders.  general ;  Bilistria 
Sohtmmelpennlck ;  Hcdland 
Schmidt;  oigans 
BchcBftr,  Peter ;  printing 
Bchflnbetai,  M. ;  gun*cotton,  oeooe 
Scholey,  Geoige ;  lord  msyor 
Schomoierg,  capt. ;  naval  action 
Schombexg,  duke  of ;  Boyne,  Ire- 
land, Londonderry,  Carrick- 
feigus 
Sohombuxgk,  R. ;  Victoria  ragia 
Sduroeder ;  piano*ft»rtes 
ScLwartx,  M.;  gunpowder 
Schwartsenberg,  prtnee  of.  Dres- 

den,  Ftoe  Cbampenoise 
Schwerin,  mamhal ;  Prague 
Bclpio  Afrleanus;    honour,  Nu- 

mantia,  Rome,  &una 
Soott,  American  general;  Mex- 
ico, United  SUtes 
Soott,  M. ;  duelling 
Soott  sir  Walter;  Scotland 
Soott,  Died.:  U.  States,  1657 
Scudamore,  lord ;  apples 
Scull  V ;  penal  laws 
ScyUis;  marble 

Seabuiy,  Dr.  Samuel ;  bishoprics 
Seaforth,  Kennet,  eari  of;  thisUe 
Sebaeon;  S)gypt 
Sebastiani,  marshal ;  Talavera 
Sebert;  Westminster  abbqr 
Softon  9.  Hopwood ;  trials.  1855 
Selden :  seas,  noets-laureat 
Seleucus;  Anuoch 
Seleucus ;  Syria,  omen%  Ipsos 
Seleucus  Nioator;  Setonddes 
Sellm;  Turkay.  Syria 
Selim  II. ;  Turkey 
Selkirk,  Alexander;  Juan  Fer- 
nandas 
Sellis,  the  valet ;  suidde 
Bemiramis,    que«i ; 
eunucfaa 


INDEX. 


789 


Bemple,  mi^or ;  trialu,  1795 

Seneca,  pot  to  death ;  Rome 

Sennacherib;  Anyria 

Sennefelder ;  lithography,  en- 
graying 

Sergliu  I.  pope ;  nativity,  puri- 
fication 

Sergiufl  II.  pope 

Sergiua;  Koran 

SenretUB,  Michael;  Unitariana, 
roastinflr  idive,  Arians,  blood 

Senriufl  TuUitu ;  coins,  oeDsua 

Sesostrii;  Egypt 

Settalla;  bunung^glasaes 

Severus ;  Britain,  SeYenu^  Roman 
walk 

Seward,  Dunsinane 

Seymour,  air  Bdward ;  adminis- 
trations; speaker 

Seymour,  lord ;  administrations 

Seymour,  Edvraird,  duke  of  So- 
merset; England 

Seymour,  sir  Edward  ;  speaker 

Sejrmour,  lord ;  duel 

Seymour,  lady ;  tournament 

ShadwelU  Thomas ;  poet-laureat 

Shaftesbury,  earl  of;  adminis- 
trations 

Shah  Soigah ;  India 

Shakspeare ;  draipa,  mulberry- 
tree,  Shakspeare 

Shalroaneser;  Assyria 

Sharpe,  arch.-;  murdered,  Scot* 
land 

Sharpe,  Mr.  Granville;  n«gro, 
Somerset 

Shaw,  sir  James ;  lord  mayor 

Shaw,  sir  John ;  Oreenock 

Sheares,  the  Messrs. ;  trials,  1798 

Shelbiune,  earl  of;  administra- 
tions ;  duel 

Sheldon,  William;  tapestry 

Sheppard,  Jack ;  execution,  1724 

Sheridan,  R.  B. ;  administrations ; 
comedy,  theatres 

Sheridan,  Dr. ;  trials,  1811 

Shillibeer ;  omnibuses 

Shipley;  arts 

Shovel,  sir  Cloudesley ;  ScUly 

Shrewsbury,  duke  of;  adminis- 
trations 

Shrewsbury^  earl  of;  Ireland, 
England 

Shrewsbury,  Tidbot,  earl  of; 
Patay 

Sibour,  archbp. ;  Franoeb  1857 

Sicard,  abh6;  deaf  and  dumb 

Siddona,  Mrs. ;  theatres 

Sidmouth,  viset.  ;  administra- 
tions, green  bog ;  speaker 

Sienna,  Balthasar ;  scenes 

Si^yte ;  French  directory 

Sigismund;  Germany 

Sigismund;  Bohemia 

Sigismund ;  Hungary,  NioopoUs 

Sigismund;  Poland 

Sigismund,  John ;  Prussia 

Simeon  the  Stylite ;  abstinence 

Simmons ;  trials,  1808 

Simnel,  Lambert ;  rebellion 

Simon  Magna ;  Adrianista^  Simo- 
nians 

Simonides ;  letters,  mnemonics 

Simplicius,  pope 

Simplicius,  St. ;  collar  of  SB. 

Simpson,  Dr. ;  ether 

Simpson,  the  traveller ;  suicide 

Sindercomb;  eonspiracrtr 

Sinffh,  Runjoor :  Aliwal 

Sisyphus;  Corinth 

Sixtus,  St.,  pope 

Sixtus,  pope 

Sixtus  v.,  pope ;  Interdict 


8krznecki,genend;  Praga,WawK 
Sligo,  marquess  of;  triau,  181S 
Sloane,    sir  Hans;    apothecary, 
Jesuit's    bark,   British  Mu- 
seum, Chelsea 
Sloanes ;  trials,  1851 
Smart,  A. ;  suicide 
Smeaton.  Mr. ;  Eddystone,  canal 
Smeaton,  sir  John  ;  Wigan 
Smirke,  R. ;  po8tH)ffice 
Smirke,    &;    Beihlem,    British 

Museum 
Smith,  Chs.j  lord  mayor 
Smith,  sir  Harry;  Indb,  Aliwal, 

KaAaria,  Sutl^ 
Smith,  Joseph;  savings*  banks, 

Mormon!  tes 
Smith,  Madeleine ;  trials,  1857 
Smith,  Thomas ;  lord  vcmvot 
Smith.    Miss,    v.    eari   Iweis ; 

trials,  1846 
Smith,  capt. ;  duel,  trials,  1880 
Smith,  Adam ;  political  economy 
Smith,     Mr.     Beaumont;      ex- 
chequer, trials,  1841 
Smith,  Sam.  Sidney;  trials,  1843 
Smith,  sir  Sidney  ;  Acre 
Smith,  Mr.  Thomas ;  customs 
Smith,  J. :  bribei^ ;  trials,  1854 
Smith  and  Marknam,  captains; 

duel,  trials,  1880 
Smith,  W. ;  geology 
Smvth(will case);  trials,  1855 
Snellius;  optics 
Snow,  Dr. ;  amylene 
Sobieski,  John ;  Poland 
Sodnus,    Faustus  and    LsbUus; 
uitl-trinitarians,  ariana,  imi- 
tarians 
Socrates ;  moral  philosophy 
Solomon;  Jerusalem 
Solon ;  laws,  tax 
Solyman ;     Turkey,     Belgrade^ 

Vienna 
Solyman   II.;  Hungary,  Buda, 

Mohats 
Solyman  HI. ;  Turkev 
Bomers,  lord;  admlnistrationa 
Somers,  sir  Qeoige ;  Bermudas 
Somerset,  Robert,  earl  of;   ad- 
ministrations 
Somerset,  Edward  Seymour,  duke 
of;  administrations,  England, 
protector 
Sophia,  princess ;  Hanover 
Sophia  Dorothea;  queens  (Geo. 

'■') 
Sophocles;  tragedy 
Sorel,  Agnes ;  Jewellery 
Sostratus;  phiuros 
Soto,  Ferdinand  de ;  Louisiana 
Soult,  marshal ;  Albuera,  Oporto, 
Orthte,    Pyieneea,    Tarbes, 
Toulouse^  villa  Fnnca,  mi- 
nister 
Southey,  Robert ;  poet-laureat 
Spalding,  Mr.;  diving-bell 
Sparkes,  George ;  triids,  1853 
Spellman,  sir  John  ;  paper-mak- 
ing, Dartford 
Spencer,  earl ;  administrations 
Spencer,  Mr. :  eleobx>type 
Spenser,  B. ;  allegory,  poet-lau- 
reat, verse 
Spert,  sir  Thos.;  Trinity-house 
Spina,  Alexander  de ;  speotacles 
Spinosa;  atheism 
Spollen.  Jas.;  trials,  1857 
Spuxgeon,  C;  Surrey  Gardens 
Spursheim;  oraniology 
Stackpole,  captain ;  duel 
Stackpoles ;  trials.  1853 
Stafford,  lord ;  p<^iish  plot 


Staflbrd,  marquess  of;  Blooms- 
bury 

Staines,  sir  William ;  lord  mayor 

Stair,  earl  of;  Dettingen 

Stalker,  gen.;  Bushire,  snleide 

Stanberry,  John ;  Eton 

Stanhope,  earl  of;  administra- 
tions 

Stanhope,  eari ;  printing-press 

Stanhope,  col.;  trials,  1810 

Stanhope,  hon.  col. ;  suicide 

Stanhope,  lieut-gen.;  Minorca 

Stanislaus;  Poland 

Stanley,  sir  John  ;  Man 

Stanley,  sir  William;  oUamber- 

Stanley.  lord,  afterwards  earl  of 

Derby;  administrations 
Stanley,  lord,  of  Alderiey ;   ad- 
ministrations 
Stanley,  sir  Thomas;  lord  lieut. 
Stanton,  Mr.;  China 
Stapleton,  Walter,  bishop;  Exeter 
Steele;  Kit-Cat  club 
Steele,    Mr.  ;   murdemd,  trials, 

1807 
Steenchel,  Magnus ;  Sweden 
Stephen,  St.,  pope 
Stephen,  king,  England 
Stephen,  king,  Hungary 
Stephen,  king,  Poland 
Stephen  II. ;  pope,  Rome 
Stephens,  Miss ;  theatres 
Stephens,  rev.  Mr. ;  trials,  1889 
Stephens.  Robert;  Bible 
Stephenson,  G. ;   railways,  540, 

548 
Stephenson,  R. ;  tubular-bridge 
Stesichorus;  choruses 
Stevens,  Mrs. ;  stone 
Stewart,  coL ;  Trinoomalee 
Stewart,  general ;  Madnia 
Stewart,  capt. ;  Franklin 
Stewart,  Duncan ;  Caesarian 
Stewarts ;  trials,  18S0 
Sthenelus;  MyoensB 
Stifeliusof  Nurembeiig;  algebra 
Stillingfleet,  B. ;  blue-stocking 
Stirling,  capt. ;  South  Australia 
Stock,  Dr. ;  Sunday  schools 
Stockdale ;  trials,  1826 
Stopfnrd,  admiral ;  Acre,  Sidon 
Storaoe,  Madam ;  theatres 
Storck ;  Levellers,  anabaptists 
Stormont,  viscount ;  adnunistra- 

tions 
Strachan,  admiral  sir  Richard; 

Havre,  Walcheren 
Btrafibrd,  lord;   beheaded,  Eng- 
land 
Strafford,  earl ;  admiralty 
Strangford,  lord ;  bribery 
Stratonice,  queen,  Syria 
Strongbow;  Ireland 
Strut^  Bdward ;  administrations 
Struensee,  count ;  Denmark,  Eell 
Stuart,  Alexander ;  marquess 
Stuart,  general ;  Cuddalors 
Stuart,  Sir  John ;  Maida 
Sturt.  capt. ;  South  Australia 
Stukeley,  Dr. ;  earthquakes 
Sturmius ;  magnet 
Suchet,  marshal;  Valencia 
Sudbunr.   Dr.,  archbishop;   put 

to  death,  Lambeth 
Suetonius  PauUnus ;  Menai 
Suffolk,  eari  of ;  conspiracy 
Suffolk,  Thomas,  earl  of;  admi- 

nlstratinns 
Sulfrein,  Thomas ;  Trincomalee 
Sugden.  sh*  Bdward,  afterwards 
lord  Bt.  Leonards;  admini^ 
tratjons 


740 


INDEX. 


Suisse.  Nicholas ;  trials,  1842 
SolplcioB  Serriiis ;  civil  law,  oode 
Bumoer,  C. ;   Un.  States,  1866 
Sunderland,   earl   of;    adminia- 

trations 
Btinyah     Dowlah ;     Blaok-hole, 

India,  Pla8ae7 
Surrey,  earl  of;  Flodden 
Surrey,  earl  of;  Roman  Gatholios 
Susannah;  Babylon 
Susarion  and  Dolon ;  comedy 
Sussex,  duke  of ;  marriage  act 
Sutter,  capt  ;  Oftiifomia 
Sutton ;  air-pipe 
Sutton,  G.  H. ;  speaker 
Sutton,  Thomas ;  Charter-house 
Suwarrow,    marshal ;     Alessan- 
dria, IsmaVl,   Kovi,  Parma, 
Poluid,  Praga,  Warsaw 
Swan.  Mr.,  M.P. ;  briboiy 
Swevn,  king  of  Denmark ;  Eng- 

Bwinton,  sir  Allan  ;  Ai^ou 
Sydenhiun,  Flover  :  literary  Amd 
Sydenham,  lord ;  aoministrations 

(Melbourne's) 
Sydney,  Henry;   Tlaconut;  ad- 
ministrations, Ireland 
Sydney,  Algernon ;  Rye-house 
Sykes   and  Rumbold,  Messrs.  ; 

bribery 
Sylla ;  Rome,  Athens 
Symmachus,  pope 
Symington ;  steam-engine 
Sjrmonds,  rev.  Symon ;  Bray 
Syrldus;  decretals 


T. 


Talbot^  earl :  Ireland,  lord  lieut. 
Talbot,  Miss  Augusta ;  trials,  1861 
Talbot.  H.  F. ;  photographv 
Tallard,     marshal ;     Blenheim, 

celery 
Talleyrand;  Benevento 
Talma,  M. ;  theatres 
Talus;  saw 
Tamerlane ;     India,    Damascus, 

Tamerlane 
Taademe;  Adamite 
Tankerrille,  Ford,  darl  of;   ad- 

miulstrationa 
Tsrquln ;  Rome 
Tarquin  II. :  Sibylline  books 
Tarquinius  Lucius ;  consuls 
Tarquinlus  Superbus ;  Rome 
Tasman;  drcumnayigator,  Aus- 
tralia,   New    Zealand,   Van 

Dlemen's  land 
Tate,  Nahum;  poet-lauieat 
Tatian ;  aquarians 
TatiuB,  Titus ;  New  Year's  gifts 
Taurosthenes ;  carrier-pigeons 
Taveniier;  pcnrls 
Tftwell,  John;  trials,  1845 
Taylor,  general  Zacbary ;  United 

States 
Taylor,  Messrs.;  oil-gas 
Taylor,  Dr.  Brook;  acoustics 
Taylor,    rer.    Robert ;   atheism. 

trials,  1837,  1831 
Taylor,  rev.  W. ;  bells,  blind 
Teoa,  countess ;  (empress)  France 
Telford;  chidn-bridges 
Tell,  William ;  Switzerland 
Temple,  earl;  administratioxui 
Tennant,  Mr. ;  bleachlnff 
Tennyson,  Alfred ;  poet-lauraat 
Tenterden,  lord ;  king's  bench 
Terentius  Varro  ;  QannsB 
Tethys,  wife  of  Japhet ;  Asia 


Teynham,  lord ;  trials,  183S 

Thales,  Miletus;  globe,  Ionic  sect, 
moon,  water,  world 

Thalestris;  queens 

Thanet,  earl  of;  riots 

Themistodes;  Marathon,  Balamis 

Theobald;  civil  law 

Theocritus;  verse 

Theodore,  king ;  (Corsica 

Theodore;  Russia 

Theodore ;  Samos,  keys,  lathe 

Theodoric;  Spain 

Theodoric;  Ooth 

Theodosiua;  Aquileia 

Theodosius,  the  younger ;  aca- 
demies, Bologna,  massasre, 
paganism 

Theodotus;  anti-trinitarlans 

Theophilus;  Antioch,  chronology 

Theopompus ;  Ephori,  funenu 
orations.  Spaita 

Theseus;  Athens 

Thesiger.  sir  Fred. ;  att.-gipn. 

Theepis     drama 

Thevenot,  M. ;  ooffoe 

Thiers,  M. ;  France 

Thierry;  HoUand 

Thirleby;  Westminster 

Thomas,  colonel ;  duel 

Thompson,  Miss ;  trials.  1821 

Thompson,  ma)or ;  suicide 

Thompson,  William ;  lord  mayor 

Thomson.  Mr.  Poulett^  after- 
wards lord  Sydenham;  ad- 
ministrations 

Thomson,  poet ;  Richmond 

Thornton,  Abraham ;  appeal 

Thorpe^  William  de ;  bribery 

Thoipe,  John  T. ;  lord  mayor 

Thoth;  mythology 

Thrasybulus;  Athens 

Thrasymachns ;  colon 

Thrax,  son  of  Mars ;  Thrace 

Thuoydides;  Etna 

Thuoris;  Egypt 

Thurlow,  lord ;  administrationst 
lord-chancellor,  great  seal 

Thurtell ;  execution.  1824 

Tiberlnus;  Alba 

Tiberius ;  C!apri,  Rome 

Tiberius  Oraochus ;  agrarian  law 

Tierney,  George  ;  administra- 
tions, duel 

Tighe,  Mr. ;  trials,  1800 

Tigranes  ;  Armenia,  Pontus, 
Syria 

Tildesley.  sir  Thomas ;  Wigan 

Tilloch,  Mr. ;  stereotype 

Tillotson.  Dr. }  Universalists 

Titna  newspaper;  trials,  17iM), 
1841 

Timour ;  A^hanistan,  moguls 

Tindal;  deism 

Tindal  and  Goverdale ;  Bible 

Tippoo  Saib ;  India,  Madras,  Ser- 
ingapatam 

Tiras,  son  of  Japhet :  Thrace 

Titus ;  Rome.  Jerusalem,  Tyre 

Titus  *  Roman  general,  Britain 

Titus  Liartius ;  dictator 

Titus  Manlius ;  dictator 

Tofknia;  wives' poison 

Toils,  Mary ;  impostor 

Toler,  Mr. ;  murdered,  trials,  1853 

Tolly,  Barclay  de  ;  Smolensko 

Tolmidas;  Athens 

Tolumnus ;  sUUn,  Rome 

Tone.  Theobald  W. :  trial.  1798 

Tonti,  Laurence;  tontines 

Toralli.  Louisa ;  angelic  knights 

Torrence.  Mrs. ;  trials,  1821 

Torrens,  lieut. ;  duel 

Torres;  Aurtndasia 


TorriceUi ;  air.  microscopes 
Torrington,  Herbert,    lord;   ad- 

ministrations,  admiralty 
Totila ;  pillages  Roma,  Italy 
Tourville,  admiral 
Toussalnt ;  Hayti,  St  Domingo 
Townshend,  lord :  duel,  Ireland 
Townshond,  Ghas. ;  administra- 
tions 
Townshend,*  Thomas ;    adminis- 
trations 
Townshend,  viscount;  adminja- 

trations 
Tn\)an ;  Rome,  Trajan's  pillar 
Travera.  Samuel:   poor  knights 

of  Windsor 
Trebatius  Testa ;  codieOs 
Treby,  Qtorge ;  administration 
Tree,  MIbs  Rllen ;  theatres 
Tresytifn ;  king's  bench 
Trevethlck ;  steam  engine 
Trevor,  sir  John ;  speaker 
Troas.  reign  of;  Troy 
Troubridge^  Sir  T. ;  wrecks,  1807 
Trut  Sm^varoD.  of;  trial,  1834 
Truman,  Hanbury  A  Co. ;  porter 
Truro,  lord ;  administration 
Truxo.  Louisa ;  longevity 
Tubal  Gain;  music 
Tucker,  E. :  vine  disease 
Tuckett,  captain  Harvey ;  doel 
Tuite,  murderer ;  triala,  1813 
Tulga,  or  Tuloa  ;  Spain 
TulT,  William ;  posting  In  Bng- 

Tullooh,  colonel :  Sebastopol 

Tullus  Hostilius ;  Alba,  saturnalia 

Tunstall ;  admiiiistraUons,  arith- 
metic privy  seal 

Turner.  Miss;  trials.  1827 

Turner,  Richard;  teetotaller 

Turner.  Sydni^ ;  Reformatorv 
Schools 

Turner ;  trials,  1817 

Tusser;  agriculture 

Tweeddale,  marqueas  of;  admi- 
nistrations 

Tyoe,  John ;  taifoty 

l^cho  Brahe;  astronomy,  pla- 
tonio  year,  globe 

Tyler,  John ;  United  States 

Tyndarus;  Sparta 

Tyroonnel,  earl  of;  Ireland 

Tyrone:  rebellion 

Tysias,  or  Stesichonis ;  choruBes, 
epithalamium 


U. 

Udahrious,  St. ;  canonisation 
Udine ;  stucco-work 
Uladislaus;  Poland 
Ulloa,  don  Antonio  ;  platina 
Ulriea-Eleancv ;  Sweden 
Ulrick,  duke ;  Wirtembuig 
Ulysses ;  Charybdis,  Sicily.  Tro- 

jsn  war 
UmfraviUe.  sir  Robert ;  TeaTsring 
Umfreyville,  sir  Neville  ;  goose 
Upton,  colonel ;  Sebastopol 
Urban,  Sylvanus ;  magaxina 
Urban ;  popes 

Urban  II. ;  communion,  erusadois 
Urban  V. ;  pope 
Urban  VI. ;  pope 
Urban    VIII. ;      pope,      "  Bnii 

nenoe" 
Urraca  and  Alfonao ;  Spain 
Ursidnus;  popw 
Ursula,  St ;  ODlogne,  UrsuUnes 
Usher,  archbishop ;  artidea 


INDEX. 


741 


Y. 


Yelflsquez;  Cuba 

Valens ;  eastern  empire,  western 
emplra 

YalentU,  lord  ;  duel,  trials,  1796 

YalenUa  cause  ;  trials,  1772 

Valentine;  Valentini&ns 

Valentine ;  Valentine's  day 

Valentine,  Basil ;  antimony 

Valentittian ;  western  empire 

Valerian;  persecutions 

Vulorianiis ;  Rome 

ValLiret^  Foulques  de ;  Malta 

Valli^re,  Madame  de  la ;  mid- 
wifery 

Vanbrugh,  sir  John  ;  opera 

Van  Buren;  presldeul»  United 
States 

Vancouver;  north-west  passage, 
Vancouver 

Vanderbuiig ;  Azores 

Vander  Heyden ;  flre-engtues 

Van  Eyck ;  painting 

Van  Horn ;  buccaueer 

Vane,  sir  Henry ;  administrations 

Vanini :  atheism 

Van  Leyden ;  engraving  on  wood 

Vansittart,  rt.  non.  Nicholas ; 
ad  ministrations 

Van  Tromp,  Dutch  admiral ;  Hol- 
land, naval  battles,  Portland 
Isle 

Varole,  M. ;  optics 

Varro;  grammarians,  illumina- 
ted books 

Varus,  Alfrenus ;  ciTil  law,  code^ 
digest 

Vasali,  or  Basil ;  Russia 

Vasco  de  Gama ;  Cape,  India 

Vauban;  fortifications 

Vaughan,  gen. ;  St.  Bustatia 

Vaughan,  sir  Thoe. ;  murdered, 
romfret 

Vaughan,  Maclcay,  iic. ;  trial,  1816 

Vaux«  Jane,  Mrs. ;  Vauzhall 

Venables,  William,  lord  mayor 

Venerable  Bede ;  painting 

Vere-street  gang ;  trial,  1816 

Veremund ;  Spain 

Vergennes,  M.  de  ;  notables 

Vermandois,  count  de ;  iron  mask 

VemouiU  marchioness  de;  con- 
spiracies 

Vernon,  admiral ;  grog,  Porto- 
BeUo 

Verrochio,  Andrea;  plaster 

Vesalius ;  anatomy,  surgery 

Vespasian ;  amphitheatres,  Bri- 
tain, Coliseum  « 

Vespucius,  Americus 

Vestris,  Madame;  theatres 

Vicedomus,  pope 

Victor,  marslial ;  Barrosa,  Tala- 
vera,  Witepsk 

Victor  Amadeus ;  Sardinia 

Victor;  pope 

Victoria,  queen ;  England,  Scot- 
land, Ireland 

Victory,  duke  of ;  Spain 

Yieta,  Francis;  algebra 

Yigilius,  pope 

ViTlareal ;  Bilba 

Yillars,  marshal ;  MalplAquet 

Vtlleneuve;  Trafidgar 

Viileroy,  marshal  of  France ; 
Brussels,  Ramilies 

Villiers,  sir  Geoi^ ;  administra- 
tions 

Yiner,  sir  Robert ;  post-office 

Virgin  Maiy ;  purification,  virgin 


Virginia;  Rome 

Virginiua ;  Rome 

Yitericus,  king;  Spain 

Vitilianus;  pope 

Vitnivius ;  ink 

Vivior ;  of  Morning  Herald^  trials, 

1842 
Yolta ;  electricity,  Yolta 
Voltaire;  atheism,  Vatican 
Vortigem;  Wales 


W. 

Waddlogton ;  trials,  1820 
Wager,  0. ;  admiral^ 
Waithman,  Robert ;  lord  mayor, 

obelisk,  bank 
Wakefield,  EUk.  ;  savings'  banks 
Wakefield,  Ed.  Gibbon  ;  marri- 
ages, S.  Australia,  trialli,  1827 
Waldegrave,  earl  of ;  trials,  1841 
Waldemar ;  Denmark 
Wales,  George^  prinoe  of;  regency, 

V.  Timet,  trials,  1790 
Walker,  Mr.  ;  Vauxhall 
Walker,  Mr.  ;  congelation,  ice 
Walker,  George;  Londonderry 
Walker,    Gen.;    filibusters,    Ni- 
caragua 
Wall,  governor ;  trials,  1802,  Goree 
Wall,  Mr.  Baring;  trials,  183S 
Wallace ;  Scotland,  Falkirk 
Wallaces ;  trials,  1841 
Waller ;  Abingdon,  Stratton-hill 
Wallis,  his  voyage,  circumnavi- 
gator; Otaheite,  Wallis 
Walpole,    sir   Robert;    sinking- 

flmd,  administrations 
Walpole,  Spencer  Horatio ;  admi- 
nistrations 
Walsh,  Mrs. ;  murdered,  trials, 

1832 
WaUh,  Nicholas ;  printing 
Walsingham,  lord ;  att.-gen. 
Walsingham,  sir  Francis;  admi- 
nistrations 
Waltheof;  beheading 
Walton,  Brian ;  i>olyglot 
Walton,  Izaak ;  angling 
Walworth;  Blackheath.  mace 
Warburton,  Eliot ;  (lost)  Amazon 
Walters,  Lucy;  Sedgmoor 
Ward,  Mr. :  forgerv 
Ward.  N.  B.  ;  aquarium,  Ward's 

(^ses 
Wardle,  colonel ;  impeachment, 
Wardle    e.   duke   of    York, 
trials,  1809 
Warington,  R. ;  aquarium 
Warner,  Mrs. ;  theatres 
Wamor,  Messrs. ;  bells 
Warwick,  John  Dudley,  earl  of; 

administrations 
Warren,  adml.  sir  John  Borlace ; 

naval  battles 
Warrenne,  earl  of;  Dunbar 
Warrington  gang ;  trial,  1806 
Warton,  Thos. ;  poet-lanreat 
Warwick,   earl  of;   Bamet,   St. 

Albans,  Wakefield 
Warwick,  lord;  America 
Warwick  imd  Clarence ;  rebellions 
Washington,  Gen.  George;  Ame- 
rica,   United    States,    York 
Town 
Wathen,  captain ;  trial,  1884 
Watson,  admiral ;  Angria 
Watson,  Dr. ;  lightning-conduc- 
tor ;  trials,  1817 
Watts;     theatres,    trials,    1850, 
suicide 


Watts,  T. ;  newspapers 
Watt  and  Downia ;  trials,  1794 
Watt;  steam-engine 
Weare,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1824 
Weber,  Carl  Von ;  music 
Webster,  Daniel ;  United  States 
Webster,  Dr. ;  trials,  1842 
Websto",  Mr.  ;  theatres 
Webster,  MIas  Clara ;  theatres 
Webster,  sir  Godfrey ;  trials,  1797 
Wedgwood,  Josiah  ;  cUna,  earth- 
enware, Wedgwood  ware 
Wedirwood,  T.  ;  photography 
Weightman;  Luddite 
Weld,  Mr. ;  Trapplsts 
Wellesley,  sir  A. ;  "Wellington 
Wellesley,    marquess ;   adminis- 
trations, India 
Wellesley.  Mr.  Long ;  duel 
Wellesley  Pole  v.  Misses  Long; 

trials,  1825 
WeUesley  v.  Paget ;  trials,  1809 
Wellington,  duke  of;  administra- 
tions,     commander-in-chier, 
duel :  his  battles,  Ac. ,  Almei- 
da, Assaye,  Badajos,  Bidas- 
soa,  Burgos,  Ciudad-Rodrigo, 
Fuentes  d'Onore,  India,  Lis- 
bon, Madras,  Oporto,  Orthte, 
Pyrenees,     St.    Sebastiau's, 
Salamanca.  Talavora,  Tarbte, 
Toulouse,  Yimeini,  Vittoria, 
Waterloo ;  Wellington's  fune- 
ral, trials,  1830 
Wells,  lord  Lyon;  Ireland,  Id.- 

lieut. 
Werner;  geology 
Wesley ;  Wesleyans 
Westerton  v.  Liddell ;  trials,  1855 
Westmeath,  lord  ;  trials,  1796 
Westmorland,  earl  of;  adminis- 
trations, Ireland,  lord-lieut. 
Weston,  liichard,  loi-d ;  adminis- 
trations 
Wetherell.  sir  Charles ;  att-gen., 

Bristol 
Wetherell,  rev.  Mr.  ;  trials,  1845 
Weyland,  Thomas  de ;  bribery 
Weymouth ;  north-west  passage 
Weymouth,   viscount;  adminis- 
trations 
Whamclifie,    lord ;     administra- 
tions 
Wharton,  Thomas,  marquess  of ; 

administrations 
Wharton,  Miss;  marriages 
Wheatstone ;    stereoscope,    sub- 
marine telegniph 
Whish,  general ;  India 
Whlston,  Mr. ;  antediluvians 
Whitbread,  Samuel ;  suicide 
Whitbread  and  Co.  ;  porter 
White,  Dr.  Thomas ;  Sion  College 
Whitefield,  vhich  see;  and  Wes- 
leyans 
Whitehead;  lituigy 
Whitehead,  Wm. ;  poet-laureate 
Whitelocke,     general ;     Buenos 

Ayree 
Whittington ;  lord  mayor 
Whitworth,  earl ;  ■  Ireland 
Whyte,  mcyor-genenil ;  Demerara 
Wickham,  Dr.  ;  vaccination 
WiokUfie,  Wickliffitee ;  Bible 
Wilberforce,  Mr.  ;  slave-trade 
Wild,  Mr.  Gheorge ;  theatres 
Wilfride,  bishop ;  Chichester 
Wilhelmina,     Caroline,      queen 

(Geonpe  II.) 
Wilkes,    John ;   North    Britain, 
obelisk,    warrants,    Wilkes, 
trials,  1764 
Wilkins,  Mr. ;  architect 


742 


INDEX. 


Wllkina,  Dr. ;  Wadhnm 
WUliam   I.  ;     England.    Battel- 
Abbey,  Conquest^  Domesday 
WlUUm  I. ;  Holland 
William  II. ;  Rufua,  BngUnd 
William  ILL  ;  England.  BeTolu- 
tlon,    Boyue,    Eoghien,    /e 
maiiUiendrai,  New  Forest 
William  IV. ;  England,  admiral 
William  the  Lion  ;  Scotland 
Williams,  Ann ;  trials.  176S 
Williuns,  David ;  Literary  Fund 
Williams,  John,  dean  of  West- 
minster; administratiaDS' 
Williams,  see  Burking 
WUliams,  Renwick ;  "  Monster  " 
Williams,  Roger ;  America 
Williams,  gen.  W.  F. ;  Kars 
Williamson,  sir  Joseph ;   admi- 
nistrations 
Wills,  gen. ;  Preston 
Wilmington,  earl   of;   adminis- 

trauons 
Wilson,  capt ;  Pelew  islands 
Wilson,  sir  Robert ;  Lavalette 
Winchester,  gen. ;  Frenchtown 
Winchester,  Henry ;  lord  mayor 
Winchester,  William,    marquess 

of;  administrations 
Winchilsea,  earl  of;  duel 
Winchilsea,  earl  of;  administra- 
tions 
Windebank,  sir  Fnmds;  admi- 
nistrations 
Windham,  right  hon.  William; 

administiations 
Windischgrats.  prince ;  Vienna 
Winstanley;  Eddystone 
Winwood,  sir  Ralph;   admixiis- 

trations 
Winzingerode,  general ;  Kalisch 
Wiseman,     cara. ;    ecclesiastical 
titles,  papal  aggression,  Rome 
Withers,  Dr. :  libel 
Witheringn,  Thomas :  poet-offlce 
Withlng,  Richard ;  Glastonbury 
Wittgenstein,  general;  Lutseny, 

Polotsk,  Witepsk 
Woden;  Wednesday 
WOhler,  F;  aluminium 
Woloot,  Dr.,  aliat  Peter  Pindar ; 

trials,  1807 
Wolfe,  general ;  Quebec 
Wolstan;  Worcester 
Wolflus;  anemometer 


WoIIaston,  Dr.;  cryophorus,  ca* 
mera 

Wolsoy,  cardinal ;  administra- 
tions, Hampton,  Whitehall 

Wolseley,  sir  Cliarles ;  trials,  1820 

Wood,  shr  Charies;  administra- 
tions 

Wood,  Matthew ;  lord  mayor 

Wood,  Mrs. ;  theatres 

Wood  (the  traveller);  Palmyra 

Wood,  alderman ;  tiondon 

Woodfall,  Mr. ;  trials,  1780 

Wood-mason;  ruling-machines 

Woolf;  steam-engine 

Wooler,  J ;  trials,  1855 

Woder,  Mr. ;  trials,  1817 

Worcester,  marquess  of;  steam, 
telegraph 

Worcester,  Edward,  sari  of;  ad- 
ministrations 

Wordsworth,  Wm. ;  poet-laureate 

Wotton,  sir  Edward ;  sunr 

Woulfe,  Stephen;  chief  baron, 
exchequer 

Wrev.  sir  Christopher;  king's 
bench 

Wrede,  gen. ;  Hanau 

Wren,  dr  Christopher;  Chelsea, 
engraylng.  Greenwich  Obs., 
monument,  SL  ^ul's,  Wal- 
brook 

Wren.  Matthew ;  Royal  Society 

Wrench,  Mr. ;  theatres 

Wright;  Mereator's charts 

Wright,  sir  Robert ;  chief  justice^ 
Idng^e  bench 

Wright  and  Doyle ;  trials,  1861 

Wriothesley,  lord ;  administra- 
tious 

Wurmser,  general ;  CtwtiaUone 

Wyat,  sir  Thomas;  rebeiUons 

Wykeham,  William  of;  education, 
Oxford,  Winchester 

Wyld,  S. ;  globes 

Wynkin  de  Worde ;  angling, 
printing 

Wjmdham ;  lord-chancellor  of 
Ireland 

Wynn,  Mr.  W.  W.;  administra- 
tions 

Z. 

Zacca;  idolatrr 

Xavier,  Francois;  Jesuits 


Xenophanes;  Eleaticsect 
Xenophnn ;    anatomy, 

cymbals,  retreat<n  the  Greeks 
Xerxes ;  Perria,  Mycsle,  RalnrnJiy 

Xerxes 
Ximenes ;  polyg^ 


T. 


Yale,  Elisha;  auctions 

Yates,  Mr. ;  theatres 

Yonge,  sir  Gen. ;  administmttona 

York,  cardinal ;  Scotland,  180T 

York,  duke  of;  Oambiwr,  onm- 
mander-in-cbief,  duel,  Dun- 
kirk, trial,  180»,  mUitaiy 
college,  Boxtel,  Dunkirk, 
Emierres,  Valendennos 

York,  James,  duke  of ;  Solebay 

York,  Ricdiani,  duke  of;  Ireland 

Yorke,  rt.  hon.  Charies;  admi- 
nistrations 

Yorke,  sir  Philip;  attomay-gon.. 
king's  bench 

Yorke.  Mr.  Redhead ;  trial,  I79A 

Young;  Impostors 

Young,  major;  PresooU 

Young,  Mr.  Charies 

Young,  B. ;  mormonitea 


Zacharias;  pope 
Zsleucus,  sumptuary  laws 
Zansalee;  Zansaleens 
Zarlino ;  music 
Ziemomislas;  Fdand 
Zeuo;  stoics 

Zenobia ;  PalmTn»  Zenobia 
Zenon ;  Armenia 
Zephirinus,  St,  pope 
Zeuzis ;  painting 
sammermann;  physiognomy 
Zinsendorf ;  Moravians 
Ziska;  Bohemia 
Zoe :  Eastern  Emplrs,  Zoe 
Zoroaster;  fire-wonhippera 
Zimmus;  alchemy 
Zoaimiu;  pope 

Zuutman,  sdmind ;  naval  batt]< 
Zumpie,  M. ;  piano-forte 
Zurbano,  general ;  Spain 


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